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diff --git a/43681.txt b/43681.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 837b119..0000000 --- a/43681.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11892 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Popular Religion and Folk-Lore of -Northern India, Vol. I (of 2), by W. Crooke - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Popular Religion and Folk-Lore of Northern India, Vol. I (of 2) - -Author: W. Crooke - -Release Date: September 10, 2013 [EBook #43681] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POPULAR RELIGION--NORTHERN INDIA, VOL I *** - - - - -Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - THE POPULAR RELIGION - AND FOLK-LORE OF - NORTHERN INDIA - - BY - - W. CROOKE, B.A. - BENGAL CIVIL SERVICE - - - - IN TWO VOLUMES - - VOL. I. - - A NEW EDITION, REVISED AND ILLUSTRATED - - WESTMINSTER - ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO. - 2, Whitehall Gardens, S.W. - - 1896 - - - - - - - -PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. - - -The success of this book has been much beyond my expectations. That -a considerable edition has been exhausted within a few months after -publication proves that it meets a want. - -I have now practically re-written the book, and have taken -the opportunity of introducing a considerable amount of fresh -information collected in the course of the Ethnographical Survey of -the North-Western Provinces, the results of which will be separately -published. - -For the illustrations, which now appear for the first time, I am -indebted to the photographic skill of Mr. J. O'Neal, of the Thomason -Engineering College, Rurki. I could have wished that they could have -been drawn from a wider area. But Hardwar and its shrines are very -fairly representative of popular Hinduism in Northern India. - - -W. Crooke. - -Saharanpur, -February, 1895. - - - -PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. - -Many books have been written on Brahmanism, or the official religion -of the Hindu; but, as far as I am aware, this is the first attempt -to bring together some of the information available on the popular -beliefs of the races of Upper India. - -My object in writing this book has been threefold. In the first place -I desired to collect, for the use of all officers whose work lies -among the rural classes, some information on the beliefs of the people -which will enable them, in some degree, to understand the mysterious -inner life of the races among whom their lot is cast; secondly, it -may be hoped that this introductory sketch will stimulate inquiry, -particularly among the educated races of the country, who have, -as yet, done little to enable Europeans to gain a fuller and more -sympathetic knowledge of their rural brethren; and lastly, while I -have endeavoured more to collect facts than to theorize upon them, -I hope that European scholars may find in these pages some fresh -examples of familiar principles. My difficulty has arisen not so much -from deficiency of material, as in the selection and arrangement of -the mass of information, which lies scattered through a considerable -literature, much of which is fugitive. - -I believe that the more we explore these popular superstitions and -usages, the nearer are we likely to attain to the discovery of the -basis on which Hinduism has been founded. The official creed has -always been characterized by extreme catholicism and receptivity, and -many of its principles and legends have undoubtedly been derived from -that stratum of the people which it is convenient to call non-Aryan -or Dravidian. The necessity, then, of investigating these beliefs -before they become absorbed in Brahminism, one of the most active -missionary religions of the world, is obvious. - -I may say that the materials of this book were practically complete -before I was able to use Mr. J. S. Campbell's valuable collection of -"Notes on the Spirit Basis of Belief and Custom;" but, in revising -the manuscript, I have availed myself to some extent of this useful -collection, and when I have done so, I have been careful to acknowledge -my obligations to it. Even at the risk of overloading the notes -with references, I have quoted the authorities which I have used, -and I have added a Bibliography which may be of use to students to -whom the subject is unfamiliar. - -The only excuse I can plead for the obvious imperfections of this -hasty survey of a very wide subject is that it has been written in -the intervals of the scanty leisure of a District Officer's life in -India, and often at a distance from works of reference and libraries. - - -W. Crooke. - -Mirzapur, -February, 1893. - - - - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - - CHAPTER I. PAGE - - The Godlings of Nature 1 - - CHAPTER II. - - The Heroic and Village Godlings 83 - - CHAPTER III. - - The Godlings of Disease 123 - - CHAPTER IV. - - The Worship of the Sainted Dead 175 - - CHAPTER V. - - Worship of the Malevolent Dead 230 - - - - - - - -FOLK-LORE OF NORTHERN INDIA. - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE GODLINGS OF NATURE. - - - En men gaian eteux' en d' ouranon, en de thalassan - eelion t' akamanta selenen te plethousan, - en de ta teirea panta, ta t' ouranos estephanotai - Pleiadas th' Hyadas te, to te sthenos Orionos - Arkton th', hen kai amaxan epiklesin kaleousin, - het autou strephatai kai t' Oriona dokeuei, - oie d' ammoros esti loetron Okeanoio. - - Iliad, xviii. 483-88. - - -Among all the great religions of the world there is none more catholic, -more assimilative than the mass of beliefs which go to make up what -is popularly known as Hinduism. To what was probably its original -form--a nature worship in a large degree introduced by the Aryan -missionaries--has been added an enormous amount of demonolatry, -fetishism and kindred forms of primitive religion, much of which -has been adopted from races which it is convenient to describe as -aboriginal or autochthonous. - -The same was the case in Western lands. As the Romans extended their -Empire they brought with them and included in the national pantheon the -deities of the conquered peoples. Greece and Syria, Egypt, Gallia and -Germania were thus successively laid under contribution. This power -of assimilation in the domain of religion had its advantages as well -as its dangers. While on the one hand it tended to promote the unity -of the empire, it degraded, on the other hand, the national character -by the introduction of the impure cults which flourished along the -eastern shores of the Mediterranean. [1] - -But, besides these forms of religion which were directly imported -from foreign lands, there remained a stratum of local beliefs -which even after twenty centuries of Christianity still flourish, -discredited though they may be by priests and placed under the ban -of the official creed. Thus in Greece, while the high gods of the -divine race of Achilles and Agamemnon are forgotten, the Nereids, -the Cyclopes and the Lamia still live in the faith of the peasants of -Thessaly. [2] So in modern Tuscany there is actually as much heathenism -as catholicism, and they still believe in La Vecchia Religione--"the -old religion;"--and while on great occasions they have recourse to the -priests, they use magic and witchcraft for all ordinary purposes. [3] - -It is part of the object of the following pages to show that in -India the history of religious belief has been developed on similar -lines. Everywhere we find that the great primal gods of Hinduism have -suffered grievous degradation. Throughout the length and breadth -of the Indian peninsula Brahma, the Creator, has hardly more than -a couple of shrines specially dedicated to him. [4] Indra has, as -we shall see, become a vague weather deity, who rules the choirs of -fairies in his heaven Indra-loka: Varuna, as Barun, has also become a -degraded weather godling, and sailors worship their boat as his fetish -when they commence a voyage. The worship of Agni survives in the fire -sacrifice which has been specialized by the Agnihotri Brahmans. Of -Pushan and Ushas, Vayu and the Maruts, hardly even the names survive, -except among the small philosophical class of reformers who aim at -restoring Vedism, a faith which is as dead as Jupiter or Aphrodite. - - - -The Deva. - -The general term for these great gods of Hinduism is Deva, or "the -shining ones." Of these even the survivors have in the course of the -development of the religious belief of the people suffered serious -change. Modern Vaishnavism has little left of the original conception -of the solar deity who in the Rig Veda strides in three steps through -the seven regions of the universe, and envelops all things in the dust -of his beams. To his cult has, in modern times, been added the erotic -cycle of myths which centre round Krishna and Radha and Rukmini. The -successive Avataras or incarnations mark the progressive development of -the cultus which has absorbed in succession the totemistic or fetish -worship of the tortoise, the boar, the fish and the man-lion. In -the same way Rudra-Siva has annexed various faiths, many of which -are probably of local origin, such as the worship of the bull and -the linga. Durga-Devi, again, most likely is indebted to the same -sources for the blood sacrifices which she loves in her forms of Kali, -Bhawani, Chandika or Bhairavi. A still later development is that of -the foul mysteries of the Tantra and the Saktis. - - - -The Deota. - -But in the present survey of the popular, as contrasted with the -official faith, we have little concern with these supremely powerful -deities. They are the gods of the richer or higher classes, and to -the ordinary peasant of Northern India are now little more than -a name. He will, it is true, occasionally bow at their shrines; -he will pour some water or lay some flowers on the images or fetish -stones which are the special resting-places of these divinities or -represent the productive powers of nature. But from time immemorial, -when Brahmanism had as yet not succeeded in occupying the land, his -allegiance was bestowed on a class of deities of a much lower and -more primitive kind. Their inferiority to the greater gods is marked -in their title: they are Devata or Deota, "godlings," not "gods." [5] - - - -Godlings Pure and Impure. - -These godlings fall into two well marked classes--the "pure" and the -"impure." The former are, as a rule, served by priests of the Brahman -castes or one of the ascetic orders: their offerings are such things -as are pure food to the Hindu--cakes of wheaten flour, particularly -those which have been still further purified by intermixture with -clarified butter (ghi), the most valued product of the sacred -cow, washed rice (akshata) and sweetmeats. They are very generally -worshipped on a Sunday, and the officiating high-caste priest accepts -the offerings. The offerings to the "impure" godlings contain articles -such as pork and spirits, which are abomination to the orthodox -Hindu. In the Central Indian hills their priest is the Baiga, who -rules the ghosts and demons of the village and is always drawn from -one of the Dravidian tribes. In the plain country the priest is a -non-Aryan Chamar, Dusadh, or even a sweeper or a Muhammadan Dafali -or drummer. No respectable Hindu will, it is needless to say, partake -of a share of the food consecrated (prasad) to a hedge deity of this -class. Much of the worship consists in offering of blood. But the -jungle man or the village menial of the plains can seldom, except in -an hour of grievous need, afford an expensive animal victim, and it -is only when the village shrine has come under the patronage of the -official priests of the orthodox faith, that the altar of the goddess -reeks with gore, like those of the Devis of Bindhachal or Devi Patan. - -But as regards the acceptance of a share of the offering the line is -often not very rigidly drawn. As Mr. Ibbetson writing of the Panjab -says: [6] "Of course, the line cannot always be drawn with precision, -and Brahmans will often consent to be fed in the name of a deity, -while they will not take offerings made at his shrine, or will allow -their girls, but not their boys, to accept the offering, as, if the -girls die in consequence, it does not much matter." In fact, as we -shall see later on, the Baiga or devil priest of the aboriginal tribes, -is gradually merging into the Ojha or meaner class of demon exorciser, -who calls himself a Brahman and performs the same functions for tribes -of a somewhat higher social rank. - - - -Suraj Narayan, the Sun Godling. - -The first and greatest of the "pure" godlings is Surya or Suraj -Narayan, the Sun godling. He is thus regarded as Narayana or -Vishnu occupying the sun. A curiously primitive legend represents -his father-in-law, Viswakarma, as placing the deity on his lathe -and trimming away one-eighth of his effulgence, leaving only his -feet. Out of the blazing fragments he welded the weapons of the -gods. Surya was one of the great deities of the Vedic pantheon: -he is called Prajapati or "lord of creatures:" he was the son of -Dyaus, or the bright sky. Ushas, the dawn, was his wife, and he moves -through the sky drawn by seven ruddy mares. His worship was perhaps -originally connected with that of fire, but it is easy to understand -how, under a tropical sky, the Indian peasant came to look on him as -the lord of life and death, the bringer of plenty or of famine. If -one interpretation of the rite be correct, the Holi festival is -intended as a means of propitiating sunshine. He is now, however, -like Helios in the Homeric mythology, looked on as only a godling, -not a god, and even as a hero who had once lived and reigned on earth. - -As far as the village worship of Suraj Narayan goes, the assertion, -which has sometimes been made, that no shrine has been erected in -his honour is correct enough; and there is no doubt that images of -Surya and Aditya are comparatively rare in recent epochs. But there -are many noted temples dedicated to him, such as those at Taxila, -Gwalior, Gaya, Multan, Jaypur, and in the North-Western Provinces -at Indor, Hawalbagh, Surya Bhita and Lakhmipur. [7] His shrine at -Kanarak in Orissa near that of Jagannath, is described as one of the -most exquisite memorials of Sun-worship in existence. [8] Mr. Bendall -recently found in Nepal an image dedicated to him as late as the -eleventh century. [9] There is a small shrine in his honour close to -the Annapurna temple in Benares, where the god is represented seated -in a chariot drawn by seven horses, and is worshipped with the fire -sacrifice (homa) in a building detached from the temple. [10] - -In the time of Sankara Acharya (A.D. 1000) there were six distinct -sects of Sun-worshippers--one worshipping the rising sun as identified -with Brahma; the second the meridian sun as Siva; the third the -setting sun as Vishnu; the fourth worshippers of the sun in all the -above phases as identified with the Trimurti; the fifth worshippers -of the sun regarded as a material being in the form of a man with a -golden beard and golden hair. Zealous members of this sect refused -to eat anything in the morning till they had seen the sun rise. The -last class worshipped an image of the sun formed in the mind. These -spent all their time meditating on the sun, and were in the habit -of branding circular representations of his disc on their foreheads, -arms and breasts. [11] - -The Saura sect worship Suryapati as their special god. They wear a -crystal necklace in his honour, abstain from eating salt on Sundays -and on the days when the sun enters a sign of the zodiac. They make -a frontal mark with red sandars, and nowadays have their headquarters -in Oudh. [12] - -Another sect of Vaishnavas, the Nimbarak, worship the sun in a -modified form. Their name means "the sun in a Nim tree" (Azidirachta -Indica). The story of the sect runs that their founder, an ascetic -named Bhaskaracharya, had invited a Bairagi to dine with him, and had -arranged everything for his reception, but unfortunately delayed to -call his guest till after sunset. The holy man was forbidden by the -rules of his order to eat except in the day-time, and was afraid that -he would be compelled to practise an unwilling abstinence; but at the -solicitation of his host, the Sun god, Suraj Narayan, descended on the -Nim tree under which the feast was spread and continued beaming on them -until dinner was over. [13] In this we observe an approximation to the -Jaina rule by which it is forbidden to eat after sunset, lest insects -may enter the mouth and be destroyed. This over-strained respect for -animal life is one of the main features of the creed. As a curious -parallel it may be noted that when an Australian black-fellow wishes -to stay the sun from going down till he gets home, he places a sod -in the fork of a tree exactly facing the setting sun; and an Indian -of Yucatan, journeying westward, places a stone in a tree, or pulls -out some of his eye-lashes and blows them towards the sun. [14] - -The great Emperor Akbar endeavoured to introduce a special form of -Sun-worship. He ordered that it was to be adored four times a day: in -the morning, noon, evening, and midnight. "His majesty had also one -thousand and one Sanskrit names of the sun collected, and read them -daily, devoutly turning to the sun. He then used to get hold of both -ears, and turning himself quickly round, used to strike the lower ends -of his ears with his fists." He ordered his band to play at midnight, -and used to be weighed against gold at his solar anniversary. [15] - - - -Village Worship of Suraj Narayan. - -The village worship of Suraj Narayan is quite distinct from this. Many -peasants in Upper India do not eat salt on Sundays, and do not set -their milk for butter, but make rice-milk of it, and give a portion -to Brahmans. Brahmans are sometimes fed in his honour at harvests, -and the pious householder bows to him as he leaves his house in the -morning. His more learned brethren repeat the Gayatri, that most -ancient of Aryan prayers: "Tat savitur varenyam bhargo devasya -dhimahi, Dhiyo yo nah prachodayat" ("May we receive the glorious -brightness of this, the generator, the God who shall prosper our -works!"). In the chilly mornings of the cold weather you will hear -the sleepy coolies as they wake, yawning and muttering Suraj Narayan, -as the yellow gleam of dawn spreads over the Eastern sky. In fact, -even in Vedic times there seems to have been a local worship of Surya -connected with some primitive folk-lore. Haradatta mentions as one -of the customs not sanctioned in the Veda, that when the sun is in -Aries the young girls would paint the sun with his retinue on the -soil in coloured dust, and worship this in the morning and evening; -[16] and in Central India the sun was in the Middle Ages worshipped -under the local form of Bhailla, or "Lord of Life," a term which -appears to have been the origin of the name Bhilsa, known to more -recent ages as a famous seat of Buddhism. [17] - -At Udaypur in Rajputana the sun has universal precedence. His portal -(Suryapul) is the chief entrance to the city; his name gives dignity -to the chief apartment or hall (Suryamahal) of the palace, and from the -balcony of the sun (Surya-gokhru), the descendant of Rama shows himself -in the dark monsoon as the sun's representative. A large painted sun -of gypsum in high relief with gilded rays adorns the hall of audience, -and in front of it is the throne. The sacred standard bears his image, -as does the disc (changi) of black felt or ostrich feathers with a -plate of gold in its centre to represent the sun, borne aloft on a -pole. The royal parasol is called Kiraniya, in allusion to its shape, -like a ray (kiran) of the orb. [18] - -Another famous centre of Sun-worship was Multan, where, as we have -seen, a temple dedicated to him has been discovered, and where the -tribes of the Balas and Kathis were devoted to him. The worship -continued till the idol was destroyed by orders of Aurangzeb. - - - -Sun-worship among the non-Aryan Races. - -The Aheriyas, a tribe of jungle-livers and thieves in the Central -Duab of the Ganges and Jumna, have adopted as their mythical ancestor -Priyavrata, who being dissatisfied that only half the earth was at one -time illuminated by the rays of the sun, followed him seven times round -the earth in his flaming car, resolved to turn night into day. But -he was stopped by Brahma, and the wheels of his chariot formed the -seven oceans which divide the seven continents of the world. - -In the lower ranges of the Himalaya Sun-worship is conducted in the -months of December and January and when eclipses occur. The principal -observances are the eating of a meal without salt at each passage -of the sun into a new sign of zodiac, and eating meals on other days -only when the sun has risen. - -Among the Dravidian races, along the Central Indian hills, Sun-worship -is widely prevalent. When in great affliction the Kharwars appeal -to the sun. Any open space in which he shines may be his altar. The -Kisans offer a white cock to him when a sacrifice is needed. He -is worshipped by the Bhuiyas and Oraons as Boram or Dharm Devata, -"the godling of pity," and is propitiated at the sowing season by -the sacrifice of a white cock. The Korwas worship him as Bhagwan, or -"the only God," in an open space with an ant-hill as an altar. The -Khariyas adore him under the name of Bero. "Every head of a family -should during his lifetime make not less than five sacrifices to -this deity--the first of fowls, the second of a pig, the third of a -white goat, the fourth of a ram, and the fifth of a buffalo. He is -then considered sufficiently propitiated for that generation, and -regarded as an ungrateful god if he does not behave handsomely to -his votary." He is addressed as Parameswar, or "great god," and his -sacrifices are always made in front of an ant-hill which is regarded -as his altar. The Kols worship Sing Bonga, the creator and preserver, -as the sun. Prayer and sacrifice are made to him, as to a beneficent -deity, who has no pleasure in the destruction of any of his subjects, -though, as a father, he chastises his erring children, who owe him -gratitude for all the blessings they enjoy. He is said to have married -Chando Omal, the moon. She deceived him on one occasion, and he cut her -in two; but repenting of his anger, he restores her to her original -shape once a month, when she shines in her full beauty. The Oraons -address the sun as Dharmi, or "the holy one," and do not regard him as -the author of sickness or calamity; but he may be invoked to avert it, -and this appeal is often made when the sacrifices to minor deities have -been unproductive. He is the tribal god of the Korkus of Hoshangabad; -they do not, however, offer libations to him, as Hindus do; but once -in three years the head of each family, on some Sunday in April or -May, offers outside the village a white she-goat and a white fowl, -turning his face to the East during the sacrifice. Similarly the Kurs -of the Central Provinces carve rude representations of the sun and -moon on wooden pillars, which they worship, near their villages. [19] - - - -Sun-worship in the Domestic Ritual. - -It is needless to say that the custom of walking round any sacred -object in the course of the sun prevails widely. Thus in Ireland, -when in a graveyard, it is customary to walk as much as possible "with -the sun," with the right hand towards the centre of the circle. [20] -Even to this day in the Hebrides animals are led round a sick person, -following the sun; and in the Highlands it is the custom to make the -"deazil" or walk three times in the sun's course round those whom -they wish well. When a Highlander goes to bathe or to drink water -out of a consecrated spring, he must always approach by going round -the place from east to west on the south side, in imitation of the -daily motion of the sun. [21] We follow the same rule when we pass -the decanters round our dinner tables. In the same way in India -the bride and bridegroom are made to revolve round the sacred fire -or the central pole of the marriage-shed in the course of the sun; -the pilgrim makes his solemn perambulation (parikrama) round a temple -or shrine in the same way; in this direction the cattle move as they -tread out the grain. - -One special part of the purificatory rite following childbirth is -to bring the mother out and expose her to the rays of the sun. All -through the range of popular belief and folk-lore appears the idea -that girls may be impregnated by the sun. [22] Hence they are not -allowed to expose themselves to his rays at the menstrual period. For -the same reason the bride is brought out to salute the rising sun -on the morning after she begins to live with her husband. A survival -of the same belief may be traced in the English belief that happy is -the bride on whom the sun shines. The same belief in the power of the -sun is shown in the principle so common in folk-lore that to show a -certain thing to it (in a Kashmir tale it is a tuft of the hair of -the kindly tigress) will be sufficient to summon an absent friend. [23] - -The mystical emblem of the Swastika, which appears to represent the -sun in his journey through the heavens, is of constant occurrence. The -trader paints it on the fly-leaf of his ledger; the man who has young -children or animals liable to the Evil Eye makes a representation of -it on the wall beside his door-post; it holds the first place among -the lucky marks of the Jainas; it is drawn on the shaven heads of -children on the marriage-day in Gujarat; a red circle with a Swastika -in the centre is depicted on the place where the gods are kept. [24] -In those parts of the country where Bhumiya is worshipped as a village -guardian deity his votary constructs a rude model of it on the shrine -by fixing up two crossed straws with a daub of plaster. It often occurs -in folk-lore. In the drama of the "Toy Cart" the thief hesitates -whether he shall make the hole in the wall of Charudatta's house in -the likeness of a Swastika or of a water jar. A hymn of the Rigveda -[25] speaks of the all-seeing eye of the sun whose beams reveal his -presence, gleaming like brilliant flames to nation after nation. This -same conception of the sun as an eye is common in the folk-lore of -the West. [26] - - - -Moon-worship. - -The fate of Chandra or Soma, the Moon godling, is very similar. The -name Soma, originally applied to the plant the juice of which was used -as a religious intoxicant, came to be used in connection with the -moon in the post-Vedic mythology. There are many legends to account -for the waning of the moon and the spots on his surface, for the moon, -like the sun, is always treated as a male godling. One of the legends -current to explain the phases of the moon has been already referred -to. According to another story the moon married the twenty-seven -asterisms, the daughters of the Rishi Daksha, who is the hero of -the curious tale of the sacrifice now located at Kankhal, a suburb -of Hardwar. Uma or Parvati, the spouse of Siva, was also a daughter -of Daksha, and when he, offended with his son-in-law Siva, did not -invite him to the great sacrifice, Uma became Sati, and in his rage -Siva created Virabhadra, who killed the sage. Soma after marrying -the asterisms devoted himself to one of them, Rohini, which aroused -the jealousy of the others. They complained to their father Daksha, -who cursed the moon with childlessness and consumption. His wives, -in pity, interceded for him, but the curse of the angry sage could not -be wholly removed: all that was possible was to modify it so that it -should be periodical, not permanent. In an earlier legend, of which -there is a trace in the Rig Veda, [27] the gods, by drinking up the -nectar, caused the waning of the moon. Another curious explanation -is current in Bombay. One evening Ganesa fell off his steed, the rat, -and the moon could not help laughing at his misfortune. To punish him -the angry god vowed that no one should ever see the moon again. The -moon prayed for forgiveness, and Ganesa agreed that the moon should -be disgraced only on his birthday, the Ganesa Chaturthi. On this -night the wild hogs hide themselves that they may not see the moon, -and the Kunbis hunt them down and kill them. [28] - -There are also many explanations to account for the spots in the -moon. In Western lands the moon is inhabited by a man with a bundle -of sticks on his back; but it is not clear of what offence this was -the punishment. Dante says he is Cain; Chaucer says he was a thief, -and gives him a thorn-bush to carry; Shakespeare gives him thorns to -carry, but provides him with a dog as a companion. In Ireland children -are taught that he picked faggots on a Sunday and is punished as a -Sabbath-breaker. In India the creature in the moon is usually a hare, -and hence the moon is called Sasadhara, "he that is marked like a -hare." According to one legend the moon became enamoured of Ahalya, -the wife of the Rishi Gautama, and visited her in the absence of her -husband. He returned, and finding the guilty pair together, cursed his -wife, who was turned into a stone; then he threw his shoe at the moon, -which left a black mark, and this remains to this day. The scene of -this event has been localized at Gondar in the Karnal District. By -another variant of the legend it was Vrihaspati, the Guru or religious -adviser of the gods, who found the moon with his wife. The holy man -was just returning from his bath in the Ganges, and he threw his -dripping loin-cloth at the moon, which produced the spots. In Upper -India, again, little children are taught to call the moon Mamu or -"maternal uncle," and the dark spots are said to represent an old -woman who sits there working her spinning-wheel. - -The moon has one special function in connection with disease. One of -his titles is Oshadhipati or "lord of the medicinal plants." Hence -comes the idea that roots and simples, and in particular those that -are to be used for any magical or mystic purpose, should be collected -by moonlight. Thus in Shakespeare Jessica says,-- - - - "In such a night Medea gathered the enchanted herbs - That did renew old Aeson." - - -And Laertes speaks of the poison "collected from all simples that -have virtue under the moon." [29] Hence the belief that the moon -has a sympathetic influence over vegetation. Tusser [30] advised -the peasant,-- - - - "Sow peason and beans, in the wane of the moon. - Who soweth them sooner, he soweth too soon; - That they with the planet may rest and arise, - And flourish, with bearing most plentiful wise." - - -The same rule applies all over Northern India, and the phases of the -moon exercise an important influence on all agricultural operations. - -Based on the same principle is the custom of drinking the moon. Among -Muhammadans in Oudh, "a silver basin being filled with water, is held -in such a situation that the full moon may be reflected in it. The -person to be benefited by the draught is required to look steadfastly -on the moon in the basin, then shut his eyes and quaff the liquid at -a draught. This remedy is advised by medical professors in nervous -cases, and also for palpitation of the heart." [31] Somewhat similar -customs prevail among Hindus in Northern India. At the full moon of the -month Kuar (September-October) people lay out food on the house-tops, -and when it has absorbed the rays of the moon they distribute it among -their relations; this is supposed to lengthen life. On the same night -girls pour out water in the moonlight, and say that they are pouring -out the cold weather, which was hidden in the water jar. The habit of -making patients look at the moon in ghi, oil, or milk is common, and -is said to be specially efficacious for leprosy and similar diseases. - -There is now little special worship of Soma or Chandra, and when -an image is erected to him it is generally associated with that of -Surya. In the old ritual Anumati or the moon just short of full was -specially worshipped in connection with the Manes. The full-moon -day was provided with a special goddess, Raka. Nowadays the phases -largely influence the domestic ritual. All over the world we find the -idea that anything done or suffered by man on a waxing moon tends to -develop, whereas anything done or suffered on a waning moon tends to -diminish. Thus a popular trick charm for warts is to look at the new -moon, lift some dust from under the left foot, rub the wart with it, -and as the moon wanes the wart dies. [32] It is on the days of the new -and full moon that spirits are most numerous and active. The Code of -Manu directs that ceremonies are to be performed at the conjunction -and opposition of the moon. [33] Among the Jews it would seem that the -full moon was prescribed for national celebrations, while those of a -domestic character took place at the new moon; there is some evidence -to show that this may be connected with the habit of pastoral nations -performing journeys in the cool moonlight nights. [34] - -Horace speaks of rustic Phidyle,-- - - - "Coelo supinas si tuleris manus, - Nascente Luna rustica Phidyle," [35] - - -and Aubrey of the Yorkshire maids who "doe worship the new moon on -their bare knees, kneeling upon an earth-fast stone." Irish girls on -first seeing the moon when new fall on their knees and address her -with a loud voice in the prayer--"O Moon! Leave us as well as you -found us!" [36] It is a common practice in Europe to turn a piece of -silver, which being white is the lunar metal, when the new moon is -first seen. So Hindus at the first sight of the new moon hold one end -of their turbans in their hands, take from it seven threads, present -them to the moon with a prayer, and then exchange the compliments -of the season. In Bombay [37] on all new moon days Brahmans offer -oblations of water and sesamum seed to their ancestors, and those who -are Agnihotris and do the fire sacrifice kindle the sacred fire on all -new and full moon days. Musalmans on the new moon which comes after -the new year sprinkle the blood of a goat beside the house door. In -Bombay a young Musalman girl will not go out at the new moon or on a -Thursday, apparently because this is the time that evil spirits roam -abroad. In Upper India the houses of the pious are freely plastered -with a mixture of earth and cow-dung, and no animal is yoked. - -A curious idea applies to the new moon of Bhadon (August). Whoever -looks at the moon on this day will be the victim of false accusations -during the following year. The only way to avoid this is to perform -a sort of penance by getting someone to shy brickbats at your house, -which at other times is regarded as an extreme form of insult and -degradation. There is a regular festival held for this purpose at -Benares on the fourth day of Bhadon (August), which is known as -the Dhela Chauth Mela, or "the clod festival of the fourth." [38] -We shall come across later on other examples of the principle that to -court abuse under certain circumstances is a means of propitiating the -spirits of evil and avoiding danger from them. This is probably the -origin of the practice in Orissa--"On the Khurda estate the peasants -give a curious reason for the absence of garden cultivation and fruit -trees, which form a salient feature in that part of the country. In -our own districts every homestead has its little ring of vegetable -ground. But in Khurda one seldom meets with these green spots except in -Brahman villages. The common cultivators say that from time immemorial -they considered it lucky at a certain festival for a man to be annoyed -and abused by his neighbours. With a view to giving ample cause of -offence they mutilate the fruit trees and trample the gardens of -their neighbours, and so court fortune by bringing down the wrath -of the injured owner." [39] We shall see that this is one probable -explanation of the indecency which prevails at the Holi festival. - -Moon-worship appears to be more popular in Bihar and Bengal than in -the North-West Provinces or the Panjab. [40] The fourth day of the -waxing moon in the month of Bhadon is sacred to the moon and known -as Chauk Chanda. It is very unlucky to look at the moon on that day, -as whoever does so will make his name infamous. The story runs that -Takshaka, the king of the snakes, stole the ear-rings of King Aditi, -who, being unable to discover the thief, laid it to the charge of -Krishna, whose thefts of milk and cream from the Gopis had made him -sufficiently notorious. Krishna, mortified at this false accusation, -recovered and restored the ear-ring, and as this was the day on which -Krishna was wrongfully disgraced, the moon of that night is invested -with associations of special sinfulness. Some people fast and in -the evening eat only rice and curds. Brahmans worship the moon with -offerings of flowers and sweetmeats, and people get stones thrown -at their houses, as further west on the day of the Dhela Chauth. On -this day schoolboys visit their friends and make a peculiar noise by -knocking together two coloured sticks, like castanets. - -One idea lying at the base of much of the respect paid to the moon -is that it is the abode of the Pitri or sainted dead. This is a -theory which is the common property of many primitive races. [41] -The explanation probably is that the soul of the dead man rises with -the smoke of the funeral pyre, and hence the realm of Yama would -naturally be fixed in the moon. This seems to be the reason why the -early Indian Buddhists worshipped the moon. At the new moon the monks -bathed and shaved each other; and at a special service the duties of -a monk were recited. On full moon days they dined at the houses of -laymen. On that night a platform was raised in the preaching hall. The -superior brethren chanted the law, and the people greeted the name -of Buddha with shouts of "Sadhu" or "the holy one." [42] - - - -Eclipses and the Fire Sacrifice. - -Hindus, like other primitive races, have their eclipse demons. "When -once the practice of bringing down the moon had become familiar to -the primitive Greek, who saw it done at sacred marriages and other -rites, he was provided with an explanation of lunar eclipses; some -other fellow was bringing down the moon for his private ends. And -at the present day in Greece the proper way to stop a lunar eclipse -is to call out 'I see you!' and thus make the worker of this deed of -darkness desist. So completely did this theory, which we must regard as -peculiarly Greek, establish itself in ancient Greece, that strange to -say, not a trace of the earlier primitive theory, according to which -some monster swallows the eclipsed moon, is to be found in classical -Greek literature, unless the beating of metal instruments to frighten -away the monster be a survival of the primitive practice." [43] - -In India, however, this earlier explanation of the phenomena of -eclipses flourishes in full vigour. The eclipse demon, Rahu, whose -name means "the looser" or "the seizer," was one of the Asuras or -demons. When the gods produced the Amrita, or nectar, from the churned -ocean, he disguised himself like one of them and drank a portion -of it. The sun and moon detected his fraud and informed Vishnu, -who severed the head and two of the arms of Rahu from the trunk. The -portion of nectar which he had drunk secured his immortality; the head -and tail were transferred to the solar sphere, the head wreaking its -vengeance on the sun and moon by occasionally swallowing them, while -the tail, under the name of Ketu, gave birth to a numerous progeny -of comets and fiery meteors. By another legend Ketu was turned into -the demon Sainhikeya and the Arunah Ketavah or "Red apparitions," -which often appear in the older folk-lore. - -Ketu nowadays is only a vague demon of disease, and Rahu too has -suffered a grievous degradation. He is now the special godling of -the Dusadhs and Dhangars, two menial tribes found in the Eastern -districts of the North-Western Provinces. His worship is a kind of -fire sacrifice. A ditch seven cubits long and one and a quarter cubits -broad (both numbers of mystical significance) is dug and filled with -burning faggots, which are allowed to smoulder into cinders. One of -the tribal priests in a state of religious afflatus walks through -the fire, into which some oil or butter is poured to make a sudden -blaze. It is said that the sacred fire is harmless; but some admit -that a certain preservative ointment is used by the performers. The -worshippers insist on the priest coming in actual contact with the -flames, and a case occurred some years ago in Gorakhpur when one of -the priests was degraded on account of his perfunctory discharge of -this sacred duty. The same rule applies to the priest who performs -the rites at the lighting of the Holi fire. It is needless to say -that similar rites prevail elsewhere, chiefly in Southern India. [44] - -In connection with this rite of fire-walking they have another function -in which a ladder is made of wooden sword-blades, up which the priest -is compelled to climb, resting the soles of his feet on the edges -of the weapons. When he reaches the top he decapitates a white cock -which is tied to the summit of the ladder. This kind of victim is, -as we have already seen, appropriate to propitiate the Sun godling, -and there can be little doubt that the main object of this form of -symbolical magic is to appease the deities which control the rain -and harvests. - -Brahmans so far join in this low-caste worship as to perform the -fire sacrifice (homa) near the trench where the ceremony is being -performed. In Mirzapur one of the songs recited on this occasion runs: -"O devotee! How many cubits long is the trench which thou hast dug? How -many maunds of butter hast thou poured upon it that the fire billows -rise in the air? Seven cubits long is the trench; seven maunds of -firewood hast thou placed within it. One and a quarter maunds of -firewood hast thou placed within it. One and a quarter maunds of butter -hast thou poured into the trench that the fire billows rise to the -sky." All this is based on the idea that fire is a scarer of demons, -a theory which widely prevails. The Romans made their flocks and herds -pass through fire, over which they leaped themselves. In Ireland, -when the St. John's Eve fire has burnt low, "the young men strip to -the waist and leap over or through the flames, and he who braves the -greatest blaze is considered the victor over the powers of evil." [45] - -By a curious process of anthropomorphism, another legend makes Rah or -Rahu, the Dusadh godling, to have been not an eclipse demon, but the -ghost of an ancient leader of the tribe who was killed in battle. [46] -A still grosser theory of eclipses is found in the belief held by the -Ghasiyas of Mirzapur that the sun and moon once borrowed money from -some of the Dom tribe and did not pay it back. Now in revenge a Dom -occasionally devours them and vomits them up again when the eclipse -is over. - - - -Eclipse Observances. - -Eclipses are of evil omen. Gloucester sums up the matter: [47] -"These late eclipses in the sun and moon portend no good to us; -though the wisdom of nature can reason it thus and thus, yet nature -finds itself scourged by the sequent effects; love cools, friendship -falls off, brothers divide; in cities mutinies; in countries discord; -in palaces treason; and the bond cracked 'twixt son and father." The -Hindu authority [48] writes much to the same effect. "Eclipses usually -portend or cause grief; but if rain without unusual symptoms fall -within a week of the eclipse, all baneful influences come to nought." - -Among high-caste Hindus no food which has remained in the house during -an eclipse of the sun or moon can be eaten; it must be given away, -and all earthen vessels in use in the house at the time must be -broken. Mr. Conway [49] takes this to mean that "the eclipse was to -have his attention called by outcries and prayers to the fact that -if it was fire he needed there was plenty on earth; and if food, he -might have all in the house, provided he would consent to satisfy his -appetite with articles of food less important than the luminaries -of heaven." The observance is more probably based on the idea of -ceremonial pollution caused by the actual working of demoniacal agency. - -Food is particularly liable to this form of pollution. The wise -housewife, when an eclipse is announced, takes a leaf of the Tulasi -or sacred basil, and sprinkling Ganges water on it, puts the leaf in -the jars containing the drinking water for the use of the family and -the cooked food, and thus keeps them pure while the eclipse is going -on. Confectioners, who are obliged to keep large quantities of cooked -food ready, relieve themselves and their customers from the taboo by -keeping some of the sacred Kusa or Dub grass in their vessels when -an eclipse is expected. A pregnant woman will do no work during an -eclipse, as otherwise she believes that her child would be deformed, -and the deformity is supposed to bear some relation to the work which -is being done by her at the time. Thus, if she were to sew anything, -the baby would have a hole in its flesh, generally near the ear; -if she cut anything, the child would have a hare-lip. On the same -principle the horns of pregnant cattle are smeared with red paint -during an eclipse, because red is a colour abhorred by demons. While -the eclipse is going on, drinking water, eating food, and all household -business, as well as the worship of the gods, are all prohibited. No -respectable Hindu will at such a time sleep on a bedstead or lie down -to rest, and he will give alms in barley or copper coins to relieve -the pain of the suffering luminaries. - -So among Muhammadans, [50] a bride-elect sends offerings of -intercession (sadqa) to her intended husband, accompanied by a goat or -kid, which must be tied to his bedstead during the continuance of the -eclipse. These offerings are afterwards distributed in charity. Women -expecting to be mothers are carefully kept awake, as they believe -that the security of the coming infant depends on the mother being -kept from sleep. They are not allowed to use a needle, scissors, -knife, or any other instrument for fear of drawing blood, which at -that time would be injurious to both mother and child. - -But among Hindus the most effectual means of scaring the demon and -releasing the afflicted planet is to bathe in some sacred stream. At -this time a Brahman should stand in the water beside the worshipper and -recite the Gayatri. At an eclipse of the moon it is advisable to bathe -at Benares, and when the sun is eclipsed at Kurukshetra. Bernier [51] -gives a very curious account of the bathing which he witnessed at Delhi -during the great eclipse of 1666. In the lower Himalayas the current -ritual prescribes an elaborate ceremony, when numerous articles are -placed in the sacred water jar; the image of the snake god, stamped -in silver, is worshipped, and the usual gifts are made. [52] - -In Ladakh ram horns are fixed on the stems of fruit trees as a -propitiatory offering at the time of an eclipse, and trees thus -honoured are believed to bear an unfailing crop of the choicest -fruit. [53] - -Another effectual means of scaring the demon is by music and noise, of -which we shall find instances later on. "The Irish and Welsh, during -eclipses, run about beating kettles and pans, thinking their clamour -and vexations available to the assistance of the higher orbs." [54] -So in India, women go about with brass pans and beat them to drive -Rahu from his prey. - -Of course, the time of an eclipse is most inauspicious for the -commencement of any important business. Here again the learned -Aubrey confirms the current Hindu belief. "According to the rules -of astrology," he says, "it is not good to undertake any business of -importance in the new moon or at an eclipse." - - - -Star-worship. - -The worship of the other constellations is much less important than -those of the greater luminaries which we have been discussing. The -Hindu names nine constellations, known as Nava-graha, "the nine -seizers," specially in reference to Rahu, which grips the sun and -moon in eclipses, and more generally in the astrological sense of -influencing the destinies of men. These nine stars are the sun -(Surya), the moon (Soma, Chandra), the ascending and descending -nodes (Rahu, Ketu), and the five planets--Mercury (Budha), Venus -(Sukra), Mars (Mangala, Angaraka), Jupiter (Vrihaspati), and Saturn -(Sani). This group of nine stars is worshipped at marriages and other -important religious rites. Of the signs of the Zodiac (rasi-chakra) -the rural Hindu knows little more than the names--Mesha (Aries), -Vrisha (Taurus), Mithuna (Gemini), Karka (Cancer), Sinha (Leo), Kanya -(Virgo), Tula (Libra), Vrischika (Scorpio), Dhanu (Sagittarius), Makara -(Capricornus), Kumbha (Aquarius), and Mina (Pisces). Practically the -only direct influence they exercise over his life is that from the -opening Rasi or sign in which he is born the first letter of the -secret name which he bears is selected. Still less concern has he -with the asterisms or Nakshatra, a word which has been variously -interpreted to mean "coming or ascending," "night guardians," or -"undecaying." As already stated, they are said to have been the -twenty-seven daughters of the Rishi Daksha, and wives of Soma or -the moon. The usual enumeration gives twenty-eight, and they are -vaguely supposed to represent certain stars or constellations, but -the identification of these is very uncertain. One list, with some of -the corresponding stars, gives Sravishtha or Dhanishtha (Delphinus), -Sata-bhishaj (Aquarius), Purva Bhadrapada, Uttara Bhadrapada, -Revati, Asvini (Aries), Bharani (Musca), Krittika (the Pleiades), -Rohini (Aldebaran), Mriga-siras (Orion), Ardra, Punarvasu, Pushya, -Aslesha, Magha (Leo), Purva-Phalguni, Uttara Phalguni, Hasta (Corvus), -Chitra (Spica Virginis), Svati (Arcturus), Visakha (Libra), Anuradha, -Jyeshtha, Mula, Purva Ashadha, Uttara Ashadha, Abhijit (Lyra), and -Sravana. These are used only in calculating the marriage horoscope, -and the only one of them with which the fairly well-to-do rustic has -much concern is with the unlucky Mula. Should by an evil chance his -son be born in this asterism, he has to undergo a most elaborate rite -of purification. - -Others stars have their legends. The Riksha or constellation of the -Great Bear represents the seven deified Rishis--Gautama, Bharadwaja, -Viswamitra, Jamadagni, Vashishtha, Kasyapa and Atri. Dhruva, the Pole -Star, was the grandson of Manu Swayambhuva, and was driven from his -home by his step-mother. He, though a Kshatriya, joined the company -of the Rishis and was finally raised to the skies as Grahadhara, "the -pivot of the plants." So Canopus is the Rishi Agastya who was perhaps -one of the early Aryan missionaries to Southern India and won a place -in heaven by his piety. Orion is Mrigasiras, the head of Brahma in the -form of a stag which was struck off by Siva when the deity attempted -violence to his own daughter Sandhya, the twilight. Krittika or the -Pleiades represent the six nurses of Karttikeya, the god of war. - -Part of the purificatory rite for a woman after her delivery is -to bring her out at night and let her look at the stars, while her -husband stands over her with a bludgeon to guard her from the assaults -of demons. One interesting survival of the old mythology is that in -Upper India women are fond of teaching their children that the stars -are kine and the moon their shepherd, an idea which has formed the -basis of much of the speculations of a school of comparative mythology -now almost completely discredited. - - - -The Rainbow. - -There is much curious folk-lore about the rainbow. By most Hindus it is -called the Dhanus or bow of Rama Chandra, and by Muhammadans the bow of -Baba Adam or father Adam. In the Panjab it is often known as the swing -of Bibi Bai, the wife of the Saint Sakhi Sarwar. The Persians call it -the bow of Rustam or of Shaitan or Satan, or Shamsher-i-'Ali--"the -sword of 'Ali." In Sanskrit it is Rohitam, the invisible bow of -Indra. In the hills it is called Paniharin or the female water-bearer. - - - -The Milky Way. - -So with the Milky Way, of which an early name is Nagavithi or the -path of the snake. The Persians call it Kahkashan, the dragging of -a bundle of straw through the sky. The Hindu calls it Akash Ganga -or the heavenly Ganges, Bhagwan ki kachahri or the Court of God, -Swarga-duari or the door of Paradise; while to the Panjabi it is -known as Bera da ghas or the path of Noah's Ark. In Celtic legend it -is the road along which Gwydion pursued his erring wife. - - - -Earth-worship. - -Next in order of reverence to the heavenly bodies comes the Earth -goddess, Dharitri or Dharti Mata or Dharti Mai, a name which means "the -upholder" or "supporter." She is distinguished from Bhumi, "the soil," -which, as we shall see, has a god of its own, and from Prithivi, "the -wide extended world," which in the Vedas is personified as the mother -of all things, an idea common to all folk-lore. The myth of Dyaus, -the sky, and Prithivi, the earth, once joined and now separated, is the -basis of a great chapter in mythology, such as the mutilation of Uranus -by Cronus and other tales of a most distinctively savage type. [55] -We meet the same idea in the case of Demeter, "the fruitful soil," -as contrasted with Gaea, the earlier, Titanic, formless earth; unless, -indeed, we are to accept Mr. Frazer's identification of Demeter with -the Corn Mother. [56] - - - -Worship of Mother Earth. - -The worship of Mother Earth assumes many varied forms. The pious -Hindu does reverence to her as he rises from his bed in the morning; -and even the indifferent follows his example when he begins to plough -and sow. In the Panjab, [57] "when a cow or buffalo is first bought, -or when she first gives milk after calving, the first five streams -of milk drawn from her are allowed to fall on the ground in honour -of the goddess, and every time of milking the first stream is so -treated. So, when medicine is taken, a little is sprinkled in her -honour." On the same principle the great Kublai Khan used to sprinkle -the milk of his mares on the ground. "This is done," says Marco Polo, -[58] "on the injunction of the idolaters and idol priests, who say -that it is an excellent thing to sprinkle milk on the ground every -28th of August, so that the earth and the air and the false gods -shall have their share of it, and the spirits likewise that inhabit -the air and the earth, and those beings will protect and bless the -Kaan and his children, and his wives, and his folk and his gear, -and his cattle and his horses, and all that is his." - -The same feeling is also shown in the primitive taboo, which forbids -that any holy thing, such as the blood of a tribesman, should fall -upon the ground. Thus we are told that Kublai Khan ordered his captive -Nayan "to be wrapped in a carpet and tossed to and fro so mercilessly -that he died, and the Kaan caused him to be put to death in this way, -because he would not have the blood of his Line Imperial spilt upon -the ground, and exposed to the eye of heaven and before the sun." Even -some savages when they are obliged to shed the blood of a member of -the tribe, as at the rite of circumcision, receive it upon their own -bodies. The soul, in fact, is supposed to be in the blood, and any -ground on which the blood falls becomes taboo or accursed. [59] - -Throughout Northern India the belief in the sanctity of the earth -is universal. The dying man is laid on the earth at the moment of -dissolution, and so is the mother at the time of parturition. In the -case of the dying there is perhaps another influence at work in this -precaution, the idea that the soul must not be barred by roof or wall, -and allowed to wing its course unimpeded to the place reserved for it. - -In the eastern districts of the North-Western Provinces there is -a regular rite common to all the inferior castes that a few days -before a wedding the women go in procession to the village clay-pit -and fetch from there the sacred earth (matmangara), which is used in -making the marriage altar and the fireplace on which the wedding feast -is cooked. There are various elements in the ritual which point to a -very primitive origin. Thus, one part of the proceedings is that a -Chamar, one of the non-Aryan castes, leads the procession, beating -his drum the whole time to scare demons. When the earth has been -collected the drum is worshipped and smeared with red lead. There can -be little doubt that the drum was one of the very primitive fetishes -of the aboriginal races. One, and perhaps about the most primitive, -form of it is the Damaru or drum shaped like an hour-glass which -accompanies Siva, and next to this comes the Mandar, the sides of -which are formed out of earthenware, and which is the first stage in -the development of a musical instrument from a vessel covered with -some substance which resounds when beaten. This latter form of drum -is the national musical instrument of the Central Indian Gonds and -their brethren. The Chamar, again, digs the earth with an affectation -of secrecy, which, as we shall see, is indispensable in rites of this -class. The mother of the bride or bridegroom veils herself with her -sheet, and the digger passes the earth over his left shoulder to a -virgin who stands behind him and receives it in a corner of her robe. - -Dust, again, which has been trodden on has mystic powers. In the -villages you may see little children after an elephant has passed -patting the marks of his feet in the dust and singing a song. Among -the Kunbis of Kolaba, when the women neighbours come to inspect a -newly-born child, they touch the soles of the mother's feet, as if -picking some dust off them, wave it over the child, and blow the dust -particularly into the air and partly over the baby. [60] In Thana, -when a mother goes out with a young child on her hip, if she cannot -get lamp-black to rub between its eyes, she takes dust off her left -foot and rubs it on the child's forehead. [61] So we read of the Isle -of Man--"If a person endowed with the Evil Eye has just passed by a -farmer's herd of cattle, and a calf has suddenly been seized with a -serious illness, the farmer hurries after the man with the Evil Eye -to get the dust from under his feet. If he objects, he may, as has -sometimes been very unceremoniously done, throw him down by force, -take off his shoes and scrape off the dust adhering to their soles, -and carry it back to throw over the calf. Even that is not always -necessary, as it appears to be quite enough if he takes up dust where -he of the Evil Eye has just trod." [62] - -Earth, again, is regarded as a remedy for disease. I have seen people -in Ireland take a pinch of earth from the grave of a priest noted for -his piety, and drink it dissolved in water. People suffering from -a certain class of disease come to the tomb of the Saint Kadri at -Yemnur in Dharwar and smear their bodies with mud that they may be -cured of the disease. [63] There are numerous instances of the use -of earth as a poultice and an application for the cure of wounds and -sores among the savage tribes of Africa and elsewhere. - -It is on much the same principle that among some tribes in India Mother -Earth is worshipped as a Kuladevata or household goddess and appealed -to in times of danger. The Hindu troopers at the battle of Kampti, at -the crisis of the engagement, took dust from their grooms and threw -it over their heads. At Surat in 1640, in fear of drought, Brahmans -went about carrying a board with earth on it on their heads. [64] -So wrestlers, when they are about to engage in a contest, rub earth -on their arms and legs and roll on the ground. As in the classical -legend of Antaeus, they believe that they derive strength from the -touch of Mother Earth. - -The same principle, also, appears to be at the bottom of many similar -practices. Thus the Hindu always uses earth to purify his cooking -vessels, which he regards with peculiar respect. Mourners of the Jaina -creed on going home after a funeral rub their hands with earth and -water to remove the death impurity. In his daily bath the pious Hindu -rubs a little Ganges mud on his body. The Parsis cover the parings of -their hair and nails with a little earth so that demons may not enter -into them. The Muhammadan uses earth for the purpose of purification -when water is not procurable. For the same reason the ascetic rubs -his body with dust and ashes, which, as we shall see, is a potent -scarer of demons. Though here there is possibly another theory at -work at the same time. The practice was common to the Greek as well -as to the barbarian mysteries, and according to Mr. Lang, "the idea -clearly was that by cleaning away the filth plastered over the body -was symbolized the pure and free condition of the initiate." [65] - -Lastly, it is perhaps on the same principle that many universal -burial customs have originated. The Muhammadan phrase for burial is -matti-dena, "to give earth." The unburied mariner asks Horace for -the gift of a little earth. We ourselves consider it a pious duty -to throw a little earth on the coffin of a departed friend. The -same custom prevails among many Hindu tribes. The Chambhars of Puna -throw handfuls of earth over the corpse; so do the Halal-khors; the -Lingayats of Dharwar follow the same practice. The Bani Israils at -a funeral stuff a handful of earth into a pillow which is put under -the head of the corpse. [66] The same conception was probably the -basis of the universal custom of funeral oblations. Even nowadays -in Scotland all the milk in the house is poured on the ground at -a death, and the same custom is familiar through many Hebrew and -Homeric instances. The same idea appears in the custom prevalent in -the Middle Ages in Germany, that when a nun renounced the world and -became civilly dead her relations threw dust on her arms. [67] - - - -Earth-worship among the Dravidians. - -Among the Dravidian races of Central India earth-worship prevails -widely. In Chota Nagpur the Oraons celebrate in spring the marriage -of the earth. The Dryad of the Sal tree (Shorea robusta), who controls -the rain, is propitiated with a sacrifice of fowls. Flowers of the Sal -tree are taken to the village and carried round from house to house -in a basket. The women wash the feet of the priest and do obeisance -to him. He dances with them and puts some flowers upon them and upon -the house. They first douse him with water as a means of bringing -the rain, and then refresh him with beer. [68] - -In Hoshangabad, when the sowing is over, its completion is celebrated -by the Machandri Puja, or worship of Mother Earth, a ceremony intended -to invoke fertility. "Every cultivator does the worship himself, -with his family, servants, etc.; no Brahman need join in it. At the -edge of one of his fields intended for the spring harvest, he puts up -a little semicircle or three-sided wall of clods about a foot high, -meant to represent a hut. This is covered over with green Kans grass -(Imperata spontanea) to represent thatch. At the two ends of the hut -two posts of Palasa wood (Butea frondosa) are erected, with leaves -round the head like those which are put up at marriage. They are tied -to the thatch with red thread. In the centre of this little house, -which is the temple of Machandri, or Mother Earth, a little fire -is made, and milk placed on it to boil in a tiny earthen pot. It is -allowed to boil over as a sign of abundance. While this is going on, -the ploughmen, who are all collected in a field, drive their bullocks -at a trot, striking them wildly; it is the end of the year's labour for -the cattle. The cultivator meanwhile offers a little rice, molasses, -and saffron to Machandri, and then makes two tiny holes in the ground -to represent granaries; he drops a few grains in and covers them over; -this is a symbol of prayer, that his granary may be filled from the -produce of the land." Similar instances of symbolical magic will -constantly occur in connection with similar rites. Then he puts a -little saffron on the foreheads of the ploughman and the bullocks, -and ties a red thread round the horns of the cattle. The animals are -then let go, and the ploughmen run off at full speed across country, -scattering wheat boiled whole as a sign of abundance. This concludes -the rite, and every one returns home. [69] - -Many similar usages prevail among the jungle tribes of South -Mirzapur. The Korwas consider Dharti Mata one of their chief -godlings. She lives in the village in the Deohar or general village -shrine under a Sal tree. In the month of Aghan (November-December) -she is worshipped with flowers and the offering of a goat. When she -is duly worshipped the crops prosper and there are no epidemics. The -Pataris and Majhwars also recognize her as a goddess, and worship her -in the month of Sawan (August). The local devil priest or Baiga offers -to her a goat, cock, and rich cakes (puri). She is also worshipped in -the cold weather before the grain and barley are sown, and again on the -threshing-floor before the winnowing begins. The flesh of the animals -is consumed by the males and unmarried girls; no grown-up girl or -married woman is allowed to touch the flesh. The Ghasiyas also believe -in Dharti Mata. She is their village goddess, and is presented with a -ram or a goat or cakes. The offering is made by the Baiga, for whom the -materials are provided by a general contribution in the village. The -Kharwars worship her at the village shrine before wood-cutting and -ploughing begin. In the month of Sawan (August) they do a special -service in her honour, known as the Hariyari Puja, or "worship of -greenery," at the time of transplanting the rice. In Aghan (November) -they do the Khar Puja, when they begin cutting thatching-grass -(khar). A cock, some Mahua (Bassia latifolia) and parched grain -are offered to her. All this is done by the Baiga, who receives -the offerings, and none but males are allowed to attend. Similarly -the Pankas worship her before sowing and harvesting the grain. They -and the Bhuiyars offer a pig and some liquor at the more important -agricultural seasons. The Kharwars sometimes call her Devi Dai, or -"Nurse Devi," and in times of trouble sprinkle rice and pulse in -her name on the ground. When the crops are being sown they release -a fowl as a scapegoat and pray--He Dharti Mahtari! Kusal mangala -rakhiyo! Harwah, bail, sab bachen rahen--"O Mother Earth! Keep in -prosperity and protect the ploughmen and the oxen." In much the same -spirit is the prayer of the peasant in Karnal to Mother Earth:--Sah -Badshah se surkhru rakhiye! Aur is men achchha naj de, to badshah ko -bhi paisa den, aur Sah ka bhi utar jawe--"Keep our rulers and bankers -contented! Grant us a plentiful yield! So shall we pay our revenue -and satisfy our banker!" [70] - - - -Secrecy in Worship of Mother Earth. - -We shall meet other instances in which secrecy is an essential -element in these rural rites. This condition prevails almost -universally. Notable, too, is the rule by which married women are -excluded from a share in offerings to the Earth goddess. - - - -Thunder and Lightning. - -As is natural, thunder and lightning are considered ill-omened. In the -old mythology lightning (vidyut) was one of the weapons of the Maruts, -and Parjanya was the deity who wielded the thunderbolt. Many legends -tell that the soul of the first man came to earth in the form of the -lightning. Thus Yama was the first man born of the thunderbolt, and he -first trod the path of death and became regent of the dead. Many are -the devices to scare the lightning demon. "During a thunderstorm it -was a Greek custom to put out the fire, and hiss and cheep with the -lips. The reason for the custom was explained by the Pythagoreans -to be that by acting thus you scared the spirits in Tartarus, who -were doubtless supposed to make the thunder and lightning. Similarly -some of the Australian blacks, who attribute thunder to the agency -of demons, and are much afraid of it, believe that they can dispel -it by chanting some particular words and breathing hard; and it is -a German superstition that the danger from a thunderstorm can be -averted by putting out the fire. During a thunderstorm the Sakai -of the Malay Peninsula run out of their houses and brandish their -weapons to drive away the demons; and the Esthonians in Russia fasten -scythes, edge upwards, over the door, that the demons, fleeing from the -thundering god, may cut their feet if they try to seek shelter in the -house. Sometimes the Esthonians, for a similar purpose, take all the -edged tools in the house and throw them out into the yard. It is said -that when the thunder is over, spots of blood are often found on the -scythes and knives, showing that the demons have been wounded by them. - -"So when the Indians of Canada were asked by the Jesuit missionaries -why they planted their swords in the ground point upwards, they -replied that the spirit of the thunder was sensible, and that if he -saw the naked blades he would turn away and take good care not to -approach their huts. This is a fair example of the close similarity -of European superstitions to the superstitions of savages. In the -present case the difference happens to be slightly in favour of -the Indians, since they did not, like our European savages, delude -themselves into seeing the blood of demons on the swords. The reason -for the Greek and German custom of putting out the fire during a -thunderstorm is probably a wish to avoid attracting the attention of -the thunder demons. From a like motive some of the Australian blacks -hide themselves during a thunderstorm, and keep absolutely silent, -lest the thunder should find them out. Once during a storm a white -man called out in a loud voice to a black fellow, with whom he was -working, to put the saw under a log and seek shelter. He found that -the saw had been already put aside, and the black fellow was very -indignant at his master for speaking so loud. 'What for,' said he, -in great wrath--'what for speak so loud? Now um thunder hear and know -where um saw is.' And he went out and changed its hiding-place." [71] - -All these precautions are well known to the people of Upper India. It -is a very common habit to throw out axes and knives to scare the -thunder demon, as we shall see is the case with the evil spirit of -hail. The rule of keeping quiet and muttering incantations under the -breath is also familiar to them. They are particularly careful lest a -first-born son may lean against anything and thus attract the demon -on himself. Thunder in a clear sky is much dreaded, an idea which -often appears in classical literature. [72] - - - -Earthquakes. - -Earthquakes are also naturally an object of terror. Pythagoras believed -that they were caused by dead men fighting beneath the earth. The -common explanation of these occurrences in India is that Varaha, or -the boar incarnation of Vishnu, who supports the earth, is changing the -burden of the world from one tusk to another. By another account it is -due to the great bull or elephant which supports the world. Derived -from a more advanced theological stage is the theory that the earth -shakes because it is over-burdened by the sins of mankind in this -evil age. Colonel Dalton describes how a rumbling (probably caused by -an earthquake) in the cave in which the bloodthirsty divinity of the -Korwas was supposed to dwell, caused extreme terror among them. [73] - - - -River-worship. - -High on the list of benevolent deities of Northern India are the -great rivers, especially the Ganges and the Jumna, which are known -respectively as Ganga Mai or "Mother Ganges" and Jumna ji or "Lady -Jumna." - -Ganga, of course, in the mythologies has a divine origin. According -to one account she flows from the toe of Vishnu, and was brought down -from heaven by the incantations of the Saint Bhagiratha, to purify -the ashes of the sixty thousand sons of King Sagara, who had been -burnt up by the angry glance of Kapila, the sage. By another story -she descends in seven streams from Siva's brow. The descent of Ganga -disturbed the Saint Jahnu at his austerities, and in his anger he -drank up the stream; but he finally relented, and allowed the river to -flow from his ear. By a third account she is the daughter of Himavat, -the impersonation of the Himalayan range. Another curious tale, which -must have been based on some Indian tradition, is found in Plutarch -[74]--"The Ganges is a river of India, called so for the following -reason:--The nymph Kalauria bore to Indus a son of notable beauty, by -name Ganges, who in the ignorance of intoxication had connection with -his mother. But when later on he learned the truth from his nurse, in -the passion of his remorse he threw himself into the river Chliaros, -which was called Ganges after him." Another legend again is found in -the Mahabharata. [75] The wise Santanu goes to hunt on the banks of the -Ganges and finds a lovely nymph, of whom he becomes enamoured. She puts -him under the taboo that he is never to say anything to displease her, -an idea familiar in the well-known Swan Maiden cycle of folk-tales. She -bears him eight sons, of whom she throws seven into the river, and her -husband dares not remonstrate with her. When she is about to throw -away the last child he challenges her to tell him who she is and to -have pity upon him. She then tells him that she is Ganga personified, -and that the seven sons are the divine Vasavas, who by being thrown -into the river are liberated from the curse of human life. The eighth -remains among men as Dyaus, the sky, in the form of the eunuch Bhishma. - -It is remarkable that, as in Plutarch's legend, the Jumna is connected -with a tale of incest. Yami or Yamuna was the daughter of the Sun -and sister of Yama, the god of death. They were the first human pair -and the progenitors of the race of men. It is needless to say that -similar traditions of brother and sister marriage are found in Egypt, -Peru and elsewhere. Yamuna, according to the modern story told on -her banks, was unmarried, and hence some people will not drink from -her because she was not purified by the marriage rite, and so the -water is heavy and indigestible. Another tale tells how Balarama, -in a state of inebriety, called upon her to come to him that he -might bathe in her waters; and as she did not heed, he, in his rage, -seized his ploughshare weapon, dragged her to him, and compelled her -to follow him whithersoever he wandered through the forest. The river -then assumed a human form and besought his forgiveness; but it was -some time before she could appease the angry hero. This has been taken -to represent the construction of some ancient canal from the river; -but Mr. Growse shows that this idea is incorrect. [76] - -The worship of Mother Ganges is comparatively modern. She is -mentioned only twice in the Rig Veda, and then without any emphasis -or complementary epithet. Apparently at this time the so-called Aryan -invaders had not reached her banks. [77] There are numerous temples to -Ganga all along her banks, of which those at Hardwar, Garhmuktesar, -Soron, Mathura, Prayag, and Benares are perhaps the most important -in Upper India. She has her special festival on the seventh of the -month of Baisakh (May-June), which is celebrated by general bathing -all along the banks of the sacred stream. Ganges water is carried -long distances into the interior, and is highly valued for its use -in sacrifices, as a remedy, a form of stringent oath, and a viaticum -for the dying. The water of certain holy wells in Scotland [78] -and elsewhere enjoys a similar value. - -But it is by bathing in the sacred stream at the full moon, during -eclipses, and on special festivals that the greatest efficacy is -assured. On these occasions an opportunity is taken for making -oblations to the sainted dead whose ashes have been consigned to -her waters. Bathing is throughout India regarded as one of the chief -means of religious advancement. The idea rests on a metaphor--as the -body is cleansed from physical pollution, so the soul is purified from -sin. The stock case of the merit of this religious bathing is that of -King Trisanku, "he who had committed the three deadly sins," who is -also known as Satyavrata. The legend appears in various forms. By one -story he tried to win his way to heaven by a great sacrifice which his -priest, Vasishtha, declined to perform. He then applied to Visvamitra, -the rival Levite, who agreed to assist him. He was opposed by the -sons of Vasishtha, whom he consumed to ashes. Finally, Trisanku was -admitted to heaven, but he was forced by the angry saint to hang for -ever with his head downwards. By another account he committed the -deadly sins of running away with the wife of a citizen, offending -his father, and killing in a time of famine Kamadhenu, the wondrous -cow of Vashishtha. By another story he killed a cow and a Brahman -and married his step-mother. At any rate he and the wicked Raja Vena -were the types of violent sinners in the early legends; possibly they -represent a revolt against the pretensions of the Brahmans. At length -the sage Visvamitra took pity upon him, and having collected water from -all the sacred places in the world, washed him clean of his offences. - - - -Springs Connected with the Ganges. - -Many famous springs are supposed to have underground connection with -the Ganges. Such is that of Changdeo in Khandesh, of which Abul Fazl -gives an account, and that at Jahanpur in Alwar. [79] It was at the -village of Bastali in the Karnal District that the sage Vyasa lived, -and there the Ganges flowed into his well to save him the trouble -of going to the river to bathe, bringing with her his loin cloth and -water-pot to convince him that she was really the Ganges herself. [80] - - - -Sacred River Junctions. - -When two sacred rivers combine their waters the junction (Sangama) -is regarded as of peculiar sanctity. Such is the famous junction -of the Ganges and Jumna at Prayag, the modern Allahabad, which is -presided over by the guardian deity Veni Madhava. The same virtue, -but in a lesser degree, attaches to the junction of the Ganges and the -Son or Gandak. In the Himalayas cairns are raised at the junction of -three streams, and every passer-by adds a stone. At the confluence of -the Gaula and Baliya rivers in the Hills there is said to be a house -of gold, but unfortunately it is at present invisible on account of -some potent enchantment. [81] Bathing in such rivers is not only -a propitiation for sin, but is also efficacious for the cure of -disease. Even the wicked Raja Vena, who was, as we have seen, a type -of old-world impiety, was cured, like Naaman the Syrian, of his leprosy -by bathing in the Saraswati, the lost river of the Indian desert. - -Even minor streams have their sanctity and their legends. The -course of the Sarju was opened by a Rishi, from which time dates -the efficacy of a pilgrimage to Bagheswar. [82] Raja Rantideva was -such a pious king and offered up so many cattle in sacrifice, that -his blood formed the river Chambal. Anasuya, the wife of Atri, was a -daughter of the Rishi Daksha. She did penance for ten thousand years, -and so was enabled to create the river Mandakini, and thus saved the -land from famine. Her worship is localized at Ansuyaji in the Banda -District. The sacred portion of the Phalgu is said occasionally to -flow with milk, though Dr. Buchanan was not fortunate enough to -meet anyone who professed to have witnessed the occurrence. [83] -The Narmada was wooed by the river Son, who proved faithless to her, -and was beguiled by the Johila, a rival lady stream, who acted the -part of the barber's wife at the wedding. The Narmada, enraged at her -lover's perfidy, tore her way through the marble rocks at Jabalpur, -and has worn the willow ever since. [84] She is now the great rival -of Mother Ganges. While in the case of the latter only the Northern -(or as it is called the Kasi or Benares bank) is efficacious for -bathing or for the cremation of the dead, the Narmada is free from -any restriction of the kind. The same is the case with the Son, at -least during its course through the District of Mirzapur. By some -the sanctity of the Narmada is regarded as superior even to that of -the Ganges. While according to some authorities it is necessary to -bathe in the Ganges in order to obtain forgiveness of sins, the same -result is attained by mere contemplation of the Narmada. According -to the Bhavishya Purana the sanctity of the Ganges will cease on the -expiration of five thousand years of the Kali Yuga, or the fourth age -of the world, which occurred in 1895, and the Narmada will take its -place. The Ganges priests, however, repudiate this calumny, and it -may safely be assumed that Mother Ganges will not abandon her primacy -in the religious world of Hinduism without a determined struggle. [85] - - - -Ill-omened Streams. - -But all rivers are not beneficent. Worst of all is the dread Vaitarani, -the river of death, which is localized in Orissa and pours its stream -of ordure and blood on the confines of the realm of Yama. Woe to the -wretch who in that dread hour lacks the aid of the Brahman and the -holy cow to help him to the other shore. The name of one stream is -accursed in the ears of all Hindus, the hateful Karamnasa, which -flows for part of its course through the Mirzapur District. Even -to touch it destroys the merit of works of piety, for such is the -popular interpretation of its name. No plausible reason for the evil -reputation of this particular stream has been suggested except that it -may have been in early times the frontier between the invading Aryans -and the aborigines, and possibly the scene of a campaign in which -the latter were victorious. The Karama tree is, however, the totem -of the Dravidian Kharwars and Manjhis, who live along its banks, and -it is perhaps possible that this may be the real origin of the name, -and that its association with good works (karma) was an afterthought. - -The legend of this ill-omened stream is associated with that of the -wicked king Trisanku, to whom reference has already been made. When -the sage Visvamitra collected water from all the sacred streams of the -world, it fell burdened with the monarch's sins into the Karamnasa, -which has remained defiled ever since. By another account, the sinner -was hung up between heaven and earth as a punishment for his offences, -and from his body drips a baneful moisture which still pollutes the -water. Similar legends of the origin of rivers are not wanting in -folk-lore. An Austrian story tells that all rivers take their origin -from the tears shed by a giant's wife as she laments his death. [86] -The same idea of a river springing from a corpse appears in one of the -tales of Somadeva and in the twelfth novel of the Gesta Romanorum. [87] -Nowadays no Hindu with any pretensions to personal purity will drink -from this accursed stream, and at its fords many low caste people make -their living by conveying on their shoulders their more scrupulous -brethren across its waters. - - - -Origin of River-worship. - -It is perhaps worth considering the possible origin of this -river-worship. Far from being peculiar to Hinduism, it is common -to the whole Aryan world. The prayer of the patient Odysseus [88] -to the river after his sufferings in the deep is heard in almost the -same language at every bathing Ghat in Upper India, from the source -of Mother Ganges to where she joins the ocean. The river is always -flowing, always being replenished by its tributary streams, and -hence comes to be regarded as a thing of life, an emblem of eternal -existence, a benevolent spirit which washes away the sins of humanity -and supplies in a tropical land the chief needs of men. In a thirsty -land the mighty stream of the Ganges would naturally arouse feelings -of respect and adoration, not so much perhaps to those living on its -banks and ever blessed by its kindly influence, as to the travel-worn -pilgrim from the sandy steppes of Rajasthan or the waterless valleys -of the Central Indian hills. We can hardly doubt that from this -point of view Mother Ganges has been a potent factor in the spread -of Hinduism. She became the handmaid of the only real civilization -of which Hindustan could boast, and from her shrines bands of eager -missionaries were ever starting to sow the seeds of the worship of -the gods in the lands of the unbeliever. - -The two great rivers of Upper India were, again, associated with -that land of fable and mystery, the snowy range which was the home of -the gods and the refuge of countless saints and mystics, who in its -solitudes worked out the enigma of the world for the modern Hindu. They -ended in the great ocean, the final home of the ashes of the sainted -dead. Even the partially Hinduised Dravidian tribes of the Vindhyan -Plateau bring the bones of their dead relations to mingle with those -of the congregation of the faithful, who have found their final rest in -its waters since the world was young. The Ganges and the streams which -swell its flood thus come to be associated with the deepest beliefs of -the race, and it is hard to exaggerate its influence as a bond of union -between the nondescript entities which go to make up modern Hinduism. - -Again, much of the worship of rivers is connected with the propitiation -of the water-snakes, demons and goblins, with which in popular belief -many of them are infested. Such were Kaliya, the great black serpent -of the Jumna, which attacked the infant Krishna; the serpent King -of Nepal, Karkotaka, who dwelt in the lake Nagarasa when the divine -lotus of Adi Buddha floated on its surface. [89] At the temple of -Triyugi Narayana in Garhwal is a pool said to be full of snakes of -a yellow colour which come out at the feast of the Nagpanchami to -be worshipped. The Gardevi, or river sprite of Garhwal, is very -malignant, and is the ghost of a person who has met his death by -suicide, violence, or accident. [90] These malignant water demons -naturally infest dangerous rapids and whirlpools, and it is necessary -to propitiate them. Thus we learn that on the river Tapti in Berar -timber floated down sometimes disappears in a subterraneous cavity; -so before trying the navigation there the Gonds sacrifice a goat to -propitiate the river demon. [91] - -Another variety of these demons of water is the Naga and his wife the -Nagin, of whom we shall hear more in connection with snake-worship. In -the Sikandar, a tributary of the Son, is a deep water-hole where no -one dares to go. The water is said to reach down as far as Patala, -or the infernal regions. Here live the Naga and the Nagin. In the -middle of the river is a tree of the Kualo variety, and when ghosts -trouble the neighbourhood an experienced Ojha or sorcerer is called, -who bores holes in the bark of the tree and there shuts up the noxious -ghosts, which then come under the rule of the Naga and Nagin, who -are the supreme rulers of the ghostly band. - -Another Mirzapur river, the Karsa, is infested by a Deo, or demon, -known as Jata Rohini, or "Rohini of the matted locks." He is worshipped -by the Baiga priest to ensure abundant rain and harvests and to keep -off disease. The Baiga catches a fish which he presents to the Deo, -but if any one but a Baiga dares to drink there, the water bubbles -up and the demon sweeps him away. - -Like this Deo of Mirzapur, most of these water demons are malignant -and wait until some wretched creature enters their domains, when they -seize and drag him away. Some of them can even catch the reflection -of a person as he looks into water, and hence savages all over the -world are very averse to looking into deep water-holes. Thus, the Zulus -believe that there is a beast in the water which can seize the shadow -of a man, and men are forbidden to lean over and look into a deep pool, -lest their shadow should be taken away. There is a tale of the Godiva -cycle in which a woman at Arles is carried off by a creature called a -Drac and made to act as nurse to the demon's child. [92] In Scotland -water-holes are known as "the cups of the fairies." And there is the -Trinity well in Ireland, into which no one can gaze with impunity, -and from which the river Boyne once burst forth in pursuit of a lady -who had insulted it. [93] - -In India, also, dangerous creatures of this kind abound. There is in -Mirzapur a famous water-hole, known as Barewa. A herdsman was once -grazing his buffaloes near the place, when the waters rose in anger -and carried off him and his cattle. Nowadays the drowned buffaloes -have taken the shape of a dangerous demon known as Bhainsasura, or the -buffalo demon, who now in company with the Naga and the Nagin lives in -this place, and no one dares to fish there until he has propitiated -the demons with the offering of a fowl, eggs, and a goat. Another -kind of water demon attacks fishermen; it appears in the form of a -turban which fixes itself to his hook and increases in length as he -tries to drag it to the shore. - -There is, again, the water-horse, with whom we are familiar in the -"Arabian Nights," where he consorts with mares of mortal race. This -creature is known in Kashmir as the Zalgur. [94] The water-bull of -Manxland is a creature of the same class, and they constantly appear -through the whole range of Celtic folk-lore. [95] Such again is the -Hydra of Greek mythology, and the Teutonic Nikke or Nixy, who has -originated the legend of the Flying Dutchman, and in the shape of Old -Nick is the terror of sailors. Like him is the Kelpie of Scotland, -a water-horse who is believed to carry off the unwary by sudden floods -and devour them. Of the same kindred is the last of the dragons which -St. Patrick chained up in a lake on the Galtee Mountains in Tipperary. - -Many pools, again, in Northern India are infested by a creature known -as the Burna, who is the ghost of a drowned person. He is always on -the look-out for someone to take his place, so he drags in people -who come to fish in his domains. [96] He is particularly feared by -the Magahiya Doms, a caste of degraded nomadic gipsies who infest -Gorakhpur and Behar. - -Many of these demons, such as the Naga and Nagin, have kingdoms and -palaces stored with treasure under the water, and there they entice -young men and maidens, who occasionally come back to their mortal -kindred and tell them of the wonders which they have seen. These are -akin to Morgan la Fay of the Orlando Innamorato, La Motte Fouque's -Undine, and they often merge into the mermaid of the Swan Maiden type -of tale, who marries a mortal lover and leaves him at last because in -his folly he breaks some taboo which is a condition of the permanence -of their love. - -But besides these dragons which infest rivers and lakes there are -special water gods, many of which are the primitive water monster in -a developed form. Such is Mahishasura, who is the Mahishoba of Berar, -and like the Bhainsasura already mentioned, infests great rivers and -demands propitiation. According to the early mythology this Mahisha, -the buffalo demon, was killed by Karttikeya at the Krauncha pass -in the Himalaya, which was opened by the god to make a passage for -the deities to visit the plains from Kailasa. The Kols, again, have -Naga Era, who presides over tanks, wells, and any stagnant water, -and Garha Era, the river goddess. "They," as Col. Dalton remarks, -"are frequently and very truly denounced as the cause of sickness -and propitiated with sacrifices to spare their victims." [97] - - - -Floods and Drowning People. - -Floods are, as we have seen, regarded as produced by demoniacal -agency. In the Panjab, when a village is in danger of floods, the -headman makes an offering of a cocoa-nut and a rupee to the flood -demon. As in many other places the cocoa-nut represents the head of a -human victim, which in olden times was the proper offering. He holds -the offering in his hand and stands in the water. When the flood rises -high enough to wash the offering from his hand, it is believed that the -waters will abate. Some people throw seven handfuls of boiled wheat and -sugar into the stream and distribute the remainder among the persons -present. Some take a male buffalo, a horse, or a ram, and after boring -the right ear of the victim, throw it into the water. If the victim be -a horse, it should be saddled before it is offered. A short time ago, -when the town and temples at Hardwar were in imminent danger during -the Gohna flood, the Brahmans poured vessels of milk, rice and flowers -into the waters of Mother Ganges and prayed to her to spare them. - -In the same connection may be noticed the very common prejudice -which exists in India against saving drowning people. This is -familiar in Western folk-lore. It is supposed to be alluded to in -the "Twelfth Night" of Shakespeare, and the plot of Sir W. Scott's -"Pirate" turns upon it. Numerous instances of the same idea have been -collected by Dr. Tylor and Mr. Conway. [98] Dr. Tylor considers that -it is based upon the belief that to snatch a victim from the very -clutches of the water spirit is a rash defiance of the deity which -would hardly pass unavenged. Mr. Black [99] accounts for the idea on -the ground that the spirits of people who have died a violent death -may return to earth if they can find a substitute; hence the soul -of the last dead man is insulted or injured by anyone preventing -another from taking his place. This last theory is very common in -Western folk-lore. Thus Lady Wilde writes from Ireland [100]:--"It -is believed that the spirit of the dead last buried has to watch -in the churchyard until another corpse is laid there, or to perform -menial offices in the spirit world, such as carrying wood and water, -till the next spirit comes from earth. They are also sent on messages -to earth, chiefly to announce the coming death of some relative, and -at this they are glad, for their own time of peace and rest will come -at last." So in Argyllshire, [101] it was believed that the spirit of -the last interred kept watch around the churchyard until the arrival -of another occupant, to whom its custody was transmitted. This, as we -shall see in connection with the custom of barring the return of the -ghost, quite agrees with popular feeling in India, and furnishes an -adequate explanation of the prejudice against rescuing the drowning -and incurring the wrath of the former ghost, who is thus deprived of -the chance of release by making over his functions to a substitute. - - - -Khwaja Khizr, the God of Water. - -But besides these water spirits and local river gods, the Hindus -have a special god of water, Khwaja Khizr, whose Muhammadan title -has been Hinduised into Raja Kidar, or as he is called in Bengal, -Kawaj or Pir Badr. This is a good instance of a fact, which will be -separately discussed elsewhere, that the Hindus are always ready to -annex the deities and beliefs of other races. - -According to the Sikandarnama, Khwaja Khizr was a saint of Islam, -who presided over the well of immortality, and directed Alexander of -Macedon in his vain search for the blessed waters. The fish is his -vehicle, and hence its image is painted over the doors of both Hindus -and Muhammadans, while it became the family crest of the late royal -house of Oudh. Among Muhammadans a prayer is said to Khwaja Khizr at -the first shaving of a boy, and a little boat is launched in a river -or tank in his honour. The same rite is performed at the close of the -rainy season, when it is supposed to have some connection with the -saint Ilisha, that is to say the prophet Elisha. Elisha, by the way, -apparently from the miraculous way in which his bones revived the -dead, has come down in modern times to Italy as a worker of miracles, -and is known to the Tuscan peasant as Elisaeus. [102] - -Another legend represents Khwaja Khizr to be of the family of Noah, who -is also regarded by rural Muhammadans as a water deity in connection -with the flood. Others connect him with St. George, the patron saint -of England, who is the Ghergis of Syria, and according to Muhammadan -tradition was sent in the time of the Prophet to convert the King of -Maushil, and came to life after three successive martyrdoms. Others -identify him with Thammuz, Tauz, or Adonis. Others call him the -companion of Moses, and the commentator Husain says he was a general -in the army of Zu'l Qarnain, "he of the horns," or Alexander the -Great. [103] - -Out of this jumble of all the mythologies has been evolved the Hindu -god of water, the patron deity of boatmen, who is invoked by them to -prevent their boats from being broken or submerged, or to show them -the way when they have lost it. He is worshipped by burning lamps, -feeding Brahmans, and by setting afloat on a village pond a little raft -of grass with a lighted lamp placed upon it. This, it may be noted, -is one of the many ways in which the demon of evil or disease is sent -away in many parts of the world. [104] Another curious function is, -in popular belief, allotted to Khwaja Khizr, that of haunting markets -in the early morning and fixing the rates of grain, which he also -protects from the Evil Eye. [105] - - - -The Folk-lore of Wells. - -In this connection some of the folk-lore of wells may be mentioned. The -digging of a well is a duty requiring infinite care and caution. The -work should begin on Sunday, and on the previous Saturday night little -bowls of water are placed round the proposed site, and the one which -dries up least marks the best site for the well, which reminds us -of the fleece of Gideon. The circumference is then marked and they -commence to dig, leaving the central lump of earth intact. They cut -out this clod of earth last and in the Panjab call it Khwajaji, -perhaps after Khwaja Khizr, the water god, worship it and feed -Brahmans. If it breaks it is a bad omen, and a new site will be -selected a week afterwards. Further east when a man intends to sink a -well he inquires from the Pandit an auspicious moment for commencing -the work. When that hour comes he worships Gauri, Ganesa, Sesha Naga, -the world serpent, the earth, the spade and the nine planets. Then -facing in the direction in which, according to the directions of the -Pandit, Sesha Naga is supposed to be lying at the time, he cuts five -clods with the spade. When the workmen reach the point at which the -wooden well-curb has to be fixed, the owner smears the curb in five -places with red powder, and tying Dub grass and a sacred thread to it, -lowers it into its place. A fire sacrifice is done, and Brahmans are -fed. When the well is ready, cow-dung, milk, cow urine, butter and -Ganges water, leaves of the sacred Tulasi and honey are thrown in -before the water is used. - -But no well is considered lucky until the Salagrama, or spiral ammonite -sacred to Vishnu, is solemnly wedded to the Tulasi or basil plant, -representing the garden which the well is intended to water. The rite -is done according to the standard marriage formula: the relations -are assembled; the owner of the garden represents the bridegroom, -while a kinsman of his wife stands for the bride. Gifts are given to -Brahmans, a feast is held in the garden, and both it and the well -may then be used without danger. All this is on the same lines as -many of the emblematical marriage rites which in other places are -intended to promote the growth of vegetation. [106] - -In Sirsa they have a legend that long ago, in time of drought, a -headman of a village went to a Faqir to beg him to pray for rain, and -promised him his daughter in marriage if his prayer was successful. The -rain came, but the headman would not perform his promise, and the -Faqir cursed the land, so that all the water became brackish. But -he so far relented as to permit sweet water to flow on condition -that it was given to all men free of cost. In one village the spring -became at once brackish when a water-rate was levied, and turned sweet -again when the tax was remitted. In another the brackish water became -sweet at the intercession of a Faqir. In the Panjab there is a class -of Faqirs who are known as Sunga, or "sniffers," because they can -smell out sweet water underground. They work on much the same lines -as their brethren in England, who discover springs by means of the -divining rod. [107] In one of the tales of Somadeva we have a doll -which can produce water at will, which is like Lucian's story of the -pestle that was sent to fetch water. When the Egyptian sorcerer was -away his pupil tried to perform the trick, but he did not know the -charm for making the water stop, and the house was flooded. Then he -chopped the pestle in two, but that only made matters worse, for both -halves set to bring the water. This is somewhat like the magic quern -of European folk-lore. [108] - -The water of many wells is efficacious in the cure of disease. In -Ireland, the first water drawn from a sacred well after midnight -on May Eve is considered an effective antidote to witchcraft. [109] -In India many wells have a reputation for curing barrenness, which is -universally regarded as a disease, the work of supernatural agency. In -India the water of seven wells is collected on the night of the Diwali, -or feast of lamps, and barren women bathe in it as a means of procuring -children. In a well in Orissa the priests throw betel-nuts into the -mud, and barren women scramble for them. Those who find them will have -their desire for children gratified before long. [110] For the same -reason, after childbirth the mother is taken to worship the village -well. She walks round it in the course of the sun and smears the -platform with red lead, which is probably a survival of the original -rite of blood sacrifice. In Dharwar the child of a Brahman is taken -in the third month to worship water at the village well. [111] In -Palamau the Sarhul feast is observed in the month of Baisakh (May), -when dancing and singing goes on and the headmen entertain their -tenants. The whole village is purified, and then they proceed to the -village well, which is cleaned out, while the village Baiga does a -sacrifice and every one smears the platform with red lead. No one -may draw water from the well during the Sarhul. [112] Hydrophobia all -over Northern India is cured by looking down seven wells in succession. - -In the Panjab the sites of deserted wells are discovered by driving -about a herd of goats, which are supposed to lie down at the place -where search should be made. Some people discover wells by dreams; -others, as the Luniyas, a caste of navvies, are said, like the Faqirs -in Sirsa, to be able to discover by smell where water is likely to -be found. I was once shown a well in the Muzaffarnagar district into -which a Faqir once spat, and for a long time after the visit of the -holy man it ran with excellent milk. The supply had ceased, I regret -to say, before my visit. The well of life which can survive even the -ashes of a corpse is found throughout the Indian folk-tales. [113] - - - -Sacred Wells. - -Sacred wells, of course, abound all over the country. Many of them are -supposed to have underground connection with the Ganges or some other -holy river. Many of these are connected with the wanderings of Rama -and Sita after their exile from Ayodhya. Sita's kitchen (Sita ki rasoi) -is shown in various places, as at Kanauj and Deoriya in the Allahabad -District. [114] Her well is on the Bindhachal hill in Mirzapur, and -is a famous resort of pilgrims. There is another near Monghyr, and -a third in the Sultanpur District in Oudh. The Monghyr well has been -provided with a special legend. Sita was suspected of faithlessness -during her captivity in the kingdom of Ravana. She threw herself into -a pit filled with fire, where the hot spring now flows, and came out -purified. When Dr. Buchanan visited the place they had just invented -a new legend in connection with it. Shortly before, it was said, the -water became so cool as to allow bathing in it. The governor prohibited -the practice, as it made the water so dirty that Europeans could not -drink it. "But on the very day when the bricklayers began to build a -wall in order to exclude the bathers, the water became so hot that no -one could dare to touch it, so that the precaution being unnecessary, -the work of the infidels was abandoned." [115] - -At Benares are the Manikarnika well, which was produced by an ear-ring -of Siva falling into it, and the Jnanavapi, to drink of which brings -wisdom. The well at Sihor in Rajputana is sacred to Gautama, and is -considered efficacious in the cure of various disorders. At Sarkuhiya -in the Basti District is a well where Buddha struck the ground with his -arrow and caused water to flow, as Moses did from the rock. There are, -again, many wells which give omens. In the Middle Ages people used to -resort to the fountain of Baranta in the Forest of Breclieu and fling -water from a tankard on a stone close by, an act which was followed by -thunder, lightning and rain. [116] At a Cornish well people used to -go and inquire about absent friends. If the person "be living and in -health, the still, quiet waters of the well pit will instantly bubble -or boil up as a pot of clear, crystalline water; if sick, foul and -puddled water; if dead, it will neither boil nor bubble up, nor alter -its colour or stillness." [117] Many other instances of the same fact -might be given. So in Kashmir, in one well water rushes out when a -sheep or goat is sacrificed; another runs if the ninth of any month -happen to fall on Friday; in a third, those who have any special needs -throw in a nut; if it floats, it is considered an omen of success; -if it sinks, it is considered adverse. At Askot, in the Himalaya, -there is a holy well which is used for divination of the prospects -of the harvest. If the spring in a given time fills the brass vessel -to the brim into which the water falls, there will be a good season; -if only a little water comes, drought may be expected. [118] - - - -Hot Springs. - -Hot springs are naturally regarded as sacred. We have already noticed -an example in the case of Sita's well at Monghyr. The holy tract in -the hills, known as Vaishnava Kshetra, contains several hot springs, -in which Agni, the fire god, resides by the permission of Vishnu. The -hot springs at Jamnotri are occupied by the twelve Rishis who followed -Mahadeva from Lanka. [119] - - - -Waterfalls. - -Waterfalls, naturally uncommon in the flat country of Upper India, are, -as might have been expected, regarded with veneration, and the deity -of the fall is carefully propitiated. The visitor to the magnificent -waterfall in which the river Chandraprabha pours its waters over -a sheer precipice three hundred feet high in its descent from the -Vindhyan plateau to the Gangetic valley, will learn that it is visited -by women, particularly those who are desirous of offspring. On a -rock beside the fall they lay a simple offering consisting of a few -glass bangles, ear ornaments made of palm leaves, and cotton waist -strings. In Garhwal there is a waterfall known as Basodhara, which -ceases to flow when it is looked at by an impure person. [120] - - - -Sacred Lakes. - -There are also numerous lakes which are considered sacred and visited -by pilgrims. Such is Pushkar, or Pokhar, the lake par excellence, -in Rajputana. One theory of the sanctity of this lake is that it was -originally a natural depression and enlarged at a subsequent date -by supernatural agency. "Every Hindu family of note has its niche -for purposes of devotion. Here is the only temple in India sacred to -Brahma, the Creator. While he was creating the world he kindled the -sacred fire; but his wife Sawantari was nowhere to be found, and as -without a woman the rites could not proceed, a Gujar girl took her -place. Sawantari on her return was so enraged at the indignity that -she retired to the height close by, known as Ratnagiri, or 'the hill -of gems,' where she disappeared. On this spot a fountain gushed out, -still called by her name, close to which is her shrine, not the least -attractive in the precincts of Pokhar." Like many of these lakes, -such as are known in Great Britain as the Devil's Punch-bowls, Pokhar -has its dragon legend, and one of the rocks near the lake is known as -Nagpahar, or "Dragon Hill." There is a similar legend attached to the -Lonar Lake in Berar, which was then the den of the giant Lonasura, -whom Vishnu destroyed. [121] - -Most famous of all the lakes is Mana Sarovara in Tibet, about which -many legends are told. "The lake of Mana Sarovara was formed from the -mind of Brahma, and thence derived its name. There dwell also Mahadeva -and the gods, and thence flow the Sarju and other female rivers, -and the Satadru (Satlaj) and other male rivers. When the earth of -Mana Sarovara touches any one's body, or when any one bathes therein, -he shall go to the Paradise of Brahma; and he who drinks its waters -shall go to the Heaven of Siva, and shall be released from the sins -of a hundred births; and even the beast which bears the name of Mana -Sarovara shall go to the Paradise of Brahma." It is said that the -sons of Brahma, Marichi, Vasishtha and the rest of the sages proceeded -to the north of Himalaya and performed austerities on Mount Kailasa, -where they saw Siva and Parvati and remained for twelve years absorbed -in meditation and prayer. There was very little rain and water was -scanty. In their distress they appealed to Brahma. He asked them what -their wishes might be. The Rishis replied, "We are absorbed in devotion -on Kailasa, and must always go thence to bathe in the Mandakini river; -make a place for us to bathe in." Then Brahma, by a mental effort, -formed the holy lake of Manasa, and the Rishis worshipped the golden -Linga which rose from the midst of the waters of the lake. [122] - -So the Naini Tal Lake is sacred to Kali in one of her numerous -forms. The goddess Sambra, the tutelary deity of the Chauhan Rajputs, -converted a dense forest into a plain of gold and silver. But they, -dreading the strife which such a possession would excite, begged the -goddess to retract her gift, and she gave them the present lake of -salt. [123] The people say that the Katur valley was once a great lake -where lived a Rakshasa named Rana who used to devour the inhabitants -of the neighbouring villages. Indra's elephant Airavata descended -to earth at the place now known after him by the name Hathi China, -and with his mighty tusks he burst the embankment of the lake and -the water flowed away, so that the goddess Bhrawari, whose shrine is -there to this day, was enabled to destroy the monster. - - - -The Lake of the Fairy Gifts. - -In the Chanda District of the Central Provinces is the lake of Taroba -or Tadala, which is connected with an interesting series of folk-lore -legends. A marriage procession was once passing the place, and, finding -no water, a strange old man suggested that the bride and bridegroom -should join in digging for a spring. They laughingly consented, -and after removing a little earth a clear fountain gushed forth. As -they were all drinking with delight the waters rose, and spreading -over the land, overwhelmed the married pair. "But fairy hands soon -constructed a temple in the depths, where the spirits of the drowned -are supposed to dwell. Afterwards, on the lake side, a palm tree grew -up, which appeared only during the day, sinking into the earth at -twilight. One day a rash pilgrim seated himself on the tree and was -borne into the skies, where the flames of the sun consumed him." This -part of the story reads like a genuine solar myth. "The palm tree then -shrivelled away into dust, and in its place appeared an image of the -spirit of the lake, which is worshipped under the name of Taroba, or -'the palm-tree deity.' Formerly, at the call of pilgrims, all necessary -vessels rose from the lake, and after being washed were returned to -the waters. But an evil-minded man at last took those he had received -to his house, and from that day the mystic provision wholly ceased." - -This legend of the fairy gifts which are lost through the selfish -greed of some mean-spirited man has been admirably illustrated by -Mr. Hartland. It is also told of the Amner Lake in Elichpur, of the -Karsota Lake in Mirzapur, and of many other places. [124] - -Many of these lakes possess subaqueous palaces beneath their -waters. At Cudden Point in Cornwall, the unhallowed revelry of a -party of roisterers is heard from under the waves. [125] In one -of Somadeva's stories the hero dives after a lady, and comes on a -splendid temple of Siva; Sattvasila falls into the sea and finds a -city with palaces of gold, supported on pillars of jewels; Yasahketu -plunges into the sea and finds a city gleaming with palaces that -had bright pillars of precious stone, walls flashing with gold, -and latticed windows of pearl. So in the sixth fable of the second -chapter of the Hitopadesa, the hero dives into the water and sees a -princess seated on a couch in a palace of gold, waited on by youthful -sylphs. The sage Mandakarni alarmed the gods by his austerities, -and Indra sent five of his fairies to beguile him. They succeeded, -and now dwell in a house beneath the waters of the lake called from -them Panchapsaras. At the Lake of Taroba, the tale of which has been -already told, on quiet nights the country people hear faint sounds -of drum and trumpet passing round the lake, and old men say that in -one dry year when the waters sank low, golden pinnacles of a fairy -temple were seen glittering in the depths. This is exactly the legend -of Lough Neagh, immortalized by Thomas Moore. - - - -The Shahgarh Lake. - -A lake at Shahgarh in the Bareilly District is the seat of another -legend which appears widely in folk-lore. When Raja Vena ruled the -land, he, like Buddha, struck by the inequality of human life, retired -with his young wife Sundari or Ketaki to live like a peasant. One -day she went to the lake to draw water, and she had naught but a jar -of unbaked clay and a thread of untwisted cotton. In the innocence of -her heart she stepped into the lake, but the gods preserved her. After -a time she wearied of this sordid life, and one morning she arrayed -herself in her queenly robes and jewels, and going to the lake, as -usual, stepped on the lotus petals. When she plunged in her jar it -melted away, and the untwisted thread broke, and she herself sank -beneath the water. But she was saved, and thenceforward learned the -evil of vanity and pride in riches, and the strength of innocence -and a pure mind. And the lotus pool, in honour of the good queen -Sundari, was called by all men the Rani Tal, or "the Queen's Tank," -and is to be seen to this day just outside the town of Kabar, though -the lotus flowers have perished and the castle of Shahgarh has sunk -into dust. [126] - -The same tale is told in Southern India of Renuka, the mother of -Parasurama. In its Western form it is told in Switzerland of a pious -boy who served a monastery, and in his innocence was able to carry -water in a sieve without spilling a single drop. [127] - - - -Other Sacred Tanks. - -The number of lakes and tanks associated with some legend, or endued -with some special sanctity of their own, is legion. Thus, the tank -at Chakratiratha, near Nimkhar, marks the spot where the Chakra or -discus of Vishnu fell during his contest with Asuras. [128] That -near the Satopant glacier is said to be fathomless, and no bird can -fly over it. Bhotiyas presents offerings to the lake, requesting the -water spirit to keep the passes open and aid them in their dangerous -journeys. As they are denied entrance into the temple of Badarinath, -it has for them all the virtue of Badarinath itself. [129] Another -famous tank is that at Amritsar, "the Lake of Immortality." A holy -woman once took pity on a leper, and carried him to the banks of the -tank. As he lay there a crow swooped into the water and came out a -dove as white as snow. The leper saw the miracle, bathed, and was -healed. The woman on her return could not recognize her friend, and -withdrew in horror from his embraces. But the Guru Ram Das came and -explained matters, and the grateful pair assisted him in embellishing -the tank, which has become the centre of the Sikh religion. The Tadag -Tal in the Hills is sacred to Bhim Sen, and the curious fish which -it contains are said to be lice from the body of the hero. - -One day a Brahman was passing the Mandkalla tank and saw a marriage -party sitting before the wedding feast; but they were all most -unaccountably silent and motionless. They asked him to join in the -meal, and he did so with some misgivings, which were soon justified -when he saw the heads of the whole party fall off before his eyes, -and they soon disappeared. [130] The Raja Rama Chandra Sena was once -hunting near the site of the present Dharawat tank. He saw a crow -drinking from a puddle, and, being in want of water, he ordered the -courtiers to have a tank dug, the limits of which were to be the -space that his horse would gallop round when released. Fortunately -for them they selected a site close to some hills which checked the -course of the horse. This reduced the tank to comparatively moderate -dimensions. [131] - -The tank at Lalitpur is famous for the cure of leprosy. One day, a -Raja afflicted with the disease was passing by, and his Rani dreamt -that he should eat some of the confervae on the surface. He ate it, -and was cured; and next night the Rani dreamt that there was a vast -treasure concealed there, which when dug up was sufficient to pay -the cost of excavation. [132] So, at Qasur is the tank of the saint -Basant Shah, in which children are bathed to cure them of boils. - -Of the Rin Mochan pool the Brahmans say that any one who bathes there -becomes free from debt. [133] Another at Pushkar turns red if the -shadow of a woman during her menstrual period fall upon it. [134] -Sita proved her virtue by bathing in a tank. She prayed to Mother -Earth, who appeared and carried her to the other bank, an incident of -which a curious parallel is quoted by Mr. Clouston from the Gospel of -the pseudo Mathew. [135] In the legend of Chyavana, as told in the -Mahabharata, the three suitors of Sukanya bathed in a tank and came -forth of a celestial beauty equal to hers. So in one of the Bengal -folk-tales the old discarded wife bathes in a tank and recovers her -youth and beauty. [136] It is a frequent condition imposed on visitors -to these holy tanks that they should remove a certain quantity of -earth and thus improve it. - -Many tanks, again, are supposed to contain buried treasure which is -generally in charge of a Yaksha. Hence such places are regarded with -much awe. There is a tank of this kind in the Bijaygarh fort in the -Mirzapur District, where many speculators have dug in vain; another -forms an incident in Lal Bihari De's tale of Govinda Samanta. [137] - - - -Mountain-worship; the Himalaya. - -"He who thinks of Himachal (the Himalaya), though he should not behold -him, is greater than he who performs all worship at Kasi (Benares); -as the dew is dried up by the morning sun, so are the sins of mankind -by the sight of Himachal." [138] Such was the devotion with which the -early Hindus looked on it as the home of the gods. Beyond it their -fancy created the elysium of Uttara Kuru, which may be most properly -regarded as an ideal picture created by the imagination of a life of -tranquil felicity, and not as a reminiscence of any actual residence -of the Kurus in the north. [139] - -From early times the Himalayan valleys were the resort of the sage -and the ascetic. Almost every hill and river is consecrated by their -legends, and the whole country teems with memories of the early -religious life of the Hindu race. As in the mythology of many other -peoples, [140] it was regarded as the home of the sainted dead, and -the common source or origin of Hinduism. Its caves were believed to -be the haunt of witches and fairies. Demons lurked in its recesses, -as at the Blockberg, where, as Aubrey tells us, "the devils and -witches do dance and feast." [141] Many of its most noted peaks -are the home of the deities. Siva and Kuvera rest on Mount Kailasa; -Vaikuntha, the paradise of Vishnu, is on Mount Meru. The whole range -is personified in Himavat, who is the father of Ganga and Uma Devi, -who from her origin is known as Parvati, or "the mountaineer." One of -the titles of Siva is Girisa, the "mountain god." His son Karttikeya -delights in the weird mountain heights. - - - -Mountain-worship among the Dravidians. - -But, deeply rooted as the veneration for mountains is in the minds -of the early Aryans, there is reason to suspect that this regard for -mountains may be a survival from the beliefs of non-Aryan races whom -the Hindus supplanted or absorbed. At any rate, the belief in the -sanctity of mountains widely prevails among the non-Aryan or Dravidian -races. Most of these peoples worship mountains in connection with the -god of the rain. The Santals sacrifice to Marang Bura on a flat rock -on the top of a mountain, and after feasting, work themselves up into -a state of frenzy to charm the rain. The Korwas and Kurs worship in -the same way Mainpat, a plateau in the mountainous country south of -the Son. The Nagbansis and the Mundari Kols worship a huge rock as -the abode of the "great god," Baradeo. [142] So, in Garhwal in the -Chhipula pass is a shrine to the god of the mountain. At Tolma is a -temple to the Himalaya, and below Dungagiri in the same valley is a -shrine in honour of the same peak. [143] In Hoshangabad in the Central -Indian plateau, Suryabhan or "Sun-rays" is a very common name for -isolated round-peaked hills, on which the god is supposed to dwell, -and among the Kurkus, Dungardeo, the mountain god, resides on the -nearest hill outside the village. He is worshipped every year at -the Dasahra festival with a goat, two cocoa-nuts, five dates, with -a ball of vermilion paste, and is regarded by them as their special -god. [144] The idea that dwarfs, spirits, and fairies live on the -tops of mountains is a common belief in Europe. - -As in the Himalaya, one of the main peaks, Nanda Devi, has been -identified with Parvati, the mountain goddess, so the aborigines of -the Central Provinces have in Kattarpar, the Kattipen of the Khandhs, -a special deity of ravines, as Rhoea Sybeli was to the Etruscans. [145] -In the Mirzapur hills the aboriginal tribes have an intense respect for -mountains. On the Matra hill lives a Deo or demon known as Darrapat -Deo. When Ravana abducted Sita he is said to have kept her on this -hill for some time, and her palanquin, turned into stone, is there -to this day. No one ascends the mountain through fear of the demon, -except an Ojha or sorcerer, who sacrifices a goat at the foot of -the hill before he makes the attempt. So, in Garhwal the peak of -Barmdeo is sacred to Devi, and none can intrude with impunity. A -Faqir who ventured to do so in the days of yore was pitched across -the river by the offended goddess. [146] On another Mirzapur hill, -Chainpur, lives Koti Rani, who is embodied in the locusts which -usually are found there. Similarly Pahar Pando is a mountain deity -of the Dharkars, a sub-caste of the Doms. Bansapti Mai, who is half a -forest and half a mountain goddess, lives on Jhurma hill, and if any -one dares to sing in her neighbourhood, he becomes sick or mad. These -mountain demons often take the form of tigers and kill incautious -intruders on their domains. On the Aunri hill are two dreaded demons, -Deorasan and Birwat, the latter a Bir or malignant ghost of some one -who died a violent death. They rule the hail, and at harvest time the -Baiga offers a goat, and spreading rice on the ground, prays--"O Lord -Mahadeva! May this offering be effectual." Mangesar, the rugged peak -which frowns over the valley of the Son, is a popular local god of -the various Kolarian races, and a shrine to Baba or Raja Mangesar, -"the father and the king," is found in many of their villages. - - - -Respect Paid to the Vindhya and Kaimur Ranges. - -The Kaimur and Vindhyan ranges also enjoy a certain amount of -sanctity. On the latter the most famous shrines are those of Asthbhuja -or "the eight-armed Devi," Sitakunda or the pool of Sita, and the -temple of Maharani Vindhyeswari, the patron goddess of the range, -built where it trends towards the Gangetic valley. She has travelled -as far as Cutch, where she is worshipped under the corrupted name -of Vinjan. [147] Her shrine has evil associations with traditions of -human sacrifice, derived from the coarser aboriginal cultus which has -now been adopted into Brahmanism. [148] There the Thags used to meet -and share their spoils with their patron goddess, and her Pandas or -priests are so disorderly that a special police guard has to be posted -at the shrine to ensure the peaceable division of the offerings among -the sharers, who mortgage and sell their right to participate in the -profits, like the advowson of a living in the English Church. - -These two ranges, says the legend, are an offshoot from the -Himalaya. When Rama was building the bridge across the strait to Lanka, -he sent his followers to Himalaya to collect materials. They returned -with a mighty burden, but meanwhile the hero had completed his task; -so he ordered them to throw down their loads, and where the stones -fell these ranges were produced. In the same way the Maniparvata at -Ajudhya is said to have been dropped by Sugriva, the monkey king of -Kishkindhya, and the Irichh hills at Jhansi are described to have -been formed in the same way. - -There is another legend of the Vindhyas told in the story of Nala -and Damayanti. They were jealous of the Himalaya, the peaks of which -were each morning visited by the earliest rays of the rising sun. The -sun, on being appealed to, declared that it was impossible for him -to change his course. Immediately the Vindhyas swelled with rage, -and rising in the heavens, intercepted the view of the sun, moon, -and the constellations. The gods, alarmed, invoked the aid of the -saint Agastya. He went, accompanied by his wife, and requested the -Vindhyas to sink and let him pass to the south, and not rise till -he returned. They agreed, and gave passage to the saint, but as he -never came back they have never resumed their former height. Agastya -finally settled on the Malayam or Potiyam mountain, not far from -Cape Comorin. He now shines in the heavens as the regent of the star -Canopus, and to him is ascribed almost all the civilization of Southern -India. The legend possibly goes back to the arrival of the earliest -Brahmanic missionaries in Southern India, and the name of the range, -which probably means "the divider," marked the boundary between the -Aryan and Dravidian peoples. A similar story is told of one of the -ranges in Nepal. [149] - - - -Other Famous Hills. - -A mention of some other famous hills in Northern India may close -this account of mountain-worship. At Gaya is the Dharma Sila, or -"rock of piety," which was once the wife of the saint Marichi. The -lord of the infernal regions, by order of Brahma, crushed it down -on the head of the local demon. [150] The hills of Goghar ka dhar, -in the Mundi State, have a reputation similar to that of the Brocken -in the Hartz mountains on Wulpurgis night. On the 3rd of September -the demons, witches, and magicians from the most distant parts of -India assemble here and hold their revels, from which time it is -dangerous for men to cross the mountains. The spirits of the Kulu -range are said to wage war with those of the Goghar, and after a -violent storm the peasants will show the traveller the stones which -have been hurled from range to range. The last chief of Mundi was -a mighty wizard himself. He had a little book of spells which the -demons were forced to obey, and when he placed it in his mouth he -was instantly transported where he pleased through the air. [151] - -Another famous hill is that of Govardhan, near Mathura. This is -the hill which Krishna is fabled to have held aloft on the tip of -his finger for seven days, to protect the people of Braj from the -tempests poured down on them by Indra when he was deprived of his -wonted sacrifices. There is a local belief that as the waters of -the Jumna are yearly decreasing in volume, so this hill is gradually -sinking. Not a particle of stone is allowed to be removed from it, -and even the road which crosses it at its lowest point, where only a -few fragments of the rock crop up overground, had to be carried over -them by a paved causeway. [152] - - - -The Spirits of the Air. - -"Aerial spirits or devils are such as keep quarter in the air, cause -many tempests, thunder and lightnings, tear oaks, fire steeples, -houses, strike men and beasts, make it rain wool, frogs, etc. They -cause whirlwinds on a sudden, and tempestuous storms, which though -our meteorologists refer to natural causes, yet I am of Bodin's mind -that they are more often caused by those aerial devils in their several -quarters." [153] This statement of Burton is a good summary of current -Hindu opinion on this subject; and it is just this class of physical -phenomena which civilized man admits to be beyond his control, that -primitive races profess to be able to regulate. As Dr. Taylor puts -it--"The rainfall is passing from the region of the supernatural to -join the tides and seasons in the realm of physical science." [154] - -The old weather god was Indra, who wars with Vritra or Ahi, the dragon -demon of drought, whom he compels to dispense the rain. He was revered -as the causer of fertility, and feared as the lord of the lightning -and the thunder. He has now been deposed from his pre-eminence, and -is little more than a roi faineant, who lives in a luxurious heaven -of his own, solaced by the dances of the fairies who form his court, -one of whom he occasionally bestows on some favoured mortal who wins -his kindness or forces him to obey his orders. But his status is at -present decidedly low, and it is remarkable in what a contemptuous way -even so orthodox a poet as Tulasi Das speaks of him. [155] Mr. Wheeler -[156] suggests that this degradation of Indra may possibly be due to -the fact that he was a tribal god notoriously hostile to Brahmans; -and it is certainly very suggestive from this point of view that he -has come to be regarded as the great deity of the Burman Buddhists. It -is still further remarkable that at Benares, the headquarters of -Brahmanism, he has been replaced by a special rain god, Dalbhyeswara, -who perhaps takes his name from Dalbhya, an ancient Rishi, who must -be worshipped and kept properly dressed if the seasons are not to -become unfavourable. [157] - - - -Bhimsen, a Weather Godling. - -Bhimsen, of whom more will be said later on, is regarded by the Gonds -as a god of rain, and has a festival of four or five days' duration -held in his honour at the end of the rainy season, when two poles -about twenty feet high and five feet apart are set up with a rope -attached to the top, by which the boys of the village climb up and -then slide down the poles. This is apparently an instance of rude -sympathetic magic, representing the descent of the rain. [158] - - - -Demoniacal Control of the Weather. - -It is an idea common to the beliefs of many races, that the spirits -of the wind may be tied up in sacks and let out to injure an enemy -and assist a friend. To this day the Lapps give their sailors magic -sacks containing certain winds to secure them a safe journey. [159] - -Another side of the matter may be illustrated from Marco Polo. "During -the three months of every year that the Lord (Kublai Khan) resides at -that place, if it should happen to be bad weather, there are certain -crafty enchanters and astrologers in his train, who are such adepts in -necromancy and the diabolical arts, that they are able to prevent any -cloud or storm passing over the spot on which the Emperor's palace -stands. Whatever they do in this way is by the help of the Devil; -but they make those people believe that it is compassed by their own -sanctity and the help of God. They always go in a state of dirt and -uncleanness, devoid of respect for themselves or for those who see -them, unkempt and sordidly attired." Timur in his "Memoirs" speaks -of the Indian Jats using incantations to produce heavy rain, which -hindered his cavalry from acting against them. A Yadachi was captured, -and when his head had been taken off the storm ceased. Babar speaks -of one of his early friends, Khwajaka Mulai, who was acquainted with -Yadagari, or the art of bringing on rain and snow by incantations. In -the same way in Nepal the control of the weather is supposed to be -vested in the Lamas. [160] - - - -Rain-making and Nudity. - -One very curious custom of rain-making has a series of remarkable -parallels in Europe. In Servia, in time of drought, a girl is stripped -and covered with flowers. She dances at each house, and the mistress -steps out and pours a jar of water over her, while her companions sing -rain songs. [161] In Russia the women draw a furrow round the village, -and bury at the juncture a cock, a cat, and a dog. "The dog is a -demonic character in Russia, while the cat is sacred. The offering -of both seems to represent a desire to conciliate both sides." [162] -Mr. Conway thinks that the nudity of the women represents their utter -poverty and inability to give more to conciliate the god of the rain; -or that we have here a form of the Godiva and Peeping Tom legend, -"where there is probably a distant reflection of the punishment -sometimes said to overtake those who gazed too curiously upon the -Swan Maiden with her feathers." [163] - -The Godiva legend has been admirably illustrated by Mr. Hartland, -[164] who comes to the conclusion that it is the survival of an annual -rite in honour of a heathen goddess, and closely connected with those -nudity observances which we are discussing. The difficulty is, however, -to account for the nudity part of the ceremony. It may possibly be -based on the theory that spirits dread indecency, or rather the male -and female principles. [165] - -This may be the origin of the indecencies of word and act practised at -the Holi and Kajari festivals in Upper India, which are both closely -connected with the control of the weather. Among the Ramoshis of -the Dakkhin the bridegroom is stripped naked before the anointing -ceremony commences, and the same custom prevails very generally -in Upper India. The Mhars of Sholapur are buried naked, even the -loin-cloth being taken off. Barren women worship a naked female figure -at Bijapur. At Dayamava's festival in the Karnatak, women walk naked -to the temple where they make their vows; and the Mang, who carries -the scraps of holy meat which he scatters in the fields to promote -fertility, is also naked. [166] The same idea of scaring evil spirits -from temples possibly accounts for much of the obscene sculpture to -be found on the walls of many Hindu shrines, and it may be noted in -illustration of the same principle that in Nepal temples are decorated -with groups of obscene figures as a protection against lightning. [167] - - - -Rites Special to Women. - -Connected with the same principle it may be noted that in India, as in -many other places, there are rites of the nature of the Bona Dea, in -which only women take part, and from which males are excluded. In some -of these rites nudity forms a part. Thus, in Italy, La Bella Marte is -invoked when three girls, always stark naked, consult the cards to know -whether a lover is true or which of them is likely to be married. [168] -A number of similar usages have been discussed by Mr. Hartland. We -have already noticed the custom of sun impregnation. Among Hindus, -a woman who is barren and desires a child stands naked facing the sun -and desires his aid to remove her barrenness. In one of the folk-tales -the witch stands naked while she performs her spells. [169] - -The rain custom in India is precisely the same as has been already -illustrated by examples from Europe. During the Gorakhpur Famine -in 1873-74, there were many accounts received of women going about -with a plough by night, stripping themselves naked and dragging -the plough over the fields as an invocation of the rain god. The -men kept carefully out of the way while this was being done, and it -was supposed that if the women were seen by the men the rite would -lose its effect. Mr. Frazer on this remarks that "it is not said -they plunge the plough into a stream or sprinkle it with water. But -the charm would hardly be complete without it." [170] It was on my -authority that the custom which Messrs. Frazer and Hartland quote -was originally recorded, and I do not remember at the time hearing -of this part of the ritual. Later inquiries do not point to it as -part of the rite in Upper India. - -It may be well to adduce other instances of this nudity rite. In Sirsa, -when a horse falls sick, the cure is to kill a fowl or a he-goat and -let its warm blood flow into the mouth of the animal; but if this -cannot be done quickly, it is sufficient for a man to take off all -his clothes and strike the horse seven times on the forehead with his -shoe. [171] Here the nudity and the blows with the shoe are means -to drive off the demon of disease. In Chhattarpur, when rain falls -a woman and her husband's sister take off all their clothes and drop -seven cakes of cow-dung into a mud reservoir for storing grain. If a -man and his maternal uncle perform the same ceremony, it is equally -effective; but as a rule women do it, and the special days for the -rite are Sunday and Wednesday. Here we have the custom in process of -modification, males, one of whom is a relation in the female line, -being substituted for the female officiants. - -Another similar means of expelling the demon of disease is given -by Mrs. Fanny Parkes in her curious book entitled "Wanderings of a -Pilgrim in search of the Picturesque." [172] "The Hindu women in a -most curious way propitiate the goddess who brings cholera into the -bazar. They go out in the evening, about 7 p.m., sometimes two or -three hundred at a time, each carrying a lota or brass vessel filled -with sugar, water, cloves, etc. In the first place they make puja; -then, stripping off their sheets and binding their sole petticoat -round their waists, as high above the knee as it can be pulled up, -they perform a most frantic sort of dance, forming themselves into -a circle, while in the centre of the circle about five or six women -dance entirely naked, beating their hands together over their heads, -and then applying them behind with a great smack that keeps time with -the music, and with the song they scream out all the time, accompanied -by native instruments played by men who stand at a distance, to -the sound of which these women dance and sing, looking like frantic -creatures. The men avoid the place where the ceremony takes place, -but here and there one or two men may be seen looking on, whose -presence does not seem to molest the nut-brown dancers in the least; -they shriek and sing and dance and scream most marvellously." Here -we find the rule of privacy at these nudity rites slightly modified. - -Another instance of the nudity rite in connection with cattle disease -comes from Jalandhar. [173] "When an animal is sick the remedy is -for some one to strip himself and to walk round the patient with some -burning straw or cane fibre in his hands." - -Nudity also appears to be in some places a condition of the erection of -a pinnacle on a Hindu temple. "The Temple of Arang in Raepur district -and that at Deobalada were built at the same time. When they were -finished and the pinnacles (kalas) had to be put on, the mason and -his sister agreed to put them on simultaneously at an auspicious -moment. The day and hour being fixed by Brahmans, the two, stripping -themselves naked, according to custom on such occasions, climbed -up to the top. As they got up to the top each could see the other, -and each through shame jumped down into the tank close to their -respective temples, where they still stand turned into stone, and -are visible when the tank water falls low in seasons of drought." [174] - -Of the regular nudity rite in case of failure of rain, we have a -recent instance from Chunar in the Mirzapur district. "The rains -this year held off for a long time, and last night (24th July, 1892) -the following ceremony was performed secretly. Between the hours of -9 and 10 p.m. a barber's wife went from door to door and invited all -the women to join in ploughing. They all collected in a field from -which all males were excluded. Three women from a cultivator's family -stripped off all their clothes; two were yoked to a plough like oxen, -and a third held the handle. They then began to imitate the operation -of ploughing. The woman who had the plough in her hand shouted, -'O Mother Earth! bring parched grain, water and chaff. Our bellies -are bursting to pieces from hunger and thirst.' Then the landlord and -village accountant approached them and laid down some grain, water -and chaff in the field. The women then dressed and went home. By the -grace of God the weather changed almost immediately, and we had a -good shower." [175] Here we see the ceremony elaborately organized; -the privacy taboo is enforced, and the ritual is in the nature of -sympathetic magic, intended to propitiate Mother Earth. - -The nudity rite for the expulsion of disease is also found in -Madras. "The image of Mariyamma, cut out of Margosa wood, is carried -from her temple to a stone called a Baddukal, in the centre of the -village, on the afternoon of the first day of the feast. A rounded -stone, about six inches above the ground and about eight inches -across, is to be seen just inside the gate of every village. It -is what is called the Baddukal or navel stone; it is worshipped -in times of calamity, especially during periods of cattle disease; -often women passing it with water pour a little on it, and every one -on first going out of the village in the morning is supposed to give -it some little tribute of attention. The following day all men and -women of Sudra castes substitute garments of leaves of the Margosa, -little branches tied together, for their ordinary clothes, and thus -attired go with music to the goddess." [176] Here the dress may imply -some form of nudity rite, or may be a reminiscence of the time when, -like the Juangs of Chota Nagpur, they wore leaf aprons. - -There can be little doubt that rites of this kind largely prevail in -India, but, as might naturally be expected, they are very carefully -concealed, and it is extremely difficult to obtain precise information -about them. - - - -Other Rites to bring Rain. - -Besides these nudity rites there are many ways of causing rain to -fall. In Kumaun when rain fails they sink a Brahman up to his lips -in a tank, and there he goes on repeating the name of Raja Indra, -the god of rain, for a day or two, when rain is sure to fall; or they -dig a trench five or six feet deep and make a Brahman or a Jogi sit -in it, when the god, in pity for the holy man, will relent and give -rain. Another plan is to hang a frog with his mouth open on a bamboo, -and the deity pities him and brings the rain. [177] In Mirzapur they -turn a plough upside down and bury it in a field, rub the lingam of -Mahadeva with cow-dung, and offer water at the grave of a Brahm or -bachelor Brahman. - -Among the Bhils in time of drought women and girls go out dancing and -singing with bows and arrows in their hands, and seizing a buffalo -belonging to another village, sacrifice it to the goddess Kali. The -headman of the village to which the animal belongs seldom objects -to the appropriation of it. If he does, the women by abusing and -threatening to shoot him always have their own way. [178] Analogous -to this regular rain sacrifice is the custom at Ahmadnagar, where on -the bright 3rd of Baisakh (April-May) the boys of two neighbouring -villages fight with slings and stones. The local belief is that if -the fight be discontinued, rain fails, or if rain does fall that it -produces a plague of rats. [179] At Ahmadabad, again, there is a city -headman, known as the Nagar Seth or "chief man of the town." When rain -holds off he has to perambulate the city walls, pouring out milk to -appease Raja Indra. [180] Here we reach the "sympathetic magic" type -of observance under which most of the other practices may be classed, -though here and there we seem to find the germ of the principle of -vicarious sacrifice. Thus in the Panjab the village girls pour down -on an old woman as she passes some cow-dung dissolved in water; or -an old woman is made to sit down under the house-roof spout and get -a wetting when it rains. Here the idea must be that her sufferings -in some way propitiate the angry god. In the Muzaffarnagar District, -if rain fails, they worship Raja Indra and read the story of the -Megha Raja, or king of the rain. In his name they give alms to the -poor and release a young bull or buffalo. Crushed grain is cooked -on the edge of a tank in his honour and in the name of the rain god -Khwaja Khizr, and some offering is made to Bhumiya, the lord of the -soil. In Chhattarpur, on a wall facing the east, they paint two figures -with cow-dung--one representing Indra and the other Megha Raja, with -their legs up and their heads hanging down. It is supposed that the -discomfort thus caused to them will compel them to grant the boon of -rain. The Mirzapur Korwas, when rain fails, get the Baiga to make a -sacrifice and prayer to Suraj Deota, the Sun godling. - -Another common plan in Upper India is for a gang of women to come -out to where a man is ploughing and drive him and his oxen by force -back to the village, where he and his cattle are well fed. Another -device is to seize the blacksmith's anvil and pitch it into a well or -the village tank. We have already given instances of the connection -of wells with rainfall, such as the case of the well in Farghana -which caused rain if defiled. [181] Mr. Gomme has collected several -European instances of the same belief. [182] The anvil is probably -used for this purpose because it is regarded as a sort of fetish, -and the blacksmith himself is, as we shall see later on, considered -as invested with supernatural powers. - -In the Panjab, apparently on the principle of vicarious sacrifice -to which reference has been already made, an earthen pot of filth -is carried to the door of some old woman cursed with a bad temper, -and thrown down at her threshold, which is a sacred place. If she then -falls into a rage and gives vent to her feelings in abusive language, -the rain will come down. The old woman is considered a sort of witch, -and if she is punished the influence which restrains the rain will -be removed. [183] - -There are numerous instances in which the king is held responsible -for a failure of the rain. In Kangra there are some local gods whose -temples are endowed with rent-free lands. When rain is wanted, these -deities are ordered to provide it; and if they fail, they have to pay -a fine into the Raja's treasury. This is the way the Chinese treat -their gods who refuse to do their duty. [184] - -The song of Alha and Udal, which describes the struggle between the -Hindus and the early Muhammadan invaders, is sung in Oudh to procure -rain. In the Hills smart showers are attributed to the number of -marriages going on at the time in the plains. The bride and bridegroom, -as we shall see in the legend of Dulha Deo, are particularly exposed -to the demoniacal influence of the weather. In the Eastern Districts -of the North-Western Provinces the people will not kill wolves, as -they say that wherever there falls a drop of a wolf's blood the rain -will be deficient. - -To close this catalogue of devices to procure rain, we may note that it -is a common belief that sacred stones are connected with rainfall. In -the temple of Mars at Rome there was a great stone cylinder which, when -there was a drought, was rolled by the priests through the town. [185] -In Mingrelia, to get rain they dip a holy image in water daily till -it rains. In Navarre the image of St. Peter was taken to a river, -where some prayed to him for rain, but others called out to duck him -in the water. [186] A stone in the form of a cross at Iona was used -for the same purpose. [187] So in India the relics of Gautama Buddha -were believed to have the same influence. [188] In Behar in seasons -of drought a holy stone, known as Narayana Chakra, is kept in a vessel -of water; sometimes a piece of plantain leaf on which are written the -names of one hundred and eight villages beginning with the letter K -and not ending in Pur is thrown into the water. [189] In the same -way the lingam of Mahadeva, a thirsty deity, who needs continual -cooling to relieve his distress, must be kept continually moist to -avoid drought. Not long ago when rain failed at Mirzapur, the people -contributed to maintain a gang of labourers who brought water to pour -on a famous lingam. The same custom prevails in Samoa. [190] There, -when rain was excessive, the stone representing the rain-making god was -laid by the fire and kept warm till fine weather set in; but in time -of drought the priest and his followers, dressed up in fine mats, went -in procession to the stream, dipped the stone, and prayed for a shower. - - - -Devices to Cause Rain to Cease. - -In England when rain is in excess the little children sing, "Rain! -Rain! Go away! Come again on a Saturday!" - -In India there are many devices intended to secure the same object. One -is the reverse of the nudity charm which we have already discussed. In -Madras, a woman, generally an ugly widow, is made to dance, sometimes -naked, with a burning stick in her hand and facing the sky. This is -supposed to disgust Varuna, the sky god, who shrinks away from such -a sight and withholds the rain. [191] Other devices have the same -object, to put pressure on the deities who are responsible for the -excessive rain. Thus, in Muzaffarnagar the Muni or Rishi Agastya, who -is a great personage in early folk-lore, is supposed to have power to -stop the rain. When rain is in excess they draw a figure of him on a -loin cloth and put it out in the rain. Some paint his figure on the -outside of the house and let the rain wash it away. This generally -brings him to his senses and he gives relief. Another practice, which -is believed to be employed by evil-minded people who are selfishly -interested in a drought, is to light a lamp with melted butter and -put it outside when the rain-clouds collect. The rain god is afraid -to put out the sacred light, and retires. Another way in use in the -Panjab is to give an unmarried girl some oil and get her to pour -it on the ground, saying, "If I pour not out the oil, mine the sin; -if thou disperse not the clouds, thine the sin." In Mirzapur it is -considered a good plan to name twenty-one men who are blind of an eye, -and consequently ill-omened, and make twenty-one knots in a cord and -tie it under the eaves of the house. In Kumaun many devices are used to -effect the same result. Some hot oil is poured into the left ear of a -dog. When the pain makes him yell it is believed that Raja Indra takes -pity on him and stops the rain. Another plan is very like the Mirzapur -device. Five, seven, or eleven grains of Urad pulse are placed in a -piece of cloth, wrapped up and tied with a treble cord. Each grain -bears the name of a blind person, known to the man who is carrying -out the rite. This is known as the "binding of the blind men." The -packet is either buried under the eaves of a house where the water -drips, or put in a tree. The object is to excite the compassion of -Raja Indra by their sufferings. Others take seven pieces of granite, -seven grains of mustard, and seven bits of goat-dung, parch them in an -oven, and then put them under the drip of the eaves. These represent -the demons, who are enemies of Indra, and he is so pleased at their -discomfiture that he disperses the clouds. Others fix up a harrow -perpendicularly where four roads meet. As this instrument is always -used in a horizontal position, this indicates that gross injustice -is being done to the world, and the rain god relents. Others when -the thunder roars in the rain-clouds invoke the saint Agastya, who -once drank up all the waters of the world in four sips; so all the -clouds fear him and disperse when he is invoked. - -Another favourite plan is to fee a Brahman to make sixty holes in a -piece of wood and run a string through all of them. While he is thus -"binding up the rain" he recites spells in honour of the Sun godling, -Suraj Narayan, who is moved to interfere. Others take a piece of -unleavened bread, go into the fields and place it on the ground; -or taking some sugar, rice, and other articles ordinarily used in -worship to a place where four roads meet, defile them in a particularly -disgusting way. On such substances the rain is ashamed to fall. In -Bombay a leaf-plate filled with cooked rice and curds is placed in -some open spot where the rain can see it and avoid it. If the rain -should persist in coming, a live coal is laid on a tile and placed in -some open place, where it is implored to swallow the hateful rain. All -these practices are magic of the ordinary sympathetic kind. [192] - -Rain-clouds are supposed also to be under the influence of the Evil -Eye, and will blow over without giving rain if the malicious glance -falls upon them. Hence, when rain is needed, if any one runs out of -a house bareheaded while it is raining, he is ordered in at once, -or he is told to put on his cap or turban, for a bareheaded man is -apt to wish involuntarily that the rain may cease, and thus injure -his neighbours. - -Everywhere it is believed that the Banya or cornchandler, who is -interested in high prices, buries some water in an earthen pot in -order to stop the rain. - - - -Hail and Whirlwind. - -The hail and the whirlwind are, like most of the natural phenomena -which we have been discussing, attributed to demoniacal agency. The -Maruts who ride on the whirlwind and direct the storm hold a prominent -place in the Veda, where they are represented as the friends and -allies of Indra. Another famous tempest demon was Trinavartta, who -assumed the form of a whirlwind and carried off the infant Krishna, -but was killed by the child. - -Mr. Leland [193] tells a curious Italian story of a peasant who killed -the church sexton with his billhook because he stopped ringing the -bell and thus allowed the hail to injure his vines. This illustrates -a well-known principle that demons, and in particular the demon -who brings the hail, can be scared by noise. Thus Aubrey tells us: -[194]--"At Paris, when it begins to thunder and lighten, they do -presently ring out the great bell at the Abbey of St. Germain, which -they do believe makes it cease. When it thundered and lightened they -did ring St. Adelm's bell in Malmesbury Abbey. The curious do say that -the ringing of bells exceedingly disturbs spirits." Hence one plan of -driving away the hail is to take out an iron griddle-plate and beat -it with a bamboo. Here the use of iron, a well-known demon scarer, -increases the efficacy of the rite. It is also an improvement if this -be done by a virgin, and in some places it is considered sufficient -if when the hail falls an unmarried girl is sent out with an iron -plate in her hand. Possibly following out the same train of ideas, -the Kharwars of Mirzapur, when hail falls, throw into the courtyard -the wooden peg of the corn-mill, which, as we shall see, is considered -possessed of certain magical powers. - -In Muzaffarnagar, when hail begins they pray at once to two noted -demons, Ismail Jogi and Nona Chamarin, and ring a bell in a Saiva -temple to scare the demon. - -Another method is to put pressure on the hail demon by the pretence -of sheer physical pain. Thus in Multan it is believed that if you -can catch a hailstone in the air before it reaches the ground and -cut it in two with a pair of scissors the hail will abate. [195] -Not long ago a lady at Nami Tal, when a hailstorm came on, saw her -gardener rush into the kitchen and bring out the cook's chopper, -with which he began to make strokes on the ground where the hail was -falling. It appeared on inquiry that he believed that the hail would -dread being cut and cease to fall. [196] In Kumaun, where hail is much -dreaded, there are many devices of the same kind. Some put an axe in -the open air with the edge turned up, so that the hailstones may be -cut in pieces and cease falling. Another plan is to spit at the hail -as it falls, or to sprinkle the hailstones with blood drawn from some -famous magician, a rite which can hardly be anything but a survival of -human sacrifice. A third device is to call an enchanter and make him -blow a conch-shell in the direction of the hail. Others put a churn -in the open air when the rain is falling, in the belief that when -the hailstones touch it they will become as soft as butter. Others, -again, when hail falls, send out a wizard or one possessed by some -deity and make him beat the hailstones with a shoe. [197] - -There are, again, certain persons specially in charge of the -hail. Thus, "at the town of Cleonae in Argolis there were watchmen -maintained at the public expense to look out for hailstorms. When -they saw a hail-cloud approaching they made a signal, whereupon the -farmers turned out and sacrificed lambs and fowls. They believed that -when the clouds had tasted the blood they would turn aside and go -somewhere else. If any man was too poor to afford a lamb or a fowl, -he pricked his finger with a sharp instrument and offered his own -blood to the clouds; and the hail, we are told, turned aside from his -fields as readily as from those where it had been propitiated with -the blood of victims." [198] In the same way the duty of charming -away the hail is, in Kumaun, entrusted to a certain class of Brahmans -known as Woli or Oliya (ola, "hail"). Their method is to take a dry -gourd, which they fill with pebbles, grains of Urad pulse, mustard, -goat-dung and seeds of cotton. This is then tied by a triple cord -to the highest tree on a mountain overhanging the village. Until the -crops are cut the Oliya goes to this place every day and mutters his -incantations. If the crops are reaped without disaster of any kind -he is liberally remunerated. [199] - -As has been already said, whirlwinds are the work of demons. The -witches in Macbeth meet in thunder, lightning and rain, they can loose -and bind the winds and cause vessels to be tempest-tossed at sea. The -same principle was laid down by Pythagoras; [200] and Herodotus [201] -describes the people of Psylli marching in a body to fight the south -wind which had dried up their water-tanks. In Ireland it is believed -that a whirlwind denotes that a devil is dancing with a witch; or -that the fairies are rushing by, intent on carrying off some victim -to fairyland. The only help is to fling clay at the passing wind, -and the fairies will be compelled to drop the mortal child or the -beautiful young girl they have abducted. [202] A gentleman at Listowel -not long ago was much astonished when a cloud of dust was being blown -along a road to see an old woman rush to the side and drag handfuls -of grass out of the fence, which she threw in great haste into the -cloud of dust. He inquired and learned that this was in order to give -something to the fairies which were flying along in the dust. So in -Italy, Spolviero is the wind spirit which flies along in the dust -eddies. [203] - -In the Panjab Pheru [204] is the deity of the petty whirlwinds which -blow when the little dust-clouds rise in the hot weather. He was a -Brahman, and a long story is told of him, how he worshipped Sakhi -Sarwar, was made Governor of Imanabad by Akbar, but he abandoned -the saint and returned to his caste, whereupon he was afflicted with -leprosy. When he repented he was cured by eating some magical earth -and believed in the saint till he died. His shrine is at Miyanke, in -the Lahore District, and when a Panjabi sees a whirlwind he calls out, -Bhai Pheru, teri kar--"May Bhai Pheru protect us!" Another whirlwind -demon, the saint Rahma, was once neglected at the wheat harvest, -and he raised a whirlwind which blew for nine days in succession, -and wrought such damage in the threshing-floors that since then his -shrine receives the appropriate offerings. On the same principle -whirlwinds are called in Bombay Bagalya or devils. [205] - -Among the Mirzapur Korwas, when a dust-storm comes, the women thrust -the house broom, which, as we shall see, is a demon scarer, into the -thatch, so that it may not be blown away. The Pankas in the same way -make their women hold the thatch and throw the rice mortar and the -flour-mill pivot into the courtyard. The wind is ashamed of being -defeated by the power of women and ceases to blow. - - - -Aerolites. - -All over the world people say that if when a meteor or falling star -darts across the sky they can utter a wish before it disappears, -that wish will be granted. The old Norsemen believed that it implied -that a dragon was flashing through the air. In Italy [206] the sight -of such a body is a cure for blear eyes. In India it is believed that -the residence of a soul in heaven is proportionate to the charities -done by him on earth, and when his allotted period is over he falls -as an aerolite. A falling star means that the soul of some great man -is passing through the air, and when people see one of these stars -they thrust their five fingers into their mouths to prevent their own -souls from joining his company. Many of these aerolites are worshipped -as lingams in Saiva shrines. One which fell at Sitamarhi in Bengal -in 1880, has now been deified, and is worshipped as Adbhut-natha, or -"the miraculous god." [207] - - - - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE HEROIC AND VILLAGE GODLINGS. - - - Arma procul currusque virum miratur inanes. - Stant terra defixae hastae, passimque soluti - Per campum pascuntur equi. - - AEneid, vi. 652-654. - - -The Heroic Godlings. - -Next to these deities which have been classed as the godlings of -nature, come those which have a special local worship of their -own. The number of these godlings is immense, and their functions -and attributes so varied, that it is extremely difficult to classify -them on any intelligible principle. Some of them are pure village -godlings, of whom the last Census has unearthed an enormous number -all through Northern India. Some of them, like Hanuman or Bhimsen, -are survivals in a somewhat debased form of the second-rate deities -or heroes of the older mythology. Some have risen to the rank, or are -gradually being elevated to the status, of national deities. Some -are in all probability the local gods of the degraded races, whom -we may tentatively assume to be autochthonous. Many of these have -almost certainly been absorbed into Brahmanism at a comparatively -recent period. Some are in process of elevation to the orthodox -pantheon. But it will require a much more detailed analysis of the -national faith than the existing materials permit, before it will -be possible to make a final classification of this mob of deities on -anything approaching a definite principle. - -The deities of the heroic class are as a rule benignant, and are -generally worshipped by most Hindus. Those that have been definitely -promoted into the respectable divine cabinet, like Hanuman, have -Brahmans or members of the ascetic orders as their priests, and -their images, if not exactly admitted into the holy of holies of the -greater shrines, are still allotted a respectable position in the -neighbourhood, and receive a share in the offerings of the faithful. - -The local position of the shrine very often defines the status of the -deity. To many godlings of this class is allotted the duty of acting -as warders (dwarapala) to the temples of the great gods. Thus, at -the Ashthbhuja hill in Mirzapur, the pilgrim to the shrine of the -eight-armed Devi meets first on the road an image of the monkey -god Hanuman, before he comes into the immediate presence of the -goddess. So at Benares, Bhaironnath is chief police officer (Kotwal) -or guardian of all the Saiva temples. Similarly at Jageswar beyond -Almora we find Kshetrapal, at Badarinath Ghantakaran, at Kedarnath -Bhairava, and at Tungnath Kal Bhairon. [208] In many places, as the -pilgrim ascends to the greater temples, he comes to a place where the -first view of the shrine is obtained. This is known as the Devadekhni -or spot from which the deity is viewed. This is generally occupied -by some lower-class deity, who is just beginning to be considered -respectable. Then comes the temple dedicated to the warden, and lastly -the real shrine itself. There can be little doubt that this represents -the process by which gods which are now admittedly within the inner -circle of the first class, such as the beast incarnations of Vishnu, -the elephant-headed Ganesa, and the Saktis or impersonations of the -female energies of nature, underwent a gradual elevation. - -This process is actually still going on before our eyes. Thus, the -familiar Gor Baba, a deified ghost of the aboriginal races, has in many -places become a new manifestation of Siva, as Goreswara. Similarly, -the powerful and malignant goddesses, who were by ruder tribes -propitiated with the sacrifice of a buffalo or a goat, have been -annexed to Brahmanism as two of the numerous forms of Durga Devi, -by the transparent fiction of a Bhainsasuri or Kali Devi. In the -case of the former her origin is clearly proved by the fact that -she is regarded as a sort of tribal deity of the mixed tribe of -Kanhpuriya Rajputs in Oudh. Similarly Mahamai, or the "Great Mother," -a distinctively aboriginal goddess whose shrine consists of a low -flat mound of earth with seven knobs of coloured clay at the head or -west side, has been promoted into the higher pantheon as Jagadamba -Devi, or "Mother of the World." Her shrine is still a simple flat -mound of earth with seven knobs at the top, and a flag in front to -the east. [209] More extended analysis will probably show that the -obligations of Brahmanism to the local cultus are much greater than -is commonly supposed. - - - -Hanuman. - -First among the heroic godlings is Hanuman, "He of the large -jaws," or, as he is generally called, Mahabir, the "great hero," -the celebrated monkey chief of the Ramayana, who assisted Rama in -his campaign against the giant Ravana to recover Sita. Hardly any -event in his mythology, thanks to the genius of Tulasi Das, the great -Hindi poet of Hindustan, is more familiar to the Hindu peasant than -this. It forms the favourite subject of dramatic representation at -the annual festival of the Dasahra. There Hanuman, in fitting attire, -marches along the stage at the head of his army of bears and monkeys, -and the play ends with the destruction of Ravana, whose great body, -formed of wickerwork and paper, is blown up with fireworks, amid the -delighted enthusiasm of the excited audience. - -It is almost certain that the worship of Hanuman does not come down -from the earliest ages of the Hindu faith, though it has been suggested -that he is the legitimate descendant of Vrisha-kapi, the great monkey -of the Veda. [210] Besides being a great warrior he was noted for his -skill in magic, grammar and the art of healing. Many local legends -connect him with sites in Northern India. Hills, like the Vindhya -and that at Govardhan, are, as we have seen, attributed to him or -to his companions. The more extreme school of modern comparative -mythologists would make out that Hanuman is only the impersonation -of the great cloud-monkey which fights the sun. [211] - -But the fact of monkey-worship is susceptible of a much simpler -explanation. The ape, from his appearance and human ways, is closely -associated with man. It is a belief common to all folk-lore that -monkeys were once human beings who have suffered degradation, [212] -and according to one common belief stealers of fruit become monkeys -in their next incarnation. But the common theory that the monkey is -venerated in memory of the demigod Hanuman is, as Sir A. Lyall [213] -remarks, "plainly putting the cart before the horse, for the monkey is -evidently at the bottom of the whole story. Hanuman is now generally -supposed to have been adopted into the Hindu heaven from the non-Aryan -or aboriginal idolaters; though, to my mind, any uncivilized Indian -would surely fall down and worship at first sight of an ape. Then there -is the modern idea that the god was really a great chief of some such -aboriginal tribe as those which to this day dwell almost like wild -creatures in the remote forests of India; and this may be the nucleus -of fact in the legend regarding him. It seems as if hero-worship and -animal-worship had got mixed up in the legend of Hanuman." - -At the same time, it must be remembered that the so-called Aryans -enjoy no monopoly of his worship. He is sometimes like a tribal -godling of the aboriginal Suiris, and the wild Bhuiyas of Keunjhar -identify him with Boram, the Sun godling. [214] It is at least a -possible supposition that his worship may have been imported into -Brahmanism from some such source as these. - - - -Hanuman as a Village Godling. - -But whatever may be the origin of the cult, the fact remains that -he is a great village godling, with potent influence to scare evil -spirits from his votaries. His rude image, smeared with oil and red -ochre, meets one somewhere or other in almost every respectable Hindu -village. One of his functions is to act as an embodiment of virile -power. He is a giver of offspring, and in Bombay women sometimes -go to his temple in the early morning, strip themselves naked, and -embrace the god. [215] Mr. Hartland has collected many instances -of similar practices. Thus a cannon at Batavia used to be utilized -in the same way; and at Athens there is a rock near the Callirrhoe, -whereon women who wish to be made fertile rub themselves, calling on -the Moirai to be gracious to them. [216] - -On the same principle he is, with Hindu wrestlers, their patron deity, -his place among Musalmans being taken by 'Ali. Their aid is invoked -at the commencement of all athletic exercises, and at each wrestling -school a platform is erected in their honour. Tuesday is sacred to -Mahabir and Friday to 'Ali. Hindu wrestlers on Mahabir's day bathe in -a river in the morning, and after bathing dress in clean clothes. Then -taking a jar of water, some incense, sweets, and red or white flowers, -they repair to the wrestling school, bow down before the platform and -smear it with cow-dung or earth. After this the sweets are offered -to Mahabir and verses are recited in his honour. Then they do the -exercise five times and bow before the platform. When the service is -over they smear their bodies with the incense, which is supposed to -give them strength and courage. Care is taken that no woman sees the -athletes exercising, lest she should cast the Evil Eye upon them. - -One special haunt of the monkey deity is what is known as the -Bandarpunchh or "monkey tail" peak in the Himalayas. They say that -every year in the spring a single monkey comes from Hardwar to -this peak and remains there twelve months, when he makes way for -his successor. - -Hanuman is a favourite deity of the semi-Hinduized Dravidian races -of the Vindhya-Kaimur plateau. "The most awe-inspiring of their -tremendous rocks are his fanes; the most lovely of their pools are -sacred by virtue of the tradition of his having bathed in them." He -was known as Pawan-ka-put, or "son of the wind," which corresponds -to his older title of Marutputra, or "son of the wind god." And the -Bhuiyas of Sinhbhum, who are, as Colonel Dalton gravely remarks, -"without doubt the apes of the Ramayana," call themselves Pawan-bans, -or "sons of the wind," to this day. [217] But in the plains his chief -function is as a warden or guardian against demoniacal influence, -and at the Hanumangarhi shrine at Ajudhya he is provided with a -regular priesthood consisting of Khaki ascetics. - -The respect paid to the monkey does not need much illustration. The -ordinary monkey of the plains (Macacus Rhesus) is a most troublesome, -mischievous beast, and does enormous mischief to crops, while in -cities he is little short of a pest. But his life is protected by a -most effective sanction, and no one dares to injure him. - -General Sleeman [218] tells a story of a Muhammadan Nawab of Oudh, -who was believed to have died of fever, the result of killing a -monkey. "Mumtaz-ud-daula," said his informant, "might have been -King of Oudh had his father not shot that monkey." In the Panjab -an appeal to the monkey overcomes the demon of the whirlwind. There -is a Bombay story that in the village of Makargaon, whenever there -is a marriage in a house, the owner puts outside the wedding booth -a turban, a waist-cloth, rice, fruits, turmeric, and betel-nuts for -the village monkeys. The monkeys assemble and sit round their Patel, -or chief. The chief tears the turban and gives a piece to each of -them, and the other things are divided. If the householder does not -present these offerings they ascend the booth and defile the wedding -feast. He has then to come out and apologize, and when he gives them -the usual gifts they retire. [219] The feeding of monkeys is part of -the ritual at the Durga Temple at Benares, and there, too, there is -a king of the monkeys who is treated with much respect. Instances of -Rajas carrying out the wedding of a monkey at enormous expense are -not unknown. Where a monkey has been killed it is believed that no -one can live. His bones are also exceedingly unlucky, and a special -class of exorcisers in Bihar make it their business to ascertain that -his bones do not pollute the ground on which a house is about to be -erected. [220] - -The worship of Hanuman appears, if the Census returns are to be -trusted, to be much more popular in the North-West Provinces than -in the Panjab. In the former his devotees numbered about a million, -and in the latter less than ten thousand persons. But the figures are -probably open to question, as he is often worshipped in association -with other deities. - - - -Worship of Bhimsen. - -Another of these beneficent guardians or wardens is Bhimsen, "he -who has a terrible army." He has now in popular belief very little -in common with the burly hero of the Mahabharata, who was notorious -for his gigantic strength, great animal courage, prodigious appetite -and irascible temper; jovial and jocular when in good humour, but -abusive, truculent and brutal when his passions were roused. [221] -He is now little more than one of the wardens of the house or village. - -In parts of the Central Provinces he has become degraded into -a mere fetish, and is represented by a piece of iron fixed in a -stone or in a tree. [222] Under the name of Bhimsen or Bhimpen, -his worship extends from Berar to the extreme east of Bastar, -and not merely among the Hinduized aborigines, who have begun to -honour Khandoba, Hanuman, Ganpati and their brethren, but among the -rudest and most savage tribes. He is generally adored under the form -of an unshapely stone covered with vermilion, or of two pieces of -wood standing from three to four feet out of the ground, which are -possibly connected with the phallic idea, towards which so many -of these deities often diverge. Bhiwasu, the regular Gond deity, -is identical with him. Mr. Hislop [223] mentions a large idol of -him eight feet high, with a dagger in one hand and a javelin in the -other. He has an aboriginal priest, known as Bhumak, or "he of the -soil," and the people repair to worship on Tuesdays and Saturdays, -offering he-goats, hogs, hens, cocks and cocoa-nuts. The headman of -the village and the cultivators subscribe for an annual feast, which -takes place at the commencement of the rains, when the priest takes -a cow from the headman by force and offers it to the godling in the -presence of his congregation. The Mariya Gonds worship him in the -form of two pieces of wood previous to the sowing of the crops. The -Naikude Gonds adore him in the form of a huge stone daubed with -vermilion. Before it a little rice is cooked. They then besmear the -stone with vermilion and burn resin as incense in its honour, after -which the victims--sheep, hogs and fowls--with the usual oblation of -spirits, are offered. The god is now supposed to inspire the priest, -who rolls his head, leaps frantically round and round, and finally -falls down in a trance, when he announces whether Bhimsen has accepted -the service or not. At night all join in drinking, dancing and beating -drums. Next morning the congregation disperses. Those who are unable -to attend this tribal gathering perform similar rites at home under -the shade of the Mahua tree (Bassia latifolia). [224] - - - -Pillar-worship of Bhimsen. - -The local worship of Bhimsen beyond the Dravidian tract is specially -in the form of pillars, which are called Bhimlath or Bhimgada, "Bhim's -clubs." Many of these are really the edict pillars which were erected -by the pious Buddhist King Asoka, but they have been appropriated by -Bhimsen. Such are the pillars in the Balaghat District of the Central -Provinces and at Kahaon in Gorakhpur. At Devadhara, in the Lower -Himalaya, are two boulders, the uppermost of which is called Ransila, -or "the stone of war." On this rests a smaller boulder, said to be -the same as that used by Bhimsen to produce the fissures in the rocks; -in proof of which the print of his five fingers is still pointed out, -as they show the hand-mark of the Giant Bolster in Cornwall. [225] - -Bhimsen is one of the special gods of the Bhuiyas of Keunjhar, and they -consider themselves to be descended from him, as he is the brother of -Hanuman, the founder of their race. According to the Hindu ritual he -has his special feast on the Bhaimy Ekadashi, or eleventh of the bright -fortnight in the month of Magh. The Bengal legend tells that Bhimsen, -the brother of Yudhisthira, when he was sent to the snowy mountains -and lay benumbed with cold, was restored by the Saint Gorakhnath, -and made king of one hundred and ten thousand hills, stretching from -the source of the Ganges to Bhutan. Among other miracles Bhimsen and -Gorakhnath introduced the sacrifice of buffaloes in place of human -beings, and in order to effect this Bhimsen thrust some of the flesh -down the throat of the holy man. So though they have both lost caste -in consequence, they are both deified. The saint is still the tutelary -deity of the reigning family of Nepal, and all over that kingdom and -Mithila Bhimsen is a very common object of worship. That mysterious -personage Gorakhnath flits through religious legend and folk-lore -from post-Vedic to mediaeval times; and little has yet been done to -discover the element of historical truth which underlies an immense -mass of the wildest fiction. [226] - - - -Worship of Bhishma. - -In about the same rank as Bhimsen is Bhishma, "the terrible one," -another hero of the Mahabharata. To the Hindu nowadays he is chiefly -known by the tragic circumstances of his death. He was covered all -over by the innumerable arrows discharged at him by Arjuna, and when he -fell from his chariot he was upheld from the ground by the arrows and -lay as on a couch of darts. This Sara-sayya or "arrow-bed" of Bhishma -is probably the origin of the Kantaka-sayya or "thorn-couch" of some -modern Bairagis, who lie and sleep on a couch studded with nails. He -wished to marry the maiden Satyavati, but he gave her up to his father -Santanu, and Bhishma elected to live a single life, so that his sons -might not claim the throne from his step-brethren. Hence, as he died -childless and left no descendant to perform his funeral rites, he is -worshipped with libations of water on the Bhishma Ashtami, or 23rd -of the month of Magh; but this ceremony hardly extends beyond Bengal. - -In Upper India five days in the month of Karttik (November-December) -are sacred to him. This is a woman's festival. They send lamps to a -Brahman's house, whose wife during these five days must sleep on the -ground, on a spot covered with cow-dung, close to the lamps, which it -is her duty to keep alight. The lamps are filled with sesamum oil, -and red wicks wound round sticks of the sesamum plant rest in the -lamp saucers. A walnut, an aonla (the fruit of the emblic myrobolon), -a lotus-seed, and two copper coins are placed in each lamp. Each -evening the women come and prostrate themselves before the lamps or -walk round them. They bathe on each day of the feast before sunrise, -and are allowed only one meal in the day, consisting of sugar-cane, -sweet potatoes and other roots, with meal made of amarinth seed, -millet and buckwheat cakes, to which the rich add sugar, dry -ginger, and butter. They drink only milk. Of course the Brahman -gets a share of these good things, to which the rich contribute in -addition a lamp-saucer made of silver, with a golden wick, clothes, -and money. At the early morning bath of the last day five lighted -lamps made of dough are placed, one at the entrance of the town or -village, others at the four cross-roads, under the Pipal or sacred -fig tree, at a temple of Siva, and at a pond. This last is put in a -small raft made of the leaves of the sugar-cane, and floated on the -water. A little grain is placed beside each lamp. After the lamps -handed over to the Brahman have burnt away or gone out, the black -from the wicks is rubbed on the eyes and fingers of the worshippers, -and their toe-nails are anointed with the remainder of the oil. All -the articles used in the worship are well-known scarers of demons, -and there can be little doubt that the rite is intended to conciliate -Bhishma in his character of a guardian deity, and induce him to ward -off evil spirits from the household of the worshipper. - -There is a curious legend told to explain the motive of the rite. A -childless Raja once threatened to kill all his queens unless one -of them gave birth to a child. One of the Ranis who had a cat, -announced that she had been brought to bed of a girl, who was to be -shut up for twelve years, a common incident in the folk-tales. [227] -This was all very well, but the supposed princess had to be married, -and here lay the difficulty. Now this cat had been very attentive -during this rite in honour of Bhishma, keeping the wicks alight by -raising them from time to time with her paws, and cleaning them on -her body. So the grateful godling turned her into a beautiful girl, -but her tail remained as before. However, the bridegroom's friends -admired her so much that they kept her secret at the wedding, and -so saved the Rani from destruction, and when the time came for the -bride to go to her husband her tail dropped off too. So Hindu ladies -use the oil and lamp-black of Bhishma's feast day as valuable aids -to beauty. Such cases of animal transformation constantly appear in -the folk-tales. In one of the Kashmir stories a cat, by the advice -of Parvati, rubs herself with oil and is turned into a girl; but she -does not rub a small patch between her shoulders, and this remained -covered with the cat's fur. [228] - -The worship of the heroes of the Mahabharata does not prevail widely, -unless we have a survival of it in the worship of the Panch Pir. At -the last Census in the North-Western Provinces less than four thousand -persons declared themselves worshippers of the Pandavas. The number -in the Panjab is even smaller. - - - -Worship of the Local Godlings. - -We now come to the local or village godlings, a most nondescript -collection of deities, possessing very various attributes. There -is good reason to believe that most of these deities, if not all, -belong to the races whom it is convenient to call non-Aryan, or at -least outside Brahmanism, though some of them may have been from time -to time promoted into the official pantheon. But Dr. Oppert, [229] -writing of Southern India, remarks that "if the pure Vedic doctrine -has been altered by the influx of non-Aryan tenets, so have also the -latter undergone a change by coming in contact with Aryan ideas, and -not only have males intruded into the once exclusive female circle of -the Gramadevatas, but also a motley of queer figures have crept in, -forming indeed a very strange gathering. The Gramadevata-prathishtha -mentions as Gramadevatas the skull of Brahma, the head of Vishnu, -the skull of Renuka, the figure of Draupadi, the body of Sita, -the harassing followers of Siva (the Pramathas), the attendants -of Vishnu (Parishadas), demons, Yoginis, various kinds of Saktis -made of wood, stone, or clay; persons who were unsuccessful in -their devotional practice, Sunasepha, Trisanku, Ghatotkacha, and -others; Devaki's daughter, multiform Durgas and Saktis; Putana and -others who kill children; Bhutas, Pretas, and Pisachas; Kusmanda, -Sakini, Dakini, Vetalas, and others; Yakshas, Kiratadevi, Sabari, -Rudra, one hundred millions of forms of Rudra; Matangi, Syamala, -unclean Ganapati, unclean Chandali, the goddess of the liquor pot -(Surabhandeswari), Mohini, Rakshasi, Tripura, Lankhini, Saubhadevi, -Samudrika, Vanadurga, Jaladurga, Agnidurga, suicides, culprits, -faithful wives, the goddesses of matter, goddesses of qualities, -and goddesses of deeds, etc." Through such a maze as this it is no -easy task to find a clue. - -The non-Brahmanic character of the worship is implied by the character -of the priesthood. In the neighbourhood of Delhi, where the worship -of Bhumiya as a local godling widely prevails, the so-called priest -of the shrine, whose functions are limited to beating a drum during -the service and receiving the offerings, is usually of the sweeper -caste. Sitala, the small-pox goddess, is very often served by a Mali, -or gardener. Sir John Malcolm notes that the Bhopa of Central India, -who acts as the village priest, is generally drawn from some menial -tribe. [230] In the hill country of South Mirzapur, the Baiga who -manages the worship of Gansam, Raja Lakhan, or the aggregate of the -local deities, known as the Dih or Deohar, is almost invariably a -Bhuiyar or a Chero, both semi-savage Dravidian tribes. Even the shrine -erected in honour of Nahar Rao, the famous King of Mandor, who met -in equal combat the chivalrous Chauhan in the pass of the Aravalli -range, is tended by a barber officiant. [231] Though the votaries of -the meaner godling are looked on with some contempt or pity by their -more respectable neighbours, little active hostility or intolerance is -exhibited. More than this, the higher classes, and particularly their -women, occasionally join in the worship of the older gods. At weddings -and other feasts their aid and protection are invoked. Every woman, -no matter what her caste may be, will bow to the ghosts which haunt -the old banyan or pipal tree in the village, and in time of trouble, -when the clouds withhold the rain, when the pestilence walketh in -darkness, and the murrain devastates the herds, it is to the patron -deities of the village that they appeal for assistance. - - - -Village Shrines. - -The shrine of the regular village godling, the Gramadevata or -Ganwdevata, is generally a small square building of brick masonry, -with a bulbous head and perhaps an iron spike as a finial. A red flag -hung on an adjoining tree, often a pipal, or some other sacred fig, -or a nim, marks the position of the shrine. In the interior lamps -are occasionally lighted, fire sacrifices (homa) made and petty -offerings presented. If a victim is offered, its head is cut off -outside the shrine and perhaps a few drops of blood allowed to fall on -the inner platform, which is the seat of the godling. These shrines -never contain a special image, such as are found in the temples of -the higher gods. There may be a few carved stones lying about, the -relics of some dismantled temple, but these are seldom identified -with any special deity, and villagers will rub a projecting knob on -one of them with a little vermilion and oil as an act of worship. - -Speaking of this class of shrine in the Panjab, Mr. Ibbetson writes: -[232] "The Hindu shrine must always face east, while the Musalman -shrine is in the form of a tomb and faces the south. This sometimes -gives rise to delicate questions. In one village a section of the -community had become Muhammadan. The shrine of the common ancestor -needed rebuilding, and there was much dispute as to its shape and -aspect. They solved the difficulty by building a Musalman grave facing -south, and over it a Hindu shrine facing east. In another village -an Imperial trooper was once burnt alive by the shed in which he was -sleeping catching fire, and it was thought best to propitiate him by -a shrine, or his ghost might become troublesome. He was by religion -a Musalman, but he had been burnt, not buried, which seemed to make -him a Hindu. After much discussion the latter opinion prevailed, -and a Hindu shrine with an eastern aspect now stands to his memory." - -To the east of the North-Western Provinces the village shrines are -much less substantial erections. In the Gangetic valley, where -the population has been completely Hinduized, the shrine of the -collective village deities, known as the Deohar, consists of a pile -of stones, some of which may be the fragments of a temple of the -olden days, collected under some ancient, sacred tree. The shrine -is the store-house of anything in the way of a curious stone to be -found in the village, water-worn pebbles or boulders, anything with -eccentric veining or marking. Here have been occasionally found celts -and stone hatchets, relics of an age anterior to the general use of -iron. In the same way in some European countries the celt or stone -arrow-head is worn as an amulet. - -Little clay images of elephants and horses are often found near these -shrines. Some villagers will say that these represent the equipage -(sawari) of the deity; others explain them by the fact that a person in -distress vows a horse or an elephant to the god, and when his wishes -are realized, offers as a substitute this trumpery donation. It was -a common practice to offer substitutes of this kind. Thus when an -animal could not be procured for sacrifice, an image of it in dough -or wax was prepared and offered as a substitute. [233] We shall meet -later on other examples of substitution of the same kind. On the -same principle women used to give cakes in the form of a phallus to -a Brahman. [234] At these shrines are also found curious little clay -bowls with short legs which are known as kalsa. The kalsa or water -jar is always placed near the pole of the marriage shed, and the use -of these beehive-shaped vessels at village shrines is found all along -the hills of Central India. [235] On the neighbouring trees are often -hung miniature cots, which commemorate the recovery of a patient from -small-pox or other infectious disease. - -Among the semi-Hinduized Dravidian races of the Vindhyan range, many -of whom worship Gansam or Raja Lakhan, the shrine usually consists of -a rude mud building or a structure made of bamboo and straw, roofed -with a coarse thatch, which is often allowed to fall into disrepair, -until the godling reminds his votaries of his displeasure by an -outbreak of epidemic disease or some other misfortune which attacks -the village. The shrine is in charge of the village Baiga, who is -invariably selected from among some of the ruder forest tribes, such -as the Bhuiya, Bhuiyar or Chero. Inside is a small platform known as -"the seat of the godling" (Devata ka baithak), on which are usually -placed some of the curious earthen bowls already described, which -are made specially for this worship, and are not used for domestic -purposes. In these water is placed for the refreshment of the godling, -and they thus resemble the funeral vases of the Greeks. In ordinary -cases the offering deposited on the platform consists of a thick -griddle cake, a little milk, and perhaps a few jungle flowers; but -in more serious cases where the deity makes his presence disagreeably -felt, he is propitiated with a goat, pig, or fowl, which is decapitated -outside the shrine, with the national and sacrificial axe. The head -is brought inside dripping with blood, and a few drops of blood are -allowed to fall on the platform. The head of the victim then becomes -the perquisite of the officiating Baiga, and the rest of the meat -is cooked and eaten near the shrine by the adult male worshippers, -married women and children being carefully excluded from a share in the -offering. The special regard paid to the head of the victim is quite in -consonance with traditions of European paganism and folk-lore in many -countries. [236] Lower south, beyond the river Son, the shrine is of -even a simpler type, and is there often represented by a few boulders -near a stream, where the worshippers assemble and make their offerings. - -The non-Brahmanic character of the worship is still further marked by -the fact that no special direction from the homestead is prescribed -in selecting the site for the shrine. No orthodox Hindu temple can be -built south of the village site, as this quarter is regarded as the -realm of Yama, the god of death; here vagrant evil spirits prowl and -consume or defile the offerings made to the greater gods. In the more -Hinduized jungle villages some attempt is occasionally made to conform -to this rule, and sometimes, as in the case of the more respectable -Hindu shrines, the door faces the east. But this rule is not universal, -and the site of the shrine is often selected under some suitable -tree, whatever may be its position as regards the homestead, and it -very often commemorates some half-forgotten tragedy, where a man was -carried off by a tiger or slain or murdered, where he fell from a tree -or was drowned in a watercourse. Here some sort of shrine is generally -erected with the object of appeasing the angry spirit of the dead man. - -These shrines have no idol, no bell to scare vagrant ghosts and awake -the godling to partake of the offerings or listen to the prayers -of his votaries. If he is believed to be absent or asleep, a drum -is beaten to awaken or recall him, and this answers the additional -purpose of scaring off intruding spirits, who are always hungry and -on the watch to appropriate the offerings of the faithful. Here are -also none of the sacrificial vessels, brazen lamps and cups, which -are largely used in respectable fanes for waving a light before the -deity as part of the service, or for cooling the idol with libations -of water, and the instrument used for sacrificing the victim is only -the ordinary axe which the dweller in the jungle always carries. - -There is one special implement which is very commonly found in the -village shrines of the hill country south of the Ganges. This is an -iron chain with a heavy knob at the end, to which a strap, like a -Scotch tawse, is often attached. The chain is ordinarily three and -a half feet long, the tawse two feet, and the total weight is about -seven pounds. This is known as the Gurda; it hangs from the roof of -the shrine, and is believed to be directly under the influence of -the deity, so that it is very difficult to procure a specimen. The -Baiga priest, when his services are required for the exorcism of a -disease ghost, thrashes himself on the back and loins with his chain, -until he works himself up to the proper degree of religious ecstasy. - -Among the more primitive Gonds the chain has become a godling and -is regularly worshipped. In serious cases of epilepsy, hysteria, -and the like, which do not readily yield to ordinary exorcism, the -patient is taken to the shrine and severely beaten with the holy -chain until the demon is expelled. This treatment is, I understand, -considered particularly effective in the case of hysteria and kindred -ailments under which young women are wont to suffer, and like the -use of the thong at the Lupercalia at Rome, a few blows of the chain -are considered advisable as a remedy for barrenness. The custom of -castigating girls when they attain puberty prevails among many races -of savages. [237] - - - -Identification of the Local Godling. - -The business of selecting a site for a new village or hamlet is one -which needs infinite care and attention to the local godlings of the -place. No place can be chosen without special regard to the local -omens. There is a story told of one of the Gond Rajas of Garh Mandla, -whose attention was first called to the place by seeing a hare, -when pursued by his dogs, turn and chase them. It struck him that -there must be much virtue in the air of a place where a timid animal -acquired such courage. [238] The site of the settlement of Almora is -said to have been selected by one of the kings before whom in this -place a hare was transformed into a tiger. [239] Similar legends are -told of the foundation of many forts and cities. - -But it is with the local godlings that the founder of a new settlement -has most concern. The speciality of this class of godlings is -that they frequent only particular places. Each has his separate -jurisdiction, which includes generally one or sometimes a group of -villages. This idea has doubtless promoted the rooted disinclination -of the Hindu to leave his home and come into the domain of a fresh set -of godlings with whom he has no acquaintance, who have never received -due propitiation from him or his forefathers, and who are hence in -all probability inimical to him. But people to whom the local godling -of their village has shown his hostility by bringing affliction upon -them for their neglect of his service, can usually escape from his -malignity by leaving his district. This habit of emigration to escape -the malignity of the offended godling doubtless accounts for many -of the sites of deserted villages, which are scattered all over the -country. We say that they were abandoned on account of a great famine -or a severe epidemic, but to the native mind these afflictions are -the work of the local deity, who could have warded them off had he -been so disposed. Hence when a settlement is being founded it is a -matter of prime necessity that the local godling or group of godlings -should be brought under proper control and carefully identified, -so as to ensure the safety and prosperity of the settlement. The -next and final stage is the establishment of a suitable shrine and -the appointment of a competent priest. - -There are, as might have been expected, many methods of identifying -and establishing the local gods. Thus in North Oudh, when a village -is founded the site is marked off by cross stakes of wood driven into -the ground, which are solemnly worshipped on the day of the completion -of the settlement, and then lapse into neglect unless some indication -of the displeasure of the god again direct attention to them. These -crosses, which are called Daharchandi, are particularly frequent and -well-marked in the villages occupied by the aboriginal Tharus in the -sub-Himalayan Tarai, where they may be found in groups of ten or more -on the edge of the cultivated lands. So, among the Santals, a piece -of split bamboo, about three feet high, is placed in the ground in an -inclined position and is called the Sipahi or sentinel of the hamlet; -among the Gonds two curved posts, one of which is much smaller than -the other, represent the male and female tutelary gods. [240] - -In the Eastern Districts of the North-Western Provinces a more -elaborate process is carried out, which admirably illustrates the -special form of local worship now under consideration. When the site -of a new settlement is selected, an Ojha is called in to identify -and mark down the deities of the place. He begins by beating a drum -round the place for some time, which is intended to scare vagrant, -outsider ghosts and to call together the local deities. All the people -assemble, and two men, known as the Mattiwah and the Pattiwah, "the -earth man" and "the leaf man," who represent the gods of the soil and -of the trees, soon become filled with the spirit and are found to be -possessed by the local deities. They dance and shout for some time in -a state of religious frenzy, and their disconnected ejaculations are -interpreted by the Ojha, who suddenly rushes upon them, grasps with -his hands at the spirits which are supposed to be circling round them, -and finally pours through their hands some grains of sesamum, which -is received in a perforated piece of the wood of the Gular or sacred -fig-tree. The whole is immediately plastered up with a mixture of clay -and cow-dung, and the wood is carefully buried on the site selected for -the Deohar or local shrine. By this process the deities are supposed to -be fastened up in the sacred wood and to be unable to do any mischief, -provided that the usual periodical offerings are made in their honour. - -This system does not seem to prevail among the Dravidian races of the -Vindhyan plateau. Some time ago I discussed the matter with Hannu -Baiga, the chief priest of the Bhuiyas beyond the Son, and he was -pleased to express his unqualified approval of the arrangement. Indeed, -he promised to adopt it himself, but unfortunately Hannu, who was a -mine of information on the religion and demonology of his people, died -before he could apply this test to the local deities of his parish. His -wife has died also, and I understand that he is known to be the head -of all the Bhuts or malignant ghosts of the neighbourhood, while his -wife rules all the Churels who infest that part of the country. - -At the same time, to an ordinary Baiga the plan would hardly be as -comfortable as the present arrangement. It would not suit him to -have the local ghosts brought under any control, because he makes his -living by doing the periodical services to propitiate them. Nowadays he -believes fully in the influence of the magic circle and of spirituous -liquor as ghost scarers. Both these principles will be discussed -elsewhere. So he is supposed once a year at least, or oftener in case -of pestilence or other trouble, to perambulate all round the village -boundary, sprinkling a line of spirits as he walks. The idea is to -form a magic circle impervious to strange and, in the nature of the -case, necessarily malignant ghosts, who might wish to intrude from -outside; and to control the resident local deities, and prevent them -from contracting evil habits of mischief by wandering beyond their -prescribed domains. - -The worst about this ritual is that the Baiga is apt to be very -deliberate in his movements, and to drink the liquor on the -road and to spoil the symmetry of the circle during his fits of -intoxication. I know of one disreputable shepherd who was upwards of -a fortnight getting round an ordinary sized village, and the levy on -his parishioners to pay the wine bill was, as may easily be imagined, -a very serious matter, to say nothing of several calamities, which -occurred to the inhabitants in their unprotected state owing to his -negligence. At present the feeling in his parish is very strong against -him, and his constituents are thinking of removing him, particularly -as he has only one eye. This is a very dangerous deformity in ordinary -people, but in a Baiga, who is invested with religious functions, -it is most objectionable, and likely to detract from his efficiency. - -In Hoshangabad a different system prevails. When a new village is -formed by the aboriginal Kurkus, there is no difficulty in finding the -abode of the godlings Dungar Devata and Mata, because you have only to -look for and discover them upon their hill and under their tree. But -Mutua Devata has generally to be created by taking a heap of stones -from the nearest stream and sacrificing a pig and seven chickens -to him. "There is one ceremony, however, which is worth notice, -not so much as being distinctively Kurku, as illustrating the sense -of mystery and chance which in the native mind seems to be connected -with the idea of measurement, and which arises probably from the fact -that with superficial measures, by heaping lightly or pressing down -tight, very different results can be obtained. A measure is filled -up with grain to the level of the brim, but no head is poured on, -and it is put before Mutua Devata. They watch it all night, and in -the morning pour it out, and measure it again. If the grain now fills -up the measure and leaves enough for a head to it, and still more, -if it brims and runs over, this is a sign that the village will be -very prosperous, and that every cultivator's granaries will run over -in the same way. But it is an evil omen if the grain does not fill up -to the level of the rims of the vessel. A similar practice obtains -in the Narmada valley when they begin winnowing, and some repeat it -every night while the winnowing goes on." [241] - -The same custom prevails among the Kols and kindred races in Mirzapur, -who make the bride and bridegroom carry it out as an omen of their -success or failure in life. By carefully packing and pressing down -the grain, any chance of an evil augury is easily avoided. We shall -see later on that measuring the grain is a favourite device intended -to save it from the depredations of evil-minded ghosts. - - - -Worship of Dwara Gusain. - -A typical case of the worship of a local godling is found among the -Malers of Chota Nagpur. His name is Dwara Gusain, or "Lord of the -house door." "Whenever from some calamity falling upon the household, -it is considered necessary to propitiate him, the head of the family -cleans a place in front of his door, and sets up a branch of the -tree called Mukmum, which is held very sacred; an egg is placed near -the branch, then a hog is killed and friends feasted; and when the -ceremony is over the egg is broken and the branch placed on the -suppliant's house." [242] Dwara Gusain is now called Barahdvari, -because he is supposed to live in a temple with twelve doors and is -worshipped by the whole village in the month of Magh. [243] The egg is -apparently supposed to hold the deity, and this, it may be remarked, -is not an uncommon folk-lore incident. [244] - - - -Worship of Bhumiya. - -One of the most characteristic of the benevolent village godlings is -Bhumiya--"the godling of the land or soil" (bhumi). He is very commonly -known as Khetpal or Kshetrapala, "the protector of the fields"; Khera -or "the homestead mound"; Zamindar or "the landowner"; and in the hills -Saim or Sayam, "the black one" (Sanskrit syama). In the neighbourhood -of Delhi he is a male godling; in Oudh Bhumiya is a goddess and is -called Bhumiya Rani or "soil queen." She is worshipped by spreading -flat cakes and sweetmeats on the ground, which having been exposed -some time to the sun, are eventually consumed by the worshipper and -his family. The rite obviously implies the close connection between -the fertility of the soil and sunshine. - -To the west of the Province the creation of Bhumiya's shrine is -"the first formal act by which the proposed site of a village is -consecrated, and when two villages have combined their homesteads -for greater security against the marauders of former days, the people -of the one which moved still worship at the Bhumiya of the deserted -site. Bhumiya is worshipped after the harvests, at marriages, and -on the birth of a male child; and Brahmans are commonly fed in his -name. Women often take their children to the shrine on Sundays, and -the first milk of a cow or buffalo is always offered there." [245] -Young bulls are sometimes released in his honour, and the term Bhumiya -sand has come to be equivalent to our "parish bull." - -In the Hills he is regarded by some as a beneficent deity, who does -not, as a rule, force his worship on anyone by possessing them -or injuring their crops. When seed is sown, a handful of grain -is sprinkled over a stone in the field nearest to his shrine, in -order to protect the crop from hail, blight, and the ravages of wild -animals, and at harvest time he receives the first-fruits to protect -the garnered grain from rats and insects. He punishes the wicked and -rewards the virtuous, and is lord of the village, always interested -in its prosperity, and a partaker in the good things provided on -all occasions of rejoicing, such as marriage, the birth of a son, -or any great good fortune. Unlike the other rural deities, he seldom -receives animal sacrifices, but is satisfied with the humblest offering -of the fruits of the earth. [246] - -In Gurgaon, again, he is very generally identified with one of the -founders of the village or with a Brahman priest of the original -settlers. The special day for making offerings to him is the fourteenth -day of the month. Some of the Bhumiyas are said to grant the prayers -of their votaries and to punish severely those who offend them. He -visits people who sleep in the vicinity of his shrine with pains in -the chest, and one man who was rash enough to clean his teeth near -his shrine was attacked with sore disease. Those Bhumiyas who thus -bear the reputation of being revengeful and vicious in temper are -respected, and offerings to them are often made, while those who have -the character of easy good-nature are neglected. [247] - -In parts of the Panjab [248] Khera Devata or Chanwand is identified -with Bhumiya; according to another account she is a lady and the wife -of Bhumiya, and she sometimes has a special shrine, and is worshipped -on Sunday only. To illustrate the close connection between this worship -of Bhumiya as the soil godling with that of the sainted dead, it may be -noted that in some places the shrine of Bhumiya is identified with the -Jathera, which is the ancestral mound, sacred to the common ancestor of -the village or tribe. One of the most celebrated of these Jatheras is -Kala Mahar, the ancestor of the Sindhu Jats, who has peculiar influence -over cows, and to whom the first milk of every cow is offered. The -place of the Jathera is, however, often taken by the Theh or mound -which marks the site of the original village of the tribe. - -But Bhumiya, a simple village godling, is already well on his way to -promotion to the higher heaven. In Patna some have already begun to -identify him with Vishnu. In the Hills the same process is going on, -and he is beginning to be known as Saim, a corruption of Svayambhuva, -the Bauddha form now worshipped in Nepal. In the plains he is -becoming promoted under the title of Bhumisvara Mahadeva and his -spouse Bhumisvari Devi, both of whom have temples at Banda. [249] -In the Hills it is believed that he sometimes possesses people, and -the sign of this is that the hair of the scalplock becomes hopelessly -entangled. This reminds us of that very Mab "that plaits the manes -of horses in the night and bakes the elflocks in foul sluttish hairs, -which once untangled much misfortune bodes." - -It was a common English belief that all who have communication with -fairies find their hair all tied in double knots. [250] As we shall see -later on, the hair is universally regarded as an entry for spirits, -perhaps, as Mr. Campbell suggests, because it leads to the opening -in the skull through which the dying spirit makes its exit. Hence -many of the customs connected with letting the hair loose, cutting -it off or shaving. - -No less than eighty-five thousand persons declared themselves, at -the last census, to be worshippers of Bhumiya in the North-Western -Provinces, while in the Panjab they numbered only one hundred and -sixty-three. - - - -Worship of Bhairon. - -Bhumiya, again, is often confounded with Bhairon, another warden -godling of the land; while, to illustrate the extraordinary jumble -of these mythologies, Bhairon, who is almost certainly the Karo Bairo -(Kal Bhairon) of the Bhuiyas of Keunjhar, is identified by them with -Bhimsen. [251] - -Bhairon has a curious history. There is little doubt that he was -originally a simple village deity; but with a slight change of name -he has been adopted into Brahmanism as Bhairava, "the terrible one," -one of the most awful forms of Siva, while the female form Bhairavi -is an equivalent for Devi, a worship specially prevalent among Jogis -and Saktas. On the other hand, the Jainas worship Bhairava as the -protector or agent of the Jaina church and community, and do not -offer him flesh and blood sacrifices, but fruits and sweetmeats. [252] - -In his Saiva form he is often called Svasva, or "he who rides -on a dog," and this vehicle of his marks him down at once as an -offshoot from the village Bhairon, because all through Upper India -the favourite method of conciliating Bhairon is to feed a black dog -until he is surfeited. - -One of his distinctive forms is Kal Bhairon, or Kala Bhairava, whose -image depicted with his dog is often found as a sort of warden in Saiva -temples. One of his most famous shrines is at Kalinjar, of which Abul -Fazl says "marvellous tales are related." [253] He is depicted with -eighteen arms and is ornamented with the usual garlands of skulls, -with snake earrings and snake armlets and a serpent twined round his -head. In his hands he holds a sword and a bowl of blood. In the Panjab -he is said to frighten away death, and in Rajputana Col. Tod calls -him "the blood-stained divinity of war." [254] The same godling is -known in Bombay as Bhairoba, of whom Mr. Campbell [255] writes--"He is -represented as a standing male figure with a trident in the left hand -and a drum (damaru) in the right, and encircled with a serpent. When -thus represented he is called Kala Bhairava. But generally he is -represented by a rough stone covered over with oil and red lead. He -is said to be very terrible, and, when offended, difficult to be -pleased. By some he is believed to be an incarnation of Siva himself, -and by others as a spirit much in favour with the god Siva. He is -also consulted as an oracle. When anyone is desirous of ascertaining -whether anything he is about to undertake will turn out according to -his wishes, he sticks two unbroken betel-nuts, one on each breast -of the stone image of Bhairava, and tells it, if his wish is to be -accomplished, that the right or left nut is to fall first. It is -said, like other spirits, Bhairava is not a subordinate of Vetala, -and that when he sets out on his circuit at night, he rides a black -horse and is accompanied by a black dog." - -In the Panjab he [256] is usually represented as an inferior deity, -a stout black figure, with a bottle of wine in his hand; he is an evil -spirit, and his followers drink wine and eat meat. One set of ascetics, -akin to the Jogis, besmear themselves with red powder and oil and go -about begging and singing the praises of Bhairon, with bells or gongs -hung about their loins and striking themselves with whips. They are -found mainly in large towns, and are not celibates. Their chief place -of pilgrimage is the Girnar Hill in Kathiawar. That very old temple, -the Bhairon Ka Asthan near Lahore, is so named from a quaint legend -regarding Bhairon, connected with its foundation. In the old days the -Dhinwar girls of Riwari used to be married to the godling at Bandoda, -but they always died soon after, and the custom has been abandoned. We -shall meet later on other instances of the marriage of girls to a god. - -As a village godling Bhairon appears in various forms as Lath Bhairon -or "Bhairon of the club," which approximates him to Bhimsen, Battuk -Bhairon or "the child Bhairon," and Nand Bhairon, in which we may -possibly trace a connection with the legend of the divine child -Krishna and his foster-father Nanda. In Benares, again, he is known -as Bhaironnath or "Lord Bhairon," and Bhut Bhairon, "Ghost Bhairon," -and he is regarded as the deified magistrate of the city, who guards -all the temples of Siva and saves his votaries from demons. [257] - -But in his original character as a simple village godling Bhairon is -worshipped with milk and sweetmeats as the protector of fields, cattle -and homestead. Some worship him by pouring spirits at his shrine and -drinking there; and on a new house being built, he is propitiated to -expel the local ghosts. He is respected even by Muhammadans as the -minister of the great saint Sakhi Sarwar, and in this connection is -usually known as Bhairon Jati or "Bhairon the chaste." [258] But as we -have seen, he is becoming rapidly promoted into the more respectable -cabinet of the gods, and his apotheosis will possibly finally take -place at the great Saiva shrine of Mandhata on the Narmada, with -which a local legend closely connects him. [259] All over Northern -India his stone fetish is found in close connection with the images -of the greater gods, to whom he acts the part of guardian, and this, -as we have already seen, probably marks a stage in his promotion. - -He has, according to the last census, only five thousand followers -in the Panjab, as compared with one hundred and and seventy-five -thousand in the North-Western Provinces. - - - -Worship of Ganesa. - -On pretty much the same stage as these warden godlings whom we have -been considering is Ganesa, whose name means "lord of the Ganas" -or inferior deities, especially those in attendance on Siva. He -is represented as a short, fat man, of a yellow colour, with a -protuberant belly, four hands, and the head of an elephant with a -single tusk. Parvati is said to have formed him from the scurf of -her body, and so proud was she of her offspring that she showed him -to the ill-omened Sani, who when he looked at him reduced his head -to ashes. Brahma advised her to replace the head with the first she -could find, and the first she found was that of an elephant. Another -story says that Ganesa's head was that of the elephant of Indra, and -that one of his tusks was broken off by the axe of Parasurama. Ganesa -is the god of learning, the patron of undertakings and the remover of -obstacles. Hence he is worshipped at marriages, and his quaint figure -stands over the house door and the entrance of the greater temples. But -there can be little doubt that he, too, is an importation from the -indigenous mythology. His elephant head and the rat as his vehicle -suggest that his worship arose from the primitive animal cultus. - - - -The Worship of the Great Mothers. - -From these generally benevolent village godlings we pass on to a -very obscure form of local worship, that of the Great Mothers. It -prevails both in Aryan and Semetic lands, [260] and there can be very -little doubt that it is founded on some of the very earliest beliefs -of the human race. No great religion is without its deified woman, -the Virgin, Maya, Radha, Fatimah, and it has been suggested that the -cultus has come down from a time before the present organization of -the family came into existence, and when descent through the mother -was the only recognized form. [261] - -We have already met instances of this mother-worship in the case of -Ganga Mai, "Mother Ganges," and Dharti Mata, "the Earth Mother." We -shall meet it again in Sitala Mata, "the small-pox Mother." - -In the old mythology Aditi, or infinite space, was regarded as the -Eternal Mother, and Prakriti was the Eternal Mother, capable of -evolving all created things out of herself, but never so creating -unless united with the eternal spirit principle embodied in the Eternal -Male, Parusha. There appears to have been a tendency on the part of -the Indo-Germanic race to look upon their deities as belonging to -both sexes at once, and hence the dualistic idea in Brahmanism of -Ardhanari, or the androgynous Siva. [262] - -We shall meet later on with the ghost of the unpurified mother, -the Churel, which is based on a different but cognate association of -ideas. Akin to this, again, is the worship of the Sati, or model wife, -to which we shall refer again, and that of the Charan women of Gujarat, -who were obliged to immolate themselves to prevent outrage from the -Kolis and other freebooters. - -This worship, probably derived from one of the so-called non-Aryan -races, was subsequently developed into that of the female energies -of the greater gods, a Brahmani of Brahma, Indrani of Indra, and -so on; and thus the simple worship of the mother has developed and -degenerated into the abominations of the Tantras. These mothers -are usually regarded as eight in number, the Ashta Matri, but the -enumeration of them varies. Sometimes there are only seven--Brahmi or -Brahmani, Maheshvari, Kaumari, Vaishnavi, Varahi, Indrani or Aindrani, -or Mahendri and Chamunda. Sometimes the number is nine--Brahmani, -Vaishnavi, Raudri, Varahi, Narasinhika, Kaumari, Mahendri, Chamunda, -Chandika. Sometimes sixteen--Gauri, Padma, Sachi, Medha, Savitri, -Vijaya, Jaya, Devasena, Svadha, Svaha, Santi, Pushti, Dhriti, Tushti, -Atmadevata, Kuladevata. [263] They are closely connected with the -worship of Siva and are attendants on his son Skanda, or Karttikeya, -and rise in the later mythology to a much greater number. - - - -Mother-worship in Gujarat. - -But it is in Gujarat that this form of worship prevails most widely -at the present day. Sir Monier-Williams enumerates about one hundred -and forty distinct Mothers, besides numerous varieties of the more -popular forms. They are probably all local deities of the Churel -type, who have been adopted into Brahmanism. Some are represented -by rudely carved images, others by simple shrines, and others are -remarkable for preferring empty shrines, and the absence of all -visible representations. Each has special functions. Thus one called -Khodiar, or "mischief," is said to cause trouble unless propitiated; -another called Antai causes and prevents whooping cough; another named -Berai prevents cholera; another called Maraki causes cholera; Hadakai -controls mad dogs and prevents hydrophobia; Asapura, represented by -two idols, satisfies the hopes of wives by giving children. Not a few -are worshipped either as causing or preventing demoniacal possession -as a form of disease. The offering of a goat's blood to some of these -Mothers is regarded as very effectual. A story is told of a Hindu -doctor who cured a whole village of an outbreak of violent influenza, -attributed to the malignant influence of an angry Mother goddess, by -simply assembling the inhabitants, muttering some cabalistic texts, -and solemnly letting loose a pair of scapegoats in a neighbouring wood -as an offering to the offended deity. One of these Mothers is connected -with the curious custom of the Couvade, which will be discussed later -on. [264] Another famous Gujarat Mother is Amba Bhavani. On the eighth -night of the Nauratra the Rana of Danta attends the worship, fans the -goddess with a horsehair fly-flapper, celebrates the fire sacrifice, -and fills with sweetmeats a huge cauldron, which, on the fall of -the garland from the neck of the goddess, the Bhils empty. Among -the offerings to her are animal sacrifice and spirituous liquor. The -image is a block of stone roughly hewn into the semblance of a human -figure. [265] - - - -Mother-worship in Upper India. - -In the Hills what is known as the Matri Puja is very popular. The -celebrant takes a plank and cleans it with rice flour. On it he -draws sixteen figures representing the Matris, and to the right -of them a representation of Ganesa. Figures of the sun and moon -are also delineated, and a brush made of sacred grass is dipped in -cow-dung and the figures touched with it. After the recital of verses, -a mixture of sugar and butter is let drop on the plank, three, five, -or seven times. The celebrant then marks the forehead of the person for -whose benefit the service is intended with a coin soaked in butter, -and keeps the money as his fee. The service concludes with a waving -of lamps to scare vicious ghosts, singing of hymns and offering of -gifts to Brahmans. [266] - -At Khalari, in the Raepur District of the Central Provinces, is a -Sati pillar worshipped under the name of Khalari Mata. According to -the current legend Khalari Mata often assumes a female human form and -goes to the adjacent fairs, carrying vegetables for sale. Whoever asks -any gift from her receives it. Once a young man returning from a fair -was overtaken by a strange woman on the road, who said she was going -to see her sister. She asked him to go in front, and said that she -would follow. Not wishing to allow a beautiful young woman to travel -alone at night, he hid himself among some bushes. Presently he heard -a great jingling noise and saw a four-armed woman go up the steep, -bare hill and disappear. It was quite certain that this was Khalari -Mata herself. [267] - -In many parts of the plains, Maya, the mother of Buddha, has been -introduced into the local worship as the Ganwdevi, or village -goddess. Her statues, which are very numerous in some places, are -freely utilized for this purpose. In the same way a figure of the -Buddha Asvaghosha is worshipped at Deoriya in the Allahabad District -as Srinagari Devi. [268] - - - -The Jungle Mothers. - -As an instance of another type of Mother-worship we may take Poru Mai -of Nadiya. She is "represented by a little piece of rough black stone -painted with red ochre, and placed beneath the boughs of an ancient -banyan tree. She is said to have been in the heart of the jungles, -with which Nadiya was originally covered, and to have suffered -from the fire which Raja Kasi Nath's men lighted to burn down the -jungle." [269] She is, in fact, a Mother goddess of the jungle, of -whom there are numerous instances. In the North-Western Provinces she -is usually known as Banspati or Bansapati Mai (Vanaspati, "mistress -of the wood"). Agni, the fire god, is described in the Rig Veda as -"the son of the Vanaspatis," or the deities of the large, old forest -trees. [270] Another name for her in the Western Districts is Asarori, -because her shrine is a pile of pebbles (rori) in which her votaries -have confidence (asa) that it will protect them from harm. The shrine -of the jungle mother is usually a pile of stones and branches to which -every passer-by contributes. When she is displeased she allows a tiger -or a leopard to kill her negligent votary. She is the great goddess -of the herdsmen and other dwellers in the forest, and they vow to her -a cock, a goat, or a young pig if she saves them and their cattle -from beasts of prey. Sometimes she is identified with the Churel, -more often with a Havva or Bhut, the spirit, usually malignant, of -some one who has met untimely death in the jungle. Akin to her is -the Ghataut of Mirzapur, who is the deity of dangerous hill passes -(ghat) and is worshipped in the same way, and Baghaut, the ghost of -a man who was killed by a tiger (bagh). These all, in the villages -along the edge of the jungle, merge in character and function with -the divine council, or Deohar, of the local gods. - - - -Other Mother Goddesses. - -Another of these divine mothers, Mata Januvi or Janami, the goddess -of births, is a sort of Juno Lucina among the Rajputs, like the Greek -Ilithyia, or the Carmenta of the Romans. Her power rests in a bead, -and all over Northern India midwives carry as a charm to secure -easy delivery a particular sort of bead, known as Kailas Maura, or -"the crown of the sacred mountain Kailasa." Difficult parturition is -a disease caused by malignant spirits, and numerous are the devices -to cure it. The ancient Britons, we are told, [271] used to bind a -magic girdle, impressed with numerous mystical figures, round the -waist of the expectant mother, and the jewel named Aetites, found -in the eagle's nest, applied to the thigh of one in labour, eases -pain and quickens delivery. Sir W. Scott [272] had a small stone, -called a toad-stone, which repelled demons from lying-in women. - -On the sacred plain of Kurukshetra there once stood a fort, known -as Chakravyuha, and to the moderns as Chakabu Ka Qila, from which to -the present day immense ancient bricks are occasionally dug. Popular -belief ascribes great efficacy to these bricks, and in cases of -protracted labour, one of them is soaked in water, which is given to -the patient to drink. Sometimes an image of the fort, which is in the -form of a labyrinth or maze, is drawn on a dish, which is first shown -to the mother and then washed in water, which is administered to the -woman. All through Nepal and the neighbouring districts, the local -rupee, which is covered with Saiva emblems, is used in the same way, -and Akbar's square rupee, known as the Charyari, because it bears the -names of the four companions (Char-Yar) of the Prophet, is credited -with the same power. There are numerous Mantras or mystic formulae -which are used for the same purpose. - -Dread famine has become a goddess under the title of Bhukhi Mata, -the "hunger Mother," who, like all the deities of this class, is -of a lean and starved appearance. [273] An interesting ceremony -for the exorcism of the hunger Mother is recorded from Bombay. The -people subscribed to purchase ten sheep, fifty fowls, one hundred -cocoanuts, betel nuts, sugar, clarified butter, frankincense, red -powder, turmeric, and flowers. A day previous to the commencement -of the ceremony, all the inhabitants of the village, taking with -them their clothes, vessels, cattle, and other movable goods, left -their houses and encamped at the gate or boundary of the village. At -the village gate a triumphal arch was erected, and it was adorned -with garlands of flowers and mango leaves covered with red powder -and turmeric. All these things are, as we shall see, well known -as scarers of demons. The villagers bathed, put on new clothes, -and then a procession was formed. On coming to the triumphal arch -the whole procession was stopped. A hole was dug in the ground, -and the village watchman put in it the head of a sheep, a cocoanut, -betel nuts, with leaves and flowers. The arch was then worshipped by -each of the villagers. The village watchman first entered the arch, -and he was followed by the villagers with music, loud cheering, and -clapping of hands. The whole party then went to the village temple, -bowed to the village god, and went to their respective houses. The -blood of the ten sheep and fifty fowls was offered to the village god, -and the flesh was distributed among the people. A dinner was given to -Brahmans and the rite came to an end. [274] The idea of the sanctity of -the arch is probably based on the same principle as that of perforated -stones, to which reference will be made in another connection. - -Greatest of all the mother goddesses of the Rajputs is Mama Devi, -the mother of the gods. She is thus on the same plane as Cybele Rhea -and Demeter, the Corn Mother, who gives the kindly increase of the -fruits of the earth. In one of her temples she is represented in the -midst of her numerous family, including the greater and the minor -divinities. Their statues are all of the purest marble, each about -three feet high and tolerably executed, though evidently since the -decline of the art. [275] - - - -Worship of Gansam Deo. - -We now come to consider some divinities special to the Dravidian -races, who touch on the North-Western Provinces to the south, across -the Kaimur and Vindhyan ranges, the physical as well as the ethnical -frontier between the valleys of the Ganges and Jumna and the mountain -country of Central India. The chief Gond deity is Gansam Deo. Some -vague attempt has been made to elevate him into the pantheon of -Brahmanism, and his name has been corrupted into Ghanasyama, which -means in Sanskrit, "black like the heavy rain clouds of the rainy -season," and is an epithet of Rama and of Krishna. One legend derives -him from an actual Gond chieftain, just as many of the local godlings -whom we shall consider afterwards have sprung from real living persons -of eminence, or those who have lost their lives in some exceptional -way. It is said that this chieftain was devoured by a tiger soon after -his marriage. As might have been expected, his spirit was restless, -and one year after his death he visited his wife and she conceived -by him. Instances of such miraculous conceptions are common in -folk-lore. [276] "The descendants of this ghostly embrace are, it is -said, living to this day at Amoda, in the Central Provinces. He, about -the same time, appeared to many of his old friends, and persuaded them -that he could save them from the maws of tigers and other calamities, -if his worship were duly inaugurated and regularly performed; and in -consequence of this, two festivals in the year were established in -his honour; but he may be worshipped at any time, and in all sickness -and misfortunes his votaries confidently appeal to him." [277] - -In the Hill country of Mirzapur, the shrine of Gansam is about one -hundred yards from the village site and without any ornamentation. Both -inside and outside is a platform of mud, on which the deity can rest -when so disposed. The only special offerings to him are the curious -water-pots (kalsa) already described, and some rude clay figures of -horses and elephants, which are regarded as the equipage (sawari) of -the deity. In the Central Provinces, "a bamboo with a red or yellow -flag tied to the end is planted in one corner, an old withered garland -or two is hung up, a few blocks of rough stone, some smeared with -vermilion, are strewn about the place which is specially dedicated -to Gansam Deo." [278] - - - -Worship of Dantan Deo and Lalita. - -To the east of the Mirzapur District, there is a projecting mass -of rock, which, looked at from a particular place, bears a rude -resemblance to a hideous, grinning skull, with enormous teeth. This -has come to be known as Dantan Deo or "the deity of the teeth," -and is carefully propitiated by people when they are sick or in -trouble. Akin to this deity is Lalita, who is worshipped to the west -of the Province. She is the sister of Kali, and brings bad dreams. Her -speciality is her long teeth, and she has sometimes a curious way -of blowing up or inflating the bodies of people who do not pay her -due respect. - - - -Worship of Dulha Deo, the Bridegroom Godling. - -Another great godling of the Dravidian races is Dulha Deo, "the -bridegroom godling." In his worship we have an echo of some great -tragedy, which still exercises a profound influence over the minds -of the people. - -The bridegroom on his way to fetch the bride, is, by established -Hindu custom, treated with special reverence, and this unfortunate -bridegroom, whose name is forgotten, is said to have been killed by -lightning in the midst of his marriage rejoicings, and he and his -horse were turned into stone. In fact, like Ganymede or Hylas, he was -carried off by the envy or cruel love of the merciless divine powers. - -He is now one of the chief household deities of the Dravidian -people. Flowers are offered to him on the last day of Phalgun -(February), and at marriages a goat. Among some of the Gond tribes -he has the first place, and is identified with Pharsipen, the god -of war. In the native States of Riwa and Sarguja, even Brahmans -worship him, and his symbol or fetish is the battle-axe, the national -weapon of the Dravidian races, fastened to a tree. In Mirzapur he -is pre-eminently the marriage godling. In the marriage season he is -worshipped in the family cook-room, and at weddings oil and turmeric -are offered to him. When two or three children in the same hamlet -are being married at the same time, there is a great offering made -of a red goat and cakes; and to mark the benevolent character of the -deity as a household godling, the women, contrary to the usual rule, -are allowed a share of the meat. This purely domestic worship is -not done by the Baiga or devil priest, but by the Tikait or eldest -son of the family. He is specially the tribal god of the Ghasiyas, -who pour a little spirits in the cook-room in honour of him and of -deceased relatives. The songs in his honour lay special stress on the -delicacies which the house-mother prepares for his entertainment. Among -the Kharwars, when the newly married pair come home, he is worshipped -near the family hearth. A goat is fed on rice and pulse, and its head -is cut off with an axe, the worshipper folding his hands and saying, -"Take it, Dulha Deo!" - -On the day when this worship is performed, the ashes of the fireplace -are carefully removed with the hands, a broom is not used, and special -precautions are taken that none of the ashes fall on the ground. - -General Sleeman gives the legend of Dulha Deo in another form. - -"In descending into the valley of the Narmada over the Vindhya range -from Bhopal, one may see on the side of the road, upon a spur of -the hill, a singular pillar of sandstone rising in two spires, one -turning and rising above the other to the height of some twenty to -thirty feet. On the spur of a hill, half a mile distant, is another -sandstone pillar not quite so high. The tradition is that the smaller -pillar was the affianced bride of the larger one, who was a youth -of a family of great eminence in those parts. Coming with his uncle -to pay his first visit to his bride in the marriage procession, he -grew more and more impatient as he approached nearer and nearer, -and she shared the feeling. At last, unable to restrain himself, -he jumped from his uncle's shoulders, and looked with all his might -towards the place where his bride was said to be seated. Unhappily -she felt no less impatient than he did, and they saw each other at -the same moment. In that moment the bride, bridegroom, and uncle were, -all three, converted into pillars, and there they stand to this day, -a monument to warn mankind against an inclination to indulge in -curiosity. It is a singular fact that in one of the most extensive -tribes of the Gond population, to which this couple is said to have -belonged, the bride always, contrary to the usual Hindu custom, -goes to the bridegroom in procession to prevent a recurrence of this -calamity." [279] - -This legend is interesting from various points of view. In the first -place it is an example of a process of thought of which we shall find -instances in dealing with fetishism, whereby a legend is localized in -connection with some curious phenomenon in the scenery, which attracts -general attention. Secondly, we have an instance of the primitive -taboo which appears constantly in folk-lore, where, as in the case -of Lot's wife, the person who shows indiscreet curiosity by a look is -turned into stone or ashes. [280] Thirdly, it may represent a survival -of a custom not uncommon among primitive races, where the marriage -capturing is done, not by the bridegroom, but by the bride. Thus, -among the Garos, all proposals of marriage must come from the lady's -side, and any infringement of the custom can only be atoned for by -liberal presents of beer given to her relations by the friends of -the bridegroom, who pretends to be unwilling and runs away, but is -caught and subjected to ablution, and then taken, in spite of the -resistance and counterfeited grief and lamentations of the parents, -to the bride's house. [281] It may then reasonably be expected that -this custom of marriage prevailed among some branches of the Gond -tribe, and that as they came more and more under Hindu influence, -an unorthodox ritual prevailing in certain clans was explained by -annexing the familiar legend of Dulha Deo. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE GODLINGS OF DISEASE. - - - Kai gar toisi kakon chrysothronos Artemis orsen - Chosamene ho oi outi thalysia gouno aloes - Oineus rhex. - - Iliad ix. 533-535. - - -We now come to consider a class of rural godlings, the deities who -control disease. - - - -The Demoniacal Theory of Disease. - -It is a commonplace of folk-lore and the beliefs of all savage -races that disease and death are not the result of natural causes, -but are the work of devils and demons, witchcraft, the Evil Eye, -and so forth. It is not difficult to understand the basis on which -beliefs of this class depend. There are certain varieties of disease, -such as hysteria, dementia, epilepsy, convulsions, the delirium of -fever, which in the rural mind indicate the actual working of an evil -spirit which has attacked the patient. There are, again, others, such -as cholera, which are so sudden and unexpected, so irregular in their -appearances, so capricious in the victims which they select, that they -naturally suggest the idea that they are caused by demons. Even to -this day the belief in the origin of disease from spirit possession -is still common in rural England. Fits, the falling sickness, ague, -cramp, warts, are all believed to be caused by a spirit entering the -body of the patient. Hence comes the idea that the spirit which is -working the mischief can be scared by a charm or by the exorcism of -a sorcerer. They say to the ague, "Ague! farewell till we meet in -hell," and to the cramp, "Cramp! be thou faultless, as Our Lady was -when she bore Jesus." - -It is needless to say that the same theory flourishes in rural -India. Thus, in Rajputana, [282] sickness is popularly attributed to -Khor, or the agency of the offended spirits of deceased relations, -and for treatment they call in a "cunning man," who propitiates the -Khor by offering sweetmeats, milk, and similar things, and gives burnt -ash and black pepper sanctified by charms to the patient. The Mahadeo -Kolis of Ahmadnagar believe that every malady or disease that seizes -man, woman, child, or cattle is caused either by an evil spirit or -by an angry god. The Bijapur Vaddars have a yearly feast to their -ancestors to prevent the dead bringing sickness into the house. [283] - -Further east in North Bhutan all diseases are supposed to be due to -possession, and the only treatment is by the use of exorcisms. Among -the Garos, when a man sickens the priest asks which god has done -it. The Kukis and Khandhs believe that all sickness is caused by a -god or by an offended ancestor. [284] - -So among the jungle tribes of Mirzapur, the Korwas believe that all -disease is caused by the displeasure of the Deohar, or the collective -village godlings. These deities sometimes become displeased for -no apparent reason, sometimes because their accustomed worship is -neglected, and sometimes through the malignity of some witch. The -special diseases which are attributed to the displeasure of these -godlings are fever, diarrhoea and cough. If small-pox comes of its -own accord in the ordinary form, it is harmless, but a more dangerous -variety is attributed to the anger of the local deities. Cholera -and fever are regarded as generally the work of some special Bhut or -angry ghost. The Kharwars believe that disease is due to the Baiga not -having paid proper attention to Raja Chandol and the other tutelary -godlings of the village. The Pankas think that disease comes in -various ways--sometimes through ghosts or witches, sometimes because -the godlings and deceased ancestors were not suitably propitiated. All -these people believe that in the blazing days of the Indian summer -the goddess Devi flies through the air and strikes any child which -wears a red garment. The result is the symptoms which less imaginative -people call sunstroke. Instances of similar beliefs drawn from the -superstitions of the lower races all over the country might be almost -indefinitely extended. Even in our own prayers for the sick we pray the -Father "to renew whatsoever has been decayed by the fraud and malice -of the Devil, or by the carnal will and frailness" of the patient. - -Leprosy is a disease which is specially regarded as a punishment for -sin, and a Hindu affected by this disease remains an outcast until he -can afford to undertake a purificatory ceremony. Even lesser ailments -are often attributed to the wrath of some offended god or saint. Thus, -in Satara, the King Sateswar asked the saint Sumitra for water. The -sage was wrapped in contemplation, and did not answer him. So the -angry monarch took some lice from the ground and threw them at the -saint, who cursed the King with vermin all over his body. He endured -the affliction for twelve years, until he was cured by ablution at -the sacred fountain of Devrashta. [285] As we shall see, the Bengalis -have a special deity who rules the itch. - -From ideas of this kind the next stage is the actual impersonation of -the deity who brings disease, and hence the troop of disease godlings -which are worshipped all over India, and to whose propitiation much -of the thoughts of the peasant are devoted. - - - -Sitala, the Goddess of Small-pox. - -Of these deities the most familiar is Sitala, "she that loves the -cool," so called euphemistically in consequence of the fever which -accompanies small-pox, the chief infant plague of India, which is under -her control. Sitala has other euphemistic names. She is called Mata, -"the Mother" par excellence; Jag Rani, "the queen of the world;" -Phapholewali, "she of the vesicle;" Kalejewali, "she who attacks the -liver," which is to the rustic the seat of all disease. Some call -her Maha Mai, "the great Mother." These euphemistic titles for the -deities of terror are common to all the mythologies. The Greeks of old -called the awful Erinyes, the Eumenides, "the well-meaning." So the -modern Greeks picture the small-pox as a woman, the enemy of children, -and call her Sunchoremene, "indulgent," or "exorable," and Eulogia, -"one to be praised or blessed;" and the Celts call the fairies "the -men of peace" and "the good people," or "good neighbours." [286] - -In her original form as a village goddess she has seldom a special -priest or a regular temple. A few fetish stones, tended by some -low-class menial, constitute her shrine. As she comes to be promoted -into some form of Kali or Devi, she is provided with an orthodox -shrine. She receives little or no respect from men, but women and -children attend her service in large numbers on "Sitala's seventh," -Sitala Ki Saptami, which is her feast day. In Bengal she is worshipped -on a piece of ground marked out and smeared with cow-dung. A fire -being lighted, and butter and spirits thrown upon it, the worshipper -makes obeisance, bowing his forehead to the ground and muttering -incantations. A hog is then sacrificed, and the bones and offal being -burnt, the flesh is roasted and eaten, but no one must take home with -him any scrap of the victim. [287] - -Two special shrines of Sitala in Upper India may be specially referred -to. That at Kankhal near Hardwar has a curious legend, which admirably -illustrates the catholicity of Hinduism. Here the local Sitala has -the special title of Turkin, or "the Muhammadan lady." There was once -a princess born to one of the Mughal Emperors, who, according to the -traditions of the dynasty, when many of the chief ladies of the harem -were of Hindu birth, had a warm sympathy for her ancestral faith. So -she made a pilgrimage to Hardwar, and thence set off to visit the holy -shrines situated in the upper course of the Ganges. When she reached -the holy land of Badarinath, the god himself appeared to her in a -dream, and warned her that she being a Musalman, her intrusion into -his domains would probably encourage the attacks of the infidel. So -he ordered her to return and take up her abode in Kankhal, where as a -reward for her piety she should after her death become the guardian -goddess of children and be deified as a manifestation of Sitala. So -after her death a temple was erected on the site of her tomb, and she -receives the homage of multitudes of pilgrims. There is another noted -shrine of Sitala at Raewala, in the Dehra Dun District. She is a Sati, -Gandhari, the wife of Dhritarashtra, the mother of Duryodhana. When -Dhritarashtra, through the force of his divine absorption, was consumed -with fire at Sapta-srota, near Hardwar, Gandhari also jumped into -the fire and became Sati with her husband. Then, in recognition of -her piety, the gods blessed her with the boon that in the Iron Age -she should become the guardian deity of children and the goddess of -small-pox in particular. Another noted Sitala in this part of the -country is the deity known as Ujali Mata, or "the White Mother," -who has a shrine in the Muzaffarnagar District. Here vast crowds -assemble, and women make vows at her temple for the boon of sons, -and when a child is born they take it there and perform their vow -by making the necessary offering to the goddess. One peculiarity of -the worship of the Kankhal goddess and of Ujali Mata is that calves -are released at her shrine. This can hardly be anything else but a -survival of the rite of cattle slaughter, and this is one of many -indications that the worship of Sitala is a most primitive cult, -and probably of indigenous origin. - -Sitala, according to one story, is only the eldest of a band of seven -sisters, by whom the pustular group of diseases is supposed to be -caused. So the charmer Lilith has twelve daughters, who are the twelve -kinds of fevers, and this arrangement of diseases or evil spirits in -categories of sevens or twelves is found in the Chaldaic magic. [288] -Similarly in the older Indian mythology we have the seven Matris, -the seven oceans, the seven Rishis, the seven Adityas and Danavas, -and the seven horses of the sun, and numerous other combinations of -this mystic number. One list gives their names as Sitala, Masani, -Basanti, Maha Mai, Polamde, Lamkariya, and Agwani. [289] We shall -meet Masani or Masan, the deity of the cremation ground, in another -connection. Basanti is the "yellow goddess," so called probably on -account of the colour of the skin in these diseases. Maha Mai is merely -"the great Mother." Polamde is possibly "she who makes the body soft or -flabby," and Lamkariya, "she that hasteneth." Agwani is said to mean -"the leader," and by one account, Agwan, who has twenty-five thousand -votaries, according to the last census returns, in the North-West -Provinces, is the son of Raja Ben, or Vena, and the brother of the -small-pox sisters. At Hardwar they give the names of the seven sisters -as Sitala, Sedala, Runuki, Jhunuki, Mihila, Merhala, and Mandila, a -set of names which smacks of some modification of an aboriginal cultus. - -Their shrines cluster round the special shrine of Sitala, and the -villagers to the west of the North-West Provinces call them her -Khidmatgars, or body servants. Round many of the shrines again, as at -Kankhal, we find a group of minor shrines, which by one explanation -are called the shrines of the other disease godlings. Villagers -say that when disease appears in a family, the housewife comes and -makes a vow, and if the patient recovers she makes a little shrine -to the peculiar form of Devi which she considers responsible for the -illness. The Brahmans say that these minor shrines are in honour -of the Yoginis, who are usually said to number eight--Marjani, -Karpuratilaka, Malayagandhini Kauamudika, Bherunda, Matali, Nayaki, -Jaya or Subhachara, Sulakshana and Sunanda. In the Gurgaon District, -accompanying images of Sitala, is one of Sedhu Lala, who is inferior -to her, yet often worshipped before her, because he is regarded as her -servant and intercessor. Copper coins are thrown behind her shrine into -a saucer, which is known as her Malkhana or Treasury. Rice and other -articles of food are placed in front of her shrine, and afterwards -distributed to Chamars, the currier caste, and to dogs. [290] - -Like so many deities of this class Sitala is on the way to promotion -to the higher heaven. In some places she is identified with Kalika -Bhavani, and one list of the seven small-pox sisters gives their -names as Sitala, Phulmati, Chamariya, Durga Kali, Maha Kali, -and Bhadra Kali. This has obviously passed through the mill of -Brahmanism. Of these, Chamariya is doubtless allied to Chamar, who is -a vaguely described low-caste deity, worshipped in the North-Western -Provinces. Some say he is the ghost of a Chamar, or worker in leather, -who died an untimely death. Chamariya is said to be the eldest and -Phulmati the youngest sister of Sitala. She, by the common account, -takes her name from the pustules (phul) of the disease. She brings -the malady in its mildest form, and the worst variety is the work -of Sitala in person. She lives in the Nim tree, and hence a patient -suffering from the disease is fanned with its leaves. A very bad -form of confluent small-pox is the work of Chamariya, who must be -propitiated with the offering of a pig through a Chamar or other -low-caste priest. The influence of Kali in her threefold form is -chiefly felt in connection with other pustular diseases besides -small-pox. Earthenware images of elephants are placed at her shrine, -and her offerings consist of cakes, sweetmeats, pigs, goats, sheep, -and black fowls. Bhadra Kali is the least formidable of all. The only -person who has influence over Kali is the Ojha, or sorcerer, who, -when cholera and similar epidemics prevail, collects a subscription -and performs a regular expiatory service. - - - -Connection of Sitala with Human Sacrifice. - -In her form as household goddess, Sitala is often known as Thandi, -or "the cool one," and her habitation is in the house behind the -water-pots, in the cold, damp place where the water drips. Here she -is worshipped by the house-mother, but only cold food or cold water -is offered to her. - -There is, however, a darker side to the worship of Sitala and the -other disease godlings than this mild household service. In 1817 -a terrible epidemic of cholera broke out at Jessore. "The disease -commenced its ravages in August, and it was at once discovered that -the August of this year had five Saturdays (a day under the influence -of the ill-omened Sani). The number five being the express property of -the destructive Siva, a mystical connection was at once detected, the -infallibly baneful influence of which it would have been sacrilege to -question. On the night of the 27th a strange commotion spread through -the villages adjacent to the station. A number of magicians were -reported to have quitted Marelli with a human head in their possession, -which they were to be directed by the presence of supernatural signs -to leave in a certain, and to them unknown, village. The people on all -sides were ready by force to arrest the progress of these nocturnal -visitors. For the prophecy foretold that wherever the head fell, -the destroying angel terminating her sanguinary course would rest, -and the demon of death, thus satisfied, would refrain from further -devastation in that part of the country. Dr. Tytler says that on -that night, while walking along the road, endeavouring to allay the -agitation, the judge and he perceived a faint light arising from -a thick clump of bamboos. Attracted to the spot, they found a hut -which was illuminated, and contained images of five Hindu gods, one of -which was Sitala, the celebrated and formidable Aula Bibi, 'Our Lady -of the Flux,' an incarnation of Kali, who it is believed is one day -to appear riding on a horse for the purpose of slaughtering mankind, -and of setting the world on fire. In front of the idol a female child -about nine years of age lay on the ground. She was evidently stupefied -with intoxicating drugs, and in this way prepared to answer responses -to such questions as those initiated into the mysteries should think -proper to propose." [291] There is much in this statement which is open -to question, and it seems doubtful whether, as Dr. Chevers is disposed -to believe, the case was really one of intended human sacrifice. - - - -Small-pox Worship in Bengal. - -In Bengal the divine force antagonistic to Sitala is Shashthi, -"goddess of the sixth," who is regarded as the special guardian of -children. The worship of Shashthi rests on a physiological fact, -which has only recently been applied to explain this special form -of worship. The most fatal disease of Indian children is a form of -infantile lock-jaw, which is caused by the use of a coarse, blunt -instrument, such as a sickle, for severing the umbilical cord. This -disease usually makes its appearance between the sixth and twelfth -day of the life of the child, and hence we have the formal rites of -purification from the birth pollution performed as the Chhathi on -the sixth and the Barahi on the twelfth day after delivery. - -"In Bengal when small-pox rages, the gardeners are busiest. As -soon as the nature of the disease is determined, the physician -retires and a gardener is summoned. His first act is to forbid the -introduction of meat, fish, and all food requiring oil or spices -for its preparation. He then ties a lock of hair, a cowry shell, -a piece of turmeric, and an article of gold on the right wrist of -the patient. (The use of these articles as scarers of evil spirits -will be considered later on.) The sick person is then laid on the -Majhpatta, the young and unexpanded leaf of the plantain tree, and -milk is prescribed as the sole article of food. He is fanned with a -branch of the sacred Nim (Azidirachta Indica), and any one entering -the chamber is sprinkled with water. Should the fever become aggravated -and delirium ensue, or if the child cries much and sleeps little, the -gardener performs the Mata Puja. This consists in bathing an image of -the goddess causing the disease, and giving a draught of the water to -drink. To relieve the irritation of the skin, pease meal, turmeric, -flour or shell sawdust is sprinkled over the body. If the eruption -be copious, a piece of new cloth in the figure of eight is wrapped -round the chest and shoulders. On the night between the seventh and -eighth days of the eruption, the gardener has much to do. He places -a water-pot in the sick-room, and puts on it rice, a cocoanut, sugar, -plantains, a yellow rag, flowers, and a few Nim leaves. Having mumbled -several spells (mantra), he recites the tale (qissa) of the particular -goddess, which often occupies several hours. When the pustules -are mature, the gardener dips a thorn of the Karaunda (Carissa) in -sesamum oil and punctures each one. The body is then anointed with -oil, and cooling fruits are given. When the scabs have peeled off, -another ceremony called Godam is gone through. All the offerings on -the water-pot are rolled in a cloth and fastened round the waist of -the patient. The offerings are the perquisite of the gardener, who -also receives a fee. Government vaccinators earn a considerable sum -yearly by executing the Sitala worship, and when a child is vaccinated, -a portion of the service is performed"--a curious compromise between -the indigenous faith and European medical science. [292] - -The special Tirhut observance of the Jur Sital or "smallpox fever" -feast will be more conveniently considered in connection with other -usages of the same kind. - - - -Matangi Sakti and Masan. - -We have already seen that Sitala is in the stage of promotion to the -Brahmanical heaven. Here her special name is Matangi Sakti, a word -which has been connected with Mata and Masan, but really refers to -Durga-Devi in her terrible elephant form. Masan or Masani is quite -a different goddess. She resides at the Masan or cremation ground, -and is greatly dreaded. The same name is in the eastern district of -the North-Western Provinces applied to the tomb of some low-caste man, -very often a Teli or oilman, or a Dhobi or washerman, both of whose -ghosts are generally obnoxious. Envious women will take the ashes -from a cremation ground and throw them over an enemy's child. This is -said to cause them to be "under the influence of the shadow" (Saya, -Chhaya) and to waste away by slow decline. This idea is familiar -in folk-lore. All savages believe that their shadow is a part of -themselves, that if it be hurt the owner of it will feel pain, that a -man may lose his shadow altogether and thus be deprived of part of his -soul and strength, and that vicious people, as in the present case, -can fling their shadow upon you and cause you injury. [293] - -Matangi Sakti, again, appears in at least eight forms--Rauka Devi, -Ghrauka Devi, Mela Devi, Mandla Devi, Sitala Devi, Durga Devi and -Sankara Devi, a collection of names which indicates the extraordinary -mixture of beliefs, some of them importations from the regular -mythology, but others obscure and local manifestations of the deity, -out of which this worship has been developed. She is described as -having ears as large as a winnowing fan, projecting teeth, a hideous -face with a wide open mouth. Her vehicle is the ass, an animal very -often found in association with shrines of Sitala. She carries a broom -and winnowing fan with which she sifts mankind, and in one hand a -pitcher and ewer. This fan and broom are, as we shall see later on, -most powerful fetishes. All this is sheer mythology at its lowest -stage, and represents the grouping of various local fetish beliefs -on the original household worship. - - - -Journey forbidden during an Epidemic of Small-pox. - -During a small-pox epidemic no journey, not even a pilgrimage to a holy -shrine, should be undertaken. Gen. Sleeman [294] gives a curious case -in illustration of this: "At this time the only son of Rama Krishna's -brother, Khushhal Chand, an interesting boy of about four years of age, -was extremely ill of small-pox. His father was told that he had better -defer his journey to Benares till the child should recover; but he -could neither eat nor sleep, so great was his terror lest some dreadful -calamity should befall the whole family before he could expiate a -sacrilege which he had committed unwittingly, or take the advice of -his high priest, as to the best manner of doing so, and he resolved -to leave the decision to God himself. He took two pieces of paper and -having caused Benares to be written on one and Jabalpur on the other, -he put them both in a brass vessel. After shaking the vessel well, -he drew forth that on which Benares had been written. 'It is the will -of God,' said Rama Krishna. All the family who were interested in the -preservation of the poor boy implored him not to set out, lest the Devi -who presides over small-pox should be angry. It was all in vain. He -would set out with his household god, and unable to carry it himself, -he put it upon a small litter upon a pole, and hired a bearer to carry -it at one end while he supported the other. His brother Khushhal Chand -sent his second wife at the same time with offerings to the Devi, to -ward off the effects of his brother's rashness from the child. By the -time his brother had got with his god to Adhartal, three miles from -Jabalpur, he heard of the death of his nephew. But he seemed not to -feel this slight blow in the terror of the dreadful, but undefined, -calamity which he felt to be impending over him and the whole family, -and he went on his road. Soon after, an infant son of his uncle died -of the same disease, and the whole town at once became divided into -two parties--those who held that the child had been killed by the Devi -as a punishment for Rama Krishna's presuming to leave Jabalpur before -they recovered, and those who held that they were killed by the god -Vishnu himself for having deprived him of one of his arms. Khushhal -Chand's wife sickened on the road and died before reaching Mirzapur; -and as the Devi was supposed to have nothing to say to fevers, this -event greatly augmented the advocates of Vishnu." - - - -Observances during Small-pox Epidemics. - -In the Panjab when a child falls ill of small-pox no one is allowed -to enter the house, especially if he have bathed, washed, or combed -his hair, and if any one does come in, he is made to burn incense -at the door. Should a thunderstorm come on before the vesicles have -fully come out, the sound is not allowed to enter the ear of the -sick child, and metal plates are violently beaten to drown the noise -of the thunder. For six or seven days, when the disease is at its -height, the child is fed with raisins covered with silver leaf. When -the vesicles have fully developed it is believed that Devi Mata has -come. When the disease has abated a little, water is thrown over the -child. Singers and drummers are summoned and the parents make with -their friends a procession to the temple of Devi, carrying the child -dressed in saffron-coloured clothes. A man goes in advance with a bunch -of sacred grass in his hands, from which he sprinkles a mixture of -milk and water. In this way they visit some fig-tree or other shrine -of Devi, to which they tie red ribbons and besmear it with red lead, -paint and curds. [295] - -One method of protecting children from the disease is to give them -opprobrious names, and dress them in rags. This, with other devices -for disease transference, will be discussed later on. We have seen that -the Nim tree is supposed to influence the disease; hence branches of it -are hung over the door of the sick-room. Thunder disturbs the goddess -in possession of the child, so the family flour-mill, which, as as -we shall see, has mystic powers, is rattled near the child. Another -device is to feed a donkey, which is the animal on which Sitala -rides. This is specially known in the Panjab as the Jandi Puja. [296] -In the same belief that the patient is under the direct influence -of the goddess, if death ensues the purification of the corpse by -cremation is considered both unnecessary and improper. Like Gusains, -Jogis, and similar persons who are regarded as inspired, those who -die of this disease are buried, not cremated. As Sir A. C. Lyall -observes, [297] "The rule is ordinarily expounded by the priests to -be imperative, because the outward signs and symptoms mark the actual -presence of divinity; the small-pox is not the god's work, but the -god himself manifest; but there is also some ground for concluding -that the process of burying has been found more wholesome than the -hurried and ill-managed cremation, which prevails during a fatal -epidemic." Gen. Sleeman gives an instance of an outbreak of the disease -which was attributed to a violation of this traditional rule. [298] - - - -Minor Disease Godlings. - -There are a number of minor disease godlings, some of whom may be -mentioned here. The Benares godling of malaria is Jvaraharisvara, -"the god who repels the fever." The special offering to him is what -is called Dudhbhanga, a confection made of milk, the leaves of the -hemp plant and sweetmeats. Among the Kols of Chaibasa, Bangara is -the godling of fever and is associated with Gohem, Chondu, Negra and -Dichali, who are considered respectively the godlings of cholera, -the itch, indigestion and death. The Bengalis have a special service -for the worship of Ghentu, the itch godling. The scene of the service -is a dunghill. A broken earthenware pot, its bottom blackened with -constant use for cooking, daubed white with lime, interspersed with a -few streaks of turmeric, together with a branch or two of the Ghentu -plant, and last, not least, a broomstick of the genuine palmyra or -cocoanut stock, serve as the representation of the presiding deity -of itch. The mistress of the family, for whose benefit the worship -is done, acts as priestess. After a few doggrel lines are recited, -the pot is broken and the pieces collected by the children, who sing -songs about the itch godling. [299] - -Some of these godlings are, like Shashthi, protectors of children -from infantile disorders. Such are in Hoshangabad Bijaysen, in -whose name a string, which, as we shall see, exercises a powerful -influence over demons, is hung round the necks of children from birth -till marriage, and Kurdeo, whose name represents the Kuladevata, or -family deity. Among the Kurkus he presides over the growth and health -of the children in three or four villages together. [300] Acheri, a -disease sprite in the Hills, particularly favours those who wear red -garments, and in his name a scarlet thread is tied round the throat as -an amulet against cold, and goitre. Ghanta Karana, "he who has ears -as broad as a bell," or "who wears bells in his ears," is another -disease godling of the Hills. He is supposed to be of great personal -attractions, and is worshipped under the form of a water jar as the -healer of cutaneous diseases. He is a gate-keeper, or, in other words, -a godling on his promotion, in many of the Garhwal temples. [301] - -Among the Kurkus of Hoshangabad, Mutua Deo is represented by a heap -of stones inside the village. His special sacrifice is a pig, and his -particular mission is to send epidemics, and particularly fevers, in -which case he must be propitiated with extraordinary sacrifices. [302] - -One of the great disease Mothers is Mari Bhavani. She has -her speciality in the regulation of cholera, which she spreads or -withholds according to the attention she receives. They tell a curious -story about her in Oudh. Safdar Jang, having established his virtual -independence of the Mughal Empire, determined to build a capital. He -selected as the site for it the high bank of the Gumti, overlooking -Paparghat in Sultanpur. And but for the accident of a sickly season, -that now comparatively unknown locality might have enjoyed the -celebrity which afterwards fell to the lot of Faizabad. The fort was -already begun when the news reached the Emperor, who sent his minister -a khilat, to all outward appearance suited to his rank and dignity. The -royal gift had been packed up with becoming care, and its arrival does -not seem to have struck Safdar Jang as incompatible with the rebellious -attitude which he had assumed. The box in which it was enclosed was -opened with due ceremony, when it was discovered that the Emperor, -with grim pleasantry, had selected as an appropriate gift an image -of Mari Bhavani. The mortality which ensued in Safdar Jang's army was -appalling, and the site was abandoned, Mari Bhavani being left in sole -possession. Periodical fairs are now held there in her honour. [303] - - - -Hardaul Lala, the Cholera Godling. - -But the great cholera godling of Northern India is Hardaul, Hardaur, -Harda, Hardiya or Hardiha Lala. It is only north of the Jumna that he -appears to control the plague, and in Bundelkhand, his native home, -he seems to have little connection with it. With him we reach a class -of godlings quite distinct from nearly all those whom we have been -considering. He is one of that numerous class who were in their -lifetime actual historical personages, and who from some special -cause, in his case from the tragic circumstances of his death, have -been elevated to a seat among the hosts of heaven. Hardaur Lala, or -Divan Hardaur, was the second son of Bir Sinha Deva, the miscreant -Raja of Orchha, in Bundelkhand, who, at the instigation of Prince -Jahangir, assassinated the accomplished Abul Fazl, the litterateur -of the court of Akbar. [304] His brother Jhajhar, or Jhujhar, Sinh -succeeded to the throne on the death of his father; and after some -time suspecting Hardaur of undue intimacy with his wife, he compelled -her to poison her lover with all his companions at a feast in 1627 A.D. - -After this tragedy it happened that the daughter of the Princess -Kanjavati, sister of Jhajhar and Hardaur, was about to be married. Her -mother, according to the ordinary rule of family etiquette, sent an -invitation to Jhajhar Sinh to attend the wedding. He refused with the -mocking taunt that she would be wise to invite her favourite brother -Hardaur. Thereupon, she in despair went to his cenotaph and lamented -his wretched end. Hardaur from below answered her cries, and promised -to attend the wedding and make all the necessary arrangements. The -ghost kept his promise, and arranged the marriage ceremony as befitted -the honour of his house. - -Subsequently he is said to have visited the bedside of the Emperor -Akbar at midnight, and besought him to issue an order that platforms -should be erected in his name, and honour be paid to him in every -village of the Empire, promising that if he were duly propitiated, -no wedding should ever be marred with storm or rain, and that no one -who before eating presented a share of his meal to him, should ever -want for bread. Akbar, it is said, complied with these requests, and -since then the ghost of Hardaul has been worshipped in nearly every -village in Northern India. But here, as in many of these legends, -the chronology is hopeless. Akbar died in 1605 A.D., and the murder -of Hardaul is fixed in 1627. - -He is chiefly honoured at weddings, and in the month of Baisakh (May), -when the women, particularly those of the lower classes, visit his -shrine and eat the offerings presented to him. The shrine is always -erected outside the hamlet, and is decorated with flags. On the day -but one before the arrival of a wedding procession, the women of -the family worship Hardaul, and invite him to the ceremony. If any -signs of a storm appear, he is propitiated with songs, one of the -best known of which runs thus-- - - - Lala! Thy shrine is in every hamlet! - Thy name throughout the land! - Lord of the Bundela land! - May God increase thy fame! - - -Or in the local patois-- - - - Ganwan chauntra, - Lala desan nam: - Bundele des ke Raiya, - Rau ke. - Tumhari jay rakhe - Bhagwan! - - -Many of these shrines have a stone figure of the hero represented on -horseback, set up at the head or west side of the platform. From his -birthplace Hardaul is also known as Bundela, and one of the quarters -in Mirzapur, and in the town of Brindaban in the Mathura District, -is named after him. [305] - -But while in his native land of Bundelkhand Hardaul is a wedding -godling, in about the same rank as Dulha Deo among the Dravidian -tribes, to the north of the Jumna it is on his power of influencing -epidemics of cholera that his reputation mainly rests. The terrible -outbreak of this pestilence, which occurred in the camp of the -Governor-General, the Marquess Hastings, during the Pindari war, was -generally attributed by the people to the killing of beef for the -use of the British troops in the grove where the ashes of Hardaul -repose. Sir C. A. Elliott remarks that he has seen statements in -the old official correspondence of 1828 A.D., when we first took -possession of Hoshangabad, that the district officers were directed -to force the village headmen to set up altars to Hardaul Lala in every -village. This was part of the system of "preserving the cultivators," -since it was found that they ran away, if their fears of epidemics were -not calmed by the respect paid to the local gods. But in Hoshangabad, -the worship of Hardaul Lala has fallen into great neglect in recent -times, the repeated recurrence of cholera having shaken the belief -in the potency of his influence over the disease. [306] - - - -Exorcism of the Cholera Demon. - -Mention has been already made of the common belief in an actual -embodiment of pestilence in a human or ghostly form. A disease -so sudden and mysterious as cholera is naturally capable of a -superstitious explanation of this kind. Everywhere it is believed to -be due to the agency of a demon, which can be expelled by noise and -special incantations, or removed by means of a scapegoat. Thus, the -Muhammadans of Herat believed that a spirit of cholera stalked through -the land in advance of the actual disease. [307] All over Upper India, -when cholera prevails, you may see fires lighted on the boundaries -of villages to bar the approach of the demon of the plague, and the -people shouting and beating drums to hasten his departure. On one -occasion I was present at such a ceremonial while out for an evening -drive, and as we approached the place the grooms advised us to stop -the horses in order to allow the demon to cross the road ahead of us -without interruption. - -This expulsion of the disease spirit is often a cause of quarrels and -riots, as villages who are still safe from the epidemic strongly resent -the introduction of the demon within their boundaries. In a recent case -at Allahabad a man stated that the cholera monster used to attempt to -enter his house nightly, that his head resembled a large earthen pot, -and that he and his brother were obliged to bar his entrance with their -clubs. Another attributed the immunity of his family to the fact that -he possessed a gun, which he regularly fired at night to scare the -demon. Not long ago some men in the same district enticed the cholera -demon into an earthen pot by magical rites, and clapping on the lid, -formed a procession in the dead of night for the purpose of carrying -the pot to a neighbouring village, with which their relations were the -reverse of cordial, and burying it there secretly. But the enemy were -on the watch, and turned out in force to frustrate this fell intent. A -serious riot occurred, in the course of which the receptacle containing -the evil spirit was unfortunately broken and he escaped to continue -his ravages in the neighbourhood. [308] In Bombay, when cholera breaks -out in a village, the village potter is asked to make an image of the -goddess of cholera. When the image is ready, the village people go in -procession to the potter's house, and tell him to carry the image to -a spot outside the village. When it is taken to the selected place, -it is first worshipped by the potter and then by the villagers. [309] -Here, as in many instances of similar rites, the priest is a man of -low caste, which points to the indigenous character of the worship. - -In the western districts of the North-Western Provinces the rite takes -a more advanced form. When cholera prevails, Kali Devi is worshipped, -and a magic circle of milk and spirits is drawn round the village, -over which the cholera demon does not care to step. They have also -a reading of the Scriptures in honour of Durga, and worship a Sati -shrine, if there be one in the village. The next stage is the actual -scapegoat, which is, as we shall see, very generally used for this -purpose. A buffalo bull is marked with a red pigment and driven to the -next village, where he carries the plague with him. Quite recently, -at Meerut, the people purchased a buffalo, painted it red and led -the animal through the city in procession. Colonel Tod describes how -Zalim Sinh, the celebrated regent of Kota, drove cholera out of the -place. "Having assembled the Brahmans, astrologers and those versed -in incantations, a grand rite was got up, sacrifices made, and a -solemn decree of banishment was pronounced against Mari, the cholera -goddess. Accordingly an equipage was prepared for her, decorated with -funeral emblems, painted black and drawn by a double team of black -oxen; bags of grain, also black, were put into the vehicle, that the -lady might not go without food, and driven by a man in sable vestments, -followed by the yells of the populace, Mari was deported across the -Chambal river, with the commands of the priests that she should never -again set foot in Kota. No sooner did my deceased friend hear of her -expulsion from that capital, and being placed on the road for Bundi, -than the wise men of the city were called on to provide means to keep -her from entering therein. Accordingly, all the water of the Ganges -at hand was in requisition; an earthen vessel was placed over the -southern portal from which the sacred water was continually dripping, -and against which no evil could prevail. Whether my friend's supply -of the holy water failed, or Mari disregarded such opposition, she -reached the palace." [310] - - - -Cholera caused by Witchcraft. - -In Gujarat, among the wilder tribes, the belief prevails that cholera -is caused by old women who feed on the corpses of the victims of the -pestilence. Formerly, when a case occurred their practice was to go to -the soothsayer (Bhagat), find out from him who was the guilty witch, -and kill her with much torture. Of late years this practice has, -to a great extent, ceased. The people now attribute an outbreak to -the wrath of the goddess Kali, and, to please her, draw her cart -through the streets, and lifting it over the village boundaries, -offer up goats and buffaloes. Sometimes, to keep off the disease, -they make a magic circle with milk or coloured threads round the -village. At Nasik, when cholera breaks out in the city, the leading -Brahmans collect in little doles from each house a small allowance of -rice, put the rice in a cart, take it beyond the limits of the town, -and there it is thrown away. [311] - -A visitation of the plague in Nepal was attributed to the Raja -insisting on celebrating the Dasahra during an intercalary month. On -another occasion the arrival of the disease was attributed to the -Evil Eye of Saturn and other planets, which secretly came together -in one sign of the zodiac. A third attack was supposed to be caused -by the Raja being in his eighteenth year, and the year of the cycle -being eighty-eight--eight being a very unlucky number. [312] - -So the Gonds try to ward off the anger of the spirits of cholera and -small-pox by sacrifices, and by thoroughly cleaning their villages and -transferring the sweepings into some road or travelled track. Their -idea is that unless the disease is communicated to some person who will -take it on to the next village, the plague will not leave them. For -this reason they do not throw the sweepings into the jungle, as no -one passes that way, and consequently the benefit of sweeping is -lost. [313] - -An extraordinary case was recently reported from the Dehra Ismail Khan -District. There had been a good deal of sickness in the village, and -the people spread a report that this was due to the fact that a woman, -who had died some seven months previously, had been chewing her funeral -sheet. The relatives were asked to allow the body to be examined, which -was done, and it was found that owing to the subsidence of the ground -through rain, some earth had fallen into the mouth of the corpse. A -copper coin was placed in the mouth as a viaticum, and a fowl killed -and laid on the body, which was again interred. The same result is very -often believed to follow from burying persons of the sweeper caste in -the usual extended position, instead of a sitting posture or with the -face downwards. A sweeper being one of the aboriginal or casteless -tribes is believed to have something uncanny about him. Recently in -Muzaffarnagar, a corpse buried in the unorthodox way was disinterred -by force, and the matter finally came before the courts. - - - -The Demon of Cattle Disease. - -In the same way cattle disease is caused by the plague demon. Once -upon a time a man, whose descendants live in the Mathura District, -was sleeping out in the fields when he saw the cattle disease creeping -up to his oxen in an animal shape. He watched his opportunity and got -the demon under his shield, which he fixed firmly down. The disease -demon entreated to be released, but he would not let it go till it -promised that it would never remain where he or his descendants -were present. So to this day, when the murrain visits a village, -his descendants are summoned and work round the village, calling on -the disease to fulfil its contract. [314] - -The murrain demon is expelled in the same way as that of the cholera, -and removed by the agency of the scapegoat. In the western part of -the North-Western Provinces you will often notice wisps of straw tied -round the trunks of acacia trees, which, as we shall see, possess -mystic powers, as a means to bar disease. - -Kasi Baba is the tribal deity of the Binds of Bengal. Of him it is -reported: "A mysterious epidemic was carrying off the herds on the -banks of the Ganges, and the ordinary expiatory sacrifices were -ineffectual. One evening a clownish Ahir, on going to the river, -saw a figure rinsing its mouth from time to time, and making an -unearthly sound with a conch shell. The lout, concluding that this -must be the demon that caused the epidemic, crept up and clubbed the -unsuspecting bather. Kasi Nath was the name of the murdered Brahman, -and as the cessation of the murrain coincided with his death, the low -Hindustani castes have ever since regarded Kasi Baba as the maleficent -spirit that sends disease among the cattle. Nowadays he is propitiated -by the following curious ceremony. As soon as an infectious disease -breaks out, the village cattle are massed together, and cotton seed -sprinkled over them. The fattest and sleekest animal being singled -out, is severely beaten with rods. The herd, scared by the noise, -scamper off to the nearest shelter, followed by the scape bull; -and by this means it is thought the murrain is stayed." [315] - -Kasi Das, according to the last census, has 172,000 worshippers in -the eastern districts of the North-Western Provinces. - - - -Other Cholera Godlings. - -Beside Hardaul Lala, the great cholera godling, Hulka Devi, the -impersonation of vomiting, is worshipped in Bengal with the same -object. She appears to be the same as Holika or Horka Maiyya, whom -we shall meet in connection with the Holi festival. We have already -noticed Mari or Mari Mai, "Mother death," or as she is called when -promoted to Brahmanism, Mari Bhavani. She and Hatthi, a minor cholera -goddess, are worshipped when cholera prevails. By one account she and -Sitala are daughters of Raja Vena. About ten thousand people recorded -themselves at the last census as worshippers of Hatthi and Mari in the -North-Western Provinces. Among the jungle tribes of Mirzapur she is -known as Oba, an Arabic word (waba) meaning pestilence. Mari, as we -have said, has a special shrine in Sultanpur to commemorate a fatal -outbreak of cholera in the army of Safdar Jang. In the Panjab Mari -is honoured with an offering of a pumpkin, a male buffalo, a cock, a -ram and a goat. These animals are each decapitated with a single blow -before her altar. If more than one blow is required the ceremony is a -failure. Formerly, in addition to these five kinds of offering a man -and woman were sacrificed, to make up the mystic number seven. [316] - - - -Exorcism of Disease. - -The practice of exorcising these demons of disease has been elaborated -into something like a science. Disease, according to the general belief -of the rural population, can be removed by a species of magic, usually -of the variety known as "sympathetic," and it can be transferred -from the sufferer to some one else. The special incantations for -disease are in the hands of low-caste sorcerers or magicians. Among -the more primitive races, such as those of Dravidian origin in -Central India, this is the business of the Baiga, or aboriginal -devil priest. But even here there is a differentiation of function, -and though the Baiga is usually considered competent to deal with -the cases of persons possessed of evil spirits, it is only special -persons who can undertake the regular exorcism. This is among the -lower tribes of Hindus the business of the Syana, "the cunning man," -the Sokha (Sanskrit sukskma, "the subtile one"), or the Ojha, which -is a corruption of the Sanskrit Upadhyaya or "teacher." - -Like AEsculapius, Paieon, and even Apollo himself, the successful -magician and healer gradually develops into a god. All over the -country there are, as we have seen, the shrines of saints who won -the reverence of the people by the cures wrought at their tombs. The -great deified healer in Behar and the eastern Districts of the -North-Western Provinces is Sokha Baba, who, according to the last -census, had thirteen thousand special worshippers. He is said to have -been a Brahman who was killed by a snake, and now possesses the power -of inflicting snake-bite on those who do not propitiate him. - -Exorcisers are both professional and non-professional. -"Non-professional exorcisers are generally persons who get naturally -improved by a guardian spirit (deva), and a few of them learn the art -of exorcism from a Guru or teacher. Most of the professional -exorcisers learn from a Guru. The first study is begun on a lunar or -on a solar eclipse day. On such a day the teacher after bathing, and -without wiping his body, or his head or hair, puts on dry clothes, -and goes to the village godling's temple. The candidate then spreads -a white cloth before the god, and on one side of the cloth makes a -heap of rice, and on another a heap of Urad (phaseolus radiatus), -sprinkles red lead on the heaps, and breaks a cocoanut in front of -the idol. The Guru then teaches him the incantation (mantra), which -he commits to memory. An ochre-coloured flag is then tied to a staff -in front of the temple, and the teacher and candidate come home. - -"After this, on the first new moon which falls on a Saturday, the -teacher and the candidate go together out of the village to a place -previously marked out by them on the boundary. A servant accompanies -them, who carries a bag of Urad, oil, seven earthen lamps, lemons, -cocoanuts, and red powder. After coming to the spot, the teacher and -the candidate bathe, and then the teacher goes to the village temple, -and sits praying for the safety of the candidate. The candidate, -who has been already instructed as to what should be done, then -starts for the boundary of the next village, accompanied by the -servant. On reaching the village boundary, he picks up seven pebbles, -sets them in a line on the road, and after lighting a lamp near them, -he worships them with flowers, red powder, and Urad. Incense is then -burnt, and a cocoanut is broken near the pebble which represents Vetala -and his lieutenants, and a second cocoanut is broken for the village -godling." Here the cocoanut is symbolical of a sacrifice which was -probably originally of a human victim. - -"When this is over, he goes to a river, well, or other bathing place, -and bathes, and without wiping his body or putting on dry clothes, -proceeds to the boundary of the next village. There he repeats the -same process as he did before, and then goes to the boundary of a third -village. In this manner he goes to seven villages and repeats the same -process. All this while he keeps on repeating incantations. After -finishing his worship at the seventh village, the candidate returns -to his village, and going to the temple, sees his teacher and tells -him what he has done. - -"In this manner, having worshipped and propitiated the Vetalas of -seven villages, he becomes an exorcist. After having been able to -exercise these powers, he must observe certain rules. Thus, on every -eclipse day he must go to a sea-shore or a river bank, bathe in cold -water, and while standing in the water repeat incantations a number -of times. After bathing daily he must neither wring his head hair, -nor wipe his body dry. While he is taking his meals, he should leave -off if he hears a woman in her monthly sickness speak or if a lamp -be extinguished. - -"The Muhammadan methods of studying exorcism are different from those -of the Hindus. One of them is as follows:--The candidate begins his -study under the guidance of his teacher on the last day of the lunar -month, provided it falls on a Tuesday or Sunday. The initiation takes -place in a room, the walls and floor of which have been plastered -with mud, and here and there daubed with sandal paste. On the floor -a white sheet is spread, and the candidate after washing his hands -and feet, and wearing a new waist-cloth or trousers, sits on the -sheet. He lights one or two incense sticks and makes offerings of a -white cloth and meat to one of the principal Musalman saints. This -process is repeated for from fourteen to forty days." [317] - -Few rural exorcisers go through this elaborate ritual, the object of -which it is not difficult to understand. The candidate wishes to get -the Vetala or local demon of the village into his power and to make -him work his will. So he provides himself with a number of articles -which, as we shall see, are known for their influence over the -spirits of evil, such as the Urad pulse, lamps, cocoanuts, etc. The -careful rule of bathing, the precautions against personal impurity, -the worship done at the shrine of the village godling by the teacher, -are all intended to guard him in the hour of danger. The common village -"wise man" contents himself with learning a few charms of the hocus -pocus variety, and a cure in some difficult case of devil possession -secures his reputation as a healer. - - - -Methods of Rural Exorcism. - -The number of these charms is legion, and most exorcisers have -one of their own in which they place special confidence and which -they are unwilling to disclose. As Sir Monier Williams writes -[318]:--"No magician, wizard, sorcerer or witch whose feats are -recorded in history, biography or fable, has ever pretended to be -able to accomplish by incantation and enchantment half of what -the Mantra-sastri claims to have power to effect by help of his -Mantras. For example, he can prognosticate futurity, work the most -startling prodigies, infuse breath into dead bodies, kill or humiliate -enemies, afflict any one anywhere with disease or madness, inspire -anyone with love, charm weapons and give them unerring efficacy, -enchant armour and make it impenetrable, turn milk into wine, plants -into meat, or invert all such processes at will. He is even superior to -the gods, and can make goddesses, gods, imps and demons carry out his -most trifling behests. Hence it is not surprising that the following -remarkable saying is everywhere current throughout India: 'The whole -universe is subject to the gods; the gods are subject to the Mantras; -the Mantras to the Brahmans; therefore the Brahmans are our gods.'" - -All these devices of Mantras or spells, Kavachas or amulets, Nyasas -or mentally assigning various parts of the body to the protection -of tutelary presiding deities, and Mudras or intertwining of the -fingers with a mystic meaning, spring from the corrupt fountain head -of the Tantras, the bible of Saktism. But these are the speciality -of the higher class of professional exorciser, who is very generally -a Brahman, and do not concern us here. - -A few examples of the formulae used by the village "cunning man" may -be given here. Thus in Mirzapur when a person is known to be under -the influence of a witch the Ojha recites a spell, which runs--"Bind -the evil eye; bind the fist; bind the spell; bind the curse; bind the -ghost and the churel; bind the witch's hands and feet. Who can bind -her? The teacher can bind her. I, the disciple of the teacher, can bind -her. Go, witch, to wherever thy shrine may be; sit there and leave -the afflicted person." In these spells Hanuman, the monkey godling, -is often invoked. Thus--"I salute the command of my teacher. Hanuman, -the hero, is the hero of heroes. He has in his quiver nine lakhs -of arrows. He is sometimes on the right, sometimes on the left, -and sometimes in the front. I serve thee, powerful master. May not -this man's body be crippled. I see the cremation ground in the two -worlds and outside them. If in my body or in the body of this man -any ill arise, then I call on the influence of Hanuman. My piety, -the power of the teacher, this charm is true because it comes from -the Almighty." In the same way two great witches, Lona Chamarin and -Ismail the Jogi are often invoked. The Musalman calls on Sulaiman, -the lord Solomon, who is a leader of demons and a controller of evil -spirits, for which there is ample authority in the Quran. - -But it is in charms for disease that the rural exorciser is most -proficient. Accidents, such as the bites of snakes, stings of -scorpions, or wasps are in particular treated in this way, and these -charms make up most of the folk-medicine of Northern India. Thus, -when a man is stung by a scorpion the exorciser says--"Black scorpion -of the limestone! Green is thy tail and black thy mouth. God orders -thee to go home. Come out! Come out! If thou fail to come out Mahadeva -and Parvati will drive thee out!" Another spell for scorpion sting -runs thus--"On the hill and mountain is the holy cow. From its dung -the scorpions were born, six black and six brown. Help me! O Nara -Sinha! (the man lion incarnation of Vishnu). Rub each foot with -millet and the poison will depart." So, to cure the bite of a dog, -get some clay which has been worked on a potter's wheel, which as we -shall see is a noted fetish, make a lump of it and rub it to the wound -and say--"The black dog is covered with thick hair." Another plan in -cases of hydrophobia is to kill a dog, and after burning it to make -the patient imbibe the smoke. Headache is caused by a worm in the -head, which comes out if the ear be rubbed with butter. Women of the -gipsy tribes are noted for their charms to take out the worm which -causes toothache. When a man is bitten by a snake the practitioner -says--"True god, true hero, Hanuman! The snake moves in a tortuous -way. The male and female weasel come out of their hole to destroy -it. Which poison will they devour? First they will eat the black Karait -snake, then the snake with the jewel, then the Ghor snake. I pray to -thee for help, my true teacher." So, if you desire to be safe from -the attacks of the tiger, say--"Tie up the tiger, tie up the tigress, -tie up her seven cubs. Tie up the roads and the footpaths and the -fields. O Vasudeva, have mercy? Have mercy, O Lona Chamarin!" Lastly, -if you desire an appointment, say--"O Kali, Kankali, Mahakali! Thy -face is beautiful, but at thy heart is a serpent. There are four -demon heroes and eighty-four Bhairons. If thou givest the order I -will worship them with betel nuts and sweetmeats. Now shout--'Mercy, O -Mother Kali!'" It would not be difficult to describe hundreds of such -charms, but what has been recorded will be sufficient to exemplify -the ordinary methods of rural exorcism. [319] - -When the Ojha is called in to identify the demon which has beset -a patient, he begins by ascertaining whether it is a local ghost -or an outsider which has attacked him on a journey. Then he calls -for some cloves, and muttering a charm over them, ties them to the -bedstead on which the sick man lies. Then the patient is told to -name the ghost which has possessed him, and he generally names one -of his dead relations, or the ghost of a hill, a tree or a burial -ground. Then the Ojha suggests an appropriate offering, which when -bestowed and food given to Brahmans, the patient ought in all decency -to recover. If he does not, the Ojha asserts that the right ghost -has not been named, and the whole process is gone through again, -if necessary funds are forthcoming. - -The Baiga of Mirzapur, who very often combines the function of an Ojha -with his own legitimate business of managing the local ghosts, works -in very much the same way. He takes some barley in a sieve, which as -we shall see is a very powerful fetish, and shakes it until only a few -grains are left in the interstices. Then he marks down the intruding -ghost by counting the grains, and recommends the sacrifice of a fowl -or a goat, or the offering of some liquor, most of which he usually -consumes himself. If his patient die, he gets out of the difficulty -by saying--"Such and such a powerful Bhut carried him off. What can -a poor man, such as I am, do?" If a tiger or a bear kills a man, -the Baiga tells his friends that such and such a Bhut was offended -because no attention was paid to him, and in revenge entered into -the animal which killed the deceased, the obvious moral being that -in future more regular offerings should be made through the Baiga. - -In Hoshangabad the Bhomka sorcerer has a handful of grain waved over -the head of the sick man. This is then carried to the Bhomka, who makes -a heap of it on the floor, and sitting over it, swings a lighted lamp -suspended by four strings from his fingers. He then repeats slowly -the names of the patient's ancestors and of the village and local -godling, pausing between each, and when the lamp stops spinning the -name at which it halts is the name to be propitiated. Then in the -same way he asks--"What is the propitiation offering to be? A pig? A -cocoanut? A chicken? A goat?" And the same mystic sign indicates the -satisfaction of the god. [320] - -The Kol diviner drops oil into a vessel of water. The name of the -deity is pronounced as the oil is dropped. If it forms one globule -in the water, it is considered that the particular god to be appeased -has been correctly named; if it splutters and forms several globules, -another name is tried. The Oraon Ojha puts the fowls intended as -victims before a small mud image, on which he sprinkles a few grains -of rice; if they pick at the rice it indicates that the particular -devil represented by the image is satisfied with the intentions of -his votaries, and the sacrifice proceeds. [321] - -The Panjab diviner adopts a stock method common to such practitioners -all over the world. He writes some spells on a piece of paper, -and pours on it a large drop of ink. Flowers are then placed in the -hands of a young child, who is told to look into the ink and say, -"Summon the four guardians." He is asked if he sees anything in the -ink, and according to the answer a result is arrived at. [322] The -modus operandi of these exorcisers is, in fact, very much the same -in India as in other parts of the world. [323] - - - -Exorcism by Dancing. - -In all rites of this class religious dancing as a means of scaring -the demon of evil holds an important place. Thus of the Bengal Muasis -Col. Dalton writes [324]--"The affection comes on like a fit of ague, -lasting sometimes for a quarter of an hour, the patient or possessed -person writhing and trembling with intense violence, especially at -the commencement of the paroxysm. Then he is seen to spring from the -ground into the air, and a succession of leaps follow, all executed -as though he were shot at by unseen agency. During this stage of -the seizure he is supposed to be quite unconscious, and rolls into -the fire, if there be one, or under the feet of the dancers, without -sustaining injury from the heat or from the pressure. This lasts for -a few minutes only, and is followed by the spasmodic stage. With hands -and knees on the ground and hair loosened, the body is convulsed, and -the head shakes violently, whilst from the mouth issues a hissing or -gurgling noise. The patient next evincing an inclination to stand on -his legs, the bystanders assist him, and place a stick in his hand, -with the aid of which he hops about, the spasmodic action of the -body still continuing, and the head performing by jerks a violently -fatiguing circular movement. This may go on for hours, though Captain -Samuells says that no one in his senses could continue such exertion -for many minutes. When the Baiga is appealed to to cast out the -spirit, he must first ascertain whether it is Gansam or one of his -familiars that has possessed the victim. If it be the great Gansam, -the Baiga implores him to desist, meanwhile gradually anointing the -victim with butter; and if the treatment is successful, the patient -gradually and naturally subsides into a state of repose, from which -he rises into consciousness, and, restored to his normal state, -feels no fatigue or other ill-effects from the attack." - -The same religious dance of ecstasy appears in what is known as the Ras -Mandala of the modern Vaishnava sects, which is supposed to represent -the dance of the Gopis with Krishna. So in Bombay among the Marathas -the worship of the chief goddess of the Dakkhin, Tulja Bhavani, -is celebrated by a set of dancing devotees, called Gondhalis, whose -leader becomes possessed by the goddess. A high stool is covered with -a black cloth. On the cloth thirty-six pinches of rice are dropped in -a heap, and with them turmeric and red powder, all scarers of demons, -are mixed. On the rice is set a copper vessel filled with milk and -water, and in this the goddess is supposed to take her abode. Over it -are laid betel leaves and a cocoanut. Five torches are carried round -the vessel by five men, each shouting "Amba Bhavani!" The music plays, -and dancers dance before her. So at a Brahman marriage at Puna the -boy and girl are seated on the shoulders of their maternal uncles -or other relations, who perform a frantic dance, the object being, -as in all these cases, to scare away the spirits of evil. [325] - - - -Flagellation. - -So with flagellation, which all over the world is supposed to have the -power of scaring demons. Thus in the Central Indian Hills the Baiga -with his Gurda, or sacred chain, which being made of iron, possesses -additional potency, soundly thrashes patients attacked with epilepsy, -hysteria, and similar ailments, which from their nature are obviously -due to demoniacal agency. There are numerous instances of the use of -the lash for this purpose. In Bombay, among the Lingayats, the woman -who names the child has her back beaten with gentle blows; and some -beggar Brahmans refuse to take alms until the giver beats them. [326] -There is a famous shrine at Ghauspur, in the Jaunpur District, where -the Ojhas beat their patients to drive out the disease demon. [327] -The records of Roman Catholic hagiology and of the special sect of -the Flagellants will furnish numerous parallel instances. - - - -Treatment of Sorcerers. - -While the sorcerer by virtue of his profession is generally -respected and feared, in some places they have been dealt with -rather summarily. There is everywhere a struggle between the -Brahman priest of the greater gods and the exorciser, who works by -the agency of demons. Sudarsan Sah rid Garhwal of them by summoning -all the professors of the black art with their books. When they were -collected he had them bound hand and foot and thrown with their books -and implements into the river. The same monarch also disposed very -effectually of a case of possession in his own family. One day he heard -a sound of drumming and dancing in one of his courtyards, and learnt -that a ghost named Goril had taken possession of one of his female -slaves. The Raja was wroth, and taking a thick bamboo, he proceeded to -the spot and laid about him so vigorously that the votaries of Goril -soon declared that the deity had taken his departure. The Raja then -ordered Goril to cease from possessing people, and nowadays if any -Garhwali thinks himself possessed, he has only to call on the name -of Sudarsan Sah and the demon departs. [328] - - - -Appointment of Ojhas. - -The mode of succession to the dignity of an Ojha varies in different -places. In Mirzapur the son is usually educated by his father, -and taught the various spells and modes of incantation. But this is -not always the case; and here at the present time the institution -is in a transition stage. South of the Son we have the Baiga, who -usually acts as an Ojha also; and he is invariably drawn from the -aboriginal races. Further north he is known as Naya (Sanskrit nayaka) -or "leader." Further north, again, as we leave the hilly country and -enter the completely Brahmanized Gangetic valley, he changes into -the regular Ojha, who is always a low-class Brahman. - -In one instance which came under my own notice, the Naya of the village -had been an aboriginal Kol, and he before his death announced that -"the god had sat on the head" of a Brahman candidate for the office, -who was duly initiated, and is now the recognized village Ojha. This -is a good example of the way in which Brahmanism annexes and absorbs -the demonolatry of the lower races. This, too, enables us to correct -a statement which has been made even by such a careful inquirer -as Mr. Sherring when he says [329]--"Formerly the Ojha was always -a Brahman; but his profession has become so lucrative that sharp, -clever, shrewd men in all the Hindu castes have taken to it." There -can be no question that the process has been the very reverse of this, -and that the early Ojhas were aboriginal sorcerers, and that their -trade was taken over by the Brahman as the land became Hinduized. - -In Hoshangabad the son usually succeeds his father, but a Bhomka does -not necessarily marry into a Bhomka family, nor does it follow that -"once a Bhomka, always a Bhomka." On the contrary, the position seems -to be the result of the special favour of the godling of the particular -village in which he lives; and if the whole of the residents emigrate -in a body, then the godling of the new village site will have to be -consulted afresh as to the servant whom he chooses to attend upon him. - -"If a Bhomka dies or goes away, or a new village is established, his -successor is appointed in the following way. All the villagers assemble -at the shrine of Mutua Deo, and offer a black and white chicken to -him. A Parihar, or priest, should be enticed to grace the solemnity -and make the sacrifice, but if that cannot be done the oldest man -in the assembly does it. Then he sets a wooden grain measure rolling -along the line of seated people, and the man before whom it stops is -marked out by the intervention of the deity as the new Bhomka." [330] - -It marks perhaps some approximation to Hinduism that the priest, -when inspired by the god, wears a thread made of the hair of a -bullock's tail, unless this is based on the common use of thread or -hair as a scarer of demons, or is some token or fetish peculiar to -the race. At the same time the non-Brahmanic character of the worship -is proved by the fact that the priest, when in a state of ecstasy, -cannot bear the presence of a cow, or Brahman. "The god," they say, -"would leave their heads if either of these came near." - -On one occasion, when Sir C. A. Elliott saw the process of exorcism, -the men did not actually revolve when "the god came on his head." He -covered his head up well in a cloth, leaving space for the god to -approach, and in this state he twisted and turned himself rapidly, -and soon sat down exhausted. We shall see elsewhere that the head -is one of the chief spirit entries, and the top of the head is left -uncovered in order to let the spirit make its way through the sutures -of the skull. Then from the pit of his stomach he uttered words which -the bystanders interpreted to direct a certain line of conduct for -the sick man to pursue. "But perhaps the occasion was not a fair test, -as the Parihar strongly objected to the presence of an unbeliever, on -the pretence that the god would be afraid to come before so great an -official." This has always been the standing difficulty in Europeans -obtaining a practical knowledge of the details of rural sorcery, -and when a performance of the kind is specially arranged, it will -usually be found that the officiant performs the introductory rites -with comparative success, but as it comes to the crucial point he -breaks down, just as the ecstatic crisis should have commenced. This is -always attributed to the presence of an unbeliever, however interested -and sympathetic. The same result usually happens at spiritualistic -seances, when anyone with even an elementary knowledge of physics or -mechanics happens to be one of the audience. - - - -Fraud in Exorcism. - -The question naturally arises--Are all these Ojhas and Baigas -conscious hypocrites and swindlers? Dr. Tylor shrewdly remarks that -"the sorcerer generally learns his time-honoured profession in good -faith, and retains the belief in it more or less from first to last. At -once dupe and cheat, he combines the energy of a believer with the -cunning of a hypocrite." [331] This coincides with the experience -of most competent Indian observers. No one who consults a Syana and -observes the confident way in which he asserts his mystic power, can -doubt that he at least believes to a large extent in the sacredness -of his mission. Captain Samuells, who repeatedly witnessed these -performances, distinctly asserts that it is a mistake to suppose that -there is always intentional deception. [332] - - - -Disease Charms. - -Next to the services of the professional exorciser for the purpose -of preventing or curing disease, comes the use of special charms for -this purpose. There is a large native literature dealing with this -branch of science. As a rule most native patients undergo a course -of this treatment before they visit our hospitals, and the result -of European medical science is hence occasionally disappointing. One -favourite talisman of this kind is the magic square, which consists -in an arrangement of certain numbers in a special way. For instance, -in order to cure barrenness, it is a good plan to write a series -of numbers which added up make 73 both ways on a piece of bread, -and with it feed a black dog, which is the attendant of Bhairon, a -giver of offspring. To cure a tumour a figure in the form of a cross -is drawn with three cyphers in the centre and one at each of the four -ends. This is prepared on a Sunday and tied round the left arm. Another -has a series of numbers aggregating 15 every way. This is engraved on -copper and tied round a child's neck to keep off the Evil Eye. In the -case of cattle disease, some gibberish, which pretends to be Arabic -or Sanskrit, appealing for the aid of Lona Chamarin or Ismail Jogi, -with a series of mystic numbers, is written on a piece of tile. This -is hung on a rope over the village cattle path, and a ploughshare is -buried at the entrance to make the charm more powerful. When cattle -are attacked with worms, the owner fills a clean earthen pot with -water drawn from the well with one hand; he then mutters a blessing, -and with some sacred Dabh grass sprinkles a little water seven times -along the back of the animal. - -The number of these charms is legion. Many of them merge into the -special preservatives against the Evil Eye, which will be discussed -later on. Thus the bazar merchant writes the words Ram! Ram! several -times near his door, or he makes a representation of the sun and moon, -or a rude image of Ganesa, the godling of good luck, or draws the -mystical Swastika. A house of a banker at Kankhal which I recently -examined bore a whole gallery of pictures round it. There were Siva -and Parvati on an ox with their son Markandeya; Yamaraja, the deity -of death, with a servant waving a fan over his head; Krishna with -his spouse Radha: Hanuman, the monkey godling; the Ganges riding on a -fish, with Bhagiratha, who brought her down from heaven; Bhishma, the -hero of the Mahabharata; Arjuna representing the Pandavas; the saints -Uddalaka and Narada Muni; Ganesa with his two maidservants; and Brahma -and Vishnu riding on Sesha Naga, the great serpent. Beneath these -was an inscription invoking Rama, Lakshmana, the Ganges and Hanuman. - - - -Rag Offerings. - -Next come the arrangements by which disease may be expelled or -transferred to someone else. In this connection we may discuss the -curious custom of hanging up rags on trees or near sacred wells. Of -this custom India supplies numerous examples. At the Balchha pass in -Garhwal there is a small heap of stones at the summit, with sticks and -rags attached to them, to which travellers add a stone or two as they -pass. [333] In Persia they fix rags on bushes in the name of the Imam -Raza. They explain the custom by saying that the eye of the Imam being -always on the top of the mountain, the shreds which are left there by -those who hold him in reverence, remind him of what he ought to do -in their behalf with Muhammad, 'Ali and the other holy personages, -who are able to propitiate the Almighty in their favour. [334] -Moorcroft in his journey to Ladakh describes how he propitiated the -evil spirit of a dangerous pass with the leg of a pair of worn-out -nankin trousers. [335] Among the Mirzapur Korwas the Baiga hangs rags -on the trees which shade the village shrine, as a charm to bring health -and good luck. These rag shrines are to be found all over the country, -and are generally known as Chithariya or Chithraiya Bhavani, "Our Lady -of Tatters." So in the Panjab the trees on which rags are hung are -called Lingri Pir or the rag saint. [336] The same custom prevails at -various Himalayan shrines and at the Vastra Harana or sacred tree at -Brindaban near Mathura, which is now invested with a special legend, -as commemorating the place where Krishna carried off the clothes of -the milkmaids when they were bathing, an incident which constantly -appears in both European and Indian folk-lore. [337] In Berar a heap -of stones daubed with red and placed under a tree fluttering with -rags represents Chindiya Deo or "the Lord of Tatters," where, if you -present a rag in due season, you may chance to get new clothes. [338] -The practice of putting or tying rags from the person of the sick to a -tree, especially a banyan, cocoanut, or some thorny tree, is prevalent -in the Konkan, but not to such an extent as that of fixing nails or -tying bottles to trees. In the Konkan, when a person is suffering from -a spirit disease, the exorcist takes the spirit away from the sick -man and fixes it in a tree by thrusting a nail in it. We have already -had an example of this treatment of ghosts by the Baiga. Sometimes he -catches the spirit of the disease in a bottle and ties the bottle to -a tree. [339] In a well-known story of the Arabian Knights the Jinn -is shut up in a bottle under the seal of the Lord Solomon. - -There have been various explanations of this custom of hanging rags -on trees. [340] One is that they are offerings to the local deity -of the tree. Mr. Gomme quotes an instance of an Irishman who made a -similar offering with the following invocation: "To St. Columbkill--I -offer up this button, a bit o' the waistband o' my own breeches, -an' a taste o' my wife's petticoat, in remembrance of us havin' made -this holy station; an' may they rise up in glory to prove it for us -in the last day." - -He "points to the undoubted nature of the offerings and their service, -in the identification of their owners--a service which implies their -power to bear witness in spirit-land to the pilgrimage of those -who deposited them during lifetime at the sacred well." Some of the -Indian evidence seems to show that these rags are really offerings -to the sacred tree. Thus, Colonel Tod [341] describes the trees -in a sacred grove in Rajputana as decorated with shreds of various -coloured cloth, "offerings of the traveller to the forest divinity for -protection against evil spirits." This usage often merges into actual -tree-worship, as among the Mirzapur Pataris, who, when fever prevails, -tie a cotton string which has never touched water round the trunk of -a Pipal tree, and hang rags from the branches. So, the Kharwars have -a sacred Mahua tree, known as the Byahi Mahua or "Mahua of marriage," -on which threads are hung at marriages. At almost any holy place women -may be seen winding a cotton thread round the trunk of a Pipal tree. - -Another explanation is that the hanging of the rags is done with the -object of transferring a disease to some one else. Professor Rhys -suggests that a distinction is to be drawn between the rags hung on -trees or near a well and the pins, which are so commonly thrown into -the water itself. It is noteworthy that in some cases the pins are -replaced by buttons, or even by copper coins. The rags, on the other -hand, he thinks may be vehicles of the disease. To this Mr. Hartland -objects--"If this opinion were correct, one would expect to find both -ceremonies performed by the same patient at the same well; he would -throw in the pin and also place the rag on the bush, or wherever its -proper place might be. The performance of both ceremonies is, however, -I think, exceptional. Where the pin or button is dropped into the well, -the patient does not trouble about the rag, and vice versa." - -He goes on to say that "the curious detail mentioned by Mrs. Evans in -reference to the rags tied on the bushes at St. Elian's well--namely, -that they must be tied with wool--points to a still further degradation -of the rite in the case we are now examining. Probably at one time -rags were used and simply tied to the sacred tree with wool. What may -have been the reason for using wool remains to be discovered. But it -is easy to see how, if the reason were lost, the wool might be looked -on as the essential condition of the due performance of the ceremony, -and so continue after the disuse of the rags." - -In reference to this it may be noted that there is some reason to -believe that the sheep was a sacred animal. In Western India high-caste -Hindus wear blankets after bathing. The Kunbis use a mixture of -sheep's milk with lime juice and opium as a cure for diarrhoea. The -Parheyas of Bengal used to wash their houses with sheep's dung to -scare spirits. And the use of woollen clothes in certain rites is -prescribed in the current ritual. - -Mr. Hartland is inclined to think that the rags represent entire -articles of clothing which were at an earlier time deposited, and on -the analogy of the habit of the witch of getting hold of some part of -the body, such as nail-cuttings and so on, by which she may get the -owner into her power, the rags were meant to connect the worshipper -with the deity. "In like manner my shirt or stocking, or a rag to -represent it, placed upon a sacred bush or thrust into a sacred well, -my name written on the walls of a temple, a stone or pellet from -my hand cast upon a sacred image or a sacred cairn, is thenceforth -in constant contact with divinity; and the effluence of divinity, -reaching and involving it, will reach and involve me. In this way I -may be permanently united with the god." - -It is quite possible that some or all of the ideas thus given may -have resulted in the present practice in India. - - - -Disease Transference. - -Disease is also transferred in an actual physical way. Thus, in -Ireland, a charm or curse is left on a gate or stile, and the first -healthy person who passes through will, it is believed, have the -disease transferred to him. So, in Scotland, if a child is affected -with the whooping cough, it is taken into the land of another laird, -and there the disease is left. [342] Similarly, in Northern India, -one way of transferring disease is to fill a pot with flowers and -rice and bury it in a path, with a stone to cover it. Whoever touches -this is supposed to contract the disease. This is known as Chalauwa, -which means "passing on" the malady. This goes on daily in Upper -India. Often when walking in a bazar in the early morning, you will -see a little pile of earth decorated with flowers in the middle of -the road. This usually contains some of the scabs or scales from -the body of a small-pox patient, which are placed there in the hope -that someone may touch them, contract the malady and thus relieve the -sufferer. In 1885 it was officially reported that in Cawnpur small-pox -had greatly increased from the practice of placing these scales on -the roads. At the instance of Government the matter was investigated, -and it was found that in the early stages of the disease, the Diuli -ceremony is performed at cross-roads; and that at a later period the -crusts from smallpox patients mixed with curdled milk and cocoanut -juice are carried to the temple or platform of the small-pox goddess -and are dedicated to her. [343] - -One morning, in a village near Agra, I came by chance on two old women -fiercely quarrelling. On making inquiries, I found that one of them -had placed some small-pox crusts from her child on her neighbour's -threshold. The people agreed that this was a wicked act, as it -displayed special animus against a particular person. If they had -been placed on the cross-road, and any one had been unlucky enough -to touch them and contract the disease, it would not have mattered -much--that was the will of God. - -Some time ago an indigo planter, near Benares, was astonished by a -respectable native friend asking the loan of one of his geese. On -inquiry he ascertained that his friend's son was suffering from bowel -complaint, and that he had been advised by a native physician to get -a goose, place it in the boy's bed, and that the disease would be -communicated to the bird, with the result of curing the patient. This -remedy was known in Italy. One of the prescriptions of Marcellus runs: -[344] "To those who are suffering from a colic. Let them fasten a -live duck to their stomachs, thus the disease will pass from the -man to the duck, and the duck will die." In the same way when any -one wants to set their neighbour's household at variance, a quill -of a porcupine, which is supposed to be a quarrelsome animal, is -thrown over the wall. On this principle in Italy a short and simple -method of setting people by the ears is to buy some of the herb -Discordia and throw it into a house, when the result is sure to be -a vendetta. [345] In the Indian Hills, in case of illness a stake is -driven down into the earth where four roads meet, and certain drugs -and grains are buried close by, which are speedily disinterred and -eaten by crows. This gives immediate relief to the sufferer. [346] -Here the idea apparently is, that the disease is transferred to the -crow, a sacred bird, and in close communication with the spirits of -the sainted dead. So in cases of cattle disease, a buffalo's skull, -a small lamb, fire in a pan, vessels of butter and milk, wisps of -grass and branches of the Siras tree (Acacia speciosa) are thrown -over the boundary of another village and are supposed to carry the -disease demon with them. This often causes a riot. [347] In the same -way, killing buffaloes and putting their heads in the next village -removes cholera, and by pouring oil on grain and burning it, the -disease flies elsewhere in the smoke. This seems to be one of the -principles which underlie the general practice of fire sacrifice. - - - -Scapegoats. - -This brings us to the regular scapegoat. At shrines of Sitala, the -small-pox goddess, sweepers bring round a small pig. Contributions are -called for from the worshippers, and when the value of the animal is -made up, it is driven by the people into the jungle, pursued by an -excited crowd, who believe that the creature has taken the disease -with it. - -General Sleeman gives an excellent example of this custom. [348] -"More than four-fifths of the city and cantonments of Sagar had -been affected by a violent influenza, which, commencing with a -violent cough, was followed by a fever and in some cases terminated -in death. I had an application from the old Queen Dowager of Sagar, -to allow of a noisy religious procession for the purpose of imploring -deliverance from this great calamity. The women and children in this -procession were to do their utmost to add to the noise by raising -their voices in psalmody, beating upon their brass pans and pots -with all their might, and discharging firearms where they could -get them. Before the noisy crowd was to be driven a buffalo, which -had been purchased by general subscription, in order that every -family might participate in the merit. They were to follow it out -eight miles, where it was to be turned out for anyone who would take -it. If the animal returned, the disease must return with it, and the -ceremony be performed over again. I was requested to intimate the -circumstances to the officer commanding the troops in cantonments, -in order that the noise they intended to make might not excite any -alarm and bring down upon them the visit of the soldiery. It was, -however, subsequently determined that the animal should be a goat, -and he was driven before the crowd. Accordingly, I have on several -occasions been requested to allow of such noisy ceremonies in cases of -epidemics, and the confidence the people feel in their efficacy has, -no doubt, a good effect." - - - -Demons Scared by Noise. - -This incidentally leads to the consideration of the principle that evil -spirits are scared by noise. In the first place this appears largely -to account for the use of bells in religious worship. The tolling of -the bells keeps off the evil spirits which throng round any place where -the worship of the regular gods is being performed. Milton speaks of-- - - - "The bellman's drowsy charm; - To bless the doors from nightly harm." [349] - - -So, the passing bell protects the departing soul as it flies through -the air from demoniacal influence. As Grose writes [350]--"The passing -bell was anciently rung for two purposes; one to bespeak the prayers -of all good Christians for a soul just departing; the other, to drive -away the evil spirits who stood at the bed's foot, and about the house, -ready to seize their prey, or at least to molest and terrify the soul -in its passage; but by the ringing of that bell (for Durandus informs -us evil spirits are much afraid of bells), they were kept aloof, -and the soul, like a hunted hare, gained the start, or had what is by -sportsmen called 'law.'" The keening at an Irish wake is probably a -survival of the same custom. But Panjabi Musalmans have a prejudice -against beating a brass tray, as it is believed to disturb the dead, -who wake, supposing the Day of Judgment has arrived. [351] - -Another fact which adds to the efficacy of bells for this purpose, -is that they are made of metal, which, as we shall see elsewhere, -is a well-known scarer of demons. - -Hence in Indian temples the use of the bell, or resounding shell -trumpet, is universal. The intention is to call the divinity and wake -him from his sleep, so that he may consume the offerings prepared for -him by his votaries, and to scare vagrant ghosts, who would otherwise -partake of the meal. On the same principle the drum is, as we have -seen, a sacred instrument. The same is the case with bells. The Todas -of Madras worship Hiriya Deva, whose representative is the sacred -buffalo bell, which hangs from the neck of the finest buffalo in -the sacred herd. [352] The Gonds have also elevated the bell into -a deity in the form of Ghagarapen, and one special class of their -devil priests, the Ojhyals, always wear bells. [353] So, the Patari -priest in Mirzapur and many classes of ascetics throughout the country -carry bells and rattles made of iron, which they move as they walk to -scare demons. Iron, it need hardly be said, is most efficacious for -this purpose. This also accounts for the music played at weddings, -when the young pair are in special danger from the attacks of evil -spirits. At many rites it is the rule to clap the hands at a special -part of the ritual with the same purpose. The Raedasi Chamars and -many other people shout or sing loudly as they remove a corpse for -burial or cremation, and there are few magistrates in India who have -not been asked for leave by some happy father to allow guns to be -fired from his house-top to drive evil spirits from the mother and -her child. Mr. Campbell records that they fire a gun over the back -of a sick cow in Scotland with the same intention. [354] - - - -Disease Scapegoats. - -To return to the use of the scape animal as a means of expelling -disease. In Berar, if cholera is very severe, the people get a -scapegoat or young buffalo, but in either case it must be a female and -as black as possible, the latter condition being based on the fact that -Yamaraja, the lord of death, uses such an animal as his vehicle. They -then tie some grain, cloves and red lead (all demon scarers) on its -back and turn it out of the village. A man of the gardener caste takes -the goat outside the boundary, and it is not allowed to return. [355] -So among the Korwas of Mirzapur, when cholera begins, a black cock, -and when it is severe, a black goat, is offered by the Baiga at the -shrine of the village godling, and he then drives the animal off -in the direction of some other village. After it has gone a little -distance, the Baiga, who is protected from evil by virtue of his holy -office, follows it, kills it and eats it. Among the Pataris in cholera -epidemics the elders of the village and the Ojha wizard feed a black -fowl with grain and drive it beyond the boundary, ordering it to take -the plague with it. If the resident of another village finds such -a fowl and eats it, cholera comes with it into his village. Hence, -when disease prevails, people are very cautious about meddling with -strange fowls. When these animals are sent off, a little oil, red lead, -and a woman's forehead spangle are put upon it, a decoration which, -perhaps, points to a survival of an actual sacrifice to appease the -demon of disease. When such an animal comes into a village, the Baiga -takes it to the local shrine, worships it and then passes it on quietly -outside the boundary. Among the Kharwars, when rinderpest attacks the -cattle, they take a black cock, put some red lead on its head, some -antimony on its eyes, a spangle on its forehead, and fixing a pewter -bangle to its leg, let it loose, calling to the disease--"Mount on -the fowl and go elsewhere into the ravines and thickets; destroy the -sin!" This dressing up of the scape animal in a woman's ornaments -and trinkets is almost certainly a relic of some grosser form of -expiation in which a human being was sacrificed. We have another -survival of the same practice in the Panjab custom, which directs -that when cholera prevails, a man of the Chamar or currier caste, -one of the hereditary menials, should be branded on the buttocks and -turned out of the village. [356] - -A curious modification of the ordinary scape animal, of which it -is unnecessary to give any more instances, comes from Kulu. [357] -"The people occasionally perform an expiatory ceremony with the -object of removing ill-luck or evil influence, which is supposed to -be brooding over the hamlet. The godling (Deota) of the place is, -as usual, first consulted through his disciple (Chela) and declares -himself also under the influence of a charm and advises a feast, -which is given in the evening at the temple. Next morning a man -goes round from house to house, a creel on his back, into which -each family throws all sorts of odds and ends, parings of nails, -pinches of salt, bits of old iron, handfuls of grain, etc. The whole -community then turns out and perambulates the village, at the same -time stretching an unbroken thread round it, fastened to pegs at the -four corners. This done, the man with the creel carries it down to -the river bank and empties the contents therein, and a sheep, fowl, -and some small animals are sacrificed on the spot. Half the sheep is -the property of the man who dares to carry the creel, and he is also -entertained from house to house on the following night." - -It is obvious that this exactly corresponds with the old English -custom of sin-eating. Thus we read: [358]--"Within the memory of our -fathers, in Shropshire, when a person died, there was a notice given -to an old sire (for so they called him), who presently repaired to the -place where the deceased lay, and stood before the door of the house, -when some of the family came out and furnished him with a cricket on -which he sat down facing the door. Then they gave him a groat, which -he put in his pocket; a crust of bread, which he ate; and a full bowl -of ale, which he drank off at a draught. After this he got out from -the cricket and pronounced, with a composed gesture, the ease and -rest of the soul departed, for which he would pawn his own soul." - -There are other Indian customs based on the same principle. [359] -Thus, in the Ambala District a Brahman named Nathu stated "that he had -eaten food out of the hand of the Raja of Bilaspur, after his death, -and that in consequence he had for the space of one year been placed -on the throne at Bilaspur. At the end of the year he had been given -presents, including a village, and had then been turned out of Bilaspur -territory and forbidden apparently to return. Now he is an outcast -among his co-religionists, as he has eaten food out of the dead man's -hand." So at the funeral ceremonies of the late Rani of Chamba, it is -said that rice and ghi were placed in the hands of the corpse, which -a Brahman consumed on payment of a fee. The custom has given rise to a -class of outcast Brahmans in the Hill States about Kangra. In another -account of the funeral rites of the Rani of Chamba, it is added that -after the feeding of the Brahman, as already described, "a stranger, -who had been caught beyond Chamba territory, was given the costly -wrappings round the corpse, a new bed and a change of raiment, and -then told to depart, and never to show his face in Chamba again." At -the death of a respectable Hindu the clothes and other belongings of -the dead man are, in the same way, given to the Mahabrahman or funeral -priest. This seems to be partly based on the principle that he, by -using these articles, passes them on for the use of the deceased in -the land of death; but the detestation and contempt felt for this class -of priest may be, to some extent, based on the idea that by the use of -these articles he takes upon his head the sins of the dead man. [360] - -Again, writing of the customs prevailing among the Rajput tribes -of Oudh which practise female infanticide, Gen. Sleeman writes: -[361]--"The infant is destroyed in the room where it was born, -and there buried. The room is then plastered over with cow-dung, -and on the thirteenth day after, the village or family priest must -cook and eat his food in this room. He is provided with wood, ghi, -barley, rice, and sesamum. He boils the rice, barley, and sesamum -in a brass vessel, throws the ghi over them when they are dressed, -and eats the whole. This is considered as a Homa or burnt offering, -and by eating it in that place, the priest is supposed to take the -whole Hatya or sin upon himself, and to cleanse the family from it." - -So, in Central India the Gonds in November assemble at the shrine of -Gansyam Deo to worship him. Sacrifices of fowls and spirits, or a pig, -occasionally, according to the size of the village, are offered, and -Gansyam Deo is said to descend on the head of one of the worshippers, -who is suddenly seized with a kind of fit, and after staggering -about for a while, rushes off into the wildest jungles, where the -popular theory is that, if not pursued and brought back, he would -inevitably die of starvation, and become a raving lunatic. As it is, -after being brought back by one or two men, he does not recover his -senses for one or two days. The idea is that one man is thus singled -out as a scapegoat for the sins of the rest of the village. - -In the final stage we find the scape animal merging into a regular -expiatory sacrifice. Other examples will be given in another connection -of the curious customs, like that of the Irish and Manxland rites of -hunting the wren, which are almost certainly based on the principle -of a sacrifice. Here it may be noted that at one of their festivals, -the Bhumij used to drive two male buffaloes into a small enclosure, -while the Raja and his suite used to witness the proceedings. They -first discharged arrows at the animals, and the tormented and enraged -beasts fell to and gored each other, while arrow after arrow was -discharged. When the animals were past doing very much mischief, the -people rushed in and hacked them to pieces with axes. This custom is -now discontinued. [362] - -Similarly in the Hills, at the Nand Ashtami, or feast in honour of -Nanda, the foster father of Krishna, a buffalo is specially fed with -sweetmeats, and, after being decked with a garland round the neck, is -worshipped. The headman of the village then lays a sword across its -neck and the beast is let loose, when all proceed to chase it, pelt -it with stones, and hack it with knives until it dies. It is curious -that this savage rite is carried out in connection with the worship -of the Krishna Cultus, in which blood sacrifice finds no place. [363] - -In the same part of the country the same rite is performed after a -death, on the analogy of the other instances, which have been already -quoted. When a man dies, his relations assemble at the end of the year -in which the death occurred, and the nearest male relative dances -naked (another instance of the nudity charm, to which reference has -been already made) with a drawn sword in his hand, to the music of a -drum, in which he is assisted by others for a whole day and night. The -following day a buffalo is brought and made intoxicated with Bhang -or Indian hemp, and spirits, and beaten to death with sticks, stones -and weapons. - -So, the Hill Bhotiyas have a feast in honour of the village god, and -towards evening they take a dog, make him drunk with spirits and hemp, -and kill him with sticks and stones, in the belief that no disease -or misfortune will visit the village during the year. [364] At the -periodical feast in honour of the mountain goddess of the Himalaya, -Nanda Devi, it is said that a four-horned goat is invariably born and -accompanies the pilgrims. When unloosed on the mountain, the sacred -goat suddenly disappears and as suddenly reappears without its head, -and then furnishes food for the party. The head is supposed to be -consumed by the goddess herself, who by accepting it with its load -of sin, washes away the transgressions of her votaries. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE WORSHIP OF THE SAINTED DEAD. - - - Aipssa d' ikonto kat' asphodelon leimona - Entha te naiousi psychai, eidola kamonton. - - Odyssey, xxiv. 12, 14. - - -Ancestor-worship: its Origin. - -The worship of ancestors is one of the main branches of the religion -of the Indian races. "Its principles are not difficult to understand, -for they plainly keep up the arrangements of the living world. The -dead ancestor, now passed into a deity, simply goes on protecting -his own family, and receiving suit and service from them as of old; -the dead chief still watches over his own tribe, still holds his -authority by helping friends and harming enemies; still rewards the -right and sharply punishes the wrong." [365] It is in fact the earliest -attempt of the savage to realize the problems of human existence, -as the theology of the Vedas or Olympus is the explanation which -the youth of the world offers of physical phenomena. The latter is -primitive physics, the former primitive biology, and it marks a stage -in the growth of anthropomorphism when the worship of unseen spirits -in general passes to that of unseen spirits in particular. - - - -Among the Aryans and Dravidians. - -It is admitted on all sides that this form of worship was general -among the Aryan nations; [366] but it is a mistake to suppose, as -is too often done, that the worship was peculiar to them. That such -was not the case can be proved by numerous examples drawn from the -practices of aboriginal tribes in India, who have lived hitherto -in such complete isolation, that the worship can hardly be due to -imitation of the customs of their more civilized neighbours. - -Thus, on the tenth day after a death in the family, the Ghasiyas of -Mirzapur, about the most degraded of the Dravidian tribes, feed the -brotherhood, and at the door of the cook-house spread flour or ashes a -cubit square on the ground. They light a lamp there and cover both the -square and the light with a basket. Then the son of the dead man goes a -little distance in the direction in which the corpse had been carried -out, and calls out his name loudly two or three times. He invites him -to come and sit on the shrine which his descendants have prepared for -him, and to consume the offerings which they are ready to present. It -is said that if the deceased died in any ordinary way and not by the -attack of a Bhut, he often calls from the burying ground and says, -"I am coming!" After calling his father's spirit two or three times, -the son returns to the house and examines the flour or ashes, and -if the deceased did not die by the attack of a Bhut, the mark of his -spirit is found on the flour or ashes in the shape of the footprint -of a rat or a weasel. When this is observed, the son takes a white -fowl and sacrifices it with a knife near the cook-house, calling -to the spirit of his father--"Come and accept the offering which is -ready for you!" Some of them strangle the fowl with their hands, and -before killing it sprinkle a little grain before it, saying--"If you -are really the spirit of my father, you will accept the grain!" Then -he goes on to his father's spirit--"Accept the offering, sit in -the corner and bless your offspring!" If the fowl eats the grain, -there is great rejoicing, as it implies that the spirit has quietly -taken up its residence in the house. If the fowl does not eat, it is -supposed that some sorcerer or enemy has detained the spirit with the -ultimate object of releasing it some time or other on its own family, -with whom it is presumably displeased because they have taken no -care to propitiate it. If the soul does not answer from the burial -ground, or if there is no mark on the square of ashes, it is assumed -that he has fallen into the hands of some Bhut or Pret, who has shut -him up in the hollow stalk of a bamboo, or buried him in the earth; -in any case there is a risk that he may return, and the rite is still -performed as a precautionary measure. - -Among the Kharwars the holiest part of the house is the south room, -where it is supposed that the Devata pitri or sainted dead reside. They -worship the spirits of the dead in the month of Sawan (August) near -the house-fire. The house-master offers up one or two black fowls and -some cakes and makes a burnt offering with butter and molasses. Then he -calls out--"Whatever ghosts of the holy dead or evil spirits may be in -my family, accept this offering and keep the field and house free from -trouble!" Many of the Kharwars are now coming more completely under -Brahmanical influence, and these worship the Pitri at weddings in the -courtyard. The house-master offers some balls of rice boiled in milk, -and a Brahman standing by mutters some texts. They are now so advanced -as to do the annual service for the repose of the sainted spirits at -the Pitripaksha or fortnight of the dead in the month of Kuar (August). - -The other Dravidian tribes follow similar customs. Thus, the Korwas -worship their dead relations in February with an offering of goats, -which is done by the eldest son of the dead man in the family -cook-house. Their ancestors are said not to appear in the flesh after -death, but to show themselves in dreams if they are dissatisfied -with the arrangements made for their comfort. On the day on which -they are expected to appear the householder makes an offering of -cakes to them in the family kitchen. The Pataris think that the dead -occasionally attend when worship is being done to them. At other times -they remain in the sky or wander about the mountains. Sometimes they -call in the night to their descendants and say--"Worship us! Give -us food and drink!" If they are not propitiated they give trouble -and cause sickness. The Kisans and Bhuiyars of Chota Nagpur adore -their ancestors, "but they have no notion that the latter are now -spirits, or that there are spirits and ghosts, or a future state, -or anything." The Bhuiyas revere their ancestors under the name of -Bir or Vira, "hero," a term which is elsewhere applied to ghosts of -a specially malignant character. The Khariyas put the ashes of their -dead into an earthen pot and throw it into a river. They afterwards -set up in the vicinity slabs of stone as a resting-place for them, -and to these they make daily oblations. The only worship performed by -the Korwas of Chota Nagpur is to their dead relatives, and the same is -the case with other allied races, such as the Bhils and Santals. [367] - - - -Spirits Mortal. - -Most of these Dravidian tribes believe that like themselves the -spirits of the dead are mortal. What becomes of them after a couple -of generations no one can say. But when this period has elapsed -they are supposed to be finally disposed of some way or other, -and being no longer objects of fear to the survivors, their worship -is neglected, and attention is paid only to the more recent dead, -whose powers of mischief still continue. The Gonds go further and -propitiate for only one year the spirits of their departed friends, -and this is done even if they have been persons of no note during -their lifetime; but with worthies of the tribe the case is different, -and if one of them, for example, has founded a village or been its -headman or priest, then he is treated as a god for years, and a -small shrine of earth is erected to his memory, at which sacrifices -are annually offered. [368] It is said that the Juangs, who until -quite recently used to dress in garments of leaves, are the only one -of these tribes who do not practise this form of worship. [369] But -these races are particularly reticent about their beliefs and usages, -and it is more than probable that further inquiry will show that they -are not peculiar in this respect. - - - -Ancestors Re-born in Children. - -Among many races, again, there is a common belief that the father or -grandfather is re-born in one of his descendants. The modern reader -is familiar with examples of such beliefs in Mr. Du Maurier's "Peter -Ibbetson," and Mr. Rider Haggard's "She." Manu expresses this belief -when he writes--"The husband after conception by his wife, becomes -an embryo and is born again of her; for that is the wifehood of a -wife, that he is born again by her." The feeling that children are -really the ancestors re-born is obviously based on the principle of -hereditary resemblance. Hence the general feeling in favour of calling -a child by the name of the grandfather or grandmother, which is about -as far as the rustic goes in recognizing the ascending line. The -Konkan Kunbis, and even Brahmans, believe that the dead ancestors -sometimes appear in children. Among Gujarat Musalmans the nurse, -if a child is peevish, says, "Its kind has come upon its head." The -same idea is found among the Khandhs. Among the Laplanders of Europe -an ancestral spirit tells the mother that he has come into the child, -and directs her to call it after his name. [370] Another variant of -the same belief is that common among some of the Dravidian races that -the ancestor is revived in a calf, which is in consequence well fed -and treated with particular respect. - - - -The Sraddha. - -The ordinary worship of ancestors among Brahmanized Hindu races has -been so often described in well-known books as to need little further -illustration. [371] The spirits of departed ancestors attend upon the -Brahmans invited to the ceremony of the Sraddha, "hovering round them -like pure spirits, and sitting by them when they are seated." "An -offering to the gods is to be made at the beginning and end of the -Sraddha; it must not begin and end with an offering to ancestors, -for he who begins and ends it with an offering to the Pitri quickly -perishes with his progeny." The belief is common to many races that the -spirits of the dead assemble to partake of the food provided by the -piety of their relations on earth. Alcinous addressing the Phaeacians -tells them--"For ever heretofore the gods appear manifest among us, -whensoever we offer glorious hecatombs, and they feast at our side -sitting by the same board." And the old Prussians used to prepare a -meal, to which, standing at the door, they invited the soul of the -deceased. "When the meal was over the priest took a broom and swept -the souls out of the house, saying--'Dear souls! ye have eaten and -drunk. Go forth! go forth!'" [372] - -The place where the oblation is to be made is to be sequestered, -facing the south, the land of departed spirits, and smeared with -cow-dung. The use of this substance is easily to be accounted for, -without following the remarkable explanation of a modern writer, who -connects it with the dropping of the Aurora. [373] "The divine manes -are always pleased with an oblation in empty glades, naturally clean, -on the banks of rivers, and in solitary spots." The ceremony is to -be performed by the eldest son, which furnishes the Hindu with the -well-known argument for marriage and the procreation of male issue. We -have seen that the Dravidians also regard the rite as merely domestic -and to be performed by the house-master. - -The orthodox Hindu, besides the usual Sraddha, in connection with -his daily worship, offers the Tarpana or water oblation to the -sainted dead. The object of the annual Sraddha is, as is well known, -to accelerate the progress (gati) of the soul through the various -stages of bliss, known as Salokya, Samipya and Sarupya, and by its -performance at Gaya the wearied soul passes into Vaikuntha, or the -paradise of Vishnu. - -Hindus do not allow their sons to bathe during the fortnight sacred to -the manes, as they believe that the dirt produced by bathing, shaving, -and washing the apparel will reach and annoy the sainted dead. The -story goes that Raja Karana made a vow that he would not touch food -until he had given a maund and a quarter (about one hundred pounds) of -gold daily to Brahmans. When he died he went to heaven, and was there -given a palace of gold to dwell in, and gold for his food and drink, -as this was all he had given away in charity during his mortal life. So -in his distress he asked to be allowed to return to earth for fifteen -days. His prayer was granted, and warned by sad experience he occupied -himself during his time of grace in giving nothing but food in charity, -being so busy that he neglected to bathe, shave, or wash his clothes, -and thus he became an example to succeeding generations. [374] - - - -Degradation of Ancestor-worship. - -The worship which has been thus described easily passes into other -and grosser forms. Thus, in the family of the Gaikwars of Baroda, -when they worship Mahadeva they think of the greatest of this line of -princes. The temple contains a rudely-executed portrait of Khande Rao, -the shrine to the left the bed, garments, and phial of Ganges water, -which commemorate his mother, Chimnabai. Govind Rao has an image -dressed up, and Fateh Sinh a stone face. [375] - -In Central India Rajputs wear the figure of a distinguished ancestor -or relation engraved in gold or silver. This image, usually that of a -warrior on horseback, is sometimes worshipped, but its chief utility -is as a charm to keep off ghosts and evil spirits. [376] - -The aboriginal Bhuiyas of Chota Nagpur, "after disposing of their dead, -perform a ceremony which is supposed to bring back to the house the -spirit of the deceased, henceforth an object of household worship. A -vessel filled with rice and flour is placed for the time on the tomb, -and when brought back the mark of a fowl's foot is found at the bottom -of the vessel, and this indicates that the spirit of the deceased -has returned." [377] This is, as we have seen, common to many of the -Dravidian tribes, and we shall meet instances of similar practices -when we consider the malignant variety of ghosts. - -A curious example of the popular form of ancestor-worship is given by -General Sleeman:--"Rama Chandra, the Pandit, said that villages which -had been held by old Gond proprietors were more liable than others to -visitation from local ghosts, that it was easy to say what village was -or was not haunted, but often exceedingly difficult to say to whom the -ghost belonged. This once discovered, the nearest surviving relation -was, of course, expected to take steps to put him to rest. But," -said he, "it is wrong to suppose that the ghost of an old proprietor -must be always doing mischief. He is often the best friend of the -cultivators, and of the present proprietor too, if he treats him with -proper respect; for he will not allow the people of any other village -to encroach upon the boundaries with impunity, and they will be saved -all expense and annoyance of a reference to the judicial tribunals -for the settlement of boundary disputes. It will not cost much to -conciliate these spirits, and the money is generally well laid out." - -He instances a case of a family of village proprietors, "who had for -several generations insisted at every new settlement upon having the -name of the spirit of the old proprietor inserted in the lease instead -of their own, and thereby secured his good graces on all occasions." "A -cultivator who trespassed on land believed to be in charge of such a -spirit had his son bitten by a snake, and his two oxen were seized with -the murrain. In terror he went off to the village temple, confessed -his sin, and vowed to restore not only the half-acre of land, but to -build a very handsome temple on the spot as a perpetual sign of his -repentance. The boy and the bullocks all then recovered, the shrine was -built, and is, I believe, still to be seen as a boundary mark." [378] - - - -Worship of Worthies. - -From this family worship of deceased relations, the transition to -the special worship of persons of high local reputation in life, -or who have died in some remarkable way, is easy. The intermediate -links are the Sadhu and the Sati, and the worship finally culminates -in a creed like that of the Jainas, who worship a pantheon of deified -saints, that of the Lingayat worship of Siva incarnated as Chambasapa, -or the godlike weaver Kabir of the Kabirpanthis. The lowest phase of -all is the worship by the Halbas of Central India of a pantheon of -glorified distillers. [379] - - - -The Sadhu. - -The Sadhu is a saint who is regarded as "the great power of God," -the name meaning "he that is eminent in virtue." He is a visible -manifestation of the divine energy acquired by his piety and -self-devotion. We shall meet later on instances of deified holy men of -this class. Meanwhile, it may be noted, we see around us the constant -development of the cultus in all its successive stages. Thus, in Berar -at Askot the saint is still alive; at Wadnera he died nearly a century -ago, and his descendants live on the offerings made by the pious; at -Jalganw a crazy vagabond was canonized on grounds which strict people -consider quite insufficient. There is, of course, among the disciples -and descendants of these local saints a constant competition going -on for the honour of canonization, which once secured, the shrine -may become a very valuable source of income and reputation. But the -indiscriminate and ill-regulated deification of mortals is one of the -main causes of the weakness of modern Hinduism, because, by a process -of abscission, the formation of multitudinous sects, which take their -titles and special forms of belief from the saint whose disciples -they profess to be, is promoted and encouraged. Thus, as has been -well remarked, Hinduism lies in urgent need of a Pope or acknowledged -orthodox head, "to control its wonderful elasticity and receptivity, -to keep up the standard of deities and saints, and generally to prevent -superstitions running wild into a tangled jungle of polytheism." [380] - -It would be out of place to give here any of the details of the -numerous sects which have been founded in this way to commemorate the -life and teaching of some eminent saint. The remarkable point about -this movement is that the leaders of these sects are not always or -even constantly drawn from the priestly classes. Thus the Charandasis, -who are Krishna worshippers, take their name from Charan Das, a Dhusar, -who are usually classed as Banyas, but claim to be Brahmans; Jhambaji, -the founder of the Bishnois, was a Rajput; Kabir, whoever he may have -been, was brought up by a family of Muhammadan weavers at Benares; -Namdeo was a cotton carder; Rae Das is said to have been a Chamar; -Dadu was a cotton cleaner; many of them are half Muhammadans, as -the Chhaju-panthis and Shamsis. It is difficult to estimate highly -enough the result of this feeling of toleration and catholicism on -the progress of modern Hinduism. - - - -Miracle-working Tombs. - -These saints have wrested from the reluctant gods by sheer piety and -relentless austerities, a portion of the divine thaumaturgic power, -which exudes after their death from the places where their bodies are -laid. This is the case with the shrines of both Hindu and Musalman -saints. Many instances of this will be found in succeeding pages. Thus -at Chunar there is a famous shrine in honour of Shah Qasim Sulaimani, -[381] a local saint whose opinions were so displeasing to Akbar that -he imprisoned him here till his death in 1614 A.D. His cap and turban -are still shown at his tomb, and these, when gently rubbed by one -of his disciples, pour out a divine influence through the assembled -multitude of votaries, many of whom are Hindus. This holy influence -extends even to the animal kingdom. Thus the tomb of the saint Nirgan -Shah at Sarauli in the Bareilly District abounds in scorpions, which -bite no one through the virtue of the saint. - -Hindu saints of the same class are so directly imbued with the -divine afflatus that they need not the purifying influence of fire, -and are buried, not cremated. Their Samadhi or final resting-place -is usually represented by a pile of earth, or a tomb or tumulus of -a conical or circular form. Others, again, like some of the Gusains, -are after death enclosed in a box of stone and consigned to the waters -of the Ganges. These shrines are generally occupied by a disciple or -actual descendant of the saint, and there vows and prayers are made -and offerings presented. - - - -The Sati. - -The next link between ancestor-worship and that of special deceased -worthies is seen in the Sati, or "faithful wife," who, before the -practice was prohibited by our Government, was bound to bear her -deceased lord company to the world of spirits for his consolation and -service. The rite seems to have at one time prevailed throughout the -Aryan world. [382] It undoubtedly prevailed in Slavonic lands, [383] -and there are even traces of it in Greece. Evadne is said to have -burnt herself with the body of her husband, Capaneus, and Oenone, -according to one account, leaped into the pyre on which the body -of Paris was being cremated. There are indications that the rite -prevailed among the Dravidian races, and it has been suggested that -the Hindus may have adopted it from them. Even to the present day -among some of the Bhil tribes the wife of the dead man is carried -along with him on the bier to the burning ground, where she is laid -down. There she breaks her marriage necklace, and her ornaments are -consumed with the corpse of her husband, obviously a survival of the -time when she was actually burnt with him. [384] - -It is unnecessary here to enter into the controversy whether or not -the rite was based on a misinterpretation or perversion of one of the -sacred texts. That in old times the Sati was treated with exceptional -honour is certain. In some places she went to the burning ground -richly dressed, scattering money and flowers, and calling out the -names of the deities, with music sounding and drums beating. In some -places she used to mark with her hands the gateways and walls of the -chief temple, and she sometimes marked in the same way a stone for -her descendants to worship, a practice to which reference will be made -later on. On such stones it was the custom to carve a representation -of her, and in many places a Chhatri, or ornamental cenotaph pavilion, -was erected in her honour. The small shrines in honour of the village -Sati are found often in considerable numbers on the banks of tanks -all over Upper India. They are visited by women at marriages and other -festivals, and are periodically repaired and kept in order. According -to Mr. Ibbetson, [385] in the Delhi territory, these shrines take the -place of those dedicated to the Pitri, or sainted dead. They often -contain a representation in stone of the lord and his faithful spouse, -and one of his arms rests affectionately on her neck. Sometimes, if he -died in battle, he is mounted on his war steed and she walks beside -him; but her worshippers are not always careful in identifying her -shrine, and I have seen at least one undoubted Revenue Survey pillar -doing duty as a monument to some unnamed local divinity of this class. - -Among the warrior tribes of Rajputana, the Sati shrine usually takes -the form of a monument, on which is carved the warrior on his charger, -with his wife standing beside him, and the images of the sun and the -moon on either side, emblematical of never-dying fame. Such places -are the scene of many a ghostly legend. As Col. Tod writes in his -sentimental way [386]--"Among the altars on which have burnt the -beautiful and brave, the harpy or Dakini takes up her abode, and stalks -forth to devour the heart of her victims." The Rajput never enters -these places of silence, but to perform stated rites or anniversary -offerings of flowers and water to the manes of his ancestors. There -is a peculiarly beautiful Sati necropolis at Udaypur, and the Sati -Burj, or tower at Mathura, erected in honour of the queen of Raja -Bihar Mal of Jaypur in 1570 A.D., is one of the chief ornaments of -the city. [387] - - - -The Sati and the Pitri. - -The connection between the special worship of the Sati and that of the -Pitri or sainted dead will have been remarked. In many places the Sati -represents the company of the venerated ancestors and is regarded as -the guardian mother of the village, and in many of the rustic shrines -of this class the same connection with the Pitri is shown in another -interesting way. The snake is, as we shall see, regarded as a type -of the household deity, which is often one of the deified ancestors, -and so, in the Sati shrine we often see a snake delineated in the -act of rising out of the masonry, as if it were the guardian mother -snake arising to receive the devotion of her descendants. - -The Sati having thus secured the honour of deification by her -sacrifice, is able to protect her worshippers and gratify their -desires. Some are even the subject of special honour, such as -Sakhu Bai, who is worshipped at Akola. [388] Even the Dravidian -Kaurs of Sarguja worship a deified Sati, another link connecting -the cultus with the aboriginal races. She has a sacred grove, -and every year a fowl is sacrificed to her, and every third year -a goat. Col. Dalton [389] observes that the Hindus who accompanied -him were intensely amused at the idea of offering fowls to a Sati, -who is accustomed to the simpler bloodless tribute of milk, cakes, -fruit and flowers. This is the form of the offering at Jilmili, the -Sati shrines belonging to the local Raja. The curses of a dying Sati -were greatly feared. Numerous instances of families ruined in this -way are told both in Rajputana and in Nepal, the last places where -the rite is occasionally performed. [390] - -The arrangements for the cremation varied in different places. In -Western India she sat in a specially built grass hut, and keeping her -husband's head in her lap, supported it with her right hand, while -she kindled the hut with a torch held in her left hand. Nowadays in -Nepal the husband and the Sati are made to lie side by side on the -pyre. The woman's right hand is put under the husband's neck, and -round her face are placed all kinds of inflammable substances. Three -long poles of undried wood are laid over the bodies--one over the -legs, the second over the chest, and the third over the neck. Three -men on either side press down the poles till the woman is burnt to -death. There have been cases in which the wretched victim tried to -escape, and was dragged back by force to her death. - -A curious modification of the practice of Sati, which so far has been -traced only in Rajputana, is what is known as Ma Sati, or mother Sati, -where the mother immolates herself with her dead child. Colonel Powlett -[391] remarks that in inquiring about it one is often told that it is -really Maha Sati, or "the great Sati." He adds that there can be no -doubt that mother Sati really prevails, but was confined to the sandy -and desert tract, where domestic affection is said to be stronger -than elsewhere. "In one large remote village I found five monuments -to Mother Satis, one a Chhatri or pavilion of some pretensions. A -Rajput lady from Jaysalmer was on a visit to her father's family -with her youngest son. The boy was thrown when exercising his pony, -dragged in the stirrup and killed. His mother became Sati with her -son's body, and probably her example, for she was a person of some -rank, led to the subsequent practice of Ma Sati in the same district." - - - -Modern Saints. - -We have already noticed some instances of the canonization in modern -times of saints and holy men. Of worthies of this kind, who have -received divine honours, the number is legion. This deification of -human beings is found in the very early Brahmanical literature. One -of the most noteworthy ideas to be found in the Brahmanas is that -the gods were merely mortal till they conquered Death by their -sacrifices. Death, alarmed, protested to the gods, and it was then -arranged that no one should become immortal by the force of his piety -without first offering his body to Death. Manu declares that "from -his birth alone a Brahman is regarded as a divinity, even by the -gods." [392] Modern practice supports this by calling him Maha-raja -or "Great king," and he rises to heaven as a deity, like many of the -famous kings of old. [393] In the same way the Etruscans had certain -rites through which the souls of men could become gods and were -called Dii Animales, because they had once been human souls. Quite in -consonance with Indian practice they first became Penates and Lares -before they rose to the rank of the superior deities. [394] - - - -Deification in Modern Times. - -A few examples of modern deification may be given to illustrate this -phase of the popular faith. Thus, one Gauhar Shah was quite recently -canonized at Meerut because he delivered a prophecy that a windmill -belonging to a certain Mr. Smith would soon cease to work. The -fulfilment of his prediction was considered ample evidence of his -sanctity, and the question was put beyond the possibility of doubt -when, just before his death, the holy man directed his disciples to -remove him from an inn, which immediately fell down. Another saint -of the same place is said to have given five years of his life to the -notorious Begam Samru, who died in 1836, in all the odour of sanctity. - - - -Shaikh Burhan. - -Shaikh Burhan, a saint of Amber, was offered a drink of milk by Mokul, -one of the Shaikhawat chiefs, and immediately performed the miracle of -drawing a copious stream of milk from the udder of an exhausted female -buffalo. "This was sufficient to convince the old chief that he could -work other miracles, and he prayed that through his means he might no -longer be childless. In due time he had an heir, who, according to the -injunction of Burhan, was styled, after his own tribe, Shaikh, whence -the title of the clan. He directed that the child should wear the cross -strings (baddiya) worn by Muhammadan children, which, when laid aside, -were to be deposited at the saint's shrine, and further that he should -assume the blue tunic and cap, abstain from hog's flesh, and eat no -meat in which the blood remained. He also ordained that at the birth -of every Shaikhawat a goat should be sacrificed, the Islamite creed or -Kalima recited, and the child sprinkled with the blood." These customs -are still observed, and the Shaikh's shrine is still a sanctuary, -while his descendants enjoy lands specially assigned to them. [395] - - - -Salim Chishti. - -The power of conferring male offspring has made the reputation of many -saints of this class, like the famous Salim Chishti of Fatehpur Sikri, -whose prayers were efficacious in procuring an heir for the Emperor -Akbar. Up to the present day childless women visit his shrine and hang -rags on the delicate marble traceries of his tomb to mark their vows. - - - -Deification of Noted Persons. - -Besides this sainthood which is based on sanctity of life and approved -thaumaturgic powers, the right of deification is conferred on persons -who have been eminent or notorious in their lives, or who have died -in some extraordinary or notorious way. All or nearly all the deified -saints of Northern India may be grouped under one or other of these -categories. - - - -Harshu Panre. - -We have already given an instance of the second class in Hardaul Lala, -the cholera godling. Another example of the same kind is that of Harshu -Panre or Harshu Baba, the local god of Chayanpur, near Sahsaram in -Bengal, whose worship is now rapidly spreading over Northern India, and -promises to become as widely diffused as that of Hardaul himself. He -was, according to the current account, a Kanaujiya Brahman, the family -priest of Raja Salivahana of Chayanpur. The Raja had two queens, one of -whom was jealous of the priest's influence. About this time the priest -built a fine house close to the palace, and one night the Raja and the -Rani saw a light from its upper story gleaming aloft in the sky. The -Rani hinted to the Raja that the priest had designs of ousting his -master from the kingdom; so the Raja had his house demolished and -resumed the lands which had been conferred upon him. The enraged -Brahman did dharna, in other words fasted till he died at the palace -gate. This tragical event occurred in 1427 A.D., and when they took his -body for cremation at Benares, they found Harshu standing in his wooden -sandals on the steps of the burning Ghat. He then informed them that -he had become a Brahm, or malignant Brahman ghost. The Raja's daughter -had been kind to the Brahman in his misfortunes and he blessed her, -so that her family exists in prosperity to this day. But the rest -of his house was destroyed, and now only the gateway at which the -Brahman died remains to commemorate the tragedy. [396] - -Harshu is now worshipped as a Brahm with the fire sacrifice and -offerings of Brahmanical cords and sweetmeats. If any one obtains his -desires through his intercession, he makes an offering of a golden -sacred cord and a silken waist-string, and feeds Brahmans in his -honour. Harshu's speciality is exorcising evil spirits which attack -people and cause disease. Such spirits are usually of low caste and -cannot withstand the influence of this deified Brahman. - - - -Ratan Panre. - -Another worthy, whose legend much resembles that of Harshu, is Ratan -Panre, who is venerated by the Kalhans Rajputs of Oudh. The last of -the race, Raja Achal Narayan Sinh, ravished the daughter of Ratan -Panre. He pleaded in vain to the wicked Raja for reparation, and at -last he and his wife starved themselves to death at the gate of the -fort. He too, like Harshu, spared a princess of the Raja's house, -but he cursed the rest of his family with ruin. After he died his -ghost went to the river Sarju and claimed her assistance in revenging -himself on the Raja. She at last consented to help him, provided -he could get the Raja into his power by inducing him to accept some -present from him. So he went to the Raja's family priest and induced -him to take from him a sacred cord with which he was to invest the -Raja. When Achal Narayan Sinh heard to whom he was indebted for the -gift he flung it away in terror. But soon after an angry wave rushed -from the Sarju, and on its crest sat the wraith of Ratan Panre. It -swept away his palace and left not a soul of his household alive. [397] - - - -Maheni. - -There is a similar case among the Hayobans Rajputs of Ghazipur. In -1528 A.D. their Raja Bhopat Deva, or perhaps one of his sons, seduced -Maheni, a Brahman girl, a relation of their family priest. She burned -herself to death, and in dying, imprecated the most fearful curses on -the Hayobans sept. In consequence of a succession of disasters which -followed, the tribe completely abandoned their family settlement -at Baliya, where the woman's tomb is worshipped to this day. Even -now none of the sept dares to enter the precincts of their former -home. In the same way, in the case of Harshu Panre no pilgrim will -eat or drink near his tomb, as the place is accursed through the -murder of a Brahman. [398] - -There are numerous other cases of this deification of suicide Brahmans -in Northern India. The forms in which they sought vengeance by their -death on their persecutors are diversified in the extreme. There is -a case of a Brahman in the Partabgarh District who, when turned out -of his land, to avenge himself, gathered a heap of cow-dung in the -centre of one of the fields and lay down on it till he was devoured -by worms. This happened sixty years ago, but his fields still stand -a waste of jungle grass in the midst of rich cultivation, and neither -Hindu nor Muhammadan dares to plough them. [399] - -At the last census of the North-Western Provinces over four hundred -thousand people recorded themselves as worshippers of various forms -of the Brahm or malignant Brahman ghost. Most of these are Rajputs, -who were probably the most violent oppressors of Brahmans in the -olden days. - - - -Nahar Khan. - -Another instance of the same type may be given from Rajputana. Jaswant -Sinh of Marwar had an intrigue with the daughter of one of his chief -officers. "But the avenging ghost of the Brahman interposed between -him and his wishes; a dreadful struggle ensued, in which Jaswant -lost his senses, and no effort could banish the impression from his -mind. The ghost persecuted his fancy, and he was generally believed -to be possessed of a wicked spirit, which when exorcised was made to -say he would depart only on the sacrifice of a chief equal in dignity -to Jaswant. Nahar Khan, 'the tiger lord,' chief of the Kumpawat clan, -who led the van in all his battles, immediately offered his head in -expiation for his prince; and he had no sooner expressed his loyal -determination, than the holy man who exorcised the spirit, caused -it to descend into a vessel of water, and having waved it round his -head, they presented it to Nahar Khan, who drank it off, and Jaswant's -senses were instantly restored. This miraculous transfer of the ghost -is implicitly believed by every chief of Rajasthan, by whom Nahar -Khan is called 'the faithful of the faithful,' and worshipped as a -local god." [400] - - - -Ganganath and Bholanath. - -Two other godlings of the Hills owe their promotion to the tragic -circumstances of their deaths. Ganganath was a Raja's son, who -quarrelled with his father and became a religious mendicant. He -subsequently fell into an intrigue with the wife of an astrologer, -who murdered him and his paramour. They both became malignant ghosts, -to whom numerous temples were erected. When anyone is injured by the -wicked or powerful, he has recourse to Ganganath, who punishes the -evil-doer. Of the same type is Bholanath, whose brother, Gyan Chand, -was one of the Almora princes. He had him assassinated with his -pregnant mistress, both of whom became malignant ghosts, and are -especially obnoxious to gardeners, one of whom murdered them. This -caste now specially worships them, and a small iron trident is -sometimes placed in the corner of a cottage and resorted to in -their names when any sudden or unexpected calamity attacks the -occupants. [401] - - - -Bhairwanand. - -Similar is the case of Bhairwanand, the tribal deity of the Raikwar -Rajputs of Oudh. He was pushed into a well in order to fulfil a -prophecy, and has since been deified. [402] - -So with the queen of Ganor, who killed herself by means of a poisoned -robe when she was obliged to surrender her honour to her Mughal -conqueror. He died in extreme torture, and was buried on the road to -Bhopal. A visit to his grave is believed to cure tertian ague. [403] - - - -Vyasa. - -Next come those mortals who have been deified on account of the glory -of their lives. Vyasa, the compiler of the Vedas, has been canonized, -and there is a temple in his honour both at Benares and Ramnagar. In -the latter place he has been promoted to the dignity of an incarnation -of Siva, whereas in Benares he has a temple of his own. His worship -extends as far as Kulu, where he has an image near a stream. Pilgrims -offer flowers in his name and set up a stone on end in commemoration -of their visit. [404] - - - -Valmiki. - -Valmiki, the author of the Ramayana, is worshipped in the same -way. He has shrines at Balu in the Karnal District and at Baleni -of Meerut. Baliya, the headquarters of the district of that name, -is said to be called after him. The Aheriyas and Baheliyas, both -hunting tribes of the North-Western Provinces, claim descent from -him, and he has now, by an extraordinary feat in hagiolatry, become -identified with Lal Beg, the low caste godling of the sweepers. [405] - - - -Various Saints. - -Many other worthies of the olden time are worshipped in the same -way. From the Himalaya to Bombay, Dattatreya, a saint in whom a -part of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva was incarnate, is worshipped by -Vaishnavas as a partial manifestation of the deity, and by Saivas as -a distinguished authority on the Yoga philosophy. He has temples both -in Garhwal and in the Konkan, like Parasara Rishi, the reputed author -of the Vishnu Purana, who wished to make a sacrifice to destroy the -Rakshasas, but was dissuaded by the saints, and then scattered the -fire over the slope of the Himalaya, where it blazes forth at the -phases of the moon. [406] In like fashion the records of the last -census have shown worshippers of the poets Kalidasa and Tulasi Das, -as in Bombay their great writers Dnyanadeva and Tukaram are deified -by the Marathas. Nearly seven thousand people in the North-Western -Provinces adore Vasishtha, the famous Rishi, and many others Narada -Muni, who is a well-known personage and generally acts as a sort of -Deus ex machina in the folk-tales. On the whole in the North-Western -Provinces over a quarter million people recorded themselves as votaries -of these deified saints, devotees and teachers. - -The same form of worship largely prevails in the Panjab. Among other -worthies we find Syamji, a Chauhan Raja who is said to have given his -head to Krishna and Arjuna on condition that he should be allowed to -witness the fight between the Kauravas and Pandavas; Dhanwantari, -the physician of the gods; Drona Acharya, the teacher of military -science to the heroes of the great war. The Kumhars or potters worship -Prajapati, the active creator of the universe; and the Kayasth scribes -adore Chitragupta, who keeps the register of the deeds of men, which -will be opened at the last day. This is quite irrespective of a horde -of tutelary saints, who are adored by various tribes of handicraftsmen. - - - -Deified Robbers. - -Even the thieving and nomadic tribes have as their godlings deified -bandits. Such is Gandak, the patron of the Magahiya Doms, and Salhes, -who is worshipped by the Doms and Dusadhs of Behar. He was a great -hero and the first watchman. He fought a famous battle with Chuhar Mai -of Mohama, and is the subject of a popular epic in Tirhut. With his -worship is associated that of his brother Motiram, another worthy of -the same kind. [407] At Sherpur near Patna is the shrine of Goraiya or -Gauraiya, a Dusadh bandit chief, to which members of all castes resort, -the higher castes making offerings of meal, the outcastes sacrificing -a hog or several young pigs and pouring out libations of spirits on -the ground. But even here the primitive local cultus is in a state -of transition, as in the case of Salhes, who, according to some, was -the porter of Bhim Sen. [408] Doubtless he and his comrades will some -day blossom forth as manifestations of one or other of the higher gods. - -Another bandit godling is Mitthu Bhukhiya, a freebooter, worshipped -by the Banjaras or wandering carriers. He has a special hut, in which -no one may drink or sleep, and which is marked with a white flag. The -tribe always worship him before committing a crime. They assemble -together and an image of the famous tribal Sati is produced. Butter -is put into a saucer, and in this a light is placed, very broad at -the bottom and tapering upwards. The wick, standing erect, is lit, -an appeal is made to the Sati for an omen, and those worshipping -mention in a low tone to the godling where they are going, and what -they propose to do. The wick is then carefully watched, and should -it drop at all, the omen is propitious. All then salute the flag and -start on their marauding expedition. [409] - -Vindhya-basini Devi, the personification of the Vindhyan range, -is, as we have seen, the goddess of the Thags, and the Dhanuks, a -thieving tribe in Behar, worship one of their chiefs who was killed -in a skirmish with the Muhammadans six hundred years ago, and whose -ghost has since been troublesome. He is worshipped in a shrine of -brick, and one of the members of the tribe acts as his priest. [410] - - - -Raja Lakhan. - -We have already spoken of Gansam, one of the tribal deities of the -Kols. Another famous Kol deity in Mirzapur is Raja Lakhan. One story -of him is that he came from Lucknow, a legend based, of course, -on the similarity of the name. But there can be no reasonable doubt -that he was really Lakhana Deva, the son of the famous Raja Jaychand -of Kanauj, who is known in the popular ballads as the Kanaujiya -Rae. There is an inscribed pillar erected by him near Bhuili in the -Mirzapur District, and he was perhaps locally connected with that -part of the country in some way. [411] Some say that he was taken to -Delhi, where he became a Musalman, and the popularity of his name in -the local legends points to the theory that he was possibly one of -the leaders of the Hindus against the Muhammadan invaders. All this -being granted, it is remarkable that he, a Rajput, and almost as much -a stranger to those primitive jungle dwellers as his Muhammadan rival, -should have found a place in the Dravidian pantheon. - - - -Raja Chandol. - -Another deity of the same race is Raja Chandol, who is said to -have been a jungle Raja of the Bhuiyar tribe. He was attacked by -his neighbour the Raja of Nagar, who overcame him and cut off his -head. Meanwhile the conqueror forgot his patron deity, and his temple -was overturned and the image buried in the earth. One day a goldsmith -who was passing by the place heard a voice from beneath the ground -saying that if he dug there he would find the idol. He did so, and, -digging up the image, which was of gold, cut it up and sold it. But -his whole household came to ruin, and then the Raja of Nagar restored -the temple, and the Kols remembered Raja Chandol and have venerated -him ever since. - - - -Bela. - -The goddess Bela was the sister of Lakhana Deva, whose story has -been already told. Once, the story goes, Siva went to pay a visit to -Hastinapura, and the bell of his bull Nandi disturbed the brothers -Arjuna and Bhima, who, thinking the god a wandering beggar, drove -him out of the palace. Then he cursed the Rajput race that among -them should be born two fatal women, who should work the ruin of -their power. So first was born Draupadi, who caused the war of the -Mahabharata, and after her Bela, to whom was due the unhappy warfare -which paved the way to the Musalman invasion. Bela now has a famous -temple at Belaun on the banks of the Ganges in Bulandshahr. - -We shall come elsewhere on instances of the belief that human beings -were sacrificed under the foundations of important buildings. Nathu -Kahar, the godling of the Oudh boatmen, is said to have been buried -alive under the foundations of the fort of Akbarpur in the Faizabad -District, where a fair is held in his honour. [412] At the last census -one hundred and twenty-four thousand persons recorded themselves as -his votaries. - - - -Jokhaiya. - -Jokhaiya, who had by the same enumeration eighty-seven thousand -worshippers, was a Bhangi or sweeper, who is said to have been killed -in the war between Prithivi Raja of Delhi and Jaychand of Kanauj. He -has a noted shrine at Paindhat in the Mainpuri District, where a -sweeper for a small fee will kill a pig and let its blood drop on -his shrine. - - - -Ramasa Pir. - -So, the godling invoked by the Pindhari women when their husbands -went on marauding expeditions, was Ramasa Pir. He was a well-known -warrior killed in a battle at Ranuja, near Pushkar. Saturday is his -day for prayer, on which occasions small images of horses in clay or -stone are offered at his shrine. The figure of a man on horseback, -stamped in gold or silver, representing the godling, was found on -the necks of many of the Pindharis killed in the great campaign of -1817-18. It was worn by them as an amulet. He is now known as Deva -Dharma Raja, which is one of the titles of Yama, the god of death, -and Yudhisthira, his putative son. - - - -Rae Sinh. - -Another local godling of the same class is Rae Sinh, whose legend is -thus told by General Sleeman: "At Sanoda there is a very beautiful -little fortress or castle, now occupied, but still entire. It was built -by an officer of Raja Chhattar Sal of Bundelkhand about 1725 A.D. His -son, by name Rae Sinh, was, soon after the castle had been completed, -killed in an attack upon a town near Chhatarkot, and having in the -estimation of the people become a god, he had a temple and a tank -raised to him. I asked the people how he became a god, and was told -that some one who had been long suffering from quartan ague went to -the tomb one night and promised Rae Sinh, whose ashes lay under it, -that if he could contrive to cure his ague for him, he would during the -rest of his life make offerings at his shrine. After this he never had -an attack and was very punctual in his offerings. Others followed his -example and with like success, till Rae Sinh was recognized universally -among them as a god, and had a temple raised to his name." "This is -the way," remarks General Sleeman, "gods were made all over the world -and are now made in India." [413] - - - -The Pirs and Sayyids. - -We now come to a more miscellaneous class--the Pirs and Sayyids. Some -of these we have encountered already. We have also seen instances of -some holy men who, like Paul and Silas at Lystra, have been raised to -the rank of deities. These saints are usually of Muhammadan origin, -but most of them are worshipped indiscriminately both by Musalmans -and low class Hindus. The word Pir properly means "an elder," but -according to Sufi belief is the equivalent of Murshid, or "religious -leader." Sayyid, an Arabic word meaning "lord" or "prince," is probably -in many cases a corruption of Shahid, "a martyr of the faith," because -many of these worthies owe their reputation to having lost their lives -in the early struggles between Islam and Hinduism. Mr. Ibbetson notes -that he has seen a shrine of some Sayyids in the Jalandhar District, -who were said to have been Sikhs, who died in the front of the -battle. It took the form of a Muhammadan tomb, lying east and west, -surmounted by two small domes of Hindu shape with their openings -to the south. Under each, in the face of the tomb, was a niche to -receive a lamp. [414] - -This and many other instances of the same kind illustrate in an -admirable way the extreme receptivity of the popular belief. We -have here a body of saints, many of whom were deadly enemies of the -Hindu faith, who are now worshipped by Hindus. This is well put by -Sir A. Lyall--"The 'Urs, or annual ceremony of these saints, like the -martyr's day of St. Edmund or St. Thomas of Canterbury, has degenerated -into much that is mere carnal traffic and pagan idolatry, a scandal -to the rigid Islamite. Yet, if he uplifts his voice against such -soul-destroying abuses, he may be hooted by loose-living Musalmans as -a Wahhabi who denies the power of intercession, while the shopkeepers -are no better than Ephesian goldsmiths in crying down an inconvenient -religious reformer." [415] And the same writer illustrates the fusion -of the two creeds in their lower forms by the fact that the holy Hindu -now in the flesh at Askot has only recently taken over the business, -as it were, from a Muhammadan Faqir, whose disciple he was during -his life, and now that the Faqir is dead, Narsinh Bawa presides over -the annual veneration of his slippers. Similarly at the Muharram -celebration and at pilgrimages to tombs, like those of Ghazi Miyan, a -large number of the votaries are Hindus. In many towns the maintenance -of these Muhammadan festivals mainly depends on the assistance of the -Hindus, and it is only recently that the unfortunate concurrence of -these exhibitions with special Hindu holidays has, it may be hoped -only temporarily, interrupted the tolerant and kindly intercourse -between the followers of the rival creeds. - -In many of these shrines the actual or pretended relics of the deceased -worthy are exhibited. Under the shadow of the Fort of Chunar is the -shrine of Shah Qasim Sulaimani, of whom mention has been already -made. The guardian of the shrine shows to pilgrims the turban of the -saint, who was deified about three hundred years ago, and the conical -cap of his supposed preceptor, the eminent Pir Jahaniya Jahangasht; -but, as in many such cases, the chronology is hopeless. - - - -The Panj Pir. - -The most eminent of the Pirs are, of course, the Panj Pir, or five -original saints of Islam. They were--the Prophet Muhammad, 'Ali, his -cousin-german and adopted son, Fatima, the daughter of the Prophet and -wife of 'Ali, and their sons, Hasan and Husain, whose tragical fate -is commemorated with such ardent sympathy at the annual celebration -of the Muharram. [416] But by modern Indian Muhammadans the name is -usually applied to five leading saints--Baha-ud-din Zikariya of Multan, -Shah Ruqa-i-Alam Hazrat of Lucknow, Shah Shams Tabriz of Multan, -Shaikh Jalal Makhdum Jahaniyan Jahangasht of Uchcha in Multan, -and Baba Shaikh Farid-ud-din Shakkarganj of Pak Patan. Another -enumeration gives the Char Pir or four great saints as 'Ali and -his successors in saintship--Khwaja Hasan Basri, Khwaja Habib 'Ajmi, -'Abdul Wahid. Another list of Pirs of Upper India gives their names as -Ghazi Miyan, Pir Hathile, sister's son of Ghazi Miyan, Pir Jalil of -Lucknow, and Pir Muhammad of Jaunpur. It is, in fact, impossible to -find a generally recognized catalogue of these worthies, and modern -Islam is no less subject to periodical change than other religions -organized on a less rigid system. [417] - - - -Caste Saints. - -The worship of the original saints of Islam has, however, undergone -a grievous degradation. We are familiar in Western hagiology with -the specialization of saints for certain purposes. St. Agatha is -invoked to cure sore breasts, St. Anthony against inflammation, -St. Blaise against bones sticking in the throat, St. Martin for -the itch, St. Valentine against epilepsy, and so on. So St. Agatha -presides over nurses, St. Catherine and St. Gregory over learned men, -St. Cecilia over musicians, St. Valentine over lovers, St. Nicholas -over thieves, while St. Thomas a Becket looks after blind men, -eunuchs, and sinners. [418] So almost all the artizan classes have -each their special patron saint. The dyers venerate Pir 'Ali Rangrez, -the Lohars or blacksmiths, Hazrat Daud, or the Lord David, because -the Quran says--"We taught him the art of making coats of mail -that they might defend you from your suffering in warring with your -enemies." The Mehtars or sweepers have Lal Pir or Lal Beg, of whom -something more will be said later on. In the Panjab Sadhua Bhagat is -the saint of butchers, because once when he was about to kill a goat, -the animal threatened that he would revenge himself in another life, -and so he joined the sect of Sadhs, who refrain from destroying animal -life. The barbers revere Sain Bhagat or Husain Bhagat. He is said -to have been a resident of Pratappura in the Jalandhar District, and -his descendants were for some time family Gurus or preceptors of the -Raja of Bandhogarh. One day he was so engaged in his devotions that he -forgot to shave the Raja's head, but when he came in fear and trembling -to apologize, he found the Raja shaved and in his right mind. Then it -was found that the deity himself had come and officiated for him. So, -Namdeo, the Chhipi or cotton-printer, became a follower of Ramanand, -and is regarded as the tribal saint. - - - -Domestic Worship of the Pir. - -Muhammadan domestic worship is largely concerned with the propitiation -of the household Pir. In almost every house is a dreaded spot where, -as the Russian peasant keeps his holy image, is the abode or corner -of the Pir, and the owner erects a little shelf, lights a lamp every -Thursday night, and hangs up garlands of flowers. Shaikh Saddu, -of whom we shall see more later on, is the women's favourite Pir, -especially with those who wish to gain an undue ascendency over -their husbands. When a woman wishes to have a private entertainment -of her own, she pretends to be "shadow smitten," that is that the -shadow of some Pir, usually Shaikh Saddu, has fallen upon her, and -her husband is bound to give an entertainment, known as a Baithak or -"session," for the purpose of exorcising him, to which no male is -allowed admittance. At these rites of the Bona Dea, it is believed -that the Pir enters the woman's head and that she becomes possessed, -and in that state of frenzy can answer any question put to her. All -her female neighbours, accordingly, assemble to have their fortunes -told by the Pir, and when they are satisfied they exorcise him with -music and singing. - - - -The Pachpiriyas. - -But it is in the eastern districts of the North-Western Provinces and -Behar that the worship has reached its most degraded form. No less -than one million seven hundred thousand persons at the last census, -almost entirely in the Gorakhpur and Benares Divisions, recorded -themselves as Pachpiriyas or worshippers of the Panch Pir. It -is impossible to get any consistent account of these worthies, -and the whole cultus has become imbedded in a mass of the wildest -legend and mythology. [419] According to the census lists these -five saints are, in the order of their popularity--Ghazi Miyan, -Buahna Pir, Palihar, Amina Sati and Hathile or Hathila. In Benares, -according to Mr. Greeven, there are no less than five enumerations -of the sacred quintette. One gives--Ghazi Miyan, Amina Sati, Suthan, -'Ajab Salar and Palihar; a second--Ghazi Miyan, Amina Sati, Suthan, -'Ajab Salar and Buahna; a third--Ghazi Miyan, Amina Sati, Buahna, -Bhairon and Bande; a fourth--Ghazi Miyan, Amina Sati, Palihar, -Kalika and Shahza; a fifth--Ghazi Miyan, Suthan, 'Ajab Salar, Buahna -and Bahlano. Among these we have the names of well-known Hindu gods, -like Bhairon and Kalika, a form of Kali. Among the actual companions of -Ghazi Miyan are, it is believed, Hathile Pir, who is said to have been -his sister's son, Miyan Rajjab or Rajjab Salar, and Sikandar Diwana, -the Buahna Pir, who are all buried at Bahraich, and Sahu Salar, -father of the martyr prince, whose tomb is near Barabanki. - -In Behar, again, the five saints are Ghazi Miyan, Hathila, Parihar, -Sahja Mai and 'Ajab Salar, and with them are associated Amina Sati, -Langra Tar, who is represented by a piece of crooked wire, and Sobarna -Tir, the bank of the Sobarna river. Here we reach an atmosphere of -the crudest fetishism. A little further west Sanwar or Kunwar Dhir, -of whom nothing certain is known, is joined with them, and has numerous -worshippers in the Gorakhpur and Benares Divisions. - - - -The Panch Pir and the Pandavas. - -It has often been remarked that the five Pandavas have strangely passed -out of the national worship. At the last census in the North-Western -Provinces only four thousand people gave them as their personal -deities, and in the Panjab only one hundred acknowledged them. Now -in the west the title of Panch Pir is sometimes given to five Rajput -heroes, Ramdeo, Pabu, Harbu, Mallinath and Guga, [420] and it is -at least a plausible theory that the five Pirs may have originally -been the five Pandu brothers, whose worship has, in course of time, -become degraded, been annexed by the lower Musalmans, and again taken -over by their menial Hindu brethren. - -As a matter of fact, the system of worship does not materially differ -from the cultus of the degraded indigenous godlings, such as Kare -Gore Deo, Burhe Baba, Jokhaiya, and their kindred. The priests of -the faith are drawn from the Dafali or Musalman drummer caste, who -go about from house to house reciting the tale of Ghazi Miyan and -his martyrdom, with a number of wild legends which have in course -of time been adopted in connection with him. An iron bar wrapped in -red cloth and adorned with flowers represents Ghazi Miyan, which is -taken from door to door, drums are beaten and petty offerings of grain -collected from the villagers. Low caste Hindus, like Pasis and Chamars, -worship them in the form of five wooden pegs fixed in the courtyard -of the house. The Barwars, a degraded criminal tribe in Oudh, build -in their houses an altar in the shape of a tomb, at which yearly in -August the head of the family sacrifices in the name of the Pirs a -fowl and offers some thin cakes, which he makes over to a Muhammadan -beggar who goes about from house to house beating a drum. - - - -Ghazi Miyan. - -The whole worship centres round Ghazi Miyan. His real name was Sayyid -Salar Masaud, and he was nephew of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. He was -born in 1015 A.D., was leader of one of the early invasions of Oudh, -and is claimed as one of the first martyrs of Islam in India. He was -killed in battle with the Hindus of Bahraich in 1034 A.D. Close to -the battle-field was a tank with an image of the sun on its banks, a -shrine sacred in the eyes of all Hindus. Masaud, whenever he passed it, -was wont to say that he wished to have this spot for a dwelling-place, -and would, if it so pleased God, through the power of the spiritual -sun, destroy the worship of the material. He was, it is said, buried -by some of his followers in the place which he had chosen for his -resting-place, and tradition avers that his head rests on the image -of the sun, the worship of which he had given his life to destroy. - -There is some reason to believe that this cultus of Masaud may have -merely succeeded to some local worship, such as that of the sun, and -in this connection it is significant that the great rite in honour of -the martyr is called the Byah or marriage of the saint, and this would -associate it with other emblematical marriages of the earth and sun -or sky which were intended to promote fertility. [421] Masaud, again, -is the type of youth and valour in military Islam, and to the Hindu -mind assumes the form of one of those godlike youths, such as Krishna -or Dulha Deo, snatched away by an untimely and tragical fate in the -prime of boyish beauty. So, though he was a fanatical devotee of Islam, -his tomb is visited as much by Hindus as by Muhammadans. Besides his -regular shrine at Bahraich, he has cenotaphs at various places, as at -Gorakhpur and Bhadohi in the Mirzapur District, where annual fairs are -held in his honour. The worship of Masaud, which is now discouraged by -Muhammadan purists, embodied, even in early times, so much idolatry -and fetishism as to be obnoxious to the puritanic party; it fell -under the censure of the authorities, and Sikandar Lodi interdicted -the procession of his spear. [422] Nowadays at his festivals a long -spear or pole is paraded about, crowned at the top with bushy hair, -representing the head of the martyr, which, it is said, kept rolling -on the ground long after it was severed from the trunk. [423] - - - -Sakhi Sarwar. - -Sakhi Sarwar, or "generous leader," the title of a saint whose -real name was Sayyid Ahmad, is hardly popular beyond the Panjab, -where his followers are known as Sultanis, and are more than four -hundred thousand in number. [424] No one knows exactly when he lived; -some place him in the twelfth and others in the thirteenth century; -but there are other traditions which would bring him down to the -sixteenth. Whatever be the exact time of his birth and death, he -was one of the class of Muhammadan saints, like Baha-ud-din and -Shams Tabriz, who settled and practised austerities in the country -about Multan. Other names for him are Lakhdata or "the giver of -lakhs," Lalanwala, "he of the rubies," and Rohianwala, or "he of the -Hills." His life, as we have it, is but a mass of legends. He once -cured a camel of a broken leg by riveting it together. Miraculously, -as so many of these saints do, he gave two sons to one Gannu of -Multan and married his daughter. The hill that overlooks his tomb at -Nigaha in the Dera Ghazi Khan District, at the edge of the Sulaiman -mountains, is said to have been infested by a fearful giant. This -monster used at night to stand on the hill-top and with a torch lure -unwary travellers to their destruction. Against him Sakhi Sarwar and -his four companions waged war, but all except the saint were killed; -and such was the fall of the monster that the hill trembled to its -base. Within an enclosure are seen the tombs of the saint, his lady, -Bibi Rae, and a Jinn who fell before the onset of the hero. To the -east is the apartment containing the stool and spinning-wheel of -Mai 'Aeshan, Sakhi Sarwar's mother. It is a curious instance of the -combination of the two rival faiths, so constantly observable in this -phase of the popular worship, that close to the shrine of Sakhi Sarwar -is a temple of Vishnu, a shrine of Baba Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, -and an image of Bhairon, who appears in the legends as the servant -or messenger of the saint. The tomb presents a curious mixture of -Musalman and Hindu architecture. It was recently destroyed by fire, -and two rubies presented by Nadir Shah, and some valuable jewels, -the gift of Sultan Zaman Shah, were destroyed or lost. - -The Sultani sect, in large numbers, under the guidance of conductors -known as Bharai, make pilgrimages to the tomb. Near it are two dead -trees, said to have sprung from the pegs which were used to tether -Kakki, the saint's mare. The walls are hung with small pillows of -various degrees of ornamentation. Persons who suffer from ophthalmia -vow gold or silver eyes for their recovery. They vow to shave the -hair of an expected child at the temple, and its weight in gold or -silver is presented to the saint. Some childless parents vow to him -their first child, and on its birth take it to the temple with a cord -round its neck. There are numbers of sacred pigeons attached to the -shrine, which are supported by an allowance realized from certain -dedicated villages. The marks of 'Ali's fingers and the print of -his foot are still shown to the devout in consideration of a fee to -the guardians, and a visit is considered peculiarly efficacious for -the cure of demoniacal possession, exhibiting itself in the form of -epilepsy or hysteria. - -Besides the shrine at Nigaha, there are numerous other shrines of -the saint, of which the most celebrated are those connected with the -annual fair at Dhonkal in Gujranwala, the Jhanda fair at Peshawar, -and the Kadmon fair at Anarkali, near Lahore. At Dhonkal there is a -magic well which was produced by the saint, the water of which is -much in request. At Anarkali a class of musicians, called Dholis, -take young children, who are presented at the tomb, and dance about -with them. In the neighbourhood of Delhi he is not held in so much -respect, but shrines in his honour are common, vows and pilgrimages -to him are frequent, and Brahmans tie threads on the wrists of their -clients on a fixed day in his name. Under the name of Lakhdata he -has become the patron deity of athletes, and especially of wrestlers. - -In the central districts of the Panjab, his shrine, an unpretending -little edifice, is to be seen outside nearly every hamlet. "The shrine -is a hollow plastered brick cube, eight or ten feet in each direction, -covered with a dome some ten or twelve feet high and with low minarets -or pillars at the four corners, and a doorway in front, opening out -generally on a plastered brick platform. Facing the doorway inside are -two or three niches for lamps, but otherwise the shrine is perfectly -empty. The saint is especially worshipped on Thursdays, when the shrine -is swept, and at night lamps are lit inside it. The guardians of the -shrine are Musalmans of the Bharai clan, who go round on Thursdays -beating drums and collecting offerings. These offerings, which are -generally in small change or small handfuls of grain or cotton, are -mainly presented by women. Another method of pleasing the saint is by -vowing a Rot; the Rot is made by placing dough to the extent vowed on -a hot piece of earth, where a fire has been burning, and distributing -it when it is baked. He is also worshipped by sleeping on the ground -instead of on a bed. Wrestling matches are also held in his honour, -and the offerings made to the performers go towards keeping up the -shrine at Nigaha. A true worshipper of Sultan will not sell milk on -Thursday; he will consume it himself or give it away." - -Sarwar is essentially a saint of the Jats, and he is also revered -by Gujars and Jhinwars, and women even of the Khatri and Brahman -castes adore him. He has, according to the last returns, over four -hundred thousand worshippers in the Panjab, and eight thousand in -the North-Western Provinces. - - - -Guga Pir. - -Another noted local saint is Guga Pir, also known as Zahir Pir, -"the saint apparent," or Zahir Diwan, "the minister apparent," or in -the Panjab as Bagarwala, as his grave is near Dadrewa in Bikaner, -and he is said to have reigned over the Bagar or great prairies of -Northern Rajputana. Nothing is known for certain about him, and the -tales told of him are merely a mass of wild legends. According to some -he flourished somewhere about the middle of the twelfth century, when -Indian hagiolatry was at its zenith. Others say that he was a Chauhan -Rajput, a contemporary of Prithivi Raja of Delhi, while by another -story he died with his forty-five sons and sixty nephews opposing -Mahmud of Ghazni. He is said to have been a Hindu with the title -of Guga Bir, or "the hero"; and one account represents him to have -become a convert to Islam. "He is said to have killed his two nephews -and to have been condemned by their mother to follow them below. He -attempted to do so, but the earth objected that he being a Hindu, she -was quite unable to receive him till he should be properly burnt. As -he was anxious to revisit his wife nightly, this did not suit him, -and so he became a Musalman, and her scruples being thus removed, -the earth swallowed him and his horse alive." [425] In another and -more degraded form of the legend current in Muzaffarnagar, he is -said to have jumped into a pile of cow-dung, where he disappeared, -a series of stories which remind us of the Curtius myth. [426] - -Another elaborate legend represents Guga to be the son of the Rani -Bachhal, and fixes his birthplace at Sirsawa in the Saharanpur -District. About the time of the invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni, she -married Vatsa, the Raja of Bagardesa, or the Rajputana desert. By -the influence of that ubiquitous saint, Gorakhnath, she conceived in -spite of the intrigues of her sister, and her child was called Guga, -because the saint gave to his mother, as a preservative, a piece of -gum resin known as Gugal. His cousins attacked him and tried to rob -him of his kingdom, but Guga defeated them and cut off their heads, -which he presented to his mother. She, in her anger, ordered him to -go to the place where he had sent her nephews; so he requested the -earth to receive him into her bosom, which she refused to do until -he became a convert to Islam. He then went to Mecca, and became a -disciple of one Ratan Haji, and on his return the earth opened and -received him, with his famous black mare Javadiya. [427] - -The mare has, of course, a story of her own. Guga had no children, -and lamenting this to his guardian deity, he received from him two -barley-corns, one of which he gave to his wife and the other to his -famous mare, which gave birth to his charger, hence called Javadiya -or "barley-born." We find this wonderful mare through the whole range -of folk-lore, but the best parallel to her is the famous mare of Gwri -of the golden hair, and Setanta in the Celtic tale. [428] - -From Scotland, too, we get a parallel to the magic birth: "Here are -three grains for thee that thou shalt give thy wife this very night, -and three others to the dog, and these three to the mare; and these -three thou shalt plant behind thy house; and in their own time thy wife -will have three sons, the mare three foals, and the dog three puppies, -and there will grow three trees behind thy house; and the trees will be -a sign, when one of thy sons dies one of the trees will wither." [429] -It is needless to say that this is a stock incident in folk-lore. - - - -Guga and Snake-worship. - -But it is in his function as one of the Snake kings that Guga is -specially worshipped. When he is duly propitiated he can save from -snake-bite, and cause those who neglect him to be bitten. His shrine -is often found in association with that of Nara Sinha, the man-lion -incarnation of Vishnu, and of Gorakhnath, the famous ascetic, -whose disciple he is said to have been. He is adored by Hindus -and Muhammadans alike, and by all castes, by Rajputs and Jats, as -well as by Chamars and Chuhras. Even the Brahman looks on him with -respect. "Which is greater," says the proverb, "Rama or Guga?" and -the reply is, "Be who may the greater, shall I get myself bitten by -a snake?" in other words, "Though Rama may be the greater, between -ourselves, I dare not say so for fear of offending Guga." - -He is represented on horseback, with his mother trying to detain -him as he descends to the infernal regions. He holds as a mark of -dignity a long staff in his hands, and over him two snakes meet, one -being coiled round his staff. Both the Hindu and Muhammadan Faqirs -take the offerings devoted to him, and carry his Chhari or standard, -covered with peacocks' feathers, from house to house in the month of -August. As is the case with godlings of this class all over India, -it is significant of the association of his worship with some early -non-Aryan beliefs that the village scavenger is considered to be -entitled to a share of the offerings presented at his shrine. - -According to the last census Guga had thirty-five thousand worshippers -in the Panjab and one hundred and twenty-three thousand in the -North-Western Provinces. - - - -Worship of Tejaji. - -Another godling of the same kind is Tejaji, the Jat snake godling -of Marwar. He is said to have lived about 900 years ago. One day he -noticed that a Brahman's cow was in the habit of going to a certain -place in the jungle, where milk fell from her udder into the hole -of a snake. Teja agreed to supply the snake daily with milk, and -thus save the Brahman from loss. Once when he was preparing to visit -his father-in-law, he forgot the compact, and the snake appearing, -declared that it was necessary that he should bite Teja. He stipulated -for permission first to visit his father-in-law, to which the snake -agreed. Teja proceeded on his journey, and on the way rescued the -village cattle from a gang of robbers, but was desperately wounded in -the encounter. Mindful of his promise, he with difficulty presented -himself to the snake, who, however, could find no spot to bite, as -Teja had been so grievously wounded by the robbers. Teja therefore -put out his tongue, which the snake bit, and so he died. He is now a -protector against snake-bite, and is represented as a man on horseback, -while a snake is biting his tongue. [430] Tejaji and Guga, as snake -godlings, thus rank with Bhajang, the snake godling of Kathiawar, who -is a brother of Sesha Naga, and with Manasa, the goddess of Bengal, -who is the sister of Vasuki, the wife of Jaratkaru, and mother of -Astika, whose intervention saved the snake race from destruction by -Janamejaya. [431] - - - -Worship of Baba Farid Shakkarganj. - -Baba Farid Shakkarganj, or "fountain of sweets," so called because he -was able miraculously to transmute dust or salt into sugar, was born -in 1173 A.D., and died in 1265. His tomb is at Pakpatan, and he enjoys -high consideration in Northern India. He was a disciple of Qutb-ud-din -Bakhtyar Kaki, who again sat at the feet of Muin-ud-din Chishti of -Ajmer, also a great name to swear by. Farid's most distinguished -disciple was Nizam-ud-din Auliya, who has a lovely tomb at Ghayaspur, -near Delhi. Farid was very closely associated with Baba Nanak, -and much of the doctrine of early Sikhism seems to have been based -on his teaching. He is said to have possessed the Dast-i-ghaib, or -"hidden hand," a sort of magic bag which gave him anything he wished, -which is like the wishing hat and inexhaustible pot or purse, which -is a stock element in Indian and European folk-lore. [432] - -The Emperor, it is said, tried to humble him when he came to Delhi, but -he answered in the famous proverb--Delhi dur ast--"Delhi is far away," -the Oriental equivalent to Rob Roy's "It is a far cry to Lochow." - -The Musalman Thags looked on him as the founder of their system, -and used to make pilgrimages to his tomb. He is believed to have -been connected with the Assassins or disciples of the Old Man of -the Mountain. [433] Every devotee who contrives to get through the -door of his mausoleum at the prescribed time of his feast is assured -of a free entrance into Paradise hereafter. The crowd is therefore -immense, and the pressure so great that two or three layers of men, -pushed closely over each other, generally attempt the passage at the -same time, and serious accidents, notwithstanding every precaution -taken by the police, are not uncommon. [434] - -He comes in direct succession to some of the worthies to whom reference -has been already made. To Khwaja Muin-ud-din Chishti succeeded Khwaja -Qutb-ud-din Bakhtyar Kaki, and Baba Farid followed him. They were -the founders of the Chishtiya order of Faqirs. - -Besides his shrine at Pakpatan he has another famous Dargah at -Shaikhsir in Bikaner, which is called after him, and the Jats used -to esteem him highly until, as Col. Tod [435] says, "The Bona Dea -assumed the shape of a Jatni, to whom in the name of Kirani Mata, -'Our Mother of the ray,' all bend the head." Another legend fixes -his tomb at Girar, in the Wardha District of the Central Provinces. - -The zeolitic concretions of the Girar hill are accounted for as the -petrified cocoanuts and other articles of merchandise belonging to -two travelling dealers who mocked the saint, on which he turned their -whole stock-in-trade into stones as a punishment. They implored his -pardon, and he created a fresh supply for them from dry leaves, on -which they were so struck by his power that they attached themselves -to his service till they died. [436] - -In the Western districts of the North-Western Provinces the -first-fruits of the sugar-cane crop are dedicated to him. - -He was a thrifty saint, and for the last thirty years of his life he -supported himself by holding to his stomach wooden cakes and fruits -whenever he felt hungry. In this he resembled Qutb-ud-Din Ushi, who -was able by a miracle to produce cakes for the support of his family -and himself. [437] - - - -Minor Saints. - -Of the minor saints the number is legion, and only a few instances -can be given. At Makanpur in the Cawnpur District is the tomb of Zinda -Shah Madar, who gives his name to the class of Musalman Faqirs, known -as Madari. He is said to have been a native of Halab or Aleppo, and to -have come to this place in 1415 A.D., when he expelled a famous demon -named Makan Deo, after whom the place was named. Low class Hindus and -Musalmans worship him because he is supposed to save them from snakes -and scorpions, and the Kahar bearers, as they go through jungle at -night, call out Dam Madar! The saint is said to have had the power -of restraining his breath, whence his name. In the holy of holies -of his shrine no woman is allowed to enter, no lights are lighted, -no hymns are chanted and no food is cooked. - -'Abdul Qadir Jilani, who is said to take his name from Jil, a -village near Baghdad, is another noted saint. He is also known as -Pir-i-Dastgir, Pir-i-'Azam, Ghaus-ul-'Azam, and was born in 1078 A.D., -and died at Baghdad. Some say that he is identical with Miran Sahib, -who is worshipped all over Northern India. He is said to have been a -magician, and to have subdued to his service a Jinn named Zain Khan, -whom he treated with great cruelty. One day the Jinn surprised his -master in a state of uncleanness and slew him, but even then he was -unable to escape from the influence of this arch-magician, who rules -him in the world of spirits. Miran Sahib is said to be buried at -Ajmer, but he has Dargahs at Amroha, in the Moradabad District, at -Benares and at Bundi. By another account the tomb at Amroha is that -of Shaikh Saddu or Sadr-ud-din, who was once a crier of the mosque, -and near his are pointed out the tombs of his mother Ghaziya or Ase -and of Zain Khan, the Jinn. The saint of Jalesar, Hazrat Pir Zari, -is also known as Miran Sahib, and he is by some identified with the -Amroha worthy. In Karnal he is said to have led the Sayyid army against -the Raja of Tharwa, and had his head carried off by a cannon ball -during the battle. He did not mind this, and went on fighting. Then a -woman in one of the Raja's villages said--"Who is fighting without his -head?" upon which the body said--"Haq! Haq!" "The Lord! the Lord!" and -fell down dead, calling out--"What? Are not these villages upside down -yet?" upon which every village in the Raja's territory was turned -upside down and everyone killed except a Brahman girl, the paramour -of the Raja. Their ruins remain to authenticate the story. Now the -saint and his sister's son, Sayyid Kabir, are jointly worshipped. We -shall meet this headless hero again in the case of the Dund, and it -will be remembered that a similar legend is told of Ghazi Miyan. - - - -Villages Overturned. - -Of these villages which were overturned by a curse we have many -examples all over the country. The ruins at Bakhira Dih in Basti -are said to have been a great city which was overthrown because a -Raja seduced a Brahman girl. At Batesar in Agra is the Aundha Khera, -which records a similar catastrophe. So Bangarmau in Unao is called -the Lauta Shahr or "overthrown city," because Miran Sahib destroyed -it to punish the curiosity of the Raja who wanted to know why the -robes of the saint which a washerman was washing gave forth a divine -perfume. So the town of Kako was overwhelmed by the saint Bibi Kamalo -because the Buddhist Raja gave her a dish cooked of the flesh of rats, -which came to life when she touched them. At Besnagar in Bhopal the -king and his subjects clung to a heavenly chariot and were carried -to the skies and their city was overthrown, and the saint Qutb Shah -overturned the city of Sunit because the Raja used to kill a child -daily to cure an ulcer with which he was afflicted. [438] - -Abu 'Ali Qalandar is hardly known beyond the Panjab. He came from -Persia and died at Panipat in 1324 A.D. He is usually known as Bu 'Ali -Qalandar, and it is said that he used to ride about on a wall. He -prayed so constantly that it was laborious to get water for his -ablutions each time; so he stood in the Jumna, which then ran past -the town. After standing there seven years the fishes had gnawed his -legs and he was so stiff that he could hardly move, so he asked the -Jumna to step back seven paces. She, in her hurry to oblige the saint, -went back seven Kos or ten miles, and there she is now. [439] - -Many other saints are said to have had similar power over rivers. So -recently as 1865 A.D., a miraculous bridge of sand was built over -the Jumna at Karnal by the prayer of a Faqir, of such rare virtue -that lepers passing over and bathing at both ends were cured; but the -people say that the bridge had got lost when they came there. [440] -It was only the prayers of the saint Farid-ud-din Shakkarganj which -stopped the westward movement of the Satlaj, and the intercession of -a holy Rishi changed the course of the river at Bagheswar. [441] - -Bu 'Ali gave the Panipat people a charm which dispelled all the flies -from the town, but they grumbled and said that they rather liked -flies; so he brought them back a thousandfold. He was buried first at -Karnal, but the Panipat people claimed his body, and opened his grave, -whereupon he sat up and looked at them till they became ashamed. They -then took away some bricks for the foundation of a shrine; but when -they got to Panipat and opened the box, they found his body in it; -so he is now buried in both places, and there is a shrine erected -over the place where he used to ride on the wall. - - - -Malamat Shah. - -Malamat Shah is treated with much respect in Barabanki. The disciple in -charge of his tomb calls the jackals with a peculiar cry at dusk. They -devour what is left of the offerings, but will only touch such things -as are given with a sincere mind and not to be seen of men. A religious -tiger is also said to come over from Bahraich and pay an annual visit -to the shrine. [442] - - - -Miyan Ahmad. - -At Qasur is the tomb of the saint Miyan Ahmad Khan Darvesh, on which -the attendants place a number of small pebbles. These are called -"Ahmad Khan's lions," and are sold to people who tie them round the -necks of children troubled in their sleep. [443] - - - -Shaikh Saddu. - -Shaikh Saddu has been mentioned in another connection. His visitations -cause melancholy and hypochondria. He is exorcised by the distribution -of sweets to the poor and the sacrifice of a black goat. He once found -a magic lamp, like that of Alauddin, the powers of which he abused, -and was torn to pieces by the Jinn. [444] - -The list of these worthies is immense. We can only mention in passing -Shah Abdul Ghafur, commonly known as Baba Kapur, a disciple of Shah -Madar, whose shrine is in Gwalyar; Mir Abdul 'Ala, the Nakhshbandi who -is buried at Agra; Sultan Bayazid, who kindled a lamp which lighted -the world for one hundred and twenty miles, and thus drove the Jinn -from Chatganw in Bengal, where he is worshipped; Shaikh Kabir, known -as Bala Pir, the son of Shah Qasim Sulaimani of Chunar, whose shrine -is at Kanauj; Shaikh Muhammad Ghaus of Gwaliyar; and Sidi Maula, who -possessed the power of transmuting metals into gold. Lastly comes -Shah Daula, whose shrine is at Gujarat in the Panjab. His priest -is able to confer offspring on childless people on condition that -they dedicate the first child to the saint, and this child is then -born with the head of a rat. Some wretched imbeciles with rat-like -features are found at his tomb. [445] - -These wonder-working shrines belong to Hindu as well as Musalman -saints. In the Etah District is the tomb of Kalyan Bharati, a -Hindu ascetic. He was buried alive at his own request about four -hundred years ago. Before his death he announced that exactly six -months after he was dead the arch of his tomb would crack, and so -it happened. Now a mound of earth in the centre is supposed to mark -the head of the saint. The virtue of his shrine is such that if any -one take a false oath within its precincts he will die at once. The -tomb is hence largely used for the settlement of disputes, and many -a wearied district officer longs that there were more such places -throughout the land. - - - -Shrines Which Cure Disease. - -Many of these local shrines owe their reputation to notorious cures, -which have been performed by the intervention of the local saint. At -Chhattarpur is the shrine of Rukhar Baba, an ascetic of the Gusain -class, who has the power of removing fever and ague, and hence among -the many tombs of his brethren his is kept clean and white-washed, -while the others are neglected. [446] A shrine in Berar is noted for -its power in cases of snake-bite and scrofula. A large two-storied -gate of its enclosure owes its erection to the gratitude of a wealthy -tailor, who was cured of sore disease of the loins. [447] Recently at -the shrine of the saint of Fatehpur in the Saharanpur District, the -Faqir in charge informed me that when the people bring sick children -to him, he pulls off a leaf from the tree overhanging the tomb, blows -upon it, and says to the disease, "Begone, you rascal!" and the child -is cured. At the tomb of Pir Jahaniyan in the Muzaffargarh District, -people suffering from leprosy and boils get the incumbent to prepare -baths of heated sand, in which the diseased part, or the whole body -is placed. The efficacy of the remedy is ascribed to the thaumaturgic -power of the saint. [448] The tomb of Makhdum Sahib in the Faizabad -District is famous for the exorcism of evil spirits, a reputation -which it shares with the shrine of Bairam at Bidauli in Muzaffarnagar, -and that of Bibi Kamalo at Kako, half-way between Gaya and Patna. [449] - -So, in Bengal, the chief disease shrines are those of Tarakeswara in -Hughli, sacred to Mahadeva, of Vaidyanatha in the Santal Parganas, -and Gondalpara in Hughli, famous in cases of hydrophobia. "The device -followed at the last place is for the bitten person, after fasting, -to defray the expense of a special service, and to receive a piece of -broad cloth impregnated with the snuff of a lamp-wick, and secreted -in the heart of a plantain. As long as this charm is preserved and the -patient abstains from eating of this variety of plantain, the effects -of the bite are warded off. Another plan is for the patient to take -a secret medicine, probably cantharides, pounded with twenty-one -pepper-corns, before the twenty-first day. This causes the patient -to throw off some mucus, known as 'the dog's whelp,' and this leads -to cure." [450] - -In the Partabgarh District are to be seen here and there -strange-looking brick-built erections called Kukar Deora or "dogs' -house," in the shape of cupolas or pyramids. Some of them are supposed -to be the treasure houses of the ancient races. If a man walks round -one of these seven times and then looks in at the door, he will be -cured from the bite of a mad dog. [451] - - - -Sayyid Yusuf. - -Dr. Buchanan gives a case at Patna of a certain Sayyid Yusuf, who -manifested himself to a poor blind weaver and told him that he would -recover his sight next day. At the same time the saint ordered his -patient to search for his tomb and proclaim its virtues. The weaver, -on recovering his sight, did not fail to obey the orders of his -benefactor, and he and his descendants have since then lived on the -contributions of the faithful, though the tomb is a mere heap of clay -and has no endowment. [452] - -The tomb at Faizabad known as Fazl-ul-haqq, or "Grace of God," brings -good luck if sweetmeats are offered every Thursday, and another, called -'Ilm Bakhsh, or "Wisdom-giver," causes boys who are taken there to -learn their lessons quickly. [453] The same result may be secured by -a charm which is found in the Samavidhana Brahmana--"After a fast of -three nights, take a plant of Soma, recite a certain formula and eat -of the plant a thousand times, you will be able to repeat anything -after hearing it once." - - - -Wonder-working Tombs. - -There are other tombs which present special peculiarities. Thus, -not long since crowds of people assembled at Khetwadi, in Bombay, -to see a shrine erected by some sweepers to Zahir Pir, which at -intervals seemed to oscillate from its foundations. At Anjar in -Sindh are the tombs of a noted outlaw named Jaisar Pir and his wife -Turi Khatrani, who were originally buried apart, but their tombs -are gradually approaching, and it is believed that at their meeting -the world will be destroyed. So there is a wall at Gurdaspur which -a Faqir saw being built, and asked the master-mason if he considered -it to be firm. The mason said that he believed it to be substantial, -whereupon the holy man touched it and made it shake, and it has gone -on shaking ever since. At Faizabad is the tomb of a saint, and some -time ago the metal top of one of the pinnacles took to shaking, and -the weaver population were so impressed that they levied a tax on the -community for its repair. At Jhanjhana is the tomb of Sayyid Mahmud, -who was buried next to one of his disciples. But the latter is too -modest to place himself on an equality with his master, so his tomb, -however much it is repaired, always sinks to a lower level than that -of his preceptor. At Barabanki is the tomb of the saint Shaikh Ahmad -Abdul-haq, who thought he could acquire some useful information by -keeping company with the dead. So he got himself buried alive, and -after six months his grave opened of its own accord and he was taken -out half dead. - - - -The Nine-yard Tombs. - -There is another class of tombs which are known as the Naugaza or -Naugaja, that is to say tombs nine yards long. In these rest the -giants of the older world. There is one of these tombs at Nagaur in -Rajputana, and several others have been discovered in the course of the -Archaeological Survey. [454] Five of them at Vijhi measure respectively -29, 31, 30 and 38 feet. Mr. W. Simpson calls these tombs Buddhistic, -but this is very doubtful. [455] The belief largely prevails among -Muhammadans that there were giants in the early times. Adam himself -is said to have been sixty yards in height, and there was a monster -called 'Uj in the days of Adam, and the flood of Noah reached only -to his waist. There is a tomb of Noah at Faizabad which is said to -have been built by Alexander the Great, and not far off are those of -Seth and Job. The latter, curiously enough, are gradually growing in -size. They are now 17 and 12 feet long respectively, but when Abul -Fazl wrote they were only 10-1/2 and 9 feet long. [456] - - - -Shrines with Images or Relics. - -The reputation, again, of many shrines rests on the assumed discovery, -generally by means of a dream, that an ancient image or the bones of -a martyr were buried on the spot, and in their honour a shrine was -established. Thus, the great temple at Bandakpur in the Damoh District -owes its origin to the fact that a Pandit in 1781 A.D. dreamed a -dream, that in a certain spot lay buried in the earth an image of -Jagiswar Mahadeva, and that if he built a suitable temple over the -place indicated, the image would make its appearance. On the strength -of this dream the Pandit built a temple, and it is asserted that -in due course of time the image developed itself without the aid -of man. [457] So, the Bhairava temple on the Langur peak owes its -establishment to a cowherd having found on the spot a yellow-coloured -stick, which on his attempting to cut it with an axe, poured out -drops of blood. Frightened at the sight, the cowherd fled, only to -be visited at night by the god in his terrible form, who commanded -him to set up his shrine here. A similar legend is attached to the -Narayana image in Nepal. [458] The celebrated shrine of Hanuman at -Beguthiya was discovered by a wandering ascetic, [459] and a Gujar -cowboy is said not very long ago to have found in one of the Saharanpur -jungles the image of the goddess Sakambari Devi, which now attracts -large numbers of worshippers. The Maharaja of Balrampur some time ago -noticed a rude shrine of Bijleswari Devi, the goddess of lightning, -and remarked that he would build a handsome temple in honour of her, -were it not for the sacred banyan tree which shaded it and prevented -the erection of the spire to the proper height. That very night the -tree was uprooted by a hurricane, and a handsome temple was erected, -this manifestation of her power having made the goddess more popular -than ever. [460] - -Mistakes are, however, sometimes made. This was the case some time -ago at Ajudhya, where certain images were discovered and worshipped, -until a learned Pandit ascertained that they were actually the deities -of the aboriginal Bhars, who used to sacrifice Brahmans to them. They -were really Jaina images, but it is needless to say that their worship -was immediately abandoned. [461] - -As is only natural, shrines which have been discovered in this way at -the outset rest under a certain degree of suspicion, and have to make -their reputation by works of healing and similar miracles. If they -fail to do so they sink into disrepute. Such was the case with a very -promising shrine, supposed to be that of the saint Ashraf 'Ali, whose -bones were found accidentally not long ago at Ahraura in the Mirzapur -District. It enjoyed considerable reputation for a time, but failing -to maintain its character, was finally discredited and abandoned. - -Continuous respect is naturally accorded to ancient saints and local -godlings, who have long since established their claim to recognition -by a series of exhibitions of their thaumaturgic virtues. But the -competition is so keen and the pecuniary value of a successful -institution of this kind so considerable, that the claims of any -interloper must be well tested and approved before it establishes -its position and succeeds in attracting pilgrims. - - - -The Curing of Barrenness. - -Barrenness is in popular belief mainly due to the agency of evil -spirits. Sterile women were in Rome beaten with rods by the naked -youths who ran through the city at the Lupercalia. The barren, -as Shakespeare says, "Touched by this holy chase, shake off their -sterile curse." In Bombay it is believed that the cause of not -getting children is that the man or his wife must have killed a -serpent in their former birth, whose spirit haunts them and makes the -woman barren. To get rid of the spirit which causes sterility, the -serpent's image is burnt and its funeral rites are performed. [462] -The desire for male offspring is so intense that some of these shrines -do a thriving trade in providing nostrums for this purpose. - -One extraordinary method of procuring children, which long troubled -our magistrates in Upper India, was for the would-be mother to burn -down the hut of some neighbour. The Panjabi woman, who under the reign -of British law is prevented from burning the house of her neighbour, -now takes a little grass from seven thatches and burns it. [463] - -In another form of the charm the Khandh priest takes the woman to -the confluence of two streams, sprinkles water over her to purify her -from the dangerous influence of the spirit and makes an offering to -the god of births. - -Some special influence has been in many lands considered to attach -to a person who has been publicly executed, and to the appliances -used by the hangman. - -Recently at an execution in Bombay, the hangman was observed to -carefully secure the rope, and particularly that part of it which had -encircled the neck of the culprit. He stated that he could sell every -quarter inch of it, as it averted evil spirits and ghosts, and even -prevented death from hanging. This idea accounts for the respect paid -throughout Europe to the mandrake, which is supposed to be generated -from the droppings of the brain of a thief on the gallows. In Cornwall -a wen or strumous swelling can be cured by touching it with the hand -of a man who has been publicly hanged. [464] According to the same -principle, barren women in India bathe underneath a person who has -been hanged, and women of the middle classes try to obtain a piece -of the wood of the gallows for the same object. - -Another practice depends upon the principle that creeping under -a bent tree or through a perforated stone expels the demon. Other -instances of this will be given in another place. Hence in Gujarat, -when an ascetic of the Dundiya sect dies, women who seek the blessing -of a son try to secure it by creeping under the litter on which his -corpse is removed. [465] - -A rite carried out with the same object rests on a sort of symbolic -magic indicating fertility. Along the roads may often be seen trees -almost destroyed by a noxious creeper known as the Akash Bel. Women -in hope of offspring often transplant this from one tree to another, -and are thus a decided nuisance to a district officer with a taste -for arboriculture. - -But the most approved plan is to visit a shrine with a reputation for -healing this class of malady. There the patient is given a cocoanut, -which is a magic substance, a fruit, or even a barley-corn from the -holy of holies. Mr. Hartland has recently made an elaborate study of -this subject, and he points out the principle on which the eating of -such substances produced the desired effect. "Whether from an analogy -between the normal act of impregnation and that of eating and drinking, -or because savages had learnt that at least one mode of operating -effectively on the organism, for purposes alike of injury and healing, -was by drugs taken through the mouth, this was the favourite method -of supernatural impregnation." - -And again--"Flowers, fruit and other vegetables, eggs, fishes, -spiders, worms, and even stones, are all capable of becoming human -beings. They only await absorption in the shape of food, or in some -other appropriate manner, into the body of a woman, to enable the -metamorphosis to be accomplished." [466] - -The same idea constantly occurs in Indian folk-lore. The barren queen -is given the juice of a pomegranate by a Faqir, or the king plucks one -of the seven mangoes which grow on a special tree, or a beggar gives -the princess the drug which causes her to give birth to twins. [467] -Even in the Ramayana we read that Raja Dasaratha divides the oblation -among his wives and they conceive. Even nowadays in Florence, if a -woman wishes to be with child, she goes to a priest and gets from -him an enchanted apple, with which she repairs to Saint Anna, who -was the Lucina of Roman times, and repeats a prayer or a spell. [468] - -Some holy men, it must be admitted, do not escape the tongue of -slander for their doings in this department of their business. - - - -Harmless Saints and Godlings. - -Most of these saints and godlings whom we have been considering, are -comparatively harmless, and even benevolent. Such is nearly always -the case with the ghosts of the European dead, who are constantly -deified. Perhaps because the Sahib is such a curiously incomprehensible -personage to the rustic, he is believed to retain his powers in the -other world. But it is a remarkable and unconscious tribute to the -foreign ruler that his ghost should be beneficent. - -The gardener in charge of the station cemetery in Mirzapur some time -ago informed me that he constantly sees the ghosts of the ladies and -gentlemen buried there coming out for a walk in the hot summer nights, -and that they never harm him. - -But with ordinary graves it is necessary to be cautious. As appears -in the cycle of tales which turn on the magic ointment which enables -the possessor to see the beings of the other world, spirits hate being -watched. The spirit, for instance, often announces its wishes. When -the Emperor Tughlaq began to build the tomb of the Saint Bahawal -Haq, a voice was heard from below, saying, "You are treading on my -body." Another site was chosen at a short distance, and the voice -said, "You are treading on my knees." He went a little further, -and the voice said, "You are treading on my toes." So he had to go -to the other end of the fort, and as the voice was not heard there, -the tomb was built. If you visit an old tomb, it is well to clap -your hands, as the ghost sometimes revisits its resting-place, and -if discovered in deshabille, is likely to resent the intrusion in a -very disagreeable manner. So it is very dangerous to pollute a tomb -or insult its occupant in any way, and instances have occurred of -cases of epilepsy and hysteria, which were attributed to the neglect -of these precautions. - -Thus, there is nothing permanent, no established rule of faith in the -popular belief of the rustic. Discredited saints and shrines are always -passing into contempt and oblivion; new worthies are being constantly -canonized. The worst part of the matter is that there is no official -controller of the right to deification, no Advocatus Diaboli to dispute -the claims of the candidate to celestial honours. At the same time the -system, though often discredited by fraud, admirably illustrates the -elastic character of the popular creed. Hinduism would hardly be so -congenial to the minds of the masses, if some rigid supervising agency -disputed the right of any tribe to worship its hero, of any village -to canonize its local worthy. The steady popularity of the system, -for the present at least, shows that it satisfactorily provides for -the religious wants of the people. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -WORSHIP OF THE MALEVOLENT DEAD. - - - Prote de psyche Elpenoros elthen etairou, - Ou gar po etethapto hypo chthonos euryodeies. - - Odyssey, xi. 51, 52. - - -These deified ghosts and saints whom we have been discussing, though -occasionally touchy and sensitive to insult or disrespect, are, as -a rule, benevolent. But there is another class of beings at whose -feet the rustic lies in grievous and perpetual bondage. These are -the malevolent dead. - - - -Spirits of the Dead Hostile. - -It is not difficult to understand why the spirits of the dead should -be regarded as hostile. A stranger is, in the belief of all primitive -people, synonymous with an enemy; and the spirit of the departed -having abandoned his own and joined some other and invisible tribe, -whose domains lie outside the world of sense, is sure to be considered -inimical to the survivors left on earth. As we have already seen, even -the usually kindly spirit of the departed household dead requires -propitiation and resents neglect; much more those of a different -tribe or family. - -Again, those disembodied souls in particular whose departure from the -earth occurred under unexpected or specially tragical circumstances -are naturally considered to have been ejected against their will -from their tenement of clay, and as for many of them the proper -funeral rites have not been performed, they carry with them to the -next world an angry longing for revenge. As Brand, writing of British -ghosts, says, "The ghosts of murdered persons, whose bodies have been -secretly buried, are restless until their bones have been taken up -and deposited in consecrated ground with the due rites of Christian -burial; this idea being the survival of the old heathen superstition -that Charon was not allowed to ferry over the ghosts of the unburied, -but that they wandered up and down the banks of the river Styx for -a period of a hundred years, at the expiration of which they were -admitted to a passage." [469] - -This conception of the state of the soul after death may be illustrated -by the savage theory of dreams. - - - -Savage Theory of Dreams. - -Many savages believe that the evidence of dreams is sufficient to -prove that the soul moves about during sleep, and that the dream is -the record of its experiences in hunting, dancing, visiting friends, -and so on. - - - -The Separable Soul. - -Hence arises the possibility that in the temporary absence of a man's -soul his body may be occupied by some other person's spirit, or even by -a malignant ghost or demon. In the Panchatantra there is a story of a -king who lost his own soul, but afterwards recovered it. A Panjab tale -tells how a Hindu was once asleep and his soul went on its travels as -usual. During its wanderings it felt thirsty and went into a pitcher of -water to drink. While it was in the pitcher some one shut the lid, and -it was imprisoned. His friends took the corpse to the cremation ground, -but some one happened fortunately to open the pitcher just in time, -and the spirit flew into its own body, which awoke on the bier. [470] -In the same way, according to Apollonius, the soul of Hermotimos of -Klazomenoe left his body frequently, resided in different places, -uttered all sorts of predictions, and used to come back to his body, -which remained in his house. At last some spiteful persons burnt -his body in the absence of his soul. In another tale of Somadeva the -soul of Chandraprabha abandons his own body and enters that of a hero -under the influence of Maya or delusion. [471] - -On this principle Hindus are very cautious about awaking a sleeping -friend, lest his soul may happen to be absent at the time, and in -Bombay it is considered most reprehensible to play jokes on a sleeping -person, such as painting the face in fantastic colours, or giving -moustaches to a sleeping woman. The absent soul may not be able to -find its own body, the appearance of which has been thus changed, -and may depart altogether, leaving the body a corpse. - -It is a common incident of the folk-tales that the soul departs -in a dream and falls in love with a girl. We have it in the common -tale of the Rival Queens, where the king sees in a dream the most -lovely woman in the world, and imposes on his courtiers the task of -finding her. The same idea is found more or less in Somadeva, and -constantly recurs in European folk-lore. [472] In the same way we have -the well-known tale of the instantaneous lapse of time in dreams, -as that of the king who plunges his head into water, goes through -wondrous adventures, and when he takes his head out of the vessel, -finds himself surrounded by his courtiers as before. - -The rustic Hindu firmly believes that in the absence of a man's proper -soul in a dream his body is occupied by some strange and consequently -malignant ghost. Hence come the nightmare and evil dreams. Thus the -Korwas of Mirzapur believe that a Bhutin or dangerous female ghost -named Reiya besets them at night under the orders of some witch, and -attacks people's joints with the rheumatism. The Majhwars believe that -the Rakshasa attacks them in dreams. He comes in the shape of an old -man with enormous teeth, brown of colour, with black, entangled hair, -and sometimes swallows his victims. It is fear of him that brings the -fever, and he can be exorcised only by the Baiga with an offering -of rice and pulse. The Dano also comes in dreams, squeezes a man's -throat, and stops his breath. The Bhuiyars have adopted from the -Hindu mythology Jam or Yama as one of their dream ghosts. He sits -on his victim's breast in sleep, and it is impossible to shake him -off or make an alarm. Sometimes these night ghosts come as tigers, -wolves, or bears, and hunt a man down in his sleep. - -On the same principle the shadow of a man is believed to be part of -a man's soul, and may be separated from him, injured or wounded by -an enemy. Hence it is considered dangerous to tread on the shadow of -a man in the sunshine. Buddha is said to have left his shadow in the -cave at Pabhosa, where he killed the Naga. [473] - -The same is the case with looking into other people's mirrors, because -you may chance leave behind your reflection, which is part of your -soul. As we have seen, this is the basis of much of the theory of water -spirits, which lurk in water holes and seize the reflection of anyone -who looks into them. The Sunni Muhammadans in Bombay cover up all the -looking-glasses in a house when a person is sick, as the soul, which is -just then on the prowl, may be absorbed, and leave its owner a corpse. - -Lastly, the same theory accounts for the disinclination which rustics -have to being painted or photographed. Some of the soul goes out in -the image and does not return. There is a rest-house on the Asthbhuja -Hill at Mirzapur which was many years ago presented to the Europeans -of the station by a wealthy banker. He was overpersuaded to allow -his picture to be painted, and fell into a lingering consumption, -of which he soon after died. - - - -The Bhut. - -The general term for these spirits is Bhut, in Sanskrit Bhuta, which -means "formed" or "created." In the earlier Hindu writings the word -is applied to the powers of Nature, and even to deities. Siva himself -is called Bhutisvara, or "Lord of spirits," and, under the name of -Bhutisvara Mahadeva, has a shrine at Mathura. But as the Greek Daemon -acquired a less respectable meaning in the later ages of the history -of the nation, so Bhut has now come to imply a malignant evil spirit. - -But Bhut is a general term which includes many grades of evil spirits -which it is necessary to distinguish. We shall first, however, deal -with certain characters common to Bhuts in general. - -The proper Bhut is the spirit emanating from a man who has died a -violent death, either by accident, suicide, or capital punishment. Such -a soul reaches an additional grade of malignancy if he has been -denied proper funeral ceremonies after death. This is one of his -special wants which deprive the spirit of his longed-for rest. Thus, -we read in Childe Harold, "Unsepulchred they roamed and shrieked, -each wandering ghost." The shade of Patroclus appeared to Achilles -in his sleep and demanded the performance of his funeral, and the -younger Pliny tells of a haunted house in Athens, in which a ghost -played all kinds of pranks owing to his funeral rites having been -neglected. This idea is at the base of the Hindu funeral ceremonies, -and of the periodical Sraddha. Hence arose the conception of the Gayal, -or sonless ghost. He is the spirit of a man who has died without any -issue competent to perform the customary rites; hence he is spiteful, -and he is especially obnoxious to the lives of the young sons of -other people. Accordingly in every Panjab village will be seen small -platforms, with rows of little hemispherical depressions into which -milk and Ganges water are poured, and by which lamps are lit and -Brahmans fed to conciliate the Gayal; "while the careful mother will -always dedicate a rupee to him, and hang it round her child's neck -till he grows up." Mr. Ibbetson [474] suggests that this may have -been the origin of the mysterious so-called "cup-marks," described -by Mr. Rivett-Carnac. But this is far from certain; they may equally -well have been used for sacrifices to Mother Earth, or in any other -primeval form of worship. - - - -Shrines to Persons Accidentally Killed. - -Many of these shrines to persons who have died by an untimely death -are known by special names, which indicate the character of the -accident. We shall meet again with the Baghaut, or shrine, to a man -killed by a tiger. We have also Bijaliya Bir, the man who was killed -by lightning, Tar Bir, a man who fell from a Tar or toddy tree, and -Nagiya Bir, a person killed by a snake. General Cunningham mentions -shrines of this kind; one to an elephant driver who was killed by -a fall from a tree, another to a Brahman who was killed by a cow, a -third to a Kashmiri lady who had only one leg and died in her flight -from Delhi to Oudh of exhaustion on the journey. - -Bhuts are most to be feared by women and children, and by people at any -serious crisis of their lives, such as marriage or child-birth. They -also attack people after eating sweets, "so that if you treat a -school to sweetmeats, the sweetmeat seller will also bring salt, of -which he will give a pinch to each boy to take the sweet taste out -of his mouth." [475] Salt is, as we shall see later on, particularly -offensive to evil spirits. [476] - - - -Second Marriage and Bhuts. - -Women who have married a second time are specially liable to the -envious attacks of the first husband. If in Bombay "a Mahadeo -Koli widow bride or her husband sicken, it is considered the work -of the former husband. Among the Somavansi Kshatriyas, there is a -strong belief that when a woman marries another husband, her first -husband becomes a ghost and troubles her. This fear is so strongly -rooted in their minds, that whenever a woman of this caste sickens, -she attributes her sickness to the ghost of her former husband, and -consults an exorcist as to how she can get rid of him. The exorcist -gives her some charmed rice, flowers, and basil leaves, and tells -her to enclose them in a small copper box and wear it round her -neck. Sometimes the exorcist gives her a charmed cocoanut, which he -tells her to worship daily, and in some cases he advises the woman -to make a copper or silver image of the dead and worship it every -day." [477] - -So in Northern India, people who marry again after the death of the -first wife wear what is known as the Saukan Maura, or second wife's -crown. This is a little silver amulet, generally with an image of Devi -engraved on it. This is hung round the husband's neck, and all presents -made to the second wife are first dedicated to it. The idea is that -the new wife recognizes the superiority of her predecessor, and thus -appeases her malignity. The illness or death of the second wife or -of her husband soon after marriage is attributed to the jealousy of -the ghost of the first wife, which has not been suitably propitiated. - -In the Panjab, on the same principle, if a man has lost two or three -wives in succession, he gets a woman to catch a bird and adopt it -as her daughter. He then pays the dower, marries his bird bride, -and immediately divorces her. By this means the malignant influence -is diverted to the bird, and the real wife is safe. [478] We shall -meet again with the same principle in dealing with the curious custom -of tree marriage. - - - -Food of Bhuts. - -Like evil spirits all the world over, Bhuts will eat filthy food, -and as they are always thirsty, they are glad to secure even a drop -of water, no matter how impure the purpose may have been for which -it has been used. On the other hand, they are very fond of milk, and -no Panjabi woman likes her child to leave the house after drinking -fresh milk. If she cannot prevent it from going, she puts some salt -or ashes into its mouth to scare the Bhut. [479] - - - -Posture of Bhuts. - -Bhuts can never sit on the ground, apparently, because, as has been -shown already, the earth, personified as a goddess, scares away all -evil influence. Hence, near the low-caste shrines a couple of pegs -or bricks are set up for the Bhut to rest on, or a bamboo is hung -over it, on which the Bhut perches when he visits the place. [480] -On the same principle the Oraons hang up the cinerary urn containing -the bones of a dead man on a post in front of the house, [481] and -the person who is going on a pilgrimage, or conveying the bones of a -relative to the Ganges, sleeps on the ground; but the bones must not -rest on the ground; they are hung on the branch of a tree, so that -their late owner may revisit them if so disposed. Near shrines where -Bhuts are always about on the chance of appropriating the offerings, -it is expedient to sleep on the ground. So the bride and bridegroom -rest, and the dying man is laid at the moment of dissolution. - - - -Tests of Bhuts. - -There are at least three infallible tests by which you may -recognize a Bhut. In the first place he casts no shadow. In the -third Canto of the Purgatorio, Dante is much distressed because -Virgil, being a disembodied spirit, casts no shadow. In the second -place a Bhut can stand almost anything in his neighbourhood but the -scent of burning turmeric, which, as we shall see, is a well-known -demon-scarer. Thirdly, a genuine Bhut always speaks with a nasal twang, -and it is possibly for this last reason that the term for the gibberish -in the mediaeval plays and for modern English is Pisacha Bhasha, or -the language of goblins. [482] Some of them have throats as narrow -as a needle, but they can drink gallons of water at a time. Some, -like the Churel, whom we shall meet later on, have their feet turned -backwards. Some, like Brahman ghosts, are wheat-coloured or white; -others, like the Kafari, the ghost of a murdered negro, are black, -and particularly dreaded. A famous ghost of this class haunts a lane -in Calcutta, which takes its name from him. - - - -Spirit Lovers. - -Many denizens of the spirit land have connection with mortals. We -have the cycle of folk-tales known as that of the Swan maidens. - -Urvasi came and lived with Paruravas until he broke the curiosity -taboo. We shall see instances where Indra gives one of his fairies to -a mortal lover, and spirits like the Incubi and Succubi of European -folk-lore can be brought down by incantation. - - - -Spirit Entries: The Head. - -Spirits enter and leave the body in various ways. They often use the -head in this way, and in particular the tenth aperture of the body, -one of the skull sutures, known as Brahma-randhra. This is the reason -why the skull is broken at cremation to open the "crevice of Brahma," -as this orifice is called. - -In the case of one of the ascetic orders, who are buried and not -cremated, a blow is given on the head with a cocoanut or a conch -shell. Thus, when the chief teacher of the Brahmans in Bombay dies, -his successor breaks a cocoanut on his skull and makes an opening, -in which the sacred Salagrama stone is laid. [483] This rite of -skull-breaking, which is done by the next relation, is a recognized -part of the Hindu cremation rite, and is known as Kapalakriya. - -The same theory that the head is an entry for spirits accounts for -numerous strange practices. Thus, when in Kumaun a man is bitten -by a snake they pull three hairs from his scalp-lock and strike -him three times on the top of the head with the first joint of the -middle finger, a kind of blow which in ordinary cases is regarded -with the utmost terror. So when a person has fever, they take a bone -and fill it with grain, and, making the patient stand in the sun, dig -a hole where the shadow of his head falls, and there bury the bone, -saying, "Fever! Begone with the bone!" [484] At a Gond wedding, the -old man who officiates knocks the heads of the bride and bridegroom -together to scare the evil spirits, [485] and at a Hindu marriage -in Northern India the mother of the youth, as he leaves to fetch -his bride, and as he returns with her, waves lamps, a brass tray, -grain, and a rice pounder, to drive off the Bhuts fluttering round -his head. It is on the same principle that the bridegroom wears a -marriage crown, and this also accounts for many of the customs of -blessing by the laying on of hands and anointing which prevail all -over the world. In the same way the hair has always been regarded -as a spirit entry. Magistrates in Northern India are often troubled -by people who announce their intention of "letting their hair grow" -at some one whom they desire to injure. This, if one can judge by -the manifest terror exhibited by the person against whom this rite -is directed, must be a very stringent form of coercion. For the same -reason ascetics wear the hair loose and keep it uncut, as Sampson -did, and the same idea probably accounts for the rites of ceremonial -shaving of youths, and of the mourners after death. - - - -The Mouth. - -As might have been expected, Bhuts are very fond of entering by the -mouth. Hence arise much of the mouth-washing which is part of the -daily ritual of the Hindu, and many of the elaborate precautions which -he takes at meals. This will be referred to again in connection with -the Evil Eye. - - - -Yawning. - -Hence it is very dangerous to yawn, as two kinds of danger are to -be apprehended--either a Bhut may go down your throat, or part of -your soul may escape, and you will be hard set to recover it. So if -you chance to yawn, you should put your hand to your mouth and say -Narayan--"Great God!" afterwards, or you should crack your fingers, -which scares the evil spirit. This idea is the common property of -folk-lore. [486] - - - -Sneezing. - -So, sneezing is due to demoniacal influence, but opinions differ as -to whether it is caused by a Bhut entering or leaving the nose. The -latter view is generally taken by Musalmans, because it is one of the -traditions of the Prophet that the nose should be washed out with -water, as the devil resides in it during the night. The sneezing -superstition in India is at least as old as the Buddhist Jatakas, -where we have a remarkable tale about it, which describes how the -future Buddha and his father Gagga went to pass the night in a place -haunted by a Yakkha, or Yaksha, and were very near being devoured by -him because they did not say the spell "Live!" when they sneezed. [487] - -So, in Somadeva's tale of Sulochana and Sushena, the spirit of the -air says, "When he enters into his private apartments, he shall sneeze -a hundred times; and if some one there does not say to him a hundred -times, 'God bless you,' he shall fall into the grasp of death." [488] -It is needless to say that the same belief prevails in Europe. As -Dr. Tylor says, "Even the Emperor Tiberius, that saddest of men, -exacted this observance." According to the Muhammadan rule, if a -person sneezes and then says immediately afterwards, Al-hamdu li'llah, -"God be praised," it is incumbent upon at least one of the party to -reply, Yarhamu-ka 'llah, just as among the Jews the sneezing formula -was Tobkin Khayim, "Good life!" - -On the whole, sneezing is considered auspicious, because it implies -the expulsion of a Bhut. As a general rule, if a person sneezes -when another is beginning some work, the latter stops for a while, -and then begins afresh; if there be two sneezes in succession, there -is no necessity for interruption. If a man sneezes behind the back -of another, the back of the latter is slightly pinched. In Bombay, -if a man sneezes during a meal, one of the party calls on him to -name his birthplace. [489] The threshold in the folk-lore of all -nations is regarded as a sacred place. It is here, according to the -Scotch and Irish belief, that the house fairies reside. Sitting -on the threshold is believed by Indian matrons likely to produce -boils in children in that part of the body which touches it, and it -is thought most unlucky to sneeze on the threshold. On the whole, -one sneeze is ominous, while after two work may be commenced with -safety. So it was in the days of Homer--"Even so she spoke, and -Telemachus sneezed loudly, and around the roof rang wondrously, -and Penelope laughed, and straightway spoke Eumoeus winged words, -'Go! call me the stranger, even so into my presence. Dost thou not -mark how my son has sneezed a blessing on all my words?'" [490] - - - -The Hands and Feet. - -The hands and feet are also means by which Bhuts enter the body. Hence -much of the ablution at prayers and meals; the hand-clapping which -accompanies so many religious and mystical rites; the passing of the -hand over the head; the laying of the hands on the eyes to restore -sight, of which we have many examples in the Indian folk-tales; -the hand-pledging at marriages; the drinking of the Charan-amrita, -or water, in which the feet of a holy man have been washed; the -ceremonial washing of the feet of the bridegroom at a wedding by -the father of the bride. The stock case of the danger of the not -washing the feet at night is that of Adili, whose impurity allowed -Indra to form the Maruts out of her embryo. A man with flat feet is -considered most unlucky, as in North England, where if you meet a -flat-soled man on Monday you are advised to go home, eat and drink, -or evil will befall you. [491] The chief basis of feet-washing is the -idea that a person coming from abroad and not immediately carrying -out the required ablution runs the risk of bringing some foreign, -and presumably dangerous, spirit with him. - - - -The Ears. - -And so with the ears, which are believed to communicate direct with -the brain, and are kept by the rustic carefully muffled up on chilly -mornings. Hence the custom of Kanchhedan, or ear-piercing, which is -in Northern India about the only survival of the world-wide rite of -mutilation when males attain puberty, and of wearing ear-rings and -similar ornaments, which is habitual with all classes of Hindus, -and specialized among the Kanphata Jogis, who take their name from -this practice. - - - -Varieties of Bhuts. - -In Bengal the ordinary Bhut is a member of the Kshatriya, Vaisya, -or Sudra class. The Brahman Bhut, or Brahmadaitya, is quite another -variety. The ordinary Bhuts are as tall as palmyra trees, generally -thin and very black. They usually live on trees, except those which -the Brahmadaitya frequent. At night, and especially at the hour of -midnight, they wander about the fields frightening travellers. They -prefer dirty places to those which are clean; so when a person goes -to worship a Bhut, he does so in some dirty, retired place, and gives -him only half-cooked food, so that he may not have time to gobble -it up, and perchance rend his worshipper. They are never seen in -the temples of the gods, though they often, as we have seen, lurk -about in the vicinity in the hope of getting some of the offerings -if the priest be not on the alert and scare them with his bell or -shell-trumpet. They are always stark naked, and are fond of women, -whom they sometimes abduct. They eat rice, and all sorts of human -food, but their favourite diet is fish. Hence no Bengali, except for -a considerable bribe, will talk about fish at night. Here they agree -with the fairies of Manxland. Professor Rhys [492] tells a story of a -Manx fisherman, who was taking a fresh fish home, and was pursued by a -pack of fairy dogs, so that it was only with great trouble he reached -his own door. He drove the dogs away with a stone, but he was shot by -the fairies, and had a narrow escape of his life. On the other hand, -the Small People in Cornwall hate the smell of fish as much as the -savour of salt or grease. [493] The best chance of escape from these -Bengal Bhuts is when they begin to quarrel among themselves. A person -beset by them should invoke the gods and goddesses, especially Kali, -Durga, and Siva, the last of whom is, as already noted, the Lord of -Bhuts. [494] - -Bhuts are of many varieties. Vetala, or Baital, their leader, is -familiar to everyone in the tales of the Baital Pachisi. He is not, -as a rule, particularly offensive. More usually he is a vagrant Bhut -which enters the body of a man when the real spirit is absent. But -he often approximates to the Vampire as we meet him in Western -folk-lore. "It is as a vitalized corpse that the visitor from -the other world comes to trouble mankind, often subject to human -appetites, constantly endowed with more than human strength and -malignity." [495] Thus in one of Somadeva's stories the hero goes at -night to a cemetery and summons at the foot of a tree a Vetala into -the body of a man, and after worshipping him, makes an oblation of -human flesh to him. In another there is a Vetala with a body made up -of the limbs of many animals, who hurls the king to the earth, and -when he sits on the Vetala's back the demon flies with him through -the air like a bird and flings him into the sea. [496] The spirit -entering the body of the dead man forms the leading incident in the -tale of Fadlallah in the Arabian Nights, and there are many instances -of it in Indian folk-lore. This disposes of the assertion which has -been sometimes made that among races which bury their dead little -is known of regular corpse spectres, or that they are special to -lands tenanted or influenced by the Slavonians. [497] Most usually -the Vetala appears as the spirit of some living person dissatisfied -with his lodgings on earth, which leaves his own body and occupies a -corpse in preference. He, in company with the Vasus, Yakshas, Bhutas, -and Gandharvas, has passed into the degraded Tantrika worship. [498] - - - -The Pret. - -The Hindu notion of the state of the soul between death and the -performance of the prescribed funeral rites agrees exactly with that -of the older European races. They wandered about in a state of unhappy -restlessness, and were not suffered to mix with the other dead. The -term Pret or Preta, which simply means "deceased" or "departed," -represents the soul during this time. It wanders round its original -home, and, like the Balakhilyas, who surround the chariot of the -sun, is no larger than a man's thumb. The stages of his progress, -according to the best authorities, are that up to the performance of -the ten Pindas the dead man remains a Preta, through the Narayanabali -rite he becomes a Pisacha, and by the Sapindikarana he reaches the -dignity of the Pitri or sainted dead. The term Preta is, however, -sometimes applied to the spirit of a deformed or crippled person, -or one defective in some limb or organ, or of a child who dies -prematurely owing to the omission of the prescribed ceremonies during -the formation of the embryo. Here it may be noted that there are -indications in India of the belief which is common among savages, -that young children, apparently in consequence of their incomplete -protection from the birth impurity, are under a taboo. Thus in India a -child is regarded as a Bhut until the birth hair is cut. Some of the -jungle tribes believe that it is unnecessary to protect a child from -evil spirits until it begins to eat grain, because up to that time -it is nothing more than a Bhut itself. Under the old ritual a child -under two years of age was not burnt, but buried, and no offering of -water was made to it. We are familiar with the same idea in England -regarding unbaptized children, whose spirits are supposed to be -responsible for the noise of Gabriel's Hounds in the sky, really -caused by the bean geese in their southern flight. - -The Pret is occasionally under provocation malignant, but as it -partakes to some degree of the functions of the benign ancestral -household spirit, it is not necessarily malicious or evil-disposed -towards living persons. The Pret is specially worshipped at Gaya -on the Hill, known as Pretsila, or "the rock of the Pret," and a -special class of Brahmans at Patna call themselves Pretiya, because -they worship the ghost of some hero or saint. [499] - - - -The Pisacha. - -Next comes the Pisacha, which, as we have seen, is by one account -only a stage in the progress of the soul to its final rest. But more -properly speaking it is an evil spirit produced by a man's vices, -the ghost of a liar, adulterer, or criminal of any kind, or of one who -has died insane. But his attributes and functions are not very clearly -defined, and he merges into the general class of Bhuts. In some cases -he seems to have the power to cure disease. Thus we read in Somadeva, -"Rise up in the last watch of the night, and with dishevelled hair, -and naked, and without rinsing your mouth, take two handfuls of rice -as large as you can grasp with the two hands, and, uttering a form -of words, go to a place where four roads meet and there place the -two handfuls of rice, and return in silence without looking behind -you. Do so always until that Pisacha appears and says, 'I will put -an end to your ailment.' Then receive his aid gladly, and he will -remove your complaint." [500] - - - -The Rakshasa. - -The Rakshasa again, a word that means "the harmer" or "the destroyer," -is of the ogre-vampire type. He goes about at night, haunts cemeteries, -disturbs sacrifices and devout men, animates dead bodies, even -devouring human beings, in which capacity he is known as Kravyada, -or carnivorous, and is generally hostile to the human race. He is -emphatically a devourer of human flesh, and eats carrion. He is -often represented in the folk-tales as having a pretty daughter, who -protects the hero when he ventures perchance into the abode of the -monster. Her father comes in, and with the cry of "Manush gandha," -which is equivalent to the "Fee! fo! fum! I smell the blood of an -Englishman!" of the Western tale, searches about, but fails to find -him. When Hanuman entered the city of Lanka in the form of a cat, to -reconnoitre, he saw that the Rakshasas who slept in the house "were -of every shape and form. Some of them disgusted the eye, while some -were beautiful to look on. Some had long arms and frightful shapes; -some were very fat and some were very lean; some were dwarf and some -were prodigiously tall. Some had only one eye, and others had only -one ear. Some had monstrous bellies, hanging breasts, long projecting -teeth, and crooked thighs; whilst others were exceedingly beautiful to -behold and clothed in great splendour. Some had the heads of serpents, -some the heads of asses, some of horses, and some of elephants." The -leader of them was Ravana, who is said to have been once a Brahman and -to have been turned into a Rakshasa, "with twenty arms, copper-coloured -eyes, and bright teeth like the young moon. His form was as a thick -cloud or as a mountain, or the god of death with open mouth." - -The Rakshasa is the great Deus ex machina of folk-lore. He can change -into almost any form he pleases, his breath is a roaring wind; he can -lengthen his arms to eighty miles; he can smell out human beings like -Giant Blunderbore. He can carry a man leagues through the air; if his -head be cut off, it grows again. He is the Eastern type of the monster -dragon which is subdued by St. George, Siegmund, Siegfried, or Beowulf. - -His spouse, the Rakshasi, is a creature of much the same kind. In the -folk-tales she often takes the form of the ogress queen who marries -the king and gets up at night and devours an elephant, or two or -three horses, or some sheep or a camel, and then puts the blood and -scraps of meat at the doors of her rivals, and gets them banished, -until the clever lad discovers her wiles and brings her to condign -punishment. [501] Often she besets a city and demands the daily -tribute of a human victim. The king takes the place of the victim, -and the Rakshasi is so affected by his generosity that she abandons -eating the flesh of men. In a case in the folk-tales a boy becomes -a Rakshasa by eating the brains of a corpse. [502] Like all other -demons, Rakshasas are scared by light, and one of the names of the -lamp is Rakshogna, or "the destroyer of the Rakshasas." - -The idea of the Rakshasa comes from the earliest times. Some have -thought them to be types of the early Dravidian opponents of the -Hindus. Nirriti, the female personification of death, is a Rakshasa -deity in the Vedas, and Dr. Muir has traced the various stages -by which the Rakshasa was developed into a godling. [503] Thus, -in the Mahabharata, Jara is called a household goddess; the great -King Jarasandha was born in two halves, and Jara united them; she -is always represented as seeking to requite by benefits the worship -which is paid to her. Manu prescribes a special oblation for "the -spirits which walk in darkness." The blood in the sacrifice is, -according to the old ritual, offered to them, though even here we -notice the transition from animal to corn offerings. [504] - -Nowadays Rakshasas live in trees and cause vomiting and indigestion -to those who trespass on their domains at night. They mislead night -travellers like Will-o'-the-Wisp, and they are always greedy and in -quest of food. So, if a man is eating by lamp-light and the light -goes out, he will cover the dish with his hands, which are, as we -have already seen, scarers of demons, to preserve the food from the -Rakshasa, and Bengal women go at night with a lamp into every room -to expel the evil spirits. [505] - -The Rakshasas are said to be always fighting with the gods and -their blood remains on many of these ghostly battlefields. In the -Hills this is believed to be the cause of the red ferruginous clay -which is occasionally observed, and the Lohu or "blood-red" river -has a similar origin. [506] The same idea appears in the folk-lore of -Europe. In a Swabian legend the red colour of shoots of rye when they -first appear above the surface is attributed to Cain having killed Abel -in a rye-field, which thus became reddened with innocent blood. [507] -One species of feathered pink has a dark purple spot in it which people -in Germany say is a drop of the blood of the Redeemer which fell from -the Cross. [508] In one of the Irish Sagas the blood of a murdered man -fell on a white stone and formed the red veins which are still shown -to the traveller. [509] In Cornwall a red stain on the rocks marks -where giant Bolster died, and the red lichen in a brook commemorates a -murder. [510] Every English child knows the legend of Robin Redbreast. - -In folk-lore Rakshasas have kingdoms, and possess enormous riches, -which they bestow on those whom they favour, like Tara Bai in the story -of Seventee Bai. In this they resemble the Irish fairies, who hide away -much treasure in their palaces underneath the hills and in the lakes -and sea. "All the treasure of wrecked ships is theirs; and all the gold -that men have hidden or buried in the earth when danger was on them, -and then died and left no sign to their descendants. And all the gold -of the mine and the jewels of the rocks belong to them, and in the -Sifra or fairy house the walls are silver and the pavement is gold, -and the banquet hall is lit by the diamonds that stud the rocks." [511] - -The finger nails of the Rakshasas, as those of Europeans in -popular belief, are a deadly poison, and the touch of them produces -insensibility, or even death. They often take the disguise of old women -and have very long hair, which is a potent charm. Their malignity is -so great that it would be difficult to avoid them, but fortunately, -like the Devil in the European tales, and evil spirits all the world -over, they are usually fools, and readily disclose the secrets of -their enchantment to the distressed heroine who is unlucky enough to -fall into their power, and the victim has generally only to address -the monster as "Uncle!" to escape from his clutches. [512] - -They are, as has been said already, usually cannibals. One of these -was Vaka in the Mahabharata, who lived at Ekachakra and levied a -daily toll of food and human victims on the Raja till he was torn -to pieces by Bhima. Bhima also contrived to kill another monster of -the same kind named Hidimba. In the great Panjab legend of Rasalu, -he conquers the seven Rakshasas, who used to eat a human being every -day, and there is a Nepal story of the Rakshasa Gurung Mapa, who used -to eat corpses. He was propitiated with a grant of land to live on -and an annual offering of a buffalo and some rice. [513] - - - -Power of Lengthening Themselves. - -All ghosts, as we shall see later on, have the power of lengthening -themselves like the Naugaza, whom we have already mentioned. For -this reason demons, as a rule, are of gigantic form, and many of the -enormous fossil bones found in the Siwalik Hills were confidently -attributed to the Rakshasas, which reminds us of the story of the -smith in Herodotus who found the gigantic coffin seven cubits long -containing the bones of Orestes. [514] - - - -Night Spirits. - -Like the ghost in Hamlet, the angel that visited Jacob, and the -destroying angels of Sodom, the Rakshasas always fly before the -dawn. They invariably travel through the air and keep their souls in -birds or trees--a fertile element in folk-lore which has been called -by Major Temple "The Life Index." [515] - - - -Rakshasas as Builders. - -The tales of Western lands abound with instances of buildings, bridges, -etc., constructed by the Devil. So the Indian Rakshasa is commonly -regarded as an architect. Thus, at Ramtek in the Central Provinces -there is a curious old temple built of hewn stones, well fitted -together without mortar. From its shape and structure it is probably -of Jaina origin, though local tradition connects it with the name of -Hemadpant, the Rakshasa. He is an example of Rakshasas developed in -comparatively recent times from a historical personage. He was probably -the Minister of Mahadeva (1260-1271 A.D.), the fourth of the Yadava -Kings of Deogiri. According to the common story, he was a giant or a -physician, who brought the current Marathi character from Ceylon. The -Dakkhin swarms with ancient buildings attributed to him. [516] - -Such is also the case with another class of demons, the Asuras, -a word which means "spiritual" or "superhuman," who were the rivals -of the gods. In Mirzapur the ancient embankment at the Karsota tank -is considered to be their work. Once upon a time two of these demons -vowed that whoever first succeeded in building a fort should be the -conqueror, and that his defeated rival should lose his life. So -they set to work in the evening, one on the Bijaygarh Hill, and -the other on the opposite peak of Kundakot, about twelve miles -distant. The demon of Bijaygarh, having lost his tools in the dark, -struck a light to search for them. His adversary seeing the light, -and imagining that the sun was rising and his rival's work completed, -fled precipitously. The Bijaygarh fort was completed during the night -and stands to the present day, while on Kundakot you see only a few -enormous blocks of stone which was all the vanquished Asura had time -to collect. The tales of demons interfering with the construction of -buildings are common in European folk-lore. - -Many other buildings are said to have been built in the same way. The -Barahkhamba at Shikarpur in the Bulandshahr District was built by -demons; Baliya in Pilibhit was the work of Bali, the Daitya; the -demon Loha or Lohajangha built Lohaban in Mathura. [517] In the same -way the Cornish giants built chiefly in granite, and the Hack and -Cast embankment was constructed by them. [518] In Patna the Asura -Jarasandha is the reputed builder of an enormous embankment which is -called Asuren after him, and another demon of the same class is said -to be the architect of an ancient fortification in Puraniya. [519] - -Many buildings, again, are attributed to personages who succeeded in -getting an Asura under their influence, and being obliged to find -work for him, compelled him to occupy his time in architecture. In -the "Lay of the Last Minstrel" Michael Scott got out of the dilemma -by making the demons twist ropes of sand, and the same tale is told -of Tregeagle in Cornwall. [520] - - - -Modern Rakshasas. - -Rakshasas are developed even in these prosaic days of ours. In the -folk-tales many human beings lie under the well-founded suspicion -of being Asuras or Rakshasas. [521] The ghost of some Musalmans is -believed by some Hindus to become a most malignant Rakshasa. Such a -ghost is conciliated by being addressed by the euphemistic title of -Mamduh, "the praised one." Visaladeva, the famous King of Ajmer, was -turned into a Rakshasa on account of his oppression of his subjects, -in which condition he resumed the evil work of his earthly existence, -"devouring his subjects," until one of his grandchildren offered -himself as a victim to appease his hitherto insatiable appetite. "The -language of innocent affection," says Col. Tod, "made its way to the -heart of the Rakshasa, who recognized his offspring, and winged his -flight to the Jumna." [522] - -Young men who are obliged to travel at night have reason to be -cautious of the Rakshasi, as well as of the Churel, with whom she -is occasionally identified. She takes the form of a lovely woman and -lures her victims to destruction. - - - -Brahman Ghosts. - -We have already mentioned the Brahm or malignant Brahman ghost. These -often develop into Rakshasas, and are a particularly dangerous -species. Thus the sept of Gaur Rajputs are haunted by the Rakshasa -or ghost of the Brahman Mansa Ram, who, on account of the tyranny -of the Raja Tej Sinh, committed suicide. He lives in a tree in a -fort in the Sitapur District, and no marriage or any other important -business in the family of the Raja is undertaken until he has been duly -propitiated. [523] So, at the mound of Bilsar in the Etah District, -there lived a Raja whose house overlooked that of a Brahman named -Puran Mall. The Brahman asked the Raja to change the position of his -sitting-room, as it was inconvenient to the ladies of his family, -and when the request was refused, poisoned himself with a dose -of opium. His body turned blue like indigo, and he became a most -malignant demon or Bir, known as the Brahm Rakshasa, which caused -the death of the Raja and his family, and forced his successors to -remove to a distance from their original family residence. - - - -The Deo. - -Closely connected with the Rakshasas are various classes of demons, -known as Deo, Dano, or Bir. The Deo is a survival of the Devas or -"shining ones" of the old mythology. It is another of the terms -which have suffered grievous degradation. It was originally applied -to the thirty-three great divinities, eleven of which inhabited each -of the three worlds. Now the term represents a vague class of the -demon-ogre family. The Deo is a cannibal, and were he not exceedingly -stupid could do much harm, but in the folk-tales he is always being -deceived in the most silly way. He has long lips, one of which sticks -up in the air, while the other hangs down pendant. Like many of his -kinsfolk all over the world, he is a potent cause of tempests. [524] - - - -The Bir. - -The Bir, who takes his name from the Sanskrit Vira, "hero," is a -very malignant village demon. In one of the Mirzapur villages is -the shrine of Kharbar Bir, or "the noisy hero." No one can give any -satisfactory account of him, but it is quite certain that if he is not -propitiated by the Baiga, he brings disease on men and cattle. Genda -Bir, a woman who was tired of life, and, instead of burning herself, -threw herself down from a tree, is worshipped at Nagpur. [525] Kerar -Bir has, according to the last census returns, thirty-one thousand -worshippers in the eastern districts of the North-West Provinces. He -is said to have been a demon who resided on the spot where the present -fort of Jaunpur now stands. He became such a pest to the country about, -that the great Rama Chandra warred against him and overcame him. His -head and limbs he flung to the four corners of heaven, and his trunk -in the form of a shapeless mass of stone remains as a memorial and is -worshipped. Some allege that he was really some hero of the aboriginal -Bhar race who fell in battle with the Aryan. It is also alleged that -when the British engineers attempted to blow down the fort their -mines failed to disturb the shrine of Kerar, whose importance has -been much increased by this example of his prowess. [526] In Bombay -there are seven Birs who go about together and scour the fields and -gardens at night. [527] - - - -The Dano. - -The Dano represents the Danava of the early mythology. Of these -there are seven also, and the leader of them is Vritra, who is -the ancestor of the dragons and keeps back and steals the heavenly -waters, on which account Indra slays him with his thunderbolt. Vala, -the cave in which the rain cows are hidden, is called the brother of -Vritra. No trace remains now of this beautiful weather myth. The Dano -nowadays is hardly to be distinguished from the Bir and his brethren, -and at Hazaribagh he is worshipped in the form of a stone daubed with -five streaks of red lead and set up outside the house. [528] - - - -The Daitya. - -So with the Dait or Daitya, who is connected in nothing but name with -the demons of the olden world who warred with the gods. In Mirzapur he -lives in a tree; in front he looks like a man, but seen from behind -he is quite hollow, only a mere husk without a backbone. In this -he resembles the Ellekone of Denmark, who is beautiful in front, but -hollow in the back like a kneading trough. [529] So the Hadal or Hedali -of Bombay is said to be plump in front and a skeleton behind. [530] - -At midnight the Daitya shows himself in his tree in a flash of fire and -smoke, and sometimes flies off to another tree a short distance off. - -In Mirzapur he is sometimes known as Daitra Bir and is associated -with two others named Akata Bir and Latora Bir, all of whom live -in trees and go out at night and dance for a while with torches -in their hands. They are worshipped with an offering consisting of -the Kalsa or holy water-pots and some greens. [531] In one village -the Daitya is known as Beohar Baba or the "father of merchandise," -as he is supposed in some way to guard merchants. Col. Tod describes -a place in the table-land of Central India known as Daitya ka har or -"the demon's bone," on which those who are in search of ease jump from -above. Although most of the leapers perish, some instances of escape -are recorded. The hope of obtaining offspring is said to be the most -usual motive for the act. [532] Instances of religious suicides are -common. One of the most famous places for this is behind the peak -of Kedar, where the Pandavas devoted themselves and were carried off -to heaven. The practice seems to have almost completely ceased under -British rule. - - - -The Headless Horseman. - -At the present time the most dreaded of these creatures is, perhaps, -the Headless Horseman, who is popularly known as Dund, or "truncated." - -He has many of his kindred in other lands. Sir Francis Drake used -to drive a hearse into Plymouth with headless horses and followed -by yelling hounds. Coluinn gun Cheann of the Highlands goes about -a headless trunk. A coach without horses used to career about the -neighbourhood of Listowel when any misfortune was about to take -place. A monster in one of the German tales carries about his head -under his arm. [533] - -By one account the Dund took his origin from the wars of the -Mahabharata. However this may be, he appears periodically in the form -of a headless trunk seated on horseback, with his head tied before him -on the pommel of the saddle. He makes his rounds at night and calls -to the householder from outside; but woe to any one who answers him, -for this means death. The belief in these visionary death summonses is -very common. The Irish Banshee howls at night and announces death. In -Mirzapur, Baghesar, or the tiger demon, lives on the Churni Hill. He -sometimes comes down at night in human form, and calls people by name -at their doors. If any one answers him he becomes sick. The Bengali -personifies Nisi or Night as the Homeric Greeks did. [534] She often -comes at midnight, calls the house-master, who when he opens the door -falls senseless and follows her where she will. Sometimes she takes -him into a tank and drowns him, or leads him into a dense forest and -drops him among thorns or on the top of some high tree. In fact it is -always very dangerous to speak to these spirits or ghosts. Falstaff -knew this well when he said, "They are fairies; he that speaks to -them shall die." - -The Dund makes occasional incursions throughout the country. He was -in the neighbourhood of Agra in 1882, and some twelve years after -appeared in Mirzapur. On both occasions the news of his arrival caused -considerable alarm. Every one shut up their houses at sunset, and -no one on any consideration would answer a call from outside after -nightfall. It was shrewdly suspected at the time that this rumour -was spread by some professional burglar who made a harvest while the -scare lasted. - -Somewhat akin to the Dund is the spectral Raja of Bundi who -occasionally appears in the neighbourhood of Saharanpur. Some years -ago a Brahman astrologer heard some one calling him from outside -one night. When he answered the summons he was told that the Raja -of Bundi wanted to have his horoscope examined and was then encamped -near the town. The Pandit proceeded to the place with the guide and -saw a splendid encampment, and the Raja in his royal robes sitting -in a tent ornamented with pearls. When he saw him the unfortunate -astrologer knew that he was a Rakshasa, and he was the more convinced -of this when he examined his horoscope and found that he was fated -to live for ever. He told the Raja that his life would be long and -prosperous, and after receiving three gold coins as his fee went home -more dead than alive. Next morning he went to the place, but could -find no sign of the camp, and when he looked in his box the coins -were found to have disappeared. - -There are numerous other versions of the Headless Horseman story -in Northern India. In a fight at Khandesh the Gaoli prince engaged -in personal conflict with the saint Sayyid Saadat Pir, and struck -off his head. The headless body continued to fight, and the Hindu -army fled in panic. The trunk then snatched up the head and led the -victorious troops to a neighbouring hill, where the earth opened -and swallowed it. [535] So, in Oudh, Malik Ambar, the companion of -Salar Masaud, was, it is said, killed with his master at Bahraich, -but wandering back from Bijnor, a headless trunk on horseback, he at -length reached the place where his tomb now stands, when the earth -opened and received him and his horse. [536] - -The Dund is apparently a close relation of the Skandhahata of Bengal, -who goes about with his head cut off from the shoulders. He dwells in -low moist lands outside a village, in bogs and fens, and goes about -in the dark, rolling about on the ground, with his long arms stretched -out. Woe betide the belated peasant who falls within his grasp. [537] - - - -The Ghostly Army. - -Closely connected with this are the numerous legends of the Ghostly -Army. Thus, at Faizabad, the country people point out a portion of -the Queen's highway along which they will not pass at night. They say -that after dark the road is thronged with troops of headless horsemen, -the dead of the army of Prince Sayyid Salar. The great host moves on -with a noiseless tread; the ghostly horses make no sound; and no words -of command are shouted to the headless squadrons. Another version -comes from Ajmer. There for some time past a troop of four or five -hundred horsemen, armed and dressed in green, issue from a valley in -the neighbourhood of the city, and after riding about for some time, -mysteriously disappear. They are believed to be the escort of the -Imam Husain, whose tragical fate is commemorated at the Muharram. - -The same idea prevails all through India, and indeed all the world -over. The persons killed at a recent disastrous railway accident haunt -the locality, and have caused the breakdown of other trains at the same -place. [538] The ghosts of the battle of Chilianwala began to appear -very shortly after the battle, and Abul Fazl mentions the ghosts of -Panipat in the days of Akbar. [539] In America the anniversaries of the -battles of Bunker's Hill, Concord, Saratoga, and even as late as that -of Gettysburg, are celebrated by spectral armies, who fight by night -the conflict o'er again. [540] If you walk nine times round Neville's -Cross, you will hear the noise of the battle and the clash of armour, -and the same tale is told of the battle of Marathon, which a recent -prosaic authority attributes to the beating of the waves on the shore, -while others say that these spectral armies of the sky are nothing more -than wild geese or other migratory birds calling in the darkness. [541] - - - -Masan. - -Masan, the modern form of the Sanskrit Smasana, "a place of cremation," -is the general term for those evil spirits which haunt the place -where they were forced to abandon their tenements of clay. So the -modern Italian Lemuri are the spirits of the churchyard and represent -the Lemures or Larvae, the unhappy ghosts of those who have died evil -deaths or under a ban, to which there are innumerable allusions in -the Latin writers. [542] In India Masan is very generally regarded -as the ghost of a child, and we have already seen that some tribes -regard an infant as a Bhut. He is occasionally the ghost of a low-caste -man, very often that of an oilman, who, possibly from the dirt which -accompanies his trade, is considered ill-omened. By another account -such ghosts prowl about in villages in the Hills in the form of -bears and other wild animals. [543] Others say that Masan is of black -and hideous appearance, comes from the ashes of a funeral pyre, and -chases people as they pass by. Some die of fright from his attacks, -others linger for a few days, and some even go mad. "When a person -becomes possessed of Masan, the people invoke the beneficent spirit of -the house to come and take possession of some member of the family, -and all begin to dance. At length some one works himself up into a -state of frenzy, and commences to torture and belabour the body of the -person possessed by Masan, until at length a cure is effected, or the -patient perishes under this drastic treatment." Khabish resembles Masan -in his malignant nature and his fondness for burial grounds. He is -also met with in dark glens and forests in various shapes. Sometimes -he imitates the bellow of a buffalo, or the cry of a goatherd or -neatherd, and sometimes he grunts like a pig. At other times he -assumes the disguise of a religious mendicant and joins travellers -on their way; but his conversation is, like that of ordinary Bhuts, -always unintelligible. Like Masan, he often frightens people and -makes them ill, and sometimes possesses unfortunate travellers who -get benighted. [544] - -Children afflicted by Masan are said to be "under his shadow" (chhaya), -and waste away by a sort of consumption. Here we have another instance -of the principle already referred to, that the shadow represents the -actual soul. [545] This malady is believed to be due to some enemy -flinging the ashes from a funeral pyre over the child. The remedy in -such cases is to weigh the child in salt, a well-known demon scarer, -and give it away in charity. The cremation ground and the bones -and ashes which it contains are constantly used in various kinds -of magical rites. It is believed when thieves enter a house, that -they throw over the inmates some Masan or ashes from a pyre and make -them unconscious while the robbery is going on. This resembles the -English "Hand of Glory," to which reference will be made in another -connection. As to the influence by means of the shadow, it may be -noted that a Nepal legend describes how a Lama arrested the flight -of a Brahman by piercing his shadow with a spear, and the Rakshasi -Sinhika used to seize the shadow of the object she desired to devour -and so drag the prey into her jaws. [546] - - - -Tola. - -Tola is a sort of "Will-o'-the-Wisp" in the Hills. According to one -account, he is, like the Gayal, of whom we have spoken already, the -ghost of a bachelor, and other ghosts refuse to associate with him; -so he is seen only in wild and solitary places. Others say that he -belongs to the class of children ghosts, who have died too young -to undergo the rites of tonsure or cremation. They are, as a rule, -harmless, and are not much dreaded. After a child undergoes the -specified religious ceremonies, its soul is matured, and fitted -either to join the spirits of the sainted dead or to assume a new -existence by transmigration. The estate of the Tola is only temporary, -and after a time, it, too, enters another form of existence. [547] - - - -Airi. - -Another famous Hill Bhut is Airi. He is the ghost of some one who -was killed in hunting. We have many instances of these huntsmen -ghosts, of which the most familiar example is the European legend of -the Wild Huntsman, who haunts the forest in which he used to hunt, -and is sometimes heard hallooing to his dogs. So in Cornwall Dando -rides about accompanied with his hounds. [548] The British fairies -ride at night on horses which they steal from the stables, and in the -morning the poor beasts are found covered with sweat and foam. [549] -In Southern India Aiyanar rides about the land at night on a wild -elephant, sword in hand, and surrounded by torch-bearers, to clear -the country from all obnoxious spirits. [550] - -The companions of Airi are fairies, who, like the Churel, have their -feet turned backwards. He is accompanied by two litter-bearers -and a pack of hounds with bells round their necks. Whoever hears -their bark is certain to meet with calamity. Airi is much given to -expectoration, and his saliva is so venomous that it wounds those on -whom it falls. Incantations must be used and the affected part rubbed -with the branch of a tree. If this be not done at once, the injured -man dies, and in any case he must abstain from rich food for several -days. We shall meet again with the magical power of spittle. Here -it may be noted that in Western folk-lore it confers the power of -seeing spirits. - -"Those who see Airi face to face are burnt up by the flash of his eye, -or are torn to pieces by his dogs, or have their livers extracted -and eaten by the fairies who accompany him. But should any one be -fortunate enough to survive, the Bhut discloses hidden treasures to -him. The treasure-trove thus disclosed varies in value from gold -coins to old bones. His temples are always in deserted places. A -trident represents the god, and a number of surrounding stones -his followers. He is worshipped once a year by lighting a bonfire, -round which all the people sit. A kettle-drum is played, and one after -another they become possessed, and leap and shout round the fire. Some -brand themselves with heated iron spoons, and sit in the flames. Those -who escape burning are believed to be truly possessed, while those -who are burned are considered mere pretenders to divine frenzy." [551] -This closely resembles the worship of Rahu already described. - -"The revels usually last for about ten nights, and until they are -ended, a lamp is kept burning at the shrine of the god. Those possessed -dye a yard of cloth in red ochre and bind it round their heads, and -carry a wallet in which they place the alms they receive. While in this -state they bathe twice, and eat but once in the twenty-four hours. They -allow no one to touch them, as they consider other men unclean, and -no one but themselves is permitted to touch the trident and stones in -Airi's temple, at least as long as the festival lasts. The offerings, -goats, milk, etc., are consumed by the worshippers. The kid is marked -on the forehead with red, and rice and water are thrown over him. If he -shakes himself to get rid of it, the god has accepted the offering, -whereupon his head is severed with a knife. If he does not shake -himself, or bleats, it is a sign that the offering is not accepted, -and the victim escapes." - -The same rule of testing the suitability of the sacrifice prevailed -among the Greeks. The same practice prevails among other tribes. Thus, -the Bawariyas, when they sacrifice a goat, take a little water in the -palm of the hand and pour it on the nose of the victim. If it shiver, -its head is cut off with a single blow of a sword. The rule has -elsewhere received a further development. Thus when the Rao of Cutch -sacrifices a buffalo, "as it stoops to eat, a few drops of water are -scattered between its horns. If it shake its head it is led away as -displeasing to the goddess; if it nods its head a glittering scimitar -descends on its neck." [552] - - - -Hill Demons. - -Other Bhuts in the Hills are Acheri, the ghosts of little girls, -who live on the tops of mountains, but descend at night to hold their -revels in more convenient places. To fall in with their train is fatal, -and they have a particular antipathy to red colour. When little girls -fall suddenly ill, the Acheri is supposed to have cast her shadow -over them. The Deo are the regular demons already described; some are -obnoxious to men, some to cattle. The Runiya moves about at night and -uses a huge rock as his steed, the clattering of which announces his -approach. He is the demon of the avalanche and landslip. Should he -take a fancy to a woman, she is haunted by his spirit in her dreams, -and gradually wasting away, finally falls a victim to her passion. He -thus resembles the Faun and the Satyr, the Incubus and Succubus, -against whose wiles and fascination the Roman maiden was warned. [553] - - - -Birth Fiends. - -Another of these night fiends is the Jilaiya of Bihar, which takes the -shape of a night bird, and is able to suck the blood of any person -whose name it hears. Hence women are very careful not to call their -children at night. It is believed that if this bird fly over the head -of a pregnant woman her child will be born a weakling. [554] - -Hence it closely approximates to the birth fiends which beset the -mother and child during the period of impurity after parturition. Thus -the Oraons of Chota Nagpur believe that the fiend Chordevan comes -in the form of a cat and tears the mother's womb. [555] The Brahman, -Prabhu, and other high-caste women of Bombay believe that on the fifth -and sixth night after birth the mother and child are liable to be -attacked by the birth spirit Satvai, who comes in the shape of a cat -or a hen. Consequently they keep a watch in the lying-in room during -the whole night, passing the time in playing, singing and talking -to scare the fiend. The Marathas of Nasik believe that on the fifth -night, at about twelve o'clock, the spirit Sathi, accompanied by a -male fiend, called Burmiya, comes to the lying-in room, and making -the mother insensible, either kills or disfigures the child. The -Vadals of Thana think that on the fifth night the birth spirit Sathi -comes in the form of a cat, hen, or dog, and devours the heart and -skull of the child. They therefore surround the bed with strands of -a creeper, place an iron knife or scythe on the mother's cot, fire -in an iron bickern at the entrance of the lying-in room, and keep a -watch for the night. The customs all through Northern India are very -much of the same type. It is essential that the fire should be kept -constantly burning, lest the spirit of evil, stepping over the cold -ashes, should enter and make its fatal mark on the forehead of the -child. The whole belief turns on the fear of infantile lockjaw, which -is caused by the use of foul implements in cutting the umbilical cord -and the neglect of all sanitary precautions. It usually comes between -the fifth and twelfth day, and as Satvai, or the Chhathi of Northern -India, has been raised to the dignity of a goddess. All this is akin -to the belief in fairy changelings and the malignant influences which -surround the European mother and her child. [556] - - - -The Pari and Jinn. - -Little reference has yet been made to the Pari or fairies, or the -Jinn or genii, because they are, in their present state at least, of -exotic origin, though their original basis was possibly laid on Indian -soil. Thus we have the Apsaras, who in name at least, "moving in the -water," is akin to Aphrodite. They appear only faintly in the Veda -as the nymphs of Indra's heaven, and the chief of them is Urvasi, to -whom reference has been already made. Two of them, Rambha and Menaka, -are shown as luring austere sages from their devotions, as in the -Irish legend of Glendalough. They are the wives or mistresses of the -Gandharvas, the singers and musicians who attend the banquets of the -gods. Indra in the Rig Veda is the giver of women, and he provides -one of his aged friends with a young wife. [557] Rambha, one of the -fairies of his court, appears constantly in the tales of Somadeva, and -descends in human form to the arms of her earthly lovers, as Titania -with Bottom in the "Midsummer Night's Dream." Their successor in the -modern tales is Shahpasand, "The beloved of the king," who takes the -shape of a pigeon and kisses the beautiful hero. In one of the stories -which appears in many forms, the youth with the help of a Faqir finds -his way to the dance of Raja Indra, takes the place of his drummer, -and wins the fairy, whom he identifies in spite of the many schemes -which the jovial god invents to deceive him. These ladies are all of -surpassing beauty, skilled in music and the dance, with white skins, -and always dressed in red. - -With the Jinn we reach a chapter of folk-lore of great extent and -complexity. They are probably in origin closely allied to the Rakshasa, -Deo and his kindred. [558] They are usually divided into the Jann, -who are the least powerful of all the Jinn, the Shaitan or Satan -of the Hebrews, the Ifrit and the Marid, the last of whom rules -the rest. The Jann, according to the Prophet, were created out of a -smokeless fire. The Jann is sometimes identified with the serpent, -and sometimes with Iblis, who has been imported direct from the Greek -Diabolos. The Jinn were the pre-Adamite rulers of the world, and for -their sins were overcome by the angels, taken prisoners and driven to -distant islands. They appear as serpents, lions, wolves or jackals. One -kind rules the land, another the air, a third the sea. There are forty -troops of them, each consisting of six hundred thousand. Some have -wings and fly, others move like snakes and dogs, others go about like -men. They are of gigantic stature, sometimes resplendently handsome, -sometimes horridly hideous. They can become invisible and move on -earth when they please. Sometimes one of them is shut up in a jar -under the seal of the Lord Solomon who rules them. They ride the -whirlwind like Indian demons, and direct the storm. Their chief home -is the mountains of Qaf, which encompass the earth. - - - -The Ghoul. - -Besides these there is a host of minor demons, such as the Ghul, the -English Ghoul, who is a kind of Shaitan, eats men, and is variously -described as a Jinn or as an enchanter. By one tradition, when the -Shaitan attempt by stealth to hear the words of men, they are struck -by shooting stars, some are burnt, some fall into the sea and become -crocodiles, and some fall upon the land and become Ghuls. The Ghul is -properly a female, and the male is Qutrub. They are the offspring -of Iblis and his wife. The Silat or Sila lives in forests, and -when it captures a man makes him dance and plays with him, as the -cat plays with the mouse. Similar to this creature is the Ghaddar, -who tortures and terrifies men, the Dalham, who is in the form of -a man and rides upon an ostrich, and the Shiqq or Nasnas, who are -ogres and vampires. But these are little known in Indian folk-lore, -except that directly imported from Arabic sources. [559] - - - -The Baghaut. - -As an instance of the respect paid to the ghosts of those who have -perished by an untimely death, we may mention the Baghaut. According -to the last census returns some eight thousand persons recorded -themselves as worshippers in the North-Western Provinces of Bagahu or -Sapaha, the ghosts of people killed by tigers or snakes. The Baghaut -is usually erected on the place where a man was killed by a tiger, -but it sometimes merges into the common form of shrine, as in a -case given by Dr. Buchanan, where a person received the same honour -because he had been killed by the aboriginal Kols. [560] The shrine -is generally a heap of stones or branches near some pathway in the -jungle. Every passer-by adds to the pile, which is in charge of the -Baiga or aboriginal priest, who offers upon it a pig, or a cock, -or some spirits, and lights a little lamp there occasionally. Many -such shrines are to be found in the Mirzapur jungles. In the Central -Provinces they are known as Pat, a term applied in Chota Nagpur to -holy heights dedicated to various divinities. [561] They are usually -erected in a place where a man has been killed by a tiger or by a -snake; sometimes no reason whatever is given for their selection. "In -connection with these shrines they have a special ceremony for laying -the ghost of a tiger. Until it is gone through, neither Gond nor -Baiga will go into the jungles if he can help it, as they say not -only does the spirit of the dead man walk, but the tiger is also -possessed, for the nonce, with an additional spirit of evil (by the -soul of the dead man entering into him) which increases his power of -intelligence and ferocity, rendering him more formidable than usual, -and more eager to pursue his natural enemy, man. Some of the Baigas -are supposed to be gifted with great powers of witchcraft, and it -is common for a Baiga medicine man to be called in to bewitch the -tigers and prevent them carrying off the village cattle. The Gonds -thoroughly believe in the powers of these men." [562] - -I myself came across a singular instance of this some time ago. I -was asking a Baiga of the Chero tribe what he could do in this way, -but I found him singularly reticent on the subject. I asked the -Superintendent of the Dudhi Estate, who was with me, to explain the -reason. "Well," he answered, "when I came here first many years ago, -a noted Baiga came to me and proposed to do some witchcraft to protect -me from tigers, which were very numerous in the neighbourhood at the -time. I told him that I could look after myself, and advised him to -do the same. That night a tiger seized the wretched Baiga while he -was on his way home, and all that was found of him were some scraps -of cloth and pieces of bone. Since then I notice that the Baigas of -these parts do not talk so loudly of their power of managing tigers -when I am present." - - - -The Churel. - -More dreaded even than the ghost of a man who has been killed by -a tiger is the Churel, a name which has been connected with that -of the Chuhra or sweeper caste. The ghosts of all low-caste people -are notoriously malignant, an idea which possibly arises from their -connection with the aboriginal faith, which was treated half with fear -and half with contempt by their conquerors. The corpses of such people -are either cremated or buried face downwards, in order to prevent the -evil spirit from escaping and troubling its neighbours. So, it was -the old custom in Great Britain in order to prevent the spirit of a -suicide from "walking" and becoming a terror to the neighbourhood, -to turn the coffin upside down and thrust a spear through it and the -body which it contained so as to fix it to the ground. [563] Riots -have taken place and the authority of the magistrates has been invoked -to prevent a sweeper from being buried in the ordinary way. [564] - -The Churel, who corresponds to the Jakhai, Jokhai, Mukai, or Navalai -of Bombay, [565] is the ghost of a woman dying while pregnant, or -on the day of the child's birth, or within the prescribed period -of impurity. The superstition is based on the horror felt by all -savages at the blood, or even touch of a woman who is ceremonially -impure. [566] The idea is, it is needless to say, common in India. The -woman in her menses is kept carefully apart, and is not allowed to do -cooking or any domestic work until she has undergone the purification -by bathing and changing her garments. Some of the Dravidian tribes -refuse to allow a woman in this condition to touch the house-thatch, -and she is obliged to creep through a narrow hole in the back wall -whenever she has to leave the house. Hence, too, the objection felt -by men to walk under walls or balconies where women may be seated and -thus convey the pollution. From Kulu, on the slopes of the Himalayas, -a custom is reported which is probably connected with this principle -and with the rules of the Couvade, to which reference will be made -later on. When a woman who is pregnant dies, her husband is supposed -to have committed some sin, and he is deemed unclean for a time. He -turns a Faqir and goes on pilgrimage for a month or so, and, having -bathed in some sacred place, is re-admitted into caste. The woman is -buried, the child having been first removed from her body by one of -the Dagi caste, and her death is not considered a natural one under -any circumstances. [567] - -The Churel is particularly malignant to her own family. She appears -in various forms. Sometimes she is fair in front and black behind, -but she invariably has her feet turned round, heels in front and -toes behind. The same idea prevails in many other places. The Gira, -a water-spirit of the Konkan, has his feet turned backwards. [568] -In the Teignmouth story of the Devil he leaves his backward footsteps -in the snow. Pliny so describes Anthropophagi of Mount Imoeus, and -Megasthenes speaks of a similar race on Mount Nilo. [569] - -She generally, however, assumes the form of a beautiful young woman and -seduces youths at night, especially those who are good-looking. She -carries them off to some kingdom of her own, and if they venture to -eat the food offered to them there, she keeps them till they lose their -manly beauty and then sends them back to the world grey-haired old men, -who, like Rip Van Winkle, find all their friends dead long ago. - -So the Lady of the Lake won Merlin to her arms. [570] The same idea -prevails in Italy, but there the absence is only temporary. "Among the -wizards and witches are even princes and princesses, who to conceal -their debauchery and dishonour take the goat form and carry away -partners for the dance, bearing them upon their backs, and so they -fly many miles in a few minutes, and go with them to distant cities -and other places, where they feast, dance, drink, and make love. But -when day approaches they carry their partners home again, and when -they wake they think they have had pleasant dreams. But indeed their -diversion was more real than they supposed." [571] So, the Manxmen tell -of a man who was absent from his people for four years, which he spent -with the fairies. He could not tell how he returned, but it seemed as -if, having been unconscious, he woke up at last in this world. [572] -I had a smart young butler at Etah, who once described to me vividly -the narrow escape he had from the fascinations of a Churel, who lived -on a Pipal tree near the cemetery. He saw her sitting on the wall in -the dusk and entered into conversation with her; but he fortunately -observed her tell-tale feet and escaped. He would never go again by -that road without an escort. So, the fairies of England and Ireland -look with envy on the beautiful boys and girls, and carry them off -to fairyland, where they keep them till youth and beauty have departed. - - - -Eating Food in Spirit Land. - -The consequences of rashly eating the food of the underworld are well -known. The reason is that eating together implies kinship with the -dwellers in the land of spirits, and he who does so never returns to -the land of men. [573] - -The Churel superstition appears in other forms. Thus, the Korwas of -Mirzapur say that if a woman dies in the delivery-room, she becomes -a Churel, but they do not know, or do not care to say, what finally -becomes of her. The Pataris and Majhwars think that if a woman -dies within the period of pregnancy or uncleanness, she becomes a -Churel. She appears in the form of a pretty little girl in white -clothes, and seduces them away to the mountains, until the Baiga is -called in to sacrifice a goat and release her victim. The Bhuiyars -go further and say that little baby girls who die before they are -twenty days old become Churels. They live in stones in the mountains -and cause pain to men. The remedy is for the afflicted one to put -some rice and barley on his head, turn round two or three times, -and shake off the grain in the direction of the jungle, when she -releases her victim. The idea seems to be that with these holy grains, -which are scarers of demons, the evil influence is dispersed. But -she continues to visit him, and requires propitiation. Among these -people the Churel has been very generally enrolled among the regular -village godlings and resides with them in the common village shrine, -where she receives her share of the periodical offerings. Any one -who sees a Churel is liable to be attacked by a wasting disease, and, -as in the case of the Dund, to answer her night summons brings death. - - - -Modes of Repelling the Churel. - -There are fortunately various remedies which are effective in -preventing a woman who dies under these circumstances from becoming -a Churel. One way is that practised by the Majhwars of Mirzapur, -which resembles that for laying the evil spirit of a sweeper, to -which reference has been made already. They do not cremate the body, -but bury it, fill the grave with thorns and pile heavy stones above -to keep down the ghost. - -Among the Bhandaris of Bengal, when a pregnant woman dies before -delivery, her body is cut open and the child taken out, both corpses -being buried in the same grave. [574] In Bombay, when a woman dies -in pregnancy, her corpse, after being bathed and decked with flowers -and ornaments, is carried to the burning ground. There her husband -sprinkles water on her body from the points of a wisp of the sacred -Darbha grass and repeats holy verses. Then he cuts her right side -with a sharp weapon and takes out the child. Should it be alive, -it is taken home and cared for; should it be dead, it is then and -there buried. The hole in the side of the corpse is filled with curds -and butter, covered with cotton threads, and then the usual rite -of cremation is carried out. [575] In one of the tales of Somadeva, -Saktideva cuts the child out of his pregnant wife. [576] - -In the Hills, if a woman dies during the menstrual period or -in childbirth, the corpse is anointed with the five products of -the cow, and special texts are recited. A small quantity of fire -is then placed on the chest of the corpse, which is either buried -or thrown into flowing water. [577] Here we have the three great -demon-scarers,--fire, earth and water, combined. In another device, -iron, which has similar virtue, is used. Small round-headed iron -spikes, specially made for the purpose, are driven into the nails -of the four fingers of the corpse, while the thumbs and great toes -are securely fastened together with iron rings. Most Hindus, it may -be remarked, tie the corpse to the bier, whatever may have been the -cause of death, and in parts of Ireland a thread is tied round the -toe of the corpse, the object apparently being to secure the body -and prevent an evil spirit from entering it. [578] - -In the Hills the place where a pregnant woman died is carefully -scraped and the earth removed. The spot is then sown with mustard, -which is sprinkled along the road traversed by the corpse on its way -to the burial ground. The reason given for this is twofold. First, -the mustard blossoms in the world of the dead, and its sweet smell -pleases the spirit and keeps her content, so that she does not long to -revisit her earthly home; secondly, the Churel rises from her grave -at nightfall and seeks to return to her friends; she sees the minute -grains of the mustard scattered abroad and stoops to pick it up, and -while so engaged cock-crow comes, she is unable to visit her home, -and must return to her grave. This is another instance of the rule -that evil spirits move about only at night. - - - -Counting. - -This counting of the grains of mustard illustrates another principle -which is thus explained by Mr. Leland: [579] "A traveller in Persia -has observed that the patterns of carpets are made intricate, -so that the Evil Eye, resting upon them and following the design, -loses its power. This was the motive of all the interlaces of the -Celtic and Norse designs. When the witch sees the Salagrama, her -glance is at once bewildered with its holes and veins. As I have -elsewhere remarked, the herb Rosaloaccio, not the corn poppy, but -a kind of small house leek, otherwise called 'Rice of the Goddess -of the four Winds,' derives its name from looking, ere it unfolds, -like confused grains of rice, and when a witch sees it she cannot -enter till she has counted them, which is impossible; therefore it -is used to protect rooms from witchcraft." Sarson or mustard is, -it may be noted, used as a scarer of demons. In all the principal -Hindu ceremonies in Western India, grains of Sarshapa or Sarson -(Sinapts dichotoma) and parched rice are scattered about to scare -fiends. Akbar used to have Sipand or Sarson burnt on a hot plate to -keep off the Evil Eye--Nazar-i-bad--from his valuable horses. [580] - -Though the Churel is regarded with disgust and terror, curiously -enough a family of Chauhan Rajputs in Oudh claim one as their -ancestress. [581] - - - -The Couvade. - -In connection with this subject of parturition impurity, the very -remarkable custom of the Couvade may be referred to here. This is -the rule by which at the birth of a child the father is treated as -an invalid, instead of or in addition to the mother:-- - - - When Chineses go to bed, - And lie in in their ladies' stead. - - -Marco Polo, writing of Zardandan, gives a good example:--"When one -of their wives has been delivered of a child, the infant is washed -and swathed, and then the woman gets up and goes about her household -affairs, whilst the husband takes to bed with the child by his side, -and so keeps his bed for forty days; and all the kith and kin come to -visit her, and keep up a great festivity. They do this because they -say the woman has had a bad time of it, and it is but fair that the -man should have a share of suffering." [582] Professor Rhys remarks -that the gods of Celtic Ireland used to practise the Couvade. [583] - -Professor Max Mueller thinks that it is clear that the poor husband -was at first tyrannized over by his female relations and afterwards -frightened into superstition. He then began to make a martyr -of himself, till he made himself really ill, or took to bed in -self-defence. The custom appears, however, to rest on a much more -primitive set of ideas. It partly implies, perhaps, the transition -from that social state in which, owing to the laxity of the connection -between the sexes, the only recognized form of descent was through -the mother, and partly, the kindred conception that the father has -more to do with the production of the child than the mother, and -that the father must, at the critical period of the baby's existence, -exercise particular caution that through his negligence no demoniacal -influence may assail the infant, [584] - -It is curious that in India itself so few actual instances of the -Couvade have been discovered. This, however, as Mr. Hartland shows, -is not unusual, and the Couvade is not found in the lowest stage -of savagery. But that the custom once generally prevailed is quite -certain, and in Northern India, at least, it seems to have been masked -by special birth ceremonies of great stringency and elaborate detail, -but of distinctly later date than the very primitive usage with which -we are now concerned. - -One instance of the actual Couvade is given by Professor Sir -Monier-Williams. [585] Among a very low caste of basket-makers in -Gujarat, it is the usual practice for a wife to go about her work -immediately after delivery, as if nothing had occurred. "The presiding -Mother (Mata) of the tribe is supposed to transfer the weakness to her -husband, who takes to his bed and has to be supported for several days -with good nourishing food." Again, among the Kols of Chota Nagpur, -father and mother are considered impure for eight days, during -which period the members of the family are sent out of the house, -and the husband has to cook for his wife. If it be a difficult case -of parturition, the malignancy of some spirit of evil is supposed to -be at work, and after divination to ascertain his name, a sacrifice -is made to appease him. [586] Among many of the Dravidian tribes of -Mirzapur, when the posset or spiced drink is prepared for the mother -after her confinement, the father is obliged to drink the first sup -of it. Among all these people, the father does not work or leave the -house during the period of parturition impurity, and cooks for his -wife. When asked why he refrains from work, they simply say that he -is so pleased with the safety of his wife and the birth of his child, -that he takes a holiday; but some survival of the Couvade is probably -at the root of the custom. The same idea prevails in a modified form in -Bombay. The Pomaliyas, gold-washers of South Gujarat, after a birth, -take great care of the husband, give him food, and do not allow him -to go out; and "when a child is born to a Deshasth Brahman, he throws -himself into a well with all his clothes on, and, in the presence of -his wife's relations, lets a couple of drops of honey and butter fall -into the mouth of the child." [587] - - - -Various Birth Ceremonies. - -The same idea that the infant is likely to receive demoniacal -influences through its father appears to be the explanation of another -class of birth ceremonies. In Northern India, in respectable families, -the father does not look on the child until the astrologer selects a -favourable moment. If the birth occur in the unlucky lunar asterism -of Mul, the father is often not allowed to see his child for years, -and has in addition to undergo an elaborate rite of purification, -known as Mula-santi. So, in Bombay, "the Belgaum Chitpavans do not -allow the father to look on the new-born child, but at its reflection -in butter. The Dharwar Radders do not allow the father to see the -lamp being waved round the image of Satvai, the birth goddess. If -the father sees it, it is believed that the mother and child will -sicken. The Karnatak Jainas allow anyone to feed the new-born babe -with honey and castor oil, except the father. Among the Beni Israels, -when the boy is being circumcised, the father sits apart covered -with a veil. Among the Puna Musalmans, friends are called to eat -the goat offered as a sacrifice on the birth of a child. All join in -the feast except the parents, who may not eat the sacrifice." [588] -Probably on the same principle, among most of the lower castes, the -father and mother do not eat on the wedding day of their children -until the ceremony is over. - - - -Places Infested by Bhuts: Burial Places. - -There are, of course, certain places which are particularly infested -by Bhuts. To begin with, they naturally infest the neighbourhood of -burial places and cremation grounds. This idea is found all over the -world. Virgil says:-- - - - Moerim, saepe animas imis excire sepulcris, - Atque satas alio vidi traducere messes; - - -and Shakespeare in the "Midsummer Night's Dream,"-- - - - Now it is the time of night - That graves all gaping wide, - Every one lets forth its sprite, - In the church-way paths to glide. - - - -Deserts. - -All deserts, also, are a resort of Bhuts, as the great desert of Lop, -where Marco Polo assures us they are constantly seen at night. In the -Western Panjab deserts, during the prairie fires and in the dead of -night, the lonely herdsmen used to hear cries arising from the ground, -and shouts of Mar! Mar! "Strike! Strike!" which were ascribed to the -spirits of men who had been killed in former frontier raids. Such -supernatural sounds were heard by the early settlers within the last -fifty years, and, until quite recently, the people were afraid to -travel without forming large parties for fear of encountering the -supernatural enemies who frequented these uninhabited tracts. [589] -So, among the Mirzapur jungle tribes, the wild forests of Sarguja -are supposed to be infested with Bhuts, and if any one goes there -rashly he is attacked through their influence with diarrhoea and -vomiting. The site of the present British Residency at Kathmandu in -Nepal was specially selected by the Nepalese as it was a barren patch, -supposed to be the abode of demons. So, in Scotland, the local spirit -lives in a patch of untilled ground, known as the "Gudeman's field" -or "Cloutie's Croft." [590] - - - -Owls and Bats. - -The goblins of the churchyard type very often take the form of owls -and bats, which haunt the abodes of the dead. "Screech owls are held -unlucky in our days," says Aubrey. [591] - - - Sedit in adverso nocturnus culmine bubo, - Funereosque graves edidit ore sonos. - - -The Strix, or screech owl, in Roman folk-lore was supposed to suck the -blood of young children. Another form of the word in Latin is Striga, -meaning a hag or witch. The Lilith of the Jews, the "night monster" -of our latest version of the Old Testament, becomes in the Rabbinical -stories Adam's first wife, "the Queen of demons" and murderess of -young children, who is the "night hag" of Milton. [592] - -The Kumaun owl legend is that they had originally no plumes of their -own, and were forced to borrow those of their neighbours, who pursue -them if they find them abroad at daylight. Owl's flesh is a powerful -love philter, and the eating of it causes a man to become a fool and -to lose his memory; hence, women give it to their husbands, that as -a result of the mental weakness which it produces they may be able -to carry on their flirtations with impunity. On the other hand, the -owl is the type of wisdom, and eating the eyeballs of an owl gives -the power of seeing in the dark, an excellent example of sympathetic -magic. If you put an owl in a room, go in naked, shut the door and -feed the bird with meat all night, you acquire magical powers. I once -had a native clerk who was supposed to have gone through this ordeal, -and was much feared accordingly. Here we have another instance of -the nudity charm. In the same way in Gujarat, if a man takes seven -cotton threads, goes to a place where an owl is hooting, strips naked, -ties a knot at each hoot, and fastens the thread round the right arm -of a fever patient, the fever goes away. [593] - - - -Ghosts and Burial Grounds. - -To return to the connection of ghosts with burial grounds. At Bishesar -in the Hills, the Hindu dead from Almora are burnt. The spirits -of the departed are supposed to lurk there and are occasionally -seen. Sometimes, under the guidance of their leader Bholanath, whom -we have mentioned already, they come, some in palanquins and some -on foot, at night, to the Almora Bazar and visit the merchants' -shops. Death is supposed to follow soon on a meeting with their -processions. These ghosts are supposed to be deficient in some of -their members. One has no head, another no feet, and so on; but they -can all talk and dance. [594] - - - -Mutilation. - -This illustrates another principle about ghosts, that mutilation -during life is avoided, as being likely to turn the spirit into a -malignant ghost after death. This is the reason that many savages -keep the cuttings of their hair and nails, not only to put them out -of the way of witches, who might work evil charms by their means, -but also that the body when it rises at the Last Day may not be -deficient in any part. [595] This also explains the strong feeling -among Hindus against decapitation as a form of execution, and the -dread which Musalmans exhibit towards cremation. It also, in all -probability, explains the lame demons, which abound all the world -over, like Hephaistos, Wayland Smith, the Persian AEshma, the Asmodeus -of the book of Tobit, and the Club-footed Devil of Christianity. The -prejudice against amputation, based on this idea, is one of the many -difficulties which meet our surgeons in India. - - - -Ghosts of Old Ruins. - -Another place where ghosts, as might have been expected, resort is in -old ruins. Many old buildings are, as we have seen, attributed to the -agency of demons, and in any case interference with them is resented -by the Deus loci who occupies them. This explains the number of old -ruined houses which one sees in an Indian town, and with which no -one cares to meddle, as they are occupied by the spirits of their -former owners. The same idea extends to the large bricks of the -ancient buildings which are occasionally disinterred. Dr. Buchanan -describes how on one occasion no one would assist him in digging out -an ancient stone image. The people told him that a man who had made -an attempt to do so some time before had met with sudden death. [596] -The landlord of the village stated that he would gladly use the bricks -from these ruins, but that he was afraid of the consequences. So, -in Bombay, interference with the bricks of an ancient dam brought -Guinea worm and dysentery into a village, and some labourers were -cut off who meddled with some ancient tombs at Ahmadnagar. [597] -General Cunningham, in one of his Reports, describes how on one -occasion, when carrying on some excavations, his elephant escaped, -and was recovered with difficulty; the people unanimously attributed -the disaster to the vengeance of the local ghosts, who resented his -proceedings. The people who live in the neighbourhood of the old city -of Sahet Mahet are, for the same reason, very unwilling to meddle with -its ruins, or even to enter it at night. When Mr. Benett was there, -a storm which occurred was generally believed to be a token of the -displeasure of the spirits at his intrusion on their domains. [598] -The tomb of Shaikh Mina Shah at Lucknow was demolished during the -Mutiny, and the workmen suffered so much trouble from the wrath of -the saint, that when the disturbances were over they collected and -rebuilt it at their own expense. - -The same theory exists in other countries. Thus, in the Isle of Man, -"a good Manx scholar told me how a relative of his had carted the -earth from an old burial ground on his farm and used it as manure -for his fields, and how his beasts died afterwards. It is possible -for a similar reason that a house in ruins is seldom pulled down -and the materials used for other buildings; where that has been done -misfortunes have ensued." [599] - -In the Konkan it is believed that all treasures buried underground, -all the mines of gold, silver, and precious stones, all old caves and -all ruined fortresses, are guarded by underground spirits in the shape -of a hairy serpent or frog. These spirits never leave their places, -and they attack and injure only those persons who come to remove the -things which they are guarding. [600] In short, these places are like -the Sith Bhruaith mounds in Scotland, which were respected, and it -was deemed unlawful and dangerous to cut wood, dig earth there, or -otherwise disturb them. In the same way the sites of ancient villages -which abound in Northern India are more or less respected. They were -abandoned on account of the ravages of war, famine, or pestilence, and -are guarded by the spirits of the original owners, these calamities -being self-evident proofs of the malignity and displeasure of the -local deities. - - - -Mine and Cave Spirits. - -We have already mentioned incidentally the mine spirits. It is not -difficult to see why the spirits of mine and cave should be malignant -and resent trespass on their territories, because by the nature of -the case they are directly in communication with the under-world. In -the folk-tales of Somadeva we have more than one reference to a -cave which leads to Patala, "the rifted rock whose entrance leads to -hell." Others are the entrance to fairy palaces, where dwell the Asura -maidens beneath the earth. [601] Of a mine at Patna, Dr. Buchanan -writes: "A stone-cutter who was in my service was going into one of -the shafts to break a specimen, when the guide, a Muhammadan trader, -acquainted with the fears of the workmen, pulled him back in alarm, -and said, 'Pull off your shoes! Will you profane the abode of the -gods?'" Under the same belief, the Cornish miners will allow no -whistling underground. [602] - -Mr. Spencer suggests that the respect for caves is based on the early -practice of burial in such places. [603] At any rate, the belief is -very general that spirits and deities live in caves. There is a whole -cycle of fairy legend centering round the belief that some of the -heroes of old live in caves surrounded by their faithful followers, -and will arise some day to win back their kingdom. Thus, Bruce and -his enchanted warriors lie in a cave in Rathlin Island, and one day -they will arise and win back the island for Scotland. [604] The same -tale is told of Arthur, Karl the Great, Barbarossa, and many other -heroes. The same tale appears in Oriental folk-lore in the shape of -the Ashabu-'l-Kahf, "the companions of the cave," the seven sleepers -of Ephesus. So the famous Alha of the Bundelkhand epic is said to be -still alive. He makes regular visits on the last day of the moon to -Devi Sarad's temple on the Mahiyar Hill, where he has been repeatedly -seen and followed. But he sternly warns any one from approaching him, -and the main proof of his presence is that some unknown hand puts a -fresh garland on the statue of the goddess every day. [605] - - - -Cave Deities. - -In India many deities live in caves. There are cave temples of Kali, -Annapurna, and Suraj Narayan, the Sun god, at Hardwar. Kumaun abounds -in such temples. That at Gauri Udyar is where Siva and Parvati once -halted for the night with their marriage procession. Their attendants -overslept themselves and were turned into the stalactites for which the -cave is famous. Another is called from its depth Patala Bhuvaneswar, -from the roof of which a white liquid trickles. The attendant of the -shrine says that this was milk in the olden days, but a greedy Jogi -boiled his rice in it and since then the supply has ceased. Another -is called Gupta Ganga or "the hidden Ganges," whose waters may be -heard rushing below. Hence bathing there is as efficacious as in the -sacred river itself. [606] Among the Korwas of Chota Nagpur, their -bloodthirsty deity has a cave for her residence. Mahadeva, say the -Gonds, shut up the founders of their race in a cave in the Himalayas, -but Lingo removed the stone and released sixteen crores of Gonds. Talao -Daitya, a noted demon of Kathiawar, lives in a cave where a lamp is -lit which never goes out, however violently the wind may blow or the -rain may fall. Saptasri Devi, a much dreaded spirit in the Konkan, -lives in a cave; such is also the case with the eight-armed Devi -at Asthbhuja, in the Mirzapur District. Her devotees have to creep -through a narrow passage into what is now the shrine of the goddess, -but is said to have been, and very probably was, a cave. [607] - -When the Korwas of Mirzapur have to enter a cave, they first -arm themselves with a rude spear and axe as a protection against -Bhuts. There are two haunted caves in the Mircha and Banka Hills -in Sarguja. The Mircha cave is inhabited by a demon called Mahadani -Deo, who is much feared. Not even a Baiga can enter this cave, but -many of them have seen his white horse tied up near the entrance, -and green grass and horsedung lying there. In the cave on the Banka -Hill lives a Dano, whose name either no one knows or dares to tell. No -one ventures to enter his cave, and he worries people in dreams and -brings sickness, unless a Baiga periodically offers a cock with black -and white feathers below the cave, makes a fire sacrifice and throws -some grains of rice in the direction of the mountain. When this Deo -is enraged, a noise which sounds like Gudgud! Gudgud! comes from the -cave. He is also heard shouting at night, and when cholera is coming -he calls out Khabardar! Khabardar! "Be cautious! Be cautious!" Any -one who goes near the cave gets diarrhoea. Captain Younghusband has -recently solved the mystery of the famous Lamp Rock cave of Central -Asia, which is simply the light coming through a concealed aperture -at the rear of the entrance. [608] - -Many caves, again, have acquired their sanctity by being occupied by -famous Hindu and Muhammadan saints. Such are some of the Buddhistic -caves found in many places, which are now occupied by their successors -of other faiths. There is a cave at Bhuili, in the Mirzapur District, -which has a very narrow entrance, but miraculously expands to -accommodate any possible number of pilgrims. They say that when the -saint Salim Chishti came to visit Shah Vilayat at Agra, the stone seat -in front of the mosque of the latter was large enough to accommodate -only one person, but when Salim Chishti sat on it its length was -miraculously doubled. [609] - -These cave spirits are common in European folk-lore. Such are the -Buccas and Knockers of the Cornwall mines, [610] and the Kobolds of -Germany. Falstaff speaks of "learning, a mere hoard of gold kept by -a devil." Burton thus sums up the matter: "Subterraneous devils are -as common as the rest, and do as much harm. These (saith Munster) -are commonly seen among mines of metals, and are some of them noxious; -some, again, do no harm. The metal men in many places account it good -luck, a sign of treasure and rich ore, when they see them. Georgius -Agricola reckons two more notable kinds of them, Getuli and Kobali; -both are clothed after the manner of mortal men, and will many times -imitate their works. Their office is, as Pictorius and Paracelsus -think, to keep treasure in the earth, that it be not all at once -revealed." [611] - - - -Bhuts Treasure Guardians. - -This leads us to the common idea that Bhuts, like the Cornwall -Spriggans, [612] guard treasure. Ill luck very often attaches -to treasure-trove. Some years ago a Chamar dug up some treasure -in the ancient fort of Atranji Khera in the Etah District. He did -his best to purge himself of the ill luck attaching to it by giving -away a large portion in charity. But he died a beggar, and the whole -country-side attributes his ruin to the anger of the Bhuts who guarded -the treasure. Some time ago an old man came into my court at Mirzapur -and gave up two old brass pots, which he had found while ploughing -about a year before. Since then he had suffered a succession of -troubles, and his son, who was with him when he found the property, -died. He then called a conference of sorcerers to consider the matter, -and they advised him to appease the Bhut by giving up the treasure. He -further remarked that the Sarkar or Government doubtless knew some -Mantra or charm which would prevent any harm to it from taking over -such dangerous property. Occasionally, however, the Bhut is worsted, -as in a Kumaun tale, where an old man and his daughter-in-law tie up -a Bhut and make him give up five jars full of gold. [613] - -Treasure is often thus kept guarded in sacred caves. In Jaynagar is -said to be the treasury of Indradyumna, sealed with a magic seal. He -was king of Avanti, who set up the image of Jagannatha in Orissa. The -spot presents the appearance of a plain smooth rock, which has been -perhaps artificially smoothed. It is said that Indradyumna had -a great warrior, whom he fully trusted and raised to the highest -honours. At last this man began to entertain the idea of asking his -master's daughter in marriage. The king, hearing this, was sorely -wroth, but his dependent was too powerful to be easily subdued. So -he contrived that a cavern should be excavated, and here he removed -all his treasure, and when all was secured he invited the warrior to -the place. The man unsuspectingly went in, when Indradyumna let fall -the trap-door and sealed it with his magic seal; but he was punished -for his wickedness by defeat at the hands of the Muhammadans. [614] - -In Ireland the Leprehaun, a little cobbler who sits under the hedge -and whose tapping as he mends his shoes may be heard in the soft -summer twilight, is a guardian of treasure, and if any one can seize -him he will give a pot of gold to secure his escape. [615] - - - -Fairy Gifts. - -In connection with these treasure guardians, we reach another -cycle of folk-lore legends, that of gifts or robberies from -fairy-land. Professor Rhys, writing of the Celts, well explains the -principle on which these are based. [616] "The Celts, in common with -all other peoples of Aryan race, regarded all their domestic comforts -as derived by them from their ancestors in the forgotten past, that -is to say from the departed. They seem, therefore, to have argued -that there must be a land of untold wealth and bliss somewhere in -the nether world inhabited by their dead ancestors; and the further -inference would be that the things they most valued in life had -been procured from the leaders of that nether world through fraud -or force by some great benefactor of the human race; for it seldom -seems to have entered their minds that the powers below would give -up anything for nothing." Hence the many tales which thus account -for the bringing of fire and other blessings to man. - -Of the same type are the usual tales of the fairy gifts. Thus, in -one version from Patna we read that one day a corpse came floating -down the river, and a Faqir announced that this was Chan Haji. He -was duly buried and honoured, and in many places he used to keep -silver and gold vessels for the use of travellers. If anyone wanted -a vessel, he had only to say so, and one used to float out of the -water. But a covetous man appropriated one, and since then the supply -has ceased. [617] The same legend is told of the great Karsota lake -in Mirzapur, and of numbers of others all over the country. The -culprit is generally a Banya, or corn-chandler, the type of sneaking -greediness. The same story appears constantly in European folk-lore, -as is shown by Mr. Hartland's admirable summary. [618] - -Another version current in India also corresponds with the Western -tradition. This is where a person receives a gift from the fairies, -which he does not appreciate, and so loses. Thus, in a tale from -Raepur, in the Central Provinces, the goatherd used to watch a -strange goat, which joined his flock. One day it walked into the -tank and disappeared. While the goatherd was looking on in wonder, -a stone was thrown to him from the water, and a voice exclaimed, -"This is the reward of your labour." The disappointed goatherd knocked -the stone back into the water with his axe. But he found that his axe -had been changed by the touch into gold. He searched for the stone, -but could never find it again. [619] - -In another tale of the same kind, the cowherd tends the cow of the -fairy, and, following the animal into a cave, receives some golden -wheat. In a third version, the fool throws away a handful of golden -barley, and only comes to know of his mistake when his wife finds -that some fuel cakes, on which he had laid his blanket, had turned -into gold. [620] So, at Pathari, in Bhopal, there lived a Muni, or -a Pir, in a cave unknown to any one. His goat used to graze with the -herdsman's flock. The shepherd, one day, followed the goat into the -cave and found an old man sitting intent in meditation. He made a -noise to attract the saint's attention, who asked the object of his -visit. The herdsman asked for wages, whereupon the saint gave him a -handful of barley. He took it home, and, in disgust, threw it on fire, -where his wife soon after found it turned into gold. The herdsman -went back to thank the old man, but found the cave deserted, and its -occupant was never heard of again. The shepherd devoted the wealth, -thus miraculously acquired, to building a temple. [621] - - - -Underground Treasure. - -This underground kingdom, stored with untold treasure, appears in other -tales. Thus, Kafir Kot, like many other places of the same kind, is -supposed to have underground galleries holding untold treasures. One -day a man is said to have entered an opening, where he found a flight -of steps. Going down the steps, he came to rooms filled with many -valuable things. Selecting a few, he turned to go, but he found the -entrance closed. On dropping the treasure the door opened again, and -it shut when he again tried to take something with him. According to -another version he lost his sight when he touched the magic wealth, -and it was restored when he surrendered the treasure. [622] - -Another tale of the same kind is preserved by the old Buddhist -traveller, Hwen Thsang. [623] There was a herdsman who tended his -cattle near Bhagalpur. One day a bull separated from the rest of the -herd and roamed into the forest. The herdsman feared that the animal -was lost, but in the evening he returned radiant with beauty. Even his -lowing was so remarkable that the rest of the cattle feared to approach -him. At last the herdsman followed him into a cleft of the rock, where -he found a lovely garden filled with fruits, exquisite of colour and -unknown to man. The herdsman plucked one, but was afraid to taste it, -and, as he passed out, a demon snatched it from his hand. He consulted -a doctor, who recommended him next time to eat the fruit. When he -again met the demon, who as before tried to pluck it out of his hand, -the herdsman ate it. But no sooner had it reached his stomach than it -began to swell inside him, and he grew so enormous, that although his -head was outside, his body was jammed in the fissure of the rock. His -friends in vain tried to release him, and he was gradually changed into -stone. Ages after, a king who believed that such a stone must possess -medical virtues, tried to chisel away a small portion, but the workmen, -after ten days' labour, were not able to get even a pinch of dust. - -These treasure rocks, which open to the touch of magic, are common -in folk-lore. [624] - - - -Ghosts of Roads. - -Bhuts are also found at roads, cross-roads, and boundaries. It is -so in Russia, where, "at cross-roads, or in the neighbourhood of -cemeteries, an animated corpse often lurks watching for some unwary -traveller whom it may be able to slay and eat." [625] Thus, in the -Hills, and indeed as far as Madras, an approved charm for getting -rid of a disease of demoniacal origin is to plant a stake where four -roads meet, and to bury grains underneath, which crows disinter -and eat. [626] The custom of laying small-pox scabs on roads has -been already noticed. The same idea is probably at the root of the -old English plan of burying suicides at cross-roads, with a stake -driven through the chest of the corpse. In the eastern parts of the -North-West Provinces we have Sewanriya, who, like Terminus, is a -special godling of boundaries, and whose function is to keep foreign -Bhuts from intruding into the village under his charge. For the same -reason the Baiga pours a stream of spirits round the boundary. This -is also probably the basis of a long series of customs performed, -when the bridegroom, with his procession, reaches the boundary of the -bride's village. Of the Khandh godling of boundaries, we read:--"He -is adored by sacrifices human and bestial. Particular points upon the -boundaries of districts, fixed by ancient usage, and generally upon -the highways, are his altars, and these demand each an annual victim, -who is either an unsuspecting traveller struck down by the priests, -or a sacrifice provided by purchase." [627] - - - -Ghosts of Empty Houses. - -Bhuts particularly infest ancient empty houses. If a house be -unoccupied for any time, a Bhut is sure to take up his quarters -there. Such houses abound everywhere. The old Fort of Agori on the -Son is said to have been abandoned on account of the malignancy -of its Bhuts. Not long ago a merchant built a splendid house in the -Mirzapur Bazar, and was obliged to abandon it for the same reason. The -Collector's house at Saharanpur is haunted by a young English lady; -there is one in the Jhansi cantonment, where a Bhut, in the form of -a Faqir, dressed in white clothes, appears at night. Fortunately he -is of a kindly disposition. - - - -Ghosts of Flowers. - -Bhuts occasionally take up their abode in flowers, and hence it is -dangerous to allow children to smell them. In Kumaun the Betaina -tree (Melia sempervivens) is supposed to be infested by Bhuts, and -its flowers are never used as offerings to the gods. [628] But, -on the other hand, as we shall see elsewhere, flowers and fruits -are considered scarers of demons. Bhuts, it is believed, do their -cooking at noon and evening, so women and children should be cautious -about walking at such times, lest they should tread unwittingly upon -this ghostly food and incur the resentment of its owners. [629] In -the same way the Scotch fairies are supposed to be at their meals -when rain and sunshine come together. In England, at such times the -devil is said to be beating his wife, and in India they call it the -"Jackal's wedding." [630] - - - -The Hearth. - -Among the many places where Bhuts resort comes the house hearth. This -probably in a large measure accounts for the precautions taken by -Hindus in preparing and protecting the family cooking-place, and -smearing it with fresh cowdung, which is a scarer of demons. The -idea was common among all the Aryan races, [631] but it is found -also among the Dravidian tribes, who perform much of the worship -of Dulha Deo and similar family guardians at the family hearth. In -Northern India, when a bride first goes to the house of her husband -she is not permitted to cook. On an auspicious day, selected by -the family priest, she commences her duties, and receives presents -of money and jewellery from her relations. Among the low castes, -at marriages a special rite, that of Matmangara, or "lucky earth," -is performed, when the earth intended for the preparation of the -marriage cooking-place is brought home. The women go in procession -to the village clay-pit, accompanied by a Chamar beating a drum, -which is decorated with streaks of red lead. The earth is dug by the -village Baiga, who passes five shovelfuls into the breast-cloth of -a veiled virgin, who stands behind him. So, in Bihar, after bathing -the bride and bridegroom, the mother or female guardian brings home -a clod of earth, out of which a rude fireplace is prepared. On this -butter is burnt, and paddy parched on the threshold of the kitchen, -where the spirit is supposed to dwell. A goat is sacrificed at the -same time, and some of this parched paddy is reserved, to be flung -over the pair as they make the marriage revolutions. [632] - -For the same reason great care is taken of the ashes, which must be -removed with caution and not allowed to fall on the ground. We have -seen that it is used to identify the spirits of the returning dead, -and ashes blown over by a holy man are used to expel the Evil Eye. In -Bombay a person excommunicated from caste is re-admitted on swallowing -ashes given him by the religious teacher of the caste. - -Most Hindus particularly dislike being watched at their meals, -and make a pretence of eating in secret. If on a walk round your -camp you come on one of your servants eating, he pretends not to -recognize his master, and his hang-dog look is the equivalent of the -ordinary salaam. This is an idea which prevails in many parts of the -world. The Vaishnava sect of Ramanujas [633] are very particular in -this respect. They cook for themselves, and should the meal during its -preparation, or while they are eating, attract the looks of a stranger, -the operation is instantly stopped, and the food buried in the ground. - - - -Ghosts of Filthy Places. - -Bhuts, again, frequent privies and dirty places of all kinds. Hence -the caution with which a Hindu performs the offices of nature, his -aversion to going into a privy at night, and the precaution he uses of -taking a brass vessel with him on such occasions. Mr. Campbell supposes -this to depend on the experience of the disease-bearing properties -of dirt. [634] "This belief explains the puzzling inconsistencies -of Hindus of all classes that the house, house door, and a little in -front is scrupulously clean, while the yard may be a dung-heap or a -privy. As long as the house is clean, the Bhut cannot come in. Let -him live in the privy; he cannot do much harm there." - - - -The House Roof. - -Lastly comes the house roof. We have already seen that the Dravidian -tribes will not allow their women to touch the thatch during a -whirlwind. So, most people particularly object to people standing on -their roof, and in a special degree to a buffalo getting upon it. It -is on the roof, too, that the old shoe or black pot or painted tile -is always kept to scare the Bhuts which use it as a perch. - - - - END OF VOL. I. - - - - - - - -NOTES - - -[1] On the assimilation by Rome of Celtic faiths, see Rhys, "Origin -and Growth of Religion as illustrated by Celtic Heathendom," 2 sq. - -[2] Lang, "Custom and Myth," 178. - -[3] Leland, "Etruscan Remains," 9. - -[4] At Pushkar and Idar. Monier Williams, "Brahmanism and Hinduism," -566 sqq. - -[5] Devata in Sanskrit properly means "the state or nature of a deity, -divinity," without any very decided idea of inferiority. In modern -usage it certainly has this implication. - -[6] "Panjab Ethnography," 113. - -[7] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," ii. 114, 342, 353; iii. 110, -112; xiii. 63; "Rajputana Gazetteer," ii. 160; Fuehrer, "Monumental -Antiquities," 6, 50, 145, 286. - -[8] Hunter, "Orissa," i. 188; Jarrett, "Ain-i-Akbari," ii. 128. - -[9] "Asiatic Quarterly Review," ii. 236. - -[10] Sherring, "Sacred City of the Hindus," 59, 157; Bholanath Chandra, -"Travels," ii. 384. - -[11] Monier-Williams, "Brahmanism and Hinduism," 342. - -[12] Wilson, "Essays," ii. 384. - -[13] Growse, "Mathura," 180. The story of Joshua (x. 12-14) is an -obvious parallel. - -[14] Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 25. - -[15] Blochmann, "Ain-i-Akbari," i. 200-266. - -[16] Max Mueller, "Ancient Sanskrit Literature," 53, note. - -[17] Hall, "Vishnu Purana," ii. 150; "Journal Asiatic Society, Bengal," -1862, p. 112. - -[18] Tod, "Annals," i. 597. - -[19] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 130, 132, 133, 141, 157, 159, -186, 223; Elliott, "Hoshangabad Settlement Report," 255; Hislop, -"Papers," 26. - -[20] "Folk-lore," iv. 358. - -[21] Gordon Cumming, "From the Hebrides to the Himalayas," ii. 164; -Brand, "Observations," 126; Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern -Counties," 61; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 98, 573. - -[22] Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 234; Grimm, "Household Tales," -ii. 493, 524; Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 160; Hartland, -"Legend of Perseus," i. 99, 139, 170. - -[23] Knowles, "Kashmir Folk-tales," 3; fire is used in the same way; -Temple, "Wideawake Stories," 32, 271; "Legends of the Panjab," i. 42; -"Folk-lore Journal," ii. 104. - -[24] Campbell, "Notes," 70. - -[25] i. 50. - -[26] Grimm, "Household Tales," ii. 415. - -[27] x. 85, 5. - -[28] "Bombay Gazetteer," xiii. 93. - -[29] "Merchant of Venice," v. 1; "Hamlet," iv. 7. - -[30] "Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry, February;" see other -references collected by Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 318. - -[31] Mrs. Mir Hasan 'Ali, "Manners and Customs of the Muhammadans of -India," i. 275. - -[32] "Folk-lore," ii. 222; iv. 355. - -[33] "Institutes," vi. 9; Wilson, "Vishnu Purana," 145, 275 note. - -[34] Ewald, "Antiquities of Israel," 349 sq.; Goldziher, "Mythology -among the Hebrews," 63. - -[35] "Odes," iii. 23, 1, 2, and compare Job xxxi. 26, 27; Psalm -lxxxi. 3. - -[36] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 205 sq. - -[37] Campbell, "Notes," 187. - -[38] Sherring, "Sacred City," 221; "Panjab Notes and Queries," ii. 42. - -[39] Hunter, "Orissa," ii. 140. - -[40] Sarat Chandra Mitra, "Vestiges of Moon-worship in Bihar and -Bengal," in the "Journal Anthropological Society of Bombay," 1893. - -[41] "Folk-lore," ii. 221; Monier Williams, "Brahmanism and Hinduism," -343. - -[42] Hardy, "Eastern Monachism," 149. - -[43] "Folk-lore," ii. 228. - -[44] Oppert, "Original Inhabitants of Bharatavarsa," 97, 98, 40. - -[45] Ovid, "Fasti," iv. 728; Lady Wilde, "Legends," 113; "Folk-lore," -ii. 128; Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 326; "Indian Antiquary," -ii. 90; iii. 68; vii. 126 sqq.; Wilson, "Essays," s.v. "Holi;" -Leviticus xviii. 21; 2 Kings xxiii. 10; Herklot, "Qanun-i-Islam," -s.v. "Muharram." - -[46] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," xvi. 28. - -[47] "Lear," i. 2. - -[48] "Brihat Sanhita." Manning, "Ancient India," i. 371. - -[49] "Demonology," i. 45. - -[50] Mrs. Mir Hasan 'Ali, "Observations," i. 297 sq. - -[51] "Travels," 301. - -[52] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 913 sq. - -[53] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 38. - -[54] Brand, "Observations," 665; Aubrey, "Remaines," 37, 85. - -[55] The Celtic form of the myth is given by Rhys, "Lectures," 140 sq.; -the Indian legend in Muir, "Ancient Sanskrit Texts," ii. 23. - -[56] "Golden Bough," i. 331 sq.; and see Lang, "Custom and Myth," -ii. 262. - -[57] Ibbetson, "Panjab Ethnology," 114. - -[58] Yule, "Marco Polo," i. 291, with note ii. 543. - -[59] For instances, see Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 179. - -[60] "Bombay Gazetteer," xi. 55. - -[61] Campbell, "Notes," 79. - -[62] "Folk-lore," ii. 298. - -[63] "Bombay Gazetteer," xxii. 790. - -[64] Fryer, "Travels," 418; Campbell, "Notes," 81. - -[65] "Custom and Myth," i. 285; ii. 229, note. - -[66] Campbell, "Notes," 78 sqq. - -[67] Gregor, "Folk-lore of North-East Scotland," 206; Aubrey, -"Remaines," 37; Ewald, "Antiquities of Israel," 34; Spencer, -"Principles of Sociology," i. 259, 314; Grimm, "Teutonic Mythology," -ii. 643. - -[68] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 261. - -[69] Elliott, "Settlement Report," 125. - -[70] "Settlement Report," 168. - -[71] "Folk-lore," i. 153. - -[72] Virgil, "Georgics," i. 487; "AEneid," vii. 141; Horace, "Odes," -i. 34, 5. - -[73] "Descriptive Ethnology," 229. - -[74] "Peri Potamon." - -[75] i. 3888 sqq. - -[76] "Mathura," 179 sq. - -[77] Duncker, "History," iv. II, note; Romesh Chandra Datt, "History -of Civilization," i. 94. - -[78] Gregor, "Folk-lore of North-East Scotland," 41. - -[79] Jarrett, "Ain-i-Akbari," ii. 224; "Rajputana Gazetteer," iii. 219. - -[80] "Karnal Gazetteer," 31. - -[81] Buchanan, "Eastern India," i. II; Madden, "Journal Asiatic -Society, Bengal," 1847, 228, 400; Wright, "History of Nepal," 154, 163. - -[82] Madden, loc. cit., 233. - -[83] Loc. cit., i. 14. - -[84] Sleeman, "Rambles," i. 17. - -[85] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 264. - -[86] "Folk-lore," iii. 32. - -[87] "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 374. - -[88] "Odyssey," v. 450; and for other instances see Tylor, "Primitive -Culture," ii. 213; Campbell, "Notes," 325 sqq. - -[89] Growse, "Mathura," 55; Tod, "Annals," i. 675; Oldfield, "Sketches -from Nepal," ii. 204. - -[90] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 788, 832. - -[91] "Berar Gazetteer," 35. - -[92] "Folk-lore," i. 152, 209; iii. 72. - -[93] Rhys, "Lectures," 123. - -[94] Knowles, "Folk-tales," 313. - -[95] "Folk-lore," ii. 284, 509; Hunt, "Popular Romances," 194; -Campbell, "Popular Tales," ii. 205; Conway, "Demonology," i. 110 sq.; -Sir W. Scott, "Letters on Demonology," 85; Spencer, "Principles -of Sociology," i. 219; Farrer, "Primitive Manners," 366; Aubrey, -"Remaines," 30; Gordon Cumming, "From the Hebrides to the Himalayas," -i. 139; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 109 sq.; ii. 208; Gregor, -"Folk-lore," 66 sq.; Lady Wilde, "Legends," 216; Tawney, "Katha Sarit -Sagara," i. 58. - -[96] Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 109. - -[97] "Descriptive Ethnology," 188. - -[98] "Primitive Culture," i. 108 sq.; "Demonology," i. 205. - -[99] "Folk Medicine," 28 sq. - -[100] "Legends," 82 sq. - -[101] Brand, "Observations," 480. - -[102] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 242. - -[103] Herklots, "Qanun-i-Islam," 21, 66 sq, 292; Hughes, "Dictionary -of Islam, s.v. - -[104] Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 185. - -[105] Ibbetson, "Panjab Ethnography," 114; "Panjab Notes and Queries," -ii. 1; iii. 7; iv. 68. - -[106] Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 102. - -[107] "Sirsa Settlement Report," 178. - -[108] "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 258; Clouston, "Popular Tales," i. 118. - -[109] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 124. - -[110] Ball, "Jungle Life in India," 531; "Panjab Notes and Queries," -ii. 166; Temple, "Legends of the Panjab," i. 2; Lady Wilde, "Legends," -236 sqq. - -[111] Campbell, "Notes," 404. - -[112] Forbes, "Settlement Report," 41. - -[113] Knowles, "Folk-tales of Kashmir," 504, with note; "Katha Sarit -Sagara," i. 499. - -[114] Fuehrer, "Monumental Antiquities," 80, 134. - -[115] "Eastern India," ii. 43. - -[116] Rhys, "Lectures," 184. - -[117] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 292. - -[118] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 793, 798. - -[119] Ibid., iii. 38. - -[120] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," iii. 26. - -[121] Tod, "Annals," i. 814 sq.; Conway, "Demonology," i. 113; -"Berar Gazetteer," 169. - -[122] From the "Manasa Khanda"; Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," -ii. 308. - -[123] "Rajputana Gazetteer," ii. 131. - -[124] "Science of Fairy Tales," chapter vi.; "Berar Gazetteer," 148. - -[125] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 194. - -[126] "Bareilly Settlement Report," 20; Fuehrer, "Monumental -Antiquities," 26; "Bhandara Settlement Report," 47; Temple, "Legends -of the Panjab," i. 39. - -[127] Oppert, "Ancient Inhabitants," 467; Grimm, "Household Tales," -ii. 466. - -[128] Fuehrer, loc cit., 290. - -[129] "Himalayan Gazetteer," iii. 27. - -[130] "Archaeological Reports," iv. 192. - -[131] Ibid., viii. 39. - -[132] Ibid., xxi. 175. - -[133] Ibid., xiv. 76. - -[134] Oppert, "Original Inhabitants," 289. - -[135] "Popular Tales," i. 176. - -[136] Lal Bihari De, "Folk-tales of Bengal," 281; "Berar Gazetteer," -158, 176; "Panjab Notes and Queries," iii. 42; Wright, "History -of Nepal," 135; "Bombay Gazetteer," v. 440; "Rajputana Gazetteer," -ii. 220. - -[137] i. 17. - -[138] "Manasa Khanda"; Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 271. - -[139] See the remarks by Lassen, quoted by Muir, "Ancient Sanskrit -Texts," ii. 337. - -[140] Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 200 sq., 210, 336. - -[141] "Remaines," 18; Sir W. Scott, "Lectures on Demonology," 135. - -[142] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 188, 210, 223, 230, 135, 186; -Lubbock, "Origin of Civilization," 306. - -[143] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 832. - -[144] "Settlement Report," 121, 254. - -[145] Atkinson, loc. cit., ii. 792; Hislop, "Papers," 14; Leland, -"Etruscan Roman Remains," 139. - -[146] Atkinson, loc. cit., iii. 48. - -[147] "Bombay Gazetteer," v. 252. - -[148] Human sacrifice to the Durga of the Vindhyas occurs often in -Indian folk-lore. See Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 64. - -[149] Oppert, "Original Inhabitants," 24; Wright, "History of Nepal," -178. - -[150] Buchanan, "Eastern India," i. 51 sq.; Tawney, "Katha Sarit -Sagara," ii. 333. - -[151] Griffin, "Rajas of the Panjab." - -[152] Growse, "Mathura," 278, where all the local legends are given -in full. - -[153] "Anatomy of Melancholy," 123. - -[154] "Primitive Culture," ii. 261. - -[155] Growse, "Ramayana," 318. - -[156] "History of India," chapter iii. 21, 330. - -[157] Sherring, "Sacred City," 129. - -[158] Hislop, "Papers," 18. - -[159] "Folk-lore," iii. 541. - -[160] Yule, "Marco Polo," i. 292, 301; Oldfield, "Sketches from Nepal," -ii. 6. - -[161] "Notes and Queries," v. Ser. iii. 424; Farrer, "Primitive -Manners," 70; Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 16. - -[162] Conway, "Demonology," i. 267. - -[163] Ibid., 224. - -[164] "Science of Fairy Tales," 71 sqq. - -[165] Campbell, "Notes," 101 sq. - -[166] "Bombay Gazetteer," xviii. 416; xxi. 180; "Journal Ethnological -Society," N. S. i. 98. In the "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 154, the queen -Kavalayavali worships the gods stark naked. - -[167] Wright, "History," 10. - -[168] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 148, 301. - -[169] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 31, 35. - -[170] "Golden Bough," i. 17; "Panjab Notes and Queries," iii. 41, -115; Hartland, "Science of Fairy Tales," 84. - -[171] "Settlement Report," 207. - -[172] I cannot procure this book. The quotation is from "Calcutta -Review," xv. 486. - -[173] "Settlement Report," 135. - -[174] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," vii. 162. - -[175] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 210. - -[176] Oppert, "Original Inhabitants," 476, quoting Mr. Fawcett. - -[177] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 134. - -[178] "Bombay Gazetteer," iii. 221. - -[179] "Indian Antiquary," v. 5. - -[180] "Bombay Gazetteer," iv. 114. - -[181] Jarrett, "Ain-i-Akbari," ii. 408, quoting Alberuni, chapter viii. - -[182] "Ethnology in Folk-lore," 94. - -[183] "Panjab Notes and Queries," i. 102. - -[184] Ibid., ii. 41; Lyall, "Asiatic Studies," 136. - -[185] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 369. - -[186] "Golden Bough," i. 14. - -[187] Brand, "Observations," 753. - -[188] Beal, "Fah Hian," 78. - -[189] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iv. 218. - -[190] Turner, "Samoa," 45. - -[191] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 101; Aubrey, "Remaines," -180; Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 24. - -[192] Aubrey, "Remaines," 180; Henderson, "Folk-lore," 24; "Panjab -Notes and Queries," i. 65, 75, 109, 126. - -[193] "Etruscan Roman Remains," 217. - -[194] Brand, "Observations," 431. - -[195] "Archaeological Reports," v. 136. - -[196] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 13. - -[197] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 135. - -[198] "Folk-lore," i. 162. - -[199] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 106. - -[200] "Folk-lore," i. 149. - -[201] Ibid., iv. 173. - -[202] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 128; "Folk-lore," i. 149, 153; iv. 351. - -[203] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 79. - -[204] Temple, "Legends of the Panjab," ii. 104 sqq.; iii. 301. - -[205] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 39; Forbes, "Oriental -Memoirs," i. 205. - -[206] Leland, loc. cit., 272. - -[207] "Archaeological Reports," xvi. 32. - -[208] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 762. - -[209] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," xvii. 141. - -[210] Barth, "Religions of India," 265. - -[211] Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," ii. 99 sq. - -[212] See instances collected by Tylor, "Primitive Culture," -i. 376 sqq. - -[213] "Asiatic Studies," 13 sq. - -[214] Buchanan, "Eastern India," i. 467; Dalton, "Descriptive -Ethnology," 147. - -[215] Campbell, "Notes," 260. - -[216] "Legend of Perseus," i. 173. - -[217] "Descriptive Ethnology," 140. - -[218] "Journey through Oudh," ii. 133. - -[219] Campbell, "Notes," 260. - -[220] Buchanan, "Eastern India," ii. 141 sq.; "Panjab Notes and -Queries," iv. 9. - -[221] Dowson, "Classical Dictionary," s.v. - -[222] "Gazetteer," 323. - -[223] "Papers," 16. - -[224] Ibid., 23 sq. - -[225] Madden, "Journal Asiatic Society Bengal," 1848, p. 600; Hunt, -"Popular Romances," 73. - -[226] Buchanan, "Eastern India," iii. 38. - -[227] Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 225 sqq.; "Panjab Notes and Queries," -iii. 181 sq. - -[228] Knowles, "Folk-tales from Kashmir," 10. - -[229] "Original Inhabitants," 455. - -[230] "Central India," ii. 206. - -[231] Tod, "Annals," i. 67; for other examples see Buchanan, "Eastern -India," ii. 131, 352, 478; "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 110. - -[232] "Panjab Ethnography," 114. - -[233] Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 83. - -[234] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 8. - -[235] "Bombay Gazetteer," iii. 220; "Rajputana Gazetteer," iii. 65. - -[236] Gomme, "Ethnology in Folk-lore," 34 sq. - -[237] Frazer "Golden Bough," ii. 233. - -[238] "Bhandara Settlement Report," 51. - -[239] Ganga Datt Upreti, "Folk-lore of Kumaun," Introduction, vii. - -[240] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 220, 281. - -[241] "Settlement Report," 257. - -[242] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 268. - -[243] Risley, "Tribes and Castes of Bengal," ii. 58. - -[244] Temple, "Wideawake Stories," 399. - -[245] Ibbetson, "Panjab Ethnography," 114; "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 518. - -[246] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 825. - -[247] Channing, "Settlement Report," 34. - -[248] Maclagan, "Panjab Census Report," 103 sq. - -[249] Fuehrer, "Monumental Antiquities," 146. - -[250] Sir W. Scott, "Letters on Demonology," 143. - -[251] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 147. - -[252] Wilson, "Essays," i. 21; "Bombay Gazetteer," xvi. 568. - -[253] Jarrett, "Ain-i-Akbari," ii. 159; Fuehrer, "Monumental -Antiquities," 153. - -[254] "Annals," ii. 15. - -[255] "Notes," 147. - -[256] MacIagan, "Panjab Census Report," 107. - -[257] Sherring, "Sacred City," 119. - -[258] "Panjab Notes and Queries," i. 35. - -[259] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 259. - -[260] For the Celtic Mothers see Rhys, "Lectures," 100, 899; for -Arabia, Robertson-Smith, "Kinship," 179. - -[261] Lubbock, "Origin of Civilization," 146; Starke, "Primitive -Family," 17 sqq.; Letourneau, "Sociology," 384. - -[262] Benfey, "Panchatantra," i. 41-52; quoted by Tawney, "Katha -Sarit Sagara," ii. 638. - -[263] Monier-Williams, "Sanskrit Dictionary, s.v. Matri"; for the Nepal -enumeration, Oldfield, "Sketches," i. 151; for Bombay, "Gazetteer," -xvii. 715. In the "Katha Sarit Sagara" (i. 552), Narayani is their -leader. There is a very remarkable story of the gambler who swindled -the Divine Mothers (ibid., ii. 574 sqq.). - -[264] Campbell, "Notes," 311; "Athenaeum," 6th December, 1879; -"Folk-lore Record," iii. Part i. 117 sqq. - -[265] "Bombay Gazetteer," v. 432 sq. - -[266] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 884. - -[267] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," vii. 158. - -[268] Growse, "Mathura," 116, 125; Fuehrer, "Monumental Antiquities," -27, 132. - -[269] Bholanath Chandra, "Travels of a Hindu," i. 38. - -[270] "Rig Veda," viii. 23, 25. - -[271] Brand, "Observations," 331. - -[272] "Border Minstrelsy," 466. - -[273] Tod, "Annals," ii. 363 sq., 763; Conway, "Demonology," i. 54. - -[274] Campbell, "Notes," 145. - -[275] Tod, "Annals," i. 708; ii. 670. - -[276] Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," i. chap. iv. - -[277] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 232. - -[278] "Gazetteer," 276. - -[279] "Rambles and Recollections," i. 123. - -[280] Stokes, "Indian Fairy Tales," 140 sqq.; Temple, "Wideawake -Stories," 109, 302; "Indian Antiquary," iv. 57; Grimm, "Household -Tales," ii. 400. - -[281] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 64; other instances in -Westermarck, "History of Human Marriage," 158 sq. - -[282] "Gazetteer," i. 175. - -[283] "Bombay Gazetteer," xvii. 200; xxiii. 12; Campbell, "Notes," -12 sqq. - -[284] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 97, 60, 46. - -[285] "Bombay Gazetteer," xix. 465. - -[286] Grimm, "Teutonic Mythology," ii. 1161; Tylor, "Early History," -143; Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 229; Sir W. Scott, -"Lectures on Demonology," 105. - -[287] Risley, "Tribes and Castes of Bengal," i. 179. - -[288] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 153. - -[289] Ibbetson, "Panjab Ethnography," 114. - -[290] "Indian Antiquary," viii. 211. - -[291] Chevers, "Medical Jurisprudence for India," 415 sq. - -[292] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," ii. 62. - -[293] Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 115; Frazer, "Golden -Bough," i. 141 sqq. - -[294] "Rambles and Recollections," i. 207. - -[295] Nur Ahmad Chishti, Yadgar-i-Chishti. - -[296] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iii. 42, 167. - -[297] "Asiatic Studies," 57 sq. - -[298] "Rambles and Recollections," i. 208. - -[299] "Calcutta Review," xviii. 68. - -[300] Hoshangabad "Settlement Report," 119, 255. - -[301] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 833, 816 sq. - -[302] "Settlement Report," 254 sq. - -[303] Sultanpur, "Settlement Report," 42. - -[304] Blochmann, "Ain-i-Akbari," Introduction, xxiv. - -[305] The chief authorities for Hardaul are Cunningham, "Archaeological -Reports," xvii. 162 sqq.; V. A. Smith, "Journal Asiatic Society of -Bengal," 1875. - -[306] "Settlement Report," 451 sq. - -[307] Ferrier, "Caravan Journeys," 451 sq. - -[308] "Allahabad Pioneer," 10th March, 1891. - -[309] "Bombay Gazetteer," xxii. 155. - -[310] "Annals," ii. 744. - -[311] "Bombay Gazetteer," xvi. 520; Campbell, "Notes," 96. - -[312] Wright, "History," 221, 267, 268. - -[313] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 276. - -[314] "Gurgaon Settlement Report," 37. - -[315] Risley, "Tribes and Castes of Bengal," i. 132. - -[316] "Panjab Notes and Queries," i. 1; iv. 51; "Oudh Gazetteer," -i. 355, 517; Tod, "Annals," ii. 75. - -[317] Campbell, "Notes," 192 sqq. - -[318] "Brahmanism and Hinduism," 201. - -[319] Numbers of such charms are to be found in vols. i., ii., iii., -"North Indian Notes and Queries." - -[320] "Settlement Report," 256. - -[321] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 188, 257. - -[322] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 85. - -[323] Yule, "Marco Polo," i. 71 sq., with note; Tylor, "Primitive -Culture," i. 127; Lubbock, "Origin of Civilization," 237; Farrer, -"Primitive Manners," 159 sq. - -[324] "Descriptive Ethnology," 232. - -[325] Campbell, "Notes," 72 sq. - -[326] Cooper, "Flagellation and the Flagellants," passim; Dalton, -loc. cit., 256; Campbell, loc. cit., 44 sq.; for restoration to life -by beating, Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," ii. 245. - -[327] "Nineteenth Century," 1880. - -[328] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 833, 823. - -[329] "Hindu Tribes and Castes," i. 36. - -[330] "Settlement Report," 256 sq. - -[331] "Primitive Culture," i. 134; and compare Lubbock, "Origin of -Civilization," 251. - -[332] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 232. - -[333] "Himalayan Gazetteer," iii. 38. - -[334] Ferrier, "Caravan Journeys," 113. - -[335] "Travels in the Himalayas," i. 428. - -[336] O'Brien, "Multan Glossary," 218. - -[337] Clouston, "Popular Tales," i. 191. - -[338] "Gazetteer," 191. - -[339] Campbell, "Notes," 239. - -[340] "Folk-lore," iii. 13, 380; iv. 410; Hartland, "Legend of -Perseus," ii. chap. xi. - -[341] "Annals," ii. 717. - -[342] Gregor, "Folk-lore of N.E. Scotland," 46, 157. - -[343] "Panjab Notes and Queries," ii. 42. - -[344] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 293. - -[345] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 330; for other instances, -see Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," ii. 101. - -[346] Madden, "Journal Asiatic Society, Bengal," 1848, p. 583. - -[347] "Panjab Notes and Queries," i. 64. - -[348] "Rambles and Recollections," i. 203. - -[349] "Penseroso," 83, 84. - -[350] Brand, "Observations," 424. - -[351] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 16. - -[352] Oppert, "Original Inhabitants," 187. - -[353] Hislop, "Papers," 6, 47. - -[354] "Popular Tales," Introduction, lxviii.; "Calcutta Review," -April, 1884. - -[355] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iii. 81. - -[356] "Panjab Notes and Queries," i. 27. - -[357] "Settlement Report," 155. - -[358] Brand, "Observations," 447. - -[359] "Panjab Notes and Queries," i. 86, ii. 93. - -[360] With this compare the Karnigor of Sindh--Hartland, "Legend of -Perseus," ii. 295. - -[361] "Journey through Oudh," ii. 39. - -[362] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 170. - -[363] "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 851 sq. - -[364] Ibid. ii. 871. - -[365] Tylor, "Primitive Culture," ii. 113. - -[366] Hearn, "Aryan Household," 18; Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," -i. 270 sq; Whitney, "Oriental and Linguistic Studies," 1st Ser. 59; -Mommsen, "History of Rome," i. 73. - -[367] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 132, 133, 139, 160, 229; -Campbell, "Notes," 2 sqq.; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," ii. 117. - -[368] Hislop, "Papers," 16 sq. - -[369] Dalton, loc. cit., 158. - -[370] Campbell, "Notes," 5; Tylor, loc. cit., ii. 116. - -[371] E.g. Monier-Williams, "Brahmanism and Hinduism," 278 sqq. - -[372] See Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 177. - -[373] Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," i. 279. - -[374] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 95. - -[375] "Bombay Gazetteer," vii. 16 sq. - -[376] Malcolm, "Central India," i. 144. - -[377] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 148. - -[378] "Rambles and Recollections," i. 269 sqq. - -[379] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," Introduction, cxxi. - -[380] "Berar Gazetteer," 191. - -[381] For an account of this worthy see "North Indian Notes and -Queries," i. 163. - -[382] Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 187; Lubbock, "Origin -of Civilization," 284; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 458 sq. - -[383] Ralston, "Songs of the Russian People," 327. - -[384] Hislop, "Papers," 19; Appendix, iii. - -[385] "Panjab Ethnography," 115. - -[386] "Annals," i. 79. - -[387] Ferguson, "History of Indian Architecture," 470; "Rajputana -Gazetteer," iii. 46; Growse, "Mathura," 138. - -[388] "Berar Gazetteer," 191. - -[389] "Descriptive Ethnology," 138. - -[390] Tod, "Annals," ii. 544, 546, 676; Wright, "History of Nepal," -159, 212. - -[391] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 199; "Panjab Notes and -Queries," iv. 44 sq. In the "Katha Sarit Sagara" (Tawney, ii. 254), -a mother proposes to go into the fire with her dead children. - -[392] "Institutes," xi. 84. - -[393] Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 8. - -[394] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 202. - -[395] Tod, "Annals," ii. 430 sq. - -[396] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," xvii. 160 sqq.; Buchanan, -"Eastern India," i. 488; "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 38. - -[397] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 540 sq. - -[398] Oldham, "Memoir of Ghazipur," i. 55 sq. - -[399] Baillie, "N.-W.P. Census Report," 214. - -[400] Tod, "Annals," ii. 40. - -[401] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 817; "North Indian Notes -and Queries," iii. 5. - -[402] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 284. - -[403] Tod, "Annals," i. 659 sq. - -[404] Sherring, "Sacred City," 118, 174; Moorcroft, "Journey to -Ladakh," i. 190. - -[405] "Panjab Notes and Queries," i. 1; "Indian Antiquary," xi. 290; -"Gazetteer, N.-W.P.," vi. 634; "Dabistan," ii. 24 sq. - -[406] Atkinson, loc cit., ii. 805; "Bombay Gazetteer," xi. 300, 302. - -[407] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," xvi. 28; Grierson, "Behar -Peasant Life," 407; "Maithili Chrestomathy," 3 sqq. - -[408] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," i. 256. - -[409] "Berar Gazetteer," 199 sq. - -[410] Buchanan, "Eastern India," i. 83. - -[411] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," xi. 129. - -[412] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 517. - -[413] "Rambles and Recollections," i. 116. - -[414] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 200. - -[415] "Berar Gazetteer," 195. - -[416] The Persian version of the play has been translated by Sir -Lewis Pelly. See Hughes' "Dictionary of Islam," 185 sq. - -[417] The five Pirs give their name to the Pir Panjal pass in Kashmir -(Jarrett, "Ain-i-Akbari," ii. 372, note). For another list of the -Pirs see Temple's "Legends of the Panjab," ii. 372, note. - -[418] See Brand, "Observations," 197. - -[419] For a very complete account of the cultus, see Mr. R. Greeven's -articles in Vol. I. "North Indian Notes and Queries," afterwards -republished as "Heroes Five." - -[420] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iv. 64. - -[421] For instances see Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 279. - -[422] Briggs, "Farishta," i. 587. - -[423] For the history of Masaud, see "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 111 sqq.; -Sleeman, "Journey through Oudh," i. 48; Elliot, "Supplementary -Glossary," 51. - -[424] Maclagan, "Panjab Census Report," 132; "North Indian Notes -and Queries," ii. 182; "Calcutta Review," lx. 78 sqq.; Ibbetson, -"Panjab Ethnography," 115; Oldham, "Contemporary Review," xlvii. 412; -"Panjab Notes and Queries," ii. 181 sq.; Temple, "Legends of the -Panjab," i. 66 sqq. - -[425] Ibbetson, loc. cit. 115 sq. - -[426] Temple, "Legends of the Panjab," i. 121 sqq.; iii. 261 sqq.; Tod, -"Annals," ii. 492. - -[427] "Indian Antiquary," xi. 33 sq.; Cunningham, "Archaeological -Reports," xvii. 159; "Panjab Notes and Queries," ii. 1. - -[428] Rhys, "Lectures," 502. - -[429] Campbell, "Popular Tales," i. 72. - -[430] "Rajputana Gazetteer," ii. 37. - -[431] "Bombay Gazetteer," v. 218; Risley, "Tribes and Castes of -Bengal," i. 41. - -[432] Miss Roalfe Cox, "Cinderella," 484; Temple, "Wideawake Stories," -423; Knowles, "Folk-tales of Kashmir," 21; Clouston, "Popular Tales," -i. 117; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 14, note, 571. - -[433] Yule, "Marco Polo," i. 132 sq. - -[434] Ibbetson, "Panjab Ethnography," 115. - -[435] "Annals," ii. 199, note. - -[436] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 197 sq., 515. - -[437] For the History of Farid, see "Indian Antiquary," xi. 33 sq.; -Thomas, "Chronicles of the Pathan Kings," 205; Ibbetson, "Panjab -Ethnography," 115; Sleeman, "Rambles and Recollections," ii. 165; -Maclagan, "Panjab Census Report," 193. - -[438] Fuehrer, "Monumental Antiquities," 69, 270; "North Indian Notes -and Queries," ii. 21, 56, 155, 189. - -[439] "Karnal Settlement Report," 153. - -[440] "Karnal Gazetteer," 103. - -[441] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 17. - -[442] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 92. - -[443] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iii. 81. - -[444] Mrs. Mir Hasan 'Ali, "Observations on the Muhammadans of India," -ii. 324. - -[445] Maclagan, "Panjab Census Report," 198. - -[446] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 18. - -[447] "Berar Gazetteer," 192. - -[448] O'Brien, "Multani Glossary," 146. - -[449] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 334; Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," -xvi. 5. For the Chanod shrine, "Bombay Gazetteer," vi. 160. - -[450] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," i. 367. - -[451] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 144. - -[452] "Eastern India," i. 82 sq. - -[453] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iii. 143. - -[454] "Reports," i. 98, 130; xiv. 41; xxiii. 63. - -[455] "Journal, Asiatic Society of Bengal," xiii. 205; "Panjab Notes -and Queries," i. 109. - -[456] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 11 sq. - -[457] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 175. - -[458] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 777; Wright, "History," -114, 124. - -[459] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 38. - -[460] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 210 sq. - -[461] Ibid., i. 8 sq. - -[462] Campbell, "Notes," 366. - -[463] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 50. - -[464] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 378. - -[465] Forbes, "Ras Mala," ii. 332, quoted by Campbell, "Notes," 15. - -[466] "Legend of Perseus," i. 72, 207. - -[467] Lal Bihari De, "Folk-tales of Bengal," 1, 117, 187; Tawney, -"Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 52, 172, 355, 382; ii. 216; Knowles, -"Folk-tales of Kashmir," 131, 416. - -[468] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 246. - -[469] "Observations," 625; and see Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 150; -Lubbock, "Origin of Civilization," 220; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," -ii. 27; Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 215 sq.; Sir W. Scott, -"Letters on Demonology," 90. - -[470] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iii. 166. - -[471] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 21, 420; Miss Cox, "Cinderella," -489; Clouston, "Popular Tales," i. 437. - -[472] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 31; Clouston, loc. cit., -ii. 228; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," ii. 588. - -[473] Fuehrer, "Monumental Antiquities," 144. - -[474] "Panjab Ethnography," 116. - -[475] Ibbetson, loc. cit., 117. - -[476] Aubrey, "Remaines," 121; Lady Wilde, "Legends," 44, 233. - -[477] Campbell, "Notes," 171. - -[478] "Panjab Notes and Queries," i. 13; "North Indian Notes and -Queries," i. 4. - -[479] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iv. 57. - -[480] See Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," xvii. 147. - -[481] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 261. - -[482] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iv. 51; Lal Bihari De, "Folk Tales," -199; "Govinda Samanta," i. 109, 152 sq., 157; "North Indian Notes -and Queries," i. 83. - -[483] "Bombay Gazetteer," xv. 150; Campbell, "Notes," 172. - -[484] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iv. 5; "North Indian Notes and -Queries," ii. 9; iii. 74. - -[485] Hislop, "Notes," i. 3. - -[486] "Panjab Notes and Queries," ii. 114, 167; Tylor, "Primitive -Culture," i. 102; Aubrey, "Remaines," 177, 194; Campbell, "Notes," 177. - -[487] Fausboell, "Jataka," ii. 15 sq.; Ibbetson, "Panjab Ethnography," -118. - -[488] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 254. - -[489] Campbell, "Notes," 177. - -[490] "Odyssey," xvii. 541 sq.; Yule, "Marco Polo," ii. 351; Aubrey, -"Remaines," 177. - -[491] Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 117. - -[492] "Folk-lore," ii. 289. - -[493] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 109. - -[494] Lal Bihari De, "Gobinda Samanta," i. 115 sqq. - -[495] Ralston, "Russian Folk-tales," 306. - -[496] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 231, 543. - -[497] Ibid., ii. 208. - -[498] Wilson, "Essays," i. 26. - -[499] Buchanan, "Eastern India," i. 65, 166. - -[500] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 256 sqq. - -[501] Knowles, "Kashmir Folk-tales," 43; Clouston, "Popular Tales," -i. 135. - -[502] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 210; ii. 318. - -[503] "Journal Royal Asiatic Society," N.S. ii. 300; "Ancient Sanskrit -Texts," iv. 247; Wilson, "Rig Veda," i. 107. - -[504] Manu, "Institutes," iii. 90; Haug, "Aitareya Brahmanam," ii. 87, -90 sq. - -[505] "Panjab Notes and Queries," ii. 132; Lai Behari De, "Govinda -Samanta," i. 117; Campbell, "Notes," 24 sqq. - -[506] "Journal Asiatic Society Bengal," 1847, p. 582. - -[507] "Folk-lore," iii. 323. - -[508] Grimm, "Household Tales," ii. 381. - -[509] Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," i. 16. - -[510] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 75, 270. - -[511] Miss Frere, "Old Deccan Days," 41, 198; Wright, "History of -Nepal," 175; Lady Wilde, "Legends," 257. - -[512] Miss Frere, loc. cit., 82, 58, 62, 208, 268 sqq.; Knowles, -"Kashmir Folk-tales," 47. - -[513] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 352, note; Cunningham, -"Archaeological Reports," ii. 21. - -[514] Tylor, "Early History," 316; Herodotus, i. 68. - -[515] Campbell, "Popular Tales," ii. 95; "Wideawake Stories," 404 sqq.; -Miss Stokes, "Fairy Tales," 261; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 161; -Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 300; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 42, -47; Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," ii. chap. viii. - -[516] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 428; Cunningham, "Archaeological -Reports," ix. 142; xviii. 5; "Indian Antiquary," vi. 360; "Bombay -Gazetteer," xii. 449; compare Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 394 sq.; -Wright, "History of Nepal," 175; "Folk-lore," i. 524. - -[517] Fuehrer, "Monumental Antiquities," 7, 40, 103. - -[518] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 43, 75. - -[519] Buchanan, "Eastern India," i. 88; iii. 56. - -[520] Grimm, "Household Tales," ii. 413; Hunt, loc. cit., 136. - -[521] Knowles, "Folk-tales of Kashmir," 423. - -[522] Annals, ii. 382, note; Wright, "History of Nepal," 86. - -[523] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 71. - -[524] Lal Bihari De, "Folk-tales," 257; Miss Stokes, "Fairy Tales," -273, 291; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," ii. 98 sq., 378; Hunt, "Popular -Romances," 55. - -[525] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," xvii. 1. - -[526] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 1. - -[527] "Gazetteer," xi. 308. - -[528] Risley, "Tribes and Castes of Bengal," i. 303. - -[529] Grimm, "Teutonic Mythology," ii. 449. - -[530] Campbell, "Notes," 150. - -[531] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 57, 80, 130. - -[532] "Annals," ii. 681. - -[533] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 145, 244; Campbell, "Popular Tales," -ii. 101; "Folk-lore," iv. 352; Grimm, "Household Tales," i. 346. - -[534] Lal Bihari De, "Govinda Samanta," i. 9; "North Indian Notes -and Queries," iii. 199. - -[535] "Bombay Gazetteer," xxv. 457. - -[536] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 308, 311. - -[537] Lal Behari De, "Govinda Samanta," i. 158. - -[538] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 180. - -[539] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," xx. 96. - -[540] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 213. - -[541] Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 308; Grote, -"History of Greece," iv. 285; "Folk-lore," i. 167. - -[542] Leland, loc. cit., 95. - -[543] Traill, "Asiatic Researches," xvi. 137 sq. - -[544] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 820. - -[545] Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 428 sq. - -[546] Wright, "History," 153; Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 142. - -[547] Traill, "Asiatic Researches," xvi. 137 sq.; "North Indian Notes -and Queries," ii. 27. - -[548] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 223. - -[549] Brand, "Observation," 571. - -[550] Oppert, "Original Inhabitants," 505. - -[551] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 825 sqq.; Madden, "Journal -Asiatic Society Bengal," 1847, p. 599 sqq. - -[552] "Panjab Notes and Queries," i. 120; iii. 171. - -[553] Traill, "Asiatic Researches," xvi. 137; Atkinson, loc. cit., -ii. 831; Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 101. - -[554] Grierson, "Behar Peasant Life," 408. - -[555] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 251. - -[556] Campbell, "Notes," 387; Hartland, "Science of Fairy Tales," -93 sqq. - -[557] "Rig Veda," iv. 17, 16; i. 51, 13. - -[558] Burton, "Arabian Nights," i. 9, note. - -[559] Hughes, "Dictionary of Islam," s.v. Genii; Burton, "Arabian -Nights," passim. - -[560] "Eastern India," i. 106. - -[561] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 132. - -[562] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 280. - -[563] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 253. - -[564] Ibbetson, "Panjab Ethnography," 117. - -[565] Campbell, "Notes," 149. - -[566] Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 185, 187; ii. 238. - -[567] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 204. - -[568] Campbell, "Notes," 156. - -[569] Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 307; Pliny, "Natural History," -vii. 2. - -[570] Rhys, "Lectures," 156. - -[571] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 158. - -[572] "Folk-lore," ii. 288; Lady Wilde, "Legends," 7, 39. - -[573] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," ii. 198; Hartland, "Science of -Fairy Tales," 42. - -[574] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," i. 94. - -[575] Campbell, "Notes," 488. - -[576] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 227. - -[577] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 932. - -[578] "Folk-lore," iv. 363. - -[579] "Etruscan Roman Remains," 337. - -[580] Blochmann, "Ain-i-Akbari," i. 139. - -[581] "Oudh Gazetteer," ii. 418. - -[582] Yule, "Marco Polo," ii. 70, with note. - -[583] "Lectures," 626 sq. - -[584] The most recent authority on the subject, Mr. Hartland, sums -up the matter thus: "It is founded on the belief that the child is -a part of the parent; and, just as after apparent severance of hair -and nails from the remainder of the body, the bulk is affected by -anything which happens to the severed portion, so as well after as -before the infant has been severed from the parent's body, and in our -eyes has acquired a distinct existence, he will be affected by whatever -operates on the parent. Hence whatever the parent ought for the child's -sake to do or avoid before severance it is equally necessary to do or -avoid after. Gradually, however, as the infant grows and strengthens -he becomes able to digest the same food as his parents, and to take -part in the ordinary avocations of their lives. Precaution then may -be relaxed, and ultimately remitted altogether,"--"Legend of Perseus," -ii. 406. - -[585] "Brahmanism and Hinduism," 229. - -[586] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 191; Risley, "Tribes and -Castes," i. 323; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 84. - -[587] Campbell, "Notes," 410. - -[588] Ibid. - -[589] "Sirsa Settlement Report," 32. - -[590] Wright, "History," 15; Yule, "Marco Polo," i. 203; Spencer, -"Principles of Sociology," i. 249 sq.; Henderson, "Folk-lore of the -Northern Counties," 278. - -[591] "Remaines," 109 sq.; Spencer, loc. cit., i. 329; Farrer, -"Primitive Manners," 24, 225 sq. - -[592] Isaiah xxxiv. 14; Mayhew, "Academy," June 14th, 1884; Conway, -"Demonology," ii. 91 sqq.; Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," ii. 202. - -[593] Campbell, "Notes," 59. - -[594] "Journal Asiatic Society Bengal," 1848, p. 609; Benjamin, -"Persia," 192; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 451. - -[595] Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 204; Tylor, loc. cit., ii. 230; -"Early History," 358; Cox, "Mythology of the Aryan Nations," ii. 327; -Conway, "Demonology," i. 18. - -[596] "Eastern India," i. 414. - -[597] "Bombay Gazetteer," xii. 13; xvii. 703. - -[598] "Oudh Gazetteer," iii. 286. - -[599] "Folk-lore," iii. 83. - -[600] Campbell, "Notes," 150 sq. - -[601] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sagara," i. 446, 558; ii. 197. - -[602] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 431. - -[603] "Principles of Sociology," i. 201. - -[604] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 86. - -[605] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 27. - -[606] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 106; iii. 147. - -[607] Atkinson, "Himalayan Gazetteer," ii. 321 sq.; "Bombay Gazetteer," -viii. 660; xi. 383. - -[608] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 103 sq. - -[609] Ibid., ii. 3. - -[610] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 82. - -[611] "Anatomy of Melancholy," 126. - -[612] Hunt, loc. cit., 81. - -[613] Ganga Datt Upreti, "Folk-lore," 10. - -[614] Cunningham, "Archaeological Reports," x. 117. - -[615] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 56; Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern -Counties," 320 sq.; "Folk-lore," iv. 180. - -[616] "Lectures," 265. - -[617] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 58. - -[618] "Science of Fairy Tales," chap. vi. - -[619] "Archaeological Reports," xxiii. 91. - -[620] Ibid., xvii. 31; x. 72. - -[621] "North Indian Notes and Queries," II. 174. - -[622] Ibid., II. 29. - -[623] Julien's "Translation," i. 179. - -[624] Miss Cox, "Cinderella," 498. - -[625] Ralston, "Russian Folk-tales," 311. - -[626] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 100. - -[627] Macpherson, "Khonds," 67 sq. - -[628] Ganga Datt, "Folk-lore," 97. - -[629] "Panjab Notes and Queries," iv. 132. - -[630] Campbell, "Popular Tales," ii. 63. - -[631] Hearn, "Aryan Household," 55 sq. - -[632] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," i. 456. - -[633] Wilson, "Essays," i. 39. - -[634] "Notes," 169. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Popular Religion and Folk-Lore of -Northern India, Vol. I (of 2), by W. 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