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diff --git a/43662.txt b/43662.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b5a1954..0000000 --- a/43662.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10199 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Myths and Legends of Ancient Egypt, by Lewis Spence - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Myths and Legends of Ancient Egypt - -Author: Lewis Spence - -Release Date: September 7, 2013 [EBook #43662] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MYTHS AND LEGENDS OF ANCIENT EGYPT *** - - - - -Produced by Madelaine Kilsby, Clare Graham & Marc D'Hooghe -at http://www.freeliterature.org - - - - - -MYTHS AND LEGENDS - -ANCIENT EGYPT - -by - -LEWIS SPENCE - -Author of "The Myths of Mexico and Peru," -"The Civilisation of Ancient Mexico," "The Popol Vuh," -"The Myths of the North American Indians" - -BOSTON - -DAVID D. NICKERSON & COMPANY - -PUBLISHERS - -1915 - - -[Illustration: The Presentation of Ani to Osiris) From the -Papyrus of Ani--Reproduced from the Facsimile by Permission of the -Director of the British Museum] - - - - -PREFACE - - -In this volume the religious history of ancient Egypt has been reviewed -in the light of the science of modern mythology. Few Egyptologists -are well informed regarding the basic laws of that science, and much -misapprehension regarding the character and attributes of many of -the deities worshipped in the Nile Valley in times past has thereby -resulted. The statement that Egyptian religious ideas cannot be collated -with barbarian and savage conceptions simply because they are Egyptian -and therefore 'classic' and inviolate will no longer remain unquestioned -among that section of the public accustomed to think for itself, and -such pronouncements as that the animal gods of Egypt have no connexion -with totemic origins will shortly assume their proper perspective. - -In advancing ideas so iconoclastic--which all will remember were -adumbrated by the late Mr. Andrew Lang and strongly buttressed by Sir -James Frazer--it is essential that I should at the outset protect -myself against any charges of lack of acquaintance with the science of -Egyptology. Such a work as this, which attempts to further recent views -concerning a well-worn subject, must by the very circumstances of its -effort be cast and written in popular style. That such a treatment is -sufficient to prejudice it in the eyes of a certain type of critic I am -well aware. A long series of handbooks and articles had prepared critics -for my work in this series upon Mexican and Peruvian myth, and it was -generally admitted that I spoke upon these subjects out of the authority -of long experience. - -I find it necessary to state, then, that the study of Egyptian -hieroglyphs is not new to me. For several years I laboured at -these assiduously, studying the languages, Semitic and African, -including Coptic, which are cognate with the Egyptian. In the study -of hieroglyphic systems I was attracted toward the wonderful system -of writing which prevailed among the Maya of Central America, and -through it to the consideration of Mexican archaeology in general. My -grounding in the Egyptian language has also stood me in good stead, and -if for reasons connected with the necessity for popular presentation -my pages are not littered with hieroglyphs, I can lay claim to such a -knowledge of Egyptian linguistic origins as can control any derivations -here attempted--which, however, have not been ventured upon without -the countenance of other and higher authorities. If I have differed -from Egyptologists of standing in matters mythological, I have been -sedulously careful not to attempt the impertinence of contradicting them -in matters linguistic. - -Their lifelong acquaintance with original texts gives them, of course, -authority to which I gladly bow, but I feel, on the other hand, that -my own close studies of mythological problems, which are as vital to -the interests of the science as its linguistic and archaeological sides, -entitle me to advance my personal views upon such, even when these -are opposed to those of authorities whose reputation in the field of -Egyptology stands deservedly high. - -Students of myth and Egyptology, as well as the general reader drawn -to the subjects by the glamour of the mystic atmosphere which, let us -hope, will ever surround them, will find that I have not hesitated to -attack hypotheses concerning the character and attributes of certain -deities the mythological type of which may have been regarded by many as -ultimately fixed. This applies especially to my attempted reconstruction -of the natures of Osiris, Isis, Thoth, and several other divinities. -My remarks, too, upon totemism in Egypt may engender opposition, though -I believe that the rank of the authorities I can call to my aid will -succeed in disarming criticism of my arguments. - -No one can rightly comprehend the trend and currents of Egyptian faith -who does not possess some acquaintance with Egyptian history, manners, -and customs. I have therefore provided brief synopses of these, as well -as some account of Egyptian archaeology. To Mr. W.G. Blaikie Murdoch, -whose works and influence on modern art are well known to its more -serious students, I am obliged for the greatest possible assistance and -guidance in the section dealing with the art of ancient Egypt. To my -assistants, Miss Mavie Jack and Miss Katherine Nixey, I am much beholden -for the collection and arrangement of valuable material and for many -suggestions. - -L.S. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - - I. INTRODUCTORY - II. EXPLORATION, HISTORY, AND CUSTOMS - III. THE PRIESTHOOD: MYSTERIES AND TEMPLES - IV. THE CULT OF OSIRIS - V. THE GREAT GODS - VI. EGYPTIAN LITERATURE - VII. MAGIC - VIII. FOREIGN AND ANIMAL GODS: THE LATE PERIOD - -GLOSSARY AND INDEX - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - The Presentation of Ani to Osiris _Frontispiece_ - The Egyptian Symbol of the Soul - Pylon, Karnak - The Pyramids of Gizeh - Model of a Funeral Boat - Canopic Jars representing the Four Sons of Horus - Temple of Horus at Edfu - Scene representing the driving of a Herd of Cattle - Rahetep, a Priest - Osiris - Osiris beguiled into the Chest - Isis and the Baby Prince - The Departure of Isis from Byblos - A Shrine of Osiris - Isis - Winged Isis - Cippus of Horus - Horus in Battle - Nephthys - Set - Anubis - Thoth and Maat - The Weighing of the Heart - Ra - Isis and Ra - Amen-Ra - Mut and Ptah - Sekhmet and Bast - Khnemu, I-em-hetep and Nefer-Tem - Aten - Hathor - Hapi - Taurt and Khonsu - The Maiden of Bekhten - The Goddesses as Dancing-girls - Thoth and the Chief Magician - "Who are you?" - The Treasure-Chamber of Rhampsinites - Isis conjured Ra to tell his Name - Amulet of Hathor - Bes - Procession of the Sacred Bull - Sebek - Rameses II accompanied by a Lion - Mummied Cats - Horus the Child - Hauling Blocks of Stone for the Pyramids - Head-rest - Temple of Isis at Philae - - - - -CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTORY - - -The group of beliefs which constituted what for convenience' sake is -called the Egyptian religion in an existence of some thousands of years -passed through nearly every phase known to the student of comparative -mythology. If the theologians of ancient Egypt found it impossible to -form a pantheon of deities with any hope of consistency, assigning to -each god or goddess his or her proper position in the divine galaxy as -ruling over a definite sphere, cosmic or psychical, it may be asked -in what manner the modern mythologist is better equipped to reduce to -order elements so recondite and difficult of elucidation as the mythic -shapes of the divinities worshipped in the Nile Valley. But the answer -is ready. The modern science of comparative religion is extending year -by year, and its light is slowly but certainly becoming diffused among -the dark places of the ancient faiths. By the gleam of this magic -lamp, then--more wonderful than any dreamt of by the makers of Eastern -fable--let us walk in the gloom of the pyramids, in the cool shadows of -ruined temples, aye, through the tortuous labyrinth of the Egyptian mind -itself, trusting that by virtue of the light we carry we shall succeed -in unravelling to some extent the age-long enigma of this mystic land. - -One of the first considerations which occur to us is that among such -a concourse of gods as is presented by the Egyptian religion it would -have been surprising if confusion had not arisen in the native mind -concerning them. This is proved by the texts, which display in many -cases much difficulty in defining the exact qualities of certain -deities, their grouping and classification. The origin of this haziness -is not far to seek. The deities of the country multiplied at such an -astonishing rate that whereas we find the texts of the early dynasties -give us the names of some two hundred deities only, the later Theban -Recension (or version) of the _Book of the Dead_ supplies nearly five -hundred, to which remain to be added the names of mythological beings to -the number of eight hundred. - - -Local Gods - -Another cause which made for confusion was that in every large town of -Upper and Lower Egypt and its neighbourhood religion took what might -almost be called a local form. Thus the great gods of the country -were known by different names in each nome or province, their ritual -was distinctive, and even the legends of their origin and adventures -assumed a different shape. Many of the great cities, too, possessed -special gods of their own, and to these were often added the attributes -of one or more of the greater and more popular forms of godhead. The -faith of the city that was the royal residence became the religion _par -excellence_ of the entire kingdom, its temple became the Mecca of all -good Egyptians, and its god was, so long as these conditions obtained, -the Jupiter of the Egyptian pantheon. It might have been expected that -when Egypt attained a uniformity of culture, art, and nationhood, her -religion, as in the case of other peoples, would also become uniform -and simplified. But such a consummation was never achieved. Even -foreign intercourse failed almost entirely to break down the religious -conservatism of priesthood and people. Indeed, the people may be said to -have proved themselves more conservative than the priests. Alterations -in religious policy, differentiation in legend and hieratic texts -emanated from time to time from the various colleges of priests, or -from that fount of religion, the sovereign himself; but never was -a change made in deference to the popular clamour unless it was a -reversion to an older type. Indeed, as the dynasties advance we behold -the spectacle of a theological gulf growing betwixt priests and people, -the former becoming more idealistic and the latter remaining as true to -the outer semblance of things, the symbolic, as of old. - -The evolution of religion in ancient Egypt must have taken the same -course as among other races, and any hypothesis which attempts to -explain it otherwise is almost certainly doomed to non-success. Of late -years many works by learned Egyptologists have been published which -purport to supply a more or less wide survey of Egyptian mythology and -to unravel its deeper significances. The authors of some of these works, -however admirable they may be as archaeologists or as translators of -hieroglyphic texts, are for the most part but poorly equipped to grapple -with mythological difficulties. To ensure success in mythological -elucidation a special training is necessary, and a prolonged familiarity -with the phenomena of early religion in its many and diverse forms is a -first essential. In the work of one foreign Egyptologist of standing, -for example, a candid confession is made of ignorance regarding -mythological processes. He claims to present the "Egyptian religion as -it appears to an unprejudiced observer who knows nothing of the modern -science of religions." Another Egyptologist of the first rank writes -upon the subject of totemism in the most elementary manner, and puts -forward the claim that such a system never existed in the Nile valley. -But these questions will be dealt with in their proper places. - -Beginning with forms of the lower cultus--forms almost certainly of -African origin--the older religion of Egypt persisted strongly up to -the time of the Hyksos period, after which time the official religion -of the country may be found in one or other form of sun-worship. That -is to say, all the principal deities of the country were at some time -amalgamated or identified with the central idea of a sun-god. - -The Egyptian religion of the Middle and Late Kingdoms was as much a -thing of philosophic invention as later Greek myth, only, so far as we -have the means of judging, it was not nearly so artistic or successful. -For, whereas we find numerous allusions in the texts to definite myths, -we seldom find in Egyptian literature the myths themselves. Indeed, -our chief repository of Egyptian religious tales is the _De Iside et -Osiride_ of the Greek Plutarch--an uncertain authority. It is presumed -that the myths were so well known popularly that to write them down -for the use of such a highly religious people as the Egyptians would -have been a work of supererogation. The loss to posterity, however, is -immeasurable, and, lacking a full chronicle of the deeds of the gods of -Egypt, we can only grope through textual and allied matter for scraps -of intelligence which, when pieced together, present anything but an -appearance of solidity and comprehensiveness. - - -Animism - -It has been admitted that the ancient Egyptians, like other early -races, could not have evolved a religion unless by the usual processes -of religious growth. Thus we discover, by means of numerous clues more -or less strong, that they passed through the phase known as animism, -or animatism.[1] This is the belief that practically every object -in the universe surrounding man has a soul and a personality such -as he himself possesses. Man at an early date of his consciousness -formulated the belief in a soul, that mysterious second self which even -the most debased races believe in. The phenomena of sleep, the return -of consciousness after slumber, and the strange experiences of life -and adventures in dreamland while asleep would force early man to the -conclusion that he possessed a double or second self, and it was merely -an extension of that idea which made him suppose that this secondary -personality would continue to exist after death. - -But what proof have we that the early dwellers in Egypt passed through -this phase? Besides the belief in a human soul, the animistic condition -of mind sees in every natural object a living entity. Thus trees, -rivers, winds, and animals all possess the gift of rational thought and -speech. How is it possible to prove that the ancient Egyptians believed -that such objects possessed conscious souls and individualities of their -own? - -First as to the early Egyptian belief that man himself possessed a -soul. The Egyptian symbol for the soul (the _ba_) is a man-headed bird. -Now the conception of the soul as a bird is a very common one among -savages and barbarians of a low order. To uncultured man the bird is -always incomprehensible because of its magical power of flight, its -appearance in the sky where dwell the gods, and its song, approaching -speech. From the bird the savage evolves the idea of the winged spirit -or god, the messenger from the heavens. Thus many supernatural beings in -all mythological systems are given wings. Many American Indian tribes -believe that birds are the visible spirits of the dead. The Powhatans -of Virginia believed that birds received the souls of their chiefs -at death, and the Aztecs that the spirits of departed warriors took -the shapes of humming-birds and flitted from flower to flower in the -sunshine. The Boros of Brazil believe that the soul has the shape of a -bird, and passes in that form out of the body in dream.[2] The Bilquila -Indians of British Columbia conceive the soul as residing in an egg -situated in the nape of the neck. If the shell cracks and the soul flies -away the man must perish. A Melanesian magician was accustomed to send -out his soul in the form of an eagle to find out what was happening in -passing ships. Pliny states that the soul of Aristeas of Proconnesus -was seen to issue from his mouth in the shape of a raven. A like belief -occurs in countries so far distant from one another as Bohemia and -Malaysia. - -We see from these parallel examples, then, that the ancient Egyptians -were not singular in figuring the soul in bird-shape. This idea partakes -of the nature of animistic belief. But other and more concrete examples -of this phase of religious activity occur to us. For instance, the -objects found in early graves in Egypt, as elsewhere, are sometimes -broken with the manifest intention of setting free their 'spirits,' -doubtless to join that of their owner. Again, in the myth of Osiris we -find that his coffin when at rest in Byblos became entangled in the -growth of a tree--an obvious piece of folk-memory crystallizing the race -reminiscence of an early form of tree-worship--a branch of animistic -belief. In the texts, too, statements frequently occur which can be -referred only to an early condition of animism. Thus each door in the -otherworld was sentient, and would open if correctly adjured. We find -in chapter lxxxvi of the Papyrus of Ani the Flame of the Sun addressed -as an individual, as is the ferry-boat of Ra in chapter xlii. "I am -the knot of the Aser tree," says the dead man in the same chapter, -referring to the tree which wound itself around the coffin of Osiris. -All these are animistic references, and could be easily multiplied by a -glance through any representative Egyptian manuscript. The practice of -magic, too, in later times in the Nile Valley is to some extent merely a -survival of animistic belief. - - -Fetishism and Totemism - -Fetishism, too, bulks largely in Egyptian religious conceptions. Many of -the gods are represented as carrying the fetishes from which they may -have originally been derived. Thus the arrow of Neith is fetishistic (a -statement which will afterwards be justified), as are the symbols of Min -and other deities. - -Fetishism, regarding which I have given a prolonged explanation -elsewhere,[3] is a term applied to the use of objects large or small, -natural or artificial, regarded as possessing consciousness, volition, -and supernatural qualities--in short, a fetish object is the home of -a wandering spirit which has taken up residence there. The remnants -of fetishism are also to be discerned in the amulets which were worn -by every Egyptian, living and dead. All amulets partake of the nature -of fetishes, and the remark is often heard that good luck resides in -them. That is, just as the savage believes that a powerful agency -working for his good dwells in the portable fetish, so the civilized -man cannot altogether discredit the idea that the object attached to -his watch-chain does not possess some inherent quality of good fortune. -Many of these amulets typify divinities, such as the 'buckle' sign which -symbolizes the protection of Isis; the sacred eye representative of -Horus; and the symbol of the parallel fingers might perhaps recall the -fetishistic necklaces of fingers found among many savage peoples. - -Many Egyptologists deny that totemism entered as a force into the -religion of ancient Egypt. Totemism may be defined as the recognition, -exploitation, and adjustment of the imaginary mystic relationship of -the individual or the tribe to the supernatural powers or spirits which -surround them. Whereas the fetish is to some extent the servant of its -owner, a spirit lured to dwell in a material object to do the behest of -an individual or a community, the totem, whether personal or tribal, is -a patron and protector and is often represented in animal or vegetable -shape. The basic difference between the individual and tribal totem is -still obscure, but for our present purpose it will be sufficient to deal -with the latter. The most notable antagonist of the theory that some of -the divinities of ancient Egypt are of totemic origin is Dr. E.A. Wallis -Budge, the well-known Egyptologist. In his _Gods of the Egyptians_ -he says: "It now seems to be generally admitted by ethnologists that -there are three main causes which have induced men to worship animals, -_i.e._ they have worshipped them as animals or as the dwelling-place -of gods or as representatives of tribal ancestors. There is no reason -whatsoever for doubting that in neolithic times the primitive Egyptians -worshipped animals as animals and as nothing more." None of the above -statements approaches a definition of totemism. The theory that the -totem is a tribal ancestor is now regarded as doubtful. Dr. Budge -continues: "The question as to whether the Egyptians worshipped animals -as representatives of tribal ancestors or 'totems' is one which has -given rise to much discussion, and this is not to be wondered at, for -the subject is one of difficulty. We know that many of the standards -which represent the nomes of Egypt are distinguished by figures of birds -and animals, _e.g._ the hawk, the bull, the hare, etc. But it is not -clear whether these are intended to represent 'totems' or not.... The -animal or bird standing on the top of a nome perch or standard is not -intended for a fetish or a representative of a tribal ancestor, but for -a creature which was regarded as the deity under whose protection the -people of a certain tract of territory were placed, and we may assume -that within the limits of that territory it was unlawful to kill or -injure such animal or bird." Totems are invariably carried on banners, -poles, and shields, and it is unlawful to kill them. He also states -that the totemic theory "may explain certain facts connected with the -animal-worship of numbers of savage and half-savage tribes in some parts -of the world, but it cannot in the writer's opinion be regarded as -affording an explanation of the animal-worship of the Egyptians." - -Wherefore, it may be asked, was Egypt alone immune from the influence -of totemism? Dr. Budge continues, by way of final refutation of the -totemic theory, that on nome standards several objects besides animals -were worshipped and regarded as gods, or that they became the symbols -of the deities which were worshipped in them. Thus on some standards -were displayed representations of hills, arrows, fish, and so forth. -These objects, Dr. Budge seems to imply, cannot be fetishistic or -totemic. Dr. Budge cannot, for example, find the reason why three -hills were connected with a god. This does not present a mythological -problem of high complexity. In many parts of the world mountain-peaks, -separately or in groups, are objects of direct worship. A mountain may -be worshipped because it is the abode of a god; for its own sake, as -were Olympus, Sinai, and Carmel, which latterly became the high places -of deities; or because they were supposed to be the birthplaces of -certain tribes. In old Peru, for example, as we are informed by the -Indian writer Salcamayhua, each localized tribe or Ayllu had its own -_paccarisca_, or place of origin, many of which were mountains which -were addressed by the natives in the formula: - - "Thou art my birthplace, - Thou art my lifespring, - Guard me from evil, - O paccarisca!" - -These mountains were, of course, oracular, as those represented on the -Egyptian standards would probably be. That they were worshipped as the -houses of oracles and for their own sakes, and not as the home of a -deity, seems to be proved in that they, rather than such a deity, are -represented in the standards. - -Neither can Dr. Budge decipher in a mythological sense the symbol of two -arrows placed notch to notch with double barbs pointing outward. Arrows -of this type are common as fetishes in several parts of the world. Among -the Cheyenne Indians of the Plains the set of four sacred 'medicine' -arrows constitutes the tribal palladium which they claim to have had -from the beginning of the world, and which was annually utilized in -tribal ceremonial as lately as 1904. They also had a rite spoken of as -'fixing' the arrows, which was undertaken by priests specially set apart -as the guardians of this great fetish.[4] - -But there are other and much more apparent proofs of the totemic nature -of a number of the Egyptian deities. It is obvious, for example, that -the cat-headed Bast, who was worshipped first in the shape of a cat, -was originally a cat totem. The crocodile was the incarnation of the -god Sebek, and dwelt in a lake near Krokodilopolis. Ra and Horus are -represented with the heads of hawks, and Thoth with the head of an ibis. -Anubis has the head of a jackal. That some of these forms are totemic -is not open to doubt. But it was a decadent totemism, in which the more -primitive sentiment was focused on particular animals considered as -divine, totems which had become full-fledged divinities. The Egyptians -carried standards on which were represented their totemic animals -precisely as the natives of the Upper Darling engrave their totem on -their shields, and as several American tribes in time of war carry -sticks surmounted by pieces of bark on which their animal totems are -painted. An instance of protection by a totem is alluded to by Diodorus, -who states that there was a tale in Egypt that one of the ancient kings -had been saved from death by a crocodile. Lastly, in many of the nomes -of Egypt certain animals were not eaten by the inhabitants. This is a -sure indication of the existence of totemism, for the presence of which -in Egypt no better proof could be adduced. - -There is no reason to suppose, however, that in later times animals -were not worshipped in Egypt for other than totemic reasons. The -later worship of animals may have been a relic of totemism, but it -is more likely to have been merely symbolic in character. Even when -the attendant rites and beliefs of totemism cease to be recognized, -the totem animal may retain its bestial form instead of assuming a -semi-human one. There is a pony totem worshipped by a certain tribe of -North American Indians which is at present in course of evolution into a -full-fledged divinity, but which persists in retaining its equine form. -Again, the ability of the Egyptian gods to transform themselves into -animals by means of magical formulae[5] is eloquent in many cases of -their totemic origin. It has been said that not only individual animals -but all the animals of a class were sacred in certain nomes. In these -cases, says Wiedemann, "the animals were not honoured as gods, but -rather as specially favoured by the gods." But as this is exactly what -happens among peoples in the totemic stage, this contention must fall to -the ground. - - -Creation Myths - -There are several accounts in existence which deal with the Egyptian -conception of the creation of the world and of man. We find a company of -eight gods alluded to in the Pyramid Texts as the original makers and -moulders of the universe. The god Nu and his consort Nut were deities -of the firmament and the rain which proceeds therefrom. Hehu and Hehut -appear to personify fire, and Kekui and Kekuit the darkness which -brooded over the primeval abyss of water. Kerh and Kerhet also appear -to have personified Night or Chaos. Some of these gods have the heads -of frogs,[6] others those of serpents, and in this connexion we are -reminded of the deities which are alluded to in the story of creation -recorded in the _Popol Vuh_, the sacred book of the Kiche Indians of -Guatemala, two of whom, Xpiyacoc and Xmucane, are called "the ancient -serpents covered with green feathers," male and female. We find in the -account of the creation story now under consideration the admixture of -the germs of life enveloped in thick darkness, so well known to the -student of mythology as symptomatic of creation myths all the world -over. A papyrus (_c_. 312 B.C.) preserved in the British Museum contains -a series of chapters of a magical nature, the object of which is to -destroy Apepi, the fiend of darkness, and in it we find two copies of -the story of creation which detail the means by which the sun came into -being. In one account the god Ra says that he took upon himself the -form of Khepera, the deity who was usually credited with the creative -faculty. He proceeds to say that he continued to create new things out -of those which he had already made, and that they went forth from his -mouth. "Heaven," he says, "did not exist and earth had not come into -being, and the things of the earth and creeping things had not come -into existence in that place, and I raised them from out of Nu from a -state of inactivity." This would imply that Khepera moulded life in -the universe from the matter supplied from the watery abyss of Nu. "I -found no place," says Khepera, "whereon I could stand. I worked a charm -upon my own heart. I laid a foundation in Maat. I made every form. I -was one by myself. I had not emitted from myself the god Shu, and I had -not spit out from myself the goddess Tefnut. There was no other being -who worked with me." The word Maat signifies law, order, or regularity, -and from the allusion to working a charm upon his heart we may take -it that Khepera made use of magical skill in the creative process, or -it may mean, in Scriptural phraseology, that "he took thought unto -himself" to make a world. The god continues that from the foundation of -his heart multitudes of things came into being. But the sun, the eye of -Nu, was "covered up behind Shu and Tefnut," and it was only after an -indefinite period of time that these two beings, the children of Nu, -were raised up from out the watery mass and brought their father's eye -along with them. In this connexion we find that the sun, as an eye, has -a certain affinity with water. Thus Odin pledged his eye to Mimir for -a draught from the well of wisdom, and we find that sacred wells famous -for the cure of blindness are often connected with legends of saints -who sacrificed their own eyesight.[7] The allusion in those legends is -probably to the circumstance that the sun as reflected in water has the -appearance of an eye. Thus when Shu and Tefnut arose from the waters the -eye of Nu followed them. Shu in this case may represent the daylight and -Tefnut moisture. - -Khepera then wept copiously, and from the tears which he shed sprang men -and women. The god then made another eye, which in all probability was -the moon. After this he created plants and herbs, reptiles and creeping -things, while from Shu and Tefnut came Geb and Nut, Osiris and Isis, -Set, Nephthys and Horus at a birth. These make up the company of the -great gods at Heliopolis, and this is sufficient to show that the latter -part of the story at least was a priestly concoction. - -But there was another version, obviously an account of the creation -according to the worshippers of Osiris. In the beginning of this Khepera -tells us at once that he is Osiris, the cause of primeval matter. This -account was merely a frank usurpation of the creation legend for the -behoof of the Osirian cult. Osiris in this version states that in the -beginning he was entirely alone. From the inert abyss of Nu he raised -a god-soul--that is, he gave the primeval abyss a soul of its own. The -myth then proceeds word for word in exactly the same manner as that -which deals with the creative work of Khepera. But only so far, for we -find Nu in a measure identified with Khepera, and Osiris declaring that -his eye, the sun, was covered over with large bushes for a long period -of years. Men are then made by a process similar to that described in -the first legend. From these accounts we find that the ancient Egyptians -believed that an eternal deity dwelling in a primeval abyss where he -could find no foothold endowed the watery mass beneath him with a soul; -that he created the earth by placing a charm upon his heart, otherwise -from his own consciousness, and that it served him as a place to stand -upon; that he produced the gods Shu and Tefnut, who in turn became -the parents of the great company of gods; and that he dispersed the -darkness by making the sun and moon out of his eyes. After these acts -followed the almost insensible creation of men and women by the process -of weeping, and the more sophisticated making of vegetation, reptiles, -and stars. In all this we see the survival of a creation myth of a -most primitive and barbarous type, which much more resembles the crude -imaginings of the Red Man than any concept which might be presumed to -have arisen from the consciousness of 'classic' Egypt. But it is from -such unpromising material that all religious systems spring, and however -strenuous the defence made in order to prove that the Egyptians differed -in this respect from other races, that defence is bound in no prolonged -time to be battered down by the ruthless artillery of fact. - -We have references to other deities in the Pyramid Texts, some of whom -appear to be nameless. For example, in the text of Pepi I we find homage -rendered to one who has four faces and who brings the storm. This would -seem to be a god of wind and rain, whose countenances are set toward -the four points of the compass, whence come the four winds. Indeed, the -context proves this when it says: "Thou hast taken thy spear which is -dear to thee, thy pointed weapon which thrusteth down riverbanks with -double point like the darts of Ra and a double haft like the claws of -the goddess Maftet." - - -The 'Companies' of the Gods - -In the Pyramid Texts we find frequent mention of several groups -consisting of nine gods each. One of these companies of gods, or -Enneads, was called the Great and another the Little, and the nine gods -of Horus are also alluded to. It is not known, however, whether this -group is in any way connected with either of the others. We also read -in the Pyramid Texts of Teta of a double group of eighteen gods which -recur in the text of Pepi I. These eighteen gods may simply be the -Great and Little companies of gods taken together. In the texts of Pepi -I and Teta, however, we find a third company of nine gods, officially -recognized by the priests of Heliopolis, and all three companies are -represented by twenty-seven symbols representing the word _neter_ (god) -placed in a row. - -Although these companies of gods are spoken of as containing nine -deities, that is owing to their designation of _Pesedt_, which signifies -'nine'. The Little company in reality contains eleven gods, but nine was -their original number, and, as Sir Gaston Maspero says, each of them, -especially the first and last, could be developed. A local company such -as that of Heliopolis might have the god of another nome or district -embraced in it in one of two ways; that is, the alien god might replace -one of the local gods or be set side by side with him. Again, strange -gods could be absorbed in the leader of the _Pesedt_. When a fresh god -was admitted into a company all the other deities who were connected -with him were also included, but their names were not classed beside -those of its original members. - -These three companies of gods were fully developed by the period of -the Fifth Dynasty, and there is little doubt that the Egyptian theology -owed the formation of this pantheon to the caste of priests ruling at -Heliopolis. - -To the third _Pesedt_ they gave no name. The gods of the first -company are Tem, Shu, Tefnut, Qeb, Nut, Osiris, Isis, Set, Nephthys. -Occasionally Horus is given as the chief of the company instead of Tem. -In the text of Unas we find the names of the gods of the Little company -given, but they are for the most part quite unimportant. The third -company is rarely mentioned, and the names of its gods are unknown. -Earth as well as heaven and the underworld had its quota of deities, -and it is considered highly probable that the three companies of gods -are referable one to each of these regions. The members of each company -varied in different periods and in different cities. But the great local -god or goddess was always the head of the company in a given vicinity. -As has been said, he might be joined to another deity. At Heliopolis, -for example, where the chief local god was Tem, the priests joined to -his name that of Ra, and addressed him in prayer as Ra-Tem. Texts of all -periods show that the chief local gods of many cities retained their -pre-eminence almost to the end. The land of Egypt was divided into -provinces called _hesput_, to which the Greeks gave the name of _nome_. -In each of these a certain god or group of gods held sway, the variation -being caused by racial and other considerations. To the people of each -nome their god was the deity _par excellence_, and in early times it is -plain that the worship of each province amounted almost to a separate -religion. This division of the country must have taken place at an early -epoch, and it certainly contributed greatly to the conservation of -religious differences. The nome gods certainly date from pre-dynastic -times, as is proved by inscriptions antedating the Pyramid Texts. The -number of these provinces varied from one period to another, but the -average seems to have been between thirty-five and forty. It would serve -no purpose to enumerate the gods of the various nomes in this place, as -many of them are obscure, but as each deity is dealt with the nome to -which he belongs will be mentioned. Several nomes worshipped the same -god. For example, Horus was worshipped in not less than six, while in -three provinces Khnemu was worshipped, and Hathor in six. - - -The Egyptian Idea of God - -The word by which the Egyptians implied deity and, indeed, supernatural -beings of any description was _neter_. The hieroglyphic which represents -this idea is described by most Egyptologists as resembling an axe-head -let into a long wooden handle. Some archaeologists have attempted to show -that the figure resembled in outline a roll of yellow cloth, the lower -part bound or laced over, the upper part appearing as a flap at the top, -probably for unwinding. It has been thought possible that the object -represents a fetish--for instance, a bone carefully wound round with -cloth, and not the cloth alone. - -We are ignorant of most of the gods worshipped during the first four -dynasties, chiefly because of the lack of documentary evidence, although -some are known from the inscription called the Palermo Stone, which -alludes to several local deities. Some portions of the _Book of the -Dead_ may have been revised during the First Dynasty, and from this we -may argue that the religion of the Egyptians, as revealed in the later -texts, closely resembled that in existence during the first three -dynasties. It is only when we come to the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties -that we discover material for the study of the Egyptian pantheon in -the Pyramid Texts of Unas, Teta, Pepi the First, and others. By this -period the first phase of Egyptian development appears to have been -entered upon. At the same time it is plain that the material afforded -by the Pyramid Texts contains stratum upon stratum of religious thought -and conception, in all probability bequeathed to the pyramid builders -by innumerable generations of men. In these wondrous texts we find -crystallized examples of the most primitive and barbarous religious -elements--animistic, fetishistic, and totemic. These texts are for the -most part funerary and, in consequence, relate chiefly to deities of the -underworld. - - -Deities of the Pyramid Texts - -In order to understand this earliest fixed phase of religious thought -in Egypt, it is necessary to pass in brief review the deities alluded -to in the Pyramid Texts, and for the moment to regard them separately -from the rest of the Egyptian pantheon. In doing so we must beware of -definitely labelling these conceptions with such names as 'water-god,' -'thunder-god,' 'sun-god,' and so forth. Despite the labours of the -last half-century, the science of mythology is yet in its infancy, and -workers in its sphere are now beginning to suspect that mere variants -or phases of certain deities, which are by no means separate entities, -have in many cases been credited with an individual status they do not -deserve. The deities of the Greek and Roman pantheons are doubtless -good examples of gods whose attributes are finally fixed. Thus one may -say of Mars that he is a war-god, and of Pallas Athene that she is a -goddess of wisdom, but these were merely the attributes possessed -by these deities which were most popular and uppermost in the public -consciousness. Recent research has proved that most of the Greek and -Roman deities are traceable to earlier forms, some of which possess a -variety of attributes, others of which are more simple in form than -the later conception which is developed from them. Again, many deities -which exhibit some particular tendency are necessarily connected with -other natural forms. Thus many rain gods or goddesses are connected with -thunder and lightning. Possession of the lightning arrow frequently -implies a connexion with hunting or war. All moon-gods are deities of -moisture, and preside over birth. Some deities of rain preside also -over the winds, thunder and lightning, the chase and war, general -culture, and so forth. A sun-god, as lord of the vault of heaven, can -preside over all the meteorological manifestations thereof. He is god -of growth, of wealth, because gold possesses the yellow colour of -his beams, of travelling, because he walks the heavens, and he rules -countless other departments of existence. From polytheism may evolve in -time a condition of monotheism, in which one god holds complete sway -over mankind--that is, one deity may become so popular, or the priestly -caste connected with him so powerful, that all other cults languish -as his spreads and grows. But, on the other hand, polytheism, or the -multiplicity of deities, may well spring from an early monotheism,[8] -itself the child of a successful fetish or totem, for the attributes -of a great single god may, in the hands of a people still partially in -the animistic stage, become so infused with individuality as to appear -entirely separate entities. In dealing, then, with the gods alluded to -in the Pyramid Texts, several of which are obviously derivative, we must -recollect that although in a manner it is necessary to affix to them -some more or less definite description, it will be well to bear in mind -the substance of this paragraph. - -We are not at present finally considering the natures or characteristics -of the deities mentioned in the Pyramid Texts, but merely affording such -a brief outline of them as will give the reader some idea of Egyptian -religion in general during the early dynasties. - -The goddess Net, or Neith, who is mentioned in the Pyramid Texts of -Unas, is a figure in which we descry a personification of moisture or -rain, because of her possession of the arrow, the symbol of lightning. -The hawk-headed Horus, probably originally a hawk totem, is one of the -manifestations of the sun-deity, from whom he may have evolved, or -with whom he may have been confounded. Khepera, also found in the Unas -Texts, is another form of the sun. His possession of the beetle glyph -is symbolical of the manner in which the sun rolls over the face of the -sky as the Egyptian beetle or scarabaeus rolled its eggs over the sand. -Khnemu, the ram-headed, whose name signifies 'the moulder' or 'uniter,' -was probably the totemic deity of an immigrant race who had achieved -godhead, and perhaps monotheism, or at least creatorship, in another -sphere, and who had been accepted into Egyptian belief with all his -attributes. Sebek, the crocodile-god, Ra and Ptah, two other forms of -the sun-god, Nu, the watery mass of heaven, are also alluded to in the -Pyramid Texts of Unas and Teta, as is Hathor. - - -Early Burials - -Egyptian religious tenets carefully fostered the idea of the -preservation of the human body after death. In the earliest period the -burials of the time throw much light on the nature of religious belief. -The corpse was buried in such a posture that it would appear to have -been doubled up prior to interment. The knees touch the chin, and the -hands are disposed in front of the face. The head was turned to the -west. In later prehistoric times the body was often closely bound with -wrappings which were so tightly drawn as to force all the bones parallel -with each other. Later still, a less contracted attitude was adopted, -which in turn gave way to a fully extended position. In the late -prehistoric period the corpse is found wrapped in linen cloths. It was -surrounded with articles provided for its use, nourishment, or defence -in the other-world, or perhaps for that of its _ka_, or double--stone -vessels containing beer, unguents of various kinds, flint knives and -spear-heads, necklaces and other objects of daily use which the deceased -had employed during life. Amulets were placed upon the corpse to protect -it against evil spirits both in this world and in the life beyond. - -In the Old Kingdom, which may be designated the Pyramid Age, we find -a new description of burial coming into fashion. Mummification of a -simple kind became the vogue. There is good reason to suppose that -this custom arose out of the cult of Osiris, the god of the dead, and -it powerfully influenced all future Egyptian funerary and theological -practice and thought. But between what may be conveniently described as -the 'prehistoric' period and that of the Pyramids several other types -of tomb had found popularity. The Pharaoh, during the First Dynasty, -was buried in a large rectangular building of brick, which had several -chambers inaccessible from outside. In one of these the body of the king -was laid, and in the others a variety of offerings and utensils were -stored. The whole was merely an elaboration of the prehistoric method -of sepulture. The exterior of the tomb was broken up by niches in the -form of doors, through which it was thought the _ka_ of the dead king -would be able to leave and re-enter his tomb at will. Round the whole a -wall was built, and fresh offerings to the deceased royalty were placed -within the niches or alcoves of the tomb from time to time, and over all -a mound of earth or brick was probably heaped. The name-stele of the -monarch was blazoned in hieroglyphs on a large memorial slab outside, -without any allusion to his life, character, or actions. Several of -the early royal burial-places contain the graves of women, servants, -and dogs. These in true Neolithic fashion had been slaughtered at the -grave of the Pharaoh in order that they might accompany him and attend -to his comfort and requirements in the new life. Later these sacrifices -were discontinued, and instead of a graveside holocaust the images or -pictures of wives and dependents were placed in the royal tomb. - - -The Pyramid - -From such a resting-place was gradually evolved the stupendous -conception of the pyramid. The pyramid is, in effect, nothing but a vast -funeral cairn, a huge grave-mound, on which, instead of stones or pieces -of rock, enormous blocks of granite were piled. Often the burial-chamber -it contains is nothing more than a mere vault, to which access is gained -by a narrow passage or gallery, which was carefully blocked up after the -royal funeral. - -Originally these burial-chambers were quite unadorned, and it was not -until the end of the Middle Kingdom that it became usual to inscribe -their walls with texts relating to the future life. Thus originated -those wonderful Pyramid Texts from which we have learned so much of the -lore of ancient Egypt. On the eastern side of the pyramid was built -a temple dedicated to the defunct monarch, in which offerings to his -manes were duly and punctually made. As he became deified upon death, -so his statue in his character of a divinity was placed in an apartment -specially prepared for it. The pile of stones proper from which the -pyramid was evolved may be traced to the retaining wall of the tomb. -By the Third Dynasty this small retaining wall had become roofed over -and expanded into a solid mass of brickwork, called by the Arabs a -_mastaba_, which was practically a truncated pyramid. This pile of -brickwork was later in the same dynasty copied in stone, as at Saqqara, -and enlarged by repeated additions and successive coats of masonry. -Lastly, the whole received a casing of limestone blocks, and we have -such a structure as the pyramid of Medum. - - -Pyramidal Architecture - -The pyramidal form of architecture is peculiar to Egypt, and even there -is confined to the period from the Fourth to the Twelfth Dynasty, or -before 3000 B.C. The Mexican and Central American teocalli, or stepped -temple, has frequently been erroneously compared to the pyramid, but -whereas it was a place of worship, the Egyptian form was purely a -place of sepulture. A definite design lay behind each of these vast -structures. It seems to have occurred to some writers that the pyramids -were built haphazard and by dint of brute force. So far from this -being the case, they were constructed with extraordinary care, and -mathematical computations of considerable complexity are manifest in -their design. - -The early pyramids were composed of horizontal layers of rough-hewn -blocks of stone, held together principally by their own weight, but -between the interstices of which mortar was placed. In the later stages -of the type the core of the structure was formed chiefly of rubble, of -which stone, mud, and mud bricks were the principal constituents. This -was faced outwardly with a fine casing of stone, carefully dressed and -joined, and the mortuary-chambers showed similar care in construction. -These were generally placed below the ground level, and access was -gained to them by a gallery opening on the northern side of the pyramid. -These are usually blocked once or more by massive monoliths, and were -sometimes closed externally by stone doors revolving on a pivot in order -that the priests might gain entrance when desired. - -The first pyramid has been definitely attributed to Cheops or Khufu, and -is situated at Gizeh. The second is credited to Dad-ef-ra, and was built -at Abu Roash. Khafra was entombed in the second pyramid of Gizeh, and -that known as 'the Upper' at the same place was tenanted by the corpse -of Menkaura. The smaller structures at Gizeh near the great and third -pyramids were constructed for the families of Khufu and Khafra. - - -'Lost' Pyramids - -Several of the pyramids alluded to in the ancient texts of these -buildings have either entirely disappeared, or cannot be identified. -Thus the burial-place of Shepseskaf, known by the delightful title of -'the Cool,' is unknown. We can picture the shaven priests stealing -into the recesses of its thickly shadowed galleries to shelter from -the fierce Egyptian sun. No doubt the _ka_ of Shepseskaf found its -shade acceptable enough as he played at draughts with his mummy in its -inaccessible chambers. It is known that the pyramid of Menkauhor, 'the -most divine edifice,' is somewhere at Saqqara, but which of its stately -piles can be attributed to him it is impossible to say. So with the -pyramid of Assa, who is mentioned in tablets at Saqqara, Karnak, and -elsewhere. This was called 'the Beautiful.' Neither can the similarly -named 'beautiful rising' of Rameses and the 'firm life' of Neferarkara -be satisfactorily placed. It is highly unlikely that these structures -can have crumbled into a ruin so complete that no trace whatsoever has -been left of them--that is, unless they were built of mud bricks. The -brick pyramid of Amenemhat III at Howara, however, still remains, as -does that of Senusert III at Dahshur. - -So much has been written of late concerning the pyramids that it would -be idle to pursue the subject further in a work such as this, which -professes to give an account of the mythology of Egypt and an outline -only of its polity and arts. There can be little interest for the -general reader in mere measurements and records of bulk. - - -Mummification - -Mummification was, as has been said, probably an invention of the -Osirian cult. The priests of Osiris taught that the body of man was -a sacred thing and not to be abandoned to the beasts of the desert, -because from it would spring the effulgent and regenerated envelope -of the purified spirit. In prehistoric times some attempt appears to -have been made toward preservation, either by drying in the sun or -smearing the corpse with a resinous preparation; and as the centuries -went by this primitive treatment developed into the elaborate art of -embalming, with all its gloomy, if picturesque, ceremonial. By the time -of the Middle Kingdom, as is evidenced by the graves of Beni Hassan, -the practice prevailed of removing the internal organs and placing them -in a box divided into four compartments inscribed with the names of the -four canopic deities who presided over them. In some burials of this -date, to avoid the trouble of removing the intestines those responsible -for the obsequies simply made up parcels which purported, by written -descriptions upon them, to contain the organs in question, believing, -doubtless, that the written statement that these bundles contained the -heart, lungs, and so forth was magically efficacious, and quite as -satisfactory as their real presence within the receptacle. - -We do not find the process of mummification reaching any degree of -elaboration until the period of the New Kingdom. At first it was -confined to the Pharaohs alone, who were identified with Osiris; but the -necessity for a retinue which would attend him in the dark halls of the -Tuat prescribed that his courtiers also should be embalmed. The custom -was taken up by the wealthy, and filtered down from rank to rank until -at length even the corpse of the poorest Egyptian was at least subjected -to a process of pickling in a bath of natron. The art reached its height -in the Twenty-first Dynasty. At that period the process was costly in -the extreme, and a mummification of an elaborate kind cost about L700 -in modern currency. When the relations of the deceased consulted the -professional embalmers they were shown models of mummies, one of which -they selected. The corpse was then placed in the hands of the embalmers. -First of all they injected a corrosive into the brain cavity, after -which its softened contents were removed through the nostrils by hooked -instruments. A mummifier, whose office rendered him almost a pariah, -so sacred was the human body considered, made an incision in the corpse -with a flint knife, a time-honoured instrument that seems eloquent of -prehistoric practice. The intestines and the principal organs were then -removed, washed, and steeped in palm wine. The body then underwent -a drying process, and, according to the period, was stripped of its -flesh, only the skin remaining, or was stuffed with sawdust, skilfully -introduced through incisions, so that the natural form was completely -restored. The cavity occupied by the organs might otherwise be stuffed -with myrrh, cassia, or other spices. When sewn up the corpse was next -pickled in a bath of natron for seventy days, and then meticulously -bandaged with linen which had been dipped in some adhesive substance. -A coffin was built for it which retained the shape of the human form, -and which was gaily and elaborately painted with figures of divinities, -amulets, symbols, and sometimes burial scenes. The carven countenance of -the deceased surmounted this funerary finery, and the short wig, typical -of the living Egyptian, glowed in gilded hues or in less costly colour -above the conventional death-mask, which in general bore but little -resemblance to him. - -The canopic jars in which the intestines were placed had lids so -carven as to resemble human heads, but subsequent to the Eighteenth -Dynasty the heads of the four sons of Horus, the man-headed Mesti, the -ape-headed Hapi, the jackal Tuamutef, and the falcon Qebhsennuf, the -'genii' who guarded the north, south, east, and west, were represented -upon their covers. In their respective jars were placed the stomach and -larger intestines, the smaller intestines, the lungs and heart, and -the liver and gall-bladder. These jars were placed in the tomb beside -the mummy, so that upon resurrection it could easily command their -contents. It is a striking circumstance that we discover a parallel to -these 'genii' among the ancient Maya of Central America, who possessed -four deities placed one at each point of the compass to uphold the -heavens. Their names were Kan, Muluc, Ix, and Cauac, or, according to -other authorities, Hobnil, Kanzicnal, Zaczini, and Hozanek, and it -has been stated that the Maya made use of funerary jars called after -these, _bacabs_, which held the internal organs of their dead.[9] -Strangely enough, the ancient Mexicans also practised a description of -mummification, as did the Peruvians.[10] - - -Funeral Offerings - -The tomb furniture of the Egyptians of the higher ranks was elaborate -and costly--chairs, jars, weapons, mirrors, sometimes even chariots, -and wigs. Beginning with the Middle Kingdom (Eighteenth Dynasty), -small statuettes, called _ushabtiu_, were placed in each tomb. These -represented various trades, and were supposed to assist or serve the -deceased in the otherworld. The walls of the tomb and the sides of -the sarcophagus were usually covered with texts from the _Book of the -Dead_, or formulae devoting offerings of loaves, geese, beer, and other -provisions to the _ka_ of the deceased. The burial ceremony was stately -and imposing. Sometimes it chanced that the corpse had to be conveyed by -water, and gaily painted boats held the funeral procession; or else the -chain of mourners moved slowly along by the western bank of the Nile. -The ceremonial at the tomb appears to have been almost of a theatrical -character, and symbolized the night journey of Ra-Osiris. The prescribed -prayers were recited, and incense was offered up. The kinsmen of the -deceased were loud in their lamentations, and were assisted in these -by a professional class of mourners who 'keened' loudly and shrilly -as the procession slowly approached the _mastaba_, or tomb, in which -the mummy was to be laid to rest. It was taken from the coffin when it -arrived at the door of its long home, and was placed upright against the -wall of the _mastaba_ by a priest wearing the mask of the jackal-headed -god Anubis. At this point an elaborate ceremony was performed, known -as the 'opening of the mouth.' With many magical spells and signs the -mouth of the deceased was opened by means of a hook, after which he -was supposed to be able to make use of his mouth for the purpose of -speaking, eating, or drinking. Special literature had sprung up in -connexion with this custom, and was known as _The Book of the Opening of -the Mouth_. Elaborate and numerous were the instruments employed in the -ceremony: the _pesh-ken_, or hook, made of a pinkish flint, the knife -of greyish-green stone, the vases, small stone knives representing the -'metal of the north' and the 'metal of the south,' the unguents and -oils, and so on. Interminable was the ceremonial in the case of a person -of importance, at least twenty-eight formulae having to be recited, many -of which were accompanied by lustration, purification, and, on the -part of the priests who officiated, a change of costume. The coffin -containing the mummy was then lowered into the tomb by means of a long -rope, and was received by the grave-diggers. - - -The Ka - -The dead man was practically at the mercy of the living for subsistence -in the otherworld. Unless his kinsmen continued their offerings to him -he was indeed in bad case, for his _ka_ would starve. This _ka_ was his -double, and came into the world at the same time as himself. It must be -sharply distinguished from the _ba_, or soul, which usually took the -form of a bird after the death of its owner, and, indeed, was capable of -assuming such shape as it chose if the funeral ceremonies were carried -out correctly. Some Egyptologists consider the _ka_ to be the special -active force which imbues the human being with life, and it may be -equivalent to the Hebrew expression 'spirit' as apart from 'soul.' In -the book of Genesis we are informed that God breathed the breath of life -into man and he lived. In like manner did He lay His arms behind the -primeval gods, and forthwith His _ka_ went up over them, and they lived. -When the man died his _ka_ quitted the body, but did not cease to take -an interest in it, and on occasion even reanimated it. It was on behalf -of the _ka_ that Egyptian tombs were so well furnished with food and -drink, and the necessities, not to say the luxuries, of existence. - - -The Ba - -The _ba_, as has been mentioned, did not remain with the body, but took -wing after death. Among primitive peoples--the aborigines of America, -for instance--the soul is frequently regarded as possessing the form and -attributes of a bird. The ability of the bird to make passage for itself -across the great ocean of air, the incomprehensibility of its gift of -flight, the mystery of its song, its connexion with 'heaven,' render it -a being at once strange and enviable. Such freedom, argues primitive -man, must have the liberated soul, untrammelled by the hindering flesh. -So, too, must gods and spirits be winged, and such, he hopes, will be -his own condition when he has shaken off the mortal coil and rises on -pinions to the heavenly mansions. Thus the Bororos of Brazil believe -that the soul possesses the form of a bird. The Bilquila Indians of -British Columbia think that the soul dwells in an egg in the nape of -the neck, and that upon death this egg is hatched and the enclosed bird -takes flight. In Bohemian folk-lore we learn that the soul is popularly -conceived as a white bird. The Malays and the Battas of Sumatra also -depict the immortal part of man in bird-shape, as do the Javanese and -Borneans. Thus we see that the Egyptian concept is paralleled in many -a distant land. But nowhere do we find the belief so strong or so -persistent over a prolonged period of time as in the valley of the Nile. - -No race conferred so much importance and dignity upon the cult of the -dead as the Egyptian. It is no exaggeration to say that the life of -the Egyptian of the cultured class was one prolonged preparation for -death. It is probable, however, that he was, through force of custom and -environment, unaware of the circumstance. It is dangerous to indulge in -a universal assertion with reference to an entire nation. But if any -people ever regarded life as a mere academy of preparation for eternity, -it was the mysterious and fascinating race whose vast remains litter -the banks of the world's most ancient river, and frown upon the less -majestic undertakings of a civilization which has usurped the theatre of -their myriad wondrous deeds. - - - -[1] Certain forms of belief are now spoken of by some mythologists as -'pre-animistic.' But these are not as yet sufficiently well defined -to permit of accurate classification. See Marett, _The Threshold of -Religion_. - -[2] K. von den Steinen _Unter den Naturvolker Zentral-Brasiliens_ -(Berlin, 1894). - -[3] See _Myths and Legends of the North American Indians_, p. 87. - - -[4] See _Handbook of North American Indians_, article "Cheyenne." - -[5] As do many primitive supernatural beings all over the world. - -[6] This is typical of many water gods in America and Australia. See -Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, vol. i, p. 43. - -[7] See Gomme, _Ethnology in Folklore_. - -[8] See Lang, _The Making of Religion_ and _The New Mythology_, for -hypothesis of a monotheism prior to animistic belief. - -[9] H. de Charencey, _Le Mythe de Votan_, p. 39. There is but little -substantiation for the latter part of this statement, however. The -_bacabs_ were closely identified with the Maya _chac_, or rain-gods. - -[10] See my _Myths of Mexico and Peru_. - - - - -CHAPTER II: EXPLORATION, HISTORY, AND CUSTOMS - - -The Nile Valley - -The River Nile is the element which creates the special characteristics -of Egypt, and differentiates it from other parts of the Sahara Desert. -At its annual overflow this river deposits a rich sediment, which -makes the fertile plains on either side such a contrast to the brown -monotony of the desert. East and west of the Nile valley stretch great -wastes, broken here and there by green oases, and the general scenery -is too uniform to be interesting, the Delta itself presenting a richly -cultivated level plain, interspersed by the lofty dark brown mounds of -ancient cities and villages set in groves of palm-trees. - -In Upper Egypt the Nile valley is narrow, and is bounded by mountains -inconsiderable in height, and which never rise into peaks. Sometimes -they approach the river in the form of promontories, and sometimes are -divided by the beds of ancient watercourses. These are sufficiently -picturesque, but otherwise the landscape is not striking. In colour, -however, it is remarkably so. "The bright green of the fields, the -reddish brown or dull green of the great river contrasting with the bare -yellow rocks seen beneath a brilliant sun and deep blue sky, present -views of great beauty." - - -Racial Origin - -The question of the racial origin of the people of ancient Egypt is -one of great complexity. In graves and early cultural remains we find -traces of several races which at remote periods entered the country, -and concerning whom the data are so scanty that it is highly dangerous -to generalize about them. According to Professor Sergi of Rome, the -originator of the theory that a great civilizing stock arose at an early -period on the southern shores of the Mediterranean, the ancient Egyptian -belonged to the eastern branch of this race, along with the Nubians, -Abyssinians, Galla, Masai, and Somali. The evidence of language is -vague, for in this, as in other instances, it may only be cultural. - -Another theory is that which would people the Nile valley in early times -with a pygmy race, who were dispossessed and driven out by the immigrant -Mediterraneans. The theory that the Mediterranean people entered Egypt -directly from their original home does not agree with that which would -make a stone-working race populating the country at an early period -emanate from Palestine. It would appear from a consideration of the data -that these were Mediterraneans who had had long practice in working -in stone in a country abounding in that material. These were probably -followed by successive immigrations from the east and from Arabia or its -neighbourhood, whence came a people cognate with the Babylonians and -conversant with their culture, which they had absorbed in a common early -home which cannot now be located. These imposed their Semitic vocabulary -upon the Hamitic syntax of the people they found in the Nile valley. -But although they revolutionized the language, they only partially -succeeded in altering the religion, which remained for the most part -of the Osirian type, blending later with the Horus hawk-worship of the -new-comers. There are not wanting those who think that these immigrants -from Arabia were Hamites, who attained to a high civilization in Western -Arabia, and, pressed on by Semitic hordes from the north, crossed the -Red Sea in vessels and made their first base in Egypt at Berenice. -The dynastic Egyptians, according to this view, are Hamitic, and -not far removed in physical type from the Galla of to-day, but had, -perhaps, some element of the proto-Semitic.[1] They are thought "to have -concentrated themselves in the narrow strip of fertility along the banks -of the Nile." It would indeed be difficult to discern where else they -could have concentrated themselves. - -The dynastic history of ancient Egypt extends, at the lowest -computation, over a period of more than three thousand years. In view of -chronological difficulties, it has been found convenient to adopt the -dynastic system of reckoning chosen by Manetho, an Egyptian priest who -lived in the third century before Christ. Manetho divided the history -of Egypt into thirty-one dynasties, of which some twenty-six comprise -the period between Mena's Conquest and the Persian Conquest, while the -others cover the period of Persian, Hellenic, and Latin supremacy. With -the Persian Conquest, however, came the disintegration of the Egyptian -Empire, and at that point purely native history comes to an end. - -Though Manetho's dynastic divisions have been adopted by modern -Egyptologists, his chronology is not so well received, though it is -supported by at least one distinguished authority--Professor Flinders -Petrie. The general tendency at the present day is to accept the minimum -chronology which is known as that of the Berlin School, which places -Mena's Conquest at 3400 B.C. and the Twelfth Dynasty about 2000 B.C., -rather than that of Professor Petrie, which would place these events -at 5500 B.C. and 3400 B.C. respectively. It is customary to group the -various dynasties into three periods--the Old Kingdom, comprising -Dynasties I to VIII; the Middle Kingdom, Dynasties IX to XVIII; and the -New Empire, Dynasties XVIII to XXVI. These divisions, however, do not -imply any break in the course of Egyptian history, but are merely used -for the sake of convenience. The following Table compares the systems -of dating in vogue with students of Egyptian history, according to -Professor Petrie and the Berlin School, as represented by Professor -Breasted: - - PETRIE (1906) BERLIN SCHOOL (1906) - - B.C. B.C. - - I 5510 3400 - II 5247 - III 4945 2980 - IV 4731 2900 - V 4454 2750 - VI 4206 2625 - VII 4003 2475 - VIII 3933 - IX 3787 2445 - X 3687 - XI 3502 2160 - XII 3459 2000 - XIII 3246 1788 - XIV 2793 - XV 2533 - XVI 2249 - XVII 1731 - XVIII 1580 1580 - XIX 1322 1350 - XX 1202 1200 - XXI 1102 1090 - XXII 958 945 - XXIII 755 745 - XXIV 721 718 - XXV 715 712 - XXVI 664 663 - XXVII 525 525 - XXVIII 405 - XXIX 399 - XXX 378 - - -Egyptian Exploration - -Egypt, with its mighty ruins wrapped in silence and mystery, long ago -attracted the curiosity of the traveller, for the traditions of a high -civilization, of its religion, government, and culture, lingered in the -memory of man; and there, from temple, pyramid, palace, and city, he has -sought and gained actual and manifold proofs of the existence of that -ancient kingdom. And not only has its own history thus been unveiled -to the modern world, but intertwined therewith has been traced that of -other nations and powers, among them Persia, Greece, and Rome. - -The earliest instance in this country of the collecting of Egyptian -antiques is in 1683, when a valuable stele belonging to the Old -Kingdom was brought from Saqqara and presented to the Ashmolean Museum -at Oxford, while in the eighteenth century some attempt was made at -planning and describing Egyptian ruins, and the identification of some -of the sites with cities mentioned in classical writings. In 1798 a -scientific commission, including artists and archaeologists, accompanied -Napoleon's military expedition into Egypt, and much valuable work -was accomplished by these savants, the record of which fills several -volumes of the _Description de l'Egypte_, while the large collection of -antiquities gathered by them, including the famous Rosetta Stone, which -proved the key to the mystery of the Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, -came into British possession in the year 1801. Then, under Mehemet Ali, -Egypt was opened to Europeans, and from this time onward great numbers -of antiquities were taken from the country and found their way into -European collections and museums, especially the British Museum, the -Louvre, and those at Leyden, Berlin, and Turin. The largest collection -of Egyptian objects is that at Cairo. - - -Early Researches - -In 1821 came the decipherment of the Rosetta Stone by Champollion, -and this added a new zest to exploration and collecting. Champollion -himself, together with Rosellini, was sent by the Governments of France -and Tuscany on an expedition to Egypt, and much was done in copying -stelae and inscriptions. But the Prussian Government initiated a greater -undertaking in 1842, under Lepsius, who extended his researches from -Egypt into Nubia as far as Khartoum, and again into Syria and Palestine. -This expedition, with its scientific methods, yielded a wonderful -harvest of valuable results. The official preservation of the ancient -monuments and ruins against exploitation by dealers or destruction by -vandals was first undertaken by Mehemet Ali, who appointed Mariette to -this onerous post, and under his wise and able direction invaluable -work was accomplished. This has been developed under the British -suzerainty. The ancient sites are claimed by the Government, and the -Service of Antiquities has an annual grant of large dimensions and -employs many European and native officials. All provinces are included -in its survey, and no excavations may take place without its permission; -and this is granted to responsible persons only, and on the terms that -half of the antiquities discovered shall become the property of the -Egyptian Government, the other half going to the finders. Sir Gaston -Maspero, director of the Museum at Cairo, has made many brilliant -contributions to Egyptian archaeology. As early as 1862 the Scottish -archaeologist, Rhind, saw the necessity for some definite scientific and -comprehensive system of excavation if really valuable results were to -be obtained, and lamented the lack of any such methods in his time. -In 1883 this system of investigation was inaugurated at Tanis under -Professor Flinders Petrie. Everything, large and small, found during the -excavation of city, temple, or grave is collected and interpreted, and -made to yield its quota of evidence and information. This method gives -every object its value. Attention is not concentrated on one department -alone, hence nothing is wasted or lost, and knowledge of the arts and -crafts, the customs, the literature and religion of ancient Egypt is -slowly gathered, and all takes its due place in the pageant of history -unfolded before us. - -Much of the mystery that hung over Egypt has departed, but the glamour -and fascination she exerted in the past are still as great as ever. -These are not lessened by our more intimate knowledge of her ancient -civilization, but rather increased a hundredfold. The silence of -centuries has been broken, the hieroglyphs have told their tale to -modern man, who listens with ever-deepening interest to the voice of -the Past. The drifting sand of the desert has been cleared away and -ancient buildings stand again in the sunlight and yield their secrets -veiled for so many centuries. The graves tell over again the unchanging -sorrow of death and the world-old longings of man. Apart from the -literary remains, papyri and inscriptions, the material results have -been immense. The ancient topography of the land has become known by -the remains of roads, canals, quarries, and mines. The sites of towns, -with the temples, fortifications, and private dwellings, have been -comprehensively treated, so that the record is almost complete from the -building of the foundation to the decorative designs of the artists. -The site of each city, again, is generally that of several belonging -to different epochs; the ruins of the older buildings were levelled -to an even surface and the newer one begun several feet higher. The -artificial mounds thus made are sometimes as much as 80 or 90 feet in -height. These foundations did not deter the Egyptian architects from -erecting lofty buildings, such as those in Memphis, for in several -cities walls exist to-day from 30 to 40 feet in height. To support -these they were thickened at the base and the floors vaulted. Amongst -the limestone remains of houses are often found fragments of sandstone, -granite, and alabaster quarried from some ruined temple, which shows -that the Egyptians of those far-away days did exactly the same as their -descendants, and despoiled the neglected and ruined monuments. - - -Town Planning - -The plan of a town excavated shows the houses gathered closely around -the temple and its square enclosure. This served as fortress and refuge -if the town were attacked. The plan was regular in towns that were -built in one period, with wide paved streets running at right angles -and provided with stone channels to carry off water and drainage. The -buildings were arranged in line. In cities that were the product of -centuries there was, however, great irregularity--houses heaped in -mazes of blind alleys, and dark, narrow streets. There was generally -an open space, shaded by sycamores, used two or three times a month -as a market-place. The poorer classes were housed in hovels, rarely -exceeding 12 or 16 feet in length, and little better than the huts -of the fellaheen of to-day. The houses of the middle class, such -as shop-keepers, small officials, and foremen, were of a better -description, though rather small. They usually contained half a dozen -rooms, and some were two or three stories high, while narrow courtyards -separated them from the street, though more often the house fronted -directly on the road and was built on three sides of a courtyard. That -excellent sanitary and hygienic conditions were known in ancient Egypt -has been amply proved, for even poorer houses at Kahun boasted a stone -tank, and this luxury was universal except among the very poor. At Tell -el Amarna, in the house of a high official of the Eighteenth Dynasty, -an elaborate bath and ingenious system of water-supply have been found. -The arrangements of the ordinary house were much the same as obtain -in the East of to-day, the ground floor including store-rooms, barns, -and stables; the next for living and sleeping; the roof for sleeping -in summer, while here also the women gossiped and cooked. An outside -staircase, narrow and very steep, led to the upper rooms. These were -oblong in shape, and the door was the only means of ventilation and -lighting. For decoration the walls were sometimes whitewashed, or -decorated with red and yellow, or painted with domestic scenes. - - -Palaces and Mansions - -The palaces and mansions of the wealthy and great generally stood in -the midst of a garden or courtyard planted with trees surrounded with -crenellated walls, broken only by a doorway, which often indicated the -social importance of the family. At times it was a portico supported -on columns and adorned with statues; at others, a pylon similar to -those at the entrance of temples. "The interior," says Maspero, "almost -resembled a small town divided into quarters by irregular walls. In some -cases the dwelling-house stood at the farther end; while the granaries, -stables, and domestic offices were distributed in different parts of -the enclosure." Paintings and plans on walls of tombs, the remains of -houses at Tell el Amarna and of the palace of Akhenaten, have supplied -the means by which we learn these details. The pictorial plan of a -Theban house, half palace, half villa, is thus elucidated by Maspero: -"The enclosure is rectangular, surrounded by a crenellated wall. The -principal entrance opens upon a road bordered by trees by the side of -a canal or branch of the Nile. The garden is symmetrically divided by -low stone walls. In the centre is a large trellis supported on four -rows of small columns; to right and left are four pools stocked with -ducks and geese, two leafy conservatories, two summer-houses, and -avenues of sycamores, date-palms, and dom-palms. At the back, facing -the entrance, is the house, two-storied and of small dimensions, -surmounted by a painted cornice." On one of the tombs of Tell el Amarna -is to be found a representation of the palace of Ai, who later ascended -the throne of Egypt. This is of large size, rectangular in shape, the -facade wider than the sides. The staircases running to the terraced -roof lead into two small chambers at each corner of the back wall. The -dwelling-house itself is contained within this outer building, and was -sacred to the family and its head, and only intimate friends had the -right of entrance. The remains of the ruined palace of Akhenaten at -Tell el Amarna also follows much the same plan, with the addition of -a pavilion for the queen's use, containing a large hall 51 feet by 21 -feet. In this palace was another immense hall, its dimensions being 423 -feet by 234 feet. It contained 542 mud pillars, 52 inches square. It -communicated with five smaller halls. "The pillars were whitened, and -the ceilings were painted with vine-leaves and bunches of grapes on a -yellow ground." Many of the mansions and houses afford some beautiful -specimens of the decorative art of those days. Remains of the domestic -architecture of the Old Kingdom are not numerous, but the general plan -seems to have been much the same as in the later periods. The small -antiquities discovered, such as utensils, clothes, weapons, amulets, -and other articles which have been found in great numbers, fill in the -picture of the domestic life of ancient Egypt; while temple and fortress -and monument tell of the religion, the warfare, and the enterprise in -that distant epoch. - -These excavations cover a large area. Upper, Middle, and Lower Egypt -and Nubia have been extensively explored, likewise the Sinai Peninsula -and Syria, with its numerous tablets of conquest. In Nubia, states -an authority, owing to the poverty of the country and its scanty -population, the proportion of monuments surviving is infinitely greater -than in Egypt. Many temples, tombs, quarries, forts, grottos, and -pyramids have been found in a good state of preservation. In Upper -Egypt are to be found the great pyramids and the necropolis of Memphis, -with various smaller pyramids to the south, and it also boasts of the -stupendous ruins of Thebes on both sides of the river, the tombs and -quarries of Assuan, and the temples of Philae, though these by no means -exhaust the list of sites which have been excavated, while it is well -known that many still hold mysteries as yet untouched. - - -Life and Law in Ancient Egypt - -The existence of Egypt as a native monarchy stretched over such an -extended period that it is extremely difficult to generalize concerning -the method of its government or the life of its people. At the same -time no civilization with a record of thousands of years behind it -exhibits less change either in political or domestic affairs. It is -certain that once an agricultural mode of life was accepted by the -Egyptians they quickly contracted those manners and customs which they -retained up to the period of foreign invasion; and so far as the lower -classes are concerned, there can be little doubt that the stream of -daily life flowed on from century to century placid and unaltered. The -science of folklore has of late years proved to us how little alteration -the passage of time brings to the life and thought of a people whose -environment is such that outward forces are seldom brought to bear upon -them. Especially was this the case with the inhabitants of the Nile -valley, who for many centuries were sheltered by geographical and other -peculiarities from the inroads of other civilized races, and who by the -time that foreign invaders mingled with them had attained such a settled -course of existence, and were so powerfully influenced by tradition, as -to be practically immune from the effects of racial intermixture. It -must also be borne in mind that such invaders as Egypt knew would not -bring their womankind with them, and that their marriage to Egyptian -women would have the effect in a generation or two of completely -absorbing them into the native population, so that the racial standard -remained practically unaltered. Again, their numbers would be relatively -small compared with the population of Egypt. The environment of the -Nile valley is exceptionally well suited to the continuance of type, -as is evidenced by the persistence of form in its domestic and other -animals. Time and again have foreign sheep, goats, asses, and so forth -been introduced into it, with the result that shortly afterward they -became absorbed into the prevailing Egyptian type of their kind, with -scarcely any modification. The horse and the camel were comparatively -late importations into Egypt, and the tardy introduction of the former -is eloquent of the isolated character of the country. - -The feudal system was general throughout ancient Egypt, and the Pharaoh -was chiefly employed in keeping his greater subjects in check. These -modelled their principalities upon the central power, and even such -as had no claim to royal blood kept up establishments of considerable -magnitude. Officials swarmed in the Nile valley, and it does not seem -that they were actuated by a very high standard of political morality, -or, at least in practice, they fell short of it. Members of the royal -family were generally granted high office, and this meant that the -country was in effect administered by an hereditary bureaucracy. A -chancellor or vizier was directly responsible to the monarch for -the condition of the country--its business, finance, and legal -administration. - - -Commerce - -We know but little concerning the commercial affairs of ancient Egypt. -In all probability open-air markets were held. Currency was unknown -until the era of the Persian invasion, and until then rings of gold, -silver, and bronze were employed in exchange. Barter, however, prevailed -universally. Corn was, of course, the staple produce of Egypt, and -seems to have been exported to some extent to other countries, as were -papyrus rolls and linen; but practically all silver and copper had to -be imported, as had precious woods, the pelts of rare animals, ivory, -spices and incense, and stone for the manufacture of rare vessels. Many -of these supplies reached Egypt in the shape of tribute, but records -are extant of expeditions sent out by the king for the purpose of -obtaining foreign rarities. A great deal of Egyptian trade was in the -hands of foreigners. The Phoenicians evidently opened up communication -with Egypt as early as the Third Dynasty. In later times an extensive -trade was carried on with Greece, and Psammetichus I (_c._ 570 B.C.) -founded the town of Naucratis as the centre of Greek trade in Egypt. - - -Agriculture - -Agriculture was the backbone of Egyptian wealth; the nature of the -soil--rich, black mud, deposited by the Nile, which also served to -irrigate it--rendered the practice of farming peculiarly simple. The -intense heat, too, assisted the speedy growth of grain. Cultivation was -possible almost all the year round, but usually terminated with the -harvests gathered in at the end of April, from which month to June a -period of slackness was afforded the farmer. A great variety of crops -was sown, but wheat and barley were the most popular; durra, of which -bread was made, lentils, peas, beans, radishes, lettuces, onions, -and flax were also cultivated. Fruits were represented by the grape, -pomegranate, fig, and date. Timber was scanty and, as has been said, -was mostly imported. In early times it was probably more abundant, -but the introduction of the camel and the goat proved its ruin, these -animals stripping the bark from the trees and devouring the shoots. -Wine was chiefly made in the district of Mareotis, near Alexandria, and -appears to have possessed a very delicate flavour. The papyrus plant was -widely cultivated from the earliest times; the stem was employed for -boat-building and rope-making, as well as for writing materials. - - -Legal Code - -Egyptian law appears to have been traditional, and no remains of any -specific code have come down to us. Royal decrees and regulations -were promulgated from time to time, and these were usually engraved -on stone and carefully preserved. In the Ptolemaic period travelling -courts were instituted, which settled litigation of all descriptions; -but the traditional law of the country appears to have been well known -to the people and fully recognized by their rulers. A favourite way of -having a grievance redressed was to petition the king or one of the -great feudal princes. Courts sitting to hear specific cases were nearly -always composed of royal or territorial persons in early days, and in -later times of officials. The right to appeal to the king existed. -Evidence was given upon oath, a favourite oath being "By the king" or -"By the life of the king." Only occasionally was torture employed for -the purpose of extracting evidence. Penalties were various. In many -instances the accused was allowed to take his own life. For minor crimes -the bastinado or disfigurement by cutting off the nose, banishment or -fine, were the usual punishments. During the Old Kingdom decapitation -was the usual means of inflicting death. The drawing up of contracts was -universal, and these were, as a rule, duly witnessed. From the time of -the Twenty-fifth Dynasty these are discovered in abundance, and usually -refer to sales or loans. Although a woman could inherit property, she -had not the entire right of dealing with it, but, if divorced, her dowry -could not be forfeited. Many of these ancient documents deal with the -buying and selling of slaves. It is not clear, however, whether or not -the consent of a slave was necessary to his sale. - - -Science - -Knowledge and learning of every description were, of course, -subordinated to the religious idea, which was the paramount -consideration in Egyptian life. With architecture we have dealt -elsewhere. It would seem that scientific operations of all sorts were -carried out, not by means of any given formulae, but merely by rule -of thumb. Wonderful results were obtained by the simplest means, and -the methods by which the pyramids were raised are still somewhat of a -mystery. The dates of festivals were astronomically fixed; and it has -been stated that the pyramids and other large buildings were orientated -in the same manner. The beginning of the inundation of the Nile was -marked by the rising of the star Sothis or Sirius. A great many Egyptian -inventions appear to be of considerable antiquity, but the inventive -faculty of the race would seem to have been stunted or altogether lost -in later times. Attempts at progress were absolutely unknown even when -the Egyptians came into contact with foreigners, and all innovations -were looked upon askance. - - -The Peasantry - -It is uncertain to what extent the people followed the nobility in -the very rigorous religious programme that these had set themselves. -That they were as deeply superstitious as their betters there can be -little doubt; but that they regarded themselves as fit subjects for the -same otherworld to which the aristocracy were bound is unlikely in the -extreme. Probably at the best they thought they might find some corner -in the dark realm of Osiris where they would not be utterly annihilated, -or that at least their _kas_ would be duly fed and nourished by the -offerings made to them by their children. The Egyptian peasant was -pre-eminently a son of the soil, hard-working, patient, and content, -with little in the way of food, shelter, and raiment--not at all unlike -the fellah of the present day. The lot of the Egyptian peasant woman -was, like that of her husband, one of arduous toil. She was usually -married about the age of fifteen, and by the age of thirty was often a -grandmother. The care of her dwelling and children was not, however, -permitted to occupy all her time, for at certain seasons she was -expected to assist her husband in the field, where she probably received -more blows than thanks. Justice was not very even-handed, and redress -for any individual of the peasant class was not easily obtained; it is -strange that the conditions under which the peasantry dwelt did not -foment rebellion. Probably the only reason that such outbreaks did not -take place was that the condition of servitude was too deep and that, -like most Orientals, the Egyptians were fatalists. - - -Costume - -The fashion of apparel differed considerably with the dynasties. As -we have already noted, the Pharaoh possessed a peculiar attire of his -own, upon which that of the upper ranks of society was to some extent -modelled. The climate did not permit or encourage the wearing of heavy -material, so that fine linen was greatly in use. The upper portions -of the body were only partially covered, and amongst the nobility in -ancient times a species of linen skirt was worn. The women's dress -from the earliest times was a dress reaching from the armpits to the -ankles, with straps over the shoulders. The men's dress was usually a -form of loin-cloth. The wearing of wigs was practically universal, and -originated in prehistoric times. At some early period native ritual -had prescribed that the head must be shaved, so that the fashion of the -long peruke, or the close-fitting cloth cap with ear-lappets, became -practically a necessity. We find, however, that some ladies refused to -sacrifice their hair, and in the well-known statue of Nefert we notice -the bands of natural hair, neatly smoothed down over the brow, peeping -out beneath the heavy wig she is wearing. Practically all classes wore -sandals of leather or plaited papyrus. - -In general appearance the Egyptian was tall, being considerably -above the European average in height. The race were for the most -part dolichocephalic, or long-skulled, narrow-waisted and angular. -In later life they frequently became corpulent, but during youth and -early manhood presented rather a 'wiry' appearance. They had, however, -broad shoulders and a well-developed chest-cavity. The examination of -thousands of mummies by Dr. Elliot Smith has proved that in later times -the Egyptian race greatly improved in physique and muscular qualities. -In character the Egyptian was grave, and perhaps a little taciturn, -being in this respect not unlike the Scot and the Spaniard; but, like -these peoples, he had also a strain of gaiety in his composition, and -his popular literature is in places eloquent of the philosophy of -_laissez-faire_. It is probable that the stern religious code under -which he lived drove him at times to deep disgust of his surroundings. -The Egyptian peasant's amusement at times took the form of intoxication, -and pictures are extant which show the labourer being borne home on -the shoulders of his fellows. Among the upper classes, too, it cannot -be denied that a philosophy of pleasure had gained a very strong -hold, especially in later times. They probably thought that if they -committed the _Book of the Dead_ to heart they were sure of a blissful -future, and that in this lay their whole moral duty. As regards their -ethical standpoint, it may be said that they were rather _unmoral_ than -_immoral_, and that good and evil, as we understand it, were almost -unknown to them. The Egyptians as a race possessed, however, an innate -love of justice and right thinking, and they will always take their -place in the roll of nations as a people who have done more than perhaps -any other to upbuild the fabric of order, decency, and propriety. - - - - -CHAPTER III: THE PRIESTHOOD: MYSTERIES AND TEMPLES - - -The Priesthood - -The power and condition of the Egyptian priesthood varied greatly -with the passing of the centuries. It was in all likelihood at all -times independent of the royal power, and indeed there were periods in -Egyptian history when the sway of the Pharaohs was seriously endangered, -or altogether eclipsed, by the ecclesiastical party. Vast grants of -land had enriched the hundreds of temples which crowded the Egyptian -land, and these gave employment to a veritable army of dependents and -officials. Under the New Kingdom, for example, the wealth and power -of the god Amen rivalled, if it did not eclipse, that of the Pharaoh -himself. In the time of Rameses III this influential cult numbered no -fewer than 80,000 dependents, exclusive of worshippers, and its wealth -can be assessed by the circumstance that it could count its cattle by -the hundred thousand head. The kings, however, periodically attempted to -diminish the power of the priesthood by nominating their own relatives -or adherents to its principal offices. - -In early days the great lords of the soil took upon themselves the title -and duties of chief priest in their territory, thus combining the feudal -and ecclesiastical offices. Beneath them were a number of priests, both -lay and professional. But in later times this system was exchanged for -one in which a rigorous discipline necessitated the appointment of a -professional class whose duties were sharply outlined and specialized. -Despite this, however, and contrary to popular belief, at no time did -the priestly power combine itself into a caste that was distinctly -separate from the laity, the members of which continued to act along -with it. Individuals of the priesthood were generally alluded to as _hen -neter_ ('servant of the god') or _uab_ ('the pure'). In some localities -the chief priests possessed distinctive titles, such as _Khorp hemtiu_ -('chief of the artificers') in the temple of Ptah, or _Ur ma_ ('the -Great Seer'--literally, 'Great One of Seeing') at Heliopolis. At Mendes -he was known by the title, odd enough for an ecclesiastical dignitary, -of 'Director of the Soldiers,' and at Thebes as 'First Prophet of Amen.' -Those priests who conducted the ceremonial were known as _kheri-heb_. - -The duties of the priesthood were arduous. A most stringent and exacting -code had to be followed so far as cleanliness and discipline were -concerned. Constant purifications and lustrations succeeded each other, -and the garb of the religious must be fresh and unspotted. It consisted -entirely of the purest and whitest linen, the wearing of woollen and -other fabrics being strictly forbidden, and even abhorred. The head -was closely shaven, and no head-dress was worn. The priest's day was -thoroughly mapped out for him. If he was on duty, he duly washed himself -and proceeded to the Holy of Holies, where he repeated certain formulae, -accompanying them by prescribed gestures, preparatory to breaking the -seal which closed the sanctuary. Standing face to face with the god, he -prostrated himself, and after performing other ritualistic offices he -presented the deity with a small image of Maat, the goddess of Truth. -The god, powerless before this moment to participate in the ceremonial, -was then supposedly regaled with a collation the principal items in -which seem to have been beef, geese, bread, and beer, having consumed -which he re-entered his shrine, and did not appear until the morning -following. In the entire ritual of these morning offerings it would -appear that the officiating priest represents Horus, son of Osiris, -who, like all dutiful Egyptian sons, sees to the welfare of his father -after death. Thus the ritual is coloured by the Osirian myth. The -remainder of the day was passed in meditation, the study of various -arts and sciences, theoretical and manual, and officiation at public -religious ceremonies. Even the night had its duties; for lustration -and purification were undertaken in the small hours, the priest being -awakened for that purpose about or after midnight. - - -The College of Thebes - -Early Greek travellers in Egypt, and especially Herodotus and Strabo, -speak with enthusiasm of the abilities of the Egyptian priests and the -high standard of philosophic thought to which they had attained. The -great college of priests at Thebes is alluded to with admiration by -Strabo. Its members were probably the most learned and acute theologians -and philosophers in ancient Egypt. Colleges of almost equal importance -existed elsewhere, as at Anu, the On or Heliopolis of the Greeks. -Each nome or province had its own great temple, which developed the -provincial religion regardless of faiths which existed but a few miles -away. The god of the nome was its divinity _par excellence_, Ruler of -the Gods, Creator of the Universe, and giver of all good things to his -folk. - -But it must not be imagined that, if the priesthood as a body was -wealthy, some of its members did not suffer the pinch of hardship. -Thus, although the best conditions attached to office in the great -temples, these were by no means overstaffed. At Abydos only five -priests composed the staff, while Siut had ten attached to it. Again, -the smaller temples possessed revenues by no means in proportion to -their size. A study of this subject shows the stipend of the chief -priests of the smaller shrines. "On the western border of the Fayum," -says Erman, "on the lake of Moeris, was the temple of _Sobk[2] of the -Island, Soknopaios_ as it is called by the Greeks. It had a high-priest -who received a small stipend of 344 drachmae, and all the other priests -together received daily about one bushel of wheat as remuneration for -their trouble. They were not even immune from the statutory labour on -the embankments, and if this was lessened for them, it was owing to -the good offices of their fellow-citizens. The revenues of the temple, -both in regular incomes and what was given in offerings, was used for -the requirements of the ceremonies, for at every festival fine linen -must be provided for the clothing of the three statues of the gods, -and each time that cost 100 drachmae; 20 drachmae were paid on each -occasion for the unguents and oil of myrrh employed in anointing the -statues, 500 drachmae were for incense, while 40 drachmae were required -to supply sacrifices and incense for the birthdays of the emperor. And -yet these priests, who were in the position of the peasantry and of the -lower classes of townspeople, maintained that their position in no way -diminished their ancient sanctity." - -Priestesses also held offices in the temples. In earlier times these -officiated at the shrines of both gods and goddesses, and it is only at -a later date that we find them less often as celebrants in the temples -dedicated to male deities, where they acted chiefly as musicians. - - -Mysteries - -There is a popular fallacy to the effect that 'volumes' have been -written concerning the Egyptian 'mysteries,' those picturesque and -unearthly ceremonies of initiation which are supposed to have taken -place in subterranean dusk, surrounded by all the circumstances of -occult rite and custom. The truth is that works which deal with the -subject are exceedingly rare, and are certainly not of the kind from -which we can hope to glean anything concerning the mysteries of Egyptian -priestcraft. We shall do better to turn to the analogous instances of -Grecian practice or even to those of savage and semi-civilized peoples -concerning whose mysteries a good deal has been unearthed of recent -years. - -Regarding the Egyptian mysteries but little is known. We have it on the -authority of Herodotus that mysteries existed, possibly those in the -case cited being the annual commemoration of the sufferings and death of -Osiris. Says Herodotus: - -"At Sais in the Temple of Minerva, beneath the Churche and neere unto -the walle of Minerva, in a base Chappell, are standinge certayne greate -brooches of stone, whereto is adioyninge a lowe place in manner of a -Dungeon, couered over wyth a stone curiously wroughte, the vaute it -selfe being on euery side carued with most exquisite arte, in biggnesse -matching with that in Delos, which is called Trochoides. Herein euery -one counterfayteth the shadowes of his owne affections and phantasies -in the nyghte season, which the Aegyptians call Mysteryes; touchinge -whiche, God forbid, I should aduenture to discouer so much as they -vouchsafed to tell mee." - -In chapter i of the _Book of the Dead_, too, we encounter the phrase, -"I look upon the hidden things in _Re-stau_"--an allusion to the -ceremonies which were performed in the sanctuary of Seker, the god of -death at Saqqara. These typified the birth and death of the sun-god, and -were celebrated betwixt midnight and dawn. Again, in chapter cxxv of -the _Book of the Dead_ (Papyrus of Ani) we read, "I have entered into -_Re-stau_ [the other world of Seker, near Memphis] and I have seen the -Hidden One [or mystery] who is therein." - -Chapter cxlviii (_Saite Recension_) is to be recited "on the day of the -new moon, on the sixth-day festival, on the fifteenth-day festival, -on the festival of Uag, on the festival of Thoth, on the birthday of -Osiris, on the festival of Menu, on the night of Heker, during the -mysteries of Maat, during the celebration of the mysteries of Akertet," -and so forth. Herodotus, who was supposed to have been initiated into -these mysteries, is righteously cryptic concerning them, and just as he -has aroused our interest to fever heat he invariably sees fit to remark -that his lips are sealed on the subject. - -But is there anything so very extraordinary in these terrible doings? -Theosophists and others would lead us to suppose that in the gloomy -crypts of Egypt weird spiritistic rites of evocation and magical -ceremonies of dark import were gone through. What are the probabilities? - - -The Greek Mysteries - -Let us briefly examine the mysteries of ancient Greece. We find that -these are for the most part pre-Hellenic, and that the conquered -populations of the country adopted the mystic attitude in order to -shroud their religious ceremonies from the eyes of the invaders. Now -those early populations inherited a strong cultural influence from -Egypt. The most important of the mysteries was perhaps the Eleusinian, -and we may take it as typical of the Greek religious mysteries as a -whole. The chief figures in this mysterious cult were Demeter and Kore -(or Persephone) and Pluto. Now these are all deities of the underworld -and, like many other gods of Hades all the world over, they are also -deities possessing an agricultural significance. Much remains uncertain -regarding the actual ritual in the hall of the Mystae, but one thing -is certain, and that is that the ceremony was in the nature of a -religious drama or Passion-play, in which were enacted the adventures of -Demeter and Kore, symbolic of the growth of the corn. Hippolytus also -stated that a cornstalk was shown to the worshippers at the Eleusinian -mysteries. The whole mystery then resolved itself into symbolism of the -growth of the crops. Exactly how the ceremonies in connexion with this -came to have the appearance of those usually associated with a savage -secret society is not quite clear. The blackfellows of Australia and -certain North American Indian tribes possess societies and celebrations -almost identical with that of Eleusis, but why they should be wrapped -in such mystery it is difficult to understand. It has been stated -that the mystic setting of these cults arose in many cases from the -dread of the under-world and the miasma which emanated therefrom, and -which necessitated a ritual purification; but this does not seem at -all explanatory. In the _Popul Vuh_ of Central America we find what -appear to be the doings of a secret society among the deities of the -underworld, some of whom are gods of growth. - -We seem to see some such society outlined in the _Book of the Dead_, -which perhaps dates from prehistoric times, and is most probably the -remains of a Neolithic cult connected with the phenomena of growth. -In its pages we find password and countersign and all the magical -material necessary to the existence of such a secret cult as we have -been speaking of. We may take it, then, that the Egyptian mysteries -strongly resembled those of Greece, that their ritual was of a character -similar to that of the _Book of the Dead_, and that it perhaps possessed -an origin in common with that work. These mystical associations would -appear to be all of Neolithic origin, and to possess an agricultural -basis for the most part. When, therefore, we see in Herodotus and -elsewhere a strong disposition to preserve these mysteries intact we -find ourselves once more face to face with the original question--Why -are they mysteries? - -In the first place, all growth is mysterious, and primitive man probably -regarded it as in some manner magical. Secondly, it is noticeable that -nearly all these mysteries, in the old world at least, took place -underground, in darkness, and that there was enacted the symbolism of -the growth of corn, probably for the purpose of inciting the powers of -growth to greater activity by dint of sympathetic magic. - - -The Egyptian Temple - -The earliest form of temple was a mere hut of plaited wickerwork, -serving as a shrine for the symbols of the god; the altar but a mat -of reeds. The earliest temples evolve from a wall built round the -name-stelae, which was afterward roofed in. With the advent of the New -Empire the temple-building became of a much more complicated character, -though the essential plan from the earliest period to the latest -remained practically unchanged. The simplest form was a surrounding -wall, the pylon or entrance gateway with flanking towers, before which -were generally placed two colossal statues of the king and two obelisks, -then the innermost sanctuary, the _naos_, which held the divine symbols. -This was elaborated by various additions, such as three pylons, divided -by three avenues of sphinxes, then columned courts, and a hypostyle -or columnar hall. In this way many of the Egyptian kings enlarged the -buildings of their predecessors. - -These temples stood in the midst of populous cities, the huge -surrounding wall shutting out the noise and bustle of the narrow -streets. Leading up to the great pylon, the chief gateway, was a broad -road carried right through the inhabited quarter and guarded on each -side by rows of lions, rams, or other sacred animals. In front of the -gateway were two obelisks, likewise statues of the king who founded the -temple, as protector of the sanctuary. On either side of the entrance -stood a high tower, square in shape, with the sides sloping inward. -These were of course originally designed for defensive purposes, and -the passage through the pylon could thus be successfully barred against -all foes, while from postern-gates in the wall sorties could be made. -Tall masts were fixed in sockets at the foot of the pylon. From these -gaily coloured streamers waved to keep afar all menace of evil, as did -the symbol of the sun, the Winged Disk, over the great doors. These -were often made of wood, a valuable material in Egypt, and covered with -a sheathing of glittering gold. The outer walls were decorated with -brightly coloured reliefs and inscriptions, depicting the deeds of the -founder, for the temple was as much a personal monument as a shrine of -the tutelary deity. Inside the pylon was a great court, open to the -sky, usually only colonnaded on either side, but in larger temples, -as that of Karnak, a series of columns ran the length of the centre. -Here the great festivals were held, in which a large number of citizens -had the right to take part. By a low doorway from this the hypostyle was -entered, the windows of which were near the roof, so that the light was -dim, while the sanctuary was in complete and profound darkness. - - -The Holy Place - -This, the Holy Place, was the chief room of the temple. Here stood the -_naos_, a box rectangular in shape and open in front, often with a -latticework door. This served as the receptacle of the divine symbols or -in some cases as the cage of the sacred animal. On either side of the -sanctuary were dark chambers, used as the store-rooms for the sacred -vestments, the processional standards and sacred barque, the temple -furniture, and so on. It is to be noted that as the progression was from -the blazing light of the first great court to the complete darkness of -the Holy of Holies, so the roofs grew less lofty. The inside walls and -columns were decorated with reliefs in brilliant colours depicting the -rites and worship connected with the presiding deity in ceremonial order. - -Surrounding the temple was the _temenos_, enveloped by a wall in which -were situated other and smaller temples, with groves of sacred trees -and birds, lakes on which the sacred barque floated, the dwellings of -the priests, and sometimes palaces amid the gardens. Outside again were -sacred ways that led in different directions, some branching from temple -to temple, through cities, villages, and fields, while at the side steps -sloped down to the Nile, where boats were anchored. Along these ways -went the sacred processions, bearing the images of the gods; by them -came the monarch in royal state to make offerings to the gods; and here -the dead were carried to their tombs across the Nile. - -Greece has frequently been alluded to as the 'Land of Temples.' The -appellation might with greater justice be applied to Egypt, where -fanes of Cyclopean magnitude rose in every nome ere yet Hellas could -boast knowledge of the mason's art. Still they stand, those giant -shrines, well-nigh as perfect as when fresh from the chisels of the old -hierophants who shaped and designed them. And so long as a fostering -love of the past dwells in the heart of man so long shall they remain. - - -[1] See Seligmann, _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, -vol. xliii. - -[2] Sebek. - - - - -CHAPTER IV: THE CULT OF OSIRIS - - -Osiris - -One of the principal figures in the Egyptian pantheon, and one whose -elements it is most difficult to disentangle, is Osiris, or As-ar. -The oldest and most simple form of the name is expressed by two -hieroglyphics representing a throne and an eye. These, however, cast -but little light on the meaning of the name. Even the later Egyptians -themselves were ignorant of its derivation, for we find that they -thought it meant 'the Strength of the Eye'--that is, the strength of the -sun-god, Ra. The second syllable of the name, _ar_, may, however, be in -some manner connected with Ra, as we shall see later. In dynastic times -Osiris was regarded as god of the dead and the under-world. Indeed, he -occupied the same position in that sphere as Ra did in the land of the -living. We must also recollect that the realm of the under-world was the -realm of night. - -The origins of Osiris are extremely obscure. We cannot glean from the -texts when or where he first began to be worshipped, but that his -cult is greatly more ancient than any text is certain. The earliest -dynastic centres of his worship were Abydos and Mendes. He is perhaps -represented on a mace-head of Narmer found at Hieraconpolis, and on a -wooden plaque of the reign of Udy-mu (Den) or Hesepti, the fifth king of -the First Dynasty, who is figured as dancing before him. This shows that -a centre of Osiris-worship existed at Abydos during the First Dynasty. -But allusions in the Pyramid Texts give us to understand that prior to -this shrines had been raised to Osiris in various parts of the Nile -country. As has been outlined in the chapter on the _Book of the Dead_, -Osiris dwells peaceably in the underworld with the justified, judging -the souls of the departed as they appear before him. This paradise was -known as Aaru, which, it is important to note, although situated in the -under-world, was originally thought to be in the sky. - -Osiris is usually figured as wrapped in mummy bandages and wearing -the white cone-shaped crown of the South, yet Dr. Budge says of him: -"Everything which the texts of all periods record concerning him goes -to show that he was an indigenous god of North-east Africa, and that -his home and origin were possibly Libyan." In any case, we may take it -that Osiris was genuinely African in origin, and that he was indigenous -to the soil of the Dark Continent. Brugsch and Sir Gaston Maspero both -regarded him as a water-god,[1] and thought that he represented the -creative and nutritive powers of the Nile stream in general, and of the -inundation in particular. This theory is agreed to by Dr. Budge, but -if Osiris is a god of the Nile alone, why import him from the Libyan -desert, which boasts of no rivers? River-gods do not as a rule emanate -from regions of sand. Before proceeding further it will be well to -relate the myth of Osiris. - - -The Myth of Osiris - -Plutarch is our principal authority for the legend of Osiris. A complete -version of the tale is not to be found in Egyptian texts, though these -confirm the accounts given by the Greek writers. The following is a -brief account of the myth as it is related in Plutarch's _De Iside et -Osiride_: - -Rhea (the Egyptian Nut, the sky-goddess) was the wife of Helios (Ra). -She was, however, beloved by Kronos (Geb), whose affection she returned. -When Ra discovered his wife's infidelity he was wrathful indeed, and -pronounced a curse upon her, saying that her child should not be born -in any month or in any year. Now the curse of Ra the mighty could not -be turned aside, for Ra was the chief of all the gods. In her distress -Nut called upon the god Thoth (the Greek Hermes), who also loved her. -Thoth knew that the curse of Ra must be fulfilled, yet by a very cunning -stratagem he found a way out of the difficulty. He went to Silene, -the moon-goddess, whose light rivalled that of the sun himself, and -challenged her[2] to a game of tables. The stakes on both sides were -high, but Silene staked some of her light, the seventieth part of each -of her illuminations, and lost. Thus it came about that her light wanes -and dwindles at certain periods, so that she is no longer the rival of -the sun. From the light which he had won from the moon-goddess Thoth -made five days which he added to the year (at that time consisting of -three hundred and sixty days) in such wise that they belonged neither -to the preceding nor to the following year, nor to any month. On these -five days Nut was delivered of her five children. Osiris was born on the -first day, Horus on the second, Set on the third, Isis on the fourth, -and Nephthys on the fifth.[3] On the birth of Osiris a loud voice was -heard throughout all the world saying, "The lord of all the earth is -born!" A slightly different tradition relates that a certain man named -Pamyles, carrying water from the temple of Ra at Thebes, heard a -voice commanding him to proclaim the birth of "the good and great king -Osiris," which he straightway did. For this reason the education of -the young Osiris was entrusted to Pamyles. Thus, it is said, was the -festival of the Pamilia instituted. - -In course of time the prophecies concerning Osiris were fulfilled, and -he became a great and wise king. The land of Egypt flourished under his -rule as it had never done heretofore. Like many another 'hero-god,' he -set himself the task of civilizing his people, who at his coming were -in a very barbarous condition, indulging in cannibalistic and other -savage practices. He gave them a code of laws, taught them the arts -of husbandry, and showed them the proper rites wherewith to worship -the gods. And when he had succeeded in establishing law and order in -Egypt he betook himself to distant lands to continue there his work -of civilization. So gentle and good was he, and so pleasant were his -methods of instilling knowledge into the minds of the barbarians, that -they worshipped the very ground whereon he trod. - - -Set, the Enemy - -He had one bitter enemy, however, in his brother Set, the Greek Typhon. -During the absence of Osiris his wife Isis ruled the country so well -that the schemes of the wicked Set to take a share in its government -were not allowed to mature. But on the king's return Set fixed on a -plan whereby to rid himself altogether of the king, his brother. For -the accomplishment of his ends he leagued himself with Aso, the queen -of Ethiopia, and seventy-two other conspirators. Then, after secretly -measuring the king's body, he caused to be made a marvellous chest, -richly fashioned and adorned, which would contain exactly the body of -Osiris. This done, he invited his fellow-plotters and his brother the -king to a great feast. Now Osiris had frequently been warned by the -queen to beware of Set, but, having no evil in himself, the king feared -it not in others, so he betook himself to the banquet. - -When the feast was over Set had the beautiful chest brought into the -banqueting-hall, and said, as though in jest, that it should belong to -him whom it would fit. One after another the guests lay down in the -chest, but it fitted none of them till the turn of Osiris came. Quite -unsuspicious of treachery, the king laid himself down in the great -receptacle. In a moment the conspirators had nailed down the lid, -pouring boiling lead over it lest there should be any aperture. Then -they set the coffin adrift on the Nile, at its Tanaitic mouth. These -things befell, say some, in the twenty-eighth year of Osiris' life; -others say in the twenty-eighth year of his reign. - -When the news reached the ears of Isis she was sore stricken, and cut -off a lock of her hair and put on mourning apparel. Knowing well that -the dead cannot rest till their bodies have been buried with funeral -rites, she set out to find the corpse of her husband. For a long time -her search went unrewarded, though she asked every man and woman she met -whether they had seen the richly decorated chest. At length it occurred -to her to inquire of some children who played by the Nile, and, as it -chanced, they were able to tell her that the chest had been brought to -the Tanaitic mouth of the Nile by Set and his accomplices. From that -time children were regarded by the Egyptians as having some special -faculty of divination. - - -The Tamarisk-tree - -By and by the queen gained information of a more exact kind through the -agency of demons, by whom she was informed that the chest had been cast -up on the shore of Byblos, and flung by the waves into a tamarisk-bush, -which had shot up miraculously into a magnificent tree, enclosing the -coffin of Osiris in its trunk. The king of that country, Melcarthus -by name, was astonished at the height and beauty of the tree, and had -it cut down and a pillar made from its trunk wherewith to support the -roof of his palace. Within this pillar, therefore, was hidden the chest -containing the body of Osiris. Isis hastened with all speed to Byblos, -where she seated herself by the side of a fountain. To none of those who -approached her would she vouchsafe a word, saving only to the queen's -maidens, and these she addressed very graciously, braiding their hair -and perfuming them with her breath, more fragrant than the odour of -flowers. When the maidens returned to the palace the queen inquired -how it came that their hair and clothes were so delightfully perfumed, -whereupon they related their encounter with the beautiful stranger. -Queen Astarte, or Athenais, bade that she be conducted to the palace, -welcomed her graciously, and appointed her nurse to one of the young -princes. - - -The Grief of Isis - -Isis fed the boy by giving him her finger to suck. Every night, when -all had retired to rest, she would pile great logs on the fire and -thrust the child among them, and, changing herself into a swallow, would -twitter mournful lamentations for her dead husband. Rumours of these -strange practices were brought by the queen's maidens to the ears of -their mistress, who determined to see for herself whether or not there -was any truth in them. So she concealed herself in the great hall, and -when night came sure enough Isis barred the doors and piled logs on -the fire, thrusting the child among the glowing wood. The queen rushed -forward with a loud cry and rescued her boy from the flames. The goddess -reproved her sternly, declaring that by her action she had deprived -the young prince of immortality. Then Isis revealed her identity to -the awe-stricken Athenais and told her story, begging that the pillar -which supported the roof might be given to her. When her request had -been granted she cut open the tree, took out the coffin containing the -body of Osiris, and mourned so loudly over it that one of the young -princes died of terror. Then she took the chest by sea to Egypt, being -accompanied on the journey by the elder son of King Melcarthus. The -child's ultimate fate is variously recounted by several conflicting -traditions. The tree which had held the body of the god was long -preserved and worshipped at Byblos. - -Arrived in Egypt, Isis opened the chest and wept long and sorely over -the remains of her royal husband. But now she bethought herself of -her son Harpocrates, or Horus the Child, whom she had left in Buto, -and leaving the chest in a secret place, she set off to search for -him. Meanwhile Set, while hunting by the light of the moon, discovered -the richly adorned coffin and in his rage rent the body into fourteen -pieces, which he scattered here and there throughout the country. - -Upon learning of this fresh outrage on the body of the god, Isis took -a boat of papyrus-reeds and journeyed forth once more in search of her -husband's remains. After this crocodiles would not touch a papyrus boat, -probably because they thought it contained the goddess, still pursuing -her weary search. Whenever Isis found a portion of the corpse she buried -it and built a shrine to mark the spot. It is for this reason that there -are so many tombs of Osiris in Egypt.[4] - - -The Vengeance of Horus - -By this time Horus had reached manhood, and Osiris, returning from the -Duat, where he reigned as king of the dead, encouraged him to avenge the -wrongs of his parents. Horus thereupon did battle with Set, the victory -falling now to one, now to the other. At one time Set was taken captive -by his enemy and given into the custody of Isis, but the latter, to her -son's amazement and indignation, set him at liberty. So angry was Horus -that he tore the crown from his mother's head. Thoth, however, gave her -a helmet in the shape of a cow's head. Another version states that Horus -cut off his mother's head, which Thoth, the maker of magic, stuck on -again in the form of a cow's. - -Horus and Set, it is said, still do battle with one another, yet victory -has fallen to neither. When Horus shall have vanquished his enemy, -Osiris will return to earth and reign once more as king in Egypt. - - -Sir J.G. Frazer on Osiris - -From the particulars of this myth Sir J. G. Frazer has argued[5] that -Osiris was "one of those personifications of vegetation whose annual -death and resurrection have been celebrated in so many lands"--that he -was a god of vegetation analogous to Adonis and Attis. - -"The general similarity of the myth and ritual of Osiris to those of -Adonis and Attis," says Sir J.G. Frazer, "is obvious. In all three cases -we see a god whose untimely and violent death is mourned by a loving -goddess and annually celebrated by his worshippers. The character of -Osiris as a deity of vegetation is brought out by the legend that he was -the first to teach men the use of corn, and by the custom of beginning -his annual festival with the tillage of the ground. He is said also to -have introduced the cultivation of the vine. In one of the chambers -dedicated to Osiris in the great temple of Isis at Philae the dead body -of Osiris is represented with stalks of corn springing from it, and a -priest is depicted watering the stalks from a pitcher which he holds in -his hand. The accompanying legend sets forth that 'this is the form of -him whom one may not name, Osiris of the mysteries, who springs from the -returning waters.' It would seem impossible to devise a more graphic -way of depicting Osiris as a personification of the corn; while the -inscription attached to the picture proves that this personification -was the kernel of the mysteries of the god, the innermost secret -that was only revealed to the initiated. In estimating the mythical -character of Osiris, very great weight must be given to this monument. -The story that his mangled remains were scattered up and down the land -may be a mythical way of expressing either the sowing or the winnowing -of the grain. The latter interpretation is supported by the tale -that Isis placed the severed limbs of Osiris on a corn-sieve. Or the -legend may be a reminiscence of the custom of slaying a human victim -as a representative of the corn-spirit, and distributing his flesh or -scattering his ashes over the fields to fertilize them." - - -"But Osiris was more than a spirit of the corn; he was also a -tree-spirit, and this may well have been his original character, since -the worship of trees is naturally older in the history of religion -than the worship of the cereals. His character as a tree-spirit was -represented very graphically in a ceremony described by Firmicus -Maternus. A pine-tree having been cut down, the centre was hollowed out, -and with the wood thus excavated an image of Osiris was made, which was -then 'buried' in the hollow of the tree. Here, again, it is hard to -imagine how the conception of a tree as tenanted by a personal being -could be more plainly expressed. The image of Osiris thus made was kept -for a year and then burned, exactly as was done with the image of Attis -which was attached to the pine-tree. The ceremony of cutting the tree, -as described by Firmicus Maternus, appears to be alluded to by Plutarch. -It was probably the ritual counterpart of the mythical discovery of the -body of Osiris enclosed in the erica-tree. We may conjecture that the -erection of the _Tatu_ pillar at the close of the annual festival of -Osiris was identical with the ceremony described by Firmicus; it is to -be noted that in the myth the erica-tree formed a pillar in the king's -house. Like the similar custom of cutting a pine-tree and fastening an -image to it, in the rites of Attis, the ceremony perhaps belonged to -the class of customs of which the bringing in the Maypole is among the -most familiar. As to the pine-tree in particular, at Denderah the tree -of Osiris is a conifer, and the coffer containing the body of Osiris is -here depicted as enclosed within the tree. A pine-cone often appears on -the monuments as an offering presented to Osiris, and a manuscript of -the Louvre speaks of the cedar as sprung from him. The sycamore and the -tamarisk are also his trees. In inscriptions he is spoken of as residing -in them, and his mother Nut is frequently portrayed in a sycamore. In a -sepulchre at How (Diospolis Parva) a tamarisk is depicted overshadowing -the coffer of Osiris; and in the series of sculptures which illustrate -the mystic history of Osiris in the great temple of Isis at Philae a -tamarisk is figured with two men pouring water on it. The inscription -on this last monument leaves no doubt, says Brugsch, that the verdure -of the earth was believed to be connected with the verdure of the tree, -and that the sculpture refers to the grave of Osiris at Philae, of -which Plutarch tells us that it was overshadowed by a _methide_ plant, -taller than any olive-tree. This sculpture, it may be observed, occurs -in the same chamber in which the god is depicted as a corpse with ears -of corn sprouting from him. In inscriptions he is referred to as 'the -one in the tree,' 'the solitary one in the acacia,' and so forth. On -the monuments he sometimes appears as a mummy covered with a tree or -with plants. It accords with the character of Osiris as a tree-spirit -that his worshippers were forbidden to injure fruit-trees, and with his -character as a god of vegetation in general that they were not allowed -to stop up wells of water, which are so important for the irrigation of -hot southern lands." - -Sir J.G. Frazer goes on to combat the theory of Lepsius that Osiris was -to be identified with the sun-god Ra. Osiris, says the German scholar, -was named Osiris-Ra even in the _Book of the Dead_, and Isis, his -spouse, is often called the royal consort of Ra. This identification, -Sir J.G. Frazer thinks, may have had a political significance. He -admits that the myth of Osiris might express the daily appearance and -disappearance of the sun, and points out that most of the writers who -favour the solar theory are careful to indicate that it is the daily, -and not the annual, course of the sun to which they understand the myth -to apply. But, then, why, pertinently asks Sir J. G. Frazer, was it -celebrated by an annual ceremony? "This fact alone seems fatal to the -interpretation of the myth as descriptive of sunset and sunrise. Again, -though the sun may be said to die daily, in what sense can it be said to -be torn in pieces?" - -Plutarch says that some of the Egyptian philosophers interpreted Osiris -as the moon, "because the moon, with her humid and generative light, -is favourable to the propagation of animals and the growth of plants." -Among primitive peoples the moon is regarded as a great source of -moisture. Vegetation is thought to flourish beneath her pale rays, and -she is understood as fostering the multiplication of the human species -as well as animal and plant life. Sir J. G. Frazer enumerates several -reasons to prove that Osiris possessed a lunar significance. Briefly -these are that he is said to have lived or reigned twenty-eight years, -the mythical expression of a lunar month, and that his body is said to -have been rent into fourteen pieces--"This might be interpreted as the -waning moon, which appears to lose a portion of itself on each of the -fourteen days that make up the second half of the lunar month." Typhon -found the body of Osiris at the full moon; thus its dismemberment would -begin with the waning of the moon. - - -Primitive Conceptions of the Moon - -Primitive man explains the waning moon as actually dwindling, and it -appears to him as if it is being broken in pieces or eaten away. The -Klamath Indians of South-west Oregon allude to the moon as 'the One -Broken in Pieces,' and the Dacotas believe that when the moon is full a -horde of mice begin to nibble at one side of it until they have devoured -the whole. To continue Sir J.G. Frazer's argument, he quotes Plutarch -to the effect that at the new moon of the month Phanemoth, which was -the beginning of spring, the Egyptians celebrated what they called 'the -entry of Osiris into the moon'; that at the ceremony called the 'Burial -of Osiris' they made a crescent-shaped chest, "because the moon when it -approaches the sun assumes the form of a crescent and vanishes"; and -that once a year, at the full moon, pigs (possibly symbolical of Set, or -Typhon) were sacrificed simultaneously to the moon and to Osiris. Again, -in a hymn supposed to be addressed by Isis to Osiris it is said that -Thoth - - Placeth thy soul in the barque Maat - In that name which is thine of god-moon. - -And again: - - Thou who comest to us as a child each month, - We do not cease to contemplate thee. - Thine emanation heightens the brilliancy - Of the stars of Orion in the firmament. - -In this hymn Osiris is deliberately identified with the moon.[6] - -In effect, then, Sir James Frazer's theory regarding Osiris is that -he was a vegetation or corn god, who later became identified, or -confounded, with the moon. But surely it is as reasonable to suppose -that it was because of his status as moon-god that he ranked as a deity -of vegetation. - -A brief consideration of the circumstances connected with lunar worship -might lead us to some such supposition. The sun in his status of deity -requires but little explanation. The phenomena of growth are attributed -to his agency at an early period of human thought, and it is probable -that wind, rain, and other atmospheric manifestations are likewise -credited to his action, or regarded as emanations from him. Especially -is this the case in tropical climates, where the rapidity of vegetable -growth is such as to afford to man an absolute demonstration of the -solar power. By analogy, then, that sun of the night, the moon, comes to -be regarded as an agency of growth, and primitive peoples attribute to -it powers in this respect almost equal to those of the sun. Again, it -must be borne in mind that, for some reason still obscure, the moon is -regarded as the great reservoir of magical power. The two great orbs of -night and day require but little excuse for godhead. To primitive man -the sun is obviously godlike, for upon him the barbarian agriculturist -depends for his very existence, and there is behind him no history of -an evolution from earlier forms. It is likewise with the moon-god. -In the Libyan desert at night the moon is an object which dominates -the entire landscape, and it is difficult to believe that its intense -brilliance and all-pervading light must not have deeply impressed the -wandering tribes of that region with a sense of reverence and worship. -Indeed, reverence for such an object might well precede the worship of -a mere corn and tree spirit, who in such surroundings could not have -much scope for the manifestation of his powers. We can see, then, that -this moon-god of the Neolithic Nubians, imported into a more fertile -land, would speedily become identified with the powers of growth through -moisture, and thus with the Nile itself. - -Osiris in his character of god of the dead affords no great difficulties -of elucidation, and in this one figure we behold the junction of the -ideas of the moon, moisture, the under-world, and death--in fact, all -the phenomena of birth and decay. - - -Osiris and the Persephone Myth - -The reader cannot fail to have observed the very close resemblance -between the myth of Osiris and that of Demeter and Kore, or Persephone. -Indeed, some of the adventures of Isis, notably that concerning the -child of the king of Byblos, are practically identical with incidents -in the career of Demeter. It is highly probable that the two myths -possessed a common origin. But whereas in the Greek example we find the -mother searching for her child, in the Egyptian myth the wife searches -for the remains of her husband. In the Greek tale we have Pluto as the -husband of Persephone and the ruler of the under-world also regarded, -like Osiris, as a god of grain and growth, whilst Persephone, like Isis, -probably personifies the grain itself. In the Greek myth we have one -male and two female principles, and in the Egyptian one male and one -female. The analogy could perhaps be pressed further by the inclusion in -the Egyptian version of the goddess Nephthys, who was a sister-goddess -to Isis or stood to her in some such relationship. It would seem, -then, as if the Hellenic myth had been sophisticated by early Egyptian -influences, perhaps working through a Cretan intercommunication. - -It remains, then, to regard Osiris in the light of ruler of the -underworld. To some extent this has been done in the chapter which deals -with the _Book of the Dead_. The god of the underworld, as has been -pointed out, is in nearly every instance a god of vegetable growth, and -it was not because Osiris was god of the dead that he presided over -fertility, but the converse. To speak more plainly, Osiris was first god -of fertility, and the circumstance that he presided over the underworld -was a later innovation. But it was not adventitious; it was the logical -outcome of his status as god of growth. - - -A New Osirian Theory - -We must also take into brief consideration his personification of Ra, -whom he meets, blends with, and under whose name he nightly sails -through his own dominions. This would seem like the fusion of a sun and -moon myth; the myth of the sun travelling nightly beneath the earth -fused with that of the moon's nocturnal journey across the vault of -heaven. A moment's consideration will show how this fusion took place. -Osiris was a moon-god. That circumstance accounts for one half of the -myth; the other half is to be accounted for as follows: Ra, the sun-god, -must perambulate the underworld at night if he is to appear on the -fringes of the east in the morning. But Osiris as a lunar deity, and -perhaps as the older god, as well as in his character as god of the -underworld, is already occupying the orbit he must trace. The orbits of -both deities are fused in one, and there would appear to be some proof -of this in the fact that, in the realm of Seker, Afra (or Ra-Osiris) -changes the direction of his journey from north to south to a line due -east toward the mountains of sunrise. The fusion of the two myths is -quite a logical one, as the moon during the night travels in the same -direction as the sun has taken during the day--that is, from east to -west. - -It will readily be seen how Osiris came to be regarded not only as -god and judge of the dead, but also as symbolical of the resurrection -of the body of man. Sir James Frazer lays great stress upon a picture -of Osiris in which his body is shown covered with sprouting shoots of -corn, and he seems to be of opinion that this is positive evidence that -Osiris was a corn-god. In our view the picture is simply symbolical of -resurrection. The circumstance that Osiris is represented in the picture -as in the recumbent position of the dead lends added weight to this -supposition. The corn-shoot is a world-wide symbol of resurrection. In -the Eleusinian mysteries a shoot of corn was shown to the neophytes as -typical of physical rebirth, and a North American Indian is quoted by -Loskiel, one of the Moravian Brethren, as having spoken: "We Indians -shall not for ever die. Even the grains of corn we put under the earth -grow up and become living things." Among the Maya of Central America, -as well as among the Mexicans, the maize-goddess has a son, the young, -green, tender shoot of the maize plant, who is strongly reminiscent of -Horus, the son of Osiris, and who may be taken as typical of bodily -resurrection. Later the vegetation myth clustering round Osiris was -metamorphosed into a theological tenet regarding human resurrection, -and Osiris was believed to have been once a human being who had died -and had been dismembered. His body, however, was made whole again by -Isis, Anubis and Horus acting upon the instructions of Thoth. A good -deal of magical ceremony appears to have been mingled with the process, -and this in turn was utilized in the case of every dead Egyptian by the -priests in connexion with the embalmment and burial of the dead in the -hope of resurrection. Osiris, however, was regarded as the principal -cause of human resurrection, and he was capable of giving life after -death because he had attained to it. He was entitled 'Eternity and -Everlastingness,' and he it was who made men and women to be born again. -This conception of resurrection appears to have been in vogue in Egypt -from very early times. The great authority upon Osiris is the _Book of -the Dead_, which might well be called the 'Book of Osiris,' and in -which are recounted his daily doings and his nightly journeyings in his -kingdom of the underworld. - - -Isis - -Isis, or Ast, must be regarded as one of the earliest and most important -conceptions of female godhead in ancient Egypt. In the dynastic period -she was regarded as the feminine counterpart of Osiris, and we may take -it that before the dawn of Egyptian history she occupied a similar -position. The philology of the name appears to be unfathomable. No -other deity has probably been worshipped for such an extent of time, -for her cult did not perish with that of most other Egyptian gods, but -flourished later in Greece and Rome, and is seriously carried on in -Paris to-day. - -Isis was perhaps of Libyan origin, and is usually depicted in the form -of a woman crowned with her name-symbol and holding in her hand a -sceptre of papyrus. Her crown is surmounted by a pair of horns holding -a disk, which in turn is sometimes crested by her hieroglyph, which -represents a seat or throne. Sometimes also she is represented as -possessing radiant and many-coloured wings, with which she stirs to life -the inanimate body of Osiris. - -No other goddess was on the whole so popular with the Egyptians, and -the reason for this is probably to be found in the circumstances of -travail and pity which run through her myth. These drew the sympathies -of the people to her, but they were not the only reasons why she was -beloved by the Egyptian masses, for she was the great and beneficent -mother-goddess and represented the maternal spirit in its most intimate -and affectionate guise. In her myth, perhaps one of the most touching -and beautiful which ever sprang from the consciousness of a people, -we find evolved from what may have been a mere corn-spirit a type of -wifely and maternal affection mourning the death of her cherished -husband, and seeking by every means in her power to restore him to life. - - -Isis as the Wind - -Although Isis had undoubtedly many forms, and although she may be -regarded as the great corn-mother of Egypt, the probabilities are that -in one of her phases she represents the wind of heaven. This does not -appear to have been recognized by students of Egyptology, but the record -seems a fairly clear one. Osiris in his guise of the corn dies and comes -to life again and is sown broadcast over the land. Isis is disconsolate -and moans terribly over his loss; in fact, so loud and heartrending is -her grief that the child of the King of Byblos, whom she is nursing, -dies of terror. From her, grateful odours emanate, as the women of the -Queen of Byblos experience. She transforms herself into a swallow. -She restores the dead Osiris to life by fanning him with her wings -and filling his mouth and nostrils with sweet air. It is noteworthy -that she is one of the few Egyptian deities who possess wings. She is -a great traveller, and unceasingly moans and sobs. If these qualities -and circumstances are not allegorical of the wind, a much more -ingenious hypothesis than the above will be necessary to account for -their mythological connexion. Isis wails like the wind, she shrieks in -tempest, she carries the fragrance of spices and flowers throughout -the country, she takes the shape of a swallow, one of the swiftest of -birds and typical of the rapidity of the wind, she employs the element -of which she is mistress to revivify the dead Osiris, she possesses -wings, as do all deities connected with the wind, and like the rest of -her kind she is constantly travelling up and down the land. We do not -advance the hypothesis that she is a wind-goddess _par excellence_, but -in one of her phases she certainly typifies the revivifying power of the -spring wind, which wails and sobs over the grave of the sleeping grain, -bringing reanimating breath to the inert seeds. - -Isis is one of those deities who from fortuitous and other circumstances -are fated to achieve greatness. From a Libyan spirit connected in some -manner with the growth of the crops, she rose to such supreme importance -during her reign of nearly four thousand years in Egypt that every -description of attribute was heaped upon her in abundance. This is -invariably the case with successful deities. Not only do they absorb -the attributes of their contemporaries in the pantheon, but qualities -which are actually at variance with their original character are grafted -upon them because of their very popularity. This was the case, for -instance, with Tezcatlipoca, a Mexican deity, originally god of the air, -who later became god of fate and fortune, and practically head of the -Aztec pantheon; and many other instances might be adduced. Thus Isis is -a giver of life and food to the dead in the Duat--that is, she brings -with her the fresh air of heaven into the underworld--and as the air-god -Tezcatlipoca was identified with justice, so Isis is identified with -Maat, the goddess of justice. - -Isis may also typify the wind of morning, from which the sun is born. -In most countries at the moment of sunrise a wind springs up which may -be said to usher the sun into existence. In her myth, too, we find that -on leaving the house where she had been imprisoned by Set (the summer -dwelling of the wind, which during that season leaves Egypt altogether) -she is preceded by seven scorpions, the fierce-stinging blasts of -winter. They show her the way through swamps and marshes. Women shut -the doors in her face; a child is stung by one of the scorpions, but -Isis restores it to life--that is, the child recovers with the approach -of better weather. Her own son Horus is stung by a scorpion--that is, -the heat of the sun is rendered weak by the cold of winter until it is -restored by Isis, the genial spring wind. - - -Manifold Attributes of Isis - -The myth of Isis became so real to the people of Egypt that they came -to regard her very intimately indeed, and fully believed that she had -once been a veritable woman. In a more allegorical manner she was -of course the great feminine fructifier of the soil. She was also a -powerful enchantress, as is shown by the number of deities and human -beings whom she rescued from death. Words of great and compelling power -were hers. Her astronomical symbol was the star Sept, which marked the -spring and the approach of the inundation of the Nile, an added evidence -that in one of her phases she was goddess of the winds of spring. As -the light-giver at this season of the year she was called Khut, and as -goddess of the fruitful earth Usert. As the force which impelled the -powers of spring and sent forth the Nile flood she was Sati, and as the -goddess of fertile waters she was Anqet. She was further the deity of -cultivated lands and fields, goddess of harvest and goddess of food. -So that from first to last she personified the forces which make for -growth and nourishment. She personifies the power of the spring season, -the power of the earth to grow and yield grain, motherhood and all the -attributes and affinities which spring therefrom. It is not necessary -in this place to trace her worship into Greece, Rome, and Western -Europe, where it became greatly degraded from its pristine purity. The -dignified worship of the great mother took on under European auspices -an orgiastic character which appealed to the false mystic of Greece, -Rome, Gaul, and Britain just as it does to-day to his Transatlantic or -Parisian prototype. But the strength of the cult in the country of its -origin is evinced by the circumstance that it was not finally deserted -until the middle of the fifth century A.D. - - -Horus - -As we have seen, the god Ra was depicted as a falcon, but there was -another god of similar form who had been worshipped before him in the -land of Egypt. This was the god Heru, or Horus, 'He who is above.' -This god had many shapes. As Horus the Elder he is delineated as a -man with the head of a falcon, and was believed to be the son of Geb -and Nut. Horus proper was perhaps regarded as the face of heaven, the -countenance of the sky, and as Horus the Elder he represented the -face by day in contradistinction to Set, who was the face by night. -Horus the Younger, or Harpocrates as he was called by the Greeks to -distinguish him from Horus the Elder, is represented as a youth, and -was the son of a Horus-god and the goddess Rat-Tauit, who appears to -have been worshipped at Hermonthis in the form of a hippopotamus. Horus -the Younger represented the earliest rays of the rising sun, and had no -fewer than seven aspects or forms. To detail all the variants of Horus -would be foreign to the purpose of this work, so it must suffice to -enumerate the more important of them. The Horus of the Two Horizons, -the Harmachis of the Greeks, was one of the chief forms of the -sun-god Ra, and represented the sun in his diurnal course from sunrise -to sunset. He thus included the personalities of Ra, Tem, and Khepera, -and this affords a good example of the widespread system of overlapping -which obtained in Egyptian mythology, and which does not appear to -such an extent in any other mythology. Probably a number of these -Horus-gods were local. Thus we find Harmachis worshipped principally -at Heliopolis and Apollinopolis. His best-known monument is the famous -Sphinx, near the pyramids of Gizeh. We find the first mention of the -Sphinx in inscriptions in the days of Thothmes IV, when we read in the -text inscribed on the stele between the paws of the Sphinx the following -legend of Thothmes and the Sphinx. - - -The Dream of Thothmes - -There was a king in Egypt called Thothmes, a mighty monarch, skilled in -the arts of war and of the chase. He was good to look upon, too, with a -beauty like unto that of Horus, whom Isis bare in the Northern Marshes, -and greatly was he loved by gods and men. - -He was wont to hunt in the burning desert, alone, or with only a few -companions, and this is told of one of his hunting expeditions. - -One day, before he had ascended the throne of Egypt, he was hunting -unattended in the desert. It was noontide, and the sun beat fiercely -down upon him, so that he was fain to seek the shadow of the mighty -Harmachis, the Sphinx. Great and powerful was the god, and very majestic -was his image, with the face of a man and the body of a lion, a snake -upon his brow. In many temples were sacrifices made to him, in many -towns did men worship with their faces turned toward him. - -In the great cool shadow Thothmes laid himself down to rest, and sleep -enchained his senses. And as he slept he dreamed, and behold! the Sphinx -opened its lips and spoke to him; it was no longer a thing of motionless -rock, but the god himself, the great Harmachis. And he addressed the -dreamer thus: - -"Behold me, O Thothmes, for I am the Sun-god, the ruler of all peoples. -Harmachis is my name, and Ra, and Khepera, and Tem. I am thy father, -and thou art my son, and through me shall all good come upon thee if -thou wilt hearken to my words. The land of Egypt shall be thine, and the -North Land, and the South Land. In prosperity and happiness shalt thou -rule for many years." - -He paused, and it seemed to Thothmes as if the god were struggling to -free himself from the overwhelming sands, for only his head was visible. - -"It is as thou seest," Harmachis resumed; "the sands of the desert are -over me. Do that quickly which I command thee, O my son Thothmes." - -Ere Thothmes could reply the vision faded and he awoke. The living god -was gone, and in his place was the mighty image, hewn from the solid -rock. - -And here the story must perforce end. It is inscribed on a stele in -the little temple which lies between the paws of the Sphinx, and the -remainder of the inscription is so defaced as to be indecipherable. - - -Heru-Behudeti - -One of the greatest and most important of all the forms of Horus is -Heru-Behudeti, who typifies midday, and therefore the greatest heat -of the sun. It was in this form that Horus waged war against Set. His -principal shrines were at Edfu, Philae, Mesen, Aat-ab, and Tanis, where -he was worshipped under the form of a lion trampling upon its enemies. -In general, however, he is depicted as hawk-headed and bearing in his -hand a weapon, usually a club or mace to symbolize his character as a -destroyer. In the old Arthurian romances, and, indeed, in many mediaeval -tales which have a mythological ancestry, we read of how certain knights -in combat with their enemies grew stronger as the sun waxed in the -heavens, and when his beams declined their strength failed them. So was -it with Sir Belin, with King Arthur, who in his frenzy slew thousands, -and with St George, the patron saint of England, originally an Egyptian -hero. These figures were all probably sun-gods at some early period -of their development. They are obscure in birth and origin, as is -the luminary they symbolize--that is, they spring from the darkness. -Arthur's origin, for example, was unknown to him until the age of -manhood, and the same holds good of Beowulf. As they grew in power, like -the sun which they typify, the solar heroes frequently became insane, -and laid about them with such pitiless fury that they slaughtered -thousands in a manner of which no ordinary paladin would be capable. -This is typical of the strength and fury of the sun at midday in Eastern -climates. Heru-Behudeti, then, because he was god of the midday sun, was -the pitiless warrior wielding the club, perhaps typifying sunstroke, and -the bow and arrows, symbolizing his fierce beams which were to destroy -the dragon of night and his fiendish crew. He was well represented as -a lion, for what is so fierce as the tropical sun? At midday he was -all-conquering and had trampled the night-dragon out of sight. In this -manner, too, he represented the force of good against that of evil. The -following is the myth of his battles with Set and the battalions of his -evil companions. - - -The Myth of the Winged Disk - -In the year 363 of the reign of Ra-Horakhti upon the earth it befell -that the god was in Nubia with a mighty army. Set, the Evil One, had -rebelled against him, for Ra was advanced in years, and Set was of all -beings the most cunning and treacherous. He it was also who had slain -his twin-brother Osiris, the great and good king; and for this reason -Horus, the brother of Osiris, desired greatly to have his life. - -With his chariots and horsemen and foot-soldiers Ra embarked on the -Great River and came to Edfu, where Horus of Edfu joined him. - -"O Ra," said Horus, "great are thine enemies, and cunningly do they -conspire against thee!" - -"My son," answered Ra, "arm thee and go forth against mine enemies, and -slay them speedily." - -Thereupon Horus sought the aid of the god Thoth, the master of all -magic, by whose aid he changed himself into a great sun-disk, with -resplendent wings outstretched on either side. Straight to the sun -he flew, and from the heavens he looked so fiercely upon his enemies -and Ra's, that they neither heard nor saw aright. Each man judged his -neighbour to be a stranger, and a cry went up that the foe were upon -them. Each turned his weapon against the other, the majority were slain, -and the handful of survivors scattered. And Horus hovered for a while -over the battle-plain, hoping to find Set, but the arch-enemy was not -there; he was hiding in the North Country. - -Then Horus returned to Ra, who embraced him kindly. And Horus took Ra -and the goddess Astarte, and showed them the battlefield strewn with -corpses. - -Ra, king of the gods, said to those in his train: "Come, let us voyage -to the Nile, for our enemies are slain." But Set still had a large -following, and some of his associates he commanded to turn themselves -into crocodiles and hippopotami, so that they might swallow the -occupants of the divine barque and yet remain invulnerable by reason -of their thick hides. Horus, however, had gathered his band of smiths, -each of whom made for himself an iron lance and a chain, on which Thoth -bestowed some of his ever-powerful magic. Horus also repeated the -formulae in the _Book of Slaying the Hippopotamus_. So that when the -fierce animals charged up the river the god was ready for them; many of -them were pierced by the magic weapons and died, while the remainder -fled. Those who fled to the south were pursued by Horus, and were at -length overtaken. Another great conflict ensued, wherein the followers -of Set were again vanquished. According to the desire of Ra, a shrine -was raised to commemorate the victory, and his image placed therein. Yet -another encounter, however, was to take place in the South Land ere the -followers of Set were utterly destroyed. - - -The Slaughter of the Monsters - -Then Horus and Ra sailed northward toward the sea in search of Set and -his allies, hoping to slay all the crocodiles and hippopotami, which -were the bodily forms of their foes. But the beasts kept under water, -and four days had elapsed ere Horus caught sight of them. He at once -attacked them, and wrought great havoc with his glittering weapons, to -the delight of Ra and Thoth, who watched the conflict from the boat. A -hundred and forty-two prisoners were taken on this occasion. Yet did -Horus continue to pursue his enemies, always in the form of a burning -disk with wings like unto the sunset, and attended by the goddesses -Nekhbet and Uazet in the shape of two snakes. Once more he overtook -the allies of Set, this time at the Western Waters of Mert. On this -occasion, as on the others, Horus was victorious, and nearly four -hundred prisoners were brought to the boat of Ra and slain. - -Then was Set very greatly incensed, and decided to come forth in person -to do battle with Horus. Horrible indeed were his cries and curses when -he heard the losses his army had sustained. And Horus and his followers -went out to meet the army of Set, and long and furious was the battle. -At length Horus took a prisoner whom he believed to be Set. The wretched -being was dragged before Ra, who gave him into the hands of his captor, -bidding the latter do with him what he would. Then Horus killed his -prisoner, cut off his head, dragged him through the dust, and cut his -body in pieces, even as Set had done to Osiris. But, after all, it was -only one of Set's associates who had perished thus miserably. The Evil -One himself was still at large, vowing vengeance on his enemies. In -the form of a large snake he hid himself under the earth, while his -followers took courage from the knowledge that he had eluded his enemy. -Yet again, however, were they defeated by Horus, who slew great numbers -of them. The gods remained for six days on the canal, waiting for the -reappearance of the foe, but none were to be seen. Then Horus scattered -abroad his followers to destroy the remnant of Set's army. - -The last two battles were fought at Thalu (Zaru), and at Shais, in -Nubia. At Thalu Horus took the form of a fierce lion, and slew a -hundred and forty-two enemies. At Shais he appeared once more in the -shape of a great shining disk with wings of splendid plumage, and with -the goddesses Nekhbet and Uazet on either side of it in the shape of -crowned snakes. On these occasions also Horus was victorious. - -There are various endings to this myth. It is said that the prisoner -whom Horus caused to be decapitated was none other than Set, whose fate, -however, did not hinder him from living again and taking the form of -a serpent. According to this version Horus of Edfu was accompanied by -Horus the Child, son of Isis and Osiris. In the same inscription which -gives an account of the battles Horus the Elder and Horus the Child -are utterly confused at the end. So while Horus the Elder fights the -battles, Horus the Child kills Set. They are looked upon as one and the -same. On capturing Set, therefore, Horus, according to one account, -delivered him into the hands of Isis, who cut off his head. - -Another version, again, has it that the decisive battle has not yet been -fought, and that Horus will finally destroy his enemy, when Osiris and -the gods once more return to earth. - - -Other Horus Legends - -Yet another account states that when Horus the Child had become a man -Set came forth and challenged him to mortal combat. So Horus set out in -a boat splendidly decorated by Isis, who also laid magic spells upon it, -so that its occupant might not be overcome. Meanwhile the arch-foe of -the gods had taken upon himself the shape of a huge red hippopotamus. -And he caused a raging storm to break over the boats of Horus and -his train, so that the waters were lashed into fury; and had it not -been that the boats were protected by magic, all would assuredly have -perished. Horus, however, held on his course undismayed. He had taken -the form of a youth of giant stature, and towered at the gilded prow of -his boat, which shone like sunlight amid the storm and the darkness. -A great harpoon was poised in his hand, such a weapon as an ordinary -mortal could not lift. In the water the red hippopotamus waited for the -wrecking of the boat, so that he might swallow his enemies. But this he -was destined never to do, for directly he showed himself above water -the mighty harpoon was launched at his head and sank into his brain. -And this was the end of Set, the Evil One, the murderer of Osiris and -the enemy of Ra. In honour of Horus the Conqueror hymns and triumphal -choruses were sung throughout the land. - -In the myth of the battles of Horus it is easy to discern what is -perhaps the most universal of all mythological conceptions--the solar -myth. Horus (called in the Edfu text Horbehudti, _i.e._ Horus of Edfu) -was originally a sun-god, and as such was equivalent to Ra, but in time -the two gods came to be regarded as separate and distinct personages, -Ra being the highest, and Horus serving him as a sort of war-captain. -The winged disk, therefore, and all his train represented the powers of -light, while the wicked Set and his companions symbolized darkness. Thus -it is that while Horus was always victorious over his enemies, he never -succeeded (according to the most widespread form of the tradition) in -destroying them utterly. - -When Horus had routed the enemy in the form of a winged disk, that -symbol came to be regarded as an excellent protective against violence -and destruction. It was therefore repeated many times--especially in -the New Kingdom--in temples, on monuments, stelae, and so on, and it was -believed that the more numerous the representations of it, the more -efficacious did the charm become. In its simplest form the image is -merely that of a winged disk, but at times there is a serpent on either -side of the disk, representing the goddesses Nekhbet and Uazet. - -The principal version of the myth, dealing with Hor-Behudti, or Horus -of Edfu, was really a local form belonging to Edfu, though in time it -gained a wider acceptance. In other forms of the legend other gods took -the chief _role_ as destroyer of the enemies of Ra. - -With this legend of light and darkness came to be fused another, that -which relates how Horus avenged the death of Osiris. It is noticeable -that in this second myth there exists some confusion between Horus the -Elder and Horus the Child, respectively brother and son of Osiris. -No mention is made of Osiris in the Edfu text, but that this myth is -a sequel to the legend of Osiris is implied by the circumstance that -Set is handed over for punishment to Isis and Horus the Child. In the -later form of the story the conflict is not properly between light and -darkness, but rather between the forces of good and evil. - -In this legend one of the most noteworthy circumstances is that the -followers of Horus were armed with weapons of metal. His followers are -called in the Egyptian text Mesniu, or Mesnitu, which in all probability -signifies 'workers in metal,' or 'blacksmiths.' The worshippers of Horus -of Behudet continually alluded to him as 'Lord of the Forge-city,' or -Edfu, where tradition asserted he carried on the work of a blacksmith. -At Edfu, indeed, the great golden disk of the sun itself had been -forged, as we see from a certain inscription, and in the temple of that -city was a chamber behind the sanctuary called Mesnet, or 'the foundry,' -where the blacksmith caste of priests attended upon the god. From -sculptures upon the walls of the temple we see that these are arrayed -in short robes and a species of collar which is almost a cape, that they -carry their spears head downward, and a weapon of metal resembling a -dagger. Horus of Behudet, who accompanies them, is dressed in a similar -fashion, and is represented as spearing a hippopotamus, round which he -has wound a double chain of metal. This illustrates the story of the -defeat of Set by Horus of Behudet, and we may be justified in believing -that the legend possessed a more or less historic basis. Here we have -a tribe or caste of metal-workers at war with what is obviously a -more primitive race, whom they defeat with their weapons of metal and -bind with their chains, afterward slaughtering them at leisure. It is -significant that they do not slay them out of hand. For what, then, do -they reserve them? Obviously for human sacrifice. They are a caste of -sun-worshippers, and human blood was as necessary to the sustenance of -the sun in early Egypt as it was in ancient Mexico, where the military -caste, living under the patronage of the sun, always refrained from -slaying an enemy in battle if they could make him prisoner, to be -sacrificed at leisure. The circumstances of the legend would appear to -indicate that we are here following the adventures of some West Asiatic -invader who, with followers armed with metal, landed on the soil of -Egypt, made himself master of Edfu, and, marching northward, established -himself in the land by force of arms. This story, or portion of history, -probably became amalgamated, perhaps by priestly influence, with the -legend of Horus, the god of heaven in the earliest times. - -Another important form of Horus was that known as Horus, son of Isis, -and of Osiris. He represented the rising sun, as did several other -forms of Horus, and possessed many aspects or variants. His shrines -were so numerous that at one epoch or another he was identified with -all the other Horus-gods, but he chiefly represented the new sun, born -daily, and he was son and successor of Osiris. He was extremely popular, -as being a well-marked type of resurrection after death. As Osiris -represented 'yesterday,' so Horus, his son, stood for 'to-day' in the -Egyptian mind. Although some texts state that Osiris was his father, -others claim this position for Ra, but the two in this instance are -really one and the same and interchangeable. - -Osiris became the father of Horus after he was dead; such is the origin -of several sun-heroes. As has been said, the birth of such is usually -peculiar and obscure. Isis, while tending the infant Horus and in fear -of the persecutions of Set, took shelter in the swamps of the Delta, and -hid herself and her child amidst a dense mass of papyrus plants. To the -Egyptian of the Delta it would of course seem as if the sun took its -rise from amidst the papyrus-covered swamps which stretched on every -side to the horizon, so we may regard this part of the myth as allegory -pure and simple. The circumstances of the escape of Isis from Set have -already been detailed in the myth of Osiris. - -The filial respect which Horus displayed for the memory of his father -Osiris won him much honour from the Egyptians. He it was who fixed the -details of the god's mummification, and who set the standard for the -pious Egyptian son. In this respect he was regarded as a helper of -the dead, and was thought to mediate between them and the judges of -the Taut. In his work of caring for the deceased he had a number of -helpers, known as the followers of Horus, who were regarded as gods of -the cardinal points. They are given positions of great importance in -the _Book of the Dead_, and shared the protection of the body of the -deceased, as has been mentioned in the paragraph concerning the mummy. -They were four in number and were named Hapi, Tuamutef, Amset, and -Qebhsennuf. - -Horus, son of Isis and Osiris, was regarded as of such importance that -he absorbed the attributes of all the other Horus-gods, but in certain -texts he is represented as a child, with forefinger to lip, and wearing -the lock of hair at the side of the head which indicates youth. In later -times he was figured in a great many different fanciful forms. - - -The Black Hog - -Ra, Set, and Horus are concerned in an Egyptian myth which attempts an -explanation of eclipses of the sun and moon. Set and Horus were bitter -enemies, yet Set did not dare to enter the fray openly, for he feared -Horus as evil must ever fear good. So he devised subtle and underhand -schemes whereby he might compass the fall of Horus, and this is how the -matter fell out. - -One day Horus sought Ra with a request to be allowed to read the future -in his eyes. This request Ra granted willingly because of his love for -Horus, the beloved of gods and men. Whilst they conversed there passed -them a black hog, a huge, sinister animal, ferocious of aspect, and with -eyes that glinted with cunning and cruelty. Now, though neither Ra nor -Horus was aware of the fact, the black hog was Set himself, who had the -power to take upon him the shape of any animal he chose. - -"What an evil monster!" cried Ra, as he looked upon the animal. - -Horus also turned his gaze in the direction of the black hog, in whom -he still failed to recognize his enemy. This was Set's opportunity. He -shot a bolt of fire straight into the eye of the god. Horus was half -crazed with the violence of the pain. "Set hath done me this evil," -he cried; "he shall not go unpunished." But Set had vanished, and was -not to be found anywhere. Yet for the evil that had come upon Horus Ra -cursed the pig. - -When the young god recovered his sight Ra gave to him the city of Pe, -whereat he was much delighted; and at his smile the cloud of darkness -passed away, and all the land rejoiced. - -A Greek version of the myth has it that the black hog tore out the eye -of Horus and swallowed it, but was forced by Ra (Helios) to restore -it. The eyes of Horus are of course the sun and moon, one of which -is swallowed or destroyed by the 'black hog' during an eclipse. The -restoration of light to the earth is occasioned by the joy of Horus on -being presented with the city of Pe. - - -Nephthys - -The female counterpart of Set was Nephthys. She was the daughter of -Geb[7] and Nut, the sister and wife of Set, and the mother of Anubis, -but whether by Osiris or Set is not clear. The words Nebt-het mean 'the -lady of the house,' or sky. Although Nephthys is associated with Set, -she appears to remain more faithful to her sister Isis, whom she assists -to regain the scattered limbs of Osiris. She is represented in the -form of a woman wearing upon her head the symbol of her name, _i.e._ a -basket and a house (reading Nebt-het). She appears in some ways in the -_Book of the Dead_ as an assistant of her sister Isis, standing behind -Osiris when the hearts of the dead are weighed, and kneeling at the -head of Osiris' bier. She was supposed to possess great magical powers -like her sister, and resembles her in possessing many forms. She is also -supposed to protect Osiris in his form of moon-god. Plutarch throws some -light upon Egyptian belief concerning this goddess. He says that Anubis -was the son of Osiris and Nephthys, and that Typhon or Set was first -apprised of their amour by finding a garland of flowers which had been -left behind him by Osiris. As Isis represents fruitfulness, so, he says, -Nephthys signifies corruption. Dr. Budge, commenting upon this passage, -says that it is clear that Nephthys is the personification of darkness -and of all that belongs to it, and that her attributes were of a passive -rather than of an active character. "She was the opposite of Isis in -every respect. Isis symbolized birth, growth, development, and vigour; -but Nephthys was the type of death, decay, diminution, and immobility." -The two goddesses were, however, associated inseparably with each other. -"Isis, according to Plutarch, represents the part of the world which -is visible, whilst Nephthys represents that which is invisible.... -Isis and Nephthys represent respectively the things which are and the -things which are yet to come into being, the beginning and the end, -birth and death, and life and death. We have unfortunately no means of -knowing what the primitive conception of the attributes of Nephthys -was, but it is most improbable that it included any of the views on the -subject which were current in Plutarch's time. Nephthys is not a goddess -with well-defined characteristics, but she may, generally speaking, -be described as the goddess of the death which is not eternal." Dr. -Budge proceeds to say that Nephthys, although a goddess of death, was -associated with the coming into existence of the life which springs -from death. With Isis she prepared the funeral bed of Osiris and made -his mummy-wrappings. Along with Isis she guarded the corpse of Osiris. -In later times the goddesses were represented by two priestesses whose -hair was shaved off and who wore ram's-wool garlands upon their heads. -On the arm of one was a fillet inscribed to Isis, and the other wore a -like band inscribed to Nephthys. - - -Set - -The cult of Set was of the greatest antiquity, and although in later -times he was regarded as evil personified, this was not his original -_role_. According to the priests of Heliopolis he was the son of Geb and -Nut, and therefore brother of Osiris, Isis, and Nephthys, husband of the -latter goddess and father of Anubis. These relationships, however, were -all manufactured for him at a comparatively late period. In the Pyramid -Texts we find Set acting as a friend to the dead, and he even assisted -Osiris to reach heaven by means of a ladder. He is also associated with -Horus and is regarded as his equal. But in time they came to be regarded -as mortal enemies, who were only prevented from entirely destroying one -another by the wise Thoth. Horus the Elder was the god of the sky by -day, and Set the god of the sky by night. The one was in fact the direct -opposite of the other. - -The derivation of the name Set presents many difficulties of -elucidation. The determinative of his hieroglyph is either the figure -of an animal or a stone, which latter seems to symbolize the stony -or desert country on either side of the Nile. As to the animal which -pictorially represents him, it has by no means been identified, but -various authorities have likened it to a camel and an okapi. In any -case it must have been a denizen of the desert inimical to man. - -As Horus was the god of the North, so was Set god of the South. Dr. -Brugsch considered Set symbolized the downward motion of the sun in -the lower hemisphere, thus making him the source of the destructive -heat of summer. As the days began to shorten and the nights to lengthen -it was thought that he stole the light from the sun-god. He was -likewise instrumental in the monthly destruction of the moon. Storms, -earthquakes, and eclipses and all natural phenomena which caused -darkness were attributed to him, and from an ethical point of view he -was the god of sin and evil. - -We find the myths of the combat between Set and Horus evolving from a -simple opposition of day and night into a combat between the two gods. -Ra and Osiris, instead of Horus, are sometimes ranged against Set. The -combat symbolized the moral idea of the victory of good over evil, and -those of the dead who were justified were regarded as having overcome -Set as Osiris had done. In his combat with the sun-god Set took the form -of the monster serpent Apep and was accompanied by an army of lesser -serpents and reptiles of every description. In later times we find him -identified with Typhon. All desert animals and those which inhabited -the waters were regarded as the children of Set, as were animals with -red hair or skins, or even red-haired men. Such animals were often -sacrificed ritually in propitiation of Set. In the month Pachons an -antelope and a black pig were sacrificed to him in order to deter him -from attacking the full moon, and on the great festival of Heru-Behudeti -such birds and fish as were thought to be of his following were trodden -underfoot to the cry that Ra had triumphed over his enemies. - -Set had also a kingdom in the northern sky, and his peculiar abode was -the Great Bear. As in some other countries, the north was considered -by the Egyptians as the place of darkness, cold, and death. Thus we -find that by the Mexicans and Maya the abode of the god of death -was considered to be the north, and that among the latter people -the hieroglyph for the north is a human bone placed before the head -of the death-god. The goddess Reret, who has the head and body of -a hippopotamus, was supposed to have the evil influence of Set in -restraint. She is pictured as holding darkness fettered by a chain, and -is considered to be a form of Isis. - -It was probably about the Twenty-second Dynasty that the worship of Set -began to decline, and that he took on the shape of an evil deity. The -theory has been put forward that the Hyksos invaders identified him -with certain of their gods, and that this sufficed to bring him into -disrepute with the Egyptians. - - -Set and the Ass - -Plutarch, in his _De Iside et Osiride_, has an interesting passage -concerning the alleged resemblance between the ass and Set. He says (the -translation is the old one of Squire): - -"Hence their ignominious treatment of those persons, whom from the -redness of their complexions they imagine to bear a resemblance to him; -and hence likewise is derived the custom of the Coptites of throwing an -Ass down a precipice; because it is usually of this colour. Nay, the -inhabitants of Busiris and Lycopolis carry their detestation of this -animal so far, as never to make any use of trumpets, because of the -similitude between their sound and the braying of an ass. In a word, -this animal is in general regarded by them as unclean and impure, -merely on account of the resemblance which they conceive it bears to -Typho; and in consequence of this notion, those cakes which they offer -with their sacrifices during the last two months -Pa{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DIALYTIKA~}ni and Phaophi, -have the impression of an ass, bound, stamped upon them. For the same -reason likewise, when they sacrifice to the Sun, they strictly enjoyn -all those who approach to worship the God, neither to wear any gold -about them, nor to give provender to any ass. It is moreover evident, -say they, that even the Pythagoreans looked upon Typho to have been of -the rank or order of Demons, as, according to them, 'he was produced -in the even number fifty-six.' For as the power of the Triangle is -expressive of the nature of Pluto, Bacchus, and Mars, the properties -of the Square of Rhea, Venus, Ceres, Vesta, and Juno; of the Dodecagon -of Juppiter; so, as we are informed by Eudoxus, is the figure of 56 -angles expressive of the nature of Typho: as therefore all the others -above-mentioned in the Pythagorean system are looked upon as so many -Genii or Demons, so in like manner must this latter be regarded by them. -'Tis from this persuasion likewise of the red complexion of Typho, -that the Egyptians make use of no other bullocks in their sacrifice -but what are of this colour. Nay, so extremely curious are they in -this respect, that if there be so much as one black or white hair in -the beast, 'tis sufficient to render it improper for this service. For -'tis their opinion, that sacrifices ought not to be made of such things -as are in themselves agreeable and well-pleasing to the Gods, but, on -the contrary, rather of such creatures wherein the souls of wicked and -unjust men have been confined during the course of their transmigration. -Hence sprang that custom, which was formerly observed by them, of -pronouncing a solemn curse upon the head of the beast which was to be -offered in sacrifice, and afterwards of cutting it off and throwing it -into the Nile, though now they dispose of it to foreigners. No bullock -therefore is permitted to be offered to the Gods, which has not the seal -of the Sphragistae first stamped upon it, an order of priests peculiarly -set apart for this purpose, from whence likewise they derive their -name. Their impress, according to Castor, is 'a man upon his knees with -his hands tied behind him and a sword pointed at his throat'. Nor is -it from his colour only that they maintain a resemblance between the -ass and Typho, but from the stupidity likewise and sensuality of his -disposition; and agreeably to this notion, having a more particular -hatred to Ochus than to any other of the Persian monarchs who reigned -over them, looking upon him as an execrable and abominable wretch, they -gave him the nickname of the Ass, which drew the following reply from -that prince, 'But this ass shall dine upon your ox,' and accordingly he -slew the Apis: this story is thus related by Dino." - -In certain phases of his myth Set is symbolized as a black pig. -Especially is this the case when he is shown by Ra to Horus, and tears -the latter's eye out of his head. - - -Anubis - -Anubis, or, as the Egyptians called him, An-pu, was, according to some, -the son of Osiris and Nephthys, and to others the son of Set. He had the -head of a jackal and the body of a man, and was evidently symbolical of -the animal which prowled about the tombs of the dead. His worship was of -great antiquity, and it may be that in early times he had been a totem. -He was the guide of the dead in the underworld on their way to the abode -of Osiris. In many mythologies a dog is the companion of the dead man -to the otherworld. Its remains are found in prehistoric graves; in both -Mexico and Peru dogs were sacrificed at burial, and, indeed, the custom -is a very widespread one. Now it is not improbable that Anubis may have -typified the prehistoric half-domesticated jackal, or early type of dog -that was supposed to guide the wanderer through the underworld. Plutarch -says of Anubis that the Egyptians imagine a resemblance between him and -the dog. - -Anubis was particularly worshipped at Lycopolis, Abt, and elsewhere. He -plays a prominent part in the _Book of the Dead_, especially in those -passages which are connected with the justification and the embalming -of the deceased. He it was who embalmed the body of Osiris. Indeed, he -rendered great assistance to the mourning sisters, and in this he may -typify the faithful and helpful qualities of the dog. This is all the -more striking if he is to be accepted as the son of Set, and the whole -evolution of the deity would seem to imply that whereas the semi-savage, -half-domesticated dog was originally nocturnal and of doubtful value, -under domestication its virtues became apparent. It is probable that, -could research be pushed back to a sufficiently remote epoch, and did -paintings of such an early period exist, we should find Anubis pictured -as the faithful dog preceding the deceased on the journey to the Duat. -Later, when every deity in the picture had received a special function -through the aid of priestly ingenuity, and perhaps in an area where -the jackal or dog was totemic, we find the companion of the dead still -accompanying him indeed, still his guide through the darkness, but in -the guise and with the attributes of a full-grown deity. How he came to -be the mummifier of Osiris it would, indeed, be hard to say; probably -the association or the jackal with the burial-ground would account for -this. He was symbolical of the grave. Professor Petrie has put it on -record that the best guides to Egyptian tombs are the jackal-trails. A -speech of Anubis in the _Book of the Dead_, chapter cli, is suggestive -of his protective character. "I have come," he says, "to protect -Osiris." In many countries the dog is dispatched with the deceased for -the purpose of protecting him against various grisly enemies he may meet -on the way to Hades, and it is not unlikely that Anubis played a similar -part in very early times. - -It is the duty of Anubis to see that the beam of the great balance -wherein the heart of the deceased is weighed is in its proper position. -As Thoth acts for the gods, so Anubis appears for the dead man, whom -he also protects against the 'Eater of the Dead.' He also guided the -souls of the dead through the underworld, being assisted in this duty -by Up-uaut, another jackal-headed deity, whose name signifies 'Opener -of the Ways.' These gods have sometimes been confounded with one -another, but in certain texts they are separately alluded to. The name -of the latter deity is significant of his probable early function. -Anubis, thinks Dr. Budge, was the opener of the roads of the north, -and Up-uaut of those of the south. "In fact," he says, "Anubis was the -personification of the summer solstice, and Ap-uat [Up-uaut] of the -winter solstice." He goes on to say that when they appear with the two -Utchats, or eyes of Ra, they symbolize the four quarters of heaven and -of earth, and the four seasons of the year. Plutarch has also a passage -upon the astronomical significance of Anubis which seems far from clear. - -At Heliopolis, Anubis was to some extent fused with Horus as regards -his attributes, and in some manner he took on the character of the old -fusion between Horus and Set, in this latter connexion personifying -death and decay. In the _Golden Ass_ of Apuleius we find that Anubis had -votaries in Rome, and it is noticeable that in this account he is spoken -of as having a dog's head. - - -Thoth - -Thoth, or Tehuti, was a highly composite deity. His birth was coeval -with that of Ra. Let us enumerate his attributes before we seek to -disentangle his significance. He is alluded to as the counter of the -stars, the measurer and enumerator of the earth, as being twice great -and thrice great lord of books, scribe of the gods, and as possessing -knowledge of divine speech, in which he was 'mighty.' In general he was -figured in human form with the head of an ibis, but sometimes he appears -in the shape of that bird. He wears upon his head the crescent moon and -disk, the Atef crown, and the crowns of the North and South. In the -_Book of the Dead_ he is drawn as holding the writing reed and palette -of the scribe, and as placing on his tablets the records of the deceased -whose heart is being weighed before him. There is no reason to suppose -that Thoth was totemic in character, as he belongs to the cosmogonic -or nature deities, few or none of whom were of this type. Another form -of Thoth is that of the dog-headed ape, which, it has been stated, -symbolizes his powers of equilibrium. His principal seat of worship was -Hermopolis, where Ra was supposed to have risen for the first time. To -Thoth was ascribed the mental powers of Ra, and, indeed, the dicta of Ra -seem to have come from his lips. He was the Divine Speech personified. -But we are looking ahead. Let us discover his primitive significance -before we enumerate the more or less complex attributes which are heaped -upon him in later times. - -It is pretty clear that Thoth is originally a moon-god. He is called -the 'great god' and 'lord of heaven.' Among primitive peoples the moon -is the great regulator of the seasons. A lunar calendar is invariably -in use prior to the introduction of the computation of time by solar -revolution. The moon is thus the 'great measurer' of primitive life. -Thus primitive peoples speak about the 'seed moon,' the 'deer moon,' -the 'grain' or 'harvest moon,' and so on. Thoth, then, was a measurer -because he was a moon-god, and conversely because of his lunar -significance he was _the_ measurer. As Aah-Tehuti he symbolizes the -new moon, as it is from the first appearance that time is measured by -primitive peoples. His eye signifies the full moon in the same manner -that the eye of Ra signifies the sun at mid-day. But it also symbolizes -the left eye of Ra, or the cold half of the year, when the sun's rays -were not so strong. It is sometimes also called the 'black eye of -Horus,' the 'white eye' being the sun. This serves to illustrate how -greatly the attributes of the Egyptian deities had become confused. As -he was a moon-god, so he was to some extent connected with moisture, and -we find him alluded to in chapter xcv of the _Book of the Dead_ as a -rain and thunder god. - - -Thoth as Soul-Recorder - -It is, however, as the recorder of souls before Osiris that Thoth was -important in the eyes of the Egyptian priesthood. He held this office -because of his knowledge of letters and his gift of knowing what was -right or in equilibrium. Again, he had the power of imparting the -manner in which words should be correctly spoken. As has already been -said, the mode of speech, the tone in which words were pronounced, -spelt success or failure in both prayer and magical incantations. The -secret of this Thoth taught to men, and this it was that the Egyptians -especially desired to learn. Through the formula of Thoth the gates of -the Duat were opened to the deceased, and he was safeguarded against its -terrors. The _Book of the Dead_ was indeed believed to be the work of -Thoth, as was the _Book of Breathings_, a much later work. - -The Greek writers upon things Egyptian imagined Thoth, whom they called -Trismegistos, or Hermes the Thrice Great, as the prime source of all -learning and wisdom. They ascribed to him the invention of the sciences -of astronomy and astrology, mathematics, geometry, and medicine. The -letters of the alphabet were also his invention, from which sprang the -arts of reading and writing. According to them the 'Books of Thoth' were -forty-two in number, and were divided into six classes, dealing with law -and theology, the service of the gods, history, geography and writing, -astronomy and astrology, religious writings and medicine. It is almost -certain that most of this mass of material was the work of Alexandrian -Greeks sophisticated by ancient Egyptian lore. - - -Maat - -The goddess Maat closely resembles Thoth, and has indeed been regarded -as the female counterpart of that god. She was one of the original -goddesses, for when the boat of Ra rose above the waters of the primeval -abyss of Nu for the first time she had her place in it beside Thoth. -She is symbolized by the ostrich feather, which she either holds or -which decorates her headdress. Dr. Budge states that the reason for -the association of the ostrich feather with Maat is unknown, as is -the primitive conception which underlies her name. But it is likely -that the equal-sidedness of the feather, its division into halves, -rendered it a fitting symbol of balance or equilibrium. Among the Maya -of Central America the feather denoted the plural number. The word, -we are told, indicates "that which is straight." The name Maat with -the ancient Egyptians came to imply anything which was true, genuine, -or real. Thus the goddess was the personification of law, order, and -truth. She indicated the regularity with which Ra rose and set in the -sky, and, assisted by Thoth, wrote down his daily course for him every -day. In this capacity she is called the 'daughter of Ra' and the 'eye -of Ra.' As the personification of justice her moral power was immense -and inexorable. In fact, she came to be regarded as that fate from whom -every man receives his deserts. She sat in a hall in the underworld -to hear the confessions of the dead, the door of which was guarded by -Anubis. The deceased had to satisfy forty-two assessors or judges in -this hall, after which he proceeded to the presence of Osiris, whom he -assured that he had 'done Maat,' and had been purified by her. - - -The Book of the Dead - -The _Book of the Dead_, the Egyptian title of which, _Pert em hru_, has -been variously translated 'coming forth by day' and the 'manifestation -day,' is a great body of religious compositions compiled for the use -of the dead in the otherworld. It is probable that the name had a -significance for the Egyptians which is incapable of being rendered -in any modern language, and this is borne out by another of its -titles--'The chapter of making perfect the Khu' (or spirit). Texts -dealing with the welfare of the dead and their life in the world beyond -the grave are known to have been in use among the Egyptians as early -as 4000 B.C. The oldest form of the _Book of the Dead_ known to us is -represented in the Pyramid Texts. With the invention of mummification -a more complete funerary ritual arose, based on the hope that such -ceremonies as it imposed would ensure the corpse against corruption, -preserve it for ever, and introduce it to a beatified existence among -the gods. Almost immediately prior to the dynastic era a great stimulus -appears to have been given to the cult of Osiris throughout Egypt. He -had now become the god of the dead _par excellence_, and his dogma -taught that from the preserved corpse would spring a beautified astral -body, the future home of the spirit of the deceased. It therefore -became necessary to adopt measures of the greatest precaution for the -preservation of human remains. - -The generality of the texts comprised in the _Book of the Dead_ are in -one form or another of much greater antiquity than the period of Mena, -the first historical king of Egypt. Indeed, from internal evidence it -is possible to show that many of these were revised or edited long -before the copies known to us were made. Even at as early a date as 3300 -B.C. the professional writers who transcribed the ancient texts appear -to have been so puzzled by their contents that they hardly understood -their purport.[8] Dr. Budge states: "We are in any case justified in -estimating the earliest form of the work to be contemporaneous with the -foundation of the civilization which we call 'Egyptian' in the valley of -the Nile."[9] - - -A 'Discovery' 3400 Years Old - -A hieratic inscription upon the sarcophagus of Queen Khnem-nefert, -wife of Mentu-hetep, a king of the Eleventh Dynasty (_c._ 2500 B.C.), -states that a certain chapter of the _Book of the Dead_ was discovered -in the reign of Hesep-ti, the fifth king of the First Dynasty, who -flourished about 4266 B.C. This sarcophagus affords us two copies of -the said chapter, one immediately following the other. That as early -as 2500 B.C. a chapter of the _Book of the Dead_ should be referred -to a date almost 2000 years before that time is astounding, and the -mind reels before the idea of a tradition which, during comparatively -unlettered centuries, could have conserved a religious formula almost -unimpaired. Thus thirty-four centuries ago a portion of the _Book of -the Dead_ was regarded as extremely ancient, mysterious, and difficult -of comprehension. It will be noted also that the inscription on the -tomb of Queen Khnem-nefert bears out that the chapter in question was -'discovered' about 4266 B.C. If it was merely discovered at that early -era, what periods of remoteness lie between that epoch and the time when -it was first reduced to writing? The description of the chapter on the -sarcophagus of the royal lady states that "this chapter was found in the -foundations beneath the Dweller in the Hennu Boat by the foreman of the -builders in the time of the king of the South and North, Hesep-ti, whose -word is truth"; and the Nebseni Papyrus says that the chapter was found -in the city of Khemennu or Hermopolis, on a block of alabaster, written -in letters of lapis-lazuli, under the feet of the god. It also appears -from the Turin Papyrus, which dates from the period of the Twenty-sixth -Dynasty, that the name of the finder was Heru-ta-ta-f, the son of -Cheops, who was at the time engaged in a tour of inspection of the -temples. Sir Gaston Maspero is doubtful concerning the importance which -should be attached to the statement regarding the chapter on the tomb of -Queen Khnem-nefert, but M. Naville considers the chapter in question one -of the oldest in the _Book of the Dead_. - -A bas-relief of the Second Dynasty bears an inscription dedicating -to the shade of a certain priest the formula of the "thousands of -loaves of bread, thousands of jugs of ale," and so forth, so common -in later times. We thus see that 4000 years B.C. it was regarded as a -religious duty to provide offerings of meat and drink for the dead, -and there seems to be good evidence, from the nature of the formula -in question, that it had become fixed and ritualistic by this period. -This passage would appear to justify the text on the sarcophagus of the -wife of Mentu-hetep. A few centuries later, about the time of Seneferu -(_c._ 3766 B.C.), the cult of the dead had expanded greatly from the -architectural point of view, and larger and more imposing cenotaphs were -provided for them. Victorious wars had brought much wealth to Egypt, -and its inhabitants were better able to meet the very considerable -expenditure entailed upon them by one of the most expensive cults known -to the history of religion. In the reign of Men-kau-Ra a revision of -certain parts of the text of the _Book of the Dead_ appears to have been -undertaken. The authority for this is the rubrics attached to certain -chapters which state that they were found inscribed upon a block of -alabaster in letters of lapis-lazuli in the time of that monarch. - -We do not find a text comprising the _Book of the Dead_ as a whole until -the reign of Unas (3333 B.C.), whose pyramid was opened in 1881 by Sir -G. Maspero. The stone walls were covered with texts extremely difficult -of decipherment, because of their archaic character and spelling, among -them many from the _Book of the Dead_. Continuing his excavations at -Saqqarah, Maspero made his way into the pyramid of Teta (3300 B.C.), -in which he discovered inscriptions, some of which were identical with -those in the pyramid of Unas, so that the existence of a fully formed -_Book of the Dead_ by the time of the first king of the Sixth Dynasty -was proven. Additional texts were found in the tomb of Pepi I (3233 -B.C.). From this it will be seen that before the close of the Sixth -Dynasty five copies of a series of texts, forming the _Book of the Dead_ -of that period, are in evidence, and, as has been observed, there is -substantial proof that its ceremonial was in vogue in the Second, and -probably in the First, Dynasty. Its text continued to be copied and -employed until the second century of the Christian era. - -It would appear that each chapter of the _Book of the Dead_ had an -independent origin, and it is probable that their inclusion and adoption -into the body of the work were spread over many centuries. It is -possible that some of the texts reflect changes in theological opinion, -but each chapter stands by itself. It would seem, however, that there -was a traditional order in the sequence of the chapters. - - -The Three Recensions - -There were three recensions or versions of the _Book of the Dead_--the -Heliopolitan, the Theban, and the Saite. The Heliopolitan Recension -was edited by the priests of the College of Anu, or On, known to the -Greeks as Heliopolis, and was based upon texts not now recoverable. -The Pyramids of Unas, Teta, and Pepi contain the original texts of this -recension, which represent the theological system introduced by the -priests of Ra. The essentials of the primitive Egyptian religion are, -however, retained, the only modification in them being the introduction -of the solar doctrine of Ra. In later times the priesthood of Ra were -forced to acknowledge the supremacy of Osiris, and this theological -defeat is visible in the more modern texts. Between the Sixth and -Eleventh Dynasties the priests of On edited a number of fresh chapters -from time to time. - -The Theban Recension was much in vogue from the Eighteenth to the -Twenty-second Dynasties, and was usually written upon papyri and painted -upon coffins in hieroglyphs. Each chapter was preserved distinct from -the others, but appears to have had no distinct place in the entire -collection. - -The Saite Recension was definitely arranged at some date prior to the -Twenty-sixth Dynasty, and is written upon coffins and papyri, and also -in hieratic and demotic script. It continued to be employed to the end -of the Ptolemaic period. - -As we have previously noticed, the _Book of the Dead_ was for their -use from the moment when they found themselves inhabitants of the -otherworld. Magic was the very mainspring of existence in that sphere, -and unless a spirit was acquainted with the formulae which compelled the -respect of the various gods and demons, and even of inanimate objects, -it was helpless. The region to which the dead departed the primitive -Egyptians called Duat. They believed it to be formed of the body of -Osiris. It was regarded as dark and gloomy, containing pits of fire -and dreadful monsters which circled the earth, and was in its turn -bounded by a river and a lofty chain of mountains. The part of it that -was nearest to Egypt was regarded as a description of mingled desert -and forest, through which the soul of the deceased might not hope to -struggle unless guided by some benevolent spirit who knew the paths -through this country of despair. Thick darkness covered everything, and -under veil of this the hideous inhabitants of the place practised all -sorts of hostility to the new-comer, unless by the use of words of power -he could prove his superiority over them. But there was one delectable -part in this horrid region--the Sekhet Hetepet, the Elysian fields which -contained the Sekhet Aaru, or the Field of Reeds, where dwelt the god -Osiris and his company. At first he had domain over this part of the -Duat alone, but gradually he succeeded in extending it over the entire -country of the dead, of which he was monarch. We find also a god of the -Duat named Duati, but who appears to have been more a personification of -the region than anything else. Now the wish of all good men was to win -to the kingdom of Osiris, and to that end they made an exhaustive study -of the prayers and ritual of the _Book of the Dead_, in order that they -might the more easily penetrate to the region of bliss. This they might -reach by two ways--by land and by water. The path by water was no whit -less dreadful than that by land, the passage of the soul being barred by -streams of fire and boiling water, and the banks of the rivers navigated -were populous with evil spirits. - - -The Place of Reeds - -We learn from the Theban Recension that there were seven halls or -mansions in the Field of Reeds, all of which had to be passed through -by the soul before it was received by the god in person. Three -gods guarded the door of each hall--the doorkeeper, watchman, and -questioner. It was necessary for the new-comer to address each god by -his name. There were also names for the doors which must be borne in -mind. The name of each god was in reality a spell consisting of a number -of words. The Place of Reeds was divided into fifteen regions, each of -which was presided over by a god. The first of these was called Amentet, -where dwelt those souls who lived upon earth-offerings; it was ruled -over by Menuqet. The second was Sekhet Aaru, the Field of Reeds proper, -the walls surrounding which were formed of the stuff of which the sky is -made. Here dwelt the souls, who were nine cubits high, under the rule of -Ra Heru-Khuti, and this place was the centre of the kingdom of Osiris. -The third was the place of the spirit-souls, a region of fire. In the -fourth dwelt the terrible serpent Sati-temui, which preyed on the dead -who dwelt in the Duat. The fifth region was inhabited by spirits who fed -upon the shadows of the weak and helpless souls. They appear to have -been a description of vampire. The remaining regions were very similar -to these. - - -The Journey of Osiris - -We find other descriptions of the Duat in the _Book of Gates_ and the -_Book of Him that is in the Duat_, in which is outlined the journey -that the sun-god makes through the otherworld after he has set upon the -earth-world. Immediately after sinking he takes the form of Osiris, -which in this instance is that of a ram with a man's head. Coming to the -antechamber of the Duat in the west, his entrance is heralded by songs -of praise, raised by the Ape-gods, while serpents blow fire from their -mouths by the light of which his Pilot-gods steer his craft. All the -doors are thrown open, and the dead, revived by the earthly air which -Osiris carries with him, come to life again for a brief hour. All the -creatures of this portion of the Duat are provided with meat and drink -by command of the god. Such of the dead as dwell here are those who have -failed to pass the various tests for entrance to his court, and all that -they exist for is the material comfort provided for them by the brief -diurnal passage of the deity. When the sun, who in this form is known -as Af Ra, reaches the entrance to the second part of the Duat, which -is called Urnes, the gods of the first section depart from him, and do -not again behold his face until the following night. At this point the -boat of Af Ra is met by the boats of Osiris and his attendant gods, and -in this place also Osiris desires that the dead should receive food, -light, and air. Here he grapples with the serpents Hau and Neha-her, as -do most sun-gods during the time of darkness, and, having overcome them, -is led into the Field of the Grain-gods, where he reposes for a while. -When there he hearkens to the prayers of the living on behalf of the -dead, and takes account of the offerings made by them. Continuing his -journey, he traverses the twelve sections of the Duat. In some of these -we see what were probably quite separate realms of the dead, such as the -Realm of Seker, a god who is perhaps of greater antiquity than Osiris. -In this place his boat is useless, as there is no river in the gloomy -kingdom of Seker, which appears completely alien to Osiris. He therefore -repeats words of awful power, which compel the gods of the place to lead -him by subterranean passages from which he emerges into Amhet, where is -situated a stream of boiling water. But he is not out of the kingdom of -Seker until he reaches the sixth section, where dwell the dead kings of -Egypt and the 'Khu' or Spirit-souls. It is at this point of his journey -that Af Ra turns his face toward the east and directs his course to the -Mountain of the Sunrise; previous to this he has been journeying from -the south to the north. In the seventh section he is joined by Isis and -other deities, and here his path is obstructed by the wicked serpent -Apep, through whose body the attendant deities drive their daggers. -A company of gods tow him through the eighth section, but his vessel -sails itself through the ninth, and in the tenth and eleventh he seems -to pass over a series of lakes, which may represent the lagoons of the -eastern delta. In the latter section his progress is lighted by a disk -of light, encircled by a serpent, which rests upon the prow of the boat. -The twelfth section contains the great mass of celestial waters called -Nu, and here dwells Nut, the personification of the morning. Before the -boat looms the great serpent Ankh-neteru, and twelve of the gods, taking -hold of the tow-line, enter this serpent at the tail and draw the god in -his boat through the monstrous body, bringing Af Ra out at its mouth; -but not as Af Ra, for during this passage he has been transformed into -Khepera, in which shape he is towed into the sky by twelve goddesses, -who lead him before Shu, the god of the atmosphere of the terrestrial -world. Shu places him in the opening in the semicircular wall which -forms the end of the twelfth section, and he now appears to mortal eyes -as a disk of light, having discarded his mummified form, in which he -traversed the Duat. His progress is followed by the acclamations of his -company of gods, who fall upon and destroy his enemies and sing hymns of -praise to him. The Duat, as described in the _Book of Gates_, differs -considerably from that of the _Book of Him that is in the Duat_, but it -also possesses twelve sections, and a similar journey is outlined in it. - -The principal gods alluded to in the _Book of the Dead_ are: Tem or -Atmu, Nu, Ra, Khepra, Ptah, Ptah-Seker, Khnemu, Shu, Set, Horus, Thoth, -Nephthys, Anubis, Amen, and Anu--in fact, the majority of the principal -divinities of Egypt. Besides these there were many lesser gods and a -great company of spirits, demons, and other supernatural beings. Many -of these demons were very ancient forms of half-forgotten deities. It -will be noticed that at practically every stage of his journey Osiris -left behind him one or more of his divine companions, who henceforth -were supposed to become the rulers or satraps of the regions in which he -had quitted them. So might an earthly Pharaoh reward his courtiers for -services rendered. - -It was only during the Middle Kingdom that the conception of Osiris as -judge of the dead took definite form and received general recognition. -In one of the chapters of the _Book of the Dead_ we find him seated -in a large hall the roof of which is covered with fire and symbols of -truth. Before him are the symbol of Anubis, the four sons of Horus, and -the Devourer of the West, a monster who serves as his protector. In -the rear sit the forty-two judges of the dead. The deceased makes his -appearance before the god and his heart is placed in a great balance -to be weighed by Anubis, Thoth, the scribe of the gods, standing by to -note the result upon his tablets. Having communicated this to Osiris, -the dead man, if found worthy, is presented to the deity, to whom he -repeats a long prayer, in which he states that he has not committed any -evil. Those who could not pass the test were hurried away, and so far as -is known were in danger of being devoured by a frightful monster called -Beby, which awaited them outside. The justified deceased took part in -the life of Osiris and the other gods, which appears to have been very -much the same as that of the Egyptian aristocracy. As has been said, the -deceased might also transform himself into any animal form he cared. -The life of the justified dead is well outlined in an inscription on -the tomb of Paheri, prince of El Kab, which is as follows: "Thou goest -in and out with a glad heart, and with the rewards of the gods.... Thou -becomest a living soul; thou hast power over bread, water, and air. Thou -changest thyself into a phoenix or a swallow, a sparrow-hawk or a heron, -as thou desirest. Thou dost cross in the boat and art not hindered. Thou -sailest upon the water when a flood ariseth. Thou livest anew and thy -soul is not parted from thy body. Thy soul is a god together with the -illuminated, and the excellent souls speak with thee. Thou art among -them and (verily) receivest what is given upon earth; thou possessest -water, possessest air, hast superabundance of that which thou desirest. -Thine eyes are given to thee to see, and thine ears to hear speech, thy -mouth speaketh, thy legs move, thy hands and arms bestir themselves for -thee, thy flesh grows, thy veins are in health, and thou feelest thyself -well in all thy limbs. Thou hast thine upright heart in thy possession, -and thy earlier heart belongs to thee. Thou dost mount up to heaven, and -art summoned each day to the libation table of Wennofre, thou receivest -the good which has been offered to him and the gifts of the Lords of the -necropolis." - -The _Book of the Dead_ is obviously an allegory of the passage of the -sun through the underworld. The sinking of the sun at nightfall would -naturally arouse in primitive man thoughts as to where the luminary -dwelt during the hours of gloom, for the sun was to early man a living -thing. He could watch its motion across the sky, and the light and -other benefits which he received from it came to make him regard it -as the source of all good. It appeared plain to him that its diurnal -career was cut short by the attacks of some enemy, and the logical -sequel of the belief in the solar deity as a beneficent power was of -course that the force hostile to him must be of evil disposition. It -came to be figured as a serpent or dragon which nightly battled with the -luminary and for a season prevailed. The gods of many religions have to -descend into the otherworld to do battle with the forces of death and -hell. We may see an analogy to the _Book of the Dead_ in the Central -American _Popol Vuh_, in which two hero-gods, the sons and nephews of -the sun and the moon, descend into the dark abyss of the Maya Hades, -rout its forces, and return triumphant. It has been suggested that the -_Book of the Dead_ was nothing more or less than the ritual of a secret -brotherhood, and that the various halls mentioned in it symbolized the -several stages of initiation through which the members had to pass. - -It is curious that in his recent interesting book on _Mexican -Archaeology_ Mr. T. Athol Joyce, of the British Museum, has mentioned -that the court of the Maya underworld, as alluded to in the _Popol Vuh_, -"seems to have been conducted on the principle of a secret society with -a definite form of initiation." It is practically certain that the -mysteries of Eleusis, and similar Greek initiatory ceremonies, were -concerned with the life of the underworld, especially with the story of -Demeter and Kore, or Ceres, and that a theatric representation of the -wanderings of the mother in search of her daughter in the underworld -was given in the course of the ceremonial. These Greek deities, besides -being gods of the dead, were gods of agriculture--corn-gods; but gods -of the underworld often presided over the growth of the crops, as it -was believed that the grain germinated underneath the earth by their -influence. For example, we find in the _Popol Vuh_ that Xquiq, daughter -of one of the lords of the underworld, was able to reap a field of maize -in a few minutes in a spot where before there had been none. All this -would seem to point to the probability that if the _Book of the Dead_ -did not contain an early type of initiatory ceremonial, it may have -powerfully influenced the ceremonial of mysteries when they arose. The -mysteries of the Cabiri, for example, are supposed to be of Egyptian -origin. On the other hand, it may be possible that the _Book of the -Dead_ represents the ceremonial of an older prehistoric mystery, which -had been forgotten by the dynastic Egyptians. Savage races all over -the world possess such mysteries. The Indians of North America and the -Blackfellows of Australia possess most elaborate initiatory ceremonies; -and it is quite possible that the _Book of the Dead_ may preserve the -ritual of Neolithic savages who practised it thousands of years prior to -its connexion with the worship of Osiris. - - -The Place of Punishment - -Although there does not appear to have been a portion of the Duat -specially reserved for the wicked, they were sufficiently tormented -in many ways to render their existence a punishment for any misdeeds -committed during life. At one end of this region were pits of fire where -grisly deities presided, superintending the destruction of the bodies of -the deceased and hacking them to pieces before they were burned. Their -punishment was, however, mitigated by the appearance of Ra-Osiris on his -nightly journey, for as he advanced their torments ceased for the time -being. - -The deities who inflicted punishment upon the damned were the enemies -of Ra-Osiris--personifications of darkness, night, fog, mist, vapour, -tempest, wind, and so forth, and these were destroyed daily by the -fiery beams of the luminary. These were pictured in human form, and the -scenes of their destruction by fire have often been mistakenly supposed -to represent the burning of the souls of the doomed. This evil host -was renewed with every revolution of the sun, so that a fresh phalanx -of enemies appeared to attack Ra each night and morning. It was during -the interval between dawn and sunrise that they were discomfited and -punished. The souls of the doomed were in no wise enabled to hinder the -progress of Ra, but in later times these were in some measure identified -with the enemies of Ra, with whom they dwelt and whom they assisted -to attack the sun-god. In the strife which ensued they were pierced -by the fiery sun-rays, symbolized as darts or spears, and the knives -which hacked their bodies in pieces were typical of the flames of fire -emanating from the body of Ra. The lakes and pits of fire in which they -were submerged typified the appearance of the eastern heavens at sunrise. - -There was nothing in the Egyptian creed to justify the belief in -everlasting punishment, and such a view is unsupported by the material -of the texts. There is, in fact, no parallel in the Egyptian religion -to the Gehenna of the Hebrews, or the Purgatory and Hell of medieval -Europe. The Egyptian idea of death did not include the conception of -the resurrection of a second physical body in the underworld, but, -should the physical body be destroyed, they considered that the _ka_ or -double, the shadow and spirit of man, might also perish. It is strange, -all the same, to observe that the Egyptian idea of temporary punishment -after death appears to have coloured the medieval Christian conception -of that state through Coptic sources. Indeed, the Coptic Christians -of Egypt appear to have borrowed the idea of punishment in the Duat -almost entire from their pagan ancestors or contemporaries. Amelineau -cites a Coptic work in which a dead Egyptian tells how at the hour of -dissolution avenging angels collected around him with knives and other -weapons, which they thrust through and through him. Other spirits tore -his soul from his body and, securing it to the back of a black horse, -galloped off with it to Amentet. On arrival there he was first tortured -in a place filled with noisome reptiles, and was then thrust into outer -darkness. He fell into another pit at least two hundred feet deep, in -which were assembled reptiles of every description, each having seven -heads, and here he was given over to a serpent which had teeth like -iron stakes. From Monday to Friday of each week this monster gnawed -and tore at the doomed wretch, who rested only from this torment on -Saturday and Sunday. In the circumstance that it does not posit eternal -punishment, the region of torment, if so it can be named, differs from -similar ideas in other mythologies; but in the essence concerning the -nature of the punishment meted out, the cutting with knives, stabbing -with spears, burning with fire, and so forth, it is practically at -one with the underworlds of other faiths. The scenery of the Egyptian -infernal regions also closely resembles that of its equivalents in other -mythologies. It was not to be supposed that the Egyptians, with their -elaborate precautions against bodily attack after death, should believe -in eternal punishment. They may have believed in punishment for each -other, but it is highly improbable that any Egyptian who had devoted any -time to the study of the _Book of the Dead_ believed that he himself -was doomed. His whole future, according to that book, hung upon his -knowledge of the words of power written therein, and surely no one with -such a comparatively easy means of escape could have been so foolish as -to neglect it. - - -The Egyptian Heaven - -As has been said, the exact position of heaven does not appear to have -been located, but it may be said in a general sense that the Egyptians -believed it to be placed somewhere above the sky. They called it Pet, -which expression they used in contradistinction to the word Nu, meaning -sky. The heavens and the sky they regarded as a slab, each end of which -rested on a support formed of the two mountains Bakhau and Manu, the -mountains of sunrise and sunset. In primitive times heaven was conceived -as consisting of two portions, the east and the west; but later it was -divided into four parts, each of which was placed under the sovereignty -of a god. This region was supported by four pillars, each of which again -was under the direction of a deity, and at a comparatively late period -an extra pillar was added to support the middle. In one myth we find the -heavens spoken of as representing a human head, the sun and moon forming -the eyes, and the supports of heaven being formed by the hair. The gods -of the four quarters who guarded the original pillars were those deities -known as Canopic (see p. 28), or otherwise called the Children of Horus. - -In heaven dwelt the great god Ra, who sat upon a metal throne, the sides -of which were embossed with the faces of lions and the hoofs of bulls. -His train or company surrounded him, and was in its turn encircled by -the lesser companies of deities. Each of the gods who presided over the -world and the Duat had also his own place in heaven. Beneath the lesser -gods again came beings who might well be described as angelical. First -among these were the Shemsu-heru, or followers of Horus, who waited -upon the sun-god, and, if necessary, came to his protection. They were -regarded as being essential to his welfare. Next came the Ashemu, the -attributes of which are unknown, and after those the Henmemet, perhaps -souls who were to become human beings, but their status is by no means -clear. They were supposed to live upon grain and herbs. There were also -beings called Utennu and Afa, regarding the characteristics of which -absolutely nothing is known. Following these came an innumerable host -of spirits, souls and so forth, chiefly of those who had once dwelt -upon the earth, and who were known collectively as 'the living ones.' -The Egyptians thought these might wander about the earth and return -to heaven at certain fixed times, the idea arising probably because -they wished to provide a future for the body as well as for the soul -and spirit. As explained previously, the gods of heaven had their -complements or doubles on earth, and man in some degree was supposed to -partake of this dual nature. The Egyptian conception of heaven altered -slowly throughout the centuries. An examination of the earliest records -available shows that the idea of existence after death was a sort of -shadowy extension of the life of this world. Such an idea is common -to all primitive races. As they progressed, however, this conception -became entirely changed and a more spiritual one took its place. The -soul, _ba_, and the spirit, _khu_, which were usually represented as a -hawk and a heron in the hieroglyphic texts, partook of heavenly food and -became one with the gods, and in time became united with the glorified -body or heavenly frame, so that the soul-spirit, power, shade, double, -and name of the deceased were all collected in the one heavenly body -known as _sahu_, which may be described as the spiritual body. It was -considered to grow out of the dead body, and its existence became -possible through the magic ceremonies performed and the words of power -spoken by the priests during the burial service. - - -How the Blessed Lived - -In the _Book of the Dead_ it is stated that the spirits of heaven are in -number 4,601,200. It has been suggested that this number was probably -the Egyptian enumeration of all those human spirits who had died and -had attained to heaven; but this is hardly probable, for obvious -reasons. The manner in which these spirits employed their time is a -little obscure. Some directed the revolutions of the heavenly bodies; -others accompanied the great gods in their journey through the heavens; -while still others superintended mundane affairs. They chanted eternal -praises of Ra as supreme monarch of the gods, and their hymns described -the wonders of his power and glory. They lived upon the rays of light -which fell from the eye of Horus--that is, they were nourished upon -sunlight, so that in time their bodies became wholly composed of light. -According to one myth the gods themselves lived upon a species of plant -called the 'plant of life,' which appears to have grown beside a great -lake. But such a conception is in consonance with an almost separate -theological idea to the effect that the deceased dwelt in a Paradise -where luxuriant grain-fields were watered by numerous canals, and where -material delights of every kind abounded. It was perhaps this place in -which the 'bread of eternity' and the 'beer of eternity,' the celestial -fig-tree, and other such conceptions were supposed to form the food of -the dead. The blessed were supposed to be arrayed in garments similar -to those which clothed the gods, but certain of them seem to have worn -white linen apparel, with white sandals on their feet. - -All this goes to show that the heaven of the primitive Egyptians was -nothing more than an extension of terrestrial conditions, or perhaps -it might be said an improvement upon them. So long as the Egyptian -had the wherewithal to make bread and to brew beer, and had cleanly -garments, and shelter under a homestead the ground round which was -intersected with numerous canals, he considered that to be the best of -all possible heavens. The crops, of course, would grow of themselves. -The whole idea was quite a material one, if the life was simple but -comfortable. There is nothing sophisticated about the Egyptian heaven -like the Mohammedan or Christian realms of bliss; even the manner of -reaching it was primitive, the early dwellers by the Nile imagining -that they could reach it by climbing on to its metal floor by way of -the mountains which supported it, and their later descendants believing -that a ladder was necessary for the ascent. In many tombs models of -these ladders were placed so that the dead people might make use of -their astral counterparts to gain the celestial regions. Even Osiris -required such a ladder, and was helped to ascend it by Ra and Horus, -or by Horus and Set. Many pictures of such ladders are also found in -various papyri of the _Book of the Dead_ which were placed in tombs. Its -length was regulated by the deceased himself according to the power of -the magical words he pronounced over it. The deceased by words of power -was further enabled to turn himself into many bird and animal shapes. It -is difficult to understand the reason for these animal transformations -in Paradise, but the conception has a parallel in the idea of the Aztec -warriors that when they entered the domain of the sun-god they would -accompany him in his course and would descend to earth during part of -his daily journey in the shape of humming-birds. - - -[1] See _Zeitschrift f{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DIALYTIKA~}r -Aeg. Sprache_, li. p. 127: "The Cult of the Drowned in Egypt." - -[2] The moon is always masculine in Egypt. I am here following -Plutarch.--AUTHOR. - -[3] Another version gives the children of Nut thus: Osiris, Isis, Set, -Nephthys, and Anubis. - -[4] Lang states (art. "Mythology" in _Encyclopaedia Britannica_) that -"the Osirian myth originated in the same sort of fancy as the Pacullic -story of the dismembered beaver out of whose body things were made." - -[5] _Golden Bough_, vol. ii. p. 137. - -[6] See M.A. Murray, _Osireion at Abydos_, p. 26. - -[7] Or Seb. - -[8] Maspero, _Recueil de Travaux_, vol. iv, p. 62. - -[9] _Book of the Dead_, Papyrus of Ani, vol. i, p. 7. - - - - -CHAPTER V: THE GREAT GODS - - -Ra, the Sun-God - -Ra, the great god of the sun, appears to have occupied a prominent -position in the Egyptian pantheon at a very early period. The Egyptians -of later days appear to have thought that the name was in some way -associated with creation. Sun-worship in Egypt was very ancient, and -it is probable that a number of sun-cults became fused in that of Ra. -It is certain, indeed, that this was the case with the cult of the -hawk-god Heru or Horus. Both of these deities are usually figured with -the body of a man and the head of a hawk, but they sometimes have the -veritable form of that bird. The hawk in Egypt appears to have been -identified with the sun from the earliest times. Its power of flight -and the heights to which it can rise were probably the reasons assigned -for its association with the great luminary of day. But in many lands -birds of heaven-aspiring flight have symbolized the sun. Among several -of the North American Indian tribes the eagle typifies the sun. The -condor typified the orb of day in ancient Peru, and perhaps the eagle -did the same in some aspects of the Mexican religion. But it is not -always birds of lofty flight which typify the sun. Thus the quetzal bird -seems to have stood for it in Mexico and Central America, and in the -same countries the humming-bird or colibri was sometimes associated with -it. It is strange that just as we find the bird and the serpent combined -in the Mexican god Quetzalcoatl, so we discover them to some extent -associated in Ra, who wears as his symbol the disk of the sun encircled -by the serpent Khut. - -The Egyptians had several varying conceptions as to the manner in which -the sun crossed the heavens. One of these was that it sailed over -the watery mass of the sky in relays of boats or barques. Thus the -rising sun occupied the barque Manzet, which means 'growing strong,' -and the evening sun was ferried to the place of setting by the barque -Mesektet, which means 'growing weak,' in both of which names will be -readily discovered allegorical titles for the rising and setting sun. -The definite path of Ra across the sky had been planned at the time of -creation by the goddess Maat, who personified justice and order. - -The daily voyage of Ra was assisted by a company of friendly deities, -who navigated his barque to the place of the setting sun, the course -being set out by Thoth and Maat, while Horus acted as steersman and -commander. On each side of the boat swam one of two pilot fishes called -Abtu and Ant, but, notwithstanding the assistance of his fellow deities, -the barque of Ra was constantly beset by the most grisly monsters and -demons, who strove to put every obstacle in the way of its successful -passage. - -By far the most potent of these was the serpent Apep, who personified -the darkness of night, and concerning whom we gain much information -from the _Book of Overthrowing Apep_, which gives spells and other -instructions for the checkmating of the monster, which were recited -daily in the temple of Amen-Ra at Thebes. In these Apep is referred to -as a crocodile and a serpent, and it is described how by the aid of -sympathetic magic he is to be speared, cut with knives, decapitated, -roasted, and finally consumed by fire, and his evil followers also. -These magical acts were duly carried out at Thebes day by day, and it -was supposed that they greatly assisted the journey of the sun-god. In -Apep we have a figure such as is known in nearly every mythology. He is -the monster who daily combats with, and finally succeeds in devouring, -the sun. He is the same as the dragons which fought with Beowulf the -sun-hero, as the night-dragon of Chinese mythology, as the Fenris-wolf -of Scandinavian story, and the multitudinous monsters of fable, legend, -and romance. We find his counterpart also in the Babylonian dragon -Tiamat, who was slain by Marduk. - - -Rat - -In the late period there was invented for Ra a female counterpart, Rat, -who is depicted as a woman having on her head a disk with horns and -a uraeus. She does not seem to have been of any great importance, and -perhaps only sprang from the idea that every great deity must have his -female double. The worship of Ra in Egypt during the dynastic period was -centred in the city of Anu, On, or Heliopolis, about five miles from the -modern Cairo. The priests of the god had settled there during the Fifth -Dynasty, the first king of which, User-ka-f, was high-priest of the -god, a circumstance which denotes that the cult must even at this early -period (3350 B.C.) have gained great ascendancy in that part of Egypt. - -An ancient legend describes how the progeny of Ra first gained the -Egyptian throne, and will be found on page 200. - -This tradition proves that in early times the kings of Egypt believed -themselves to have been descended from Ra, who, it was affirmed, had -once ruled over the country, and whose blood flowed in the veins of -the entire Egyptian royal family. Indeed, Ra was said to have been the -actual father of several Egyptian kings, who were therefore regarded as -gods incarnate. Such priestly fictions gave the theocratic class added -power, until at last the worship of Ra practically superseded that of -almost every other deity in the Nile valley, these being absorbed -into the theological system of the priests of Heliopolis, and granted -subordinate positions in the group which surrounded the great sun-god. - - -Fusion of Myths - -It is not in Egypt alone that we find such astute subterfuges made to -subserve the purposes of the priesthood. In most mythologies we discover -that legends of creation and of the origin of deities have in many cases -been manufactured from two or more myths which have been so skilfully -amalgamated that it is only by the most careful and patient study that -they can be resolved into their original components. Thus we find in -the Book of Genesis that beside the existence of Jahveh, the creative -power, we have evidences of a polytheistic pantheon called Elohim. This -shows that two accounts of the Hebrew creation, the one monotheistic -and the other polytheistic, have become fused together. Perhaps one of -the best examples of this dovetailing of myths is to be found in one -of the creation legends of Peru, in which philosophic skill has fused -all the forms of worship through which Peruvian thought passed into one -definite whole. Thus the various stages of belief from simple animism -to anthropomorphism are visible to the student of mythology in perusing -this one legend. That the same feat had been accomplished by the Kiches -of Central America in their wonderful book, the _Popol Vuh_, was shown -by the writer in an article printed in the _Times_ some years ago. - -The original local god of Heliopolis was Tem or Atum, who was united -with Ra as Ra-Tem. The power of the priests of Ra declined somewhat -about the close of the Sixth Dynasty, but in the reign of Senusert I[1] -(_c._ 2433 B.C.) the temple at Heliopolis was rebuilt, being dedicated -to Ra and to two of his forms, Horus and Temu. In this temple were kept -models of the sacred boats of Ra, the Manzet, containing a hawk-headed -figure of Ra, and the Mesektet, a man-headed statue of him. - -Primitive as is the nature of sun-worship, it possesses elements which -enable it to survive where many more advanced and complicated cults -succumb. Even in such a country, side by side with an aristocracy of -real intelligence but limited opportunities, there must naturally -have existed millions of peasants and helots who were only to be -distinguished from savages because of their contact with their superiors -and their settlement as an agricultural race. To them the sun would, -it might be thought, appear as the god _par excellence_, the great -quickener and fructifier; but we find the cult of Ra more or less of an -aristocratic theological system, in early times at least; and for the -cult of the people we have to turn to the worship of Osiris. Undoubtedly -the best parallel to the worship of Ra in Egypt is to be found in that -of the sun in ancient Peru. Just as the monarch of Peru personified -the sun on earth, and acted as his regent in the terrestrial sphere, -so the Egyptian monarchs styled themselves 'sons of the sun.' In both -instances the solar cult was eminently aristocratic in character. This -is proved by the circumstance that the paradise of Ra was a sphere -more spiritual by far than that of Osiris, with its purely material -delights. Those happy enough to gain the heaven of the sun-god were -clothed with light, and their food was described as 'light.' The Osirian -paradise, again, it will be recalled, consisted of converse with Osiris -and feasting with him. Indeed, the aristocratic caste in all countries -shrinks from the conception that it must in the afterlife rub shoulders -with the common herd. This was definitely the case in ancient Mexico -and Scandinavia, where only warriors killed in battle might enter -paradise. These beliefs, however, were never sufficiently powerful -to obliterate the cult of Osiris, and as the Egyptian mind was of a -strongly material cast, it greatly favoured the conception of a 'field -of reeds' and a 'field of peace,' where man could enjoy the good things -and creature-comforts that he so much desired upon earth, rather than -the unsubstantial fare and raiment of the more superlative sphere of Ra. - - -Ra and Osiris - -A great but silent struggle was waged for many centuries between the -priesthoods of Ra and Osiris, but in the end the beliefs clustering -around the latter deity gained pre-eminence, and he took over the -titles, powers, and attributes of the great god of the sun. Then it was -probable, as has elsewhere been stated, that the conception of a moon- -and a sun-god became fused in his person. The worship of Osiris was -fundamentally African and Egyptian in character, but there is strong -reason to believe that the cult of Ra possessed many foreign elements, -possibly West Asiatic in origin, which accounts for the coldness with -which the masses of Egypt regarded his worship. Heliopolis, his city, -contained many inhabitants of Asiatic birth, and this may account to -some extent for the introduction of some of the tenets in his creed -which the native Egyptians found unpalatable. - -There is no doubt, however, that, to the aristocracy of Egypt at least, -Ra stood in the position of creator and father of the gods. Osiris stood -in relation to him as a son. In fact, the relations of these two deities -may be regarded as that between god the father and god the son, and -just as in certain theologies the figure of god the son has overshadowed -that of god the father, so did Osiris overshadow Ra. - -The god Tem, or Atum, who, as has been said, was originally the local -deity of Heliopolis, was in the dynastic period held to be one of the -forms of Ra, and a personification of the setting sun. Tem was one of -the first gods of the Egyptians. He is depicted as sailing in the boat -of Ra, with whom he was clearly united in early times as Ra-Tem. He -appears to have been a god who possessed many attributes in common with -Ra, and later on he seems to have been identified with Osiris as well. -In the myth of Ra and Isis Ra says, "I am Khepera in the morning, and Ra -at noonday, and Tem in the evening," which shows that to the Egyptians -the day was divided into three parts, each of which was presided over by -a special form of the sun-god. Tem was worshipped in one of his forms as -a serpent, a fairly common shape for a sun-god, for in many countries -the snake or serpent, tail in mouth, symbolizes the disk of the sun. - - -The Sacred Beetle - -Khepera, the remaining form of Ra, is generally represented in human -form with a beetle upon his head. The worship of the beetle was very -ancient in Egypt, and we must regard its fusion with the cult of Ra -as due to priestly influence. The scarabaeus, having laid its eggs in -the sand of Egypt, rolls them into a little ball of manure, which it -then propels across the sand with its hind legs to a hole which it has -previously dug, where the eggs are hatched by the rays of the sun. -This action of the beetle seemed to the ancient Egyptians to resemble -the rolling of the sun across the heavens, so that Khepera, the rising -luminary, was symbolized by it. - -Khepera is a deity of some importance, for he is called creator of the -gods and father of the gods. He was also looked upon as a type of the -resurrection, because of his symbolizing the ball enclosing living -germs, and probably in a secondary sense, because the rising sun steps -as it were from the grave of night morning after morning with the -greatest certainty. The scarabs which were found on Egyptian mummies -typified this hope of resurrection, and have been found in Egyptian -tombs as old as the time of the Fourth Dynasty. - - -Amen - -Although the god Amen appears to have been numbered among the deities of -Egypt as early as the Fifth Dynasty, when he was alluded to as one of -the primeval gods,[2] it was not until a later period that his votaries -began to exercise the enormous power which they wielded throughout -Egypt. With the exception of Ra and Osiris, the worship of Amen was -more widespread than that of any other god in the Nile valley; but the -circumstances behind the growth of his cult certainly point to its -having been disseminated by political rather than religious propaganda. -What his attributes were in the time of the Ancient Empire we do not -know. The name means 'what is hidden,' or what cannot be seen, and we -are constantly informed in votive hymns and other compositions that he -is "hidden to his children" and "hidden to gods and men." It has been -advanced that these expressions refer to the setting of the sun, but -there is far better reason for supposing that they imply that Amen is -a god who cannot be viewed by mortal eyes, invisible and inscrutable. -It is not difficult to see that the conception of such a deity would -speedily win favour with a priestly and theological class, who would -quickly tire of the more material cults by which they were surrounded, -and who would strain after a form of godhead less crude than the purely -symbolical systems which held sway in the country. In fact, the whole -theological history of Amen is that of a priesthood who were determined -to impose upon a rather materialistic population a more spiritual type -of worship and a higher conception of God. - -Amen was represented in numerous forms:[3] in the shape of a man seated -on a throne, with the head of a frog and the body of a man, with a -serpent's head, as an ape and as a lion. But the most general form in -which he was drawn was that of a bearded man wearing on his head two -long and very straight plumes, which are coloured alternately red and -green or red and blue. He is clothed in a linen tunic, wears bracelets, -and necklet, and from the back of his dress there hangs an animal's -tail, which denotes that he was a god originating in early times. In -a later form he has the head of a hawk when fused with Ra. The great -centre of his worship and of his rise to power was the city of Thebes, -where in the Twelfth Dynasty a temple was built in his honour. At that -period he was a mere local god, but when the princes of Thebes came -into power and grasped the sovereignty of Egypt the reputation of -Amen rose with theirs, and he became a prominent god in Upper Egypt. -His priesthood, seizing upon the new political conditions, cleverly -succeeded in identifying him with Ra and his subsidiary forms, all of -whose attributes they ascribed to Amen; but they further stated that -although their deity included in himself all their characteristics, he -was much greater and loftier than they. As we have already observed, -the god of the capital of Egypt for the time being was the national -deity, and when this lot fell to the fortune of Amen his priesthood -took full advantage of it. Never was a god so exploited and, if the -term may be employed, advertised as was Amen. When evil days fell upon -Egypt and the Hyksos overran the country, Amen, thanks to his priestly -protagonists, weathered the storm and, because of internecine strife, -had become the god _par excellence_ of the Egyptians. When the country -recovered from its troubles and matters began to right themselves once -more, the military successes of the kings of the Eighteenth Dynasty -redounded greatly to the power and glory of Amen, and the spoil of -conquered Palestine and Syria loaded his temples. There was of course -great dissatisfaction on the part of the worshippers of Ra at such a -condition of affairs. Osiris, as the popular god, could not well be -displaced, as he had too large a hold on the imagination of the people, -and his cult and character were of too peculiar a nature to admit of -usurpation by another deity. His cult had been slowly evolved, probably -through many centuries, and the circumstances of his worship were -unique. But the cult of Ra was challenged by that of a deity who not -only presented like attributes, but whose worship was on the whole more -spiritual and of a higher trend than that of the great sun-god. We do -not know what theological battles were waged over the question of the -supremacy of the two gods, but we do know that priestly skill was, as in -other cases, more than equal to the occasion. A fusion of the gods took -place. It would be rash to assert that this amalgamation was a planned -affair between the two warring cults, and it is more probable that -their devotees quietly acquiesced in a gradual process of fusion. The -Theban priests would come to recognize that it was impossible to destroy -altogether the worship of Ra, so they would as politic men bow to the -inevitable and accept his amalgamation with their own deity. - - -Amen's Rise to Power - -Many hymns of Amen-Ra, especially that occurring in the papyrus of -Hu-nefer, show the completeness of this fusion and the rapidity with -which Amen had risen to power. In about a century from being a mere -local god he had gained the title of 'king of the gods' of Egypt. His -priesthood had become by far the most powerful and wealthy in the -land, and even rivalled royalty itself. Their political power can -only be described as enormous. They made war and peace, and when the -Ramessid Dynasty came to an end the high-priest of Amen-Ra was raised -to the royal power, instituting the Twenty-first Dynasty, known as -the 'dynasty of priest-kings.' But if they were strong in theology, -they were certainly not so in military genius. They could not enforce -the payment of tribute which their predecessors had wrung from the -surrounding countries, and their poverty increased rapidly. The shrines -of the god languished for want of attendants, and even the higher ranks -of the priesthood itself suffered a good deal of hardship. Robber bands -infested the vicinity of the temples, and the royal tombs were looted. -But if their power waned, their pretensions certainly did not, and even -in the face of Libyan aggression in the Delta they continued to vaunt -the glory of the god whom they served. Examining the texts and hymns -which tell us what we know of Amen-Ra, we find that in them he is -considered as the general source of life, animate and inanimate, and is -identified with the creator of the universe, the 'unknown god.' All the -attributes of the entire Egyptian pantheon were lavished upon him, with -the exception of those of Osiris, of whom the priests of Amen-Ra appear -to have taken no notice. But they could not displace the great god of -the dead, although they might ignore him. In one of his forms certainly, -that of Khensu the Moon-god, Amen bears a slight likeness to Osiris, -but we cannot say that in this form he usurps the _role_ of the god of -the underworld in any respect. Amen-Ra even occupied the shrines of -many other gods throughout the Nile valley, absorbing their attributes -and entirely taking their place. One of his most popular forms was that -of a goose, and the animal was sacred to him in many parts of Egypt, -as was the ram. Small figures of him made in the Ptolemaic form have -the bearded face of a man, the body of a beetle, the wings of a hawk, -human legs with the toes and claws of a lion. All this, of course, -only symbolizes the many-sided character of him who was regarded as -the greatest of all gods, and typified the manner in which attributes -of every description resided in him. The entire _pesedt_ or company of -the gods was supposed to be unified in Amen, and indeed we may describe -his cult as one of the most serious attempts of antiquity to formulate -a system of monotheism, the worship of a single god. That they did not -achieve this was by no means their fault. We must look upon them as a -band of enlightened men animated by a spiritual fire, which burned very -brightly among the sadly material surroundings of Egypt. But, like all -priestly hierarchies, they possessed the inherent weakness of ambition -and the love of overweening power. Had they relegated politics to its -proper sphere, they might have been much more successful than they were; -but the true cause of their ultimate failure to conquer entirely the -other cults of Egypt lay in the circumstance of the very ancient and -deep-seated nature of these cults, and of the primeval and besotted -ignorance of those who supported them. - - -The Oracle of Jupiter-Ammon - -No part of Egypt was free from the dominion of Amen-Ra, which spread -north and south, east and west, and had ramifications in Syria, Nubia, -and other Egyptian dependencies. Its most powerful centres were -Thebes, Hermonthis, Coptos, Panopolis, Hermopolis Magna, and in Lower -Egypt Memphis, Sais, Heliopolis, and Mendes. In one of the oases in -later times he had a great oracle, known as that of Jupiter-Ammon, a -mysterious spot frequented by superstitious Greeks and Romans, who went -there to consult the deity on matters of state or private importance. -Here every roguery of priestcraft was practised. An idol of the god was -on occasion carried through the temple by his priests, responding, if he -were in a good humour, to his votaries, not by speech, but by nodding -and pointing with outstretched arm. We know from classical authors that -the Egyptians possessed the most wonderful skill in the manufacture of -automata, and there is no room for doubt that the god responded to the -questions of the eager devotees who had made the journey to his shrine -by means of cleverly concealed strings. But the oracle of Jupiter-Ammon -in Libya is surrounded in obscurity. Even Alexander the Great paid a -visit to this famous shrine to satisfy himself whether or not he was the -son of Jupiter. Lysander and Hannibal also journeyed thither, and the -former received a two-edged answer from the deity, not unlike that which -Macbeth received from the witches. - - -Mut the Mother - -The great female counterpart of Amen-Ra was Mut, the 'world-mother.' -She is usually represented as a woman wearing the united crowns of -north and south, and holding the papyrus sceptre. In some pictures she -is delineated with wings, and in others the heads of vultures project -from her shoulders. Like her husband, she is occasionally adorned with -every description of attribute, human and animal, probably to typify -her universal nature. Mut, like Amen, swallowed up a great many of the -attributes of the female deities of Egypt. She was thus identified with -Bast, Nekhebet, and others, chiefly for the reason that because Amen -had usurped the attributes of other gods, she, as his wife, must do the -same. She is a striking example in mythology of what marriage can do -for a goddess. Even Hathor was identified with her, as was Ta-urt and -every other goddess who could be regarded as having the attributes of -a mother. Her worship centred at Thebes, where her temple was situated -a little to the south of the shrine of Amen-Ra. She was styled the -'lady of heaven' and 'queen of the gods,' and her hieroglyphic symbol, -a vulture, was worn on the crowns of Egypt's queens as typical of -their motherhood. The temple of Mut at Thebes was built by Amen-hetep -III about 1450 B.C. Its approach was lined by a wonderful avenue of -sphinxes, and it overlooked an artificial lake. Mut was probably the -original female counterpart of Nu, who in some manner became associated -with Amen. She is mentioned only once in the _Book of the Dead_ in -the Theban Recension, which is not a little strange considering the -reputation she must have enjoyed with the priesthood of Amen. - - -Ptah - -Ptah was the greatest of the gods of Memphis. He personified the rising -sun, or, rather, a phase of it--that is, he represented the orb at the -time when it begins to rise above the horizon, or immediately after it -has risen. The name is said to mean 'opener,' from the circumstance that -Ptah was thought to open the day; but this derivation has been combated. -Dr. Brugsch suggests 'sculptor' or 'engraver' as the true translation, -and as Ptah was the god of all handicrafts it seems most probable that -this is correct. Ptah seems to have retained the same characteristics -from the period of the Second Dynasty down to the latest times. In early -days he seems to have been regarded as a creator, or perhaps he was -confounded with one of the first Egyptian creative deities. We find him -alluded to in the Pyramid Text of Teta as the owner of a 'workshop,' -and the passage seems to imply that it was Ptah who fashioned new boats -in which the souls of the dead were to live in the Duat. From the _Book -of the Dead_ we learn that he was a great worker in metals, a master -architect, and framer of everything in the universe; and the fact that -the Romans identified him with Vulcan greatly assists our understanding -of his attributes. - -It was Ptah who, in company with Khnemu, carried out the commands of -Thoth concerning the creation of the universe. To Khnemu was given the -fashioning of animals, while Ptah was employed in making the heavens and -the earth. The great metal plate which was supposed to form the floor of -heaven and the roof of the sky was made by Ptah, who also framed the -supports which upheld it. We find him constantly associated with other -gods--that is, he takes on the attributes or characteristics of other -deities for certain fixed purposes. For example, as architect of the -universe he partakes of the nature of Thoth, and as the god who beat out -the metal floor of heaven he resembles Shu. - -Ptah is usually represented as a bearded man having a bald head, and -dressed in habiliments which fit as closely as a shroud. From the back -of his neck hangs a Menat, the symbol of happiness, and along with the -usual insignia of royalty and godhead he holds the symbol of stability. -As Ptah-Seker he represents the union of the creative power with that -of chaos or darkness:[4] Ptah-Seker is, indeed, a form of Osiris in -his guise of the Night-sun, or dead Sun-god. Seker is figured as a -hawk-headed man in the form of a mummy, his body resembling that of -Ptah. Originally Seker represented darkness alone, but in later times -came to be identified with the Night-sun. Seker is, indeed, confounded -in places with Sept, and even with Geb. He appears to have ruled that -portion of the underworld where dwelt the souls of the inhabitants of -Memphis and its neighbourhood. - - -The Seker-boat - -In the great ceremonies connected with this god, and especially on the -day of his festival, a boat called the Seker-boat was placed upon a -sledge at sunrise, at the time when the rays of the sun were slowly -beginning to diffuse themselves over the earth. It was then drawn round -the sanctuary, which act typified the revolution of the sun. This boat -was known as Henu, and is mentioned several times in the _Book of the -Dead_. It did not resemble an ordinary boat, but one end of it was -much higher than the other, and was fashioned in the shape of the head -of an animal resembling a gazelle. In the centre of the vessel was a -coffer surmounted by a hawk with outspread wings, which was supposed -to contain the body of Osiris, or of the dead Sun-god. The Seker- or -Henu-boat was probably a form of the Mesektet-boat, in which the sun -sailed over the sky during the second half of his daily journey, and -in which he entered the underworld in the evening. Although Seker was -fairly popular as a deity in ancient Egypt, his attributes seem to have -been entirely usurped by Ptah. We also find the triple-named deity -Ptah-Seker-Asar or Ptah-Seker-Osiris, who is often represented as a hawk -on coffers and sarcophagi. About the Twenty-second Dynasty this triad -had practically become one with Osiris, and he had even variants which -took the attributes of Min, Amsu, and Khepera. He has been described as -the 'triune god of the resurrection.' There is very little doubt that -the amalgamation of these gods was brought about by priestly influence. - -Ptah was also connected with the god known as Tenen, who is usually -represented in human form and wearing on his head the crown with ostrich -feathers. He is also drawn working at a potter's wheel, upon which -he shapes the egg of the world. In other drawings he is depicted as -holding a scimitar. Dr. Budge suggests that this weapon shows that he -is the destructive power of nature or the warrior-god, but this is most -unlikely. The scimitar of Ptah in his guise as Tenen is precisely the -same as those axes which are the attributes of creative deities all over -the world. With this scimitar he carves out the earth, as the god of the -Ainu of Japan shapes it with his hatchet, or as other deities which have -already been mentioned use their axes or hammers. Tenen was probably a -primeval creative god, but for that reason was co-ordinated with Ptah. - - -Sekhmet - -The principal centre of the worship of Ptah was Memphis, in which were -also situated the temples of Sekhmet,[5] Bast, Osiris, Seker, Hathor, -and I-em-hetep, as well as that of Ra. The female counterpart of Ptah -was Sekhmet, and they were the parents of Nefer-tem. Sekhmet was later -identified with forms of Hathor. She had the head of a lioness, and may -be looked upon as bearing the same relation to Bast as Nephthys bears to -Isis. She was the personification of the fierce destroying heat of the -sun's rays. One of her names is Nesert, flame, in which she personifies -the destroying element. - - -The Seven Wise Ones - -We occasionally find Ptah in company with certain beings called the -Seven Wise Ones of the goddess Meh-urt, who was their mother. We are -told that they came forth from the water, from the pupil of the eye -of Ra, and that they took the form of seven hawks, flew upward, and, -together with Thoth, presided over learning and letters. Ptah as -master-architect and demiurge, carrying out the designs of Thoth and his -assistants, partook of the attributes of all of them, as did his female -counterpart Sekhmet. - - -Bast - -Bast, the Bubastis of the Greeks, possessed the attributes of the cat or -lioness, the latter being a more modern development of her character. -The name implies 'the tearer' or 'render,' and she is also entitled -'the lady of Sept'--that is, of the star Sothis. She was further -sometimes identified with Isis and Hathor. In contradistinction to the -fierce Sekhmet, she typified the mild fertilizing heat of the sun. -The cat loves to bask in the sun's rays, and it is probably for this -reason that the animal was taken as symbolizing this goddess. She is -amalgamated with Sekhmet and Ra in a deity known as Sekhmet-Bast-Ra, -and as such is represented as a woman with a man's head, and wings -sprouting from her arms, and the heads of two vultures springing from -her neck. She has also the claws of a lion. She was the goddess of the -eastern part of the Delta, and was worshipped at Bubastis, in Lower -Egypt. Her worship seems to have been of very considerable antiquity -in that region, and although she is mentioned in the Pyramid Texts, it -is only occasionally that she figures in the _Book of the Dead_. In -all probability she was originally a cat totem, and in any case was -first worshipped in the shape of a cat pure and simple. It has been -stated that she possesses the characteristics of a foreign goddess, but -there do not appear to be any very strong grounds for this assumption. -Although she is connected with fire and with the sun, it would appear -that she also has some association with the lunar disk, for her son -Khensu is a moon-god. Cat-gods are often associated with the moon, -chiefly because of the fertility of the animal which typified the ideals -of fruitfulness and growth connected with the lunar orb. - - -The Festival of Bast - -Herodotus gives a very picturesque description of a festival of this -goddess, which took place in the months of April and May. He says that -the inhabitants of the city of Bubastis sailed toward it in ships, -playing upon drums and tabors and making a great noise, those who did -not play clapping their hands and singing loudly. Having arrived at the -city, they danced and held festival with drinking and song. - -Of the city of Bubastis he gives a vivid picture, which has been -translated by an old English author as follows: "The noble city of -Bubastis seemeth to be very haughty and highly planted, in which city is -a temple of excellent memory dedicate to the goddesse Bubastis, called -in our speech Diana, than the which, albeit there be other churches -both bigger and more richly furnished, yet for the sightly grace and -seemelynesse of building, there is none comparable unto it. Besides, -the very entrance and way that leadeth unto the city, the rest is in -forme of an Ilande, inclosed round about with two sundry streames of the -river Nilus, which runne to either side of the path way, and leauing -as it were a lane or causey betweene them, without meeting, take their -course another way. These armes of the floud are each of them an hundred -foote broade, beset on both sides the banckes with fayre braunched -trees, ouershadowing ye waters with a coole and pleasant shade. The -gate or entry of the city is in heighth 10. paces, hauing in the front -a beautifull image, 6. cubites in measure. The temple it selfe situate -in the middest of ye city, is euermore in sight to those yt passe to -and fro. For although ye city by addition of earth was arrered and made -higher, yet ye temple standing as it did in ye beginning, and neuer -mooued, is in maner of a lofty and stately tower, in open and cleare -viewe to euery parte of ye city. Round about the which goeth a wall, -ingrauen with figures and portraitures of sundry beasts. The inner -temple is enuironed with an high grove of trees, set and planted by the -hande and industrie of men: in the whiche temple is standing an image. -The length of the temple is in euery way a furlong. From the entrance of -the temple Eastward, there is a fayre large causey leading to the house -of Mercury, in length three furlongs and four acres broade, all of faire -stone, and hemmed in on each side with a course of goodly tall trees -planted by the hands of men, and thus as touching the description of ye -temple." - - -Nefer-Tem - -Nefer-tem was the son of Ptah and Sekhmet, or of Ptah and Bast. He is -drawn as a man surmounted by plumes and sometimes standing upon a lion. -Indeed, occasionally he is painted as having the head of a lion and -with a body in mummy-shape. In early times he was symbolized by the -lotus-flower. He was the third member of the triad of Memphis, which was -made up of himself with Ptah and Sekhmet. His attributes are anything -but well defined, but he is probably the young Tem, god of the rising -sun. He is perhaps typified by the lotus because the sun would often -seem to the Egyptians to rise from beds of this plant in the Delta of -the country. In later texts he is identified with numerous gods all of -whom appear to be forms of Horus or Thoth. - - -I-em-hetep - -I-em-hetep, another son of Ptah, was also regarded as the third member -of the great triad of Memphis. The name means 'Come in peace,' and -was given him because he was supposed to bring the art of healing to -mankind. Like his father Ptah, he is depicted as wearing a skull-cap. -Before him is stretched a roll of papyrus to typify his character as -a god of study and learning; but it is as a god of medicine that he -was most popular in Egypt. In later times he took the place of -Thoth as scribe of the gods, and provided the words of magic power -which protected the dead from their enemies in the Duat. He had also a -funerary character, which perhaps implies that physicians may have been -in some manner connected with the art of embalmment. He is addressed in -a text of the Ptolemies in his temple on the island of Philae as "he who -giveth life to all men." He was also supposed to send the boon of sleep -to the suffering, and indeed the sorrowful and afflicted were under his -especial patronage. Dr. Budge ventures the opinion that "if we could -trace his history to its beginning, we should find probably that he was -originally a very highly skilled medicine-man, who had introduced some -elementary knowledge of medicine amongst the Egyptians, and who was -connected with the practice of the art of preserving the bodies of the -dead by means of drugs and spices and linen bandages." The supposition -is a very likely one indeed, only the medicine-man must have become -fairly sophisticated in later times, as is evidenced by his perusing -a roll of papyrus. I-em-hetep was the god of physicians and those who -dealt in medical magic, and his worship was certainly of very ancient -date in Memphis. Dr. Budge goes so far as to suggest that I-em-hetep was -the deified form of a distinguished physician who was attached to the -priesthood of Ra, and who flourished before the end of the rule of the -kings of the Third Dynasty. In the songs which were sung in the temple -of Antuf occurs the passage: "I have heard the words of I-em-hetep and -of Heru-tata-f, which are repeated over and over again, but where are -their places this day? Their walls are overthrown, their seats have -no longer any being, and they are as if they had never existed. No -man cometh to declare unto us what manner of beings they were, and -none telleth us of their possessions." Heru-tata-f was a man of great -learning, who, as we find in the Tale of the Magician given elsewhere -in this book, brought that mysterious person to the court of his father -Khufu. He also discovered certain chapters of the _Book of the Dead_. It -is likely, thinks Dr. Budge, that the said I-em-hetep who is mentioned -in connexion with him was a man of the same type, a skilled physician, -whose acts and deeds were worthy of being classed with the words of -Heru-tata-f. The pictures and figures of I-em-hetep suggest that he was -of human and local origin, and he had a great hold upon the imagination -of later Egyptians of the Saite and Ptolemaic periods. He was indeed a -species of Egyptian Hippocrates, who had probably, as Dr. Budge infers, -become deified because of his great medical skill. - - -Khnemu - -At the city of Elephantine or Abu a great triad of gods was held in -reverence. This consisted of Khnemu, Satet, Anqet. The worship of -the first-mentioned deity was of great antiquity, and even in the -inscription of King Unas we find him alluded to in a manner which -proves that his cult was very old. His position, too, had always -been an exalted one, and even to the last he appears to have been of -importance in the eyes of the Gnostics. Khnemu was probably a god of -the pre-dynastic Egyptians. He was symbolized by the flat-horned ram, -which appears to have been introduced into the country from the East. -We do not find him referred to in any inscription subsequent to the -Twelfth Dynasty. He is usually represented in the form of a ram-headed -man wearing the white crown, and sometimes the disk. In some instances -he is pictured as pouring water over the earth, and in others with a -jug above his horns--a sure indication that he is connected in some way -with moisture. His name signifies the builder or framer, and he it was -who fashioned the first man upon a potter's wheel, who made the first -egg from which sprang the sun, who made the bodies of the gods, and who -continued to build them up and maintain them. - -Khnemu had been worshipped at Elephantine from time immemorial and was -therefore the god of the First Cataract. His female counterparts, Satet -and Anqet, have been identified as a form of the star Sept and as a -local Nubian goddess. From the texts it is pretty clear that Khnemu -was originally a river-god who, like Hapi, was regarded as the god of -the Nile and of the annual Nile flood, and it may be that he and Hapi -were Nile gods introduced by two separate races, or by the people of -two different portions of the country. In the texts he is alluded to as -"father of the fathers of the gods and goddesses, lord of created things -from himself, maker of heaven and earth and the Duat and water and -mountains," so we see that, like Hapi, he had been identified with the -creative deities. He is sometimes represented as having four rams' heads -upon a human body, and as he united within himself the attributes of -Ra, Shu, Geb, and Osiris, these heads may have typified the deities in -question. Dr. Brugsch considered, however, that they symbolized the four -elements--fire, air, earth, and water. But it is a little difficult to -see how this could be so. In any case, when represented with four heads -Khnemu typified the great primeval creative force. - - -The Legend of the Nile's Source - -The powers that were ascribed to Khnemu-Ra as god of the earthly Nile -are exemplified in a story found inscribed on a rock on the island of -Sahal in 1890. The king mentioned in the inscription has been identified -as Tcheser, the third monarch of the Third Dynasty. - -The story relates that in the eighteenth year of this king's reign -a famine spread over Egypt because for seven years the Nile had not -risen in flood. Thus grain of all kinds was scarce, the fields and -gardens yielded naught, so that the people had no food. Strong men -tottered like the aged, the old fell to the ground and rose no more, -the children cried aloud with the pangs of hunger. And for the little -food there was men became thieves and robbed their neighbours. Reports -of these terrible conditions reached the king upon his throne, and he -was stricken with grief. He remembered the god I-em-hetep, the son -of Ptah, who had once delivered Egypt from a like disaster, but when -his help was invoked no answer was vouchsafed. Then Tcheser the king -sent to his governor Mater, who ruled over the South, the island of -Elephantine, and Nubia, and asked him where was the source of the Nile -and what was the name of the god or goddess of the river. And to answer -this dispatch Mater the governor went in person before the king. He told -him of the wonderful island of Elephantine, whereon was built the first -city ever known; that out of it rose the sun when he wanted to bestow -life upon mankind. Here also was a double cavern, Querti, in shape like -two breasts, and from this cavern rose the Nile flood to bless the land -with fruitfulness when the god drew back the bolts of the door at the -proper season. And this god was Khnemu. Mater described to his royal -master the temple of the Nile god at Elephantine, and stated that other -gods were in it, including the great deities Osiris, Horus, Isis, and -Nephthys. He told of the products of the country around, and said that -from these, offerings should be made to Khnemu. Then the king rose and -offered sacrifices unto the god and made supplication before him in his -temple. And the god heard and appeared before the grief-stricken king. -He said, "I am Khnemu the Creator. My hands rest upon thee to protect -thy person and to make sound thy body. I gave thee thine heart ... I am -he who created himself. I am the primeval watery abyss, and I am the -Nile who riseth at his will to give health to those who toil. I am the -guide and director of all men, the Almighty, the father of the gods, -Shu, the mighty possessor of the earth." And then the god promised unto -the king that henceforward the Nile should rise every year as in the -olden time, that the famine should be ended and great good come upon the -land. But also he told the king how his shrine was desolate and that no -one troubled to restore it even although stone lay all around. And this -the king remembered and made a royal decree that lands on each side of -the Nile near the island where Khnemu dwelt were to be set apart as the -endowment of his temple, that priests were to minister at his shrine, -and for their maintenance a tax must be levied on the products of the -land near by. And this decree the king caused to be cut upon a stone -stele and set up in a prominent place as a lasting token of gratitude -unto the god Khnemu, the god of the Nile. - - -Satet - -Satet,[6] the principal female counterpart of Khnemu, was also a goddess -of the inundation. The name probably means 'to pour out' or 'to scatter -abroad,' so that it might signify a goddess who wielded the powers of -rain. She carries in her hands a bow and arrows, as did Neith, typical -of the rain or thunderbolt. She was regarded as a form of Isis from the -circumstance that both were connected with the star Sept, and in this -guise she appears in the _Book of the Dead_ as a counterpart of Osiris. - - -Anqet - -Anqet, the third member of the triad of Elephantine, was a -sister-goddess of Satet. She wears a crown of feathers, which would go -to show that her origin is a purely African one, and she may have been -a goddess of some of the islands in the First Cataract. She had been -associated with the other members of the triad from very early dynastic -times, however, and her cult was fairly widely disseminated through -Northern Nubia. In later times her worship was centred at Sahal, where -she was regarded as a goddess of that island, and where she had a temple -built perhaps in the Eighteenth Dynasty. She had also a shrine at Philae, -where she was identified with Nephthys, as was almost necessary, seeing -that Osiris had been identified with Khnemu and Satet with Isis. Dr. -Brugsch considered her a personification of the waters of the Nile, and -thought that her name signified 'to surround,' 'to embrace,' and that it -had reference to the embracing and nourishing of the fields by the river. - - -Aten - -Aten, the disk of the sun, stands in a class by himself in Egyptian -mythology. Although he possesses certain broad characteristics in common -with other sun-gods of Egypt, yet an examination of this deity shows -that he differs widely from these in many respects, and that his cult -is indeed entirely foreign to the religious genius of the Egyptian -people. The cult of Aten, of which there is little record before the -time of Amen-hetep IV, sprang into sudden prominence during that -monarch's reign and became for a time the State religion of Egypt. Of -its origin nothing is known, and it would appear that under the Middle -Kingdom Aten was an obscure local deity, worshipped somewhere in the -neighbourhood of Heliopolis. His important position in the Egyptian -pantheon is due to the fact that his cult was directly responsible for a -great religious, social, and artistic revolution which occurred during -the reign of Amen-hetep IV. - -With the overthrow of the Hyksos kings and the consequent establishment -of the Theban monarchy (at the beginning of the Eighteenth Dynasty), -Amen, the local god of Thebes, took the place of honour in the Egyptian -pantheon, and was worshipped as Amen-Ra. However, it is known that -Thothmes IV did much to restore the worship of Ra-Harmachis. His son, -Amen-hetep III, built temples to this deity and to Aten at Memphis and -Thebes. In this he would appear to have been supported by his wife -Tyi,[7] daughter of Iuaa and Thuau, who, though not connected with the -Egyptian royal line, became chief of the royal wives. Possibly she -herself was originally a votary of Aten, which would account for the -reverence with which her son, Amen-hetep IV, regarded that deity. On the -accession of the last-named monarch he adopted the title of 'high-priest -of Ra-Heru-Akhti,[8] the exalted one in the horizon, in his name of Shu -who is in Aten,' this implying that, according to the view generally -current at that period, he regarded Aten as the abode of the sun-god -rather than as the divinity himself. In the early part of his reign -Amen-hetep worshipped both Amen and Aten, the former in his _role_ of -monarch, the latter in his private capacity, while he also built a great -obelisk at Thebes in honour of Ra-Harmachis. Then it became apparent -that the king desired to exalt Aten above all the other gods. This was -by no means pleasing to the worshippers of Amen, whose priesthood was -recruited from the noblest families in the land. A struggle ensued -between the votaries of Amen-Ra and those of Aten, and finally the king -built a new capital, dedicated to the faith of Aten, on the site of what -is now Tell-el-Amarna, in Middle Egypt. Thence he withdrew with his -followers when the struggle reached its height. To the new city he gave -the name of Akhet-Aten ('Horizon of Aten'). His own name, Amen-hetep, he -changed to Akh-en-Aten ('Glory of Aten'). - - -A Religion of One God - -One of the features of the new religion was that it was essentially -monotheistic, and could not tolerate the inclusion of other deities. -Thus whereas certain sun-gods in like circumstances might have become -fused with Ra, such fusion was impossible in the case of Aten. Not -only was he king of the gods, he was _the_ god, the divinity _par -excellence_. Yet did this monotheistic religion retain many of the forms -and rites of other cults, paradoxical as this must have appeared. The -king retained his title of 'son of the sun' (Aten), while he exchanged -his Horus and other titles for Aten titles. The burial customs and the -use of scarabs were still continued. Yet the name of Amen-Ra, with which -they had previously been associated, was everywhere obliterated by order -of the king, even where it formed part of proper names. The temple -which the king built to his god in Akhet-Aten he called Het-Benben, the -'House of the Pyramidion.' It was never completed. - -The religion thus thrust upon the people of Egypt met with a by no means -ready acceptance. The deities which had hitherto been evolved in each -nome or province had each his special attributes and ritual, any or all -of which might be absorbed by the central deity. But, as has been said, -Aten was incapable of this fusion with the local gods. He was indeed a -much more colourless deity than Amen or Horus. - -It is interesting to speculate upon the probable motives of Akh-en-Aten -in introducing this new cult into Egypt. It has been suggested that his -inauguration of Aten-worship was an enlightened, if somewhat misplaced, -attempt to unite Egypt under the sway of one religion, a religion in -which all could participate, which did not bear the _cachet_ of any one -race or caste, and which in consequence would prove equally acceptable -to Syrian, Ethiopian, or Egyptian. If such were his aim, it is evident -that the people of Egypt were not prepared for the upheaval. The drastic -and fanatical measures, too, of Akh-en-Aten defeated his own ends and -roused distrust and hatred of the 'Aten heresy.' - - -A Social Revolt - -Accompanying this religious revolution came a social and artistic -revolt of no less striking proportions. Aten as a deity was freed, in -theory at least, from the trammels of myth and ritual which had grown -up round his predecessors in Egypt. His was essentially a naturalistic -cult. Social life in Akhet-Aten, therefore, tended to become much freer -and more natural. The king and queen moved among the people with less -formality than had hitherto obtained; family life was subject to fewer -restraints; in short, a decided tendency to all that was natural and -spontaneous was observable. The movement spread in time even to the -art of the nation, which shows a certain departure from established -traditions in the matter of colouring, while during this reign Egyptian -artists show for the first time that they appreciated the effects of -light and shade as well as of mere outline. - -We have unfortunately no means of knowing the exact period of -Akh-en-Aten's reign. Probably it covered about a score of years. After -him came various other rulers, but none of these upheld the Aten cult, -which speedily declined, while the supremacy of Amen-Ra was triumphantly -restored. All monuments and temples in honour of Aten were effaced, and -only recovered within recent times by Lepsius, Petrie, and Davies. The -last refuge of the god was at Heliopolis, where a sanctuary remained to -him. - - -Aten's Attributes - -Now as to the attributes of Aten. As already stated he was a somewhat -colourless deity, and is perhaps better to be distinguished by the -attributes which are not ascribed to him than by those which are, though -in time some of the attributes of Ra, Horus, and other forms of the -sun-god were given to him. From his original subordinate position as the -abode of Ra--the material disk wherein the sun-god had his dwelling ('Ra -in his Aten')--Aten came in time to signify both the god and the actual -solar disk. Attempts made to identify him with the Semitic Adonai, -the Greek Adonis, have met with no success. Evidence of Aten's early -position in the pantheon is to be found in the _Book of the Dead_, where -Ra is addressed thus: "O thou beautiful being, thou dost renew thyself -and make thyself young again under the form of Aten." "Thou turnest thy -face toward the underworld, and thou makest the earth to shine like fine -copper. The dead rise up to see thee, they breathe the air and they look -upon thy face when Aten shineth in the horizon." - - -A Hymn to Aten - -During the period when his cult was supreme in Egypt Aten was regarded -by his worshippers as the creator, self-existent and everlasting, -fructifier and nourisher of the earth and all it contains, measurer of -the lives of men. Aten was invested with a cartouche, wherein he is -styled 'Lord of heaven,' 'Lord of earth,' 'He who liveth for ever,' 'He -who illumineth the earth,' 'He who reigneth in truth'. A singularly -beautiful and poetic version of a hymn to Aten, in which he is exalted -as the giver of life and fruitfulness to all things, has been found in -the tomb of Ai, a high official under Amen-hetep, or Akh-en-Aten. It -begins thus: - - Beauteous is thy resplendent appearing on the horizon of - heaven, - O Aten, who livest and art the beginning of life! - -He it was who made the Nile in the Duat and conducted it to men, causing -its waters to rise; he, also, who sent the rain to those lands which -were beyond the reach of the Nile's beneficent flood. - - Thou makest the Nile in the underworld, thou conductest - it hither at thy pleasure, - That it may give life to men whom thou hast made for - thyself, Lord of All! - Thou givest the Nile in heaven that it descendeth to them. - It causeth its waters to rise upon the rocks like the sea; - it watereth their fields in their districts. - - So are thy methods accomplished, O Lord of Eternity! - thou who art thyself the celestial Nile: - Thou art the king of the inhabitants of the lands, - And of the cattle going upon their feet in every land, - which go upon feet. - The Nile cometh out of the underworld to Egypt. - -The Aten hymns, then, ascribe to the deity such attributes as any -people might see in their sun-god. All the paraphernalia of the cult -of Ra, Osiris, and like divinities are absent. There is no mention of -the barques in which they sailed across the heavens; of Apep, the great -serpent, and the other enemies of Ra; of the companies of gods and -goddesses which formed his train. We find in the cult of Aten no myths -such as that of the battles of Horus, nor do the ceremonies and ritual -of the domain of Osiris enter into it. All these are without parallel in -the Aten-worship. It is easily understood why it failed in its appeal to -the Egyptian people. - -Aten was not even figured as anthropomorphic, as were Ra and Osiris, but -was invariably represented as the sun-disk, with rays emanating from it -in a downward direction. Each ray terminated in a human hand, to which -were sometimes attached the sign of life, the sign of power, and so -on. Reliefs of this period frequently depict the king and queen seated -with their children, over their heads the symbol of Aten, one of whose -numerous hands presents the sign of life to each member of the royal -family. - -In short, the cult of Aten was the worship of the sun-god pure and -simple, shorn of the picturesque story and ritual so dear to the heart -of the Egyptian. - - -Hathor - -It is no easy matter to gauge the true mythological significance -of the Egyptian goddess Hathor, patron of women, of love, and -of pleasure, Lady of Heaven, and Mistress of the Underworld. She -occupied a very important position in the pantheon of ancient Egypt, -dating as she did from archaic or even pre-dynastic times. We find a -multitude of mythological ideas fused in the Hathor conception: she is -a moon-goddess, a sky-goddess, a goddess of the east, a goddess of the -west, a cosmic deity, an agricultural goddess, a goddess of moisture, -even on occasion a solar deity. Though her original status is thus in a -measure obscured, it is supposed that she is primarily a moon-goddess, -for reasons which follow hereafter. - -The original form under which Hathor was worshipped was that of a cow. -Later she is represented as a woman with the head of a cow, and finally -with a human head, the face broad, kindly, placid, and decidedly bovine, -sometimes retaining the ears or horns of the animal she represents. -She is also shown with a head-dress resembling a pair of horns with -the moon-disk between them. Sometimes she is met with in the form of -a cow standing in a boat, surrounded by tall papyrus-reeds. Now in -mythology the cow is often identified with the moon--why it is hard -to say. Perhaps it may not be too far-fetched to suppose that the -horned appearance of the moon at certain seasons has suggested its -association with the cow. Mythology is largely based on such superficial -resemblances and analogies; it is by means of these that the primitive -mind first learns to reason. Or it may be that the cow, naturally -of great importance to agricultural peoples, was, by reason of this -importance, associated with the moon, mistress of the weather and -principle of growth and fruitfulness. The fact that Hathor the cow is -sometimes shown in a boat suggests that she was also a water-goddess, -and heightens the probability that she was identified with the moon, -for the latter was regarded by the Egyptians as the source of all -moisture. - -The name Hathor signifies 'House of Horus'--that is, the sky, wherein -dwelt the sun-god Horus, and there is no doubt that at one time Hathor -was regarded as a sky-goddess, or a goddess of the eastern sky, where -Horus was born; she has also been identified with the night sky and -with the sunset sky. If, however, we regard her as a moon-goddess, a -good deal of the mythology concerning her will become clear. She is, -for example, frequently spoken of as the 'Eye of Ra,' Ra, the sun-god, -probably possessing in this instance the wider significance of sky-god. -She is also designated 'The Golden One,' who stands high in the south -as the Lady of Teka, and illumines the west as the Lady of Sais. That -she is mistress of the underworld is likewise not surprising when we -consider her as identical with the moon, for does not the moon make -a daily pilgrimage through Amentet? Neither is it astonishing that a -goddess of moisture and vegetation should be found in the underworld -dispensing water to the souls of the dead from the branches of a palm or -a sycamore. - - -Hathor as Love-Goddess - -On the same hypothesis we may explain the somewhat paradoxical statement -that Hathor is 'mother of her father, daughter of her son'--that she -is mother, wife, and daughter to Ra. The moon, when she appears in the -heavens before the sun, may be regarded as his mother; when she reigns -together with him she is his wife; when she rises after he has set she -is his daughter. It is possible that the moon, with her generative and -sustaining powers, may have been considered the creative and upholding -force of the universe, the great cosmic mother, who brought forth not -only the gods and goddesses over whom she rules, but likewise herself as -well. It was as the ideal of womanhood, therefore, whether as mother, -wife, or daughter, that she received the homage of Egyptian women, -and became the patron deity of love, joy, and merry-making, "lady of -music and mistress of song, lady of leaping, and mistress of wreathing -garlands." Temples were raised in her honour, notably one of exceptional -beauty at Denderah, in Upper Egypt, and she had shrines without number. -She became in time associated or even identified with many local -goddesses, and, indeed, it has been said that all Egyptian goddesses -were forms of Hathor. - -As guardian of the dead Hathor is figured as a cow, issuing from the -Mountain of the West, and she is also represented as standing on its -summit receiving the setting sun and the souls of the dead (the latter -travelling in the footsteps of the sun-god). In this case Hathor -might be regarded as the western sky, but the myth might be equally -significant of the moon, which sometimes "stands on the mountains of the -west" after the time of sunset, with horns resembling hands outstretched -to welcome the unseen souls. Yet another point is worthy of note in -connexion with the mythological aspect of Hathor. When she was born as -the daughter of Ra (her mother was Nut, the sky-goddess) she was quite -black. This fact admits of several interpretations. It may be that -Hathor's swarthy complexion is indicative of an Ethiopian origin, or it -may be that she represents the night sky, which lightens with the growth -of day. It is still possible, however, to regard her as typifying the -moon, which is 'born black,' with only a narrow crescent of light, but -which grows brighter as it becomes older. It is unlikely that the keen -eyes of these primitive peoples would fail to observe the dark disk of -the new moon, faintly outlined with light reflected from the earth. - - -The Slaying of Men - -In the following myth of Ra and Hathor the latter is plainly identified -with the lunar deity: - -Long ago there dwelt on earth Ra, the sun-god, the creator of men -and things, and ruler over the gods. For a time men gave to him the -reverence due to his exalted position, but at length he began to grow -old, and they mocked him, saying, "Behold! his bones are like silver, -his limbs are like gold, his hair is like unto real lapis-lazuli." Now -Ra was very wroth when he heard their blasphemy, so he called together -his followers, the gods and goddesses of his train, Shu and Tefnut, Geb -and Nut, and Hathor, the eye of Ra. - -The gods assembled secretly, so that the race of mankind might know -nothing of their meeting. And when they were all gathered about the -throne of Ra, he said to Nun, the oldest of the gods: - -"O Nun, thou first-born of the gods, whose son I am, I pray thee give me -thy counsel. The men whom I have created have conceived evil against me, -even those men who have issued forth from mine eye. They have murmured -in their hearts, saying, 'Behold! the king has become old, his bones are -like silver, his limbs like gold, his hair like unto real lapis-lazuli.' -Tell me what shall be done unto them? For this have I sought thy -counsel. I will not destroy them till thou hast spoken." - -Then answered Nun: - -"O thou great god, who art greater than he who made thee, thou son who -art mightier than his father, do thou but turn thine eye upon them who -blaspheme thee, and they shall perish from off the earth." Ra turned -his eye upon the blasphemers, according to the counsel of Nun. But the -men fled from the eye of Ra, and hid them in deserts and rocky places. -Then did all the gods and goddesses give counsel to Ra that he should -send his eye down among men to smite them sorely. And the eye of Ra -descended in the form of the goddess Hathor, and smote the men in the -desert and slew them. Then Hathor returned to the court of Ra, and when -the king had given her welcome she said, "I have been mighty among -mankind. It is well pleasing to my heart." - -All night Sekhmet[9] waded in the blood of those who had been slain, -and on the morrow Ra feared that Hathor would slay the remnant of the -human race, wherefore he said unto his attendants, "Fetch to me swift -messengers who can outstrip the wind." When the messengers appeared -the majesty of Ra bade them bring a great number of mandrakes from -Elephantine. These Ra gave to Sekhmet, bidding her to pound them, and -when this was done he mixed the mandrakes with some of the blood of -those whom Hathor had slain. Meanwhile servant-maids were busy preparing -beer from barley, and into this Ra poured the mixture. Thus were seven -thousand jars of beer made. - -In the morning Ra bade his attendants carry the beer to the place where -Hathor would seek to slay the remnant of mankind, and there pour it out. -For the sun-god said within himself, "I will deliver mankind out of her -hands." - -And it came to pass that at dawn Hathor reached the place where the beer -lay, flooding the fields four spans deep. She was pleased with her -beautiful reflection, which smiled at her from the floods; and so deeply -did she drink of the beer that she became drunken, and was no more able -to destroy men. - -Henceforward festivals were celebrated with high revelry in -commemoration of this event. - -There is no doubt that in this myth the beer represents the annual rise -of the Nile, and if further evidence be required than that contained in -the story, it lies in the fact that the Intoxication festivals of Hathor -fall in the month of Thoth, the first month of the inundation. - -The vengeance of Ra is doubtless the plagues and starvation which -accompany the dry season immediately preceding the rise of the river. -The eye of Ra--that is, Hathor--must be either the sun or the moon; -but Ra himself is the sun-god, therefore Hathor is most probably the -moon. It must be borne in mind, of course, that the Egyptians believed -the moon wilfully to prevent the inundation, and thus were likely to -regard her as the source of disasters arising from the drought. It is -evident, too, that the eye of Ra wrought havoc among men _during the -night_--"Day dawned, after this goddess had been slaughtering men as she -went upstream." - - -The Forms of Hathor - -Hathor is sometimes identified with the star Sept, or Sothis (Sirius), -which rose heliacally on the first day of the month of Thoth. When Ra -entered his boat Sothis, or the goddess Hathor, took her place on his -head like a crown. - -Reference has already been made to the numerous forms of this goddess. -She was identified with Aphrodite by the Greeks, and by the Egyptians -with a multitude of local deities. The _Seven Hathors_, sometimes -stated to be independent deities, were in reality but a selection of -forms of the goddess, which selection varied in the various localities. -Thus the Seven Hathors worshipped at Denderah were Hathor of Thebes, -Hathor of Heliopolis, Hathor of Aphroditopolis, Hathor of the Sinaitic -Peninsula, Hathor of Momemphis, Hathor of Herakleopolis, and Hathor of -Keset. These were represented as young women carrying tambourines and -wearing the Hathor head-dress of a disk and a pair of horns. In the -Litanies of Seker other groups of Seven Hathors are mentioned, while -Mariette includes yet a different company under that title. - -Briefly, Hathor is a personification of the female principle--primitive, -fruitful, attractive--such as is known to most barbaric peoples, and -becoming more sophisticated as the centuries pass. - - -Hapi, the God of the Nile - -This deity was especially connected with the great river whence Egypt -drew her sustenance, and as such was a god of very considerable -importance in the Egyptian pantheon. In time he became identified with -Osiris. The name Hapi still baffles translation, and is probably of -pre-dynastic origin. Perhaps the first mention of this deity is in the -Text of Unas, where the Nile god is exhorted to fructify grain for the -requirements of the dead monarch. In the same texts Hapi is alluded -to as a destructive force, symbolizing, of course, the inundations so -frequently caused by the River Nile. - -In appearance Hapi possesses both male and female characteristics, the -latter indicating his powers of nourishment. As god of the North Nile -he is crowned with papyrus plants, and as god of the southern part of -the river with lotus plants. These two forms of Hapi resulted from the -geographical division of the country into Upper and Lower Egypt, and -they are sometimes combined in a single figure, when the god is shown -holding in his hands both plants. On the thrones of certain of the -Pharaohs we often find the lotus and papyrus conjoined with the emblem -of union, to signify the sovereignty of the monarch over both regions. - -The very position of Hapi made it certain that he would become -successful as a deity. The entire country looked to the Nile as the -source of all wealth and provender, so that the deity which presided -over it rapidly rose in public estimation. Thus Hapi quickly became -identified with the greater and more outstanding figures in early -Egyptian mythology. He thus became a partner with the great original -gods who had created the world, and finally came to be regarded as -the maker and moulder of everything within the universe. We find him -credited with the attributes of Nu, the primeval water-mass, and this -in effect made him a father of Ra, who had emerged from that element. -Hapi, indeed, stood in more immediate relationship to the Egyptians than -almost any other god in their pantheon. Without the sun Egypt would have -been plunged into darkness, but without the Nile every living creature -within its borders would assuredly have perished. - -The circumstance, too, that the source of the River Nile was unknown to -the Egyptians tended to add a mystery to the character of its presiding -deity. The people of the country could not understand the rise and fall -of the river, which appeared to them to take place under supernatural -auspices. - -On the occasion of the annual rise of the Nile a great festival was held -in honour of Hapi, and statues of the god were carried about through -the towns and villages. It is noticeable in many mythologies that gods -of fructification are those honoured by the circulation of their images -throughout the region where they are worshipped, and it is a little -difficult to see why this should be so. It cannot be said that none but -deities with an agricultural significance were thus carried about, but -it is noteworthy that these are by far the most numerous to receive such -honours. - - -Counterparts of Hapi - -Isis was in a manner regarded as the female counterpart of Hapi, but we -also find that in the north of Egypt the goddess Natch-ura was regarded -as the female companion of Hapi, and that Nekhebet reigned in the south -in a like capacity. The following hymn to Hapi, found in a papyrus of -the Eighteenth or Nineteenth Dynasty, clearly shows the great importance -of his worship in Egypt: "Homage to thee, O Hapi, thou appearest in -this land, and thou comest in peace to make Egypt to live. Thou art the -Hidden One, and the guide of the darkness on the day when it is thy -pleasure to lead the same. Thou art the waterer of the fields which Ra -hath created, thou givest life unto all animals, thou makest all the -land to drink unceasingly as thou descendest on thy way from heaven. -Thou art the friend of bread and of Tchabu, thou makest to increase -and be strong Nepra, thou makest prosperous every workshop, O Ptah, -thou lord of fish; when the Inundation riseth, the waterfowl do not -alight upon the fields that are sown with wheat. Thou art the creator -of barley, and thou makest the temples to endure, for millions of years -repose of thy fingers hath been an abomination to thee. Thou art the -lord of the poor and needy. If thou wert overthrown in the heavens the -gods would fall upon their faces and men would perish. He causeth the -whole earth to be opened by the cattle, and princes and peasants lie -down and rest.... Thy form is that of Khnemu. When thou shinest upon -the earth shouts of joy ascend, for all people are joyful, and every -mighty man receiveth food, and every tooth is provided with food. Thou -art the bringer of food, thou art the mighty one of meat and drink, thou -art the creator of all good things, the lord of divine meat, pleasant -and choice.... Thou makest the herb to grow for the cattle, and thou -takest heed unto what is sacrificed unto every god. The choicest incense -is that which followeth thee, thou art the lord of the two lands. Thou -fillest the storehouses, thou heapest high with corn the granaries, and -thou takest heed unto what is sacrificed unto every god. The choicest -incense is that which followeth thee, thou art the lord of the two -lands. Thou fillest the storehouses, thou heapest high with corn the -granaries, and thou takest heed to the affairs of the poor and needy. -Thou makest the herb and green things to grow that the desires of all -may be satisfied, and thou art not reduced thereby. Thou makest thy -strength to be a shield for man." - - -Nut - -The goddess Nut was the daughter of Shu and Tefnut, the wife of Geb, and -the mother of Osiris and Isis, Set and Nephthys. She personified the sky -and the vault of heaven. A good many other goddesses probably became -absorbed in her from time to time. She is, however, the personification -of the day sky, a certain Naut representing the sky of night, but this -distinction was an early one. She was indeed the counterpart of Nu, and -represented the great watery abyss, out of which all things originally -came, so that Nut, the spouse of Nu, and Nut, the spouse of Geb, are -one and the same being. She is usually represented as a woman carrying -upon her head a vase of water, which plainly indicates her character. -Sometimes she wears the horns and disk of Hathor, but she has many other -guises as the great mother of the gods. - -Her most general appearance, however, is that of a woman resting on -hands and feet, her body forming an arch, thus representing the sky. Her -limbs typified the four pillars on which the sky was supposed to rest. -She was supposed originally to be reclining on Geb, the earth, when Shu -raised her from this position. This myth is a very common one among the -aborigines of America, but in an inverted sense, as it is usually the -sky which takes the place of the original father, and the earth that of -the great mother. These are usually separated by the creative deity, -just as were Geb and Nut, and the allegory represents the separation of -the earth from the waters which were above it, and the creation of the -world. - -According to another myth Nut gave birth daily to the sun-god, who -passed across her body, which represented the sky. In a variant account -he is represented as travelling across her back. The limbs and body of -the goddess are bespangled with stars. In another pictorial description -of Nut we see a second female figure drawn inside the first, and -within that again the body of a man, the last two conforming to the -semicircular shape of the sky-goddess. This is explained as meaning that -the two women personify the day and night skies, but it does not account -for the male body, which may represent the Duat. Again we read that Nut -was transformed into a great cow, and she is frequently represented -in this form. The deceased are described in the _Book of the Dead_ -as relying on her for fresh air in the underworld, over the waters of -which she was supposed to have dominion. She possessed a sacred tree, -the sycamore, which was situated at Heliopolis, at the foot of which the -serpent Apep was slain by the great cat Ra. The branches of this tree -were regarded as a place of refuge for the weary dead in noonday during -the summer, and in its shade they were refreshed by the food on which -the goddess herself lived. - -It was asserted by the priests of Denderah that Nut had her origin in -their city, and that there she became the mother of Isis. Her five -children, Osiris, Horus, Set, Isis, and Nephthys, were born on the five -epagomenal days of the year--that is, the five days over the three -hundred and sixty. As in Mexico, certain of these were regarded as -unlucky. Nut plays a prominent part in the underworld, and the dead are -careful to retain her good offices, probably in order that they may have -plenty of air. Indeed, her favour renewed their bodies and they were -enabled to rise and journey with the sun-god each day, even as did Ra, -the son of Nut. A portrait of the goddess was often painted on the cover -of the coffin as a mark of her protection, and this was rarely omitted -in the Egyptian burial ceremonies. - - -Taurt - -Taurt is usually pictured as a hippopotamus standing upon her hind legs, -holding in her hand an amulet which has not yet been satisfactorily -explained. She wears on her head the solar disk and two tall feathers. -Occasionally she is pictured in human form with the cow-horns worn by -all Egyptian goddesses. She was regarded as the mother and nurse of the -gods, and had a counterpart in Apet, the hippopotamus-goddess of -Thebes, who was supposed by some Egyptians to have been the mother of -Osiris. In later times Taurt was known as Rert or Reret, the female -hippopotamus, but she was also identified with Isis, Hathor, Bast, -and other goddesses. Her image in faience formed a favourite amulet, -which, indeed, was almost as popular as that of Bes. Indeed, figures -which appear to have been copied from that of Taurt are to be seen on -Mykenaean wall-scenes, so widespread was her fame. She was supposed to -be the guardian of the mountain of the west, through which lay the road -to Hades. It would appear that she was certainly of totemic origin. -Her popularity seems to have been greatest during the New Empire, and -increased greatly during the latter period. - - -Hekt - -Hekt, the frog-headed goddess, was regarded as the wife of Khnemu, -although in some degree she may be looked upon as a form of Hathor. -Her character has not been made very clear by writers on Egyptian -mythology, but the circumstance that she possesses the head of a frog -obviously shows her connexion with water, and therefore with the powers -of fructification. She appears also to have been associated with the -deities of growth. Many corn-gods are deities of resurrection and -re-birth. At the festival of a certain Mexican goddess of the maize a -frog was placed upon the top of a sheaf of grain as being symbolical -of the goddess. It might be hazardous to identify Hekt with the Greek -Hecate, who was perhaps a moon-goddess, and as such associated with -water. It is noticeable that Hecate is regarded by Farnell as a foreign -importation from Thrace. She is, of course, the goddess of the lower -world as well, just as Osiris, the moon-god, was god of the Egyptian -dead. She was also worshipped at the Samothracian mysteries, which -probably had an Egyptian origin. We find that Hecate was also a goddess -of fertility. - - -Khonsu - -Khonsu was a lunar deity, and as such was often identified with Thoth. -Indeed, at Hermopolis and Edfu the two were occasionally joined under -the name of Khonsu-Thoth. The name is derived from the root _khens_, -to traverse, showing that he was the traveller who nightly crossed the -heavens. He was depicted as a hawk-headed god crowned with the lunar -crescent and the solar disk. Rameses III built him a great temple at -Thebes between those of Amen and Mut. He had two distinct forms: Khonsu -in Thebes Neferhetep, and Khonsu the carrier out of plans. The Greeks -compared Khonsu to Heracles, for what reason it would be difficult to -say. Occasionally the Egyptians fused him with Horus, Shu, and Ra, which -shows that he could assume a solar character, as is indicated by his -hawk-head. It would appear as if Khonsu, originally a moon-god, became -also a sun-god when the lunar calendar was merged into or abandoned for -the solar method of computation. - -The following tale illustrates the healing power of Khonsu: - - -The Princess and the Demon - -In the reign of King Rameses there were many fair women in Egypt, but -lovelier than them all was the daughter of the prince of Bekhten, one -of the king's vassals. Tall and slender and very shapely, of exquisite -form and feature, there was nothing on earth with which to compare -her beauty, so men compared it with the beauty of Amen-Ra, the great -sun-god, the god of the light of day. - -Now King Rameses was a great conqueror and a mighty man of valour, who -numbered among his vassals princes of no mean degree. These latter came -every year to Naharaina, at the mouth of the Euphrates, to do homage -to their overlord and to render tribute to him. Rich indeed was the -tribute that the king received, for every prince who bowed before him -was accompanied by a retinue of slaves bearing treasures of gold and -precious stones and sweet-smelling woods, the choicest things that their -dominions could afford. - -On one such occasion Rameses and his princes were gathered at Naharaina, -and the vassals vied with each other in the splendour of their -offerings. But the Prince of Bekhten had a treasure which far surpassed -that of the others, for he had brought his beautiful daughter, she -whose beauty was as that of Amen-Ra. When the king saw her he loved her -beyond all else, and wished to make her his wife. For the rest of the -tribute he cared nothing, and the homage of the remaining princes was -a weariness to him. So he married the princess, and gave to her a name -which signifies 'Beauty of Ra.' And when they returned home the queen -fulfilled her royal duties as became the Great Royal Wife, and was -beloved of her husband and her people. - -Now it came about that on the festival of the god Amen, when the sacred -barque is born aloft for all to see, the king and queen went up to -the temple to do honour to the sun-god. And while they worshipped, -attendants sought them with the news that a messenger from the Prince -of Bekhten waited without and would have speech with them. The king -bade that the messenger be admitted. Rich gifts he bore from the Prince -of Bekhten to his daughter, the Great Royal Wife, while to the king he -bowed very low, saying: - -"Behold, O king, the little sister of the Great Royal Wife lies ill. I -pray thee, therefore, to send a physician to heal her of her malady." - -Then the king called his wise men about him and deliberated whom -he should send to the succour of his wife's sister. At length the -wise men brought before the king one of their number, a scribe named -Tehuti-em-heb, who was accordingly appointed to accompany the messenger -to Bekhten, there to heal the queen's sister, Bent-reshy. - -But, alas! when they reached the domains of the Prince of Bekhten -Tehuti-em-heb found that the demon who was the cause of the princess's -affliction was far too powerful to be expelled by his skill. When the -maid's father heard that the Egyptian scribe was powerless to cast out -the demon he fell into despair, thinking his last hope had gone. But -Tehuti-em-heb comforted him as best he might, bidding him send once more -to Egypt to beseech the intervention of Khonsu, Expeller of Demons, on -his daughter's behalf. So the Lord of Bekhten sent yet another messenger -to the court of Rameses. - -Now the land of Bekhten was far from the land of Egypt, and the journey -between them occupied a year and five months. When the messenger of -the Prince of Bekhten reached Egypt he found Rameses in Thebes, in the -temple of Khonsu, for it was the month which was sacred to that god. And -the messenger bowed before Rameses and gave him the message sent by the -queen's father. In the temple at Thebes there were two statues of the -god Khonsu, one called Khonsu in Thebes Neferhetep, the other Khonsu, -Expeller of Demons, both representing the god as a handsome youth. -Rameses approached Khonsu in Thebes Neferhetep and prayed that he would -permit Khonsu, the Expeller of Demons, to go to the land of Bekhten for -the healing of Bent-reshy, the queen's little sister. Khonsu in Thebes -Neferhetep bowed his assent, and gave his protection to the Expeller of -Demons. When this was done Khonsu, Expeller of Demons, was dispatched to -Bekhten, accompanied by a large retinue, and with ceremony befitting a -king. They journeyed for a year and five months, and at length reached -the land of the queen's father. The prince himself and all his people -hastened to greet Khonsu, prostrating themselves and offering rich gifts -even as they might have done to the King of Egypt himself. Meanwhile -Bent-reshy's illness had continued unabated, for the demon who possessed -her was very potent. But when Khonsu was conducted to her chamber, -behold! she grew well in a moment, to the joy of her father and his -courtiers. The demon who had come out of her acknowledged Khonsu as his -superior, and those who stood by heard with awe a conversation pass -between them. - -"O Khonsu," said the spirit, "I am thy slave. If thou commandest that I -go from hence, I will go. But I pray thee ask of the Prince of Bekhten -that he will make a holy day for me and a sacrifice. Then shall I go in -peace." - -"It shall be as thou hast said," replied Khonsu, and he commanded the -Prince of Bekhten to make a sacrifice and a holy day for the demon who -had possessed Bent-reshy. - -First the people made a great sacrifice to Khonsu, the Expeller of -Demons; then they made one for the demon, who thereafter departed in -peace. But when he had gone the mind of the Prince of Bekhten was -grievously troubled, for he thought: "Perchance he will come again unto -our land, and torment the people even as he has tormented my daughter, -Bent-reshy." So he determined that Khonsu, the Expeller of Demons, must -not be allowed to depart from Bekhten, but must be kept there always, -lest the demon should return. - -For more than three years, therefore, the Prince of Bekhten kept Khonsu -within his domains, and would not allow him to depart. But one night -he had a dream which altered his determination. In his dream he stood -before the shrine of Khonsu, Expeller of Demons. And as he looked, -behold! the doors of the shrine were flung wide, and the god himself -issued forth, took the form of a hawk with wonderful golden plumage, and -flew toward Egypt. When he awoke the Lord of Bekhten knew that the real -god had departed to Egypt, and that it was useless to keep any longer -his statue. Moreover, he feared the vengeance of Khonsu. So on the -morrow he loaded the statue of Khonsu, the Expeller of Demons, with rich -and beautiful gifts, and sent him away to Egypt with a princely retinue. - -When the return journey was accomplished Khonsu, Expeller of Demons, -bestowed all the costly gifts on Khonsu in Thebes Neferhetep, keeping -nothing for himself of all he had received. - - -Minor Deities - -There were hundreds of minor gods surrounding the Egyptian pantheon, and -the characteristics of only a few of these can be dealt with. Each hour -of the day had its representative deity, as had each hour of the night. -The four winds were also represented in the Egyptian pantheon, as in the -Greek. The north wind was called Qebui, and is pictured as a four-headed -ram with wings; the south wind, Shehbui, is represented as a man with -a lion's head, and wings; and the west wind, Huzayui, has a serpent's -head on the body of a winged man. The east wind, Henkhisesui, sometimes -times occurs in anthropomorphic shape, and, like the north wind, has a -ram's head, but he is occasionally figured as a winged beetle with the -head of a ram. - -The senses were also symbolized by deities. Saa was the god of the sense -of touch or feeling. He is depicted in human shape and wears upon his -head a sign composed of parallel lines, which as they rise grow smaller. -In the Theban Recension of the _Book of the Dead_ he is shown in the -judgment scene amongst those gods who watch the weighing of the heart -of the deceased. Saa is sometimes shown as sailing with Thoth and other -gods in the boat of Ra. In one passage he is alluded to as the son of -Geb. He is the personification of intelligence, human and divine. - -The god of taste was called Hu. He is also depicted as a man, and is -said to have come into existence from a drop of blood which fell from -Ra. He became the personification of the divine food upon which the gods -and the blessed dead lived. - -Maa was the god of sight. He is also drawn as a man having an eye placed -over his head, which is also the symbol of his name. - -Setem was the god of hearing, and in his case his head is surmounted by -an ear.[10] - -The planets were also deified. Saturn was called Horus, the bull of -heaven; Mars was also identified with Horus under the name of the 'red -Horus,' but, strictly speaking, was under the guardianship of Ra; the -god of Mercury was Set, and of Venus, Osiris. Some of the constellations -were also identified with deities. The Great Bear was known as 'the -haunch,' and Draco was identified with the hippopotamus Reret. - -The days of the month had also patron gods. - - -[1] Or Usertsen. - -[2] There is a mention in the pyramid of Unas (Sixth Dynasty) of a deity -which may mean Amen, but may also mean 'The Hidden One,' and the epithet -which follows appears to apply to Osiris. - -[3] Budge, _The Gods of Egypt_, ii. p. 2. - -[4] Budge, _op. cit._ i. p. 503. - -[5] Or Sekmet. - -[6] Or Setet = shooter (with arrows). - -[7] Or Thi. - -[8] Or Ra-Heru-Khuti. - -[9] Or Sekhet. Sekhmet is the same personage as Hathor in the original -text. The beer was made by the people of On, who mixed the 'mandrake' -with it, and Sekhmet-Hathor drank it. - -[10] Personifications of the senses with appropriate names. - - - - -CHAPTER VI: EGYPTIAN LITERATURE - - -Egyptian Language and Writing - -The earliest knowledge we have of the Egyptian language is furnished by -ancient inscriptions belonging to the First Dynasty, about 3300 B.C. -From these onward its rise and its decay may be traced down through the -different writings on temples, monuments, and papyri to the fourteenth -century A.D.,[1] when Coptic manuscripts end the tale. Of the living -tongue, as apart from the purely literary language of the hieroglyphic -inscriptions, the truest idea is given by the popular tales, letters, -and business documents which have come down to us, wherein the scribes -naturally kept close to the current forms of speech, thus revealing the -changes the language underwent. - -That Egyptian is related to Semitic is practically certain, though -here a racial problem intervenes and confuses, for the Egyptian race -proper is not and never was, so far as can be ascertained, Semitic -in type. Erman tries to explain this by the quite probable theory -that in the prehistoric period a horde of warlike Semites conquered -a part of Egypt and settled there, like the Arabs of a later period, -and imposed their language on the country, but as a distinct race -died out, either by reason of the climate or absorption by the native -population, who, however, had acquired the strangers' language, though -but imperfectly. Under these conditions the language gradually changed. -The consonants were mispronounced, strong consonants giving place to -weak, and these in turn, disappearing altogether, produced biliterals -from the triliteral roots. This tendency, together with periphrastic -instead of verbal conjugation, continued to the end. Coptic, the -latest form, is thus biliteral in character, and tenses of remarkable -precision were developed in the verb by means of periphrases; but the -great resemblances between Coptic and Semitic must also be traced to the -continuous Semitic influences of late periods. - -The Egyptian language naturally divides into its progressive stages. -These are Old Egyptian, Middle and Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic. -_Old Egyptian_ is the language belonging to the Old Kingdom. It -supplied the literary model for the later period, as evidenced by the -inscriptions, but that it should be affected by the changing forms -of contemporary speech was inevitable, though in the main its chief -characteristics were preserved. The earliest specimens we have are -inscriptions belonging to the First Dynasty, which, however, are too -brief to give much insight into the language and speech of that period. -Next come many inscriptions and some few historical texts in the -language of the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Dynasties. The greatest amount -belonging to this phase is the large collection of ritual texts and -spells inscribed in the Pyramids belonging to the Sixth Dynasty. - -_Middle_ and _Late Egyptian_ belong to the Middle and New Kingdoms -respectively, and approximate to the common speech of the people. -Writings in the former, extant to this day, are tales, letters, and -business documents of the Twelfth Dynasty on to the beginning of the -New Kingdom, written on papyri in hieratic script. The Eighteenth to -the Twenty-first Dynasty furnish us with specimens of Late Egyptian -in various hieratic papyri. In regard to these an authority states: -"The spelling of Late Egyptian is very extraordinary, full of false -etymologies, otiose signs, etc., the old orthography being quite -unable to adapt itself neatly to the profoundly modified language. -Nevertheless, this clumsy spelling is expressive, and the very mistakes -are instructive as to the pronunciation." - -_Demotic_ represents the vulgar dialect of the Saite period, and is -really applied to the character in which it is written. It may be traced -back to the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, about 900 B.C., and it continued in -use until the fourth century A.D. Demotic documents are mostly contracts -of sale and legal matters, though some magical texts and a curious tale, -the Papyrus of Setna, are also written in this character. _Coptic_ is -the latest form which the language took, or rather it is a dialect -form of Egyptian, of which four or five varieties are known. Coptic -is written with the letters of the Greek alphabet, and is really the -only stage of the language where the spelling gives a clear idea of the -pronunciation. To the Greek characters were added six taken from the -Demotic in order to express sounds peculiar to the Egyptian language. -This, together with Greek transcriptions of Egyptian names and words, -have supplied the only means of arriving at some idea of the accurate -vocalization of the Egyptian language. One reason for this ignorance -that of necessity prevailed is the fact that the Egyptian system of -writing gives merely the consonantal skeletons of words, never recording -the internal vowel changes, and often omitting semi-consonants. - - -The Hieroglyphs - -The ancient Egyptian system of writing would seem to be, from all -available evidence, of purely native origin. Its rise, development, and -final extinction can all be traced within the Nile valley, though it -travelled by conquest into Syria under the Eighteenth Dynasty and onward -for the engraving of Egyptian inscriptions in that country. Again, it -is held by some authorities to be quite possible that the merchants -of Phoenicia and the AEgean had evolved from the Egyptian hieratic the -cursive form of writing, their 'Phoenician' alphabet, about 1000 B.C. The -hieroglyphic character was originally picture-writing in its simplest -form, but had become more complex by the time it is met with first, -in inscriptions belonging to the First Dynasty. It underwent some -changes, but the final mode it assumed persisted practically unaltered -from the Fourth Dynasty down to its expiry in the fourth century A.D. -By that time all knowledge of the meaning of the characters had died -out, and it was not until the discovery of the Rosetta Stone[2] and the -decipherment of its lingual inscription in Greek and Egyptian that any -progress could be made in the reading of hieroglyphic writing. The signs -are of two kinds, one to represent sounds, the phonetic--which is again -divided into two varieties, the alphabetic and syllabic--and the other -to represent ideas, the ideographic. These latter signs are pictorial -representations of the object spoken of, which are placed after the -phonetically written words as 'determinatives,' or representative -symbols. These again are of two kinds, generic, being determinative of a -class, and specific, of a particular object. There is no rule[3] as to -the arrangement of the text. It is read either from right to left, left -to right, or in columns, its commencement being from that side toward -which the bird and animal characters face. About five hundred characters -were used. Hieratic writing is to be found in the First Dynasty, -approximating closely to the hieroglyphic, but by the time of the Middle -Kingdom this resemblance is lost. The commercial era of the Twenty-sixth -Dynasty brought into everyday use the Demotic form, and thenceforth -hieratic was used for the copying of religious and traditional texts -on papyrus, and in time was understood by the learned only, for in the -Ptolemaic period, whenever the text of a royal decree was inscribed -upon a stele which was to be set up in a public place, a version of -the said decree in the Demotic character was added. Stelae inscribed in -hieroglyphic, Demotic, and Greek have been found, the most famous of -these being the Decree of Canopu, belonging to Ptolemy III, 247 B.C., -and the Rosetta Stone, set up in the reign of Ptolemy V, Epiphanes, -205 B.C. It was this latter stone and its inscription which gave the -key to unravelling the mystery of hieroglyphic writing in the last -century, and thus restoring to modern times the knowledge of ancient -Egyptian language and literature. As has been shown, the hieroglyphic -system of writing had fallen into disuse long before the close of Roman -rule in Egypt, and again the widespread use of Greek and Latin among -the aristocratic and official classes had caused the disappearance -of Egyptian as the language of state. It probably lingered, together -with the study of hieroglyphs, among learned men and priests in remote -districts, but by the fourth or fifth century A.D. had become a lost -art. Then in 1799 came the finding of the Rosetta Stone with its lingual -inscription, consisting of fourteen lines of hieroglyphs, thirty-two -lines of Demotic, and fifty-four lines of Greek. By the comparison and -decipherment of these versions the Egyptian alphabet was discovered, and -the clue thus found to the lost language of ancient Egypt. To Akerblad -in 1802, Young in 1818, and Champollion in 1822 must be given the honour -for this momentous discovery, restoring to our knowledge the wonderful -civilization, art, and literature of a great race. - - -Literature - -If one commences the study of Egyptian texts with an examination of -the _Book of the Dead_, and turns from its gloomy, if picturesque, -pages to the rest of the national literature, he is perhaps doomed to -disappointment, for the field of Egyptian letters, though somewhat -widespread, presents a poverty of invention and verbiage exhibited by -few literatures, ancient or modern. In the early periods, as might -be expected, the style is simple to banality, whilst later a stiff -and pompous fashion too often mars what might otherwise have been -meritorious work. - -Documents of almost every conceivable kind have come down to us--letters -of business men, legal scripts, fragments of historical information, -magical papyri; scientific, theological, and popular works, even -fiction and poetry, are fairly well represented. Most of the standard -works, such as books of proverbs or instructions like those attributed -to Ptah-hotep and Kagemni, appear to have been of great age, dating -not later than the Middle Kingdom. The style of these was imitated -by most writers, just as the shape and colour of the hieroglyphs and -wall-paintings were sedulously copied by draughtsmen and scribes. -Amenemhat I wrote a work resembling Machiavelli's _The Prince_ for the -instruction of his son in the principles of good government, and the -instructions of Ani to his heir are of similar character. In Egyptian -literature we frequently find parallelisms of phrase like those of -Hebrew poetry, and repetitions are common. Philosophical treatises, -although rare, appear to have had some vogue, and the great problems -of existence seem to have been disputed in their pages in the form of -a dialogue. A papyrus of the Middle Kingdom (_c._ 2500 B.C.) now -in the Berlin Museum descants upon the justification of suicide. The -disputants are a man and his _khu_ or other-self. The man in question -appears to be weary of existence and has made up his mind to destroy -himself. He trembles for the future, and seems afraid that his corpse -may be neglected. In this dilemma he turns to his _khu_ and entreats -it to perform for him the duties of a relative. This request the _khu_ -refuses point-blank, and urges its possessor to forget his sorrows and -to render his life as happy as possible. It indicates that after death -the remembrance of the deceased speedily vanishes, and even granite -monuments cannot retain it for long. This counsel the man bitterly -rejects, exclaiming that his relatives have forsaken him and that his -name is utterly condemned; everywhere the proud triumph and the humble -are oppressed; the wicked man flourishes and dishonesty is universal; -of just and contented men there are none. Death appears to him very -pleasing; in his coffin he will be surrounded by the fragrance of myrrh, -will repose in the cool shadows and partake of the offerings made to -him. After this outburst the _khu_ argues no longer and assents to the -man's proposals, agreeing that when he is at rest it shall descend to -him, and together they will prepare for themselves an abiding-place. - - -The Cat and the Jackal - -Another such discussion, which possesses some rather amusing -characteristics, is found in a Late Demotic papyrus, and is perhaps -tinged with Greek ideas. The dialecticians in this instance are a -monster cat, who represents the goddess Bast, and a diminutive jackal. -The feline adopts orthodox views and gives it as her opinion that -the world is directed by the gods, who will see to it that vice is -vanquished and that virtue is triumphant in the end. If even a little -lamb be injured, the violence offered will rebound upon the man who -harms it. The sun may be darkened by clouds for a season, thunderstorms -may roll, the sunrise may be veiled by the vapours of morning; but -eventually the light of day will break forth through all, and joy will -reign supreme. The jackal, on the other hand, is a realist. According -to him might is right on earth. The lizard, he remarks, devours the -insect, and in its turn becomes the prey of the bat, which is swallowed -by the snake, upon which the hawk pounces. Nature is ever at strife. The -scheme of the jackal's reasoning reminds one of that advanced by Darwin -in his theory of the survival of the fittest: Nature is "careless of -the single life." How is the sinner to be punished, and what prayer, -however powerful, can deter him? The contest between the animals grows -warmer; they adduce many proverbs and fables to illustrate the various -points at issue, and occasionally specific complaints are made against -the gods themselves. The author has evidently a leaning toward the -jackal, whose subtle reasoning occasionally throws the cat into a rage. -Most unfortunately the text is badly preserved, and many of its passages -are exceedingly obscure; but it stands as an early example of the -never-ending war between the optimist and the pessimist. - - -Travellers' Tales - -Some of the most interesting passages in Egyptian literature are those -which deal with travel and adventure. The natives of Egypt were by no -means travellers, and for the most part confined their journeyings and -excursions to the precincts of their own country, and even to their own -nomes or provinces. To pass beyond the borders of Khemi appeared to -them a formidable undertaking. But it was necessary that ambassadors -should be sent to the surrounding states, and that tribute which had -been agreed upon should be properly enforced. As the benefits of trade -grew apparent Egyptian merchants pushed their way into the surrounding -regions, and criminals often saved themselves by flight into foreign -countries. Those who had sojourned abroad were wont upon return home to -gather their friends and neighbours about them and regale them with an -account of their travels. Some of these are in the best style of Sir -John Maundeville, while others again are simple and correct narratives -of possible events. - - -The Story of Saneha - -One of these, the story of Saneha, dates from the Middle Kingdom, and -possessed a great vogue for at least a thousand years. It is unknown -whether its central figure is real or fictitious, as the name was a -fairly common one at that period. Saneha was an official under the first -king of the Twelfth Dynasty, Amenemhat I. When Amenemhat died and his -son Senusert I[4] came to the throne, he chanced to be hidden near by -where a secret reception of a certain embassy was held, all knowledge -of which his royal master desired should be kept inviolate. In terror -lest his presence should have been observed by someone, he fled eastward -across the Delta, passed the frontier, and journeyed to the Bitter -Lakes, where he became overpowered by thirst. Here he felt that death -had come upon him, but, summoning his courage, he pressed forward and, -hearing the lowing of cattle, walked in their direction. Tending the -cattle was a man of the desert, who provided him with water and boiled -milk, and offered him a home with his tribe. But Saneha considered -himself unsafe so near the frontier, and proceeded to the Upper Tenu, -perhaps the south of Palestine. Here he encountered a tribe, with which -he dwelt for some time, marrying the eldest daughter of its chief, and -he became wealthy in land and cattle and was regarded with much respect. -But as he grew older a great longing came upon him to behold the land -of Egypt once more. King Senusert was communicated with, and permission -was granted to Saneha to return. The king received him kindly and his -bedouin garments were exchanged for costly Egyptian robes. A splendid -tomb was built for him, and he was once more received into the royal -favour. - -The papyrus is valuable as affording vivid descriptions of the life of -the tribes of Southern Palestine, the forays of the various clans and -the picturesque barbarism of nomadic life. But the narrative is often -interrupted by irritating eulogies upon the King of Egypt. - - -The Shipwrecked Sailor - -In sharp contradistinction to this is a tale of the Twelfth Dynasty, -known as the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor, preserved in the Hermitage -Collection at Petrograd. A wandering sailor, recounting his adventures -to his superior officer, begs of him an introduction to Pharaoh. His -master will not credit his story, but the man protests that it is true. -He was bound for the mines of the king, he says, and took ship on a -vessel 150 cubits long and 40 cubits wide, manned by one hundred of -the best sailors of Egypt, whose hearts were stronger than lions, and -who were inured to hardship and voyage. They laughed at the thought of -tempests, but as they approached land a great wind arose and mighty -waves dashed against the vessel. The narrator seized upon a piece of -timber, and not too soon, for the ship and all who remained in her were -submerged. He floated for three days and then was cast on an island, -where he crawled into the shadow of some bushes upon which grew figs and -grapes. He also succeeded in finding melons, berries, and grain, and in -snaring fishes and birds. Contented to remain there awhile, he dug a pit -and lighted a fire, and offered up a sacrifice to the gods. - -All at once a terrible uproar like to the rumbling of thunder surprised -him out of his equanimity. At first he took it to be the noise of a -tempest at sea, but shortly he perceived that the trees shook and that -the earth had become violently agitated. Just before him lay a great -serpent thirty cubits long, with a beard two cubits in length; its -back was covered with scales of gold, and its body was the colour of -lapis-lazuli. Terrified, the sailor threw himself on his face before -this monster, which regarded him for a moment with its terrible eyes, -and then, opening its ponderous jaws, addressed him as follows: "What -has brought thee to this island, little one? Speak quickly, and if -thou dost not acquaint me with something I have not heard, or knew not -before, thou shalt vanish like flame." Without giving the unfortunate -mariner time to answer, it raised him in its jaws and carried him to -its lair, where it laid him down gently enough, safe and sound. Once -more it demanded of him what power had brought him to that island, and -the sailor, trembling in every limb, replied that on his way to the -mines of Pharaoh he had been wrecked. On hearing his tale the serpent -told him to be of good cheer and not to be afraid; that God had brought -him to a blessed island where nothing was lacking, and which was filled -with all good things; that in four months' time a ship should come for -him; that he should return into Egypt; and that he should die in his -own town. To cheer him up the benevolent monster described the island -to him. Its population consisted of seventy-five serpents, young and -old, and there these beings dwelt in harmony and plenty. The sailor on -his part was none the less friendly, and in the goodness of his heart -offered to recount to Pharaoh the presence and condition of the serpent -island, promising to bring to the monster personally sacred oils and -perfumes and the incense with which the gods were honoured. He would -also slay asses for him in sacrifice, pluck birds for him, and bring him -ships full of the treasures of Egypt. - -In reply the serpent merely smiled at him indulgently and a little -disdainfully. "Tell me not," he said, "that you are rich in perfumes, -for I know that all you have is but ordinary incense. I am Prince of -the Land of Punt and possess as much perfume as I require, and let me -tell you that when you depart from this place you shall never behold it -again, for it shall be changed into waves." - -In due time the ship approached, as the serpent had prophesied, and -in order to observe by what sort of company it was manned the sailor -climbed into a high tree. As it neared the shore the serpent bade him -farewell, and provided him with gifts of precious perfumes, sweet -woods, cassia, kohl, incense, ivory tusks, apes, baboons, and all kinds -of precious merchandise. Embarking with these, he was finally told by -the genius of the island that in two months he should behold his wife -and children. The rescued mariner then sailed through Nubia down the -Nile to the residence of the Pharaoh, and the tale ends with the request -on the part of its narrator that his captain should provide him with an -escort so that he might present himself before the Pharaoh and recount -his story. The island upon which he had been wrecked was the island of -the Ka--that is, the Soul. Such a story would not by any means seem -astounding to the ancient Egyptians, among whom many such romances were -current. Indeed, so abundant were these, and so many absurd notions did -they propagate, that we find the spirit of satire aroused against them -in a London papyrus dating about 1250 B.C., which relates an imaginary -journey through Palestine and Phoenicia, the aim of which is not to -describe the journey itself, but to laugh to scorn the artificialities -and absurdities of the popular romances of the day. - - -The Fable of the Head and the Stomach - -Romances regarding life in Egypt, such as that dealing with King -Rhampsinitus given elsewhere, are frequent. A papyrus of about 1250 -B.C. has for its background the war against the Hyksos, and describes -an encounter between rival princes--Apepi, leader of the Hyksos, and -the nationalist prince, Ra-sekenen, who dwelt in Upper Egypt. They -propounded riddles to one another, and on their solutions the fate of -one of them depended. Fables were extremely popular in the Nile valley -from an early period. In the Turin Museum an example, dating about -1000 B.C., is painted upon two small boards and contains the story of a -dispute between the head and the stomach. The Court of the Thirty, the -supreme tribunal of Egypt, sits in judgment. The stomach first brings -forward its case; but here the document is defective. We have, however, -the reply of the head, who at considerable length argues that he is the -principal beam, from which all the other beams that support the house -radiate. His is the eye that sees, the mouth that speaks, the nose that -breathes. The rest of the proceedings and the verdict are unfortunately -wanting. It is interesting, however, to know of this early progenitor -of the widespread fable of the strife between the stomach and its -principals which was adduced by Menenius Agrippa to the Roman plebeians, -when, in 492 B.C., they threatened to forsake the city, as a symbol of -what might happen if they proceeded to extremities. It contains good -proof that the popular story has, as a rule, a lease of life spreading -over many centuries, and that, originating in one country, it becomes -in time the property of many. It has often been asserted that in all -likelihood the fables of AEsop must have originated in Egypt, the land of -animal-worship; and it is noteworthy that in the Leyden Demotic papyrus -we find the fable of the grateful mouse and the lion which had become -entangled in the net. But this dates within the Christian era, and is -probably Greek in conception. However, we discover stories of animals -acting as human beings, playing games, engaging in war, just as we do -in the folklore of other barbarian peoples. Lepsius imagines that the -purport of most of these is satirical. - - -The Rebuking of Amasis - -In a papyrus of the Ptolemaic period we find the old expedient of -rebuking a king by recounting to him an apposite story. The monarch in -question was Amasis (died 526 B.C.), a pleasure-loving ruler, who was -wont to imbibe too freely and too often of an Egyptian intoxicating -beverage called kelebi. It happened one day that he spake to his -nobles, "It is my good pleasure to drink Egyptian kelebi." They spake, -"O our mighty lord, it is hard to drink Egyptian kelebi." He said unto -them, "Hath that which I say unto you an evil savour?" They said, "O -our mighty lord, that which pleaseth the king, let him do." The king -commanded, "Let Egyptian kelebi be brought to the lake," and they did -according to the word of the king. The king washed himself, with his -children, and there was no other wine set before them but Egyptian -kelebi. The king feasted with his children, he drank much wine for the -love which he bore to Egyptian kelebi; then, on the evening of that day, -the king fell asleep by the lake, for he had commanded a couch to be -placed in an arbour on the shore of the lake. When the morning dawned -the king could not arise because of the heaviness of his carouse. When -an hour had passed and he still could not arise, then the courtiers -lamented, saying, "Can such things be? Behold, the king drinketh himself -drunken like a man of the people.[5] A man of the people cannot come -into the presence of the king on matters of business." Therefore the -courtiers went to the place where the king was lying, and spake, "O our -mighty lord, what wish doth the king cherish?" The king said, "It is -my will and pleasure to make myself drunken. Is there none among you -can tell me a story that I may keep myself from sleep?" Now among the -courtiers there was a high official named Peun, who knew many tales. He -stood before the king, and began: "O our mighty lord, knoweth the king -not the story of the young sailor? In the days of King Psammetichus -there was a young sailor and he was wedded. Another sailor fell in -love with the wife of the first, and she loved him in return. Then it -happened one day that the king summoned him to his presence. When the -feast was over great desire took hold upon him"--here a hiatus occurs -in the text--"and he wished once more to come into the presence of the -king. He returned to his home and washed himself, with his wife, but he -could not drink as aforetime. When the hour came for bed he could not -bring himself to sleep because of the great grief that oppressed him. -Then said his wife unto him, 'What hath befallen thee on the river?'" -Most unfortunately the remainder of the text is wanting, and exactly in -what manner the relation of what happened to King Psammetichus edified -King Amasis we cannot tell. - - -Tales of Magic - -As was only to be expected, a goodly number of Egyptian stories abounded -in the magical element. Notably is this the case in the Westcar papyrus -written about 1800 B.C. and now in the Berlin Museum. Unluckily both -the beginning and end of this manuscript are wanting, yet sufficient -of it remains to permit us to glean the purport of the whole. It -recounts how Khufu, or Kheops, the famous builder of the great pyramid -at Gizeh, gathered his sons and his councillors around him and asked -if any of them were aware of a man who could recount to him tales of -the magicians. His son Khafra, in reply, stated that he was aware of -one such tale, which had been handed down from the days of the king's -forefather Nebka, and that it dealt with what occurred when he went into -the temple of Ptah of Ankhtaui. Whilst proceeding to the temple Nebka -turned aside to visit his chief reciter, Uba-aner. He was followed by -his retinue, among whom was a certain page, with whom Uba-aner's wife -fell in love, and sent her servant to him with a present of a chest -full of beautiful raiment. They met clandestinely in a summer-house or -pavilion in the garden of Uba-aner, where they quaffed wine and made -merry. But the steward of the house considered it his duty to inform his -master of these happenings, and Uba-aner, being a man versed in magic, -resolved to avenge himself thereby. He called for his casket of ebony -and electrum, and when they had brought it he fashioned a crocodile of -wax of the length of seven fingers, and he laid a spell upon it; and -toward evening the page went to the lake, which was in the garden, to -bathe, whereupon, acting on his master's instructions, the steward threw -in the waxen crocodile behind him. At once it became a great crocodile, -seven cubits in length, and, opening its horrid jaws, seized on the -page and dragged him under. During this time the king had been staying -with Uba-aner, and at the end of seven days he went forth again. As he -was about to leave the house Uba-aner requested him to come and see the -marvel which had happened. They went to the lake-side, and the reciter -called upon the crocodile, which at once arose from the water holding -the page. - -"O king," said Uba-aner, "whatever I desire this crocodile to do, he -will do." The king requested that the animal should be returned to the -water; but Uba-aner lifted the crocodile in his hand, and straightway it -turned to wax again. He then acquainted the king with what had passed -between the page and his wife, and the monarch indignantly ordered -the crocodile once more to seize the page, which it immediately did, -plunging into the water with its prey and disappearing for ever. Nebka -then commanded that the wife of Uba-aner be brought forth and that she -be burned with fire and her ashes cast into the river. - -So pleased was Khufu with this story that he ordered that the shade of -Nebka should be presented with a thousand loaves, a hundred draughts -of beer, an ox, and two jars of incense, and that the _ka_ of Uba-aner -should receive a loaf, a jar of beer, a jar of incense, and a portion of -meat. - - -The Parting of the Waters - -Another of the king's sons then told of a marvellous happening which -came to pass in the days of King Seneferu. Seneferu, feeling extremely -bored and jaded, sought in every apartment of his palace for something -with which to amuse himself, but in vain; so he called for Zazamankh, -his chief reciter and scribe of the rolls, to whom he told his -predicament. Zazamankh advised that the king should command that a boat -be made ready, and that he should go upon the lake of the palace and -be rowed to and fro upon its glassy surface by the royal ladies. He -asked for twenty oars of ebony inlaid with gold, with blades of light -wood inlaid with electrum. These were to be rowed by twenty ladies. The -king's heart was gladdened by the exercise; but one of the ladies who -was steering lost a jewel of malachite from her hair. Immediately she -ceased her singing, and so did her companions, and they ceased to row. -Seneferu inquired the reason, and they replied, "The steerswoman rows -not." The king then turned to the lady who had lost her jewel and asked -her why she did not row. "Alas!" she replied, "my jewel of malachite has -fallen in the water, and my heart is sad." The king bade her be of good -cheer and said that he would replace it; but she childishly replied that -she wanted her own piece of malachite back in its setting. The king then -called for Zazamankh and acquainted him with the circumstance which had -befallen. Zazamankh then uttered a powerful spell, and behold! one part -of the waters of the lake was piled upon the other, so that far below -them the king and the rowers could see the jewel lying upon a piece -of potsherd. Zazamankh descended from the boat and secured the jewel -and brought it back to its owner, after which he once more commanded -the waters to return to the place whence they came. This surprising -act lightened the hearts of the entire company, so that they spent a -joyful afternoon, and Zazamankh was richly rewarded for his magical -skill. Pharaoh was so pleased with this tale that he commanded that the -shade of Seneferu should receive an offering similar to what had been -presented to Nebka, and that the _ka_ of Zazamankh should have presented -to it a loaf, a jar of beer, and a jar of incense. - - -The Prophecy of Dedi - -But a third son told the king that, so far from recounting tales -concerning persons of bygone times, he could tell him a magical story -of a man who lived in his own days. His name was Dedi, and he dwelt at -Dedsneferu. He was 110 years old, and he ate daily five hundred loaves -of bread and a side of beef, and drank a hundred draughts of beer. So -great was his magical learning that if the head of a man or an animal -were smitten off, Dedi could restore the deceased to life. He could tame -wild beasts, and knew the designs of the House of Thoth. This design the -king, Khufu, might like to know, and it would perhaps be of use to him -in the construction of his pyramid. Khufu at once ordered his son to -bring this Dedi before him, and the prince, whose name was Hordedef,[6] -took ship up the Nile to where the venerable magician dwelt. He was -carried in a litter to the house of Dedi, whom he found lying on a couch -at the door of his house in process of being massaged by his servants. -Hordedef told him that he had come from afar to bring him before his -father, Khufu. Dedi replied with the salutation of praise, and together -they went toward the ship which had brought the prince thither. Dedi -asked that he might be given a boat and that his youths and his books -might be brought to him. He was provided with two boats, in which these -were stowed, and Dedi himself sat in the barge of the prince. They duly -reached the palace, where Hordedef announced to the king that he had -brought the ancient sorcerer. The Pharaoh at once gave orders that he -should be led before him, and when he came asked how it was that he -had not before heard of him; and Dedi replied, "He only who is called -cometh; the king calleth me, and behold I come." Khufu said to him, "Is -it sooth, as is said of thee, that if the head is smitten off a man -or an animal, thou canst restore either to life?" Dedi replied in the -affirmative. The king then requested that a prisoner be brought to him, -but Dedi begged that a man should not be used for this purpose, saying, -"Behold, we do not even thus to our cattle." A duck was then brought -to him and decapitated, and its body was laid on the west side of the -hall, and its head on the east side. Dedi then spoke some magic words, -and lo! the body and the head of the bird approached each other and -joined, and the duck stood up and quacked. He then performed the same -feat with a goose and an ox. - -Khufu, delighted with the success of these experiments, then asked Dedi -if he knew of the designs of the House of Thoth. The magician replied -that he did not know their number, but that he knew where they were. -Pharaoh then asked him their hiding-place, and was told that in a -chamber in Heliopolis, called the Plan-room, was a chest of whetstone in -which the plans were concealed, Dedi adding, "O king, it is not I that -shall bring them to thee." "Who, then," asked Khufu, "shall bring them -to me?" And Dedi replied, "The eldest of the three children of Rud-didet -shall bring them to thee." "And who is Rud-didet?" asked Khufu. "She -is," replied Dedi, "the wife of a priest of Ra, lord of Sakhebu. But -these three sons of hers are the sons of Ra the god, who has promised -her that they shall reign over all this land, and that the eldest of -them shall be high-priest in Heliopolis." At this the king's heart was -much troubled, and Dedi, seeing that he was in fear of the future, said -to him, "Be not afraid because of what I have said, O king; for thy -son shall reign, and thy son's son, before Rud-didet's sons shall rule -the land; and behold! this progeny of Ra is not yet born." Khufu then -announced his intention of visiting the temple of Ra when the banks of -the canal of Letopolis were cut, and Dedi promised that the banks of the -canal should hold at least four cubits of water. The sorcerer was then -placed in the palace of Hordedef, and was daily provided with a thousand -loaves, a hundred draughts of beer, an ox, and a hundred bunches of -onions. - - -The Visit of the Goddesses - -Now when the sons of Ra and Rud-didet were born, that deity requested -Isis, Nebhat, Meskhent, Hakt, and Khnumu to go to her, and taking the -form of dancing-girls, all except the god Khnumu, who followed them -as a porter, they descended to earth and approached the house of the -priest Ra-user, Rud-didet's husband, and played before him with their -instruments of music. They endowed the children with various attributes, -and called them User-ref, Sah-ra, and Kaku. They then quitted the -house and bade Ra-user rejoice. In return for their good wishes he -bestowed upon them a bushel of barley, which Khnumu placed upon his -head; but as they were on the way back to their divine abode Isis said -unto the others, "Would it not have been better had we done a marvel -for these children?" To this the others assented, and they there and -then fashioned a likeness of the crowns of Egypt, of the crown of the -Upper Land, and of the crown of the Lower, and hid them in the bushel -of barley. They then returned to the house of Ra-user and requested -permission to leave the barley in a closed chamber, which they sealed -up, and then took their leave. A few weeks afterward Rud-didet asked her -handmaid if the house and all that was in it were in good condition, and -the handmaid replied that all was satisfactory except that the brewing -barley was not yet brought. Her mistress then inquired why that had not -been done, and the servant answered that their store had been given to -the dancing-girls, who had arrived on the day of the children's birth, -and that it now lay in the closed chamber under their seal. Rud-didet -then ordered the maid to use it for the present, saying that Ra-user -could replace it before their return. The girl opened the chamber and, -entering, was surprised to hear people talking and singing, music and -the sound of dancing, and such sounds as one hears in the palace of the -king. She quickly returned and acquainted her mistress with what she -had heard. Rud-didet then entered the room herself and also heard the -sounds, but could not locate them. At last she laid her ear to the sack -which held the barley, and found that the sounds proceeded from it. She -at once placed it in a chest, which she put for security in a greater -chest, and this she bound round with leather and laid in a store-room, -taking the precaution to seal it, and when Ra-user returned she told him -what had occurred. - -Some days after, Rud-didet had occasion to rebuke her servant and beat -her with stripes, and the maid grumbled and said to her companions, "Why -has this been done to me? I will go to King Khufu and tell him that -her three sons are destined to become kings." She then betook herself -to her uncle; but he would not hearken to her treachery and struck her -a violent blow with a bunch of flax which he held. Feeling faint, she -went down to the riverside for a draught of water, but was seized upon -by a crocodile, who carried her away. Her uncle then presented himself -to Rud-didet, whom he found in a most dejected condition. He asked her -what made her downcast, and she replied that she feared treachery from -the handmaiden. "You need not fear for her," replied the man, "because -she has been seized upon by a crocodile." At this point the manuscript -fails us. It is indeed unfortunate that such an interesting domestic -passage has not been spared. The three kings whose names appear in the -story as the triplet sons of Rud-didet reigned during the Fifth Dynasty, -so that they could hardly have been born in the Fourth. The tale -would seem to be based upon the official adoption of the worship of Ra -in Egypt. It may be mentioned that the real names of the three children, -User-ref, Sah-ra, and Kaku, are intended as a play upon the names of the -first three kings of the Fifth Dynasty, User-kaf, Sahu-ra, and Kaka. The -story of the fatal children born to usurp a throne is a very common one -in all mythologies, and it is inevitable that the monarch whose line is -doomed to extinction should make an effort to destroy them while yet -they are in the cradle. The Greek myth of Danae and the old romance -of Sir Torrent of Portugal are examples of this. Mediaeval romance is, -indeed, full of such stories, but this is probably the earliest example -on record. - - -Lyric and Folk Poetry - -Egypt was not without its lyric and folk poetry; however, the romantic -was not the _forte_ of the Egyptians. It is noteworthy at the same -time that most Oriental peoples sing while at their work, and it would -be strange if the labourer on the banks of the Nile had not done so. -The fellah of to-day chants monotonously and endlessly while toiling, -repeating the same words and music over and over again; but the scribe -of early Egypt regarded the folk-song as unfit for transmission to -posterity. Occasionally a song is recaptured from mural inscriptions. -The shepherd who wades through the half-submerged fields, driving -his sheep before him, sings: "In the water walks the shepherd with -the fishes. He talks with the cat-fish; with the fish he exchanges a -greeting." We have also a threshing song: "Thresh ye, O oxen; thresh for -yourselves. Thresh straw for your fodder and grain for your masters. -Rest not, for the air is cool this day." - -A few love-songs have also survived. These were probably very numerous. -For the most part they are intense and passionate. Three collections -of love-songs of about 1200 B.C. have been unearthed, one of which is -contained in a papyrus now in the British Museum. On a stele in the -Louvre the praise of the wife of a king of about 700 B.C. is sung as -follows: "The sweet one, sweet in love; the sweet one, sweet in love in -the presence of the king; the sweet one, sweet in love before all men; -the beloved before all women; the king's daughter who is sweet in love. -The fairest among women, a maid whose like none has seen. Blacker is -her hair than the darkness of night, blacker than the berries of the -blackberry bush. Harder are her teeth than the flints on the sickle. A -wreath of flowers is each of her breasts, close nestling on her arms." - - -The True History of Setne and his son Se-Osiris[7] - -This story was discovered written on some papyrus belonging to the -British Museum. An English translation was published in 1900 by Mr. -F. Ll. Griffiths, and one in French by Sir G. Maspero in 1901. It is -written on the back of some official documents in Greek and dates -from the seventh year of the Emperor Claudian. The papyrus is much -dilapidated and pasted end to end; it is incomplete, and the beginning -of the history has disappeared. By the writing one would judge the copy -to belong to the latter half of the second century of our era. The Setne -alluded to is the same who figures in the story of Setne and the Mummies -related in the chapter on Magic. - -Once upon a time there was a king called Ousimares, and he had a -son called Setne. This son was a scribe; he was clever with his -hands, indeed in all things, and he excelled all men of the world -learned in the arts or those among the renowned scribes of Egypt. It -happened that the chiefs of certain foreign lands sent a message to -Pharaoh challenging him to find one who would do such and such a thing -under certain conditions. If this were done, then these chiefs would -acknowledge the inferiority of their country to Egypt; but if, on the -other hand, neither scribe nor wise man could accomplish it, then they -would proclaim the inferiority of Egypt. Now Ousimares called his son -Setne and repeated these words to him, and immediately Setne gave the -answer to that which the chiefs had propounded, so that the latter were -forced to carry out the conditions and admit the superiority of Egypt. -And thus were they robbed of their triumph, so great was the wisdom of -Setne, and none other ever dared to send such messages to Pharaoh. - -Now Setne and his wife Mahitouaskhit were greatly grieved, for they had -no son. One day when he was troubled more than usual over this his wife -went to the temple of Imhetep, and she prayed before him, saying, "Turn -thy face to me, O Imhetep, son of Ptah, thou who workest miracles, who -art beneficent in all thy doings. It is thou who canst give a son to -those who are sonless. Oh, hear my prayer, and grant that I shall bear -a son!" And that night Mahitouaskhit slept in the temple, and there she -dreamed a dream wherein she was directed to prepare a magical remedy, -and told that by this means her desire for a son should be fulfilled. On -waking she did all according to her dream, and in time it was known that -a child was to be born to her and Setne, who told it before Pharaoh with -great joy, while to his wife, for her protection, he gave an amulet and -put spells about her. - -And one night Setne dreamed, and a voice said to him, "Mahitouaskhit, -thy wife, will bring forth a son, and through him many wonders shall -be accomplished in the land of Egypt. And the name of thy son shall be -Se-Osiris." When Setne awoke and remembered these words he rejoiced and -was glad in heart. - - -Se-Osiris - -In due time a son was born, and according to the dream he was called -Se-Osiris. And the child developed rapidly beyond all other children, -and Setne loved him so greatly that scarce an hour passed without his -seeing him. In time he was put to school, but soon showed that he knew -more than the tutor could teach him. He began to read the magical papyri -with the priestly scribes in the 'Double House of Life' of the temple -of Ptah, and all those about him were lost in astonishment. Then was -Setne so pleased that he led his son before Pharaoh to the festival -that all the magicians of the king might strive against him and have to -acknowledge their defeat. - -And one day, when Setne, together with the boy Se-Osiris, was preparing -for the festival, loud voices of lamentation rose upon the air, and -Setne, looking forth from the terrace of his apartments, saw the body of -a rich man being carried to the mountains for burial with great honour -and loud wailing. Again he looked forth, and this time he saw the body -of a peasant borne along wrapped in a mat of straw and without a soul -to mourn him. And seeing this Setne exclaimed, "By the life of Osiris, -god of Amenti, may it be that I come into Amenti as this rich man -comes, honoured and lamented, and not as the peasant, alone and already -forgotten!" Upon hearing this Se-Osiris said, "Nay, my father, rather -may the fate of the poor man be thine, and not that of the rich one!" -Setne was astonished and hurt at this and cried, "Are they the words of -a son who loves his father?" Se-Osiris answered him: "My father, I will -show to thee each in his place, the peasant unwept and the rich man so -lamented." - - -A Vision of Amenti - -Then Setne demanded of him how he could accomplish this. The child -Se-Osiris began to recite words from the magical books, words of power. -Next he took his father by the hand and led him to an unknown place -in the mountains of Memphis. Here there were seven great halls filled -with people of all conditions. They traversed three of these without -hindrance. Upon entering the fourth Setne saw a mass of men who rushed -hither and thither, writhing as creatures attacked them from behind; -others, famished, were springing and jumping in their efforts to reach -the food suspended above them, whilst some, again, dug holes at their -feet to prevent them attaining their object. In the fifth hall were -venerable shades who had each found their proper and fitting place, but -those who were accused of crimes lingered kneeling at the door, which -pivoted upon the eye of a man who ceaselessly prayed and groaned. In -the sixth hall were the gods of Amenti, who sat in council, each in his -place, whilst the keepers of the portals called out the causes. In the -seventh hall was seated the great god Osiris on a golden throne, crowned -with the plumed diadem. On his left was Anubis, and on his right the god -Thoth. In the midst were the scales wherein were weighed the faults and -virtues of the souls of the dead, while Thoth wrote down the judgment -that Anubis pronounced. Then those whose faults outweighed their virtues -were delivered to Amait, the attendant of the Lord of Amenti; their -souls and bodies were destroyed for ever. But those whose virtues were -greater than their failings took their place among the gods and shades, -and there their souls found a heaven. Those, again, whose merits and -faults were equal were put amongst the servitors of Sekerosiris. - -Then Setne saw near the place of Osiris one of exalted rank and robed in -the finest linen. And while Setne was marvelling at all he had seen in -the land of Amenti, Se-Osiris, his little son, said unto him, "My father -Setne, seest thou that great personage in fine robes and near to Osiris? -That peasant whom thou didst see carried out of Memphis without a soul -to accompany him, and his body wrapped in a mat, dost thou remember, -my father? Well, that peasant is the one beside Osiris! When he had -come to Amenti and they weighed his faults and virtues, lo! his virtues -outweighed all. And by the judgment of the gods all the honours that had -been the share of the rich man were given to the peasant, and by the law -of Osiris he takes his place midst the honoured and exalted. But the -rich man, when he had come to Hades and his merits were weighed, lo! his -faults weighed heavier, and he is that man you have seen upon whose eye -pivots the door of the fifth hall, the man who cries and prays aloud -with great agony. By the life of Osiris, god of Amenti, if upon earth I -said to thee, 'Rather may the fate of the peasant be thine than that of -the rich man,' it was because I knew their fates, my father." - -And Setne answered and said, "My son Se-Osiris, numberless marvels have -I seen in Amenti; but tell me the meaning of those people we saw rushing -before creatures who devoured them, and the others ever trying to reach -the food beyond their reach."[8] - -Se-Osiris answered him: - -"In truth, my father, they are under the curse of the gods; they are -those who upon earth wasted their substance, and the creatures who -devour them without ceasing are the women with whom they squandered both -life and substance, and now they have naught, though they should work -day and night. And so it is with all: as they have been on earth, so it -is with them in Amenti, according to their good and bad deeds. That is -the immutable law of the gods, the law that knows no change and under -which all men must come when they enter Hades." - -Then Setne and his son returned hand in hand from the mountains of -Memphis. A fear was upon Setne because of Se-Osiris, who answered not, -and then he pronounced words that exorcize the ghosts of the dead. -Always afterward he remembered all he had seen and marvelled thereat, -but spoke of it to no man. And when Se-Osiris was twelve years of age -there was no scribe or magician in Memphis who was his equal in the -reading of the magical books. - - -The Reading of the Sealed Letter - -After this it happened one day that the Pharaoh Ousimares was seated -in the Hall of Audience with the princes, the military chiefs, and -the nobles of Egypt, each according to his rank, gathered about him. -One said unto Pharaoh, "Here is a rascally Ethiopian who would fain -have speech with you and who carries a sealed letter." And Pharaoh -commanded that the man be brought before him. And when he was come he -made obeisance and said, "Here is a sealed letter which I bear, and I -would fain know if amongst your wise men there are any who can read its -contents without breaking the seals. If, O king, you have not such a -one among your scribes and magicians, I shall take back to my country, -the land of the Negro, the story of Egypt's failure and inferiority." -Upon hearing these words all were amazed, and those about the king -exclaimed loudly, while Pharaoh bade some bring to him his son Setne. -When he had come, instantly obeying the royal command and bowing low -before him, Pharaoh said, "My son Setne, hast thou heard the words of -this insolent Ethiopian?" and then he repeated the challenge. Then was -Setne astonished, but he answered immediately, "Great Lord, who can read -a letter without its being opened and spread before him? But if you will -give me ten days, I will think upon it and do what I can to avoid the -report of Egypt's failure being carried to the Negroes, eaters of gum." -And Pharaoh said, "Those days are granted, my son." Then were rooms -appointed for the Ethiopian, and Pharaoh rose from his palace sad at -heart and went fasting to his couch. - -And Setne, pondering and much disturbed, threw himself upon his couch, -but knew no rest. His wife Mahitouaskhit came to him and would fain have -shared his trouble, but he said that it was not for a woman to share or -one that she might help him in. Later, his son Se-Osiris came and begged -to know what so sorely troubled his father, and again Setne refused to -speak, saying that it was not for a child. But the boy persisted, and at -last Setne told him of the challenge of the Ethiopian. The moment he had -finished Se-Osiris laughed, and his father asked the reason of his mirth. - -"My father," he answered, "I laugh to see you there, so troubled in -heart because of such a small affair. I will read that letter of the -Ethiopian, read it all without breaking the seals." - -Hearing this, Setne rose instantly. - -"But what proof can you give me of the truth of what you say, my son?" - -Se-Osiris answered, "My father, go thou to the lower floor of this house -and take what books you please from their place. As you do so I shall -read that which you have taken from its place while I stand before you." - -And it happened as Se-Osiris had said. Each book that his father lifted -the boy read without its being opened. Upon this Setne lost no time in -acquainting Pharaoh with all that Se-Osiris had done, and so lightened -was the heart of the king that he made a feast in honour of Setne and -his young son. - -After this Pharaoh sent for the Ethiopian. And when he entered the Hall -of Audience he was placed in the midst of all, and the young Se-Osiris -took up his place beside him. But first the boy put a curse upon the man -and his gods if he should dare to say falsely that what he read was not -true. And seeing the boy, the Ethiopian prostrated himself before him -in fear. Then Se-Osiris began to read the letter with its seals still -unbroken, and all heard his voice. And the words were: - - -The Contents of the Letter - -"It happened during the reign of the Pharaoh Manakhphre-Siamon, who was -a beneficent ruler and in whose time the land overflowed with all good -things, who endowed the temples richly, that when the King of Nubia was -taking his rest in the pleasure-kiosk of Amen he overheard the voices -of three Ethiopians who were talking behind the house. One of them was -speaking in a high voice, saying, among other things, that if the god -Amen would preserve him from the enmity of the King of Egypt he could -put a spell on the people of that country so that a great darkness -should reign and they should not see the moon for three days and three -nights. Then the second man said that if Amen would guard him he would -cause the Pharaoh to be transported to the land of the Negroes, and -there, before the king of that country and in public, he should suffer -five hundred blows, and afterward he should be taken back to his country -in not more than six hours. After this the third man spoke, saying that -if Amen would preserve him he would then send a blight upon the land of -Egypt, a blight for the space of three years. When the king heard this -he ordered that these three men be brought before him. - -"He said unto them, 'Which of you said that he would cause that the -people of Egypt should not see the moon for three days and three -nights?' And they answered that it was Horus, the son of Tririt (the -sow). - -"Again the king said, 'Which of you said that he had power to cause -the King of Egypt to be brought hither?' And they answered that it was -Horus, the son of Tnahsit (the negress). - -"Again the king said, 'Which of you said that he would cause a blight -to fall upon Egypt?' And they answered that it was Horus, the son of -Triphit (the princess). - -"Then the king bade Horus, the son of Tnahsit, come near, and he said -to him, 'By Amen, the Bull of Meroe, if thou canst accomplish what thou -hast said, then rich rewards shall be thine.' - -"And Horus, the son of Tnahsit, fashioned a litter and four bearers of -wax. Over them he chanted magical words, he breathed upon them and gave -them life, and finally he bade them wend their way to Egypt and bring -back the king of that land in order that he might suffer five hundred -blows from the kourbash before the King of the Negroes." - -Here Se-Osiris paused and, turning to the Ethiopian, said, "The curse of -Amen fall upon thee! These words that I have said, are they not written -in the letter thou holdest in thine hand?" And the rascally Ethiopian -bowed low before him, saying, "They are written there, my lord!" - -Then Se-Osiris resumed his magical reading: - -"And all happened as Horus, the son of Tnahsit, had devised. By the -power of sorcery was Pharaoh taken to the land of the Negroes, and -there suffered five hundred blows of the kourbash. After that he was -carried back to Egypt, as had been said, and, wakening the next morning -in the temple of the god Horus, he lay in great pain, his body sorely -bruised. Bewildered, he asked his courtiers how such could have happened -in Egypt. They, thinking some madness had fallen upon their king, and -yet ashamed of their thoughts, spoke soothingly to him, and said that -the great gods would heal his afflictions. But still they asked him the -meaning of his strange words, and suddenly he remembered all that had -happened to him and recounted it to his courtiers." - - -Magic versus Magic - -"When they saw his bruised body they made a great clamour. And then -Pharaoh sent for his chief magician, and he at once cried out that -the evil and affliction of the king were due to the sorceries of the -Ethiopians. - -"'By the life of Ptah,' he continued, 'I shall bring them to torture and -execution.' - -"And Pharaoh bade him make all speed lest he should be carried away the -next night. And the chief magician carried his secret books and amulets -to the place where Pharaoh lay, and chanted above him magical words -and incantations. Then, with many gifts, he embarked in a boat and -made haste to reach the temple of Khmounon, and there he prayed to the -god Thoth that all evil should be averted from Pharaoh and the land of -Egypt. And that night he slept in the temple, and he dreamed a dream in -which the god Thoth appeared to him and instructed him in divine magic -that would preserve the king from the wiles of the Ethiopians. - -"On waking the magician remembered all, and without losing a moment -fulfilled all that he had been told in his dream. And then he wrote -the charm to preserve Pharaoh from all sorcery. On the second day the -Ethiopians endeavoured to renew their enchantments, but all was now -unavailing against the person of Pharaoh. The third morning Pharaoh -recounted to his chief musicians all that had happened during the night, -and how the Ethiopians had failed in their attempts. - -"Then the magician fashioned a litter and four bearers of wax. He put -a spell upon them and breathed life into them, bidding them go and -bring before Pharaoh the King of the Negroes, that he might suffer five -hundred blows upon his body and then be carried back to his own land -again. And the waxen figures promised to do all as the magician had -commanded." - -Again Se-Osiris paused, and again he demanded of the Ethiopian if his -words were not the words of the sealed letter. And the Ethiopian bowed -low to the ground, saying they were the words in very truth. - -Se-Osiris began again to read the hidden words: - -"And as it happened to Pharaoh, so was the fate of the King of the -Negroes, who awoke sorely bruised in the morning following. He called -loudly for his courtiers, and when they saw the state of their king -they made a great clamour. Again he called and commanded that Horus, -the son of Tnahsit, be brought before him. When he had come the king -threatened him, and commanded him to go to Egypt and there learn how to -save him from the sorceries of Pharaoh's chief magician. - -"But no spell devised by the Ethiopian could preserve the king from the -magic of the Egyptians, and three times was he carried to that country -and humiliated, whilst his body was in great pain, so sorely bruised was -it. Then he cursed Horus, the son of Tnahsit, and threatened him with -a slow and dreadful death unless he could preserve him from Pharaoh's -vengeance. - -"Then in fear and trouble Horus went to his mother Tnahsit and told -her all, and that he must go to Egypt to see the one who had worked -these powerful sorceries and endeavour to inflict upon him a fitting -punishment. And his mother, Tnahsit, on hearing this, warned him against -coming into the presence of Pharaoh's chief magician, for against him -he would never prevail, but know defeat. But he answered that he must -go. Then she arranged with him that by signs and signals between them -he should let her know how he fared, and if he were in danger, then -she should try to save him. And he promised, saying that if he were -vanquished, then that which she ate, that which she drank, and the sky -above should turn to the colour of blood." - - -The War of Enchantments - -"And after this he journeyed to Egypt, tracking the one whose sorceries -had prevailed against his own. He penetrated to the Royal Hall of -Audience and came before Pharaoh, crying in a high voice, 'Who is it -among you who is putting spells upon me?' - -"And Pharaoh's chief magician called out in answer, saying, 'Ha! -Ethiopian, is it thou who workedst evil against Pharaoh?' and Horus, -the son of Tnahsit, cried out in great anger and by a spell he caused a -great flame to rise from the midst of the hall, at which Pharaoh and the -Egyptians cried out to the chief of the magicians to succour them. Then -by his power he caused a shower of rain to fall so that the flame was -extinguished. - -"Again the Ethiopian wrought his magic and thereby caused a great -darkness to fall upon them all so that the people could not see each -other, but this also was dispersed by the magician of the Egyptians. -Then followed more machinations by Horus, the son of Tnahsit, but each -time was he vanquished. At last he asked for mercy and vowed before the -gods that never again would he trouble Egypt or Pharaoh. They gave him -a boat and sent him back to his own land. So were the sorceries of the -Ethiopians rendered as naught." - -With this Se-Osiris finished the reading of the sealed letter. And then -he began to reveal to all there, Pharaoh, the princes, and the nobles, -that the Ethiopian now before them was none other than that Horus, son -of Tnahsit, returned after five hundred years to trouble Egypt and its -king again. But against this day he himself, Se-Osiris, had been born -again, for he was that former chief magician of the Pharaoh Manakhphre -come back once more to protect Egypt and Pharaoh from the wiles of the -Ethiopians. - -And with these words he caused a great flame to consume the Ethiopian, -there in the midst of the Hall of Audience, so that not a vestige of the -creature remained. But afterward when they looked for Se-Osiris he had -disappeared as a shadow from before Pharaoh and his father Setne, and -never again was he seen of them. - -At these happenings everyone marvelled, and Pharaoh said that Se-Osiris -was the wisest and most wonderful of all magicians, and that never again -would the world see his like. - -But the hearts of Setne and his wife were troubled, and they grieved -sorely for their son Se-Osiris. Then comfort came to them, and again the -wife of Setne bore a son, and they called him Ousimanthor. And so the -heart of Setne was glad and he made offerings in the name of Se-Osiris -in remembrance. - - -How Setnau Triumphed over the Assyrians - -After the close of the reign of Amysis a priest of 'Vulcan' named Setnau -ascended the throne. And this king treated the army with contempt and -disdain, thinking he had no need of them. Among other injustices he -appropriated the lands which former kings had given to them. - -Now it came to pass that when Sennacherib, King of the Arabs and -Assyrians, led his hosts against Egypt, the soldiers of the Egyptian -army refused to fight and repel them. Setnau, thus reduced to -powerlessness, went to the temple and prayed the gods to help him in his -dire straits. While thus troubled a sleep fell upon him, and in a dream -it seemed that the god himself appeared and exhorted him to courage, -saying that all would fall to his advantage in the campaign against the -Assyrians. - -Greatly cheered by this dream, Setnau called upon those of the army who -would follow him, and they camped at Peluce, a main approach into Egypt. -Not only soldiers followed him, but merchants, artisans, and men of the -street. - -Now when the Assyrians besieged the town, as they lay encamped about -the field rats during the night gnawed and devoured all the quivers, -bows, and fittings of shields of the invaders, so that, on the morrow, -when they would have given battle, behold! they were weaponless. Thus -disarmed, many of the hosts fled and many perished. - -And now in the temple of Vulcan stands a stone image of the god, bearing -in his hand the figure of a rat. And the legend inscribed thereon runs, -"Who beholds me beholds God." - - -The Peasant and the Workman - -A tale of the Ninth Dynasty, which from the number of copies extant -would seem to have been very popular, relates how a peasant succeeded in -obtaining justice after he had been robbed. Justice was not very easily -obtained in Egypt in those times, for it seems to have been requisite -that a peasant should attract the judge's attention by some special -means, if his case were to be heard at all. The story runs thus: - -In the Salt Country there dwelt a sekhti (peasant) with his family. He -made his living by trading with Henenseten in salt, natron, rushes, -and the other products of his country, and as he journeyed thither he -had to pass through the lands of the house of Fefa. Now there dwelt -by the canal a man named Tehuti-nekht, the son of Asri, a serf to the -High Steward Meruitensa. Tehuti-nekht had so far encroached on the -path--for roads and paths were not protected by law in Egypt as in other -countries--that there was but a narrow strip left, with the canal on -one side and a cornfield on the other. When Tehuti-nekht saw the sekhti -approaching with his burdened asses, his evil heart coveted the beasts -and the goods they bore, and he called to the gods to open a way for -him to steal the possessions of the sekhti. - -This was the plan he conceived. "I will take," said he, "a shawl, and -will spread it upon the path. If the sekhti drives his asses over -it--and there is no other way--then I shall easily pick a quarrel with -him." He had no sooner thought of the project than it was carried into -effect. A servant, at Tehuti-nekht's bidding, fetched a shawl and spread -it over the path so that one end was in the water, the other among the -corn. - -When the sekhti drew nigh he drove his asses over the shawl. He had no -alternative. - -"Hold!" cried Tehuti-nekht with well-simulated wrath, "surely you do not -intend to drive your beasts over my clothes!" - -"I will try to avoid them," responded the good-natured peasant, and he -caused the rest of his asses to pass higher up, among the corn. - -"Do you, then, drive your asses through my corn?" said Tehuti-nekht, -more wrathfully than ever. - -"There is no other way," said the harassed peasant. "You have blocked -the path with your shawl, and I must leave the path." - -While the two argued upon the matter one of the asses helped itself to a -mouthful of corn, whereupon Tehuti-nekht's plaints broke out afresh. - -"Behold!" he cried, "your ass is eating my corn. I will take your ass, -and he shall pay for the theft." - -"Shall I be robbed," cried the sekhti, "in the lands of the Lord Steward -Meruitensa, who treateth robbers so hardly? Behold, I will go to him. He -will not suffer this misdeed of thine." - -"Thinkest thou he will hearken to thy plaint?" sneered Tehuti-nekht. -"Poor as thou art, who will concern himself with thy woes? Lo, _I_ am -the Lord Steward Meruitensa," and so saying he beat the sekhti sorely, -stole all his asses and drove them into pasture. - -In vain the sekhti wept and implored him to restore his property. -Tehuti-nekht bade him hold his peace, threatening to send him to the -Demon of Silence if he continued to complain. Nevertheless, the sekhti -petitioned him for a whole day. At length, finding that he was wasting -his breath, the peasant betook himself to Henen-ni-sut, there to lay -his case before the Lord Steward Meruitensa. On his arrival he found -the latter preparing to embark in his boat, which was to carry him to -the judgment-hall. The sekhti bowed himself to the ground, and told the -Lord Steward that he had a grievance to lay before him, praying him to -send one of his followers to hear the tale. The Lord Steward granted the -suppliant's request, and sent to him one from among his train. To the -messenger the sekhti revealed all that had befallen him on his journey, -the manner in which Tehuti-nekht had closed the path so as to force him -to trespass on the corn, and the cruelty with which he had beaten him -and stolen his property. In due time these matters were told to the Lord -Steward, who laid the case before the nobles who were with him in the -judgment-hall. - -"Let this sekhti bring a witness," they said, "and if he establish his -case, it may be necessary to beat Tehuti-nekht, or perchance he will be -made to pay a trifle for the salt and natron he has stolen." - -The Lord Steward said nothing, and the sekhti himself came unto him -and hailed him as the greatest of the great, the orphan's father, the -widow's husband, the guide of the needy, and so on. - -Very eloquent was the sekhti, and in his florid speech he skilfully -combined eulogy with his plea for justice, so that the Lord Steward was -interested and flattered in spite of himself. - -Now at that time there sat upon the throne of Egypt the King -Neb-ka-n-ra, and to him came the Lord Steward Meruitensa, saying: - -"Behold, my lord, I have been sought by a sekhti whose goods were -stolen. Most eloquent of mortals is he. What would my lord that I do -unto him?" - -"Do not answer his speeches," said the king, "but put his words in -writing and bring them to us. See that he and his wife and children are -supplied with meat and drink, but do not let him know who provides it." - -The Lord Steward did as the king had commanded him. He gave to the -peasant a daily ration of bread and beer, and to his wife sufficient -corn to feed herself and her children. But the sekhti knew not whence -the provisions came. - -A second time the peasant sought the judgment-hall and poured forth -his complaint to the Lord Steward; and yet a third time he came, and -the Lord Steward commanded that he be beaten with staves, to see -whether he would desist. But no, the sekhti came a fourth, a fifth, a -sixth time, endeavouring with pleasant speeches to open the ear of the -judge. Meruitensa hearkened to him not at all, yet the sekhti did not -despair, but came again unto the ninth time. And at the ninth time the -Lord Steward sent two of his followers to the sekhti, and the peasant -trembled exceedingly, for he feared that he was about to be beaten once -more because of his importunity. The message, however, was a reassuring -one. Meruitensa declared that he had been greatly delighted by the -peasant's eloquence and would see that he obtained satisfaction. He then -caused the sekhti's petitions to be written on clean papyri and sent -to the king, according as the monarch had commanded. Neb-ka-n-ra was -also much pleased with the speeches, but the giving of judgment he left -entirely in the hands of the Lord Steward. - -Meruitensa therefore deprived Tehuti-nekht of all his offices and his -property, and gave them to the sekhti, who thenceforth dwelt at the -king's palace with all his family. And the sekhti became the chief -overseer of Neb-ka-n-ra, and was greatly beloved by him. - - -Story of the Two Brothers - -The manuscript of this tale of the Nineteenth Dynasty was bought in -Italy by Mme. Elizabeth d'Orbiney, and is called the d'Orbiney Papyrus. -It was acquired by the British Museum in 1857 and copied in facsimile. -It has been translated over and over again. The manuscript extends to -nineteen pages of ten lines each, the first five pages having been -considerably torn. Several gaps have been filled in by the modern -possessors of the manuscript, and the restorations are signed. The -original manuscript is stamped in two places with the name of its -ancient owner, Sety Merenptah, whom we know as Sety II. It was executed -by Anena, a scribe who lived during the reigns of Rameses II, Merenptah, -and Sety II, and is more than three thousand years old. Bitou, the hero -of the story, a herd and husbandman, is perhaps identifiable with the -Greek god Bitys. - -Anapou and Bitou were two brothers who lived in Egypt a long time ago. -To Anapou, as the elder, belonged house, cattle, and fields; and Bitou, -the younger, worked for him. Bitou was marvellously clever in his -management of the cattle and in all things relating to agriculture--he -could even tell what the cattle said to him and to each other. One day, -as the brothers were working in the fields, Anapou sent Bitou home for -a large quantity of seed, as he saw the time had come for sowing. Bitou -went and got the seed, and after their day's work the two returned, to -find Anapou's wife lying moaning, and saying she had been thrashed by -Bitou until she was sore because she would not yield him something he -had asked of her when he came for the seed. Then Anapou sought to kill -Bitou by stealth, but Bitou, warned by the cattle, fled. His brother -overtook him, but the god Phra-Harmakhis caused a wide stream full of -crocodiles to arise between them, and Bitou asked his brother to wait -till break of day, when he would explain all that had happened. When day -broke Bitou told Anapou the truth, refusing at the same time ever to -return to the house where Anapou's wife was. "I shall go," he said, "to -the Vale of the Acacia. Now listen to what will happen. I shall tear out -my heart by magic so as to place it on the topmost bough of the acacia, -and when the acacia is cut down, and my heart will fall to the ground, -you will come to look for it. After you have looked for seven years do -not be discouraged, but put it in a vessel of cold water; that will -bring me to life again. I shall certainly live again and be revenged on -my enemies. You will know that something of moment is about to happen to -me when a jug of beer is given you and the froth shall run over. They -will then give you a jug of wine of which the sediment will rise to the -top. Rest no more when these things come about." - -He went to the valley and his brother returned home, killed his wife, -and mourned for Bitou. - -Bitou, in the valley, spent his days in hunting, and at night slept -under the acacia, on top of which his heart was placed. One day he met -the nine gods, who gave him the daughter of the gods for his wife; but -the Seven Hathors swore she should die by the sword. He told her about -his heart, and that whoever should find the acacia would have to fight -with him. - - -The Treachery of Bitou's Wife - -Pharaoh, hearing of this beautiful woman, desired to take possession -of her, and sent armed men into the valley, all of whom Bitou killed. -Pharaoh at last enticed her away and made her his chief favourite. She -told him her husband's secret and bade him cut down the acacia-tree, -which was accordingly done, and Bitou fell down dead at the same moment. - -Then what Bitou had foretold happened to his brother. Beer that foamed -was brought to him, and then wine which became muddy while he held -the cup. By these signs he knew that the time had come to act, and -taking his clothes and sandals and weapons, he set off for the valley. -When he got there he found his brother lying dead on his bed. He went -to the acacia to look for the heart, but could find only a berry, -which, however, was the heart. He placed it in cold water, and Bitou -was restored to life. They embraced each other, and Bitou said to his -brother, "I shall now become a sacred bull (Apis). Lead me, then, to -Pharaoh, who will reward you with gold and silver for having brought -me. I shall then find means to punish my wife for having betrayed me." -Anapou did as Bitou directed, and when the sun rose again next day, -Bitou having then assumed the form of a bull, he led him to court. There -were great rejoicings over the miraculous bull, and Pharaoh rewarded -Anapou richly and preferred him before any other man. - -Some days after, the bull entered the harem and addressed his former -wife. "You see, I am still alive, after all," he said. "Who are you?" -she replied. He said, "I am Bitou. You knew well what you were doing -when you got Pharaoh to have the acacia cut down." Then she was very -much afraid, and begged Pharaoh to grant her any request she would -make. Pharaoh, who loved her so much that he could refuse her nothing, -consented. "Then," she said, "give me the liver of the sacred bull to -eat, for nothing else will satisfy me." Pharaoh was very much grieved -at this, but he had sworn, and one day when the people were offering up -sacrifices to the bull he sent his butchers to cut its throat. When the -bull was being killed two big drops of blood fell from his neck, and -flowing till they were opposite Pharaoh's doorway, they sprang up in the -form of two great trees, one at either side of the portal. - -At this second miracle all the people rejoiced again and offered -sacrifices to the two trees. - -A long time after, Pharaoh, in his crown of lapis-lazuli, with a garland -of flowers round his neck, got into his electrum chair and was carried -out to look at the two trees. His chief favourite--Bitou's wife--was -brought after him and they were set down, one under each tree. Then -Bitou, the tree under which his wife was seated, whispered to her, -"Faithless woman! I am Bitou, and I am still alive in spite of you. You -made Pharaoh cut down the acacia, and killed me. Then I became a bull -and you had me slain." - -Afterward, when she was seated again with Pharaoh at table, she made -him swear another oath to do whatever she asked him, and Pharaoh swore -again. Then she said, "Cut me down these two trees and make them into -two good beams." What she demanded was done, but as the trees were being -cut down a chip flew into her mouth. In due time she brought forth a -male child, whom Pharaoh loved and made Prince of the Upper Nile, and -when Pharaoh died, Bitou, for _he_ was this child, succeeded him. Then -he summoned all the great officials, had his wife brought before him, -and told them all that had happened. So she was put to death. Bitou -lived and reigned for twenty years, and then his brother Anapou, whom he -had made his successor, reigned in his stead. - - -The Doomed Prince - -This story is to be found in the Harris Papyrus in the British Museum. -It was complete when first discovered, but an unfortunate accident -partly destroyed it, so that the end of the tale is lost. It is supposed -to belong to the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty. - -There was once a king who was sore in heart because no son had been born -to him. He prayed the gods to grant his desire, and they decreed that as -he had prayed, so it should be. And his wife brought forth a son. When -the Hathors came to decide his destiny they said, "His death shall be by -the crocodile, or by the serpent, or by the dog." And those who stood -round, upon hearing this, hurried to tell the king, who was much grieved -thereat and feared greatly. - -And because of what he had heard he caused a house to be built in the -mountains and furnished richly and with all that could be desired, so -that the child should not go abroad. When the boy was grown he went one -day upon the roof, and from there he saw a dog following a man upon the -road. Then he turned to his attendant and said, "What is that which -follows the man coming along the road?" And he was told that it was a -dog. - -And the child at once wished to possess a dog, and when the king was -told of his desire he might not deny him, lest his heart should be sad. - -As time went on and the child became a man he grew restive, and, being -told of the decree of the Hathors, at once sent a message to his father, -saying, "Come, why and wherefore am I kept a prisoner? Though I am fated -to three evil fates, let me follow my desires. Let God fulfil His will." - -And after this he was free and did as other men. He was given weapons -and his dog was allowed to follow him, and they took him to the east -country and said to him, "Behold, thou art free to go wheresoever thou -wilt." - -He set his face to the north, his dog following, and his whim dictated -his path. Then he lived on all the choicest of the game of the desert. -And then he came to the chief of Nahairana. And this chief had but one -child, a daughter. For her had been built a house with seventy windows -seventy cubits from the ground. And here the chief had commanded all the -sons of the chiefs of the country of Khalu to be brought, and he said to -them, "He who climbs and reaches my daughter's windows shall win her for -wife." - -And some time after this the prince arrived, and the people of the -chief of Nahairana took the youth to the house and treated him with the -greatest honour and kindness. And as he partook of their food they asked -him whence he had come. He answered them, saying, "I come from Egypt; I -am the son of an officer of that land. My mother died and my father has -taken another wife, who, when she bore my father other children, grew -to hate me. Therefore have I fled as a fugitive from her presence." And -they were sorry for him and embraced him. - -Then one day he asked the climbing youths what it was they did there. -And when they told him that they climbed the height that they might win -the chief's daughter for wife, he decided to make the attempt with them, -for afar off he beheld the face of the chief's daughter looking forth -from her window and turned toward them. - -And he climbed the dizzy height and reached her window. So glad was she -that she kissed and embraced him. - -And thinking to make glad the heart of her father, a messenger went to -him, saying, "One of the youths hath reached thy daughter's window." The -chief inquired which of the chief's sons had accomplished this, and he -was told that it was the fugitive from Egypt. - -At this the chief of Nahairana was wroth and vowed that his daughter was -not for an Egyptian fugitive. "Let him go back whence he came!" he cried. - -An attendant hurried to warn the youth, but the maiden held him fast and -would not let him go. She swore by the gods, saying, "By the being of Ra -Harakhti, if he is taken from me, I will neither eat nor drink and in -that hour I shall die!" - -And her father was told of her vow, and hearing it he sent some to slay -the youth while he should be in his house. But the daughter of the chief -divined this and said again, "By the great god Ra, if he be slain, then -I shall die ere the set of sun. If I am parted from him, then I live no -longer!" - -Again her words were carried to the chief. He caused his daughter and -the youth to be brought before him, and at first the young man was -afraid, but the chief of Nahairana embraced him affectionately, saying, -"Tell me who thou art, for now thou art as a son to me." He answered -him, "I come from Egypt; I am the son of an officer of that land. My -mother died and my father has taken another wife, who, when she bore my -father children, grew to hate me. Therefore have I fled as a fugitive -from her presence!" - -Then the chief gave him his daughter to wife; he gave him a house and -slaves, he gave him lands and cattle and all manner of good gifts. - -The time passed. One day the youth told his wife of his fate, saying to -her, "I am doomed to three evil fates--to die by a crocodile, a serpent, -or a dog." And her heart was filled with a great dread. She said to him, -"Then let one kill the dog which follows thee." But he told her that -could not be, for he had brought it up from the time it was small. - -At last the youth desired to travel to the land of Egypt, and his wife, -fearing for him, would not let him go alone, so one went with him. They -came to a town, and the crocodile of the river was there. Now in that -town was a great and mighty man, and he bound the crocodile and would -not suffer it to escape. When it was bound the mighty man was at peace -and walked abroad. When the sun rose the man went back to his house, and -this he did every day for two months. - -After this as the days passed the youth sat at ease in his house. When -the night came he lay on his couch and sleep fell upon him. Then his -wife filled a bowl of milk and placed it by his side. Out from a hole -came a serpent, and it tried to bite the sleeping man, but his wife sat -beside him watching and unsleeping. And the servants, beholding the -serpent, gave it milk so that it drank and was drunk and lay helpless on -its back. Seeing this, with her dagger the wife dispatched it. Upon this -her husband woke and, understanding all, was astonished. "See," she said -to him, "thy god hath given one of thy dooms into thy hand. Surely he -shall also give thee the others!" - -And then the youth made sacrifices to his god and praised him always. - -One day after this the youth walked abroad in his fields, his dog -following him. And his dog chased after the wild game, and he followed -after the dog, who plunged into the river. He also went into the river, -and then out came the crocodile, who took him to the place where the -mighty man lived. And as he carried him the crocodile said to the youth, -"Behold, I am thy doom, following after thee...." - -At this point the papyrus is so extensively mutilated that in all -probability we shall never know what happened to the prince. Was he at -last devoured by the crocodile? or perchance did his faithful dog lead -him into still graver danger? Let everyone concoct his own ending to the -tale! - - -The Visit of Ounamounou to the Coasts of Egypt - -On the sixteenth day of the thirteenth month, the harvest month, -Ounamounou, the chief priest of the temple of Amen-Ra, departed on a -voyage to procure wood for the fashioning of the sacred barque of the -god. - -"When I arrived at Tanis," he says, "I gave them the edicts of Amen-Ra, -which they read and decided to obey. I stayed at Tanis till the -fourteenth month of Shomou, when I embarked to voyage upon the Syrian -sea. When the ship arrived at Dora, city of Zakkala, the Prince of the -place, Badil, sent bread, meat, and wine unto me. - -"While in this place a man of the vessel deserted, carrying with him -much gold and silver. Thereupon I went to the Prince and made my -complaint to him, saying that the gold belonged to Amen-Ra. And the -Prince answered and said he knew naught of it, but if the robber were -of his country, he would reimburse me out of his own treasury; if, on -the other hand, the robber were of my own company, I must stay there for -some days and he would search for the thief. I stayed nine days in that -port. Then I went again to the Prince, saying, 'You have not yet found -the stolen gold. But now I must go. If you should find it in my absence, -then keep it against my return.' This was so arranged between us. - -"Then I embarked again and reached Tyre, to whose Prince I recounted my -loss, and complained that the Prince of Dora had not found my gold, but, -being a friend of Badil, he would not listen--indeed, threatened me. At -break of day we set out in the direction of Byblos, and on the way a -vessel of Zakkala overtook us with a coffer on board. On opening this -coffer I discovered money, and took possession of it. I said to them -that I would keep and use it until my stolen gold was restored to me. -When they saw I was firm they accepted the situation and left me, and we -at last reached Byblos. - -"I disembarked, carrying the naos containing the statue of Amen-Ra, -having put therein the treasure. But the Prince of Byblos bade me -begone. I said to him, 'Is this because the men of Zakkala have told -you that I took their money? That money is my own, for in their port -the gold of Amen-Ra was stolen. Besides, I come from Herihor to procure -wood for the sacred barque of the god Amen-Ra.' I stayed in this port -for nineteen days, and each day the Prince sent this message bidding me -begone. - -"Then one eve when the Prince of Byblos sacrificed to his gods, and one -danced before them, he mocked me and bade me bring my god to life. That -night I met a man whose vessel was bound for Egypt, and I charged him -with all concerning me. I said to him that I would embark and depart -unknown to any, and surely the gods I trust would watch over me. While -so debating the commander of the port came to me, saying, 'Stay; it is -the will of the Prince.' And I answered him, 'Are you not the one who -brought me the message each day bidding me begone, and never bade me -stay? Now why is it that you bid me rest?' - -"He turned and left me and went to the Prince, who this time sent a -message to the captain of the vessel bidding him wait till the morrow. -The next morning he sent for me to be brought to the palace in which he -lived beside the sea. I was taken to his chamber, and there he asked -me how long it was I had been on this journey. I answered five months, -but he doubted me, asking where were the edicts of Amen-Ra which ought -to be in my hands, and where was the letter of the high-priest? I told -him that I had given them to other princes. He was angered, and said -that I came with no proofs, and what was there to hinder him ordering -the captain of the vessel to kill me? Again I answered that I had come -from Egypt for wood for the sacred barque. And then he told how formerly -those from Egypt had come in state to visit his city. After a long -altercation with the Prince, and when I had told him that if he executed -the commands of Amen-Ra much good would be his, he still hesitated. Then -I asked for a messenger to take a letter from me to the other Princes, -Smendes and Tantamounou, and he would see how they would do my bidding -and succour me. - -"It seemed that the Prince had changed his mind, for after he had given -my letter to his messenger he ordered a ship to be loaded with wood, -seven pieces in all, and to be taken to Egypt. - -"His messenger went to Egypt and returned to me in the first month of -the winter. And soon the Princes Smendes and Tantamounou sent me ships -laden with many gifts. Seeing this, the Prince was rejoiced, and soon -he commanded much wood to be hewn for me. And when it was finished he -came saying that he had done as his fathers had done before him, and -giving orders that the wood should be loaded on a vessel. He also said -that I had not been treated as were the envoys of Khamois, who had lived -seventeen years in the country and died there. Turning to his courtier, -he bade him show me their tomb. But I had no desire to see it, and said -so. I also said, 'The envoys of Khamois were but men of his household; I -came as the messenger of the great god Amen-Ra.' - -"Then I bade him erect a stele and this inscription to be engraved -thereon: - -"'Amen-Ra, the great god of the gods, sent me a divine messenger, -together with Ounamounou as his human ambassador, for the wood wherewith -his sacred barque should be fashioned. I cut down trees for this and -loaded them, furnishing the vessels by which it was carried into Egypt. -I did this that I may obtain immortal life from the great god Amen.' - -"'And,' I continued, 'a messenger shall come from the land of Egypt who -shall read your name upon the stele, and you shall receive the water of -Amenti even as the gods.' - -"He said, 'This is a wonderful thing you tell me.' Then I told him that -when I returned I should acquaint the high-priest of Amen of how he, the -Prince, had done all as he was commanded, and that he should assuredly -receive the gifts. - -"When I went down to the shore where the wood was loaded I beheld eleven -vessels sent from Zakkala to seize and imprison and prevent me from -reaching Egypt. Then I was distressed and cried out, and a messenger -from the Prince approached me, saying, 'What troubles you?' - -"I explained to him what menaced me, and he went and told the Prince, -who was much distressed. To cheer me he sent gifts of food and wine, and -an Egyptian singer, Tantnouit, whose songs he thought might chase away -my sorrow. His message was, 'Eat, drink, and be not troubled. You shall -hear my plans in the morn.' - -"And when the day was come the Prince called his men, and they set out -and spoke to the men of Zakkala, asking them the object of their coming. -They answered that they had come to seize the vessels and their rascally -crews. He answered, 'I have not the power to take prisoner the messenger -of Amen-Ra in my country. I shall let him go, and after you can do with -him as you please.' - -"I embarked and left the port, and the wind drove me into the country of -Alasia. There the people of the town came to put me to death, dragging -me to the presence of Hatibi, the Princess of the city. I looked at the -men around, and asked was there not one who could understand Egyptian? -One came forward saying that he understood it. I said that I had heard -that if justice was to be found anywhere it was in Alasia, and yet here -were they ready to work an injustice. The Princess inquired what I had -said. - -"Again I spoke, and pleaded that as the storm had driven me into their -country they should not slay me, for in truth I was a messenger of -the great god Amen-Ra. Then I pointed out that if harm came to me I -would be avenged. In a little while the Princess called her people and -caused them to relinquish their evil designs, saying to me, 'Be not -troubled...." - -Here the papyrus ends. It is tantalizing not to know how Ounamounou -managed to return to Egypt, but we may be sure a person of such infinite -resource and determination, not to say doggedness, accomplished all he -desired. - - -The Story of Rhampsinites - -The oldest form of this legend has been handed down to us by Herodotus. -It occurs in the ancient folklore of both Eastern and Western peoples -and its origin has often been debated. If not really of Egyptian origin, -it had certainly become Egyptianized when Herodotus found it. It relates -how King Rhampsinites possessed so much treasure that none of his -successors ever surpassed or even came near to having a like amount. - -To ensure its safety he had a seemingly impregnable stone house built, -in which he placed all his great wealth. By a clever trick, however, -the architect contrived to provide access to the treasure. He made one -of the stones in two parts, so that one part could be removed; but -so skilfully were the two parts placed together that they presented -a perfectly even surface, as of one single stone. Before he died he -acquainted his two sons with the secret of the treasure-house, and after -his death they did not delay in putting their knowledge into practice. -They went by night, found the stone without any difficulty, withdrew it, -stole a large sum of money, and replaced it in position. - -When the king discovered that thieves were at work he had man-traps -placed near the site of the treasure-house. One night the two brothers -came as usual, and one of them was caught in a trap. Seeing his danger, -he called his brother and said to him, "We shall both perish and the -treasure be lost unless you cut off my head and take it away, so that no -one will recognize us as the thieves." The brother did as he advised: -he moved the stone back into position, cut off his brother's head and -carried it home. - -When the king found the headless body he was much disturbed, for there -were no traces of entrance to or exit from the treasure-house, and he -bethought himself of this expedient: he had the dead body exposed on the -city wall and placed a guard round it with instructions to watch and -report whoever manifested any sign of grief on seeing the body. This act -was contrary to the practice of the Egyptians, who had usually too much -respect for the dead to indulge in it. Even in the case of an executed -criminal the remains were returned to the relatives to be embalmed. -Nevertheless Rhampsinites considered himself justified in adopting -this measure. The body was exposed, and the mother, although she did -not betray any sign of grief, insisted on her other son bringing it to -her; otherwise she threatened to divulge his secret to the king. Seeing -that he dared not disobey, the son devised a stratagem. He saddled some -asses and loaded them with goatskins full of wine--skins were used in -Egypt for water only at most times, wine being held in short narrow -vases--he drove the asses past the guard and, when passing, stealthily -untied one or two of the skins, and as the wine ran down and flowed on -the ground began to beat his head and make a great outcry. The guards -ran for vessels to save the precious liquid, and over the catastrophe -they became quite friendly with the thief and gave him meat, for which -he offered in exchange one of his skins of wine. They all sat down -to drink together, and as they became merry over the wine he offered -them the remainder of his wine, which they took and drank until they -were quite tipsy. The thief, needless to say, had taken care to remain -tolerably sober. After the guards were in a drunken sleep, he waited -till nightfall and then cut down his brother's body and took it home on -the asses to his mother. Before quitting the guards he shaved off all -the hair on one side of their faces. - -When the king heard of the trick he was furious, and, determined by fair -means or foul to discover its author, he hit upon the following plan. He -ordered the princess, his daughter, to receive any man in the land, no -matter whom, and to grant him whatever favour he might ask of her, but -first she must make him tell her what was the cleverest and wickedest -thing he had ever done. When the thief told her his trick she was to -have him bound before he could escape. The princess was ready to do her -father's bidding, but the thief, knowing well what the king had in his -mind, resolved to circumvent him a third time. He cut off the arm of -a newly dead man and, hiding it under his robe, obtained admission to -the princess. On being asked the question that she put to all comers, -he told her first about cutting off his brother's head in the trap, and -then went on to tell how, having made the guards tipsy, he had cut down -his brother's body. She at once called out and tried to seize him, but -he placed in her hand that of the dead man, which she grasped firmly, -believing it to be the thief's, and he escaped in the darkness of the -room. - -The king now owned himself beaten, and offered a free pardon and rich -rewards to the man who had so boldly outwitted him. Trusting to his -word, the thief presented himself before the king, and received not only -what Rhampsinites had promised, but also the hand of the princess in -marriage, for he held the thief to be the cleverest of men in that he -had duped the Egyptians, who prided themselves on their astuteness. - - -Civil War in Egypt: The Theft of the Cuirass - -In the reign of the Pharaoh Petoubastis the Delta and great part of -Lower Egypt were divided into two rival factions, one part being headed -by the chieftain Kamenophis, Prince of Mendes, and the other ruled by -the king-priest of Heliopolis, Ierharerou, and his ally Pakrourou, -the great chieftain of the east. Only four nomes in the middle of the -Delta were subject to Kamenophis, whilst Ierharerou had succeeded in -establishing either his children or relations in most of the other -nomes. Ierharerou possessed a cuirass to which he attached great value -and which was generally regarded as a talisman. At his death Kamenophis, -taking advantage of the mourning and confusion in Heliopolis, seized -the cuirass and placed it in one of his own strongholds. Prince Pimoni -'the little'--"Pimoni of the strong fist," as he is sometimes called in -the narrative--the successor of Ierharerou, demanded its restoration. -Kamenophis refused, and hence arose a quarrel in which all the provinces -of Egypt were implicated. - -Pimoni and Pakrourou both presented themselves before King Petoubastis, -asking his permission to be revenged on Kamenophis; but Pharaoh, -who knew that this would entail civil war, endeavoured to dissuade -Pimoni from taking steps against Kamenophis and, indeed, forbade him -to proceed with his intentions, promising as compensation a splendid -funeral for Ierharerou. Unwillingly Pimoni submitted, but after the -funeral ceremonies were over resentment still burned within him, and -he and Pakrourou, "the great chieftain of the east," returned again to -Petoubastis at his court in Tanis. He received them rather impatiently, -asking them why they troubled him again and declaring that he would not -allow civil war during his reign. They, however, would not be satisfied -and said they could not go on with the celebration of the feast that was -to follow the religious rites of Ierharerou's funeral until the shield -or cuirass was restored to its rightful owner. - -Pharaoh then sent for Kamenophis, and requested him urgently to return -the shield, but in vain. Kamenophis declined to do so. - -Then said Pimoni, "By Tem, the lord of Heliopolis, the great god, my -god, were it not for Pharaoh's decree and that my respect for him -protects you, I should kill you this very instant." - -Kamenophis replied, "By the life of Mendes, the great god, the war which -will break out in the nome, the battle which will break out in the city -will stir up clan against clan, and man against man, before the cuirass -shall be wrested from the stronghold where I have placed it." - - -The Horrors of War - -Pakrourou then said before the king, "Is it right what Kamenophis has -done, and the words he has just spoken are they not said to provoke -us to anger that we may measure our strength against his? I will make -Kamenophis and the nome of Mendes feel the shame of these words uttered -to provoke civil war which Pharaoh has forbidden; I will glut them with -war. I said nothing because I knew the king did not want war; but if -the king remains neutral I shall be silent no longer, and the king shall -see all the horrors of civil war." - -Pharaoh said, "Be neither boastful nor timid, Pakrourou, great chieftain -of the east, but now go each one of you to your nomes and your towns in -peace, and give me but five days, and I swear by Amen-Ra that I shall -cause the cuirass to be put back in the place from which it was taken." - -Pimoni then said that if the cuirass were replaced nothing more should -be said about it, and there should be no war; but if it were withheld, -he would fight for it, against the whole of Egypt if necessary. - -Kamenophis at this respectfully asked and obtained permission from -Pharaoh to order all his men to arm themselves, and to go with him to -the Lake of the Gazelle and prepare to fight. - -Then Pimoni, encouraged by Pakrourou, sent messages of a similar import -to all his nomes and cities. Pakrourou further advised him to hasten to -the Lake of the Gazelle and be there before Kamenophis had assembled all -his men, and Pimoni, with only one band of men, took his advice and was -first in the field, intending to wait there till his brothers, at the -head of their respective clans, should join him. - -News of this was taken to Kamenophis, and he hastily assembled his four -nomes, Tanis, Mendes, Tahait, and Sebennytos. Arrived at the lake, he at -once challenged Pimoni, and Pimoni, though his other forces had not yet -arrived, accepted the challenge. - -Pimoni put on a shirt of byssus embroidered with silver and gold, and -over that a second shirt of gold tissue; he also donned his copper -corselet and carried two golden swords; he put on his helmet and sallied -forth to meet Kamenophis. - -While they were fighting, Zinonfi, Pimoni's young servant, ran off to -watch for the forces that were to come to Pimoni's aid, and he soon -descried a flotilla so large that the river could hardly carry all the -barges. They were the people of Heliopolis coming to help their chief. -As soon as they came within earshot Zinonfi called out to them to hurry, -because Pimoni was being hard pressed by Kamenophis, which, indeed, was -true, for his horse was slain under him. - -Kamenophis redoubled his efforts when he saw the fresh forces arriving, -and Petekhousou, Pimoni's brother, challenged Anoukhoron, the king's -son, to single combat. When Pharaoh heard this he was very angry. He -went in person to the field of battle and forbade the combatants to -proceed, and also commanded a truce until all the forces should be -assembled. - -Petoubastis and all the chieftains occupied prominent positions so that -they could watch what was going on, and the men were as numerous as the -sands of the seashore and their rage against each other uncontrollable. -The bands of the four nomes were ranged behind Kamenophis, and the bands -of the nome of Heliopolis behind Pimoni the Little. - -Then Petoubastis gave Pakrourou a signal and he armed himself and went -down among the forces, stirring them all to deeds of valour; he pitted -man against man, and great was the ardour he aroused in them. - - -Succour for Pakrourou - -After Pakrourou had left the _melee_, he met a mighty man in armour -leading forty galleys and eight thousand soldiers. This was Moutoubaal, -a prince of Syria, who had been warned in a dream to repair to the -Lake of the Gazelle to help to regain the stolen cuirass. Pakrourou -gave him a place, though all the forces were now disposed; but he -ordered him not to join in the fight until the opposite side--the men -of Kamenophis--should attack their vessels. Moutoubaal, therefore, -remained in his barque, and Pakrourou went back to his point of vantage -to watch the progress of the battle. The two factions fought from four -in the morning to nine in the evening. Finally Anoukhoron, the king's -son, broke under the stress of the bands of Sebennytos and they rushed -toward the boats. Then Moutoubaal took his opportunity and went against -the bands of Sebennytos and overthrew them. He went on spreading -destruction among the forces of Kamenophis till Pharaoh called a halt; -then proceeded with Pakrourou to Moutoubaal and besought him to stay his -hand, promising that he would see to it that the shield was restored. -Moutoubaal accordingly quitted the lists after having wrought great -havoc among the men of Kamenophis. Then Pharaoh and Pakrourou went with -Moutoubaal to the place where Pimoni was found engaged in mortal combat -with Kamenophis. Pimoni had got the upper hand and was about to slay his -adversary, but they stopped him, and Pharaoh ordered Kamenophis to quit -the lists. - -After this Anoukhoron, the royal prince, was overthrown by Petekhousou, -the brother of Pimoni, but Pharaoh interposed and persuaded Petekhousou -to spare his son, so the young man was allowed to withdraw unhurt. - -The king said, "By Amen-Ra, the sceptre has fallen from the hands of -Kamenophis, prince of Mendes. Petekhousou has vanquished my son, and the -bands of the four strongest nomes in Egypt have been overthrown." - - -The Shield Regained - -Then Minnemai, Prince of the Eupuantine, the son of Ierharerou, the -priest-king, to whom the shield had belonged, advanced from Thebes with -all his forces. They assigned him a place next the ship of Takhos, the -chief soldier of the nome of Mendes, and it happened that in the galley -of Takhos lay the cuirass itself. And Minnemai called upon his gods to -let him behold his father's cuirass that he might be the instrument of -its recapture. He armed himself, went to the galley of Takhos, and met -there nine thousand soldiers guarding the cuirass of Ierharerou, son -of Osiris. Minnemai placed thirty-four guards on the footbridge of the -galley to prevent anyone from getting off, and he fell upon the soldiers -guarding the cuirass. Takhos fought well and killed fifty-four men, but -finally gave in and retired to his vessel, where Minnemai followed him -with his Ethiopian warriors. The children of Ierharerou supported him -and they seized the cuirass of Ierharerou. - -Thus was the armour recaptured and brought back to its former place. -There was great joy among the children of Ierharerou and the troops of -Heliopolis. They went before Pharaoh and said to him, "Great master, -have the history of the war of the cuirass written, and the names of -the warriors who waged it, that posterity may know what a war was made -in Egypt on account of the cuirass, in the nomes and in the cities; -then cause the history to be engraved on a stone stele in the temple of -Heliopolis." And King Petoubastis did as they asked. - - -The Birth of Hatshepsut - -The following story of the birth of Hatshepsut, the great queen, the -beloved of the gods, mistress of all lands under the sun, is not a -direct translation from the old papyrus which recounts it, but is told -in the writer's own words: - -In the land of the gods Amen-Ra held court. King of the gods was -Amen-Ra, and the maker of men. On his right was Osiris, with the twin -goddesses Isis and Nephthys, Hathor the goddess of love, and Horus and -Anubis. On his left was Mentu, the god of war, with Geb, the earth-god, -and Nut, the sky-goddess, the gods Atmu and Shu, and the goddess Tefnut. -And to the assembled gods Amen-Ra spake thus: - -"I will make a great queen, who shall rule over Egypt and Syria, Nubia -and Punt, so that all lands may be united under her sway. Worthy must -the maiden be of her great dominions, for she shall rule the whole -world." - -As he spoke the god Thoth entered, he who has the form of an ibis, that -he may fly more swiftly than the swiftest arrow. In silence he listened -to the words of Amen-Ra, the mightiest of the gods, the maker of men. -Then he said: - -"Behold, O Amen-Ra, there is in the land of Egypt a maiden of wondrous -beauty. The sun in his circuit shines not on anything more fair. Surely -it is fitting that she be the mother of the great queen of whom thou -speakest." - -"Thou sayest well," said Amen-Ra. "Where shall we seek this fair -princess? What is her name?" - -"Her name is Aahmes," answered Thoth; "she is wife to the King of Egypt, -and dwelleth in his palace. I will lead thee to her." - -"It is well," said Amen-Ra. - -Then Thoth, in the shape of an ibis, flew toward the land of Egypt, and -with him went Amen-Ra, in the form of the King of Egypt, and all the -gods and goddesses, among them Neith, goddess of Sais, and the scorpion -goddess, Selk, on whose head was a scorpion bearing in each claw the -sign of life. - -Silently the gods and goddesses entered the sleeping palace, and were -conducted by Thoth to the chamber of Queen Aahmes. The queen lay asleep -on a couch shaped like a lion, and as they gazed upon her they saw -that Thoth had spoken truly, that she was indeed the fairest of mortal -women, and they stood speechless with admiration for her beauty. But the -fragrance which they had borne with them from the land of Punt awoke -the maiden, who looked with astonishment on her supernatural visitors. -Very magnificent was Amen-Ra, the king of the gods, the maker of men, as -he stood before the queen. Jewels of gold and precious stones adorned -his person, and his beauty was as the beauty of the sun, so that the -maiden's heart was filled with delight. Amen-Ra placed in her hand the -sign of life and the emblem of power, and the goddesses Neith and Selk -raised her couch above the ground, so that she might be above the earth -while she conversed with the gods. - -At length the gods returned to the land of Punt, and Amen-Ra called for -Khnum, the creator, the fashioner of the bodies of men. - -"Fashion for me," said Amen-Ra, "the body of my daughter, and the body -of her _ka_. A great queen shall I make of her, and honour and power -shall be hers all the days of her life." - -"O Amen-Ra," answered Khnum, the creator, "it shall be done as thou hast -said. The beauty of thy daughter shall surpass that of the gods, and -shall be worthy of her dignity and glory." - -So Khnum fashioned the body of Amen-Ra's daughter and the body of -her _ka_, the two forms exactly alike, and more beautiful than the -daughters of men. He fashioned them of clay with the aid of his potter's -wheel, and Hekt, goddess of birth, knelt by his side, holding the sign -of life toward the clay that the bodies of Hatshepsut and her _ka_ might -be filled with the breath of life. - -Then did the gods bring the bodies to the palace of the King of Egypt. -Khnum, the creator, and Hekt, the goddess of birth, Isis, the great -mother, and her twin sister Nephthys, Bes, the protector of children, -and Meskhent and Ta-urt, all were present to hail the birth of -Hatshepsut, the great queen, the daughter of Amen-Ra and Queen Aahmes. - -Great were the rejoicings when the child was born, and loud the praises -chanted in her honour. And in time she became ruler of all countries, -rich and powerful and beloved of Amen-Ra, the great queen for whom she -had been designed by the king of the gods. - -In the valley of the Nile there was erected a temple to Queen -Hatshepsut. The temple stands to this day, and is now known as -Deir-el-Bahari, the Northern Convent. - - -How Thoutii took the Town of Joppa - -The fragments of this story are inscribed on the Harris Papyrus. Like -the story of the Predestined Prince, they were discovered in 1874 by -Goodwin, who recognized in them the remnants of an historical narrative, -and who informed the Archaeological Society of his find. The beginning -is lost. At the point where the narrative commences there are three -characters: an Egyptian officer called Thoutii, the prince of a town in -Syria, and his equerry. The tale deals with the recapture of Joppa (a -town of Palestine mentioned in the Bible) by Thoutii's stratagem. The -stratagem employed bears some resemblance to that related in the story -of the robber-captain in the _Arabian Nights_. - -In the reign of Thothmes III, King of Egypt (Eighteenth Dynasty), the -Prince of Joppa rose in rebellion and murdered all the Egyptian soldiers -that were quartered in the town. This news naturally excited Pharaoh's -wrath, and he called together his nobles and generals and scribes to see -what could be done. None of them, however, had any suggestion to make -except Thoutii, a brilliant young infantry officer. - -"Give me," he begged, "your magic cane, O my king, and a body of -infantry and of charioteers, and I undertake to kill the Prince of Joppa -and to take the town." - -Pharaoh, who esteemed this officer highly and knew his worth, granted -all that he asked--not exactly a modest request, for the cane was a -talisman supposed to render invisible anyone into whose possession it -fell. - -Thoutii then marched to Palestine with his men. Having arrived there, he -had a large skin bag made, big enough to hold a man, and he had irons -made for feet and hands, one pair being especially large and strong; -also shackles and yokes of wood, and four hundred jars. Then he sent to -the Prince of Joppa the following message: "I am Thoutii, the Egyptian -infantry general. King Thothmes was jealous of my bravery and sought to -kill me; but I have escaped from him, and I have stolen his magic cane, -which is hidden in my baggage; and, if you like, I will give it to you, -and I will join forces with you, I and my men, the pick of the Egyptian -army." - -This message was very pleasant news to the Prince of Joppa, for he knew -Thoutii's reputation, and knew that he had no equal in all Egypt. He -sent to Thoutii, accepting his offer, and promising him a share of his -territory. He then left Joppa, taking with him his equerry and the women -and children, to greet the man whom he took to be a new and powerful -ally. He welcomed him warmly, and invited him into his camp to dine -with him. In course of conversation, as they were eating and drinking -together, he asked Thoutii about the magic cane. Thoutii replied that -it was concealed in the baggage with which his horses were laden, and -requested that his men and horses should be brought into the camp to be -refreshed and rested. - -This was done: his horses were fed and tied up, the baggage was -searched, and the magic cane found. - - -The Stratagem - -Hearing this, the Prince of Joppa expressed his eager wish to behold -the magic cane. Thoutii went and fetched it; then suddenly seizing the -Prince by his clothes, he said, "Behold here King Thothmes' magic cane," -and with that he raised his hand and struck the Prince on the forehead -so that the latter fell down unconscious before him. Then he put him -into the big leather sack he had with him and clapped the handcuffs on -his wrists and the irons on his feet. The face of the dead man being -invisible, Thoutii's stratagem was to pass off the corpse as his own. -He had the two hundred soldiers put into an equal number of the four -hundred jars he had brought with him and filled the remainder with the -ropes and wooden shackles; then he sealed them, corded them, and gave -them to as many strong soldiers, saying, "Go quickly and tell the Prince -of Joppa's equerry that I am slain. Let him go and tell his mistress, -the Princess of Joppa, that Thoutii is conquered, that she may open the -city gates to receive the dead body of the vanquished and the jars of -booty that have been taken from him." The equerry received this message -and ran to tell the joyful news to his mistress. The gates of the town -were opened, and Thoutii's men carried the jars containing the other -soldiers into the town. Then they released their companions, and the -Egyptian force fell upon the inhabitants of the city and took them and -bound them. - -After he had rested Thoutii sent a message to Pharaoh saying, "I have -killed the Prince of Joppa and all the people of Joppa are prisoners. -Let them be sent for and brought to Egypt, that your house may be filled -with male and female slaves who will be yours for ever. Let Amen-Ra, thy -father, the god of gods, be glorified." - - - -[1] Vansleb at the end of the seventeenth century perhaps heard it -spoken. - -[2] The Rosetta Stone is written in three scripts, hieroglyphic, -Demotic, and Greek. - -[3] Properly speaking, it should be written from right to left -horizontally. Only for decorative purposes is it inscribed from right to -left or in columns. - -[4] Or Usertsen. - -[5] This expression argues a greater decency in matters convivial in the -Egypt of 526 B.C. than obtained in Georgian England. - -[6] Called Her-tata-f in another part of this manuscript. - -[7] The Demotic gives the name (or title) as Setne or Setme, and the -name of the miraculous child as Si-Osiris (_i.e._ son of Osiris). - -[8] The whole of this is very obscure in the original. - - - - -CHAPTER VII: MAGIC - - -To the peoples of antiquity Egypt appeared as the very mother of -magic. In the mysterious Nile country they found a magical system much -more highly developed than any within their native knowledge, and -the cult of the dead, with which Egyptian religion was so strongly -identified, appeared to the foreigner to savour of magical practice. If -the materials of the magical papyri be omitted, the accounts which we -possess of Egyptian magic are almost wholly foreign, so that it is wiser -to derive our data concerning it from the original native sources if we -desire to arrive at a proper understanding of Egyptian sorcery. - -Most of what has been written by Egyptologists on the subject of -Egyptian magic has been penned on the assumption that magic is either -merely a degraded form of religion, or its foundation. This is one of -the results of the archaeologist entering a domain (that of anthropology) -where he is usually rather at a loss. For example, we find Sir Gaston -Maspero stating that "ancient magic was the very foundation of religion. -The faithful who desired to obtain some favour from a god had no chance -of succeeding except by laying hands on the deity, and this arrest could -only be effected by means of a certain number of rites, sacrifices, -prayers, and chants, which the god himself had revealed and which -obliged him to do what was demanded of him."[1] Then we find Dr. Budge -stating that in the religious texts and works we see how magic is made -to be the handmaiden of religion, and that whereas non-Egyptian races -directed their art against the powers of darkness, and invoked a class -of benevolent beings to their aid, the Egyptians aimed at complete -control over their native deities. - -Let us glance for a moment at the question of the origin of magic. -Considerable diversity of opinion exists regarding this subject among -present-day anthropologists, and the works of Frazer, Marett, Hubert, -and Mauss, etc., although differing widely as regards its foundations, -have thrown much light upon a hitherto obscure problem. All writers on -the subject, however, appear to have ignored one notable circumstance -in connexion with it--that is, the element of wonder, which is the true -fount and source of veritable magic. According to the warring schools of -anthropology, nearly all magic is sympathetic or mimetic in its nature. -For example, when the barbarian medicine-man desires rain he climbs a -tree and sprinkles water upon the parched earth beneath, in the hope -that the deity responsible for the weather will do likewise; when the -ignorant sailor desires wind, he imitates the whistling of the gale. -This system is universal, but if our conclusions are well founded, the -magical element does not reside in such practices as these. It must be -obvious, as Frazer has pointed out, that when the savage performs an -act of sympathetic magic he does not regard it as magical--that is, to -his way of thinking it does not contain any element of wonder at all; -he regards his action as a cause which is certain to bring about the -desired effect, exactly as the scientific man of to-day believes that -if he follows certain formulae certain results will be achieved. Now the -true magic of wonder argues from effect to cause; so it would appear as -if sympathetic magic were merely a description of proto-science, due -to mental processes entirely similar to those by which scientific laws -are produced and scientific acts are performed--that there is a spirit -of certainty about it which is not found, for example, in the magic of -evocation. - -It would, however, be rash to attempt to differentiate sympathetic magic -entirely from what I would call the 'magic of wonder' at this juncture; -indeed, our knowledge of the basic laws of magic is too slight as yet -to permit of such a process. We find considerable overlapping between -the systems. For example, one of the ways by which evilly disposed -persons could transform themselves into werewolves was by means of -buckling on a belt of wolfskin. Thus we see that in this instance the -true wonder-magic of animal transformation is in some measure connected -with the sympathetic process, the idea being that the donning of -wolfskin, or even the binding around one of a strip of the animal's -hide, was sufficient to bestow the nature of the beast upon the wearer. -In passing, I may say, for the sake of completeness, that I believe the -magic of wonder to be almost entirely spiritistic in its nature, and -that it consists of evocation and similar processes. Here, of course, -it may be quoted against me that certain incenses, planetary signs, and -other media known to possess affinities for certain supernatural beings -were brought into use at the time of their evocation. Once more I admit -that the two systems overlap; but that will not convince me that they -are in essence the same.[2] - - -Antiquity of Egyptian Magic - -Like all magic, Egyptian magic was of prehistoric origin. As the savage -of to-day employs the sympathetic process, so did the savage of the -Egyptian Stone Age make use of it. That he also was fully aware of -the spiritistic side of magic is certain. Animism is the mother of -spiritism. The concept of the soul was arrived at a comparatively early -period in the history of man. The phenomenon of sleep puzzled him. -Whither did the real man betake himself during the hours of slumber? -The Palaeolithic man watched his sleeping brother, who appeared to him -as practically dead--dead, at least, to perception and the realities of -life. Something seemed to have escaped the sleeper; the real, vital, -and vivifying element had temporarily departed from him. From his own -experience the puzzled savage knew that life did not cease with sleep, -for in a more shadowy and unsubstantial sphere he re-enacted the scenes -of his everyday existence. If the man during sleep had experiences in -dreamland or in distant parts, it was only reasonable to suppose that -his _ego_, his very self, had temporarily quitted the body. Grant so -much, and you have two separate entities, body and soul, similar in -appearance because the latter on the dream plane exercised functions -identical with those of the former on the corporeal plane. - - -The Wandering Spirit - -But prehistoric logic did not stop here. So much premised, it extended -its soul-theory to all animate beings, and even to things inanimate. -Where, for example, did the souls of men go after death? Their bodies -decayed, so it was only reasonable to suppose that they cast about them -for other corporeal media. Failing their ability to enter the body of a -new-born infant, they would take up their quarters in a tree, a rock, or -any suitable natural object, and the terrified savage could hear their -voices crying down the wind and whispering through the leaves of the -forest, possibly clamouring or entreating for that food and shelter -which they could not obtain in their disembodied condition. All nature, -then, we see became animate to early man, and not less so to the early -Egyptian than to others. But his hunting life had made prehistoric man -exceptionally cunning and resourceful, and it would soon occur to him -(in what manner we do not presume to say, as the point greatly requires -elucidation) that he might possibly make use of such wandering and -masterless spirits as he knew were close to his call. In this desire, it -appears to me (if the statement be not a platitude), we have one of the -origins of the magic of wonder, and certainly the origin of spiritism. -Trading upon the wish of the disembodied spirit to materialize, -prehistoric man would construct a fetish[1] either in the human shape or -in that of an animal, or in any weird presentment that squared with his -ideas of spiritual existence. He usually made it of no great dimensions, -as he did not believe that the _alter ego_, or soul, was of any great -size. By threats or coaxings he prevailed upon the wandering spirit -(whom he conceived as, like all the dead, cold, hungry, and homeless) to -enter the little image, which duly became its corporeal abode, where its -lips were piously smeared with the blood of animals slain in the chase, -and where it was carefully attended. In return it was expected, by dint -of its supernatural knowledge, that the soul contained in the fetish -should assist its master or coadjutor in every possible way. - - -Coercing the Gods - -Egyptian magic differed from most other systems in the circumstance -that the native magician attempted to coerce certain of the gods into -action on his behalf. Instances of this elsewhere are extremely rare, -and it would seem as if the deities of Egypt had evolved in many cases -from mere animistic conceptions. This is true in effect of all deities, -but at a certain point in their history most gods arrive at such a -condition of eminence that they soar far above any possibility of being -employed by the magician as mere tools for any personal purpose. We -often, however, find the broken-down, or deserted, deity coerced by the -magician. Of this class Beelzebub might be taken as a good example. A -great reputation is a hard thing to lose, and it is possible that the -sorcerer may descry in the abandoned, and therefore idle, god a very -suitable medium for his purpose. But we find the divinities of Egypt -frightened into using their power on behalf of some paltry sorcerer even -in the very zenith of their fame. One thing is of course essential to -a complete system of sorcery, and that is the existence of a number of -spirits, the detritus of a vanished or submerged religion. As we know, -there were numerous strata in Egyptian religion--more than one faith had -obtained on the banks of the Nile, and it may be that the worshippers -of the deities of one system regarded the deities of another as magical -on the first introduction of a new system; in fact, these may have been -interchangeable, and it is possible that by the time the various gods -became common to all the practice had become so universal as to be -impossible of abandonment. - -If our conclusions are correct, it would seem that Maspero's statement -that magic is the foundation of religion is scarcely consonant with -fact. We have seen that at least the greater part of barbarian magic -so-called (that is, sympathetic magic) is probably not of the nature -of magic at all, so that the scope of his contention is considerably -lessened. Budge's dictum that the magic of every other nation of the -Ancient East but the Egyptian was directed entirely against the powers -of darkness, and was invented to frustrate their fell designs by -invoking a class of benevolent beings, is so far an error in that the -peoples of the Ancient Orient invoked evil beings equally with good. At -the same time it must be admitted that Egyptian magic had much more in -common with religion than most other magical systems, and this arose -from the extraordinary circumstances of the evolution of religion on -Egyptian soil. - - -Names of Power - -One of the most striking circumstances in connexion with Egyptian magic -was the use of what has come to be known as 'names of power.' The -savage fancies that there is a very substantial bond between a man and -his name--that, in fact, magic may be wrought on a man just as easily -through his name as through the possession of his hair or his nails. -Indeed, primitive man regards his name as a vital portion of himself. -Sir John Rhys has shown that among the ancient Celts there was a -universal belief not only that the name was a part of the man, but that -it was that part of him which is termed the 'soul,' and many barbarian -races at the present day regard their names as vital parts of themselves -and take extraordinary precautions to conceal their _real_ names lest -these should give to the witch, or shaman, a handle by which to injure -their owners. Howitt has shown in a monograph on Australian medicine-men -that the Australian aborigine believes that if an enemy has his name -he has something which he can use magically to his detriment. The -Australian black is always reluctant to reveal his real name to anyone. -Thus in many Australian tribes a man gives up his name for ever at the -time when he undergoes initiation into the ceremonies which confer -upon him the rites of manhood. This results in the use of such titles -among the members of the tribe as 'brother,' 'nephew,' or 'cousin,' as -the case may be. New names are thus probably given at initiation, and -carefully concealed for fear of sorcery. We find the same superstition -in Abyssinia, Chile, Senegambia, North America, and a score of other -countries. To return to Egypt, we find that many Egyptians received two -names--the 'great' name and the 'little' name, or the 'true' name and -the 'good' name; the latter was that made public, but the 'true' or -'great' name was most carefully concealed.[4] We find the use of these -'names of power' extremely common all over the East. Even to-day, in -reading the sacred name, _Jahveh_, the Jews render it 'Adonai'; but -nowhere was its use in such vogue as in Egypt. A good illustration of -the power possible to the wielder of a name is found in the legend of -the manner in which Isis succeeded in procuring his secret name from -Ra. Isis, weary of the world of mortals, determined to enter that of -the gods, and to this end made up her mind to worm his secret name from -the almighty Ra. This name was known to no mortal, and not even to any -god but himself. By this time Ra had grown old, and, like many another -venerable person, he often permitted the saliva to flow from the corners -of his mouth. Some of this fell to the earth, and Isis, mixing it with -the soil, kneaded it into the shape of a serpent, and cunningly laid -it in the path traversed by the great god every day. Bursting upon -the world in his effulgence, and attended by the entire pantheon, he -was astounded when the serpent, rising from its coil, stung him. He -cried aloud with pain, and, in answer to the agitated questions of his -inferior divinities, was silent. The poison swiftly overcame him, and a -great ague seized him. He called all the gods to come that their healing -words might make him well, and with them came Isis, who cunningly -inquired what ailed him. He related the incident of the serpent to her, -and added that he was suffering the greatest agony. "Then," said Isis, -"tell me thy name, Divine Father, for the man shall live who is called -by his name." Ra attempted a compromise by stating that he was 'Khepera' -in the morning, 'Ra' at noon, and 'Atem' in the evening; but the poison -worked more fearfully within him than before, and he could no longer -walk. Isis conjured him to tell her his name in order that he might -live; so, hiding himself from all the other gods, he acquainted her -with his hidden title. When this was revealed Isis immediately banished -the poison from his veins, and he became whole again. The scribe takes -infinite care not to communicate the sacred name to his readers, and the -probabilities are that, although he knew the legend, he did not know the -name himself, which was possibly 'unknown' to the wizards of Egypt. The -speech of Ra, "I consent that Isis shall search into me and that my name -shall pass from my breast into hers," would seem to show that not only -was the power of the god inextricably bound up with his _real_ name, but -that it was supposed to be lodged in an almost physical sense, somewhere -in his breast, whence it could be extricated and transferred with all -its supernatural powers to the breast of another. What Isis was able to -do was aspired to by every Egyptian magician, who left no stone unturned -to accomplish this end. We find magicians threatening Osiris that if he -does not do the bidding of the sorcerer, he will be named aloud in -the port of Busiris. The practice is by no means extinct in Egypt, for -we find in Lane's _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ that -the man who knows the most great name of God can, by the mere utterance -of it, kill the living, raise the dead, and perform most marvellous -miracles; and if this was true of the Egypt of sixty years ago, we may -be sure that it is true of the Egypt of to-day. - -Occasionally the gods themselves vouchsafed to mankind the secret of -their names, and divulged the formulas by which they might be evoked. -We find a parallel in the mythology of certain North American Indian -tribes, where the secrets of initiatory ceremonies and 'medicine' in -general are divulged by deities to men. - - -'Right Speaking' - -There is no exact evidence that magical force was supposed in Egypt -to be drawn from a great central reservoir like the _orenda_ of the -North American Indians, the _kramat_ of the Malays, or the _mana_ of -the Melanesians. But it is possible that an examination of the texts -which had for its end the discovery of the belief in such a force would -prove successful. Magic had its recognized representatives; these -were the 'kheri-heb' priests, and in the period of the Old Kingdom -the higher offices in this caste were filled by sons of the Pharaohs. -Great importance was laid upon the manner in which the spell or magical -formula was spoken. When a magician once found that a certain formula -was effective at a certain time, he was careful to repeat it, when -next he desired to say it, in an exactly similar tone and in similar -circumstances. This was called 'right speaking,'[5] and was practised -by practically everyone in Egypt, as in the next world a correct -knowledge of magic words and formulae was absolutely essential. The -guardians of the various gateways who are pictured in the _Book of the -Dead_ do not open to those who know not their names and who do not utter -them correctly. Unless certain prescribed prayers were uttered with the -true intonations food was not forthcoming. The number of these formulae -was great. Each doorway in the otherworld had a title, and would not -open to the new-comer unless invoked by him correctly. - - -A Magical Conspiracy - -In these circumstances, then, we see how universal must have been the -belief in magic, and, trading upon this, many magical books were written -and doubtless sold. One of the most interesting of those that have come -down to us is the Harris Papyrus, which contains many spells and charms. -Such manuscripts seem to have been housed in the royal libraries, and -we read of how a certain official at the court of Rameses III (about -1200 B.C.), holding the office of overseer of the Treasury, conspired -with certain of his fellows to dethrone the king. The conspiracy was -discovered, and in the official account of it we read that Hui, overseer -of the royal cattle, procured a magical book from the king's library by -means of which he attempted to injure the king. Betaking himself to a -secret place, he moulded figures of men in wax, and these he succeeded -in smuggling into the royal palace through another official. The figures -were evidently intended to work harm to the king. He was charged with -carrying out "all the wickednesses which his heart could imagine," to -the horror of the gods; and with making gods of wax and figures of -men, which should cause the persons whom they represented to become -paralysed and helpless. The conspiracy was carefully investigated by -two separate courts of inquiry, and the king ordained that those who -were guilty should die by their own hands. He further desired that he -should be told nothing whatever about the matter. Hui, amongst others, -was doomed to the fate of a suicide. Such wax figures as were employed -by him were greatly in use among sorcerers throughout the Middle Ages, -and are not yet quite dispensed with. Only a few years ago a clay -figure stuck full of pins and placed in a running stream was found in -the Highlands of Scotland. It was, of course, modelled to represent the -person it was desired to bewitch, and placed in the water in order that -it should slowly wear away, the hope of the amateur sorcerer doubtless -being that his enemy might, through the powers of sympathetic magic, -peak and pine into a mortal illness. The method with the figures of wax -was, of course, to place them close by a fire so that they might slowly -melt. - - -Amulets - -In no country was the amulet more in use than in ancient Egypt. It was -worn both by the dead and the living, and, indeed, every member of the -body was under the specific protection of some such talisman. A number -of the amulets found upon mummies are inscribed with words of power, -or magic formulae, which would prove of use to them in the otherworld. -Some of the more important amulets were those of the Heart, the Scarab, -which protected the heart; the Pillow, which was placed under the neck -of the mummy with the object of protecting its head; the Collar of Gold, -which was intended to give the deceased power to free himself from his -swathings; the amulet of the Eye of Horus, the use of which was almost -universal, and which brought strength, vigour, protection, and safety. - - -Spells - -The use of spells was universal. In the most primitive times the -magician seems to have imagined that all that was necessary for him to -do was to inform the evil demon that he intended to exorcize it. To -the dead who haunted a certain house and brought illness into it he -threatens destruction of their graves and deprivation of food-offerings. -To a disease which has attacked a patient he explains that it has -fastened upon a most unlikely subject, who would probably do it more -harm than good. Later, however, we find the magician requesting the aid -of the gods. He invokes Ra, begging that he will keep watch over the -evil spirits, and relates to that god their delinquencies. Occasionally -he himself takes the name of a divinity, and hurls his thunders at the -demon or the malady that threatens his client, saying, for example, -"Thou hast not the upper hand over me; I am Amen; I am the Great One, -the Lord of Might." The magician was often guided in his choice of -a guardian deity by episodes that occurred in the legends connected -with him. For example, a god who had once triumphed over serpents -would probably be the best protection against them. We find a certain -spell which was supposed to cure scorpion stings desiring Ra to remove -the poison as the goddess Bast the Cat was cured--an incident in the -history of the goddess. But we find that the deities who were nearest -humanity, and should typify in their legends the life of a man, were -most generally invoked. The crocodile, for example, will hurry off when -he is told how the body of Osiris lay in the water and was guarded by -the gods. Isis and Horus at one time hid in the swamps of the Delta, and -if this be recalled it will act as a safeguard against the sting of a -scorpion, an insect which haunts the swamp-lands. - - -The Gibberish of Magic - -All this is, of course, of the nature of sympathetic magic, and we can -observe from it how often the spoken word can partake of the character -of proto-science. But even in the case of the spoken word we have a -cleavage between the two systems, for we find that it may consist, as in -these last examples, of sympathetic allusion to an incident in the life -of a god, or else of mere gibberish, which certainly constitutes it a -part of the magic of wonder. A great many of these seemingly nonsensical -spells consist of foreign words and expressions, some of them of -Syrian origin. It is well known that the shamanistic class in savage -communities is prone to invent a secret language or dialect of its own, -and that the vocabulary of such a jargon is usually either archaic or -else borrowed from a neighbouring language. For example, we find in one -magical formula such a sentence as the following: "I am he that invokes -thee in the Syrian tongue, the Great God, Zaalaer, Iphphon. Do thou not -disregard the Hebrew appellation Ablanathanalb, Abrasiloa." - - -The Tale of Setne - -A tale which well instances the high standing of the magician in ancient -Egypt and the use of magical models or figures is that related in a -papyrus of the Ptolemaic period regarding the prince Setne, who had -studied to good purpose the manuscripts in the Double House of Life, or -Library of Magical Books. He was conversing on one occasion with one of -the king's wise men who appeared sceptical of his powers. In reply to -his strictures upon the efficacy of magic Setne offered to take him to -a place where he would find a book possessed of magical powers written -by Thoth himself, and containing two potent spells, the first of which -was capable of enchanting the entire universe, and so powerful that -all animals and birds and fishes could be commanded by it. The second -enabled a man in the tomb to see Ra rising in heaven with his cycle of -gods; the Moon rising with all the stars of heaven; the fishes in the -depths of the ocean. - -The wise man thereupon very naturally requested Setne to tell him the -repository of this marvellous volume, and learned that it was in the -tomb of Nefer-ka-Ptah at Memphis. Thence Setne proceeded, accompanied -by his brother, and passed three days and nights in seeking for the -tomb of Nefer-ka-Ptah, which he eventually discovered. Uttering over -it some magical words, the earth opened, and they descended to the -chamber where the actual tomb was situated. The book, which lay in the -sarcophagus, illuminated the place so brilliantly that they required -no torches, and by its light they perceived in the grave not only its -original inhabitant, but his wife and son, who, buried at Coptos, had -come in their _ka_-shapes to reside with their husband and father. Setne -informed them that he desired to remove the book, but Ahura, the wife -of Nefer-ka-Ptah, earnestly requested him not to do so, and informed -him how its possession had already proved unfortunate to others. Her -husband, she said, had given up most of his time to the study of magic, -and for the price of a hundred pieces of silver and two elaborate -sarcophagi had bought from the priest of Ptah the secret of the -hiding-place of the wonderful volume. The book was contained in an iron -chest sunk in the middle of the river at Coptos; in the iron box was -a bronze box; in the bronze box a box of palm-tree wood, which again -contained a box of ebony and ivory, in which was a silver box, which -lastly contained a gold box, the true receptacle of the book. Swarms of -serpents and noxious reptiles of all kinds guarded the volume, and round -it was coiled a serpent which could not die. Nefer-ka-Ptah, his wife -and child, set out for Coptos, where he obtained from the high-priest -a model of a floating raft and figures of workmen provided with the -necessary tools. Over these he recited words of power, so that they -became alive. Shortly afterward they located the box, and by further -magical formulae Nefer-ka-Ptah put the reptiles which surrounded it to -flight. Twice he slew the great serpent which lay coiled round the chest -of iron, but each time it came to life again. The third time, however, -he cut it in twain, and laid sand between the two pieces, so that they -might not again join together. Opening the various boxes, he took out -the mysterious volume which they had contained, and read the first spell -upon its pages. This acquainted him with all the secrets of heaven and -earth. He perused the second and saw the sun rising in the heavens, with -all the accompanying gods. His wife followed his example with similar -results. Nefer-ka-Ptah then copied the spells on a piece of papyrus, on -which he sprinkled incense, dissolved the whole in water, and drank it, -thus making certain that the knowledge of the formulae would remain with -him for ever. - - -A Game of Draughts with the Dead - -But the god Thoth was angry with him for what he had done, and -acquainted Ra with the sacrilegious act. Ra at once decided that -Nefer-ka-Ptah, his wife and child, should never return to Memphis; -and whilst returning to Coptos, Ahura and her son fell into the -river and were drowned. Shortly afterward Nefer-ka-Ptah himself met a -like fate. All that they could say, however, could not prevail with -Setne, who had made up his mind to possess the book. The disembodied -Nefer-ka-Ptah proposed, however, that its ownership should be settled -by playing a game of draughts, the winner to retain the volume. To -this Setne agreed. Nefer-ka-Ptah did his best to win, first honestly, -and then by fraud, but in the end he lost the game. Setne requested -his brother, who had accompanied him into the mausoleum, to ascend to -the place above and bring him his magical writings. This was done, and -the spells in question were laid upon Setne, who grasped the wonderful -book of Thoth and ascended to heaven with marvellous swiftness. As he -departed, however, Nefer-ka-Ptah remarked to his wife that he would -soon make him return. The prophecy of Ahura that Setne would be unlucky -if he persisted in keeping the volume was fully borne out, for he fell -in love with a beautiful woman who worked him much woe, and such were -his troubles that the Pharaoh commanded him to return the book to the -keeping of Nefer-ka-Ptah. - - -Medical Magic - -Magic very naturally played a large part in the practice of Egyptian -medicine. Many illnesses were supposed to be caused by demoniac -possession, and the only cure was the expulsion of the evil spirit who -had taken up his abode in the body of the afflicted person. The Egyptian -physician could not have found the practice of his art very arduous, -for he theoretically divided the human body into thirty-six parts, each -of which was presided over by a certain demon, and if the demon who -attacked a specific part was properly invoked, it was considered that -a cure should result. There were gods of healing for each of the bodily -divisions. Several medical papyri are in existence which contain formulae -to be employed against the demons of disease, as well as prescriptions -for the remedies to be used in specified cases of illness. Prayers were -prescribed to be spoken while preparing the drugs. Often the unfortunate -patient had to swallow the prescription written upon papyrus. Amulets -were regarded as most efficacious in cases of illness. It is said that -the peculiar letter which figures before modern medical prescriptions, -and which physicians interpret as implying the word 'recipe,' is in -reality an invocation to the god Ra, whose symbol it is, and that it -signifies "in the name of Ra," or "O Ra, God of Light and Health, -inspire me." - - -Alchemy - -It has been averred with much likelihood that the science of alchemy -originated in ancient Egypt. The derivation of the word is usually -referred to the Arabic _al khemeia_, but it has also been stated[6] that -it may be derived from the Egyptian word _kemt_, which means 'black' or -'dusky,' and which was applied to the country on account of the dark -colour of the mud which forms the soil on each side of the Nile. The -Christian Egyptians or Copts, it is thought, transmitted the word in -the form _kheme_ to the Greeks, Romans, Syrians, and Arabs. At an early -period in their history the Egyptians had attained to considerable -skill in the working of metals, and according to certain Greek writers -they employed quicksilver in the separation of gold and silver from -the native ore. The detritus which resulted from these processes -formed a black powder, which was supposed to contain within itself -the individualities of the various metals which had contributed to its -composition. In some manner this powder was identified with the body -which the god Osiris was known to possess in the underworld, and to both -were attributed magical qualities, and both were thought to be sources -of light and power. "Thus," says Dr. Budge, "side by side with the -growth of skill in performing the ordinary processes of metal-working -in Egypt, there grew up in that country the belief that magical -powers existed in fluxes and alloys; and the art of manipulating the -metals, and the knowledge of the chemistry of the metals and of their -magical powers, were described by the name _khemeia_--that is to say, -'the preparation of the black ore,' which was regarded as the active -principle in the transmutation." If this ingenious theory be correct, we -have perhaps here not only the genesis of practical alchemy, but also -the origin of a part of alchemistical science, which until recently has -been strangely neglected. The allusion is to spiritual alchemy, which -employed the same symbols and language as were used in the practical -science, and which is credited with containing, in allegory, many a deep -psychical and mystical secret.[7] - - -Animal Transformation - -The idea of animal transformation was evidently a very ancient one in -Egypt. We find from the texts that it was thought that in the future -life both the gods and men were able at will to assume the form of -certain animals, birds, and plants. Nearly twelve chapters of the _Book -of the Dead_ are occupied with spells which provide the deceased with -formulae to enable him to transform himself into any shape from a bird, -a serpent, or a crocodile to a god in the otherworld. He was able to -assume practically any form, and to swim or fly to any distance in any -direction. Strangely enough, no animal is alluded to in the texts as a -type of his possible transformation. - -In his valuable work upon _Egyptian Magic_, by far the most illuminating -text-book on the subject, Dr. Budge says: "The Egyptians believed that -as the souls of the departed could assume the form of any living thing -or plant, so the 'gods,' who in many respects closely resembled them, -could and did take upon themselves the forms of birds and beasts. This -was the fundamental idea of the so-called 'Egyptian animal-worship,' -which provoked the merriment of the cultured Greek, and drew down upon -the Egyptians the ridicule and abuse of the early Christian writers." He -further states that the Egyptians paid honour to certain animal forms -because they considered they possessed the characteristics of the gods, -to whom they made them sacred. - -In another chapter we have dealt with the question of the totemic origin -of certain of the Egyptian deities. There can be little doubt that the -origin of the conception whereby the gods took upon themselves the forms -of animals was a totemic one, and not magical at all in its basis. -Regarding Dr. Budge's other statement that it is wrong to say that the -Egyptians worshipped animals in the ordinary sense of the word, one must -differentiate between the attitude of primitive man toward his personal -or tribal totem and toward the full-fledged deity. It is extremely -difficult at this time of day, even with the example of living totemic -tribes before us, to ascertain the exact status of the totem as regards -worship or adoration. The Egyptian god certainly received worship of -a very thorough description, and if he received it in his totem form, -we may take it that it was on account of his status as a deity, and not -as a totem. The contention that the animal form of many of the Egyptian -gods is not of totemic origin is a vain one, and cannot be upheld in the -light of modern researches. To state that the Egyptian gods were not -totemic in their origin simply because they were Egyptian is to take up -a totally untenable position--a position which cannot be supported by a -single shred of evidence. - -We do not hear very much concerning animal transformation on earth--that -is, few tales exist which describe the metamorphosis of a sorcerer or -witch into an animal form. So far as one can judge, the idea of the -werewolf or any similar form was unknown in ancient Egypt. But a kindred -type of great antiquity was not wanting--that of the vampire. We do not -find the vampire in any concrete form, but figured as a ghost--indeed, -as the wicked or spiteful dead so common in Hindu, Burmese, and Malay -mythology. The Egyptian ghost slew the sleeping child by sucking its -breath, and, strangely enough, the charm employed against such a being -was the same as that used to-day in the Balkan peninsula against the -attacks of the vampire--to wit, a wreath of garlic, a plant the vampire -is known to detest. - -The astrological knowledge of the Egyptians appears to have been -exercised chiefly in the casting of horoscopes. Certain gods presided -over certain periods of time, while others were identified with the -heavenly bodies, and all were supposed to have power over the events -which occurred in the periods subject to their control. In the later -papyri spheres or tables of nativity are found, by means of which -the fate of a man could be calculated from such data as the hour of -his birth and so forth. As among most Oriental peoples, astrological -calendars, stating which days were auspicious or otherwise, were greatly -in vogue, and these were to some extent founded on mythological events -which had taken place on such and such a date, thus lending to it a -certain significance for all time. - - -Dreams - -Dreams were also greatly relied upon in the affairs of life. These were -believed to be sent by the gods, and it is probable that the Egyptian -who was exercised over his private affairs sought his repose in the hope -of being vouchsafed a dream which would guide him in his conduct. Such -a practice is in vogue amongst certain North American Indian tribes -to-day. Savage man goes to sleep trusting that his totem will grant -him a vision for the regulation of his future affairs. If the ancient -Egyptian desired such illumination, he considered it wiser to sleep -within a temple famous as the seat of an oracle. A class of professional -interpreters existed whose business it was to make clear the enigmatic -portions of dreams. It was thought that diseases might be cured by -nostrums communicated by the gods during sleep. - - -Mummy Magic - -The treatment of the mummy and the various ceremonies in connexion with -embalmment were undoubtedly magical in origin. As each bandage was laid -in its exact position certain words of power were uttered which were -supposed to be efficacious in the preservation of the part swathed. -After consecration the priest uttered an invocation to the deceased -and then took a vase of liquid containing ten perfumes, with which he -smeared the body twice from head to foot, taking especial care to anoint -the head thoroughly. The internal organs were at this juncture then -placed on the body, and the backbone immersed in holy oil, supposed to -be an emanation from the gods Shu and Geb. Certain precious stones were -then laid on the mummy, each of which had its magical significance. -Thus crystal lightened his face, and carnelian strengthened his steps. -A priest who personified the jackal-headed god Anubis then advanced, -performed certain symbolical ceremonies on the head of the mummy, and -laid certain bandages upon it. After a further anointing with oil the -deceased was declared to have "received his head." The mummy's left hand -was then filled with thirty-six substances used in embalming, symbolical -of the thirty-six forms of the god Osiris. The body was then rubbed with -holy oil, the toes wrapped in linen, and after an appropriate address -the ceremony was completed. - - - -[1] _Etudes de Mythologie et d'Archeologie Egyptienne_, Paris, 1893, -vol. i, p. 106. - -[2] I hope to elaborate this theory more fully in a later work. - -[3] For a very full account of Fetishism see my article in the -_Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics_. - -[4] Lefebure, _La Vertu et la Vie du Nom en Egypte_. - -[5] This expression _Maa kheru_ etymologically means 'acquitted,' and is -a legal term. - -[6] See Budge, _Egyptian Magic_, p. 20. - -[7] See A. Waite, _Hidden Church of the Holy Grail_, pp. 533 _et seq._ - - - - -CHAPTER VIII: FOREIGN AND ANIMAL GODS: THE LATE PERIOD - - -Foreign Deities - -The attitude of the Egyptians as a nation toward 'other gods' seems to -have been singularly free from any bigotry for their native deities, -though of course the priesthood, of necessity, were more jealous and -conservative in this respect. But the middle and lower classes adopted -foreign gods freely, and in time the widespread belief in certain of -these compelled official recognition and consequent inclusion in the -Egyptian pantheon. Various reasons for this lack of exclusiveness are -quite apparent. The state religion was purely a matter of royal and -priestly organization, of moment to the attendant court of nobles and -officials, but having no permanent or deep-seated effect on the people -generally, each district following its local cult. Polytheistic worship -was thus a national tendency, and therefore, when the people came -into contact with foreign deities who possessed desirable qualities -and powers, there was no sufficiently restraining force in their own -religion to prevent them from becoming devotees of the strange god. -Again, the divinity of another nation's god never seems to have been -disputed, for if a nation were powerful, then that itself was sufficient -proof of the divine and magical nature of their deity, and by so much, -therefore, his power was to be feared and propitiated. That an element -of fear was present in much of this god-adoption cannot be doubted. -This would hold true especially in the case of the soldiery, who would -propitiate gods of war belonging to nations who had shown themselves -savage and furious in warfare; also in that of merchants, who, convoying -their precious cargoes, would seek the gods who ruled the sea. There -was yet another aspect of the question and an important one. According -to Egyptian thought, war between peoples was in fact war between their -respective deities, a trial of their powers; and as the vanquished king -and people might be taken captive, so might the god. Indeed, it was a -necessity, for without the possession of the god it could not be said -that the conquest was completed and the kingdom won. We find traces of -many of these adoptions, not to be found among the official deities, -in the numerous small stelae belonging to private people and dedicated -by them to these strange gods; in the small images which stood in the -people's houses; while many an inscription carven on the rocks of the -desert yields its quota of evidence. Libya, Palestine, Phoenicia, and -Syria, each furnished the Egyptians with new gods; Ethiopia also. It -is considered probable by some authorities that the goddesses Bast and -Neith were of Libyan origin, though of this no positive statement can be -made. The worship of Bast and Neith was prevalent chiefly in the parts -where the majority of the population were Libyan, and the latter was -almost neglected where the people were of pure Egyptian race. - - -Asiatic Gods - -Semitic Asia supplied the greatest number of gods borrowed by the -Egyptians, foremost among them being Baal, Ashtoreth, Anthat, Reshpu, -and the goddess Qetesh. The greatest of all is, of course, the Syrian -Baal, the terrible god of war, also a personification of those terrors -of the desert, the burning heat of the sun and the destroying wind. -This god first became known to the Egyptians under the Eighteenth -Dynasty, when they were at war with the Syrians for centuries, and, as -they had proved anything but easily vanquished foes, their god must -be regarded with due reverence and awe. The Ramessides especially -esteemed this deity, and "had a special predilection for calling -themselves as brave and mighty as Baal in heaven," and under Rameses II -a temple of the god existed at Tanis, where this king carried out his -architectural undertakings on such a large scale. To a certain extent -Baal was identified with Set, for a figure of the fabulous animal in -which the latter became incarnate is placed by the Egyptians after -their transliterations of the name Baal, from which it is evident that -they believed the two gods to have qualities and attributes in common. -Indeed, in one case, that of the texts of Edfu, wherein is related the -legend of the Winged Sun Disk, the name of Baal is substituted for that -of Set. Unfortunately, of his form and rites nothing is known. - -Anthat was a war-goddess whose cult was widespread in Syria, and at the -time when the Egyptians were making their Asiatic Empire she naturally -became one of the adopted deities. Again, the huge number of Syrian -captives brought into Egypt would undoubtedly introduce her worship as -well as that of others into the country, and therefore it is no surprise -to learn that in the reign of Thothmes III a shrine was built and -dedicated to Anthat at Thebes. Rameses II, of the Nineteenth Dynasty, -honoured this goddess often in his inscriptions, a custom followed by -Rameses III, also a great warrior, and the latter gave to his favourite -daughter the name of Banth-Anth, 'daughter of Anth.' Of the form of -her worship little is known, but on Egyptian monuments she is called -the "lady of heaven and mistress of the gods," and is depicted seated -on a throne or standing upright. Seated, she wields a club with her -left hand, and with her right holds spear and shield; standing, she is -shown wearing a panther-skin, with the emblem of life in her left hand, -while in the right she holds a papyrus sceptre. On her head is the White -Crown. Her worship was well established in Egypt, and in time she was -identified with the native gods, and even said to have been produced by -Set. - - -Ashtoreth - -Ashtoreth was called by the Egyptians "mistress of horses, lady of the -chariot, dweller in Apollinopolis Magna." She is a Syrian deity, the -terrible and destroying goddess of war, and her cult would seem to have -been brought into Egypt during the Syrian campaign of Thothmes III. Her -worship seems to have been well established in the country by the time -of Amen-hetep III, for in a letter from Tushratta, king of the Mitanni, -to this Pharaoh, he speaks of "Ishtar of Nineveh, Lady of the World," -going down into Egypt in his own reign and that of his father, and seems -to infer that her worship there has declined, for he begs Amen-hetep to -make it increase tenfold. That it was widespread cannot be doubted. It -flourished in the Delta, and was known there down to Christian times. -The eastern quarter of Tanis was dedicated to Ashtoreth as was a temple -near by on the shores of the Serbonian lake. Mention is made of a priest -of Memphis who served Ashtoreth together with the moon-god Ah, for she -was also regarded as a moon-goddess, and was identified with one of -the forms of Hathor, or Isis-Hathor. In the treaty concluded between -the Kheta and the Egyptians she is mentioned as the national goddess -of the Syrians, though by this time she was also a familiar deity to -the Egyptians, for proper names compounded with hers were current, -and Rameses II, who had named his daughter after Anthat, also named -one of his sons after Ashtoreth: Mer-Astrot. Her designation 'lady of -horses and chariots' shows the comparatively late period at which she -entered Egypt, for it was only about 1800 B.C., at the earliest during -the Hyksos period, that the Egyptians learned from the Semites of the -Eastern Desert how to use horses in war for charging and for drawing -war-chariots. Ashtoreth is depicted as lioness-headed, and mounted on a -quadriga, she drives her rampant horses over prostrate foes, and thus -was the guide of the madly rushing war-chariot on the battlefield. - -Qetesh in her native Syria seems to have been worshipped as a -nature-goddess with rites that tended to the licentious. In Egypt she -came to be identified with one of the forms of Hathor, the goddess -of love and beauty, also as a moon-goddess. By some authorities she -is considered to have been another form and aspect of Ashtoreth. In -Egyptian art she is represented as standing upon a lion, her figure -entirely nude; in her right hand she holds lotus blossoms and a mirror, -while in her left are two serpents. At a later period she is still -depicted in the same attitude, but on her head she wears the headdress -of Hathor. On inscriptions of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties -she is called "lady of heaven, mistress of all the gods, eye of Ra, who -has none like unto her." She was prayed to for gifts of life and health, -and that after extreme old age her devotees might have a good burial in -the west of Thebes, proving that her worship existed in the capital of -the country. She sometimes appears with Amsu and the god Reshpu, with -whom she seems to be associated as one of a trinity. - -Reshpu is another Syrian god whose cult became known in Egypt, the chief -centre of his worship being at Het-Reshp, in the Delta. In Syria he was -regarded as a god of war, and in Egyptian monuments and temples he is -depicted in the form of a warrior with shield and spear in his left hand -and a club in his right. Above his forehead projects a gazelle, which -would seem to be an ancient symbol of the god denoting his sovereignty -over the desert. His titles as given in the Egyptian texts, where he -is described as "the great god, the lord of eternity, the prince of -everlastingness, the lord of twofold strength among the company of -gods," are largely borrowed from the native deities. Reshpu corresponds -to the god known to the Phoenicians and worshipped both in Cyprus and -Carthage, and is considered by some authorities to be a god of the -burning and destructive power of fire, also of the lightning. - - -Semitic and African Influence - -Besides supplying the Egyptians with specific deities, Semitic thought -influenced their religious ideas regarding the mythology and nature -of their own gods. Certain inanimate objects--especially stones, and -in some cases trees--under this influence came to be looked upon -as incorporations of deity, as that of the sun-god in Heliopolis, -while a sign representing the archaic form of the symbol _Kh_ is the -usual determinative of the name Set. It is a circumstance of some -significance that the Asiatic deities in representation, as regards -physical appearance and symbolism, are depicted according to the -Egyptian religious convention; but with gods of African origin it is -far otherwise. They are figured as hideous, frightful, distorted, and -enormously fat creatures, resembling the negro human fetish which may -be found to-day among African tribes. Bes is the most important of the -African deities, and though he underwent many changes as time went on, -which would seem to point to other origins, his original conception -is decidedly African, and "his cult in Egypt is coeval with dynastic -civilizations." His representations point to a savage origin. He is -depicted as a deformed dwarf with large stomach, bowed legs, and a -huge, bearded face. From his thick lips hangs a protruding tongue; his -nose is flat, while his eyebrows are very shaggy. He wears a tiara of -feathers[1] on his head, and round his body a panther-skin, the tail -of which hangs down and usually touches the ground behind him. Another -distinction is that he is generally drawn in full face, the Egyptian -deities being usually presented in profile. Though many names were -given to him later, Bes was his usual appellation, which, according -to Wiedemann, is derived from _besa_, a word designating one of the -great felidae, the _Cynoelurus guttatus_, whose skin formed his clothing. -His cult existed over a long period--from the time of the Old Kingdom -down to Roman times, in which his oracle at Abydos was consulted down -to a late period--and his influence may be traced in Alexandrian, -Hellenistic, and Phoenician art. The god Bes had varied characteristics. -He was associated with birth, and one of the oldest representations of -him is to be found in a relief in the temple of Hatshepsut, where he -appears as attendant at the birth of the Great Queen. In this connexion -he appears in all the 'Birth Houses' of Egyptian temples, places where -the presiding god was supposed to have been born. As the child grew -Bes was supposed to provide it with amusement, and in this aspect he -is shown as laughing at it, dancing grotesquely and playing on the -harp. From this he came to be regarded as god of the dance, of music -and joviality, hence of rest, joy, and pleasure; and his quaint figure -is to be found carved upon the handles of mirrors, on palettes, and on -_kohl_ vessels. He was appointed guardian of the young sun-god, and -therefore becomes the foe of all serpents, and is shown as gripping and -strangling them in his hands, or biting them in pieces. In time he was -wholly identified with his ward Horus, and depicted with all the symbols -and attributes of that deity, though his peculiar solar province was -the east. In the underworld Bes underwent a transformation. He became -an avenging deity, carrying a menacing knife with which he essayed to -tear out the hearts of the wicked, yet, even thus, to the good and -deserving he never failed to be a true friend and cheering companion. -In his menacing aspect he was called 'the Warrior,' and sometimes this -character was ascribed to him on earth also, where, bearing a shield and -wielding a sword, he wages war for those under his protection, and those -who wear his image as an amulet. - -It is undoubted that many local cults existed in different parts of -Egypt and that gods of many and varied origins were the presiding -deities, but usually their power remained purely local and never -attained to any great influence or fame. - - -Sacred Animals - -From the many sources whence comes our knowledge of ancient Egypt there -is to be gathered a most comprehensive survey of the great extent -and influence which animal-worship attained to in that country. It -prevailed there from the earliest times and was far older than Egyptian -civilization. That much of it is of totemic origin cannot be gainsaid, -an origin to be found among the pre-dynastic tribes whence sprang the -Egyptian people. - -The inspiring cause of animal-worship was undoubtedly at first nothing -more or less than fear, with an admixture of awesome admiration of the -creature's excelling power and strength. Later there developed the -idea of animals as typifying gods, the actual embodiments of divine -and superhuman attributes. Thus the bull and the ram, possessors of -exceptional procreative energy, came to represent gods of nature and -the phenomena of yearly rejuvenescence, as is stated by Wiedemann: -"The generative power in the animal was identical with the force by -which life is renewed in nature continually and in man after death." -Throughout Egypt the bull and the cow, the latter as typifying -fertility, were worshipped as agricultural gods. - -Again, to the Egyptian mind, incapable of abstract thought, an -immaterial and intangible deity was an impossible conception. A god, -and more so by reason of his godhead, must manifest and function in -an actual body. The king was believed to be an incarnation of a god, -but he was apart and only one, and as the Egyptian everywhere craved -the manifestation of and communion with his gods, it thus came about -that incarnations of deity and its many attributes were multiplied. -Certain animals could represent these to a greater degree than man, -though of course to Egyptian thought man was the standard by which -all in the universe was to be measured and weighed. The gods were but -little greater than men; they were limited, and might know death. Their -immortality was only acquired by the power of transmigration from one -body to another, escaping human death by transference to successive -forms and a renewal of the life force. - -The symbolism of the Egyptian religion is mostly expressed by means -of animals. Thus the god of the dead is spoken of as a jackal, the -water-god as a crocodile, while the sky is a cow, the sun a falcon, -the moon an ibis. Because of this exaltation of certain animals whole -species were held as sacred, and this led to the many strange ideas and -customs amongst the Egyptians mentioned so often by classic writers, as, -for instance, considering a man fortunate who was eaten by a crocodile. -When these animals died their owners mourned as for a relative, and the -greatest care was taken in the disposal of their remains. Cows were held -in such veneration that their bodies were cast into the sacred waters of -the Nile, and a bull was buried outside the town, its horns protruding -above the ground to mark the place of interment. Other instances might -be adduced. - - -Apis - -From the earliest times the bull was worshipped in Egypt as the -personification of strength and virility and might in battle. Manetho -traces the cult of Apis to Kaiekhos, a king of the Second Dynasty, who -appointed a chosen bull, Hap, to be a god; but AElian ascribes this to -Mena, the first historical king of Egypt. - -Much of our knowledge concerning this cult is derived from Greek -sources. Herodotus gives the following description of Apis: "He is the -calf of a cow which is incapable of conceiving another offspring, and -the Egyptians say that lightning descends upon the cow from heaven and -that from thence it brings forth Apis. This calf has the following -marks: it is black and has a square spot of white on the forehead; and -on the back the figure of an eagle; and in the tail double hairs, and on -the tongue a beetle." - -Again, Diodorus gives an account of the finding of the Apis and the -method of its installation on the death and funeral of a former -incarnation of the god Osiris: "After the splendid funeral of Apis is -over those priests who have charge of the business seek out another calf -as like the former as they can possibly find, and when they have found -one an end is put to all further mourning and lamentation, and such -priests as are appointed for that purpose lead the young ox through the -city of Nile and feed him forty days. Then they put him into a barge -wherein is a golden cabin and so transport him as a god to Memphis and -place him in Vulcan's grove. During the forty days before mentioned none -but women are admitted to see him, and these, naked, are placed full in -his view. Afterward they are forbidden to come into the sight of this -new god. For the adoration of this ox they give this reason. They say -that the soul of Osiris passed into an ox and therefore whenever the ox -is dedicated, to this very day the spirit of Osiris is infused into one -ox after another to posterity. But some say that the members of Osiris -(who was killed by Typhon) were thrown by Isis into an ox made of wood -covered with ox-hides, and from thence the city of Bubastis was called." - -Great honour was also paid to the mother of the chosen bull, and -apartments in the temple were set apart for her beside the splendid ones -occupied by the Apis. This animal was given rich beds to lie upon, its -food was of the purest and most delicate, while water from a special -well at Memphis was given to it alone, the water of the Nile being -considered fattening. A number of carefully selected cows were presented -to the Apis, and these again had their attendant priests. Usually the -sacred bull was kept in seclusion, but when on certain occasions he -appeared in public a crowd of boys marched in procession beside him -singing hymns. The birthday of the Apis was celebrated for seven days -with great rejoicings, and it was believed that during this period no -man was attacked by a crocodile. - - -The Apis Oracle - -Thus in the temple of Ptah were great honours paid to the Apis bull, and -the Pharaohs gave lavishly of their wealth to its cult, and foreigners, -such as Alexander the Great and Titus, presented it with offerings. -Oracles, as usual, were looked for from this god, and the method of -obtaining them is thus described by Wiedemann: - -"Chiefly it was renowned for its oracles, which were imparted in very -various ways. When the bull licked the garments of the celebrated -Eudoxus of Cnidus, this signified the astronomer's approaching death; -a like fate was predicted to Germanicus when it refused to eat at his -hand; and the conquest of Egypt by Augustus was announced beforehand by -its bellowing. Some inquiries were answered by the animal's passing into -one or other of the two rooms placed at its disposition, and others by -dreams which were vouchsafed to inquirers who slept in the temple, and -which were explained by the sacred interpreters. Other inquiries, again, -though presented to the creature itself, found their reply through the -voices of children playing before the temple, whose words assumed to -the believing inquirer the form of a rhythmic answer to his question. -Prophecies of a general kind took place during the procession of the -Apis." Of this Pliny says: "Then the youths who accompanied him sang -hymns in his honour, while the Apis appeared to understand all, and to -desire that he should be worshipped. Suddenly the spirit took possession -of the youths and they prophesied." - -There were also sacrifices made to the Apis, and these, strangely -enough, were oxen, chosen with the greatest care. The head of the -slaughtered animal was usually thrown into the Nile with the following -words pronounced above it: "If any evil be about to befall either those -who now sacrifice or upon the land of Egypt, may it be averted on this -head." - -Some authorities state that after a certain number of years the Apis -was slain and a new one obtained, but it is generally believed that the -Apis died a natural death. Its body was embalmed and general mourning -was observed. The mummy was buried with all magnificence.[2] In 1851 -Mariette discovered the famous Serapeum wherein had been buried the -sacred bulls of Memphis from the middle of the Eighteenth Dynasty, 1500 -B.C. Here in the gigantic sarcophagi, weighing about fifty-eight tons -each, were discovered some of the remains of these animals. The chapels -of the Serapeum were evidently places of pilgrimage, for many votive -statues and stelae have been found there dedicated to the dead Apis, "in -hopes of thereby gaining his favour and the fulfilment of their various -wishes." The Apis, though dead, was even yet more powerful, for his soul -became joined to that of Osiris, and thus the dual god Osiris-Apis was -formed, a name more familiar in the Grecian form _Serapis_. To this god -the Greeks ascribed the attributes of their own deity Hades, convinced -of the similarity to Osiris, the great god of the underworld. In both -Egypt and Greece Serapis came to be looked upon as the male counterpart -of Isis. Under the Romans the cult of Serapis extended in all directions -of the Empire, claiming devotees of all classes and races. It reached as -far north in Britain as York. - -At Heliopolis another bull, Mnevis, was worshipped as typifying the sun -and its life-giving powers. Manetho ascribes this cult also to Kaiekhos, -of the Second Dynasty, as well as the worship of the _Ram of Mendes_. - -This obtained chiefly in the Deltaic cities, such as Hermopolis, -Lycopolis, and Mendes, the last named being the most famous shrine. The -origin of this worship was merely that of a local and tribal animal god, -but, persisting through the changing civilization, it became of more -than local influence as the city grew in wealth and importance, while -the priesthood were among the most wealthy and powerful in Egypt, and -the animal god was identified "first with the indigenous god Osiris, -secondly with the sun-god Ra, and thirdly with the great Ram-god of the -South and Elephantine, _i.e._ Khnemu." - -Greek writers furnish us with much graphic material concerning these -animal cults, as in some instances they were eye-witnesses of the ritual -connected with them. Herodotus states that the god Pan and another -goat-like deity were worshipped with a wealth of symbolic display and -gorgeous rite as gods of generation and fecundity. As in many countries -where animal worship obtained the beast chosen for adoration was picked -from a number because of certain distinguishing marks upon its hide, was -enthroned with much pomp and received an imposing public funeral on its -decease. - -On the stele of Mendes deciphered by Mariette was found an inscription -stating that Ptolemy II Philadelphus rebuilt the temple of Mendes and -assisted in person at the enthronement of two Rams, and in a relief on -the upper portion of this stele are to be seen the figures of two royal -Ptolemies and an Arsinoe making offerings to the Ram and his female -counterpart Hatmehit. - - -The Crocodile - -The crocodile was the incarnation of the god Sebek. It would seem -beyond doubt that abject fear was the primal origin of the worship of -this repulsive creature, and the idea that its evil and menacing traits -might be averted by propitiation, for in the dry season these reptiles -wandered over the cultivated lands and devoured all at will. Later, -beneficent attributes were ascribed to it, but the dark side always -persisted. In the benign aspect he is connected with Ra, and again -with Osiris, though in legendary lore he is both the friend and foe -of Osiris. One version tells how a crocodile carried the dead body of -Osiris safely to land upon its back, whilst another relates that only by -Isis placing Horus in a little ark woven of papyrus reeds was she able -to protect him against the attacks of the malevolent Sebek. This clearly -identifies him with Set, the murderer of Osiris, and in this connexion -the powers of darkness are symbolized by four crocodiles, who are shown -in the _Book of the Dead_ as menacing the deceased. Whilst still living, -men sought deliverance from these horrible shapes of the underworld by -means of incantations. - -But again he is said to be beneficent to the dead, and in the Pyramid -Texts it is Sebek who restores sight to the eyes of the deceased, -who, indeed, revives all his faculties, is his guide in the untried -new life, and helps him to overthrow Set, the evil one who preys upon -every 'Osiris.' In this character he is the helper and protector of -the child Horus. But his characters are multiple, and he is to be -found participating in the rites of all the other gods of the Egyptian -pantheon. - -Quite in consonance with this is the fact that while in some parts of -Egypt the crocodile was held sacred, in other districts it was killed; -indeed, the hunting of it was a popular sport with the nobles of the Old -Kingdom. By some the crocodile was looked upon as a protector of Egypt, -Diodorus stating that "but for them Arabian and African robbers would -swim across the Nile and pillage the country in all directions." - -Herodotus also states these conflicting views regarding the crocodile, -together with many of the fabulous stories of its wisdom and habits. He -tells how at Thebes and Lake Moeris they were held sacred, and how when -tame the people bedecked them with jewels, placing bracelets on their -fore-paws, while they were fed on the most delicate foods. After death -the body was embalmed with many rites and buried in the subterranean -Labyrinth, a place held so sacred that Herodotus was not allowed to -enter it. - -The centre of this worship was Krokodilopolis, in the Fayum, and Strabo, -who visited Egypt during the reign of the Emperor Augustus, gives the -following account in which he tells that the sacred crocodile "was kept -apart by himself in a lake; it is tame and gentle to the priests. It -is fed with bread, flesh, and wine, which strangers who come to see it -always present. Our host, a distinguished person, who was our guide -about the city, accompanied us to the lake, and brought from the supper -table a small cake, dressed meat, and a small vessel containing honey -and milk. The animal was lying on the edge of the lake. The priests went -up to it; some of them opened its mouth, another put the cake into it, -then the meat, and afterward poured down the honey and milk. The animal -then leaped into the lake and crossed to the other side. When another -stranger arrived with his offering, the priests took it and, going round -to the other side, caught the animal and repeated the process in the -same manner as before." - -This cult lasted far into the Roman period. Sebek also had his oracle, -and foretold the demise of King Ptolemaeus by refusing to listen to him -or obey the attendant priests. - -In religious art Sebek is often represented as a crocodile-headed man -wearing the solar disk with a uraeus, or, again, with a pair of horns and -the plumes of Amen. - - -The Lion - -The lion could hardly fail to be the centre of a cult, and there is -ample proof that this animal was, from early dynastic times, worshipped -for his great strength and courage. He was identified with the solar -deities, with the sun-god Horus or Ra. The Delta was the home of -the Egyptian lion, and the chief centre of the cult was the city of -Leontopolis, in the Northern Delta, where, according to AElian, the -sacred lions were fed upon slaughtered animals, and sometimes a live -calf was put in the den that they might have the pleasure of killing -it. Whilst the feeding was proceeding the priests chanted and sang. -But the same writer also states that lions were kept in the temple at -Heliopolis, as well as at many other places throughout Egypt. - - -The Lion Guardian - -The outstanding characteristic of the lion was that of guardianship, and -this is to be found in the part played by the ancient lion-god Aker, -who guarded the gate of the dawn through which the sun passed each -morning. The later idea that the sun-god passed through a dark passage -in the earth which hid his light, and so caused the darkness of night, -while his emergence therefrom was the signal of day, necessitated the -existence of two guardian lions, who were called Sef and Dua--that is, -'Yesterday' and 'To-morrow.' From this was derived the practice of -placing statues of lions at the doors of palaces and tombs as guardians -of both living and dead against all evil. These statues were often given -the heads of men, and are familiar under the Greek name of 'Sphinxes,' -though the characteristics of the Egyptian lion-statue were very -different from those of the Grecian 'Sphinx.' - -The most famous of all is, of course, the wonderful 'Sphinx' at Gizeh, -the symbol of the sun-god Ra, or rather his colossal abode erected -there, facing the rising sun that he might protect the dead sleeping in -the tombs round about. - -There were many lion-headed gods and goddesses, in some cases -personifying the destructive power. In the underworld lion-headed -deities guarded some of the halls and pylons there, and that the lion -was connected in some way with the dead is proved by the fact that the -head of the bier was always made in the form of a lion's head, while the -foot was not seldom decorated with a lion's tail. - -A curious point is that it was evidently permissible to kill the lions -of another country, if not those of Egypt, for we find that Amen-hetep -III boasted of having shot with his own bow one hundred and two -fierce lions. Rameses II and Rameses III both kept a tame lion, which -accompanied them into battle and actually attacked the enemy. In this -case, however, it is evident that primarily the lion was a symbol of -guardianship. - - -The Cat - -The cat was regarded both as an incarnation of Bast, the goddess of -Bubastis, and therefore sacred to her, and as a personification of -the sun. Throughout Egyptian mythology the cat is to be found, and -generally in a beneficent aspect. In the _Book of the Dead_ it is a cat -who cuts off the head of the serpent of darkness and who assists in the -destruction of the foes of Osiris. On every side there is ample evidence -that everywhere in Egypt the cat was held in great reverence after the -Twenty-second Dynasty. The classical writers are again our authorities. -Diodorus relates that the cats were fed on bread and milk and slices of -Nile fish, and that the animals came to their meals at certain calls. -After death their bodies were carefully embalmed and, with spices and -drugs, swathed in linen sheets. The penalty of death was meted out to -anyone who killed a cat, be it by accident or of intent, and a case is -given in which a Roman who had killed a cat was set upon by the enraged -populace and made to pay for the outrage with his life. A passage from -Herodotus further illustrates the esteem in which these animals were -held: "When a conflagration takes place a supernatural impulse seizes on -the cats. For the Egyptians, standing at a distance, take care of the -cats and neglect to put out the fire; but the cats, making their escape, -and leaping over the men, throw themselves into the fire; and when this -happens great lamentations are made among the Egyptians. In whatsoever -house a cat dies a natural death all the family shave their eyebrows -only, but if a dog die they shave their whole body and the head. All -cats that die are carried to certain sacred houses, where, being first -embalmed, they are buried in the city of Bubastis." - - -The Dog - -Dogs were held in great honour by the Egyptians, as in the city of -Cynopolis, yet strangely enough, they were never looked upon as a -possible incarnation of a god, though there seems to have been some -confusion of the dog with the jackal, sacred to Anubis, who ministered -to Osiris and acted as guide to the souls of the dead. Another animal -so confounded was the wolf, which was specially venerated at Lycopolis. -The fact that the jackal was to be found chiefly in the deserts and -mountains where tombs were usually located led to its early association -with the dead and the underworld in Egyptian mythology, the character -ascribed to it being beneficent and that of a guide. - - -The Hippopotamus - -Another cult probably founded on fear was that of the hippopotamus. -Ta-urt, the hippopotamus-goddess, came in time to be identified with -nearly every goddess in the Egyptian pantheon, and though her attributes -are those of benevolence and protectiveness, the original traits of -ferocious destructiveness were not wholly obliterated, for we find these -personified in the monster, half-hippopotamus, called Amemt, who attends -the Judgment Scene. In this same scene is the dog-headed ape, who sits -and watches the pointer of the scales and reports the results to Thoth. -This animal was greatly revered by the Egyptians. The cult is probably -extremely ancient. Apes were kept in many temples, mostly those of the -lunar deities, as that of Khensu at Thebes. - - -Other Animals - -Two animals, the ass and the pig, attained a peculiar reputation for -evil, though in some aspects looked upon as sacrosanct. They were -always connected with the powers of darkness and evil. In the case of -the ass opinion seems to have fluctuated, for in some instances this -animal figures as a personification of the sun-god Ra. Many smaller -animals are to be found in the mythology of Egypt, among which may be -mentioned the hare, which was worshipped as a deity, the shrew-mouse, -sacred to the goddess Buto, the ichneumon, and the bat, whilst reptiles -were represented by the tortoise, associated with night, therefore -with darkness and evil; and the serpent, clearly propitiated through -fear at first, though afterward credited with beneficent motives. The -uraeus became the symbol of divinity and royalty, a symbol worn by the -gods and the kings. But the evil side was undoubtedly prominent in the -mind of the Egyptian, for all the terrors of death and the Unknown were -personified in the monster serpent Apep, who led his broods of serpents -against both gods and men in the gloom of the underworld. Others were -the scorpion, associated sometimes with evil, but also sacred to -Isis; and the frog, worshipped in pre-dynastic times as the symbol -of generation, birth, and fecundity. This cult was the most ancient -in Egypt and is connected with the creation myth. The goddess Heqt, -identified with Hathor, is depicted with the head of a frog. - - -The Ibis - -Amongst birds worshipped by the Egyptians, one of the most important -was the ibis. It was associated with Thoth and the moon, and in the -earliest period the city of Hermopolis was the centre of this cult. A -passage in Herodotus gives many interesting details concerning the ideas -held regarding the bird. He tells us that he went to a certain place -in Arabia, near the city of Buto, to learn about the winged serpents, -brought into Egypt by the west wind, which the ibis was believed to -destroy along with the ordinary reptiles common to the country. Arriving -there, he "saw the backbones and ribs of serpents in such numbers as -it was impossible to describe; of the ribs there were a multitude of -heaps, some great, some small, some of medium size. The place where -the bones lie is at the entrance of a narrow gorge between steep -mountains, which there opens upon a wide plain communicating with the -great plain of Egypt. The story goes that, with the spring, the winged -snakes come flying from Arabia toward Egypt, but are met in this gorge -by the birds called ibises, who bar their entrance and destroy them. -The Arabians assert, and the Egyptians admit, that it is on account of -this service that the Egyptians hold the ibis in so much reverence. -The ibis is a bird of a deep black colour, with legs like a crane; its -beak is strongly hooked, and its size that of the landrail. This is a -description of the black ibis which contends with the serpents." - -Another bird held in great reverence was the bennu, a bird of the -heron species which gave rise to the mythical bird, the phoenix. It is -identified with the sun, a symbol of the rising and the setting sun. -Many fables arose concerning this bird, and are recounted by Herodotus -and Pliny. Another sun-bird was the falcon, sacred to Horus, Ra, and -Osiris, and this was worshipped throughout Egypt in the pre-dynastic -period. In another form, represented with a human head, it was symbolic -of the human soul, a distinction it shared with the heron and swallow, -in both of which it was believed the human soul might reincarnate -itself. Plutarch says that it was in the form of a swallow that Isis -lamented the death of Osiris. Also sacred to Isis was the goose, though -one species of it was devoted to Amen-Ra; while the vulture was the -symbol of the goddesses Nekhebet and Mut. There is some evidence to -prove that certain fish were held as sacred, and worshipped because of -their mythological connexion with divers gods and goddesses. - - -Sacred Trees - -Though as a country Egypt was not rich in trees, yet certain of the -family played a not unimportant part in the religious cult, so much so -that tree-worship has been accepted as a fact by most Egyptologists. -That these trees were held in special veneration would support that -belief, though recorded instances of actual tree-worship are rare. This -Wiedemann attributes to the same reason that accounts for the scant -notice taken in Egyptian texts of animal-worship, though we know from -other sources that it formed the most considerable part in popular -religion. And the reason is that official religion took but little -notice of the 'minor' divinities to whom the people turned rather than -to the greater gods; that the priestly class hardly admitted to their -pantheon the 'rustic and plebeian' deities of the lower classes. He goes -on to say that "so far as we can judge, the reception of tree-worship -into temple-service and mythology was always the result of a compromise; -the priests were compelled to make concessions to the faith of -the masses and admit into the temples the worship of the people's -divinities; but they did so grudgingly, and this explains the apparent -insignificance of the official cult of vegetation in Egypt as compared -with the worship of the great gods and their cycles." - -In their religious symbolism we find the ancient sacred tree which grew -in the 'Great Hall' of Heliopolis on the place where the solar cat slew -that great serpent of evil, Apep, the place, too, from which the Phoenix -rose. The leaves of this tree possessed magical powers, for when Thoth -or the goddess Safekht wrote thereon the name of the monarch, then was -he endowed with immortality. Again, there was the wonderful tree, a -tamarisk, which wound its stem and branches about the chest that held -the dead Osiris. An olive-tree is mentioned, too, the habitation of a -nameless demon. - -The sycamore, whose shade was so welcome in the brazen glare of Egypt, -had its counterpart in the Land of the Dead, and from its midst leaned -out a Hathor, Lady of the Underworld, offering sustenance and water to -the passing souls. Sometimes it is a palm-tree from which she ministers -to the dead, and perhaps it is a leaf from this tree circled by inverted -horns which stands for the peculiar symbol of Safekht, the goddess -of learning. But the sycamore seems to have been first favourite, -and on some monuments it is represented with peasants gathered round -fervently paying their devotions to it and making offerings of fruit and -vegetables and jars of water. It was always held as sacred to Nut and -Hathor, and their doubles were believed to inhabit it, a certain species -being regarded as "the living body of Hathor on earth"; indeed, the -Memphite Hathor was called the 'Lady of the Sycamore.' - -As to the later development of this belief Wiedemann states: "In -Ptolemaic times a systematic attempt was made to introduce this form of -cult into the temple of every nome; according to the contemporary lists -relating to the subject, twenty-four nomes worshipped the Nile acacia, -seventeen the _Corda myxa_, sixteen the _Zizyphus Spina Christi_, -while other trees, such as the sycamore, the _Juniperus Phoenica_, and -the _Tamarisk Nilotica_, are named but once or twice. Ten kinds of -sacred trees are here mentioned, in all of which as many as three were -sometimes worshipped in the same nome." Again, there is evidence to -prove that every temple had its sacred tree and sacred groves, whilst -it is recorded that rare trees were brought as precious spoil from -conquered countries, their roots carefully encased in great chests of -earth that they might be planted about temples and palaces. - - -The Lotus - -Amongst flora the only kind which may be said to be sacred is the lotus. -In Egyptian symbolism and decoration it is to be found everywhere. From -the cup of a lotus blossom issues the boy Horus, the 'rising sun,' and -again it is the symbol of resurrection, when Nefer-tem, crowned with the -flowers, grants continuance of life in the world to come. On the altars -of offering the blossoms were laid in profusion. - - -Religion of the Late Period - -The conclusion of the New Empire and the succession of political chaos -during what is known as the Libyan period witnessed what was really, -so far as Egyptian religion is concerned, the beginning of the end. -Thenceforward a gradual decline is apparent in the ancient faith of the -Pharaohs, a subtle decay which the great revival of the eighth century -and onward was powerless to arrest. The ever-increasing introduction -into it of foreign elements, Greek and Persian and Semitic, and the -treasuring of the dry husks of ancient things, from which the soul -had long since departed--these sapped the strength and virility of -the Egyptian religion, hampered true progress, and contributed to its -downfall, till it was finally vanquished and thrown into obscurity by -the devotees of Christianity. - -At the beginning of the Libyan period, then, there were a number of -petty rulers in the land of Egypt--a monarch held court at Tanis, in the -Delta; at Thebes the priesthood of Amen's cult were the rulers; other -districts were governed by the chief men among the Libyan soldiery. One -of these latter, Sheshonk by name, attained supremacy about the middle -of the tenth century B.C., and as his capital was at Bubastis, Bast, the -cat-headed goddess of that locality, became for a time supreme deity -of Egypt, while other Delta divinities also came into vogue. A share -of the worship also fell to Amen. It is remarkable that this deity was -himself the ruler of Thebes, being represented by a _Divine Wife_, -always the eldest princess of the ruling family. So firm was the belief -in the divine government of Thebes that no human monarch of the Late -period, however powerful, made any attempt to take the city. Meanwhile a -revulsion of feeling occurred against Set, the dark brother of Isis and -Osiris. Hitherto his position among the gods of the Egyptian pantheon -had been unquestioned, but now he was thrown from his high estate and -confused or identified with the dragon Apep; he was no longer a god, but -a devil. - -The cult of the oracle flourished greatly during the decadent period, -and afforded, as we may conjecture, considerable scope for priestly -ingenuity. The usual method of consulting the oracle was to write on -papyrus certain words, whether of advice or judgment, which it was -proposed to put into the mouth of the deity, and to which he might -assent by nodding. - - -A Religious Reaction - -Toward the end of the eighth century B.C. a great religious reaction set -in. Hitherto the brilliant opening of the New Empire, particularly the -time of Rameses II, had set a model for the pious of the Late period; -now the Old Kingdom, its monuments, rites, and customs, its fervent -piety and its proud conservatism, was become the model epoch for the -whole nation. It was, however, less a faithful copy than a caricature of -the Old Kingdom which the Decadent period provided. All that was most -strange and _outre_ in the ancient religion was sought out and emulated. -Old monuments and religious literature were studied; the language and -orthography of long-past centuries were revived and adopted; and if -much of this was incomprehensible to the bulk of the people, its very -mystery but made it the more sacred. In the funerary practices of the -time the antiquarian spirit is very evident. Ancient funerary literature -was held in high esteem; the Pyramid Texts were revived; old coffins, -and even fragments of such, were utilized in the burying of the dead. -The tomb furniture was elaborate and magnificent--in the case of rich -persons, at least--while even the poorest had some such furnishings -provided for them. Ushabti figures of blue faience were buried with the -deceased, to accomplish for him any compulsory labour he might be called -upon to do in the domain of Osiris, and scarabs also were placed in his -coffin. The rites and ceremonies of mummification followed those of the -Old Kingdom, and were religiously carried out. The graves of even the -royal Thebans were not so magnificent as those of private persons of -this era. Yet because their inscriptions were almost invariably borrowed -from the Old Kingdom, it is hard to guess what their ideas really were -on the subjects of death and the underworld. It may be that these also -were borrowed. From the tombs of foreigners--of Syrians belonging to the -fifth century B.C.--some little information may be gathered relative -to the status of the dead in the underworld which probably represents -the popular view of the time. Herodotus asserts that the Egyptians of -this epoch believed in the transmigration of souls, and it is possible -that they did hold this belief in some form. It may well have been a -development of the still more ancient idea that the soul was capable or -appearing in a variety of shapes--as a bird, an animal, and so on. - - -The Worship of Animals - -A very prominent feature of the religion of the Late period, and one -which well illustrates the note of exaggeration already mentioned, -was the worship of animals, carried by the pious Egyptian to a point -little short of ludicrous. Cats and crocodiles, birds, beetles, rams, -snakes, and countless other creatures were reverenced with a lavishness -of ceremony and ritual which the Egyptian knew well how to bestow. -Especially to Apis, the bull of the temple of Ptah in Memphis, was -worship accorded. The Saite king Amasis, who did a great deal in -connexion with the restoration of ancient monuments, is mentioned as -having been especially devoted to the sacred bull, in whose honour -he raised the first of the colossal sarcophagi at Saqqara. But these -elaborate burial rites were not reserved for individual sacred animals; -they were accorded to entire classes. It was a work of piety, for -instance, to mummify a dead cat, convey the remains to Bubastis, where -reigned the cat-headed Bast, and there inter the animal in a vault -provided with suitable furnishings. Dead mice and sparrowhawks were -taken to Buto; the ibis found his last resting-place at Eshmunen; while -the cow, the most sacred of Egyptian animals, was thrown at death into -the Nile. - -It is notable that, despite the exclusiveness which characterized this -phase of the Egyptian religion and the contempt with which the Egyptians -regarded everything that was not of their land, several foreign elements -crept into their faith and were incorporated with it during the Saitic -and Persian supremacies. The oracles, which played a conspicuous part in -the religious government of the country, were probably not of Egyptian -origin; the burning of sacrifices was a Semitic custom which the people -of the Nile valley had adopted. Already there was a considerable Greek -element in Egypt, and in the time of Amasis a Greek town--Naukratis--had -been founded there. It is therefore not improbable that Greek ideas also -entered into the national faith, colouring the ancient gods, and perhaps -suggesting to Herodotus that resemblance which caused him to identify -the divinities of Egypt with those of Greece--Osiris with Dionysos, Isis -with Demeter, Horus with Apollo, Set with Typhon, and so on. Naturally -this identification became much more general and complete in later -years, when the Hellenes were masters in Egypt. - -Besides these foreign ideas grafted on the Egyptian religion, there -were innovations suggested by the native priests themselves, such as -the deification of certain national heroes admired by the populace -for their skill in learning and magic. Such hero-gods were Imhotep, a -distinguished author and architect under King Zoser at an early period -of dynastic history, and Amenhetep, son of Hapu, who was thought to have -seen and conversed with the gods. Both heroes were adored with the gods -at Thebes and Karnak. - - -Religion under Persian Rule - -If the Saite rulers endeavoured to keep on good terms with the -priesthood, the Persian monarchs who succeeded them were no whit behind -in this matter. Even the boldest of them found it to his advantage to -bow before the native deities, and to give to these his protection. -Meanwhile the Egyptian dynasts, who ruled contemporaneously with the -Persians, were allowed to proceed unmolested with the building of -temples and monuments. Strangely enough, in view of the nearness of -the Greek conquest and the consequent amalgamation of the religions -of Greece and Egypt, this period was characterized by a hatred and -contempt on the part of the Egyptians for all foreigners dwelling in -their cities. Kambyses, who heaped indignity upon the Apis bull and -finally slew the animal, was afterward persuaded by his physician, -Usa-hor-res-net, to recant his heresy, and was further induced to banish -foreigners out of the temple area and to destroy their houses. Other -rulers levied taxes on Greek imports, devoting the revenue thus obtained -to the goddess Neith. - - -The Ptolemaic Period - -As has been said, Greek ideas had already found their way into the -religion of Egypt when the Alexandrine conquest in the fourth century -B.C. made the Greeks dominant. Yet the ancient religion held its ground -and maintained its established character in all essential respects. The -Hellenic monarchs vied with their predecessors in the tolerance and -respect which they accorded to the native religion. It was they who -maintained the Egyptian deities in splendid state; restored statues, -books, and so on which the Persians had taken from the country; even -they themselves worshipped the absurd animal deities of the Egyptians. - -This was the great epoch of temple-building in Egypt. The temples of -Dendereh, Edfu, Kom Ombo, Philae, and many other famous structures were -raised under Ptolemaic and Roman rulers. For the favours shown them -by the conquerors the priests were duly grateful, even to the extent -of deifying their rulers while they were yet alive. It was said of -Ptolemy and his consort that "the beneficent gods have benefited the -temples in the land and greatly increased the dignity of the gods. They -have provided in every way for Apis, Mnevis, and the other esteemed -sacred animals with great sumptuousness and cost." There was even a -new order[3] of priesthood instituted, known as the "priesthood of the -beneficent gods." - -During the period of Roman ascendancy the high-priest was the most -important religious official within a considerable area, acting as the -representative of a still higher Roman official, the high-priest of -Alexander and of all Egypt. The priests of the larger temples, on which -grants of money and land had been lavishly bestowed, were doubtless -sufficiently well provided for, but in the smaller temples things were -far otherwise, if we are to judge from the evidence at our disposal. -The Theban priests especially were regarded as sages well versed in the -lore of antiquity, and as such were much sought after by travellers -from Rome. In Thebes also were priestesses, consecrated to the service -of Amen, the god of that district, to whom the Greeks as well as the -Egyptians rendered homage, identifying him with Zeus. - -The worship of animals continued unabated during the Hellenic period; -it is even probable that this phase of the Egyptian religion had become -more pronounced under the Greek rule, for Strabo, writing in the time -of Augustus, asserts that statues of sacred animals had practically -displaced those of the gods. The sacred Ram (Khnemu) of Mendes was -worshipped both by conquered and conquerors, as was the Apis bull and -the sacred crocodile, and it would seem that the temple revenues were at -times increased by the displaying of these animals to the curious gaze -of strangers. - - -Fusion of Greek and Egyptian Ideas - -Meanwhile Greek and Egyptian ideas were becoming more and more -completely fused. As already mentioned, Amen was identified with Zeus, -Isis with Demeter, Hathor with Aphrodite, Osiris with Pluto, Set with -Typhon, Bast with Artemis, and Horus with Apollo. This feature was very -strikingly exemplified in the god Sarapis,[4] a deity equally reverenced -by the Greeks and the Egyptians. Sarapis, as the former called him, or -Asar-Hapi, as he was known to the latter, was a name compounded from -Osiris and Apis. So early as the beginning of the New Empire these two -deities--Apis, the sacred bull of Mendes, and Osiris, the 'Bull of the -West'--had been to some extent identified, and finally the Apis had -been given the attributes of a god of the underworld. To the Greeks, it -would appear, Sarapis was the form taken by the _deceased_ Apis bull. -Tradition assigns the identification of Sarapis with Pluto to the reign -of Ptolemy Soter. Plutarch gives the following version of the legend. - - -The Legend of Sarapis - -"Ptolemy, surnamed the Saviour, had a dream wherein a certain colossean -statue, such as he had never seen before, appeared unto him, commanding -him to remove it as soon as possible from the place where it then stood -to Alexandria. Upon this the king was in great perplexity, as he knew -neither to whom the statue belonged nor where to look for it. Upon his -relating the vision to his friends, a certain person named Sosibius, who -had been a great traveller, declared that he had seen just such a statue -as the king described at Sinope. Soteles and Dionysius were hereupon -immediately dispatched in order to bring it away with them, which they -at length accomplished, though not without much difficulty and the -manifest interposition of providence. Timotheus the Interpreter and -Manetho, as soon as the statue was shown to them, from the Cerberus and -Dragon that accompanied it concluded that it was designed to represent -Pluto, and persuaded the king that it was in reality none other than the -Egyptian _Sarapis_; for it must be observed that the statue had not this -name before it was brought to Alexandria, it being given to it afterward -by the Egyptians, as the equivalent, in their opinion, to its old one of -Pluto." - -Another version of the tale asserts that the people of Sinope would not -consent to part with the statue of their god, whereupon the statue of -its own accord set sail for Alexandria, which it reached at the end of -three days. But whatever the means by which Ptolemy contrived to bring -the statue to Egypt, there is no doubt that his provision of a god which -could be worshipped both by Greeks and Egyptians, without violation of -the principles of either, was a diplomatic move which was justified in -its results. In the temples Sarapis was figured as a mummy with a high -crown and plaited beard; or, as Asar-Hapi, he was represented as a bull, -with the solar disk and uraeus between his horns. In the small figures -which were worshipped privately, however, he is shown in human shape, -bearded and curly-haired after the Greek fashion. - -If Sarapis was one of the most important of Egyptian deities of -this period, Horus the Child (the Greek Harpocrates) was one of the -best-loved. In the early centuries of the Christian era he is shown as -a child, sometimes seated in a lotus-blossom, sometimes in a ship, or -again enthroned as a follower of the sun-god; frequently he carries a -cornucopia or a jar. It is as a child that he was loved and worshipped -by the people, with whom he seems to have been a universal favourite. -Another popular deity was Isis, some of whose forms were decidedly -Grecian. She was the goddess of Alexandria and patron of sea-faring, the -Aphrodite of the Greeks and the Isis of the Egyptians, and at times she -is confused with Hathor. She and Osiris are also figured as serpents, -though the god of the dead is more often represented in his Sarapis -form, ruling in the underworld and accompanied by Cerberus. Another -deity who became popular during the Hellenic period, though formerly -occupying a very obscure position in the Pantheon, was the god Bes, -figured as an armed warrior, still, however, retaining his grotesque -character. A figure borrowed, doubtless, from Christianity represents -Isis and Horus in a posture strongly reminiscent of the Madonna and -Child. - - -An Architectural Renaissance - -The cult of the Old Kingdom persisted through the early, and perhaps -even into the later, Hellenic period. Those temples raised in the time -of the Ptolemies exhibit strong resemblances to those of the Old -Kingdom. Dendereh, for example, was built to a design of the time of -Kheops, and Imhotep, the hero-god, was the architect of Edfu. The walls -of these Ptolemaic temples were covered with inscriptions dealing with -the rites and customs used therein. Temple ceremonials and festivals, -such as that of Horus of Edfu, were held as in ancient times. The -ancient written language was studied by the priests, who thus had at -their command a tongue unknown to the laity. A reversion to ancient -things was evident in every phase of the Egyptian religion, and the -Greeks, far from dispelling the dust of long-past centuries, entered -partly into the spirit of the time, gave their protection to the old -customs and cults, and themselves worshipped at the shrines of sacred -cats, cows, and crocodiles. Truly a strange position for the fathers of -classicism! - -During the early centuries of the Christian era foreign religions -began to penetrate the land of the Pharaohs and to mingle with the -Graeco-Egyptian compound in a manner most perplexing to the student of -the period. The predominant alien faith, and the one which finally -triumphed, was Christianity. Osiris, the Greek gods, and the archangel -Sabaoth are mentioned in the same breath. In the magical texts -especially this confusion is noticeable, for they frequently contain -Christian, Jewish, Greek, and Egyptian allusions. Doubtless the -magicians reasoned that if the deities of one faith failed them those of -another might prove more successful, and so, to make assurance doubly -sure, they included all the gods they knew in their formulae. - - -Change in the Conception of the Underworld - -Meanwhile a change took place in the popular conception of the -underworld. It was still the Duat, governed by Osiris or Sarapis; but -now it tended to be a place of punishment for the wicked, where the -future of the deceased was influenced less by his tomb-furnishings -and inscriptions than by the conduct of his life while on earth. -Nevertheless, the burial rites continued to be elaborate and costly. -Mummification was extensively practised even among Christians, and -amulets were buried in their coffins. In the fourth and fifth centuries -there was still a considerable proportion of pagans in the country: -in Alexandria Sarapis was the principal deity; in Memphis Imhotep was -worshipped under the name of Asklepios; Zeus, Apollo, and Rhea were -favourite divinities, while at Abydos the oracle of Bes was worshipped. - - -Twilight of the Gods - -At length, however, Christian fanaticism blotted out the ancient -religion of the Pharaohs, as well as many of its priests and adherents. -The temple of Sarapis was stormed amid scenes of riot and turbulence, -and the last refuge of the Egyptian faith was gone. Henceforth the names -and myths of the ancient deities survived only in the spells and formulae -of the magicians, while their dreary ghosts haunted the ruined temples -wherein they were nevermore to reign. - - -[1] In the earliest representations the feathers do not appear. - -[2] In the earliest sarcophagi in the Serapeum no mummies were found, -only a few bones. - -[3] _Cf._ the priests of the kings of the Old Kingdom. - -[4] Or Serapis. - - - - -CHAPTER IX: EGYPTIAN ART - - -The output of the great Egyptian masters of the graphic arts has -virtually no counterpart, and, bold as this statement may appear at -first sight, it will be found to withstand tolerably close scrutiny. -Looking at some of the incomparable embroideries of bygone Persia, -studying the divine porcelain of mediaeval China, or turning over -woodcuts by the great Japanese artists of the Ukiyoe school--men like -Hokusai and Utamaro, Hiroshige, Yeizan and Toyokuni--we no doubt feel -ourselves in touch with something different from European art, yet -only partly different. Strange as these Eastern objects are, we find -in them a certain familiarity, we find them expressive of emotions and -sentiments not altogether unknown to us; and herein Egyptian things are -different, for these seem to us entirely novel, they suggest some weird, -enchanted world untrodden by the foot of man, perhaps a supernatural -world. Nor is their strangeness, their almost sinister unfamiliarity so -very hard to explain, it being due not only to the curious conventions -which the Egyptian masters obeyed so implicitly century after century, -but to the fact that the arts were indigenous to ancient Egypt. Japan -derived her painting from China about the fourteenth century A.D.; -Chinese work, in turn, frequently discloses affinities with that of -ancient Greece; and the great Italian masters of the Renaissance -owed much to the Graeco-Roman school; while the old Spanish artists, -again, were under obligations to the Moors and Arabs, and in England -and in Scotland, in Germany and in France, painting did not grow up -like a flower, but was rather an exotic imported chiefly from the Low -Countries. In short, throughout bygone times, no less essentially than -in modern periods, the arts in nearly every country owed something to -those of other countries, a great interchange going forward perpetually; -but the mighty works of Egypt were mostly wrought long before the advent -of this interchange, and painting and sculpture, architecture and other -domestic arts, would seem to have arisen of their own accord in the land -of Isis, there to thrive and develop throughout aeons of years a pure -African product, uninfluenced in any way by the handiwork of other races. - -It is always difficult to speak of the origin of anything, for even -the oldest thing has its ancestry. And while it is possible to treat -with some definiteness of the first great period of Egyptian art, the -Thinite, which commenced about 5000 B.C., we have to remember that the -output of this period was no exception to the rule aforesaid, but had -its ancestry, this consisting in the work of the shadowy pre-dynastic -time. Even at that far-off era crude images of living animals were -made in Egypt, mud, of course, being the material commonly used; while -a great deal of pottery, some of it incised with quaint patterns, was -also produced; and if many of these vases and the like are no better -than those of most primitive artists, others, again, manifest a distinct -feeling for shapeliness and proportion. Nor did the Egyptians of this -period eschew that immemorial practice, the decoration of themselves; -for among the oldest relics of the country's art are numerous personal -ornaments, some made of bone or of shell, some of stone or ivory, and -some even of precious metals. Moreover, rude forms of architecture were -early essayed, this in its turn begetting pristine efforts at mural -embellishment. - -In pre-dynastic Egypt the dead were usually interred in shallow graves -with no embellishment, only one painted tomb of that early period -being known. When, however, we pass to the study of the period which -succeeded, it is the art of sepulchral decoration which first claims -attention. Not even in Roman Catholic countries, not even in China, has -the welfare of the dead ever been thought of so lovingly, so constantly -and zealously, as in ancient Egypt. A very solid affair was the Egyptian -tomb of this era, built commonly of limestone or sandstone, but -occasionally of granite, or of breccia from the Arabian mountains; and -in the case of a notable person the sides of his tomb were duly carved -with pictures of his deeds while on earth, and more especially with -pictures illustrating his prospective passage through the underworld. -Generally, too, a statue glorified the outside of his tomb, this statue -being wrought of alabaster, schist or serpentine, diorite or limestone, -granite or sandstone; and the sculptor, be it noted, never aimed -primarily at decoration, but invariably at a portrait of the defunct. -Moreover, he would seem to have pondered very deeply on the question -of durability, attaching his work firmly to its _repoussoir_, or, more -often, making it a very part thereof; and to illustrate the Egyptian's -predilection in this respect we may mention two works, both in the -Cairo Museum, the one showing the Pharaoh Mycerinus seated, the other -depicting a group of three people, likewise seated. In both cases the -statuary have been hewn out of the great pieces of rock supporting them, -and could not possibly be removed therefrom save by elaborate cutting -with mallet and chisel. - -A wealth of other statues belonging to the early dynastic era are -still extant, many of them possessing rare artistic value. And if -the same can hardly be said with reference to existing specimens of -the relief-cutting of this period, when turning from these to early -domestic art we are struck repeatedly by its infinite loveliness. -Prominent among such things as merit this praise are numerous bracelets, -while the Cairo Museum contains two fine carved ivory feet of a stool -which express great vigour of artistic conception, and the same -collection includes sundry tiny figures of monkeys, lions, and dogs, all -of them manifestly the work of a master who had a keen sense for the -curious beauty which lurks in the grotesque. - -To an early period also, that of the Pyramid Kings, should be assigned -those amazing monuments of the industry and ingenuity of bygone Egypt, -the Pyramids and the Sphinx--works which have evoked nearly as much -eloquence, alike in prose and verse, as the _Monna Lisa_ of Leonardo -da Vinci and the Elgin Marbles of Phidias. Usually supposed to have -been wrought early in the era in question, their inception is, however, -wrapped in mystery; but whatever the true solution of that enigma, -this Memphite period was certainly one which witnessed considerable -developments in Egyptian art. True, there is little opportunity of -studying the architecture of the time, such relics as exist consisting -in little more than heaps of stone or masses of sun-dried brick; yet -in the field of sculpture, on the contrary, we are enabled to note and -scrutinize progress. Heretofore sepulchral statues had been virtually -a preserve of the rich and great, but now all sorts and conditions of -tombs--or, at least, the tombs of many comparatively poor people--were -garnished in this way; and as the defunct was often portrayed in -an attitude indicating his career on earth, this statuary offers a -valuable sidelight on Memphite Egyptian life. Thus we find, here a -man engaged in brewing, there another seated at secretarial work, his -posture practically that of the modern tailor; while we observe -also that care for the welfare of a deceased magnate of any kind was -being manifested on a more intricate scale than hitherto. That is to -say, suppose his friends and relations should be anxious that he should -be well fed in the hereafter, they would embellish his resting-place -with statuary delineating a kitchen in being; while sometimes, with an -analogous end in view, they would represent in the tomb-chapel a group -of musicians, each depicted with his instrument in his hands.[1] And -in all these works, as also in divers others of a different nature, we -notice a more fluent handling than that characterizing the generality of -those of pre-dynastic days, as witness what is possibly the very crown -of the Pyramid age (Fourth Dynasty) sculpture, the full-length at Cairo -of the 'Sheikh-el-Beled' (whose real name was Ka-aper), a figure wrought -in a fashion vigorous and confident as anything from the hand of Rodin -or Mestrovic. Furthermore, we mark again and again that artists were -now beginning to express their respective individualities, they were -showing themselves less prone to conform slavishly to a given _regime_; -and it is significant that one of the Pyramid age sculptors, Ptah-Ankh, -far from hiding his identity like all his predecessors, saw fit on one -occasion to model a stone relief in which he himself figured as sitting -in a boat. - - -The Materials of Painting - -It should be noted at this juncture that these Egyptian bas-reliefs -were not usually left in a monochromatic state as is customary in -modern Europe; for the painter, on the contrary, was generally called -to the sculptor's aid, while even portrait statues were frequently -coloured also. And apart from work of this order, the craft of painting -on sun-dried clay was carried to no mean height of excellence during -Pyramid days, as also was that of painting on papyrus, while mummy -cases were often decked with multitudinous hues. The colours in many -of these old Egyptian works still possess great depth and brilliance, -while, indeed, some of them have lasted far better than those in divers -Italian frescoes of the Renaissance, and infinitely better than those -in numerous pictures by Reynolds and Turner; and thus we naturally -pause to ask the questions: What manner of pigments were commonly used -in Egypt? and what, exactly, was the _modus operandi_ of the country's -painters? Well, an Egyptian artist usually kept his paints in the -condition of powder, and on starting work he liquefied them with a -mixture of water and gum tragacanth; while he next proceeded to apply -this solution with a reed pen, or with brushes made of soft hair, few -men being in the habit of using more than two brushes, a thick one and -a thin. Then as to the colours themselves, the gold we sometimes see -is, of course, easily accounted for; while black, it would seem, was -obtained by burning the bones of animals, and white was made of gypsum -mixed with honey or albumen. Red and yellow, again, were procured by -more familiar processes, the former being derived from sulphuret of -mercury, the latter simply from clay; while blue, a comparatively rare -shade in natural objects other than the sea and sky, and therefore hard -to obtain, was evolved from lapis-lazuli. The picture duly finished, -some painters would cover it with a coat of transparent varnish, made -from the gum of the acacia; but the men who did this were really few in -number, and the colours in their works have not lasted well--not nearly -so well as those in paintings by masters who left varnish severely alone. - -Leaving these technical details and returning to the actual history -of the arts in Egypt, we must speak now of the Middle Kingdom, which -commenced with the Ninth Dynasty (_c._ 2445) and lasted to the -Seventeenth Dynasty. During this time the craft of building developed -apace, among the results being the obelisk of Heliopolis. And if these -are works reflecting thaumaturgic mechanical ingenuity rather than -great artistic taste, the latter is certainly manifest in two other -vast structures of early Theban days, the temple of Kom-es-Sagha and -the portico of Sa Renput I. Much fine domestic art was also made at -this time, as witness the diadem and crown of Khnemit, both of which -are now at Cairo. A more natural style became discernible, both as -regards bas-reliefs and paintings. Indeed, many sketches and paintings -of this period, especially those which delineate scenes of sport, war, -and athletics, possess a spirit and dash which show that the race of -Egyptian artists was becoming more skilled in the free use of the brush. -One of the most remarkable paintings of this period is a picture at Beni -Hassan, the subject of which is a series of wrestling bouts. - - -New Empire Art - -In the period of the New Empire (Eighteenth to Thirty-first Dynasties) -the student of Egyptian art is confronted with a veritable embarrassment -of riches, chiefly architectural. It was this period which witnessed the -completion of such imposing structures as the hypostyle hall at Karnak, -the temple of Rameses III at Medinet-habu, and the great assemblage of -ecclesiastical edifices at Der-el-Bahari. The finest and most imposing -buildings at Luxor likewise belong to this era, as do the rock-cut -temples at Bet-el-Wali and Abu-Simbel. The sculptors of the period -also achieved lasting triumphs, especially in the two colossal figures -of Memnon at Thebes, and the famous Avenue of Sphinxes at Karnak. The -statue of Thothmes III, Amenophis, the son of Hapu, and Queen Tyi are -also of great aesthetic interest. Turning to bas-relief, the likenesses -of Seti I (Abydos), Septah Meneptah, and Queen Aahmes (a plaster cast in -the temple at Der-el-Bahari) claim our attention, the last-named being -among the loveliest of all Egyptian works of the kind. The delicacy and -refinement of this masterpiece surpasses almost any relief executed in -Egypt before it. In fact, a greater refinement begins to be apparent in -the Egyptian art work of this period, even the domestic arts showing -greater attention to delicacy. Lines of great subtlety appear chased on -table utensils, while equal skill is apparent in numerous amulets and -much of the jewellery of the period. Little boxes, handles of mirrors -and spoons designed to hold cosmetics are in many cases the result -of craftsmanship of a very high order. One of the spoons depicts a -woman swimming behind a swan, and inevitably recalls the myth of Leda. -Finally, much beautiful furniture was made during this period, perhaps -the best existing specimen being a chair in the Cairo Museum, its arms -adroitly carved in the form of stealthy-looking panthers. - -During this period the use of wood as a medium for artistic -representation seems to have been on the increase. Contemporaneously the -craft of casting in metal was improved and then virtually perfected, -a consummation which had an important influence upon sculpture. This, -too, was the epoch at which the Egyptian artists in colour revolted -against the conventionality which had in ancient times beset their -craft. Until this time they had not attempted to colour realistically. -Certain objects were tinted according to tradition as taught in their -schools. Thus the flesh of a man was painted a reddish brown, that of a -woman yellow, that of a priest blue, and so forth. And it was not until -the period of the New Empire that artists began to revolt seriously -against this system. One unknown master went so far as to indulge in -rosy flesh-tints, and it is natural to inquire whether it was foreign -influence which aroused this iconoclastic act. Be that as it may, there -can be no doubt that Egyptian artists began to learn from those of other -lands--the Assyrians, for instance--and this circumstance renders the -study of Egyptian art during this period somewhat difficult and complex. - -The last period of Egyptian art, the Saite, commenced about 721 B.C. -During this epoch the incursions of the Persians, Greeks, and finally -of the Romans are seen acting materially on the country's productions, -often to their detriment, for instead of working naturally, instead of -employing their own national style, the Egyptian artists of the Saite -period were prone to imitate, uttering themselves haltingly in fashions -borrowed from other races. - -But it is a mistake to maintain, as is occasionally done, that this -waning of lofty traditions began with the very advent of the Saite -age. It is a mistake to contend that no vital art was executed by the -Egyptians thenceforward. Not till the eve of the advent of Christ did -Egyptian jewellery and craftsmanship in general begin to decline; while -as to architecture, Herodotus speaks in the most eulogistic terms of the -great buildings at Sais. Unfortunately most of these are demolished, -and we have no chance of studying them at first hand. The Pharaohs of -the Saitic period lost the vast command of labour of their Theban and -Memphite predecessors; nevertheless the dawn of the last period in -Egyptian art saw the completion of many noble edifices. The pronaos of -Komombos, the temple of Isis at Philae, and the kiosk of Nectanebu at -the same place, deserve citation, as also do the Mammisi and temple of -Horus at Edfu. Yet everywhere are to be seen structures of this period -influenced by Greek or Roman ideas, and others which are clearly the -work of Egyptian masons acting under the instructions of alien masters. - -The painting of this period embraces numerous works equal to any -product of earlier times--for example, the vignette of the Judgment -before Osiris contained in the papyrus of Queen Mat-ka-re. But we also -observe Egyptian artists forsaking their time-honoured colour-schemes -and using such tints as green and mauve, probably copied from Hellenic -decorations. In the bas-reliefs of the time, moreover, we find much -which is sadly mechanical--so mechanical that we are persuaded that -it was done to order from drawing supplied by foreigners. Nor is -the history of Saite statuary greatly different from that of those -arts mentioned above, for while at first a wealth of splendid things -were achieved--notably a study of Osiris recumbent and a portrait -of Petubastis--the mechanical element crept into this domain as it -had done into the others. Sculptors became mere artisans, slaving at -the reproduction of prescribed patterns. Some actually kept in stock -ready-made statues of the human body, the heads to be added as clients -presented themselves. - - -Egyptian Art Influences - -Still, the expression of a nation's soul does not entirely vanish, -and if Egyptian artists were ultimately influenced by the conquering -Romans, the Italian craftsmen came no less surely under the sway -of the great Egyptian schools, and, as noted at the outset of this -chapter, the Romans inspired much of the work of the Italian masters -of the Renaissance, whose output was long regarded as the flower of -European art. We find Egyptian influences strong in Spain, for the art -of the Nile had cast its potent spell over the Arabs, who at a later -date became almost the fathers of the domestic arts in the Iberian -peninsula; and so it is with no surprise that, when looking at old -Spanish ornaments, we frequently find them bearing a close resemblance -to analogous articles made for the belles of Memphis and of Thebes. -Nor was France without some more direct Egyptian influence than that -which reached her indirectly through Italy. The characteristic art of -the French Empire was directly descended from Egyptian art. Under Louis -XIV French painting and craftsmanship were ornate and pompous in the -extreme, but in the following reign luxury in all departments of life -was at a discount. A new simplicity was demanded, and while craftsmen -were casting about for patterns suited to this taste, the Comte de -Caylus published his monumental work on the antiquities of Greece, -Rome, and Egypt, its pages embellished throughout with illustrations -from the author's own hand.[2] It speedily kindled inspiration in the -minds of numerous artists, and we may place to its credit some of the -most tasteful and beautiful furniture ever designed. The Egyptian -expedition of Napoleon, too, led to the importation of Egyptian -articles, and thenceforth until the eve of Waterloo scarcely a table, -chair, or mirror of French manufacture with any claims to artistry but -disclosed the influence of the Egyptian schools. Not only were actual -shapes borrowed, but it was quite common to decorate furniture with -pseudo-Egyptian statuettes and reliefs, or with brass plaques chased in -imitation of parts of Egyptian pictures. - -The pseudo-Egyptian craftsmanship of the Empire--so apt an expression -of the temper of French thought at that time--may be studied well at -Fontainebleau or at Marlborough House in London, while of course it is -in evidence in the backgrounds of many Empire pictures, in particular -those of Louis David. Indeed, that master himself, the most influential -French painter of his day, owed something to the Egyptian school, while -a similar debt is suggested by sundry works of the sculptors Chinard -and Houdon; and a study of Empire buildings reveals that the architects -of the period, mainly devoted though they were to ancient Greece and -Rome, were not uninfluenced by the art of the land of the Pharaohs. Nor -was this true only of the French architects, for that great Scottish -artist in stone, Robert Adam, who died the year the French Republic -was established, would seem to have shared the attraction. He often -introduced Egyptian objects into his decorative schemes, while the -large, imposing simplicity he frequently attained is rich in suggestion -of notable Egyptian edifices. The same massive 'Egyptian' simplicity is -to be seen in the statuary of the mighty Serb, Ivan Mestrovic, as also -in that of the Swede, David Edstroem. Indeed, it would be wearisome to -enumerate all the artists of different nationalities who have clearly -been indebted to the genius of Egypt, but we must not conclude without -some reference to the influence of the school on the Post-Impressionist -painters. - -The Post-Impressionists were not, as is commonly said, direct -descendants of the Impressionist group, but rather seceders therefrom. -Their watchword was simplicity, and in pursuance of this ideal they -turned lovingly to study primitive art, especially that of the -Egyptians, finding therein that simple element which they desired. - - -Artistic Remains - -Returning to our main subject, we may ask, What is the actual aesthetic -value of Egyptian art to our own generation? - -Imagine a museum, some thousands of years hence, ostensibly representing -the art of France from the beginning of the fifteenth century to the -end of the nineteenth; and suppose this crammed with the off-scourings -of the Salon school and the autotypes and _bric-a-brac_ of the Rue de -Rivoli, with only here and there a Clouet, a Boucher, or a Lancret, only -here and there a Clodion, a Dalou, or a Rodin. Would not visitors to -such a collection be certain to conclude that the French were anything -but artistic? Conditions such as those indicated above obtain in nearly -every Egyptian collection of the present day. The point of view of those -in charge of museums and exhibits seems to be that anything of Egyptian -origin should be treasured, however lacking it may be in artistic merit, -and small wonder if the average visitor of taste has not the patience -to search through such heterogeneous collections in which the few vital -articles are buried. The great mass of Egyptian remains are far inferior -to those of Greek origin, wrought in the time of Phidias and Apelles; -the master works of Egypt, on the other hand, are equal to the artistic -products of any age, and it is with these master works, and only with -these, that we must concern ourselves here. - - -Egyptian Colour-harmonies - -The Egyptian painter seldom or never sought to blend his different -shades into each other, he seldom or never dealt in gradations; -instead he painted in large patches, each patch clearly demarked from -its neighbour. But with this system he achieved some of the grandest -colour-harmonies, as witness the papyrus of Ani,[3] wherein the -prominent notes are brown and yellow, green, white and black. Even more -beautiful is the papyrus of Queen Mat-ka-re, slightly higher in pitch -than the last-named, and dominated by an exquisite reddish yellow; -while, turning to polychromatic sculpture, surely there was never a -lovelier piece of colouring than the statue of Princess Neferet, with -its rich greens and reds, its browns and whites. Scarcely inferior to -this is the coffin of Khnumu-Hotep, painted with gold, black, and brown, -and with stripes of peacock-blue decorated with patterns in gold. - -If the Egyptian was a divine colourist, he was still more surely a -master of composition. The artist striving after harmony in design may -arrange a host of figures upon a canvas, or he may take for his purpose -only a very few objects. The former, the usual practice of the European -school, is infinitely the easier of the two; but the Egyptian commonly -chose the latter, and on his piece of papyrus or on his plaque of stone -he placed his few objects so happily and in such perfect aesthetic -relationship to each other that the whole space used appears to be -decorated. His draughtsmanship, besides, is usually of high excellence; -here, too, he faces a difficulty, giving a bold impression rather than -a detailed drawing, yet so expressive are his lines that the work -possesses abundantly the illusion of life. - - -The Great Simplicity of Egyptian Art - -We have spoken of sundry Egyptian works as subtle, delicate, and -refined; but these are not characteristic examples, they are not those -which chiefly command homage. Subtlety, an exquisite quality, one of the -ultimate qualities, is nevertheless closely allied to weakness, and the -sustained effort to express it is apt to prove injurious to the artist. -Whistler, for one, striving after the delicate, the refined and subtle, -too often approximated effeminacy; and some of the greater Japanese -painters, preoccupied with dreamy half-tints and febrile lines, came -dangerously near producing the merely pretty. In the characteristic work -of the Egyptians, however, we never detect a hint of this failing; for -theirs is before all else a powerful, bold, simple art, often reflecting -a grand, ruthless brutality like that in the great English dramatists. -We have seen that it was their simplicity which engaged the Frenchmen -of the Empire, eager to make something of a strenuous temper; we have -seen that it was this element, too, which commanded homage from the -Post-Impressionists, so intensely serious and aspirational a group. And -may we not add that this simplicity is the loftiest factor discernible -in Egyptian art? May we not add that the Egyptians achieved this merit -with a triumph almost unrivalled by other races? And may we not say, -finally, that simplicity is the noblest of all artistic qualities? The -great poems, those which live from generation unto generation, are -most assuredly those in which the subject is expressed with divine -simplicity, the poet attaining the maximum of expression with the -minimum of means, which is exactly what the great painters and sculptors -of Egypt compassed. - -But simplicity, like subtlety, has its concomitant danger, for what is -very simple is apt to be deficient in mystery, so essential an item in -a vital work of art. Yet here, again, we find the Egyptian victorious; -he has adroitly evaded the peril of baldness. The Egyptian sculptor, -producing a portrait, always adumbrates the character of his sitter, -itself a mysterious quality, and there is in a host of Egyptian works of -art a curious sense of infinity, a suggestion of the eternal riddle of -the universe. They are the most mysterious works ever wrought by man, -some seeming verily eloquent of silence; we feel in their presence a -strange mood of awe, a feeling which has been thus happily expressed: - - Tread lightly, O my dancing feet, - Lest your untimely murmurs stir - Dust of forgotten men who find death sweet, - At rest within their sepulchre. - -These lines, written by Lady Margaret Sackville while tarrying at -Assouan, crystallize the reverential mood which often possesses us in -the presence of Egyptian art; and yet, are these entombed men of whom -the writer sings really forgotten? - - Past ruined Ilion Helen lives, - -eternal life vouchsafed to her by the song of Homer; surely bygone -Egyptians have, in like fashion, won immortality through the genius of -their mighty artists. - - -[1] Single statues in the Old Kingdom, figures in groups in Middle -Kingdom. - -[2] _Recueil d'antiquites egyptiennes, etrusques, grecques, romaines et -gauloises_. Six vols. Paris, 1752-1755. - -[3] See Frontispiece and illustration facing p. 120 [reproduced in black -and white in the present edition]. - - - - -GLOSSARY AND INDEX - - -THE PRONUNCIATION OF EGYPTIAN - - -The correct pronunciation of Old, Middle, and Late Egyptian can only be -gleaned by analogy from that of Coptic, which represents the popular -language of Egypt from the third to the ninth century A.D. But this -tongue was strongly reinforced by Greek loan-words, and as it was -rendered in writing by the Greek alphabet it is difficult to say how -much of the native linguistic element it really represents. But its -orthography gives a clear idea of its pronunciation, and it is the -mainstay of Egyptian philologists in restoring the word-forms of the -ancient language, or at least Late Egyptian, between which and the -Middle and Old dialects there is a wide linguistic gap. Indeed, the -pronunciation of these archaic forms is probably for ever lost to modern -scholarship. Speaking generally, Egyptian words and names are usually -pronounced by scholars as they are spelt. - -(Index not retained in text-version.) - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Myths and Legends of Ancient Egypt, by Lewis Spence - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MYTHS AND LEGENDS OF ANCIENT EGYPT *** - -***** This file should be named 43662.txt or 43662.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/6/6/43662/ - -Produced by Madelaine Kilsby, Clare Graham & Marc D'Hooghe -at http://www.freeliterature.org - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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