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diff --git a/43643.txt b/43643.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 223b5c6..0000000 --- a/43643.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2892 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, Foods and Culinary Utensils of the Ancients, -by Charles Martyn - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: Foods and Culinary Utensils of the Ancients - - -Author: Charles Martyn - - - -Release Date: September 4, 2013 [eBook #43643] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOODS AND CULINARY UTENSILS OF THE -ANCIENTS*** - - -E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Martin Pettit, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made -available by Internet Archive (http://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 43643-h.htm or 43643-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/43643/43643-h/43643-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/43643/43643-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - http://archive.org/details/cu31924090142187 - - - - - -FOODS AND CULINARY UTENSILS OF THE ANCIENTS - -Compiled from standard historical works by - -CHARLES MARTYN. - - - - - - - -Published by -The Caterer Publishing Co., -New York - - - - -CONTENTS. - - Page. -"In the beginning"--The coming of the nations 3 - -Assyria and the other kingdoms of the "tawny men" 9 - -Egypt and the Egyptians 13 - -The "vegetable kingdom" of Ancient Egypt 25 - -Greece before the age of luxury 30 - -Rome in the days of her greatest prosperity 39 - -The ancient Jews 49 - -The Chinese 60 - - - - -IN THE BEGINNING. - - -The influence exerted by different foods over the physical and mental -faculties of mankind is so marked as to verify the famous pun of the -philosophic Feuerbach, "Der Mensch ist was er isst" (Man is what he -eats). The advance of civilization has always been accompanied by an -increased knowledge of culinary matters, until cooking has become a -science and its various forms great in number. So in tracing back the -history of foods, culinary utensils and their uses, we of necessity -trace back the history of the world. - -It is of course impossible at this late date to determine what was the -first food of primeval man; ignorant as we are of even the approximate -date of his first appearance and of the manner and means of that -appearance. - -But it is worthy of note that if he had not been endowed with an -intelligence superior to that of the other inhabitants of the globe, his -existence here would have been very brief. Nature provided him with a -body which, in those days, was well nigh useless. His prehensile organs, -his teeth, jaws, feet and nails, did not fit him for overcoming any of -the difficulties entailed by the adoption of most foods prepared by -nature. He could not tear his prey conveniently nor crack many nuts, nor -grub roots, nor graze. His digestive viscera were in the middle age too -bulky and heavy for the rapid movements of the carnivora; they were not -long enough to extract nourishment from raw vegetables. The only foods, -therefore, primarily obtainable by him which he could use to advantage -were fruits and soft-shelled nuts. - -As man, however, advanced in knowledge, his skill in the art of cooking -rendered any or all objects used for nourishment by other mammalia fit -subjects of diet for himself. This may appear a sweeping assertion, but -the statements of reliable travelers prove its truth. The fact should be -carefully considered by those who advocate a diet exclusively of -vegetables, and by those few enthusiasts who preach that man was not -"intended" to be a cooking animal. - -Whatever else may be clouded with doubt, it is certain that man was so -fashioned as to be compelled to eat in order to sustain life! In the -beginning, instinct must have taught him that the consumption of food -was the _sine qua non_ of his existence. - -When was the beginning? - -The Biblical chronology of events prior to the Deluge is not accepted by -scientists. The students of to-day believe, and seek to prove, that the -earth has existed for several million years, and has passed through many -different stages; that animal life was first evolved from the -"inanimate" state of matter; that man is the most highly finished -creature that has as yet been attained in the ascending scale of -evolution, and that he will, in the natural course of events, make place -for a still more nearly perfect being. - -The exact date of the first appearance of man cannot now be ascertained. -Geological research has led to the assertion that he probably existed -thousands of years before the time usually assigned. But if we commence -our history from the last great glacial visitation we find that the -conceded date of its occurrence, about 5,000 years before the birth of -Christ, coincides rather closely with the date of the creation as given -in the book of Genesis. Assuming then that the neolithic, or stone age -followed not only the ice visitation, but the creation (to use a -familiar phrase), the theory of many scientists and the story of the -Bible agree on the one, to us, essential point--the birth of the first -people. - -Horace, in his third satire (first book), gives his views of the first -food of the human race. (At that time, six hundred years before the -Christian era, it was held that man was not created in a perfectly -developed form, but was engendered from beings of a different kind.) He -says: "When first these creatures crawled out of the ground, dumb and -foul brutes, they fought for nuts, first with nails and fists, then with -sticks, and later with weapons made of metal." This coincides with the -deduction made in the third paragraph, that nuts have a just claim to -the title of one of the "first foods." - -These savages must have suffered from exposure to the occasional -inclemency of the weather. To protect themselves, they, being endowed -with an ever-increasing power of reason, resorted to the skins of wild -animals for covering. Failing to obtain a sufficient number from the -carcasses of those which had died a natural death, they conceived the -idea of destroying life in order to obtain the coveted article. They may -not at first have availed themselves of anything but the outer covering, -leaving the flesh to be eaten by other animals or birds, but the flesh -adhering to the hide would soon become offensive from decomposition, and -what is more probable than that their common sense soon directed them to -remove it directly after being stripped from the slaughtered animal? The -teeth of the primitive man were constantly in use for many purposes; so, -in tearing off the pieces of flesh with them, may the first appetite for -meat as food have been acquired. - -It is difficult to determine when food was first subjected to the -influence of heat; it is still more useless to attempt to explain how -the properties of fire were first discovered. It is presumed that the -first fire witnessed by man, was caused by the fall of a meteorite, a -volcanic eruption or a lightning flash. The observation of its peculiar -effects excited the still dormant inventive spirit of the neolithic, and -he essayed the production of it himself. Evidence proves that he first -attained his end by striking pieces of flint against iron pyrites and -letting the sparks fall upon some combustible material, placed -accidentally or intentionally beneath. It is easy to imagine that it was -soon learned that fire would destroy human life and that the pleasing -odor of the burning flesh led to the use of cooked meat as food. - -The cradle of the fathers of the human race was undoubtedly the -southern portion of Asia. They were nomadic in their habits and -satisfied their acquired cravings by hunting and fishing. The stone -floors of the caves in which they made their temporary abodes were -admirably suited to the building of their rude fires. - -Ultimately these neolithics became owners of flocks and herds, usually -of sheep and goats, and moved about from place to place in search of -fresh pastures. Members of these flocks were slain from time to time as -convenience dictated. When for any reason food was scarce, their other -domestic animals, even their dogs, fell a prey to the insatiable -appetite for blood. The forests abounded with living things, now -generally classified under the title of "game," and these also -contributed materially to the food supply. - -No fancy methods of preparing meats or game were then practiced. -Everything was either roasted or cooked by means of hot stones. The -roasting was in all probability accomplished by suspending the whole -carcass of the animal, denuded of the skin, over burning embers, -composed of the limbs of trees broken up into suitable lengths--as -indeed do the gypsies of Europe to the present day. The roasted meat was -at first separated from the body by the hand, later by sharpened sticks -or flint flakes, subsequently by flint knives. There is no evidence of -any metal being used for that purpose before the Deluge. - -Though these first people are known to have partaken freely of the flesh -of animals and of the fruits of trees, both of the nut and pulp -varieties, there is nothing that leads one to believe that fish was used -as an article of food until after the Deluge. - -Turning again to the Scriptures, many interesting things may be noted. -The first mention made of a flesh offering and of the ownership of -domestic animals is in Genesis, when Abel "gave of the firstlings of his -flocks and of the fat thereof," while Cain brought "of the fruits of the -ground." The earliest mention of cooked animal flesh is found in Genesis -8: 21, when Noah offered up "burnt offerings of every clean beast and -every clean fowl" after the Deluge. In the story of the creation, man is -enjoined to sustain life by vegetable food: "Every herb bearing seed, -which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree in which is the -fruit of a tree yielding seed" were given to him "for meat." Nothing was -said about the flesh of animals. But, after the Flood, "God blessed Noah -and his sons and said unto them: * * * Every moving thing that liveth -shall be meat for you, even as the green herbs have I given you all -things." - -So in many ways scientists and the Bible agree on the habits of the -neolithics. Both state that the primitive food of man consisted of nuts -and fruits; both mention the subsequent possession of flocks and herds, -and both refer to the knowledge obtained later of the effects of fire on -meat--with the one difference that the evolutionists seek to prove that -the meat so roasted was eaten, while the Biblical man prior to the -Deluge offered it untouched to his Maker. - -Although it is now generally acknowledged that the Deluge was not -universal, it is undeniable that it marked an all-important epoch, for -from it may be said to date the recorded history of the present race of -men. From the posterity of Noah sprang up the principal nations which -have made the world what it is to-day. - - -THE COMING OF THE NATIONS. - -If we accept the biblical chronology of the events which immediately -followed the Deluge, we find that Noah and his three sons, Shem, Ham and -Japheth, landed on Mt. Ararat and fixed their habitations in the plains -directly below. A formal division of the earth into three portions was -made by Noah about a hundred years later, when he was still in the prime -of life and when men were beginning to multiply sufficiently to form -colonies and settlements. One portion was assigned to each of his sons -with his posterity. - -The three territories may be roughly classed as the northern, or the -region of the "ruddy men;" the central, the region of the "tawny men," -and the southern, the region of the "blacks." - -To the offspring of Japheth was allotted Garbia (the north)--Spain, -France, the countries of the Greeks, Sclavonians, Bulgarians -and Armenians. The offspring of Shem were given the central -region--Palestine, Syria, Assyria, Samaria, Babel or Babylonia, and -Hedjaz (Arabia). The sons of Ham received the southern division--Teman -(or Idumea), Africa, Nigritia, Egypt, Nubia, Ethiopia, Scindia and -India. - -Various causes scattered the posterities of the three brothers, and -nations were founded in many parts of the world. - -Ultimately six great monarchies were established, Chaldea, Assyria, -Babylonia, Egypt, Media and Persia. - - - - -ASSYRIA AND OTHER KINGDOMS OF THE TAWNY MEN. - - -The territories ruled by Chaldea, Assyria and Babylonia were located -almost entirely on the vast plains of Mesopotamia. Although (or rather -because) these nations were continually at war with one another they may -be considered, for present purposes, as one country. - -Babylonia was the first to be settled, with Nimrod, the mighty hunter, -as its monarch, about 2350 B. C. - -Although Assyria advanced rather more in civilization than the other -two, the constant warfare waged and the varying degrees of supremacy and -subjection held by the three kingdoms necessarily resulted in much -intermingling of their inhabitants and a consequent similarity of -domestic manners and customs as they emerged from barbarism. - -Agriculture soon became the most general industry. Wheat, barley, millet -and sesame were largely raised. Other varieties of pulse and grains were -plentiful also, as well as many excellent fruits, which have since been -transported to our own countries with remarkable success. - -The different grains were ground to varying degrees of fineness between -two stones. The flour or meal was then moistened with water, kneaded in -a dish or bowl, and either rolled into thin cakes or pressed by the hand -into small balls or loaves. - -The wheaten bread was generally preferred, but the poorer classes were -perforce content with the cakes of coarse millet or durrha flour, eaten -with milk, butter, oil or the fat of animals. - -Dates formed an important article of diet amongst the people of Chaldea -and Babylonia, although they do not appear to have been very favorably -regarded by the Assyrians. Date groves flourished in many parts of the -land, and the fruit was dried and pressed into cakes. These with goats' -milk and such vegetables as gourds, melons and cucumbers helped nourish -the great mass of the population. - -Other fruits, some of them found in great numbers, were pomegranates, -grapes, citrons, pineapples, oranges, pears, apples and many small -berries. - -Bread, wine and a kind of honey were made from the fruit of the palm -tree. - -King Sennacherib called Assyria "A land of corn and wine, a land of -bread and vineyards, a land of oil, olives and honey." - -Nature seems indeed, to have blessed her first children with an -abundance of the good things of life! - -It does not appear that the flesh of domestic animals was eaten to any -great extent, and the inference is that it was beyond the means of most -persons, for when warriors, upon an expedition, were able to obtain it -at the expense of others, they freely indulged their appetites. After -their victories they killed and cut up sheep and oxen, and roasted the -joints over the embers of a wood fire. Sometimes they boiled the joints -or the whole body in a huge pot or caldron, over a dead wood fire--on -which, also, pieces of the flesh were fried. - -Amongst the upper classes mutton appears to have been the favorite meat. -Chickens were also considered a great delicacy. - -As the races of those days, with the exception probably of a few people -closely confined in the cities, were great hunters, a plentiful supply -of game was usually obtainable--venison, antelopes' flesh, hares, -partridges, etc. The flesh of the wild boar was also eaten, but there is -no evidence to prove that the animal was domesticated with the intention -of using it for food. - -According to Herodotus, some of the Babylonian tribes ate nothing but -fish, dried in the sun, pounded in a mortar until the fibres would pass -through a fine cloth, and then kneaded into a sort of bread and baked. -At first a prejudice against this species of food seems to have -existed, but later it was held in much esteem. The supply of both fresh -and salt water fish was practically unlimited. - -Locusts were also eaten with great gusto. - -The culinary arrangements and operations are not yet very clearly -defined by the chroniclers. - -The fireplace, built presumably of well-burned bricks, was open at the -top, about two feet in height, and occasionally covering an area of many -square feet. Whether it was of square or cylindrical shape does not -appear. Over the top was set or suspended a large bronze caldron. - -These caldrons were sometimes of great value. They were usually circular -in shape, flat or nearly flat at the bottom, without feet, and furnished -at the rim with ears or rings to receive an arched handle or a hooked -chain. Many belonging to the wealthier classes were embossed with -flowers and otherwise richly ornamented. They were commonly known as -"seething pots." They varied from eighteen inches to five feet in -height, and from two and a half to six feet in diameter. - -Roasting was perhaps the most common mode of preparing meat, but it was -also broiled, slices being cut from the divided joints and transfixed -with wooden spits. - -For delicate operations, a fire of coal was later on made in a portable -brazier. The oven then used was cylindrical in form, much deeper than -wide, and made of fire-burnt bricks or indurated clay. - -In the houses of the wealthy, and the palaces of the monarchs, the -cooks, though usually slaves, were treated with much respect. They were -distinguished by the wearing of a cap (not unlike the tiara of the -reigning sovereign, except that it was devoid of jewels and unsurmounted -by an apex or peak), and they had numerous assistants to relieve them -from all the menial labor. - -The cook's knife, closely resembling the modern two-bladed dagger, was -usually made of bronze, often thickly gilded, with a much ornamented -hilt carved from the hard black wood of the Syrian terebinth. Some, -however, were fashioned from bone, partly covered with metal and adorned -with pins and studs of gold. Others had handles of ivory carved to -represent the foreparts of bulls and other animals, and many were -embellished with precious stones. Quite a number were of copper, with -hollow handles. - -Among the kitchen utensils was a jug with a long neck, an angular -handle, and a pointed bottom. It was usually suspended from a nail or -hook. - -There was also a plentiful and varied supply of vases, large and small, -pitchers for holding water and other liquids, bowls, cups, pans, small -bottles, ladles, jars and funnels--some of pottery and others of bronze, -some of simple form and others elaborately patterned. The funnels were -generally shaped like the wine strainers of to-day. - -Skins were often used for holding both wine and water. - -The dining tables were supported by props with one or several feet, in -the houses of the rich made often of ivory and carved in the form of a -lion or a hero such as Atlas, and among the poor of stone. - -The plates and dishes were of stone, alabaster or bronze. The dishes -were generally made with handles, either fixed or movable, by which they -could be carried or hung on pegs when not in use, and the red unglazed -basins bore inscriptions, in cursive character, running round the -interior in many lines to the bottom. - -The cups, especially those used for wine, were very beautiful. The lower -part was often modeled in the form of a lion's head from which the cup -itself rose in a graceful outward curve. Many of them were of gold and -silver. - -To Assyria is due the birth of the "culinary art" and its gradual growth -to a state closely bordering on perfection. It will be noted that it was -marked also by the manufacture of utensils and vessels far more costly -and elaborate than any in use at the present time. - - - - -EGYPT AND THE EGYPTIANS. - - -The recorded history of ancient Egypt which was, according to Herodotus, -known as Thebes, commences with the reign of Menes, or Menas, who is -supposed to have been its first king. He ascended the throne about 2320 -B. C. - -The growth of civilization among the early Egyptians was much more rapid -than among the people of any contemporary nation. Even in the days of -Abraham and Joseph they had attained to as high a degree of social -culture as during the most glorious periods of their career. In art and -science their advancement was especially marked. - -In her infancy, Egypt contented herself with the pursuits of -agriculture, the chase, and, as the habits of the people became more -settled, the rearing of cattle. - -The domestic oxen were usually of the hump-backed variety. But not only -were the ordinary domestic animals tamed and reared, but also animals -such as gazelles and oryxes. - -Sheep, though, do not appear to have been generally eaten; in some parts -it was, indeed, unlawful to devour them. - -Goats were kept, presumably for their milk, and kids were occasionally -allowed to browse on the vines in order to impart to their flesh a more -delicate flavor. - -Pigs were generally looked upon as unclean, and therefore unfit for -food. The chroniclers show them as used for food at only one festival. -Those represented on the monuments were ugly in the extreme, with long -legs and necks, rough hair, and a crest of bristles running down the -back. - -Beef and goose were more generally eaten than any other kind of animal -food. The flesh of the cow was, though, never consumed on account of its -supposedly sacred character. - -The animals chiefly hunted were the gazelle, wild goat, auk, wild ox, -stag, wild sheep, hare, porcupine and even the hyena. The wild boar is -not represented on the monuments, but it probably thrived in ancient -Egypt, for the country was admirably suited to its habits, as is proved -by its tenancy there at the present date. - -In lower Egypt, people were in the habit of drying and salting birds of -various kinds, such as geese, teal, quail, duck, and some of smaller -size. - -Pigeons were also very plentiful and were much liked, and many of the -wading tribe, as for instance the ardea, were so highly esteemed as to -have been considered choice offerings for the gods. - -The greatest favorite, however, was the Vulpanser, known to us as the -"Egyptian goose," which, with some others of the same genus, was caught -alive and tamed. They were also taken in a wild state to the poulterers' -shops to be displayed for immediate sale, and when not so disposed of -were then often salted and potted in earthenware jars. - -According to Diodorus, the eggs of domestic birds were hatched by the -use of artificial heat furnished by manure. - -Of the wild birds, the "sic sac," a small plover, was often mentioned. - -The river of Egypt was noted for the excellent quality of its fish -(eaten both fresh and salted or dried), many varieties of which seem to -have been peculiar to it. "The Israelites remembered with regret the -fish which they did eat in Egypt freely." - -The kinds most highly regarded were the oxyrhynchus, lepidotus and -lotus. - -The oxyrhynchus is now believed to have been the _mormyrus_ or the -"mizdeh" of the Arabs. It has a smooth skin and a long nose, pointed -downwards. In some districts it was held sacred to Athor. - -The lepidotus may have been the _salmo dentex_ or the binny (_Cyprinis -lepidotus_). As its name implies, its body was covered with long scales. -Its flesh was excellent. - -The lotus, sacred in the region of Latopolis, is supposed by De Pauw to -be the _perca nilotica_. - -Other varieties much liked were: The oulti, to modern palates the best -of all; the nefareh or Nile salmon, which occasionally attained the -weight of one hundred pounds; the sagbosa, a kind of herring; a species -of mullet, the shall, shilbeh byad, kilbel bahr, (the Nile dogfish) a -species of carp, eels, and turtles of the soft-shelled variety. - -[Illustration: Roasting a goose over a fire of peculiar construction. - -(From a tomb at Thebes.)] - -Eels were, though, considered unwholesome in summer (Ibid.). - -Crocodiles were considered sacred in the neighborhood of Lake Moeris and -of Thebes, but were eaten by the natives of the southern frontier. - -The many restrictions imposed by religion and custom on the diet of the -early Egyptians subjected them to much ridicule from the inhabitants of -contemporary nations, especially from the Greeks. Anaxandrides taunted -them in his verses. - -The priests lived solely on oxen, geese, wine, bread and a few -vegetables. Mutton, pork and fish were expressly forbidden them. They -were also warned to abstain from beans, peas, lentils, onions, garlic -and leeks. On fast days they ate only bread and drank only water. - -The people of the higher classes probably ate only two meals a day, as -was the custom with the early Greeks and Romans. The breakfast was -usually served at 10 or 11 a. m., and the dinner or supper in the -evening. - -In the early ages, before men had acquired the art of smelting ore, many -of the culinary utensils of the Egyptians were either of stone or -earthenware. - -Knives were made of flint or stone, and were of two kinds, one broad and -flat, the other narrow and pointed. - -The skins of the goat and gazelle were fashioned into vessels for the -carrying of water, and pans, dishes and vases for kitchen purposes were -made of a red ware--sometimes of a light or yellow tint, sometimes of a -brilliant and polished appearance. - -The Egyptians were acquainted with the use of glass at least as early as -the reign of Sesortasen II. (more than 3800 years ago), and made for it -bottles and other utensils. Some of the former were made from two -thicknesses of glass, enclosing between them bands of gold, alternating -with a set of blue, green or other color. - -As the Egyptians advanced in social culture, the wealthier classes gave -more and more attention to the pleasures of the table. Banquets became -more general and increasingly more elaborate. The sums of money spent on -some of these entertainments were fabulous; they have never since been -equalled in their costly, wasteful magnificence. - -The preparation of a big dinner was in those days a weighty undertaking, -for there were no big hotels to take the burden off the host's -shoulders. Game had to be procured, professionals engaged, extra -attendants hired, etc. - -As all the meat used was freshly slaughtered, the kitchen and the -butcher's department presented an active appearance for many hours -previous to the feast. - -In slaughtering, it was customary to take the ox or other animal into a -courtyard near the house, tie its legs together and throw it to the -ground, to be held in that position by one or more persons while the -butcher prepared to cut its throat, as nearly as possible from one ear -to the other, sometimes continuing the opening downwards along the neck, -the blood being received in a vase or basin to be utilized later in -cooking. The head was then taken off and the animal skinned, the -operators beginning with the leg and neck. The first joint removed was -the right foreleg or shoulder, the other parts following in succession -according to convenience. One of their most remarkable joints, still -seen in Egypt (although nowhere else) was cut from the leg and consisted -of the flesh covering the tibia, whose two extremities projected -slightly beyond it, as seen in the illustration. - -[Illustration: The Tibia, a peculiar Egyptian joint.] - -Servants carried the joints to the kitchen on wooden trays. There they -were washed and prepared for the different processes of cooking. Then -the various cooks were kept busy scouring the utensils, attending to the -boiling, roasting, etc., pounding spice, making macaroni and performing -all the other details of kitchen work. - -The head of the animal was usually given away in return for extra -services, such as the holding of the guests' sticks, but it was -occasionally eaten by the people of the higher classes, the assertion of -Herodotus to the contrary notwithstanding. - -Geese and other tame and wild fowl were served up entire, and fish also -came to table deprived of only the tails and fins. - -Vegetables were cooked in enormous quantities. - -Bronze caldrons of various sizes were used for boiling. They were placed -over the fire on metal stands or tripods or supported on stones. Some of -the smaller vessels, used for stewing meats, were heated over pans of -charcoal. They resembled almost exactly the _magoor_ of modern Egypt. - -The mortars used for the pounding of spices were made of hard stone and -the pestles of metal. - -Most of the bowls, ewers, jugs, buckets, basins, vases and ladles used -in the kitchen were made of bronze alloyed with tin and iron. The usual -proportion of tin was 12 per cent. and iron 1 per cent., although -occasionally the amount of tin was as high as 15 (Ibid.) and as low as 6 -per cent. - -[Illustration: Slaves boiling meat and stirring fire.] - -Simpula, or ladles, were commonly made of bronze (often gilded), with -the curved summit of the handle, which served to suspend the ladle at -the side of the tureen or other vessel, terminating in the likeness of a -goose's head (a favorite Egyptian ornament). - -Small strainers or collanders of bronze were also used, though for -kitchen purposes they were made of strong papyrus stalks or rushes. - -The spoons were of various forms and made from ivory, wood and divers -metals. In some the handle ended in a hook, by which when required they -were suspended on nails. The handles of others were made to represent -men, women or animals. Many were ornamented with lotus flowers. - -Skins were also used for holding wine and water. - -The roasting was performed over fire burning in shallow pans. These were -regulated by slaves, who raised them with pokers and blew them with -bellows worked by the feet. - -Though the Egyptians, except when impelled by the desire for extravagant -display, partook sparingly of all but one or two meats, they were fond -of a great variety of cakes and dainty confections. The more elaborate -forms of pastry were mixed with fruits and spirits, and shaped to -represent animals, birds and human beings. - -The plainer rolls were generally mixed and shaped by hand and sprinkled -with seeds before baking. At other times, though, they were prepared -from a thinner mixture, first well kneaded in a large wooden bowl (the -feet often being used for this purpose), and then carried in vases to -the chief pastry cook, who formed it into a sort of macaroni upon a -metal pan over the fire, stirring the mixture with a wooden spatula, -whilst an assistant stood ready with two pointed sticks to remove it -when sufficiently cooked. - -Wine and water were placed in porous jars and fanned until cool. The -water was purified by the use of paste of almonds (as it is, indeed, at -the present day). - -In the meantime, the reception room had been arranged for the guests. -Chairs or stools were placed in rows or groups, extra carpets and mats -strewn about, flowers put in and around vases and the house decorated in -every other conceivable manner. - -When guests began to arrive, they were first received in the vestibule -by the attendants, who presented them with bouquets, placed garlands of -lotus upon their heads and sometimes collars of lotus around their -necks. To those who had come from a distance, they offered water and -rinsed their feet. They then anointed their heads with sweet-smelling -unguents and offered them wine and other beverages. During these -proceedings the visitors were generally seated on the mats. - -[Illustration: A black and white slave waiting upon a lady.] - -After having received these attentions, the ladies and gentlemen -intermingled and passed on to the main apartment, where the host and -hostess received them and begged them to take their seats on the chairs -and fauteuils which had been arranged for them. Here more refreshments -were handed around and more flowers offered, while the guests, generally -in couples, but sometimes in groups, conversed with one another. Music -was next commonly introduced, sometimes accompanied by dancing. The -performers in both acts were professionals and the dancing girls nearly -if not quite naked. Sometimes at the same party there would be two -bands, which we may suppose played alternately. Pet animals, such as -dogs, gazelles and monkeys, were also often present (Ibid.). - -On some occasions the music, dancing and light refreshments constituted -the whole of the entertainment, but more generally the proceedings -described formed only the prelude to the more important part to follow. -The stone pictures show us round tables loaded with a great variety of -delicacies, such as joints of meat, geese, duck and waterfowl of -different kinds, cakes, pastry, fruits, etc., interspersed amongst the -guests. - -These tables could be more accurately described as low stools supporting -round trays. The stool or pillar was often in the shape of a man, -usually a captive, who bore the slab on his head. The whole was made of -stone or some hard wood. It was not often covered with linen, but was -from time to time cleansed with a moist rag or cloth (Homer). - -The dishes were probably handed round by the attendants and the guests -helped themselves with their hands, as knives and forks were then -unknown and the spoons that were manufactured do not seem to have been -used for eating. The guests took as much as they could hold in their -hands and, after eating, dipped them in water or wiped them in napkins -which, it will be observed, the waiters carried. Beer and wine were -supplied to quench the thirst. - -As individual cups were not usually seen, the women were presented with -the desired beverage in silver vases, and the men with it in hand -goblets, which after being drained were returned to the attendant. Women -and men both imbibed freely and drunkenness was a universal and -fashionable habit of both sexes. - -When the country was in the zenith of her power and magnificence, the -drinking goblets were of gold, silver, glass, porcelain, alabaster and -bronze. They varied also in form, some plain in appearance, others -beautifully engraved and studded with precious stones. Heads of animals -often adorned the handles, the eyes frequently composed of various -gems. Many were without handles, while others were so shaped as to more -properly come under the name of beakers and saucers. The beakers were -frequently made of alabaster with a round base, which prevented their -maintaining an upright position without additional support; and when -empty they were turned downwards upon their rims. The saucers, which -were of glazed pottery, were ornamented with lotus and fish carved or -molded on their concave surface. - -Many of the vases have never yet been surpassed in daintiness of -ornamentation. The most remarkable were those fashioned from porcelain -which was made of a fine sand or grit, loosely fused and covered with a -thick silicious glaze of a blue, green, white, purple or yellow color. -The blue tints obtained have never been equalled in modern times. - -Herodotus tells us that, after the heavier part of a banquet, it was the -custom to have a man carry round a coffin containing a wooden image in -exact imitation of a corpse. Showing this to each of the revelers, the -bearer would say: "Look upon this and then drink and enjoy yourself, for -when dead you will be like unto this." A rather weird observance, which -might be traced back to the death of Osiris. - -If the phrases are correctly reported, we must suppose the figure, -brought in after the eating was ended and when the drinking began, was -for the purpose of stimulating the guests to still greater conviviality. -But if that were the case when Herodotus visited Egypt it must have been -originated with a very different intention. The Egyptians were too much -inclined to excesses in eating and drinking, both men and women -(Herodotus and Plutarch), and the priests probably endeavored to thus -check their too riotous mirth without personally interfering. Plutarch -said concerning it: - -"The skeleton which the Egyptians appropriately introduce at their -banquets, exhorting the guests to remember that they shall soon be like -him, though he comes as an unwelcome and unseasonable boon companion, -is nevertheless in a certain degree seasonable, if he exhorts them not -to drink too deeply or indulge only in pleasures, but to cultivate -mutual friendship and affection and not to render life, which is short -in duration, long by evil deeds." - -[Illustration: EGYPTIAN PARTY. (From a Tomb at Thebes.) - -Host and hostess receiving presents. Dancing girls. Slaves waiting on -guests. Placing collars of lotus around their necks. Slaves preparing -bouquets. Scribe. Butchers cutting up ox. Carrying trays of meat. Man -clapping hands and singing. Guitar player. Harpist. Slave carrying head -and haunch. Stick custodian rewarded.] - -After the skeleton, there was sung a doleful song in honor of Maneros, -whose identity is clouded by traditional disputes. - -Next, music and songs of more mirthful character were resumed. Sometimes -jugglers, male and female, were hired for the occasion. They amused -their audience with ball tossing, turning somersaults, leaping and -wrestling. Occasionally, games, resembling our draughts or checkers, -served to amuse those present (Ibid.), but as a rule the fumes of wine -prevented any such quiet occupation, and the festival in many cases -ended with a most riotous carousal. - -The foregoing is probably a true picture of a banquet in ancient -Egypt--except that, according to some writers, the diners were seated on -the floor and ate from very low stools or tables. - -Yet, in spite of all, the moral code of the early Egyptians was purer -than that of contemporary nations. And commerce and war carried abroad -the advanced thoughts, great learning and luxurious tastes of these -ancient people, to be the foundations in after years of divers -civilizations, amongst them our own. - - - - -THE "VEGETABLE KINGDOM" OF ANCIENT EGYPT. - - -The vegetable kingdom of ancient Egypt may be roughly divided into four -great classes--trees and shrubs, esculent plants, grains and artificial -grasses. - -Of the first named, the most important food providing trees were the -doom and date palms, the sycamore, tamarisk and mokhayp or _myxa_. - -The doom palm (_Cucifera Thebaica_) grows abundantly throughout all -upper Egypt. It is a very picturesque tree which, unlike its -date-bearing sister, spreads out into numerous limbs or branches, -reaching an elevation of about thirty feet. Its wood is more solid than -that of the date tree, and was found to be very serviceable for the -building of boats, etc. - -The blossoms are of two kinds, male and female. The fruit, which is -developed from the female blossom, grows in large clusters, each fruit -attaining the size of a goose's egg, although the nut within the fibrous -external envelope is not much bigger than a large almond. The flavor of -the nut is peculiarly sweet, resembling our ginger bread. It was eaten -both in a ripe and unripe condition--in the latter it has about the -texture of cartilage; in the former it is harder, and has been compared -to the edible portion of the cocoanut. - -The date palm is too well known to need any general description. Two -kinds, however, flourished--the wild and the cultivated. The wild -variety grew from seeds, and often bore an enormous quantity of fruit. -Sir G. Wilkinson is authority for the statement that a single bunch has -been known to contain between 6,000 and 7,000 dates, and as it is a -common thing for a tree to bear from five to twenty-two bunches, the -average total is often from 30,000 to 100,000 dates per tree. The fruit -is, though, small and of poor quality, and consequently it is not often -gathered. - -The cultivated variety was grown from off-shoots selected with care, -planted out at regular intervals and abundantly irrigated (Ibid.). It -began to bear in five or six years and continued productive for sixty or -seventy. - -Besides the amount of nourishing food furnished and the value of the -wood of the date palm, an exhilarating drink was made from its sap and -brandy or _lowbgeh_, date wine and vinegar from the fruit without much -difficulty. - -The fruit of the sycamore (_Ficus sycamorus_) ripens in June. Although -it was much esteemed by the ancients, it has been denounced by moderns -as insipid. - -The mokhayt (_Cardia myxa_) grows to the height of about thirty feet, -commencing to branch out at a distance of twelve feet from the ground, -with a diameter at the base of about three feet. Its fruit is of a pale -yellow color, inclosed in two skins. Its texture is viscous and its -taste not very agreeable. It was used extensively as a medicine, and was -also, according to Pliny, made into a fermented liquor ("Ex myxis in -Aegypto et vina fiunt"). - -Among other fruit trees and shrubs may be mentioned the fig, -pomegranate, vine, olive, peach, pear, plum, apple, carob or locust -(_Ceratonia siliqua_), persea, palma, christi or castor oil plant, nebk -(_Rhamnus Nabeca_), and the prickly pear or _shok_. - -The persea (_Balanite Aegyptiaca_) is a bushy tree or shrub which under -favorable circumstances reaches an altitude of eighteen or twenty feet. -Its bark is of whitish color, its branches gracefully curved, its -foliage of an ashy gray hue. Its lower branches are supplied with long -thorns; on its upper branches grows the fruit, which resembles a small -date in general character. Its exterior consists of a pulpy substance -of subacid flavor; its stone is large for the size of the fruit, and -incloses a kernel of yellowish-white color and an oily, rather bitter -flavor. Both the exterior and the kernel were eaten. - -The nebk or _sidr_ is another fruit of the date variety. It was eaten -raw, or the flesh, detached from the stone, was dried in the sun. It -enjoyed the reputation of being a sustaining as well as agreeable -article. - -The most common fig was that known to the Romans as "cottana," and by -the modern Arabs as "qottaya." - -The olives grown were large and fleshy, but contained little oil. - -Vines were undoubtedly much cultivated, in spite of the assertion of -Herodotus to the contrary. The bunches of grapes, when intended for -immediate consumption, were, after being gathered, placed in flat open -baskets. When intended for the wine press they were closely packed in -deep baskets or hampers, which were carried to the shed or storehouse on -men's heads or by means of shoulder yokes. The juice was extracted by -treading or squeezing in a bag. - -The juice of the grape was sometimes drunk in its fresh condition -(Genesis), but fermentation was usually awaited, and the wine was then -stored away in vases or amphorae of elegant shape, closed with stoppers -and hermetically sealed with moist clay, pitch, gypsum or other similar -substances. - -The best brands came from Anthylla (Athenaeus), Marestis (Pliny and -Strabo), and the tract about Lake Marea. Sebennytic, Thebaid and Coptos -also produced light, wholesome wines. - -The esculent plants consisted of both wild and cultivated varieties. -Those most in demand were the byblus or papyrus, the Nymphaea lotus, -lotus coerulea and the Nymphaea nelumbo (called by Pliny "colocasia" and -also "cyamon"). - -The papyrus grew luxuriantly in ancient Egypt, especially in the marshy -districts of the Delta, although it is no longer found in the country. -The pith of the upper and middle portions of the tall, smooth, -triangular-shaped reed was used for paper, but that of the lower portion -and the root were regarded as an edible delicacy. According to -Herodotus, it was prepared for the table by being baked in a closed -vessel. - -The Nymphaea lotus, which resembles our white water lily, was also a -product of the lowlands. The seed vessels were collected and dried, to -be afterward crushed and made into cakes. The rest of the plant was also -eaten cooked or raw, and was said to be of a "pleasant sweet taste," but -nineteenth century palates declare it to be no better than a bad -truffle. The lotus coerulea was merely another variety of the same -plant. - -The Nymphaea nelumbo, which is, by the way, no longer found in Africa, -was called by the Greeks and Romans the "Egyptian bean," and was -regarded by those races as emblematic of Egypt. It did not differ from -the ordinary lotus except in the large dimensions of the leaves and the -size and loveliness of its blossoms. The leaf of the flower varied from -one to one and a half feet in diameter. It had two rows of petals six -inches in length, of a crimson or rose-colored purple, and inside of -these was a dense fringe of stamens surrounding and protecting the -ovary. The fruit developed into a sweet, wholesome nut or almond, -divided into two lobes by a bitter green leaf or corculum (removed -before eating), with a shell shaped like the rose of a watering pot and -studded with seeds (about the size of small acorns and to the number of -twenty or thirty), which projected from the upper surface in a circle -about three inches in diameter. Both the nuts and roots were eaten by -the poorer classes. - -Wheat and barley were grown in all the provinces in the valley of the -Nile, as were also, though to a lesser extent, rice, millet, pulse, -peas, beans, lentils, hommos (_Cicer arietinum_), gilban (_Lathyrus -sativus_), carthamus, lupins, bamia, jigl (_Raphanus sativus_--Linn., -Herodot., Pliny), simsin, indigo, cassia, senna, colocynth, cummin (the -seeds of which were used for bread), durrha, coriander, cucurbitae, -onions, cucumbers, leeks, etc. - -The onions were mild and of an excellent flavor. Nicerates quotes Homer -as authority for the statement that they were much relished when eaten -with wine. - -According to Diodorus, children and even some grown persons lived at -that time solely on roots and esculent herbs, eating them both raw and -cooked. - -The bread or cake used in the homes of the wealthy was made from wheaten -flour; those one degree lower in the social scale made use of barley -meal, and the poorer classes ate bread of the durrha (Holcus sorghum) -flour. - - - - -GREECE BEFORE THE AGE OF LUXURY. - - -It is impossible within these pages to tabulate with absolute -correctness any hard and fast menu as the diet of the ancient Greeks, as -it varied greatly according to the products of the several parts of the -diversified country over which they ruled, but one can by the process of -elimination arrive at fairly satisfactory generalities. - -The principal food of the poorer classes was bread. It was not a very -appetizing kind, however, as it usually consisted of a simple dough of -barley meal moistened with water, or, occasionally, poor wine. It was -eaten without cooking or any further preparation. This was the universal -food of the Spartans. - -The middle and wealthy classes partook, though, of baked wheaten bread, -which was called by Homer "the strength of life." - -All other kinds of food, with the exception of sweet cakes, cheese and a -few vegetables and fruits, were at first considered (save by the -inhabitants of the cities) as luxuries--somewhat as even now amongst -old-fashioned people in Scotland, the term "kitchen" is applied to all -edible articles other than dry bread. - -Of sweet cakes there were many kinds. They were flavored with various -seeds and sweetened with honey. Sugar, though, if known at all, was used -only for its medicinal properties. - -Cheese was eaten mixed with wine or honey and salt. - -Dried figs and grapes were much liked, especially by the Athenians, and -olives were even then pickled for a relish. - -The vegetables that were formerly cultivated are not easily -distinguished by the names applied to them by different writers, but it -is certain that lettuce, cabbage, peas, beans, vetches, leeks, onions, -parsley and thyme were grown, as well as truffles and mushrooms. -Vegetables were eaten in the form of soup, served on hot dishes with -sauce or dressed as salad. - -In the numerous towns large quantities of fish were sold. The salt water -were more generally preferred than the fresh water varieties, although -especial favor was bestowed on the eels that were obtained from Lake -Copais in Boeotia. There grew up early in history a heavy trade in fish -from the Black Sea and even from the coasts of Spain. - -Although frequent mention is made of fish, cheese and vegetable markets, -a meat market seems to have been almost unknown. From this and also from -the fact that the word which designated butchers' meat also signified -"victim," it may be concluded that oxen were primarily slaughtered only -at sacrificial feasts. - -The flesh of the hare was more highly esteemed than that of any other -kind of four-footed game. Of wild birds the thrush was most relished. - -Pheasants and woodcock were plentiful, and quails were made to act as -combatants for the edification of the Grecian youth. - -Domestic fowls and eggs were common. - -Butter was seldom made, as it was considered unwholesome, olive oil (as -at the present time) being used in its place. - -Although the Greeks were fond of water as a beverage, the difficulty of -obtaining it of good quality, combined with the tremendous production of -wine, made the latter the national drink. It was, however, seldom drank -in an undiluted condition, and the Northerners, who were in the habit of -drinking it neat, were denounced as unappreciative barbarians. But this -is not very strange, as the large amount of fir resin which is still -added to most Greek wines, makes them too strong and bitter for the -civilized palate to drink unless tempered by water. - -The first juice extracted from the press before treading was set apart -as choice wine, the pressed grapes being then used for the making of the -commoner variety or vinegar. - -The wine was often boiled and mixed with salt for exportation, and -aromatic herbs and berries were added to impart different flavors. It -was then placed in earthenware jars sealed with pitch. - -The various kinds may be roughly classed by colors. The black was the -strongest and sweetest; the white was the weakest, and that of golden -color was dry and very fine in flavor. - -The wines grown in the districts of Lesbos, Chios, Sikyon, and Phlios -were the most esteemed. Age was considered when estimating the value of -wine, but the preference for any special year of vintage seems to have -been unknown. - -Even in those early days epicures whenever possible cooled their jars -with snow before pouring out the wine. - -Cow's milk was not liked, but the first milk of goats and sheep was -often drank, although more generally used for the manufacture of cheese. - -The morning meal seldom consisted of more than bread dipped in wine and -water, resembling closely the morning coffee of the Continent. The -principal meal of the very early Grecians, as in the case of nearly all -young nations, was served about noon, but as civilization advanced, the -hour grew later, until 5 o'clock became most popular, a light luncheon -then being served in the middle of the day. - -Although Homer represents his chiefs as being always ready to sit down -and gorge themselves with meat, the Grecian gentleman was not a disciple -of "high living" or indolence. He desired and appreciated the charm of -sober conversation and intellectual stimulus. Homer recognized this when -he said, "Nor did the mind of any stand in want of an equal feast." - -The social instincts and the warmth of feeling amongst the Hellenic race -made dinners and festival events of every day occurrence, and caused -them to fill a prominent part in the lives of all, but the diet of the -Homeric age was wonderfully simple (in those early days the most -elaborate dinners consisted of only two courses--the first of meat, -usually roasted sheep, oxen or pigs, and vegetables; the second of -cakes, sweetened with the honey of Hymettus, and dried and fresh -fruits), for appetites were held subordinate to the love of music and -the dance. - - - "* * * Nor can I deem - Aught more delightful than the general joy - Of a whole people, when the assembled guests, - Seated in order in the royal hall, - Are listening to the minstrel, while the board - Is spread with bread and meats, and from the jars - The cup-bearer draws wine and fills the cups. - To me there is no more delightful sight." - - (Plato.) - - -Invitations were generally given a few days in advance by the host in -person in the market or any other place of common sojourn. - -Unlike the Egyptians, the Grecians made their toilets and anointed -themselves before arriving at their host's house. - -But before eating, - - - "* * * In a bowl - Of silver, from a shapely ewer of gold, - A maid poured water o'er the hands and set - A polished table near them." - - -Then, if any had traveled from a distance, their feet were bathed in -perfumed water and wine. - -Meanwhile the male attendants were not idle-- - - - "* * * Some in the bowls - Tempered the wine with water, some cleansed - The table with light sponges and set - The banquet forth and carved the meats for all." - - -A separate table was in those days usually provided for each guest, -though the rule was not strictly observed. - -In some cases, diners-out were accompanied and attended by their own -servants. In a few districts in modern Greece this is still habitual. - -Chairs and stools were generally used as seats, the custom of reclining -on couches not being introduced until a later date. - -As napkins were then unknown, the guests wiped their fingers on towels -and in pieces of specially prepared dough, which were thrown under the -table after being used. - -There were spoons (of metal, often of gold--Athenaeus), but hollow -pieces of bread were generally used in their stead. - -The carver presided at a table and cut the meats into small pieces, as -individual forks and knives were then unknown. The portions were usually -of uniform size, although any very honored person was presented with -larger or choicer morsels. - -The diluted wine was then transferred by ladles to the drinking cups or -beakers, to be distributed by boy servants. The first cup was handed -from one to another of the guests untouched as a sort of salutation. - -It was not customary to drink before the meal had been served. - -Bread was handed round in little baskets woven from slips of ivory. - -Moderation was universally observed. It was deemed gluttonous to linger -long over a repast, and contemptible to imbibe too freely of wine. - - - "* * * When the calls of thirst - And hunger were appeased, the diners thought - Of other things that well become a feast. - Song and the dance." - - -But here again all ribaldry was debarred. Tender hymns and rhapsodies -were sung to the accompaniment of the harp by trained singers, who were -seated at special tables on silver-mounted thrones. - -Games of various kinds usually followed, and with conversation filled -out the time until the gathering dispersed. - -House picnics were much in vogue: - - - "* * * * Meantime came - Those who prepared the banquets to the halls - Of the great monarch. Bringing sheep - And strengthening wine they came. Their wives, who on their brows - Wore snowy fillets, brought the bread, and thus - Within the halls of Menelaus all - Was bustle setting forth the evening meal." - - -Among the dining room utensils should be mentioned the various baskets -of copper, silver, gold and ivory wire; vessels for mixing wine, usually -of silver, but sometimes of the more precious metal, and cups of -elaborate design and costly workmanship. - -[Illustration: Drinking vessels: Bowls, beakers and rhyta.] - -The cups were of various shapes and sizes. The "depas" had two handles -and was made of wood, thickly covered with gold studs. Another, the -"kypellon," was broad and shallow, made of various metals, usually gold. -The "phiate" was very similar in appearance to the kypellon. The -"kotyle" was so small as to merely hold "a scanty draught, which only -wet the lips, but not the palate." - -The "sykphos" and "kissybion" were simple wooden cups in use amongst the -peasantry. They were usually made of the wood of the cypress. - -Skilled cooks were seldom regularly employed on the domestic staff. They -usually congregated in the market places and when any particular -occasion necessitated their services they were hired by the day. As also -nowadays they generally represented several nations, and they gained in -social importance as the love of luxury gradually overcame the custom of -simple fare. - -The regular staff of household servants, slaves in fact, were under the -management of a general steward, himself a slave, who attended -personally to the buying and superintended the details of all the other -departments. - -[Illustration: Wine jugs or oinochoai.] - -But besides these private dinners, occasion often brought about banquets -on a much larger scale, sometimes in honor of religion or of death. - - - "* * * There upon the ocean's side - They found the people offering coal black steers - To dark haired Neptune. On nine seats they sat, - Five hundred on each seat; nine steers were slain - For each five hundred there." - - -There was also a great difference between the foods of the ordinary -people and that of the heroes described in the classics. According to -Homer, who was probably guilty of exaggeration, the athletes consumed -enormous quantities of various meats (roasted or broiled, by the -way--never boiled), which comprised their entire diet with the exception -of wine and bread. Beef, mutton, venison, and especially pork, were -mentioned. - - - "He spake and girt his tunic round his loins - And hastened to the sties in which the herds - Of swine were lying. Thence he took out two - And slaughtered them and scraped them, sliced the flesh - And fried it upon spits and when the whole - Was roasted, brought and placed it reeking hot, - Still in the spits and sprinkled with white meal." - - -Fish and cheese were only considered worthy of the athletic when animal -flesh was scarce. Nor were these giants possessed of very fastidious -palates. - - - "* * * * At the fire - Already lie the paunches of two goats - Preparing for our evening meal, and both - Are filled with fat and blood." - - "* * * * As one turns and turns - The stomach of a bullock filled with fat - And blood before a fiercely blazing fire - And wishes it were done * * * *." - - -The hospitality of the early Grecians was unbounded. The high moral and -social standard of the masses of the people rendered it possible to -extend greater courtesy towards strangers than would have been deemed -prudent in later days. Every stranger or traveller who knocked at the -door of a residence was sure of a welcome. No questions were asked him -until he had been generously entertained in every feasible manner, for -he stood under the protection of Zeus Xenios, guardian of the guest. - -This lavish friendliness was probably caused by, or was perhaps itself -the cause of, the scarcity of hostelries of reputable character. A -spirit of compassion also existed, as it was then considered an ill -fortune that made one journey far from home. - -As the centuries of increasing wealth and power relaxed the rigidity of -the morals of these ancient inhabitants of Greece, the love of luxury -gradually supplanted the absorbing desire for intellectual enjoyment -which had at first raised them so far above the people of the -neighboring territories. Gluttonous devotion to the table, in -conjunction with numerous vices, undermined the physical as well as the -moral constitution, and the country which had astounded the ages with -the valor of its sons, which had proved invulnerable to numerous martial -forces, succumbed to the influence of sensual tastes and passions, -suggested by the idleness of worldly success. And as their worship of -their palates grew, the trained cook obtained an even greater influence -until his position became one of extreme importance, and was so recorded -by the poets and dramatists of the time. - -Little difference, in fact, was there between the habits of the latter -day Greeks and the Romans in the days of their great wealth, for Grecian -luxuries and Grecian habits were the models that Rome took as its -models, so we will pass on to the next chapter, inferentially describing -the former while depicting the latter. - - - - -ROME IN THE DAYS OF HER GREATEST PROSPERITY. - - -The food of the early Romans resembled to a great extent that of the -Greek heroes (their national dish was pulmentarium, a porridge made of -pulse), but to avoid repetitions we will pass over the first centuries -of Roman history, choosing as our subject Rome in the days of -prosperity. - -It should, however, be mentioned that Greece never attained such -enormous wealth as Rome, and that even in her greatest recklessness she -was more refined. Goethe said that in the days of their highest -civilization the Romans remained parvenus; that they did not know how to -live, that they wasted their riches in tasteless extravagance and vulgar -ostentation--but it must be remembered that, whereas the civilization of -the nineteenth century is industrial, that of Rome was militant, and to -that should be attributed the fact that some of the simplest means of -comfort were then unknown. - -Many moderns are inclined to doubt the assertions made concerning the -countless riches and marvellous expenditures of those days. They read -with skepticism the writings of Juvenal, Seneca and the elder Pliny. -But, though in some cases exaggeration was doubtless resorted to, -sufficient proof remains to convince the observing mind that the wealth -of the Roman far surpassed the wildest dreams of the richest man of the -present day. The ruins of the Colosseum and of the baths of Caracalla, -two structures raised solely for pleasure, impress us with their -stupendous magnificence, and even the twentieth century has failed to -equal the palaces of the nobles. - -Moreover, it must be remembered that the wealthy Roman owned many -mansions. Each of the larger ones was a miniature city, sheltering a -small army of slaves. The buildings were surrounded by parks, vineyards, -woods and artificial lakes. The atria and peristyles were embellished -with valuable paintings and statues. The walls and ceilings of the -chambers were decorated with gold and precious stones. Nowhere else, -recorded in the history of the world, with the possible exception of the -palaces of the Incas, has gold ever been so lavishly used. On the -furniture and ornaments alone, millions were expended. A single cup of -murra brought 1,000,000 sesterces ($40,000). A small citrus wood table -cost a similar sum--yet Seneca owned 500 of them, an outlay on that -class of furniture alone of $20,000,000. - -All Italy was covered with the country residences of the patricians. -They were found in numbers on the coast of Campania, the Sabine hills -and the lakes of the North. - -The most esteemed members of the household staff were the coqui (cooks) -and the pistores (fancy bakers). They often amassed large fortunes from -their salaries and the many presents they received. All the other -servants (who were usually slaves) were under the jurisdiction of a -headman, an _atriensis_. - -The first meal (_ientaculum_) was light, consisting ordinarily of bread -and wine with honey, dates, olives or cheese. At the prandium (their -_dejeuner a la fourchette_, which took the place of their noon dinner of -former days), meats, vegetables, fruits, bread and wine were provided. -After the second meal, the meridiato (or in modern language, the siesta) -was enjoyed, as it is in the Italy of this century--although, unlike the -sleepy town we know, business Rome then never slept. - -After the short midday rest came games and exercises. The youth betook -themselves to Campus Martius. The older members of the family made use -of the sphaeristerium, a private gymnasium and ball room, which was -found in every house. With it were connected the private baths. - -The cena, the principal meal, commenced at 3, 4 or 5 o'clock in the -afternoon. Seldom less than four hours were spent at table. Pliny, the -elder, who was considered a very abstemious man, sat down to his meal at -4 o'clock, and remained there "until it began to grow dark in summer and -soon after night in winter," at least three hours. The amount of food -consumed would be incredible were it not for the explanation recorded by -Seneca, "Edunt ut vomant; vomant ut edunt." - -The dinner menu given below was of a very ordinary affair: - - - _Gustus._ - - Sorrel - Lettuce - Pickled Cabbage and Gherkins - Radishes, Mushrooms, etc. - Oysters - Sardines - Eggs - - - _First Course._ - - Conger Eels - Oysters - Two kinds of Mussels - Thrushes on Asparagus - Fat Fowls - Ragout of Oysters and other Shellfish with black and white Maroons. - - - _Second Course._ - - Shellfish and other Marine Products - Beccaficos - Haunches of Venison - Wild Boar - Pastry of Beccaficos and other Birds. - - - _Third Course._ - - Sow's Udder - Boar's Head - Fricassee of Fish - Fricassee of Sow's Udders - Various kinds of ducks - Roast Fowl - Hares - Sausages - Roast Pig - Peacocks - - - _Fourth Course._ - - Pastry in wonderfully elaborate forms and colors - Pirentine bread - - - _Fifth Course._ - - Fruits and wines. - - -The "gustus," or appetizer, was also variously known as the "gustatio." -A favorite drink served with it was a mulsum of Hymetian honey and -Falernian wine. - -Toothpicks made from the leaves of the mastich pistachio were in common -use. - -All the dishes were carved at the sideboards by expert carvers who were -trained in schools by practice on jointed wooden models. - -Salt was much used in the flavoring of dishes and also to mingle with -sacrifices. - -[Illustration: A Roman bakery.] - -Fowls were fattened in the dark. Ducks and geese were fed on figs and -dates. Pigs were cooked in fifty different ways. Boars were cooked -whole; peacocks with their tails. Sausages were imported from Gaul. - -Vitellius and Apicius feasted on the tongues of flamingoes, and -Elagabalus on their brains. - -The greater the waste at a dinner, the more absurd the extravagance, the -more successful it was deemed. This idea was carried out in every -department. A mullet of ordinary size was cheap--one that was rather -heavy easily brought 6,000 sesterces ($240.00). - -[Illustration: Frame work of a Roman dining couch.] - -In order to lengthen the time, jugglers, rope-dancers, buffoons and -actors were introduced between courses. Beautiful Andalusian girls -charmed the dinners with their voluptuous dances. Even gladiators were -engaged. Games of chance concluded the entertainment when the condition -of the revellers permitted. - -At any large affair, an archon, or toastmaster, was selected by ballot -or acclamation. His duty it was to regulate the proportions of water and -wine and the size of the cups in which it was served. It was usual to -commence with the smallest and end with the largest. - -At the table, the somber togas were exchanged for gay-colored garments -(_syntheses_), and the shoes for sandals. Some of the more ostentatious -changed their costumes several times during the progress of a meal. The -head and breast were sometimes wreathed with flowers and ornaments. - -The tables first used were of quadrangular shape--three sides being -decorated for the guests and the fourth left vacant to facilitate the -movements of the attendants. They, however, were soon supplanted by -small tables of marble, bronze or citrus. These and a large sideboard -supported an amount of heavy gold and silver utensils. - -The diners reclined on costly sofas, inlaid with tortoise shells and -jewels, and the lower parts decked with embroidered gold. The pillows -were stuffed with wool and covered with gorgeous purple. The cushions -which supported the elbows were covered with silk stuffs, often marked -to designate the places of the various guests. - -Three people occupied each sofa. The lowest place on the middle sofa was -the seat of honor. - -The room or hall was illuminated by lamps and candles, set on individual -and very expensive stands or massed in candelabras of great -magnificence. The oils and fats used for illumination were diluted with -substances which under the influence of heat gave forth odors of great -fragrance. - -Each guest brought his own napkin. - -Ivory-handled knives were manufactured, but seldom used, as the -reclining position rendered the spoons (_ligulae_) more convenient. - -The dessert was arranged on the sideboards under the supervision of the -pistor and structor before the meal commenced. - -A nomenclator was the regular employe of every patrician. His sole -office was to prompt his master on the names of his guests and clients, -or hangers-on. - -Much care was devoted by the wealthy to their private stores of wines. -They were sealed in jars or bottles of baked clay, with labels attached -bearing the year of the consulship during which they were made. Some old -wines were very expensive. That of Campania was considered the best. The -Caecuban Falernian was very good. He was pitied who was forced to drink -the Vatican! - -[Illustration: A banquet in the days of ancient Rome (original taken -from a stone carving excavated from the site of Pompeii).] - -Greek wines were popular and were found in many Roman cellars. - -In winter, wine was heated with water, honey and spices in a caldarium, -a vessel fitted with a small charcoal furnace, closely resembling the -Russian samovar. - -Being unable to sensibly decrease their riches by ordinary methods, many -novel ideas were put in use, often at great expense. - -Nero constructed in his golden house a vaulted ceiling which turned -continuously on its axis. - -At a banquet given by Otho, tubes of gold and silver suddenly protruded -from various parts of the hall and sprinkled perfumes on the assembly. - -Petronius describes a rather fanciful affair given by Trimalchio. - -After the company had taken their places and young Egyptian slave girls -had bathed their hands and feet in scented snow water, there was placed -on the table a gold salver, inlaid with tortoise shell, in the middle of -which stood an ass of bronze bearing silver panniers, one filled with -white and the other with black olives. On his back sat a Silenus pouring -from a wineskin the favorite sauce the _garum_; at one side were -sausages on a silver gridiron, under which were plums and red -pomegranate kernels to represent glowing coals, and placed around were -trays bearing vegetables, snails, oysters and other appetizers. - -When that course had been removed, another dish was brought in, of which -the central feature was a hen of carved citrus wood with expanded wings, -brooding over a nest of peafowls' eggs. These eggs were handed around on -silver egg-spoons weighing each more than half a pound. When the shells -were broken, some of the guests were horrified to find within them -half-hatched chicks; but on closer inspection these proved to be -beccaficos cooked in egg sauce. - -As the plates were being removed, a chorus of Oriental beauties chanted -their strange songs. A slave by accident let fall a silver dish; he -stooped to pick it up--the atriensis boxed his ears and bade him sweep -it out with the other fragments. - -Wine of rare virtue and great age was then brought in and distributed -with almost obtrusive extravagance. - -The first heavy course again surprised many of those who were present. -It consisted apparently of the most ordinary dishes and joints. But -these proved to be merely cleverly designed covers, which on being -lifted, disclosed roasted pigs, field fares, capons, noble bartels and -turbots. In the centre was a plump hare which, by the addition of a pair -of wings, had been made to resemble a Pegasus. The carving was done in -the presence of the diners and to the strains of slow music. - -Next came a huge boar roasted whole, with two palm twig baskets filled -with dates, hanging from his tusks. By his side were eight small pigs, -cleverly molded in paste, which were presented to guests as remembrances -of the occasion. - -Following the boar was a large swine, also cooked whole. After much -acclamation, the carver was about to do his work, when with a look of -disgust he announced that it had not been disemboweled. The cook was -called and severely chided. He feigned regret and made many excuses; -then seizing a heavy knife, ripped the animal open, letting fall into -the dish a mass of sausages and rich puddings. - -After the pig had been carried away and while the dessert was being -placed on the table, the ceiling opened and a silver hoop descended -bearing gold, silver and alabaster phials of essences, silver and jewel -coronets and many other things of similar character. - -The pastry had been made to resemble shellfish, field fares, etc. -Quinces were stuck full of almonds to imitate sea urchins. - -Surrounded by flowers was a figure of Vertumnus, with its bosom piled -with fruits. The guests were invited to help themselves, and the -pressure of their hands on the fruit caused a shower of the daintiest -perfume. - -When all had partaken to repletion of the goods served, the spirit of -Bacchus was given full sway, half nude dancers and singers threw off all -restraint, and there were enacted scenes of riotous carousing for which -Rome in its decadence became notorious. - -A weird dinner was once given by the Emperor Domitian. He invited a -number of senators and knights to dine with him at a late hour. When -they arrived they found that the banquet room had been draped in somber -black. At each seat had been placed a tombstone bearing the inscription -of a diner and naked black slaves danced weird dances and served up -funeral viands on black dishes. When the company had been dismissed, its -members found that all their slaves had disappeared and unknown bearers -carried them to their homes. Each found on his return a message and a -souvenir awaiting him--a silver tombstone bearing his name. - - - - -THE ANCIENT JEWS. - - -Readers will find recorded in this chapter many things which are matters -of general knowledge, but this, they will readily understand, is -unavoidable when treating on the customs of so well known a people as -the Jews and drawing on the Bible for much of the information given. As -the facts drawn from the Scriptures have though been supplemented by the -results of the researches of many eminent travelers and writers, it is -hoped that the combination will be found worthy of the time expended on -its perusal. - -The Mosaic dietary laws which for more than three thousand years formed -the text of important social and religious observances among the -inhabitants of the chosen kingdom were the outcome of a comparison of -the regulations and practices of contemporary nations. Whether the -system was compiled in the interest of humanity or health, it remains -true that it has proved itself to be one of the best economic regimes -ever made public. If for no other reason, the life of the ancient Jew is -especially interesting to those who study the foods of men, past and -present--although it must be admitted that the precepts they compiled -were more conducive to sound digestion than some of the practices they -followed! - -The diet of the ancient Jews consisted at first, as did that of all the -pioneers of the human race, of but a few articles of food. But, though -meat was not consumed in large quantities, writers err when they -describe the food of Orientals as being light and simple. Orientals did, -and do, make use of an inordinate amount of grease in cooking. Eggs and -rice were, whenever circumstances permitted, saturated with fat or oil -and meats and vegetables were frequently simmered in fat before being -stewed. It was not unusual for a family of six or seven persons to -consume an average of two hundred pounds a year, and some of their -compounds would have ill suited delicate stomachs. - -Bread, as in all ancient countries, constituted the greater part of the -food of the middle and lower classes. In Leviticus, Psalms and Ezekiel, -reference is made to the "staff of bread." It was most generally eaten -after being dipped into cheap wine or weak gravy. - -The fresh green ears of wheat were often eaten without cooking, the -husks being rubbed off by hand. The grain was, though, more usually -roasted in a pan after being carefully sorted over, and it was sometimes -bruised and dried in the sun, to be afterwards served with oil. - -"Kibbe" was a mixture composed of cracked wheat, boiled and dried, -beaten up with meat, onions, spices and the nut of a species of pine. - -Wheat was also ground by women in hand mills formed of two stones, the -under one fixed and the upper movable. - -The middle classes ate meat, vegetables, fruit or fish also, but always -as supplementary dishes to the staple article, bread. - -Although in the earliest days the mistress and daughters of the house -did the baking, female servants were later employed by the wealthier -families. In Jerusalem indeed professional bakers, men, became so -numerous that a section of the town bore the title of "Bakers' Street." - -The flour used in the manufacture of the common bread was mixed with -water or milk and kneaded with the hands in a small wooden bowl or -trough. Except in cases of great haste, leavening was then added. The -dough was allowed to stand for several hours, sometimes for the whole -night, in moderate heat. It was next rolled out and cut into circular -pieces about eight inches in diameter and three-quarters of an inch in -thickness. These were occasionally punctured and soaked with oil. - -[Illustration: A portable oven of the Jews and Egyptians. - -(From an old Egyptian drawing.)] - -A more delicate kind of bread was twice kneaded before baking, and -stimulating seeds were added to it. Various varieties of thin cakes were -also baked every day and biscuits of substantial character were -furnished for travelers. - -The professional bakers did their work in fixed, specially constructed -ovens, but portable ovens were usually found in private houses. They -were in the shape of stone or metal jars about three feet in height, and -were heated from the interior with wood, dried grass or flower stalks, -the cakes being placed on the ashes or the exterior sides of the oven -after the fire had burned down. - -In other cases, a hole dug in the ground formed the oven, the sides -being covered with clay and the bottom with pebbles. Again, sometimes -the cakes were cooked on heated stones or by the more primitive method -of laying them directly on burning logs, or between two layers of dried -dung (then lighted and burned). - -Some also baked the cakes in pans with oil and ate them whilst hot with -honey, or cooked them in such thin layers that they crumbled in the -fingers. - -Figs were eaten fresh and dried. Pomegranates, mulberries, sycamore -figs, citrons and apples were widely cultivated. Grapes were eaten raw -or made into fruit cake (which possessed distinctly stimulating -qualities). Similar cakes were also made of raisins, dates and -figs--which were compressed into bricks, and when hardened could be cut -up only by the use of an axe! - -The bunches of grapes often attained a weight of twelve pounds. - -Walnuts were plentiful. Oranges were introduced at a later date. - -Among the vegetables grown were lentils (which were boiled and eaten -with butter oil or fat and pepper), leeks, onions, beans, barley, -lettuce, endive, purslane and other herbs. Vegetables were usually -boiled as potage. - -The spices most in favor were cummin, dill, coriander, mint, mustard and -salt. Cummin was threshed with a rod and with salt served as a sauce. - -Pistachio nuts and almonds were popular as whets. - -Salads were extensively known. - -Honey was used in some cakes as a substitute for sugar. It was also -eaten raw or with other articles of food, even fish. - -Various artificial productions made from fruits and the exudations of -trees and shrubs bore the title of honey, the best known of which was -the boiled down juice of the grape, then called "d'bash," known to -modern Arabs as "dibs." - -"Butter and honey" and "milk and honey" are in Biblical language -synonyms of the diet of prosperity. - -The butter then used differed from our own product inasmuch as the hot -sun to which the cream was exposed when being churned rendered the -completed article more liquid. Even to-day in some parts of the Orient -the butter served to visiting Europeans has to be manufactured -especially for them from cold cream. - -Cheese consisted of coagulated buttermilk, dried until hard and then -ground. - -Oil was made from various vegetables, but that of the olive was most -esteemed. - -Wine and water were carried in vessels made of the skins of goats, kids -or other clean animals. After the animal had been killed, the head, feet -and tail were cut off and the body was drawn out of the skin, which was -then tanned (acacia bark being sometimes called into service). The hairy -part of the skin formed the exterior of the vessel, the legs and the end -of the tail being sewn up. When filled, the neck was tied up. - -An ox skin was used to make a "gerba" which formed a storage chamber for -large quantities of liquor. One of average size contained sixty gallons. - -The milk of cows, sheep, camels and goats was drank. When fresh it was -known as "khalab," when sour as "khema." The latter was used in the -composition of salads and for cooking meats, etc. - -A strengthening beverage was made by heating milk over a slow fire and -then adding a small piece of old khema or other acid to make it -coagulate. Much of this was bottled and kept for future use. It was the -universal refreshment offered strangers and the ancient Jew, like the -modern Arab, refused to accept payment for it. - -The other drinks of the people were barley water; sherbet (made by -partially dissolving fig cake in water); pomegranate wine; beer made -from barley with herbs such as the lupin and skirret; honey, date, fig, -millet and grape wines and a drink made by placing raisins in jars of -water and burying them until fermentation had taken place. Water was -imbibed in large quantities after meals. - -Vinegar was made by mixing barley with wine, or soured wine was used. - -The prohibition expressed in the ninth chapter of Genesis against animal -blood as an article of diet was repeated with detailed instructions in -Leviticus. Instead of devoting a large amount of space to recounting the -regulations there expressed, it will perhaps be better to make only a -general classification of them. - -There were interdicted: _Sheretz haaretz_, creeping things; _sheretz -haof_, winged insects, with the exception of the fully developed locust; -of _sheretz hamayim_, creatures dwelling in water, those which were not -provided with fins and scales; of the feathered species those which were -not furnished by nature with the implements with which to clean -themselves; of the quadrupeds and animals of the chase those that did -not chew the cud or were not provided with split hoofs. - -The fat parts of animals were also reserved for the altar and temple -offerings. - -Special interdictions were announced against dead or injured animals; -though these did not extend to strangers. In the New Testament, these -laws are also mentioned as applying to healthy animals that had been -strangled or killed in any manner other than that prescribed. - -In a word, the Mosaic laws prohibited the use of any flesh that was -diseased, bruised or rendered unwholesome by the presence of too much -blood and also of the flesh of animals that were not cleanly in habits, -diet or body. - -Oxen were not eaten when older than three years. - -It is not necessary to give here the oft-repeated methods of Jewish -butchery, as they have been of late so frequently described--and highly -endorsed--by medical and scientific men. - -Fresh fish (eaten generally broiled) appears to have been the principal -article of diet in the environs of the Sea of Galilee. The Jews, -however, were not well versed in the character of the different species. -They roughly classed them as big, small, clean and unclean. - -Salt fish also was imported into Jerusalem. - -Locusts were considered to be but meagre fare, but they were eaten -salted, dried and roasted with butter in a pan. - -An ordinary kitchen was equipped with a range, a heavy caldron, a large -fork or flesh hook, a wide, open metal vessel for heating water, etc., -two or more earthenware pots and numerous dishes. - -The kid, lamb or calf, killed on the advent of a holiday or in honor of -a guest, would sometimes be roasted or baked whole, but it was usually -cut up and boiled in a caldron filled with water or milk and set over a -wood fire, the scum being taken off from time to time and salt and -spices added. - -The meat and broth were served up separately or together as desire might -dictate. - -The principal meal was held in the early evening, although occasionally -noon was chosen for a big banquet. - -The early Hebrews seated themselves on the ground when partaking of a -meal; but their descendants soon succumbed to the example of the -Egyptians and adopted the reclining couch, which was universally used in -the time of Christ. - -The first reference we have to the change in custom is found in the book -of Amos, where the prophet rebukes those who "lie upon beds of ivory." -Ezekiel also inveighs against one who "sat on a stately bed with a table -prepared before it." - -Each couch seated from three to five persons, and the women usually -dined with the men. - -The meat and vegetables were sometimes served in one large dish, into -which each in turn dipped his bread, but on other occasions portions -were placed on individual plates. - -Many events were made excuses for festivals. - -The "mishteh" was a drinking party, which in the apostolic age was -called a "komos" and was often the occasion of gross licentiousness. - -The cups used were modelled after those made by the Egyptians. The "cup -bearer" or butler held a very important position in a rich man's -household. - -During times of fasting or sorrow, all meats, wines, etc., were -eschewed. They were called the "bread of desires." - -Prison fare consisted of bread or pulse and water. - -The vine or apples of Sodom, the "Dead Sea fruits that tempt the eye, -but turn to ashes on the lips" of which Josephus wrote and Moore and -Byron sang, are worthy of more than passing notice. They have caused a -great deal of discussion among scientists and travelers who have -differed in their opinions as to the identity of the fruit or plant -mentioned. - -[Illustration: The colocynth--"the Dead Sea fruits."] - -As the _ecbalium elaterium_, with variations in name, it has been -described by Dioscorides, Theophrastus, Pliny, Celeius, Rosenmuller, -Winner and Gesenius; as the _cucumbis prophetarium_, and _solanium -sodomaeum_ by others; as the _asclepias procera_ by Burckhardt, Irby, -Mangles and Dr. Robinson. Among still other disputing writers may be -mentioned Pococke, Hasselquist, Seetzen, Elliot and Chateaubriand. - -Michaelis, Oedman, Dr. J. D. Hooker and the Rev. W. Houghton agree that -Josephus referred to the fruit of the colocynth (_citrullus -colocynthis_) which resembles an orange in appearance, and when dry will -burst on pressure with a crashing noise. - -[Illustration: Tamarix Gallica--The Manna plant of the Scriptural -desert.] - -The varying opinions may be ascribed to the fact that in the south of -Palestine are found several members of the gourd tribe, as well as the -fruits of several shrubs and trees, which under certain conditions -answer very closely to the descriptions afforded us of the "Dead Sea -Fruits," although the colocynth is the only one that answers them in -every way. - -The palm tree, once so plentiful in Judaea, is now rare and in the -vicinity of Jericho is extinct, the last one having died a few years -ago. - -All readers of the Scriptures remember the important part which manna -played in the history of the Jews. The manna which is at the present day -known in the Arabian desert through which the Israelites passed is -collected in June from the tarfa or tamarisk shrub (_Tamarix Gallica_). -According to Burkhardt, it drops from the thorns on to the sticks and -leaves which cover the ground and must be gathered early in the day or -it will be melted by the heat of the sun. Its fall is said to be caused -by the punctures made by insects. The Arabs cleanse, boil and strain it -and put it up in leather bottles, and thus prepared it will retain its -virtues for several years. It is used in the place of honey or -butter--it is never eaten alone. It is abundant only in wet seasons, and -in a very dry year it is not found at all. It is not exactly peculiar in -character, as there are several shrubs in India and Syria. - -[Illustration: Salvadora--The arboreous Mustard Plant of Palestine.] - -Niebuhr discovered at Mardin, in Mesopotamia, on the leaves of a tree, a -species of _capparis_, a kind of manna which appears during the months -of July and August, being most plentiful in wet seasons. If shaken off -before sunrise, it is pure white in color. If let remain, it collects -until very thick, and the leaves are then gathered and steeped in -boiling water until the manna floats to the top like oil. This is called -by the natives _manna essemma_, heavenly manna. - -Burkhardt found in the valley of Jordan a similar gum on the leaves and -branches of the tree gharrob (a species of oak), which fell to the -ground in drops of brown-gray dew. Its taste at first was sweet, but -after a day's exposure to the elements became acrid. - -The manna of European commerce is exported from Calabria and Sicily. It -drops from punctures made in a species of ash by an insect resembling -the locust. It is fluid at night, but begins to harden in the morning. - -The manna of Scripture, which was the sole support of the Israelites for -forty years, must be regarded as miraculous, as (1) manna is under -ordinary circumstances stimulating rather than sustaining, (2) the -season in which it is found does not extend over a term of more than -three or four months, (3) it is found only in small quantities compared -to the enormous amount--15,000,000 pounds a week--which would have been -necessary to provide each member of the Israelite camp with the rations -mentioned, (4) a double quantity certainly does not fall on the day -preceding the Sabbath and (5) no natural product ceases at once and -forever. - -The mustard plant mentioned in the Gospels may have been either the -common mustard plant which grows to a large size in the Orient, or it -may have been the _Salvadora persica_, an arboreous plant of abundant -foliage, the seeds and leaves of which have a distinct flavor of -mustard. - - - - -THE CHINESE. - - -It would be foolish to publish any strict dietary code as descriptive of -the food of the people of the vast region generally known as the Chinese -Empire, for apart from the difference in the products of the various -sections of that diversified country, it must be remembered that the -numerous tribes, which when amalgamated centuries ago formed the Empire, -have retained most of their original customs, owing partly to the -paucity of transportation facilities and the consequent impediments to -an interchange of ideas, partly to the conservative nature of the people -and partly to the influence of climate and surroundings. Furthermore, -as, excepting a few fruits which are of comparatively recent -introduction, such as the pineapple, the foods of Chinamen to-day -closely resemble the foods of Chinamen four thousand years ago, it will -not be necessary in this volume to keep very strictly apart the past and -the present. - -Until quite recently it was customary to regard the Chinese as -uncivilized and degraded heathens who voraciously devoured all kinds of -vermin and other miscellaneous tit-bits which to most people of the -Western Hemisphere are repulsive even in suggestion, hence it may be -well to repeat here that, although it remains true that cats, dogs and -rats occasionally serve as articles of food, this happens only when -provisions are scarce or among the very poor, who (as in all civilized -countries), linger always on the threshold of starvation. - -The Chinese, in spite of the doleful tales of some writers, are on the -whole a well fed race. Beef and mutton are not plentiful except in the -north, but hogs, poultry and fish, with vegetables, fruits and rice are -within the reach of a majority of the population. Wrote a Chinese sage: -"The scholar forsakes not his books nor the poor man his pig." -Furthermore, in the preparation of their national dishes the Chinese -cooks (especially those in the cities and in the households of the rich) -display a high degree of skill. - -Wheat, several varieties of rice and sweet potatoes are grown in all -parts of the Empire, and barley, sorghum, cabbages, beans and other -vegetables and sugar cane are also raised in large quantities. - -Rice is seldom ground except when made into cakes. - -The sorghum, or hauliang (extensively cultivated in the north), is not -used as in America for the manufacture of sugar, but the seeds are -ground and made into a coarse bread or used for the preparation of some -brands of whiskey. - -Sweet potatoes are sliced into coarse strips and dried in the sun. It -is, though, considered a sign of extreme poverty to be seen eating them -at any meal other than a lunch or hurried repast. - -Of the vegetables, the petsae or white cabbage is the most widely -cultivated. - -Beans grow luxuriantly. Fully one-half of the crop is crushed for the -sake of the oil, the residue being pressed into bricks and used as a -fertilizer. - -"Bean curds" is a very popular dish, especially for breakfast. The beans -are ground to a flour, which is passed through three strainers of -coarse, medium fine and very fine linen. This is boiled for an hour over -a slow fire until the proper consistency is obtained. - -Salted beans form quite an important article of commerce. Four catties -of beans are put in a jar with one catty of salt, half a catty of ginger -and a few taels of almonds and spices. The jars are then sealed and left -untouched for about a month. - -A more novel way is to put the beans in earthenware jars filled with -very clear spring water, changing the water every four hours. In seven -days tender shoots have appeared and the beans are then sold as a -delicacy. - -Peanuts are grown for the sake of their oil. - -Hsiang-yu is a fragrant oil made from peanuts and beans, which is used -for the toilet and by the poor for cooking. Castor oil answers the same -purposes. - -The juice of the sugar cane is extracted by crushing the stalks in two -perpendicular cylinders, kept in motion by a yoke of buffalos, the juice -being received in a tub placed beneath. Lime is added to the juice and -it is then immediately boiled. - -[Illustration: A Chinese poulterer's shop.] - -Within the limits of Chinese territory are found almost all known -varieties of fruits, some of which are indigenous to it. - -The whampee is a yellow skinned fruit about the size of a grape which -hangs in clusters from the glossy-leaved trees which produce it. The -flavor is tart and its three or four stones are of a greenish color. - -The li-chi has a rough red exterior. Inside is a white film which -incloses a watery translucent pulp of a sweetish taste and a brownish -black ovoid stone. - -The lo-quat is a species of medlar. - -Oranges, ginger, etc., are preserved in sugar. - -Ducks are raised in almost incredible numbers. Their eggs and those of -fowls are frequently hatched by artificial heat. - -Eggs that have been preserved in lime for several, sometimes a great -many, years are much esteemed. After a quarter of a century, the yellow -assumes a dark brown color and the whites have the appearance of meat -jelly--strange though it may seem, they are really excellent in that -condition. - -All foods served at a genuine Chinese dinner are previously cut into -minute particles. The large roast pieces which adorn the tables at -dinners given in seaport towns to foreigners of note are placed there -merely in deference to the customs of the guests. - -[Illustration: A Chinese dinner party.] - -Rice and soup are brought on to the table in large vessels from which -individual saucers are filled. Other dishes are partaken of by all -present directly from the common bowl. - -It is considered a token of hospitality on the part of the host or -friendliness on the part of an acquaintance to take an especially choice -piece of meat or vegetable from the bowl and to place it on the plate or -in the mouth of a fellow diner. - -The two chopsticks are both held in the right instead of separately in -each hand as ordinarily believed. They are maintained by the thumb and -ring finger and manipulated by the index and middle fingers. One stick -remains motionless, the other is so manoeuvred as to entrap with ease a -morsel of meat or even the smallest grain of rice. - -The sticks (square at the top and round for the rest of their length) -are made of bamboo or more precious woods, ivory or silver. On the upper -portions, poems and pictures are often engraved. - -Spoons are used for liquids. - -[Illustration: Chopsticks and bowl.] - -An ordinary meal among the middle classes consists of eight dishes--two -vegetables, eggs, fish, shell fish, bird and two meats (pork and goat; -or, in some parts of the north, mutton and beef). - -With this will be served a large tureen of soup with rice, the latter -taking the place of bread. - -When eating rice, the bowl is raised by the left hand to a close -proximity to the mouth and the rice is rather scooped than picked up. - -The importance which is attached to rice as a life-sustaining article -may be judged from the exclamation of a Chinese sailor when he was -informed that it was held in but secondary repute in America. Throwing -up both hands with an expression in which were combined horror and pity, -he cried: "Oh, the sterile region of barbarians which produces not the -necessaries of life; strange that the inhabitants have not long ago died -of hunger!" - -Two good meals a day, the customary number, and a light luncheon, will -in the average native home represent the expenditure of about ten cents -in American money. - -Wine is served only on special occasions. - -The hotels in the large cities are distinguished by titles as in this -country, though the Chinese proprietor gives freer rein to his -imagination, choosing such titles as "Cum Lee" (Golden Profits), "Cut -Shing" (Rank Conferring Hotel), the "Cut Sing" (Fortunate Star), etc. -They are often comparatively tall structures and are usually clustered -together in one quarter of the town. - -[Illustration: A Chinese distillery.] - -The ground floor of the ordinary hotel is reserved for the proprietor's -apartments and the kitchen. The first floor contains one public and -several private dining-rooms; and the second and upper floors are -divided into sleeping apartments--the partitions of which are so thin -that even a whispered conversation is intelligible to a party in the -adjoining room. - -There is not much comfort to be obtained in the villages, and the -accommodations are worse in the south and central districts than in the -north and Mongolia. - -The country caravansary is built in the form of a quadrangle with the -walls, in the North, of mud or clay. - -In the one public room, the traveler perforce mingles with cattle -drovers and muleteers, but the private apartments are fairly -comfortable. - -The stables are usually attached to the building, with large compounds -for sheep or cattle. Some of the larger establishments boast separate -quadrangle stables, while some of the smaller have none at all, the -animals being hitched to troughs or racks in the centre of the -quadrangle. - -[Illustration: A Chinese restaurant.] - -The beds (_cangues_) are shaped like furnaces. The occupant, protected -by a thick coverlet, reclines on the top of a stratum of chunam or -asphalt, with an opening similar to the door of a furnace, in one of the -perpendicular sides, by means of which a small fire is in cold weather -built directly beneath the bed. - -The poorer travelers sleep in the public hall. - -In some cities are khans which act as depots for the goods of traveling -merchants, who are boarded and lodged without charge until they have -disposed of their stock, the landlord then receiving a small percentage -of the sales. - -The proprietor of a public inn is compelled to furnish the authorities -each month with a list of the persons whom he has lodged or fed, and -women are not received at all in the public hotels in the South. - -The restaurants in the cities are often quite large, running to two and -three stories in height. - -On the ground floor is the kitchen. On the first floor at the head of -the first staircase is the public dining room where a good cheap meal -can be obtained, and on the second and third floors are the private and -more select chambers. In each room is a bill of fare. - -An ordinary first class restaurant dinner comprises from ten to thirty -dishes, and for any special occasion a hundred or more are often served. - -Below is the menu of a dinner which, if served to eight or ten persons -at a good public city restaurant, would cost about seventy-five cents -per head. - - - Fried Ham - Gizzards - Grated meat Grilled - Dried shrimps - Preserved eggs - - Four kinds of dried fruits - Four kinds of fresh fruits - - Fat duck - Shark's fins - Swallowsnest soup - Meats - - Salted chicken - Shellfish - Meats - Oysters - - Mushroom morels (called "Ears of the Forest"). - Rice of Immortals (a species of mushrooms). - Tender sprouts of bamboo - - Fish - Meats - - -The diners are usually seated at square tables in groups of eight. - -Chinese whiskey or wine is served in small double-handled cups, which -are constantly replenished by the attendants from vessels resembling -silver coffee pots. Pipes of tobacco are also passed around at -intervals. - -Before eating, the host or most prominent guest pours out a libation. -His table companions follow his example and all bow politely to each -other. - -[Illustration: Chinaman spearing fresh water turtles.] - -Pastry is brought on between courses. If salt, a cup of chicken broth; -if sweet, almond milk is furnished with it. - -No napkins are provided, pieces of coarse brown paper being used in -their stead. - -The last is a sort of "trial of appetite" course. It consists of large -dishes--sometimes eight or ten arranged in pyramid form--and the ever -forthcoming refusal to partake of it announces the termination of the -meal. - -The attendants then bring in towels and bowls of hot water. They immerse -the towels in the water, and after wringing them out present them to the -guests in the order of their importance. - -On special occasions the water is scented with otto of roses. - -One habit of the attendants which is especially surprising to the novice -is that as their labors during the meal increase the temperature of -their bodies, the waiters divest themselves of the greater part of their -clothing! - -One restaurant in Canton which caters for the cheaper class of trade, -feeds on an average five thousand persons daily. Each patron is served -with portions of regular size, and allowance is made for any pieces -which he may not eat. - -The tea saloons are divided into two large rooms furnished with stools -and tables. Cakes, preserved fruits and tea are served. The cups are -usually covered so as to prevent the aroma of the tea from evaporating. - -"Dog and cat" restaurants consist of one large public apartment, with -the entrance to the dining room through the kitchen. - -Soup stalls are found on the street corners of the cities. They sell -luncheons of fish, pork, soups, vegetables, fried locusts, etc., from -one to two cents. - -The oven, or, to speak more accurately, the baking apparatus, of the -average establishment is somewhat singular. It consists of a furnace -resembling a copper in shape, built in the center of an outhouse. The -hollow part (which is shallow) is filled with charcoal. A lid, which -fits the aperture, is so suspended by chains from the beams above as to -be capable of elevation or depression. Upon this lid, pastry and cakes -are placed and kept directly above or at any distance from the fire, -according to the heat desired. - -The bakers often manufacture their bread without the use of shortening -of any description. - -A very popular cake consists partially of mincemeat. The baker before -commencing to make it, places a pile of dough on one side and opposite -it a heap of mincemeat--a mixture of pork, sugar, spices, etc. He then -pulls off a piece of dough, rolls it into a ball, flattens it, covers it -with the meat, rolls it into a ball again, shapes it into a ring and -flattens it by a stroke of the hand into a cake of definite size and -thickness. - -Among other dainty dishes of Chinaland are the "t'ien ya tzu," a species -of delicately flavored fat duck; "feng chi," salted chicken; a dish of -amber gelatine; a salad of bamboo shoots; "huo t'ui," a dainty ham of -the appearance of veal; "yu ch'ih," shark's fins, and "hai li tzu," -devilled oysters with mushrooms. - -Other items are salted earthworms, pigeon's eggs, pounded shrimps; -bird's nest soup, a gelatinous article; beches de mer (sea slugs), water -beetles and silkworms, the last named fried in oil after they have made -their cocoons. - -A much admired soup, prepared for an imperial feast, was of blood and -mare's milk. - -Oysters are very cheap in winter, selling at from five to six cents per -pound. - -The following receipts may be of interest as literal translations from a -genuine Chinese cook book: - - - _Steamed Shark's Fins._ - - Take the sun-dried shark's fins, place in a cooking pan, add wood - ashes and boil in several waters. Then take out and scrape the - roughness from the fins. If not clean, boil again and scrape again - until clean. Then change the water and boil again. Take out and - remove the flesh, keeping only the fins themselves. Boil again and - put in spring water. The frequent changing of the water is - necessary to take out the lime taste. Put the fins into the soup - and stew until quite tender. Dish in a bowl, placing crab meat - below and a little ham on top. - - - _Chicken with the Liquor of Fermented Rice._ - - Bone a chicken and steam until just right; take out and let cool, - then cut into thin slices. Next, take gelatinous rice which has - been fermented with yeast and water; cook this for two hours, add a - little of the juice expressed from fresh ginger, soy, sesamum and - oil. Mix together with peanut oil. Dish and add fragrant herbs. - - - _Genii Ducks._ - - Take a fat duck; open and clean. Take two mace of salt, rub it both - outside and inside and put into an earthen dish. Take one cup of - fan spirits and put (the cup with the spirits) inside the - duck--only the vapor of the spirits is wanted. Steam over water - until quite tender, then lift out the wine cup and put the bird - into a bowl. - - -The most common native liquor are "suee chow," a rice brandy; "shas -chin," an impure alcohol made from kauliang or sorghum; "huary chin," a -yellow wine made from millet, and various spirits extracted from plums, -apples, pears, etc. All liquors are drunk hot, and some of them are -steeped with spices or the leaves of flowers. - -Although spirits are plentiful and cheap, drunkenness is rare. - -Tea, of course, is consumed by all classes. - -A curious custom annually observed is the propitiatory offering to the -God of the Kitchen, who is worshipped in all parts of China, and who is -supposed to report his observations to the Pearly Emperor Supreme Ruler. - -[Illustration: Family Offering to the Kitchen God.] - -He is represented in each kitchen by a slip of white or red paper -(changed each year as a rule) bearing his name and title and sometimes -his portrait, pasted on the wall in some convenient part of the room. - -Among the better classes the kitchen god is also known as the -superintendent or inspector of good and evil. - -On the evening of the twenty-third day of the twelfth month a special -sacrifice is made in his honor by about sixty per cent. of the -population. Meats, cakes, fruits and wines are offered with candles, -incense, mock money, etc., and all members of the family then kneel -reverently before his representation and bow their heads in homage. - -On the evening of the twenty-fourth those who have not participated in -the ceremonies of the previous day, make a vegetable offering in a -similar manner. - -[Illustration: A Chinese kitchen boat.] - -Many of the wealthier classes make both offerings on the twenty-third. -The poorest use only incense and candles. - -The numerous sailing vessels on the rivers and lakes are as well fitted -to supply the wants of the traveler as the hotels on shore. - -The houseboats and some of the passenger boats rely for their meals on -the kitchen boats, which are really admirably managed. - -The fishing boats make use of a very primitive heating apparatus--a -large boiler in an earthenware furnace set in a part of the deck, -serving as the general cook book. - -A great many pages might be covered by treating on the curious -festivities which celebrate so many occasions, but they have been so -often described in other works that a description of them here would -perhaps savor too much of needless repetition. - - - - -_Other Works from the Book Department of THE CATERER_ - - -Martyn's Menu Dictionary - -Price $1 - - (_130 pages, two columns to a page, cloth bound._) - -The most complete dictionary of menu, culinary and food terms ever -published. More than _five thousand items_. In two sections: -French-English and English-French. The first section includes also about -600 wine names with brief descriptive notes and both parts list a number -of German words with English and French translations. - - -How to Make Money in a Country Hotel - -Price $2 - - (_200 pages, printed on the finest paper and handsomely bound)._ - _Third edition._ - -The reason for the great success of this work is probably to be found in -the fact that the author does not content himself with merely advising -"greater economy," or "better business methods"--instead he gets right -down to a practical hold of the subject and shows _how_ to economize and -how to increase one's trade. - - -The Financial Side of Hotel Keeping - -Price $2 - - (_300 pages, handsomely printed and bound._) _Second Edition._ - -This book is entirely different from any other work on the hotel -business. The main "story" takes up the matter of location, investment, -equipment, etc., the "financing" of the business after starting, and -many points touching on policy, organization, etc., and the management -of the back part of the house. Following this is a series of papers on -the restaurant business. - - -The Wine Steward's Manual - -Price $1 - - (_108 pages, illustrated, cloth bound._) - -A handy volume on the care and service of wines, with contributions from -the highest authorities. - - -Foods and Culinary Utensils of the Ancients - -Price 50 cents - -Compiled from standard historical works. Seventy-two pages, well -illustrated. - - -Dainty Dishes - -Price (cloth bound) $1 - - By Adolphe Meyer, author of "The Post-Graduate Cookery Book," "Eggs - and How to Use Them," etc. - -A book of specially "dainty dishes" which offers many opportunities to -vary the daily bill of fare or the banquet or ball supper menu--usually -without adding anything to the cost and sometimes at smaller expense. - - -The Post-Graduate Cookery Book - -Price (cloth bound) $2 - - By Adolphe Meyer, for 11 years chef of the exclusive Union Club, - New York. - - (_Nearly 300 pages. About 1,000 receipts._) - -"The Post-Graduate Cookery Book" is a work containing matter -supplementary to, or in advance of, the regular standard works on -cookery and kindred matters. - -It has a special intrinsic value to the purchaser, for it contains a -large number of receipts for special dishes which have never appeared in -print elsewhere. Some of these receipts are new, others are for special -dishes which have helped to enhance the reputations of famous -establishments both in Europe and this country. - - -Eggs and How to Use Them - -Price $1 - - By Adolphe Meyer, Author of "The Post-Graduate Cookery Book," etc. - (_Third Edition._) - - (_150 pages, cloth bound._) - -About 600 receipts, classified as "poached, shirred, molded, omelettes, -etc., etc.," and with titles in both French and English. - - -Fables of the Hotel Profession and Poems of Good Cheer - -Price 50 cts. - - _A dainty little volume of 88 pages, bound in gilt lettered cloth._ - -The "Fables" (by Charles Martyn) are little stories of the hotel -business, which "hit off," in semi-humorous manner, many typical -characters and conditions. - -"Poems of Good Cheer" (by Frank W. Doolittle) is a title made generously -broad to cover a number of verses on the hotel business, those engaged -in it and the good things dispensed. - - -THE CATERER PUBLISHING CO., -Established 1893. NEW YORK. - -Publishers of THE CATERER, the "monthly text book" of the hotel, club -and high-class restaurant business. Subscription price, $2 a year; $1.25 -for six months. - -THE CATERER keeps its readers informed on everything that is new in the -hotel, club and high-class restaurant business--new ideas in service, -reports of special occasions (such as banquets, etc.), new items of -equipment, new points in system, etc. Every issue also contains a -variety of other matter of general interest, "what's happening among our -subscribers," etc.--all written in entertaining style. - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOODS AND CULINARY UTENSILS OF THE -ANCIENTS*** - - -******* This file should be named 43643.txt or 43643.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/3/6/4/43643 - - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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