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diff --git a/43605.txt b/43605.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e97868f --- /dev/null +++ b/43605.txt @@ -0,0 +1,14973 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and +Religion (Third Edition, Vol. 5 of 12) by James George Frazer + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion (Third Edition, Vol. + 5 of 12) + +Author: James George Frazer + +Release Date: August 30, 2013 [Ebook #43605] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: US-ASCII + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GOLDEN BOUGH: A STUDY IN MAGIC AND RELIGION (THIRD EDITION, VOL. 5 OF 12)*** + + + + + + The Golden Bough + + Studies in the History of Oriental Religion + + By + + James George Frazer, D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D. + + Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge + + Professor of Social Anthropology in the University of Liverpool + + Vol. V. of XII. + + Part IV: Adonis Attis Osiris. + + Vol. 1 of 2. + + New York and London + + MacMillan and Co. + + 1914 + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +Preface to the First Edition. +Preface to the Second Edition. +Preface to the Third Edition. +Book First. Adonis. + Chapter I. The Myth of Adonis. + Chapter II. Adonis in Syria. + Chapter III. Adonis in Cyprus. + Chapter IV. Sacred Men and Women. + § 1. An Alternative Theory. + § 2. Sacred Women in India. + § 3. Sacred Men and Women in West Africa. + § 4. Sacred Women in Western Asia. + § 5. Sacred Men in Western Asia. + § 6. Sons of God. + § 7. Reincarnation of the Dead. + § 8. Sacred Stocks and Stones among the Semites. + Chapter V. The Burning of Melcarth. + Chapter VI. The Burning of Sandan. + § 1. The Baal of Tarsus. + § 2. The God of Ibreez. + § 3. Sandan of Tarsus. + § 4. The Gods of Boghaz-Keui. + § 5. Sandan and Baal at Tarsus. + § 6. Priestly Kings of Olba. + § 7. The God of the Corycian Cave. + § 8. Cilician Goddesses. + § 9. The Burning of Cilician Gods. + Chapter VII. Sardanapalus and Hercules. + § 1. The Burning of Sardanapalus. + § 2. The Burning of Croesus. + § 3. Purification by Fire. + § 4. The Divinity of Lydian Kings. + § 5. Hittite Gods at Tarsus and Sardes. + § 6. The Resurrection of Tylon. + Chapter VIII. Volcanic Religion. + § 1. The Burning of a God. + § 2. The Volcanic Region of Cappadocia. + § 3. Fire-Worship in Cappadocia. + § 4. The Burnt Land of Lydia. + § 5. The Earthquake God. + § 6. The Worship of Mephitic Vapours. + § 7. The Worship of Hot Springs. + § 8. The Worship of Volcanoes in other Lands. + Chapter IX. The Ritual of Adonis. + Chapter X. The Gardens of Adonis. +Book Second. Attis. + Chapter I. The Myth and Ritual of Attis. + Chapter II. Attis As a God of Vegetation. + Chapter III. Attis As The Father God. + Chapter IV. Human Representatives of Attis. + Chapter V. The Hanged God. + Chapter VI. Oriental Religions in the West. + Chapter VII. Hyacinth. +Footnotes + + + + + + + [Cover Art] + +[Transcriber's Note: The above cover image was produced by the submitter +at Distributed Proofreaders, and is being placed into the public domain.] + + + + + +PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. + + +These studies are an expansion of the corresponding sections in my book +_The Golden Bough_, and they will form part of the third edition of that +work, on the preparation of which I have been engaged for some time. By +far the greater portion of them is new, and they make by themselves a +fairly complete and, I hope, intelligible whole. I shall be glad if +criticisms passed on the essays in their present shape should enable me to +correct and improve them when I come to incorporate them in my larger +work. + +In studying afresh these three Oriental worships, akin to each other in +character, I have paid more attention than formerly to the natural +features of the countries in which they arose, because I am more than ever +persuaded that religion, like all other institutions, has been profoundly +influenced by physical environment, and cannot be understood without some +appreciation of those aspects of external nature which stamp themselves +indelibly on the thoughts, the habits, the whole life of a people. It is a +matter of great regret to me that I have never visited the East, and so +cannot describe from personal knowledge the native lands of Adonis, Attis, +and Osiris. But I have sought to remedy the defect by comparing the +descriptions of eye-witnesses, and painting from them what may be called +composite pictures of some of the scenes on which I have been led to touch +in the course of this volume. I shall not have wholly failed if I have +caught from my authorities and conveyed to my readers some notion, however +dim, of the scenery, the atmosphere, the gorgeous colouring of the East. + +J. G. Frazer. + +TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, +_22nd July 1906_. + + + + + +PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. + + +In this second edition some minor corrections have been made and some +fresh matter added. Where my views appear to have been misunderstood, I +have endeavoured to state them more clearly; where they have been +disputed, I have carefully reconsidered the evidence and given my reasons +for adhering to my former opinions. Most of the additions thus made to the +volume are comprised in a new chapter ("Sacred Men and Women"), a new +section ("Influence of Mother-kin on Religion"), and three new appendices +("Moloch the King," "The Widowed Flamen," and "Some Customs of the Pelew +Islanders"). Among the friends and correspondents who have kindly helped +me with information and criticisms of various sorts I wish to thank +particularly Mr. W. Crooke, Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie, Mr. G. F. +Hill of the British Museum, the Reverend J. Roscoe of the Church +Missionary Society, and Mr. W. Wyse. Above all I owe much to my teacher +the Reverend Professor R. H. Kennett, who, besides initiating me into the +charms of the Hebrew language and giving me a clearer insight into the +course of Hebrew history, has contributed several valuable suggestions to +the book and enhanced the kindness by reading and criticizing some of the +proofs. + +J. G. Frazer. + +TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, +_22nd September 1907_. + + + + + +PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. + + +In revising the book for this third edition I have made use of several +important works which have appeared since the last edition was published. +Among these I would name particularly the learned treatises of Count +Baudissin on Adonis, of Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge on Osiris, and of my +colleague Professor J. Garstang on the civilization of the Hittites, that +still mysterious people, who begin to loom a little more distinctly from +the mists of the past. Following the example of Dr. Wallis Budge, I have +indicated certain analogies which may be traced between the worship of +Osiris and the worship of the dead, especially of dead kings, among the +modern tribes of Africa. The conclusion to which these analogies appear to +point is that under the mythical pall of the glorified Osiris, the god who +died and rose again from the dead, there once lay the body of a dead man. +Whether that was so or not, I will not venture to say. The longer I occupy +myself with questions of ancient mythology the more diffident I become of +success in dealing with them, and I am apt to think that we who spend our +years in searching for solutions of these insoluble problems are like +Sisyphus perpetually rolling his stone up hill only to see it revolve +again into the valley, or like the daughters of Danaus doomed for ever to +pour water into broken jars that can hold no water. If we are taxed with +wasting life in seeking to know what can never be known, and what, if it +could be discovered, would not be worth knowing, what can we plead in our +defence? I fear, very little. Such pursuits can hardly be defended on the +ground of pure reason. We can only say that something, we know not what, +drives us to attack the great enemy Ignorance wherever we see him, and +that if we fail, as we probably shall, in our attack on his entrenchments, +it may be useless but it is not inglorious to fall in leading a Forlorn +Hope. + +J. G. Frazer + +CAMBRIDGE, +_16th January 1914_. + + + + + +BOOK FIRST. ADONIS. + + + + +Chapter I. The Myth of Adonis. + + +(M1) The spectacle of the great changes which annually pass over the face +of the earth has powerfully impressed the minds of men in all ages, and +stirred them to meditate on the causes of transformations so vast and +wonderful. Their curiosity has not been purely disinterested; for even the +savage cannot fail to perceive how intimately his own life is bound up +with the life of nature, and how the same processes which freeze the +stream and strip the earth of vegetation menace him with extinction. At a +certain stage of development men seem to have imagined that the means of +averting the threatened calamity were in their own hands, and that they +could hasten or retard the flight of the seasons by magic art. Accordingly +they performed ceremonies and recited spells to make the rain to fall, the +sun to shine, animals to multiply, and the fruits of the earth to grow. In +course of time the slow advance of knowledge, which has dispelled so many +cherished illusions, convinced at least the more thoughtful portion of +mankind that the alternations of summer and winter, of spring and autumn, +were not merely the result of their own magical rites, but that some +deeper cause, some mightier power, was at work behind the shifting scenes +of nature. They now pictured to themselves the growth and decay of +vegetation, the birth and death of living creatures, as effects of the +waxing or waning strength of divine beings, of gods and goddesses, who +were born and died, who married and begot children, on the pattern of +human life. + +(M2) Thus the old magical theory of the seasons was displaced, or rather +supplemented, by a religious theory. For although men now attributed the +annual cycle of change primarily to corresponding changes in their +deities, they still thought that by performing certain magical rites they +could aid the god, who was the principle of life, in his struggle with the +opposing principle of death. They imagined that they could recruit his +failing energies and even raise him from the dead. The ceremonies which +they observed for this purpose were in substance a dramatic representation +of the natural processes which they wished to facilitate; for it is a +familiar tenet of magic that you can produce any desired effect by merely +imitating it. And as they now explained the fluctuations of growth and +decay, of reproduction and dissolution, by the marriage, the death, and +the rebirth or revival of the gods, their religious or rather magical +dramas turned in great measure on these themes. They set forth the +fruitful union of the powers of fertility, the sad death of one at least +of the divine partners, and his joyful resurrection. Thus a religious +theory was blended with a magical practice. The combination is familiar in +history. Indeed, few religions have ever succeeded in wholly extricating +themselves from the old trammels of magic. The inconsistency of acting on +two opposite principles, however it may vex the soul of the philosopher, +rarely troubles the common man; indeed he is seldom even aware of it. His +affair is to act, not to analyse the motives of his action. If mankind had +always been logical and wise, history would not be a long chronicle of +folly and crime.(1) + +(M3) Of the changes which the seasons bring with them, the most striking +within the temperate zone are those which affect vegetation. The influence +of the seasons on animals, though great, is not nearly so manifest. Hence +it is natural that in the magical dramas designed to dispel winter and +bring back spring the emphasis should be laid on vegetation, and that +trees and plants should in them more prominently than beasts and birds. +Yet the two sides of life, the vegetable and the animal, were not +dissociated in the minds of those who observed the ceremonies. Indeed they +commonly believed that the tie between the animal and the vegetable world +was even closer than it really is; hence they often combined the dramatic +representation of reviving plants with a real or a dramatic union of the +sexes for the purpose of furthering at the same time and by the same act +the multiplication of fruits, of animals, and of men. To them the +principle of life and fertility, whether animal or vegetable, was one and +indivisible. To live and to cause to live, to eat food and to beget +children, these were the primary wants of men in the past, and they will +be the primary wants of men in the future so long as the world lasts. +Other things may be added to enrich and beautify human life, but unless +these wants are first satisfied, humanity itself must cease to exist. +These two things, therefore, food and children, were what men chiefly +sought to procure by the performance of magical rites for the regulation +of the seasons. + +(M4) Nowhere, apparently, have these rites been more widely and solemnly +celebrated than in the lands which border the Eastern Mediterranean. Under +the names of Osiris, Tammuz, Adonis, and Attis, the peoples of Egypt and +Western Asia represented the yearly decay and revival of life, especially +of vegetable life, which they personified as a god who annually died and +rose again from the dead. In name and detail the rites varied from place +to place: in substance they were the same. The supposed death and +resurrection of this oriental deity, a god of many names but of +essentially one nature, is the subject of the present inquiry. We begin +with Tammuz or Adonis.(2) + +(M5) The worship of Adonis was practised by the Semitic peoples of +Babylonia and Syria, and the Greeks borrowed it from them as early as the +seventh century before Christ.(3) The true name of the deity was Tammuz: +the appellation of Adonis is merely the Semitic _Adon_, "lord," a title of +honour by which his worshippers addressed him.(4) In the Hebrew text of +the Old Testament the same name Adonai, originally perhaps Adoni, "my +lord," is often applied to Jehovah.(5) But the Greeks through a +misunderstanding converted the title of honour into a proper name. While +Tammuz or his equivalent Adonis enjoyed a wide and lasting popularity +among peoples of the Semitic stock, there are grounds for thinking that +his worship originated with a race of other blood and other speech, the +Sumerians, who in the dawn of history inhabited the flat alluvial plain at +the head of the Persian Gulf and created the civilization which was +afterwards called Babylonian. The origin and affinities of this people are +unknown; in physical type and language they differed from all their +neighbours, and their isolated position, wedged in between alien races, +presents to the student of mankind problems of the same sort as the +isolation of the Basques and Etruscans among the Aryan peoples of Europe. +An ingenious, but unproved, hypothesis would represent them as immigrants +driven from central Asia by that gradual desiccation which for ages seems +to have been converting once fruitful lands into a waste and burying the +seats of ancient civilization under a sea of shifting sand. Whatever their +place of origin may have been, it is certain that in Southern Babylonia +the Sumerians attained at a very early period to a considerable pitch of +civilization; for they tilled the soil, reared cattle, built cities, dug +canals, and even invented a system of writing, which their Semitic +neighbours in time borrowed from them.(6) In the pantheon of this ancient +people Tammuz appears to have been one of the oldest, though certainly not +one of the most important figures.(7) His name consists of a Sumerian +phrase meaning "true son" or, in a fuller form, "true son of the deep +water,"(8) and among the inscribed Sumerian texts which have survived the +wreck of empires are a number of hymns in his honour, which were written +down not later than about two thousand years before our era but were +almost certainly composed at a much earlier time.(9) + +(M6) In the religious literature of Babylonia Tammuz appears as the +youthful spouse or lover of Ishtar, the great mother goddess, the +embodiment of the reproductive energies of nature. The references to their +connexion with each other in myth and ritual are both fragmentary and +obscure, but we gather from them that every year Tammuz was believed to +die, passing away from the cheerful earth to the gloomy subterranean +world, and that every year his divine mistress journeyed in quest of him +"to the land from which there is no returning, to the house of darkness, +where dust lies on door and bolt." During her absence the passion of love +ceased to operate: men and beasts alike forgot to reproduce their kinds: +all life was threatened with extinction. So intimately bound up with the +goddess were the sexual functions of the whole animal kingdom that without +her presence they could not be discharged. A messenger of the great god Ea +was accordingly despatched to rescue the goddess on whom so much depended. +The stern queen of the infernal regions, Allatu or Eresh-Kigal by name, +reluctantly allowed Ishtar to be sprinkled with the Water of Life and to +depart, in company probably with her lover Tammuz, that the two might +return together to the upper world, and that with their return all nature +might revive. + +(M7) Laments for the departed Tammuz are contained in several Babylonian +hymns, which liken him to plants that quickly fade. He is + + + "_A tamarisk that in the garden has drunk no water,_ + _Whose crown in the field has brought forth no blossom._ + _A willow that rejoiced not by the watercourse,_ + _A willow whose roots were torn up._ + _A herb that in the garden had drunk no water._" + + +His death appears to have been annually mourned, to the shrill music of +flutes, by men and women about midsummer in the month named after him, the +month of Tammuz. The dirges were seemingly chanted over an effigy of the +dead god, which was washed with pure water, anointed with oil, and clad in +a red robe, while the fumes of incense rose into the air, as if to stir +his dormant senses by their pungent fragrance and wake him from the sleep +of death. In one of these dirges, inscribed _Lament of the Flutes for +Tammuz_, we seem still to hear the voices of the singers chanting the sad +refrain and to catch, like far-away music, the wailing notes of the +flutes:-- + + + "_At his vanishing away she lifts up a lament,_ + _'__Oh my child!__'__ at his vanishing away she lifts up a + lament;_ + _'__My Damu!__'__ at his vanishing away she lifts up a lament._ + _'__My enchanter and priest!__'__ at his vanishing away she + lifts up a lament,_ + _At the shining cedar, rooted in a spacious place,_ + _In Eanna, above and below, she lifts up a lament._ + _Like the lament that a house lifts up for its master, lifts she + up a lament,_ + _Like the lament that a city lifts up for its lord, lifts she up + a lament._ + _Her lament is the lament for a herb that grows not in the bed,_ + _Her lament is the lament for the corn that grows not in the + ear._ + _Her chamber is a possession that brings not forth a possession,_ + _A weary woman, a weary child, forspent._ + _Her lament is for a great river, where no willows grow,_ + _Her lament is for a field, where corn and herbs grow not._ + _Her lament is for a pool, where fishes grow not._ + _Her lament is for a thicket of reeds, where no reeds grow._ + _Her lament is for woods, where tamarisks grow not._ + _Her lament is for a wilderness where no cypresses (?) grow._ + _Her lament is for the depth of a garden of trees, where honey and + wine grow not._ + _Her lament is for meadows, where no plants grow._ + _Her lament is for a palace, where length of life grows not._"(10) + + +(M8) The tragical story and the melancholy rites of Adonis are better +known to us from the descriptions of Greek writers than from the fragments +of Babylonian literature or the brief reference of the prophet Ezekiel, +who saw the women of Jerusalem weeping for Tammuz at the north gate of the +temple.(11) Mirrored in the glass of Greek mythology, the oriental deity +appears as a comely youth beloved by Aphrodite. In his infancy the goddess +hid him in a chest, which she gave in charge to Persephone, queen of the +nether world. But when Persephone opened the chest and beheld the beauty +of the babe, she refused to give him back to Aphrodite, though the goddess +of love went down herself to hell to ransom her dear one from the power of +the grave. The dispute between the two goddesses of love and death was +settled by Zeus, who decreed that Adonis should abide with Persephone in +the under world for one part of the year, and with Aphrodite in the upper +world for another part. At last the fair youth was killed in hunting by a +wild boar, or by the jealous Ares, who turned himself into the likeness of +a boar in order to compass the death of his rival. Bitterly did Aphrodite +lament her loved and lost Adonis.(12) The strife between the divine rivals +for the possession of Adonis appears to be depicted on an Etruscan mirror. +The two goddesses, identified by inscriptions, are stationed on either +side of Jupiter, who occupies the seat of judgment and lifts an admonitory +finger as he looks sternly towards Persephone. Overcome with grief the +goddess of love buries her face in her mantle, while her pertinacious +rival, grasping a branch in one hand, points with the other at a closed +coffer, which probably contains the youthful Adonis.(13) In this form of +the myth, the contest between Aphrodite and Persephone for the possession +of Adonis clearly reflects the struggle between Ishtar and Allatu in the +land of the dead, while the decision of Zeus that Adonis is to spend one +part of the year under ground and another part above ground is merely a +Greek version of the annual disappearance and reappearance of Tammuz. + + + + +Chapter II. Adonis in Syria. + + +(M9) The myth of Adonis was localized and his rites celebrated with much +solemnity at two places in Western Asia. One of these was Byblus on the +coast of Syria, the other was Paphos in Cyprus. Both were great seats of +the worship of Aphrodite, or rather of her Semitic counterpart, +Astarte;(14) and of both, if we accept the legends, Cinyras, the father of +Adonis, was king.(15) Of the two cities Byblus was the more ancient; +indeed it claimed to be the oldest city in Phoenicia, and to have been +founded in the early ages of the world by the great god El, whom Greeks +and Romans identified with Cronus and Saturn respectively.(16) However +that may have been, in historical times it ranked as a holy place, the +religious capital of the country, the Mecca or Jerusalem of the +Phoenicians.(17) The city stood on a height beside the sea,(18) and +contained a great sanctuary of Astarte,(19) where in the midst of a +spacious open court, surrounded by cloisters and approached from below by +staircases, rose a tall cone or obelisk, the holy image of the +goddess.(20) In this sanctuary the rites of Adonis were celebrated.(21) +Indeed the whole city was sacred to him,(22) and the river Nahr Ibrahim, +which falls into the sea a little to the south of Byblus, bore in +antiquity the name of Adonis.(23) This was the kingdom of Cinyras.(24) +From the earliest to the latest times the city appears to have been ruled +by kings, assisted perhaps by a senate or council of elders.(25) The first +of the kings of whom we have historical evidence was a certain Zekar-baal. +He reigned about a century before Solomon; yet from that dim past his +figure stands out strangely fresh and lifelike in the journal of an +Egyptian merchant or official named Wen-Ammon, which has fortunately been +preserved in a papyrus. This man spent some time with the king at Byblus, +and received from him, in return for rich presents, a supply of timber +felled in the forests of Lebanon.(26) Another king of Byblus, who bore the +name of Sibitti-baal, paid tribute to Tiglath-pileser III., king of +Assyria, about the year 739 B.C.(27) Further, from an inscription of the +fifth or fourth century before our era we learn that a king of Byblus, by +name Yehaw-melech, son of Yehar-baal, and grandson of Adom-melech or +Uri-melech, dedicated a pillared portico with a carved work of gold and a +bronze altar to the goddess, whom he worshipped under the name of Baalath +Gebal, that is, the female Baal of Byblus.(28) + +(M10) The names of these kings suggest that they claimed affinity with +their god Baal or Moloch, for Moloch is only a corruption of _melech_, +that is, "king." Such a claim at all events appears to have been put +forward by many other Semitic kings.(29) The early monarchs of Babylon +were worshipped as gods in their lifetime.(30) Mesha, king of Moab, +perhaps called himself the son of his god Kemosh.(31) Among the Aramean +sovereigns of Damascus, mentioned in the Bible, we find more than one +Ben-hadad, that is, "son of the god Hadad," the chief male deity of the +Syrians;(32) and Josephus tells us that down to his own time, in the first +century of our era, Ben-hadad I., whom he calls simply Adad, and his +successor, Hazael, continued to be worshipped as gods by the people of +Damascus, who held processions daily in their honour.(33) Some of the +kings of Edom seem to have gone a step farther and identified themselves +with the god in their lifetime; at all events they bore his name Hadad +without any qualification.(34) King Bar-rekub, who reigned over Samal in +North-Western Syria in the time of Tiglath-pileser (745-727 B.C.) appears +from his name to have reckoned himself a son of Rekub-el, the god to whose +favour he deemed himself indebted for the kingdom.(35) The kings of Tyre +traced their descent from Baal,(36) and apparently professed to be gods in +their own person.(37) Several of them bore names which are partly composed +of the names of Baal and Astarte; one of them bore the name of Baal pure +and simple.(38) The Baal whom they personated was no doubt Melcarth, "the +king of the city," as his name signifies, the great god whom the Greeks +identified with Hercules; for the equivalence of the Baal of Tyre both to +Melcarth and to Hercules is placed beyond the reach of doubt by a +bilingual inscription, in Phoenician and Greek, which was found in +Malta.(39) + +(M11) In like manner the kings of Byblus may have assumed the style of +Adonis; for Adonis was simply the divine Adon or "lord" of the city, a +title which hardly differs in sense from Baal ("master") and Melech +("king"). This conjecture would be confirmed if one of the kings of Byblus +actually bore, as Renan believed, the name of Adom-melech, that is, Adonis +Melech, the Lord King. But, unfortunately, the reading of the inscription +in which the name occurs is doubtful.(40) Some of the old Canaanite kings +of Jerusalem appear to have played the part of Adonis in their lifetime, +if we may judge from their names, Adoni-bezek and Adoni-zedek,(41) which +are divine rather than human titles. Adoni-zedek means "lord of +righteousness," and is therefore equivalent to Melchizedek, that is, "king +of righteousness," the title of that mysterious king of Salem and priest +of God Most High, who seems to have been neither more nor less than one of +these same Canaanitish kings of Jerusalem.(42) Thus if the old priestly +kings of Jerusalem regularly played the part of Adonis, we need not wonder +that in later times the women of Jerusalem used to weep for Tammuz, that +is, for Adonis, at the north gate of the temple.(43) In doing so they may +only have been continuing a custom which had been observed in the same +place by the Canaanites long before the Hebrews invaded the land. Perhaps +the "sacred men," as they were called, who lodged within the walls of the +temple at Jerusalem down almost to the end of the Jewish kingdom,(44) may +have acted the part of the living Adonis to the living Astarte of the +women. At all events we know that in the cells of these strange clergy +women wove garments for the _asherim_,(45) the sacred poles which stood +beside the altar and which appear to have been by some regarded as +embodiments of Astarte.(46) Certainly these "sacred men" must have +discharged some function which was deemed religious in the temple at +Jerusalem; and we can hardly doubt that the prohibition to bring the wages +of prostitution into the house of God, which was published at the very +same time that the men were expelled from the temple,(47) was directed +against an existing practice. In Palestine as in other Semitic lands the +hire of sacred prostitutes was probably dedicated to the deity as one of +his regular dues: he took tribute of men and women as of flocks and herds, +of fields and vineyards and oliveyards. + +(M12) But if Jerusalem had been from of old the seat of a dynasty of +spiritual potentates or Grand Lamas, who held the keys of heaven and were +revered far and wide as kings and gods in one, we can easily understand +why the upstart David chose it for the capital of the new kingdom which he +had won for himself at the point of the sword. The central position and +the natural strength of the virgin fortress need not have been the only or +the principal inducements which decided the politic monarch to transfer +his throne from Hebron to Jerusalem.(48) By serving himself heir to the +ancient kings of the city he might reasonably hope to inherit their +ghostly repute along with their broad acres, to wear their nimbus as well +as their crown.(49) So at a later time when he had conquered Ammon and +captured the royal city of Rabbah, he took the heavy gold crown of the +Ammonite god Milcom and placed it on his own brows, thus posing as the +deity in person.(50) It can hardly, therefore, be unreasonable to suppose +that he pursued precisely the same policy at the conquest of Jerusalem. +And on the other side the calm confidence with which the Jebusite +inhabitants of that city awaited his attack, jeering at the besiegers from +the battlements,(51) may well have been born of a firm trust in the local +deity rather than in the height and thickness of their grim old walls. +Certainly the obstinacy with which in after ages the Jews defended the +same place against the armies of Assyria and Rome sprang in large measure +from a similar faith in the God of Zion. + +(M13) Be that as it may, the history of the Hebrew kings presents some +features which may perhaps, without straining them too far, be interpreted +as traces or relics of a time when they or their predecessors played the +part of a divinity, and particularly of Adonis, the divine lord of the +land. In life the Hebrew king was regularly addressed as +_Adoni-ham-melech_, "My Lord the King,"(52) and after death he was +lamented with cries of _Hoi ahi! Hoi Adon!_ "Alas my brother! alas +Lord!"(53) These exclamations of grief uttered for the death of a king of +Judah were, we can hardly doubt, the very same cries which the weeping +women of Jerusalem uttered in the north porch of the temple for the dead +Tammuz.(54) However, little stress can be laid on such forms of address, +since _Adon_ in Hebrew, like "lord" in English, was a secular as well as a +religious title. But whether identified with Adonis or not, the Hebrew +kings certainly seem to have been regarded as in a sense divine, as +representing and to some extent embodying Jehovah on earth. For the king's +throne was called the throne of Jehovah;(55) and the application of the +holy oil to his head was believed to impart to him directly a portion of +the divine spirit.(56) Hence he bore the title of Messiah, which with its +Greek equivalent Christ means no more than "the Anointed One." Thus when +David had cut off the skirt of Saul's robe in the darkness of a cave where +he was in hiding, his heart smote him for having laid sacrilegious hands +upon _Adoni Messiah Jehovah_, "my Lord the Anointed of Jehovah."(57) + +(M14) Like other divine or semi-divine rulers the Hebrew kings were +apparently held answerable for famine and pestilence. When a dearth, +caused perhaps by a failure of the winter rains, had visited the land for +three years, King David inquired of the oracle, which discreetly laid the +blame not on him but on his predecessor Saul. The dead king was indeed +beyond the reach of punishment, but his sons were not. So David had seven +of them sought out, and they were hanged before the Lord at the beginning +of barley harvest in spring: and all the long summer the mother of two of +the dead men sat under the gallows-tree, keeping off the jackals by night +and the vultures by day, till with the autumn the blessed rain came at +last to wet their dangling bodies and fertilize the barren earth once +more. Then the bones of the dead were taken down from the gibbet and +buried in the sepulchre of their fathers.(58) The season when these +princes were put to death, at the beginning of barley harvest, and the +length of time they hung on the gallows, seem to show that their execution +was not a mere punishment, but that it partook of the nature of a +rain-charm. For it is a common belief that rain can be procured by magical +ceremonies performed with dead men's bones,(59) and it would be natural to +ascribe a special virtue in this respect to the bones of princes, who are +often expected to give rain in their life. When the Israelites demanded of +Samuel that he should give them a king, the indignant prophet, loth to be +superseded by the upstart Saul, called on the Lord to send thunder and +rain, and the Lord did so at once, though the season was early summer and +the reapers were at work in the wheat-fields, a time when in common years +no rain falls from the cloudless Syrian sky.(60) The pious historian who +records the miracle seems to have regarded it as a mere token of the wrath +of the deity, whose voice was heard in the roll of thunder; but we may +surmise that in giving this impressive proof of his control of the weather +Samuel meant to hint gently at the naughtiness of asking for a king to do +for the fertility of the land what could be done quite as well and far +more cheaply by a prophet. + +(M15) In Israel the excess as well as the deficiency of rain seems to have +been set down to the wrath of the deity.(61) When the Jews returned to +Jerusalem from the great captivity and assembled for the first time in the +square before the ruined temple, it happened that the weather was very +wet, and as the people sat shelterless and drenched in the piazza they +trembled at their sin and at the rain.(62) In all ages it has been the +strength or the weakness of Israel to read the hand of God in the changing +aspects of nature, and we need not wonder that at such a time and in so +dismal a scene, with a lowering sky overhead, the blackened ruins of the +temple before their eyes, and the steady drip of the rain over all, the +returned exiles should have been oppressed with a double sense of their +own guilt and of the divine anger. Perhaps, though they hardly knew it, +memories of the bright sun, fat fields, and broad willow-fringed rivers of +Babylon,(63) which had been so long their home, lent a deeper shade of +sadness to the austerity of the Judean landscape, with its gaunt grey +hills stretching away, range beyond range, to the horizon, or dipping +eastward to the far line of sombre blue which marks the sullen waters of +the Dead Sea.(64) + +(M16) In the days of the Hebrew monarchy the king was apparently credited +with the power of making sick and making whole. Thus the king of Syria +sent a leper to the king of Israel to be healed by him, just as scrofulous +patients used to fancy that they could be cured by the touch of a French +or English king. However, the Hebrew monarch, with more sense than has +been shown by his royal brothers in modern times, professed himself unable +to work any such miracle. "Am I God," he asked, "to kill and to make +alive, that this man doth send unto me to recover a man of his +leprosy?"(65) On another occasion, when pestilence ravaged the country and +the excited fancy of the plague-stricken people saw in the clouds the +figure of the Destroying Angel with his sword stretched out over +Jerusalem, they laid the blame on King David, who had offended the touchy +and irascible deity by taking a census. The prudent monarch bowed to the +popular storm, acknowledged his guilt, and appeased the angry god by +offering burnt sacrifices on the threshing-floor of Araunah, one of the +old Jebusite inhabitants of Jerusalem. Then the angel sheathed his +flashing sword, and the shrieks of the dying and the lamentations for the +dead no longer resounded in the streets.(66) + +(M17) To this theory of the sanctity, nay the divinity of the Hebrew kings +it may be objected that few traces of it survive in the historical books +of the Bible. But the force of the objection is weakened by a +consideration of the time and the circumstances in which these books +assumed their final shape. The great prophets of the eighth and the +seventh centuries by the spiritual ideals and the ethical fervour of their +teaching had wrought a religious and moral reform perhaps unparalleled in +history. Under their influence an austere monotheism had replaced the old +sensuous worship of the natural powers: a stern Puritanical spirit, an +unbending rigour of mind, had succeeded to the old easy supple temper with +its weak compliances, its wax-like impressionability, its proclivities to +the sins of the flesh. And the moral lessons which the prophets inculcated +were driven home by the political events of the time, above all by the +ever-growing pressure of the great Assyrian empire on the petty states of +Palestine. The long agony of the siege of Samaria(67) must have been +followed with trembling anxiety by the inhabitants of Judea, for the +danger was at their door. They had only to lift up their eyes and look +north to see the blue hills of Ephraim, at whose foot lay the beleaguered +city. Its final fall and the destruction of the northern kingdom could not +fail to fill every thoughtful mind in the sister realm with sad +forebodings. It was as if the sky had lowered and thunder muttered over +Jerusalem. Thenceforth to the close of the Jewish monarchy, about a +century and a half later, the cloud never passed away, though once for a +little it seemed to lift, when Sennacherib raised the siege of +Jerusalem(68) and the watchers on the walls beheld the last of the long +line of spears and standards disappearing, the last squadron of the +blue-coated Assyrian cavalry sweeping, in a cloud of dust, out of +sight.(69) + +(M18) It was in this period of national gloom and despondency that the two +great reformations of Israel's religion were accomplished, the first by +king Hezekiah, the second a century later by king Josiah.(70) We need not +wonder then that the reformers who in that and subsequent ages composed or +edited the annals of their nation should have looked as sourly on the old +unreformed paganism of their forefathers as the fierce zealots of the +Commonwealth looked on the far more innocent pastimes of Merry England; +and that in their zeal for the glory of God they should have blotted many +pages of history lest they should perpetuate the memory of practices to +which they traced the calamities of their country. All the historical +books passed through the office of the Puritan censor,(71) and we can +hardly doubt that they emerged from it stript of many gay feathers which +they had flaunted when they went in. Among the shed plumage may well have +been the passages which invested human beings, whether kings or commoners, +with the attributes of deity. Certainly no pages could seem to the censor +more rankly blasphemous; on none, therefore, was he likely to press more +firmly the official sponge. + +(M19) But if Semitic kings in general and the kings of Byblus in +particular often assumed the style of Baal or Adonis, it follows that they +may have mated with the goddess, the Baalath or Astarte of the city. +Certainly we hear of kings of Tyre and Sidon who were priests of +Astarte.(72) Now to the agricultural Semites the Baal or god of a land was +the author of all its fertility; he it was who produced the corn, the +wine, the figs, the oil, and the flax, by means of his quickening waters, +which in the arid parts of the Semitic world are oftener springs, streams, +and underground flow than the rains of heaven.(73) Further, "the +life-giving power of the god was not limited to vegetative nature, but to +him also was ascribed the increase of animal life, the multiplication of +flocks and herds, and, not least, of the human inhabitants of the land. +For the increase of animate nature is obviously conditioned, in the last +resort, by the fertility of the soil, and primitive races, which have not +learned to differentiate the various kinds of life with precision, think +of animate as well as vegetable life as rooted in the earth and sprung +from it. The earth is the great mother of all things in most mythological +philosophies, and the comparison of the life of mankind, or of a stock of +men, with the life of a tree, which is so common in Semitic as in other +primitive poetry, is not in its origin a mere figure. Thus where the +growth of vegetation is ascribed to a particular divine power, the same +power receives the thanks and homage of his worshippers for the increase +of cattle and of men. Firstlings as well as first-fruits were offered at +the shrines of the Baalim, and one of the commonest classes of personal +names given by parents to their sons or daughters designates the child as +the gift of the god." In short, "the Baal was conceived as the male +principle of reproduction, the husband of the land which he +fertilised."(74) So far, therefore, as the Semite personified the +reproductive energies of nature as male and female, as a Baal and a +Baalath, he appears to have identified the male power especially with +water and the female especially with earth. On this view plants and trees, +animals and men, are the offspring or children of the Baal and Baalath. + +(M20) If, then, at Byblus and elsewhere, the Semitic king was allowed, or +rather required, to personate the god and marry the goddess, the intention +of the custom can only have been to ensure the fertility of the land and +the increase of men and cattle by means of homoeopathic magic. There is +reason to think that a similar custom was observed from a similar motive +in other parts of the ancient world, and particularly at Nemi, where both +the male and the female powers, the Dianus and Diana, were in one aspect +of their nature personifications of the life-giving waters.(75) + +(M21) The last king of Byblus bore the ancient name of Cinyras, and was +beheaded by Pompey the Great for his tyrannous excesses.(76) His legendary +namesake Cinyras is said to have founded a sanctuary of Aphrodite, that +is, of Astarte, at a place on Mount Lebanon, distant a day's journey from +the capital.(77) The spot was probably Aphaca, at the source of the river +Adonis, half-way between Byblus and Baalbec; for at Aphaca there was a +famous grove and sanctuary of Astarte which Constantine destroyed on +account of the flagitious character of the worship.(78) The site of the +temple has been discovered by modern travellers near the miserable village +which still bears the name of Afka at the head of the wild, romantic, +wooded gorge of the Adonis. The hamlet stands among groves of noble +walnut-trees on the brink of the lyn. A little way off the river rushes +from a cavern at the foot of a mighty amphitheatre of towering cliffs to +plunge in a series of cascades into the awful depths of the glen. The +deeper it descends, the ranker and denser grows the vegetation, which, +sprouting from the crannies and fissures of the rocks, spreads a green +veil over the roaring or murmuring stream in the tremendous chasm below. +There is something delicious, almost intoxicating, in the freshness of +these tumbling waters, in the sweetness and purity of the mountain air, in +the vivid green of the vegetation. The temple, of which some massive hewn +blocks and a fine column of Syenite granite still mark the site, occupied +a terrace facing the source of the river and commanding a magnificent +prospect. Across the foam and the roar of the waterfalls you look up to +the cavern and away to the top of the sublime precipices above. So lofty +is the cliff that the goats which creep along its ledges to browse on the +bushes appear like ants to the spectator hundreds of feet below. Seaward +the view is especially impressive when the sun floods the profound gorge +with golden light, revealing all the fantastic buttresses and rounded +towers of its mountain rampart, and falling softly on the varied green of +the woods which clothe its depths.(79) It was here that, according to the +legend, Adonis met Aphrodite for the first or the last time,(80) and here +his mangled body was buried.(81) A fairer scene could hardly be imagined +for a story of tragic love and death. Yet, sequestered as the valley is +and must always have been, it is not wholly deserted. A convent or a +village may be observed here and there standing out against the sky on the +top of some beetling crag, or clinging to the face of a nearly +perpendicular cliff high above the foam and the din of the river; and at +evening the lights that twinkle through the gloom betray the presence of +human habitations on slopes which might seem inaccessible to man. In +antiquity the whole of the lovely vale appears have been dedicated to +Adonis, and to this day it is haunted by his memory; for the heights which +shut it in are crested at various points by ruined monuments of his +worship, some of them overhanging dreadful abysses, down which it turns +the head dizzy to look and see the eagles wheeling about their nests far +below. One such monument exists at Ghineh. The face of a great rock, above +a roughly hewn recess, is here carved with figures of Adonis and +Aphrodite. He is portrayed with spear in rest, awaiting the attack of a +bear, while she is seated in an attitude of sorrow.(82) Her grief-stricken +figure may well be the mourning Aphrodite of the Lebanon described by +Macrobius,(83) and the recess in the rock is perhaps her lover's tomb. +Every year, in the belief of his worshippers, Adonis was wounded to death +on the mountains, and every year the face of nature itself was dyed with +his sacred blood. So year by year the Syrian damsels lamented his untimely +fate,(84) while the red anemone, his flower, bloomed among the cedars of +Lebanon, and the river ran red to the sea, fringing the winding shores of +the blue Mediterranean, whenever the wind set inshore, with a sinuous, +band of crimson. + + + + +Chapter III. Adonis in Cyprus. + + +(M22) The island of Cyprus lies but one day's sail from the coast of +Syria. Indeed, on fine summer evenings its mountains may be descried +looming low and dark against the red fires of sunset.(85) With its rich +mines of copper and its forests of firs and stately cedars, the island +naturally attracted a commercial and maritime people like the Phoenicians; +while the abundance of its corn, its wine, and its oil must have rendered +it in their eyes a Land of Promise by comparison with the niggardly nature +of their own rugged coast, hemmed in between the mountains and the +sea.(86) Accordingly they settled in Cyprus at a very early date and +remained there long after the Greeks had also established themselves on +its shores; for we know from inscriptions and coins that Phoenician kings +reigned at Citium, the Chittim of the Hebrews, down to the time of +Alexander the Great.(87) Naturally the Semitic colonists brought their +gods with them from the mother-land. They worshipped Baal of the +Lebanon,(88) who may well have been Adonis, and at Amathus on the south +coast they instituted the rites of Adonis and Aphrodite, or rather +Astarte.(89) Here, as at Byblus, these rites resembled the Egyptian +worship of Osiris so closely that some people even identified the Adonis +of Amathus with Osiris.(90) The Tyrian Melcarth or Moloch was also +worshipped at Amathus,(91) and the tombs discovered in the neighbourhood +prove that the city remained Phoenician to a late period.(92) + +(M23) But the great seat of the worship of Aphrodite and Adonis in Cyprus +was Paphos on the south-western side of the island. Among the petty +kingdoms into which Cyprus was divided from the earliest times until the +end of the fourth century before our era Paphos must have ranked with the +best. It is a land of hills and billowy ridges, diversified by fields and +vineyards and intersected by rivers, which in the course of ages have +carved for themselves beds of such tremendous depth that travelling in the +interior is difficult and tedious. The lofty range of Mount Olympus (the +modern Troodos), capped with snow the greater part of the year, screens +Paphos from the northerly and easterly winds and cuts it off from the rest +of the island. On the slopes of the range the last pine-woods of Cyprus +linger, sheltering here and there monasteries in scenery not unworthy of +the Apennines. The old city of Paphos occupied the summit of a hill about +a mile from the sea; the newer city sprang up at the harbour some ten +miles off.(93) The sanctuary of Aphrodite at Old Paphos (the modern +Kuklia) was one of the most celebrated shrines in the ancient world. From +the earliest to the latest times it would seem to have preserved its +essential features unchanged. For the sanctuary is represented on coins of +the Imperial age,(94) and these representations agree closely with little +golden models of a shrine which were found in two of the royal graves at +Mycenae.(95) Both on the coins and in the models we see a facade +surmounted by a pair of doves and divided into three compartments or +chapels, of which the central one is crowned by a lofty superstructure. In +the golden models each chapel contains a pillar standing in a pair of +horns: the central superstructure is crowned by two pairs of horns, one +within the other; and the two side chapels are in like manner crowned each +with a pair of horns and a single dove perched on the outer horn of each +pair. On the coins each of the side chapels contains a pillar or +candelabra-like object: the central chapel contains a cone and is flanked +by two high columns, each terminating in a pair of ball-topped pinnacles, +with a star and crescent appearing between the tops of the columns. The +doves are doubtless the sacred doves of Aphrodite or Astarte,(96) and the +horns and pillars remind us of the similar religious emblems which have +been found in the great prehistoric palace of Cnossus in Crete, as well as +on many monuments of the Mycenaean or Minoan age of Greece.(97) If +antiquaries are right in regarding the golden models as copies of the +Paphian shrine, that shrine must have suffered little outward change for +more than a thousand years; for the royal graves at Mycenae, in which the +models were found, can hardly be of later date than the twelfth century +before our era. + +(M24) Thus the sanctuary of Aphrodite at Paphos was apparently of great +antiquity.(98) According to Herodotus, it was founded by Phoenician +colonists from Ascalon;(99) but it is possible that a native goddess of +fertility was worshipped on the spot before the arrival of the +Phoenicians, and that the newcomers identified her with their own Baalath +or Astarte, whom she may have closely resembled. If two deities were thus +fused in one, we may suppose that they were both varieties of that great +goddess of motherhood and fertility whose worship appears to have been +spread all over Western Asia from a very early time. The supposition is +confirmed as well by the archaic shape of her image as by the licentious +character of her rites; for both that shape and those rites were shared by +her with other Asiatic deities. Her image was simply a white cone or +pyramid.(100) In like manner, a cone was the emblem of Astarte at +Byblus,(101) of the native goddess whom the Greeks called Artemis at Perga +in Pamphylia,(102) and of the sun-god Heliogabalus at Emesa in Syria.(103) +Conical stones, which apparently served as idols, have also been found at +Golgi in Cyprus, and in the Phoenician temples of Malta;(104) and cones of +sandstone came to light at the shrine of the "Mistress of Torquoise" among +the barren hills and frowning precipices of Sinai.(105) The precise +significance of such an emblem remains as obscure as it was in the time of +Tacitus.(106) It appears to have been customary to anoint the sacred cone +with olive oil at a solemn festival, in which people from Lycia and Caria +participated.(107) The custom of anointing a holy stone has been observed +in many parts of the world; for example, in the sanctuary of Apollo at +Delphi.(108) To this day the old custom appears to survive at Paphos, for +"in honour of the Maid of Bethlehem the peasants of Kuklia anointed +lately, and probably still anoint each year, the great corner-stones of +the ruined Temple of the Paphian Goddess. As Aphrodite was supplicated +once with cryptic rites, so is Mary entreated still by Moslems as well as +Christians, with incantations and passings through perforated stones, to +remove the curse of barrenness from Cypriote women, or increase the +manhood of Cypriote men."(109) Thus the ancient worship of the goddess of +fertility is continued under a different name. Even the name of the old +goddess is retained in some parts of the island; for in more than one +chapel the Cypriote peasants adore the mother of Christ under the title +Panaghia Aphroditessa.(110) + +(M25) In Cyprus it appears that before marriage all women were formerly +obliged by custom to prostitute themselves to strangers at the sanctuary +of the goddess, whether she went by the name of Aphrodite, Astarte, or +what not.(111) Similar customs prevailed in many parts of Western Asia. +Whatever its motive, the practice was clearly regarded, not as an orgy of +lust, but as a solemn religious duty performed in the service of that +great Mother Goddess of Western Asia whose name varied, while her type +remained constant, from place to place. Thus at Babylon every woman, +whether rich or poor, had once in her life to submit to the embraces of a +stranger at the temple of Mylitta, that is, of Ishtar or Astarte, and to +dedicate to the goddess the wages earned by this sanctified harlotry. The +sacred precinct was crowded with women waiting to observe the custom. Some +of them had to wait there for years.(112) At Heliopolis or Baalbec in +Syria, famous for the imposing grandeur of its ruined temples, the custom +of the country required that every maiden should prostitute herself to a +stranger at the temple of Astarte, and matrons as well as maids testified +their devotion to the goddess in the same manner. The emperor Constantine +abolished the custom, destroyed the temple, and built a church in its +stead.(113) In Phoenician temples women prostituted themselves for hire in +the service of religion, believing that by this conduct they propitiated +the goddess and won her favour.(114) "It was a law of the Amorites, that +she who was about to marry should sit in fornication seven days by the +gate."(115) At Byblus the people shaved their heads in the annual mourning +for Adonis. Women who refused to sacrifice their hair had to give +themselves up to strangers on a certain day of the festival, and the money +which they thus earned was devoted to the goddess.(116) This custom may +have been a mitigation of an older rule which at Byblus as elsewhere +formerly compelled every woman without exception to sacrifice her virtue +in the service of religion. I have already suggested a reason why the +offering of a woman's hair was accepted as an equivalent for the surrender +of her person.(117) We are told that in Lydia all girls were obliged to +prostitute themselves in order to earn a dowry;(118) but we may suspect +that the real motive of the custom was devotion rather than economy. The +suspicion is confirmed by a Greek inscription found at Tralles in Lydia, +which proves that the practice of religious prostitution survived in that +country as late as the second century of our era. It records of a certain +woman, Aurelia Aemilia by name, not only that she herself served the god +in the capacity of a harlot at his express command, but that her mother +and other female ancestors had done the same before her; and the publicity +of the record, engraved on a marble column which supported a votive +offering, shows that no stain attached to such a life and such a +parentage.(119) In Armenia the noblest families dedicated their daughters +to the service of the goddess Anaitis in her temple at Acilisena, where +the damsels acted as prostitutes for a long time before they were given in +marriage. Nobody scrupled to take one of these girls to wife when her +period of service was over.(120) Again, the goddess Ma was served by a +multitude of sacred harlots at Comana in Pontus, and crowds of men and +women flocked to her sanctuary from the neighbouring cities and country to +attend the biennial festivals or to pay their vows to the goddess.(121) + +(M26) If we survey the whole of the evidence on this subject, some of +which has still to be laid before the reader, we may conclude that a great +Mother Goddess, the personification of all the reproductive energies of +nature, was worshipped under different names but with a substantial +similarity of myth and ritual by many peoples of Western Asia; that +associated with her was a lover, or rather series of lovers, divine yet +mortal, with whom she mated year by year, their commerce being deemed +essential to the propagation of animals and plants, each in their several +kind;(122) and further, that the fabulous union of the divine pair was +simulated and, as it were, multiplied on earth by the real, though +temporary, union of the human sexes at the sanctuary of the goddess for +the sake of thereby ensuring the fruitfulness of the ground and the +increase of man and beast.(123) And if the conception of such a Mother +Goddess dates, as seems probable, from a time when the institution of +marriage was either unknown or at most barely tolerated as an immoral +infringement of old communal rights, we can understand both why the +goddess herself was regularly supposed to be at once unmarried and +unchaste, and why her worshippers were obliged to imitate her more or less +completely in these respects. For had she been a divine wife united to a +divine husband, the natural counterpart of their union would have been the +lawful marriage of men and women, and there would have been no need to +resort to a system of prostitution or promiscuity in order to effect those +purposes which, on the principles of homoeopathic magic, might in that +case have been as well or better attained by the legitimate intercourse of +the sexes in matrimony. Formerly, perhaps, every woman was obliged to +submit at least once in her life to the exercise of those marital rights +which at a still earlier period had theoretically belonged in permanence +to all the males of the tribe. But in course of time, as the institution +of individual marriage grew in favour, and the old communism fell more and +more into discredit, the revival of the ancient practice even for a single +occasion in a woman's life became ever more repugnant to the moral sense +of the people, and accordingly they resorted to various expedients for +evading in practice the obligation which they still acknowledged in +theory. One of these evasions was to let the woman offer her hair instead +of her person; another apparently was to substitute an obscene symbol for +the obscene act.(124) But while the majority of women thus contrived to +observe the forms of religion without sacrificing their virtue, it was +still thought necessary to the general welfare that a certain number of +them should discharge the old obligation in the old way. These became +prostitutes either for life or for a term of years at one of the temples: +dedicated to the service of religion, they were invested with a sacred +character,(125) and their vocation, far from being deemed infamous, was +probably long regarded by the laity as an exercise of more than common +virtue, and rewarded with a tribute of mixed wonder, reverence, and pity, +not unlike that which in some parts of the world is still paid to women +who seek to honour their Creator in a different way by renouncing the +natural functions of their sex and the tenderest relations of humanity. It +is thus that the folly of mankind finds vent in opposite extremes alike +harmful and deplorable. + +(M27) At Paphos the custom of religious prostitution is said to have been +instituted by King Cinyras,(126) and to have been practised by his +daughters, the sisters of Adonis, who, having incurred the wrath of +Aphrodite, mated with strangers and ended their days in Egypt.(127) In +this form of the tradition the wrath of Aphrodite is probably a feature +added by a later authority, who could only regard conduct which shocked +his own moral sense as a punishment inflicted by the goddess instead of as +a sacrifice regularly enjoined by her on all her devotees. At all events +the story indicates that the princesses of Paphos had to conform to the +custom as well as women of humble birth. + +(M28) The legendary history of the royal and priestly family of the +Cinyrads is instructive. We are told that a Syrian man, by name Sandacus, +migrated to Cilicia, married Pharnace, daughter of Megassares, king of +Hyria, and founded the city of Celenderis. His wife bore him a son, +Cinyras, who in time crossed the sea with a company of people to Cyprus, +wedded Metharme, daughter of Pygmalion, king of the island, and founded +Paphos.(128) These legends seem to contain reminiscences of kingdoms in +Cilicia and Cyprus which passed in the female line, and were held by men, +sometimes foreigners, who married the hereditary princesses. There are +some indications that Cinyras was not in fact the founder of the temple at +Paphos. An older tradition ascribed the foundation to a certain Aerias, +whom some regarded as a king, and others as the goddess herself.(129) +Moreover, Cinyras or his descendants at Paphos had to reckon with rivals. +These were the Tamirads, a family of diviners who traced their descent +from Tamiras, a Cilician augur. At first it was arranged that both +families should preside at the ceremonies, but afterwards the Tamirads +gave way to the Cinyrads.(130) Many tales were told of Cinyras, the +founder of the dynasty. He was a priest of Aphrodite as well as a +king,(131) and his riches passed into a proverb.(132) To his descendants, +the Cinyrads, he appears to have bequeathed his wealth and his dignities; +at all events, they reigned as kings of Paphos and served the goddess as +priests. Their dead bodies, with that of Cinyras himself, were buried in +the sanctuary.(133) But by the fourth century before our era the family +had declined and become nearly extinct. When Alexander the Great expelled +a king of Paphos for injustice and wickedness, his envoys made search for +a member of the ancient house to set on the throne of his fathers. At last +they found one of them living in obscurity and earning his bread as a +market gardener. He was in the very act of watering his beds when the +king's messengers carried him off, much to his astonishment, to receive +the crown at the hands of their master.(134) Yet if the dynasty decayed, +the shrine of the goddess, enriched by the offerings of kings and private +persons, maintained its reputation for wealth down to Roman times.(135) +When Ptolemy Auletes, king of Egypt, was expelled by his people in 57 +B.C., Cato offered him the priesthood of Paphos as a sufficient +consolation in money and dignity for the loss of a throne.(136) + +(M29) Among the stories which were told of Cinyras, the ancestor of these +priestly kings and the father of Adonis, there are some that deserve our +attention. In the first place, he is said to have begotten his son Adonis +in incestuous intercourse with his daughter Myrrha at a festival of the +corn-goddess, at which women robed in white were wont to offer +corn-wreaths as first-fruits of the harvest and to observe strict chastity +for nine days.(137) Similar cases of incest with a daughter are reported +of many ancient kings.(138) It seems unlikely that such reports are +without foundation, and perhaps equally improbable that they refer to mere +fortuitous outbursts of unnatural lust. We may suspect that they are based +on a practice actually observed for a definite reason in certain special +circumstances. Now in countries where the royal blood was traced through +women only, and where consequently the king held office merely in virtue +of his marriage with an hereditary princess, who was the real sovereign, +it appears to have often happened that a prince married his own sister, +the princess royal, in order to obtain with her hand the crown which +otherwise would have gone to another man, perhaps to a stranger.(139) May +not the same rule of descent have furnished a motive for incest with a +daughter? For it seems a natural corollary from such a rule that the king +was bound to vacate the throne on the death of his wife, the queen, since +he occupied it only by virtue of his marriage with her. When that marriage +terminated, his right to the throne terminated with it and passed at once +to his daughter's husband. Hence if the king desired to reign after his +wife's death, the only way in which he could legitimately continue to do +so was by marrying his daughter, and thus prolonging through her the title +which had formerly been his through her mother. + +(M30) In this connexion it is worth while to remember that at Rome the +Flamen Dialis was bound to vacate his priesthood on the death of his wife, +the Flaminica.(140) The rule would be intelligible if the Flaminica had +originally been the more important functionary of the two, and if the +Flamen held office only by virtue of his marriage with her.(141) Elsewhere +I have shown reason to suppose that he and his wife represented an old +line of priestly kings and queens, who played the parts of Jupiter and +Juno, or perhaps rather Dianus and Diana, respectively.(142) If the +supposition is correct, the custom which obliged him to resign his +priesthood on the death of his wife seems to prove that of the two deities +whom they personated, the goddess, whether named Juno or Diana, was indeed +the better half. But at Rome the goddess Juno always played an +insignificant part; whereas at Nemi her old double, Diana, was +all-powerful, casting her mate, Dianus or Virbius, into deep shadow. Thus +a rule which points to the superiority of the Flaminica over the Flamen, +appears to indicate that the divine originals of the two were Dianus and +Diana rather than Jupiter and Juno; and further, that if Jupiter and Juno +at Rome stood for the principle of father-kin, or the predominance of the +husband over the wife, Dianus and Diana at Nemi stood for the older +principle of mother-kin, or the predominance of the wife in matters of +inheritance over the husband. If, then, I am right in holding that the +kingship at Rome was originally a plebeian institution and descended +through women,(143) we must conclude that the people who founded the +sanctuary of Diana at Nemi were of the same plebeian stock as the Roman +kings, that they traced descent in the female line, and that they +worshipped a great Mother Goddess, not a great Father God. That goddess +was Diana; her maternal functions are abundantly proved by the votive +offerings found at her ancient shrine among the wooded hills.(144) On the +other hand, the patricians, who afterwards invaded the country, brought +with them father-kin in its strictest form, and consistently enough paid +their devotions rather to Father Jove than to Mother Juno. + +(M31) A parallel to what I conjecture to have been the original relation +of the Flaminica to her husband the Flamen may to a certain extent be +found among the Khasis of Assam, who preserve to this day the ancient +system of mother-kin in matters of inheritance and religion. For among +these people the propitiation of deceased ancestors is deemed essential to +the welfare of the community, and of all their ancestors they revere most +the primaeval ancestress of the clan. Accordingly in every sacrifice a +priest must be assisted by a priestess; indeed, we are told that he merely +acts as her deputy, and that she "is without doubt a survival of the time +when, under the matriarchate, the priestess was the agent for the +performance of all religious ceremonies." It does not appear that the +priest need be the husband of the priestess; but in the Khyrim State, +where each division has its own goddess to whom sacrifices are offered, +the priestess is the mother, sister, niece, or other maternal relation of +the priest. It is her duty to prepare all the sacrificial articles, and +without her assistance the sacrifice cannot take place.(145) Here, then, +as among the ancient Romans on my hypothesis, we have the superiority of +the priestess over the priest based on a corresponding superiority of the +goddess or divine ancestress over the god or divine ancestor; and here, as +at Rome, a priest would clearly have to vacate office if he had no woman +of the proper relationship to assist him in the performance of his sacred +duties. + +(M32) Further, I have conjectured that as representatives of Jupiter and +Juno respectively the Flamen and Flaminica at Rome may have annually +celebrated a Sacred Marriage for the purpose of ensuring the fertility of +the powers of nature.(146) This conjecture also may be supported by an +analogous custom which is still observed in India. We have seen how among +the Oraons, a primitive hill-tribe of Bengal, the marriage of the Sun and +the Earth is annually celebrated by a priest and priestess who personate +respectively the god of the Sun and the goddess of the Earth.(147) The +ceremony of the Sacred Marriage has been described more fully by a Jesuit +missionary, who was intimately acquainted with the people and their native +religion. The rite is celebrated in the month of May, when the _sal_ tree +is in bloom, and the festival takes its native name (_khaddi_) from the +flower of the tree. It is the greatest festival of the year. "The object +of this feast is to celebrate the mystical marriage of the Sun-god +(_Bhagawan_) with the Goddess-earth (_Dharti-mai_), to induce them to be +fruitful and give good crops." At the same time all the minor deities or +demons of the village are propitiated, in order that they may not hinder +the beneficent activity of the Sun God and the Earth Goddess. On the eve +of the appointed day no man may plough his fields, and the priest, +accompanied by some of the villagers, repairs to the sacred grove, where +he beats a drum and invites all the invisible guests to the great feast +that will await them on the morrow. Next morning very early, before +cock-crow, an acolyte steals out as quietly as possible to the sacred +spring to fetch water in a new earthen pot. This holy water is full of all +kinds of blessings for the crops. The priest has prepared a place for it +in the middle of his house surrounded by cotton threads of diverse +colours. So sacred is the water that it would be defiled and lose all its +virtue, were any profane eye to fall on it before it entered the priest's +house. During the morning the acolyte and the priest's deputy go round +from house to house collecting victims for the sacrifice. In the afternoon +the people all gather at the sacred grove, and the priest proceeds to +consummate the sacrifice. The first victims to be immolated are a white +cock for the Sun God and a black hen for the Earth Goddess; and as the +feast is the marriage of these great deities the marriage service is +performed over the two fowls before they are hurried into eternity. +Amongst other things both birds are marked with vermilion just as a bride +and bridegroom are marked at a human marriage; and the earth is also +smeared with vermilion, as if it were a real bride, on the spot where the +sacrifice is offered. Sacrifices of fowls or goats to the minor deities or +demons follow. The bodies of the victims are collected by the village +boys, who cook them on the spot; all the heads go to the sacrificers. The +gods take what they can get and are more or less thankful. Meantime the +acolyte has collected flowers of the _sal_ tree and set them round the +place of sacrifice, and he has also fetched the holy water from the +priest's house. A procession is now formed and the priest is carried in +triumph to his own abode. There his wife has been watching for him, and on +his arrival the two go through the marriage ceremony, applying vermilion +to each other in the usual way "to symbolise the mystical marriage of the +Sun-god with the Earth-goddess." Meantime all the women of the village are +standing on the thresholds of their houses each with a winnowing-fan in +her hand. In the fan are two cups, one empty to receive the holy water, +and the other full of rice-beer for the consumption of the holy man. As he +arrives at each house, he distributes flowers and holy water to the happy +women, and enriches them with a shower of blessings, saying, "May your +rooms and granary be filled with rice, that the priest's name may be +great." The holy water which he leaves at each house is sprinkled on the +seeds that have been kept to sow next year's crop. Having thus imparted +his benediction to the household the priest swigs the beer; and as he +repeats his benediction and his potation at every house he is naturally +dead-drunk by the time he gets to the end of the village. "By that time +every one has taken copious libations of rice-beer, and all the devils of +the village seem to be let loose, and there follows a scene of debauchery +baffling description--all these to induce the Sun and the Earth to be +fruitful."(148) + +Thus the people of Cyprus and Western Asia in antiquity were by no means +singular in their belief that the profligacy of the human sexes served to +quicken the fruits of the earth.(149) + +(M33) Cinyras is said to have been famed for his exquisite beauty(150) and +to have been wooed by Aphrodite herself.(151) Thus it would appear, as +scholars have already observed,(152) that Cinyras was in a sense a +duplicate of his handsome son Adonis, to whom the inflammable goddess also +lost her heart. Further, these stories of the love of Aphrodite for two +members of the royal house of Paphos can hardly be dissociated from the +corresponding legend told of Pygmalion, the Phoenician king of Cyprus, who +is said to have fallen in love with an image of Aphrodite and taken it to +his bed.(153) When we consider that Pygmalion was the father-in-law of +Cinyras, that the son of Cinyras was Adonis, and that all three, in +successive generations, are said to have been concerned in a love-intrigue +with Aphrodite, we can hardly help concluding that the early Phoenician +kings of Paphos, or their sons, regularly claimed to be not merely the +priests of the goddess(154) but also her lovers, in other words, that in +their official capacity they personated Adonis. At all events Adonis is +said to have reigned in Cyprus,(155) and it appears to be certain that the +title of Adonis was regularly borne by the sons of all the Phoenician +kings of the island.(156) It is true that the title strictly signified no +more than "lord"; yet the legends which connect these Cyprian princes with +the goddess of love make it probable that they claimed the divine nature +as well as the human dignity of Adonis. The story of Pygmalion points to a +ceremony of a sacred marriage in which the king wedded the image of +Aphrodite, or rather of Astarte. If that was so, the tale was in a sense +true, not of a single man only, but of a whole series of men, and it would +be all the more likely to be told of Pygmalion, if that was a common name +of Semitic kings in general, and of Cyprian kings in particular. +Pygmalion, at all events, is known as the name of the famous king of Tyre +from whom his sister Dido fled;(157) and a king of Citium and Idalium in +Cyprus, who reigned in the time of Alexander the Great, was also called +Pygmalion, or rather Pumiyathon, the Phoenician name which the Greeks +corrupted into Pygmalion.(158) Further, it deserves to be noted that the +names Pygmalion and Astarte occur together in a Punic inscription on a +gold medallion which was found in a grave at Carthage; the characters of +the inscription are of the earliest type.(159) As the custom of religious +prostitution at Paphos is said to have been founded by King Cinyras and +observed by his daughters,(160) we may surmise that the kings of Paphos +played the part of the divine bridegroom in a less innocent rite than the +form of marriage with a statue; in fact, that at certain festivals each of +them had to mate with one or more of the sacred harlots of the temple, who +played Astarte to his Adonis. If that was so, there is more truth than has +commonly been supposed in the reproach cast by the Christian fathers that +the Aphrodite worshipped by Cinyras was a common whore.(161) The fruit of +their union would rank as sons and daughters of the deity, and would in +time become the parents of gods and goddesses, like their fathers and +mothers before them. In this manner Paphos, and perhaps all sanctuaries of +the great Asiatic goddess where sacred prostitution was practised, might +be well stocked with human deities, the offspring of the divine king by +his wives, concubines, and temple harlots. Any one of these might probably +succeed his father on the throne(162) or be sacrificed in his stead +whenever stress of war or other grave junctures called, as they sometimes +did,(163) for the death of a royal victim. Such a tax, levied occasionally +on the king's numerous progeny for the good of the country, would neither +extinguish the divine stock nor break the father's heart, who divided his +paternal affection among so many. At all events, if, as there seems reason +to believe, Semitic kings were often regarded at the same time as +hereditary deities, it is easy to understand the frequency of Semitic +personal names which imply that the bearers of them were the sons or +daughters, the brothers or sisters, the fathers or mothers of a god, and +we need not resort to the shifts employed by some scholars to evade the +plain sense of the words.(164) This interpretation is confirmed by a +parallel Egyptian usage; for in Egypt, where the kings were worshipped as +divine,(165) the queen was called "the wife of the god" or "the mother of +the god,"(166) and the title "father of the god" was borne not only by the +king's real father but also by his father-in-law.(167) Similarly, perhaps, +among the Semites any man who sent his daughter to swell the royal harem +may have been allowed to call himself "the father of the god." + +(M34) If we may judge by his name, the Semitic king who bore the name of +Cinyras was, like King David, a harper; for the name of Cinyras is clearly +connected with the Greek _cinyra_, "a lyre," which in its turn comes from +the Semitic _kinnor_, "a lyre," the very word applied to the instrument on +which David played before Saul.(168) We shall probably not err in assuming +that at Paphos as at Jerusalem the music of the lyre or harp was not a +mere pastime designed to while away an idle hour, but formed part of the +service of religion, the moving influence of its melodies being perhaps +set down, like the effect of wine, to the direct inspiration of a deity. +Certainly at Jerusalem the regular clergy of the temple prophesied to the +music of harps, of psalteries, and of cymbals;(169) and it appears that +the irregular clergy also, as we may call the prophets, depended on some +such stimulus for inducing the ecstatic state which they took for +immediate converse with the divinity.(170) Thus we read of a band of +prophets coming down from a high place with a psaltery, a timbrel, a pipe, +and a harp before them, and prophesying as they went.(171) Again, when the +united forces of Judah and Ephraim were traversing the wilderness of Moab +in pursuit of the enemy, they could find no water for three days, and were +like to die of thirst, they and the beasts of burden. In this emergency +the prophet Elisha, who was with the army, called for a minstrel and bade +him play. Under the influence of the music he ordered the soldiers to dig +trenches in the sandy bed of the waterless waddy through which lay the +line of march. They did so, and next morning the trenches were full of the +water that had drained down into them underground from the desolate, +forbidding mountains on either hand. The prophet's success in striking +water in the wilderness resembles the reported success of modern dowsers, +though his mode of procedure was different. Incidentally he rendered +another service to his countrymen. For the skulking Moabites from their +lairs among the rocks saw the red sun of the desert reflected in the +water, and taking it for the blood, or perhaps rather for an omen of the +blood, of their enemies, they plucked up heart to attack the camp and were +defeated with great slaughter.(172) + +(M35) Again, just as the cloud of melancholy which from time to time +darkened the moody mind of Saul was viewed as an evil spirit from the Lord +vexing him, so on the other hand the solemn strains of the harp, which +soothed and composed his troubled thoughts,(173) may well have seemed to +the hag-ridden king the very voice of God or of his good angel whispering +peace. Even in our own day a great religious writer, himself deeply +sensitive to the witchery of music, has said that musical notes, with all +their power to fire the blood and melt the heart, cannot be mere empty +sounds and nothing more; no, they have escaped from some higher sphere, +they are outpourings of eternal harmony, the voice of angels, the +Magnificat of saints.(174) It is thus that the rude imaginings of +primitive man are transfigured and his feeble lispings echoed with a +rolling reverberation in the musical prose of Newman. Indeed the influence +of music on the development of religion is a subject which would repay a +sympathetic study. For we cannot doubt that this, the most intimate and +affecting of all the arts, has done much to create as well as to express +the religious emotions, thus modifying more or less deeply the fabric of +belief to which at first sight it seems only to minister. The musician has +done his part as well as the prophet and the thinker in the making of +religion. Every faith has its appropriate music, and the difference +between the creeds might almost be expressed in musical notation. The +interval, for example, which divides the wild revels of Cybele from the +stately ritual of the Catholic Church is measured by the gulf which severs +the dissonant clash of cymbals and tambourines from the grave harmonies of +Palestrina and Handel. A different spirit breathes in the difference of +the music.(175) + +(M36) The legend which made Apollo the friend of Cinyras(176) may be based +on a belief in their common devotion to the lyre. But what function, we +may ask, did string music perform in the Greek and the Semitic ritual? Did +it serve to rouse the human mouthpiece of the god to prophetic ecstasy? or +did it merely ban goblins and demons from the holy places and the holy +service, drawing as it were around the worshippers a magic circle within +which no evil thing might intrude? In short, did it aim at summoning good +or banishing evil spirits? was its object inspiration or exorcism? The +examples drawn from the lives or legends of Elisha and David prove that +with the Hebrews the music of the lyre might be used for either purpose; +for while Elisha employed it to tune himself to the prophetic pitch, David +resorted to it for the sake of exorcising the foul fiend from Saul. With +the Greeks, on the other hand, in historical times, it does not appear +that string music served as a means of inducing the condition of trance or +ecstasy in the human mouthpieces of Apollo and the other oracular gods; on +the contrary, its sobering and composing influence, as contrasted with the +exciting influence of flute music, is the aspect which chiefly impressed +the Greek mind.(177) The religious or, at all events, the superstitious +man might naturally ascribe the mental composure wrought by grave, sweet +music to a riddance of evil spirits, in short to exorcism; and in harmony +with this view, Pindar, speaking of the lyre, says that all things hateful +to Zeus in earth and sea tremble at the sound of music.(178) Yet the +association of the lyre with the legendary prophet Orpheus as well as with +the oracular god Apollo seems to hint that in early days its strains may +have been employed by the Greeks, as they certainly were by the Hebrews, +to bring on that state of mental exaltation in which the thick-coming +fancies of the visionary are regarded as divine communications.(179) Which +of these two functions of music, the positive or the negative, the +inspiring or the protective, predominated in the religion of Adonis we +cannot say; perhaps the two were not clearly distinguished in the minds of +his worshippers. + +(M37) A constant feature in the myth of Adonis was his premature and +violent death. If, then, the kings of Paphos regularly personated Adonis, +we must ask whether they imitated their divine prototype in death as in +life. Tradition varied as to the end of Cinyras. Some thought that he slew +himself on discovering his incest with his daughter;(180) others alleged +that, like Marsyas, he was defeated by Apollo in a musical contest and put +to death by the victor.(181) Yet he cannot strictly be said to have +perished in the flower of his youth if he lived, as Anacreon averred, to +the ripe age of one hundred and sixty.(182) If we must choose between the +two stories, it is perhaps more likely that he died a violent death than +that he survived to an age which surpassed that of Thomas Parr by eight +years,(183) though it fell far short of the antediluvian standard. The +life of eminent men in remote ages is exceedingly elastic and may be +lengthened or shortened, in the interests of history, at the taste and +fancy of the historian. + + + + +Chapter IV. Sacred Men and Women. + + + +§ 1. An Alternative Theory. + + +(M38) In the preceding chapter we saw that a system of sacred prostitution +was regularly carried on all over Western Asia, and that both in Phoenicia +and in Cyprus the practice was specially associated with the worship of +Adonis. As the explanation which I have adopted of the custom has been +rejected in favour of another by writers whose opinions are entitled to be +treated with respect, I shall devote the present chapter to a further +consideration of the subject, and shall attempt to gather, from a closer +scrutiny and a wider survey of the field, such evidence as may set the +custom and with it the worship of Adonis in a clearer light. At the outset +it will be well to examine the alternative theory which has been put +forward to explain the facts. + +(M39) It has been proposed to derive the religious prostitution of Western +Asia from a purely secular and precautionary practice of destroying a +bride's virginity before handing her over to her husband in order that +"the bridegroom's intercourse should be safe from a peril that is much +dreaded by men in a certain stage of culture."(184) Among the objections +which may be taken to this view are the following:-- + +(M40) (1) The theory fails to account for the deeply religious character +of the customs as practised in antiquity all over Western Asia. That +religious character appears from the observance of the custom at the +sanctuaries of a great goddess, the dedication of the wages of +prostitution to her, the belief of the women that they earned her favour +by prostituting themselves,(185) and the command of a male deity to serve +him in this manner.(186) + +(M41) (2) The theory fails to account for the prostitution of married +women at Heliopolis(187) and apparently also at Babylon and Byblus; for in +describing the practice at the two latter places our authorities, +Herodotus and Lucian, speak only of women, not of virgins.(188) In Israel +also we know from Hosea that young married women prostituted themselves at +the sanctuaries on the hilltops under the shadow of the sacred oaks, +poplars, and terebinths.(189) The prophet makes no mention of virgins +participating in these orgies. They may have done so, but his language +does not imply it: he speaks only of "your daughters" and "your +daughters-in-law." The prostitution of married women is wholly +inexplicable on the hypothesis here criticized. Yet it can hardly be +separated from the prostitution of virgins, which in some places at least +was carried on side by side with it. + +(M42) (3) The theory fails to account for the repeated and professional +prostitution of women in Lydia, Pontus, Armenia, and apparently all over +Palestine.(190) Yet this habitual prostitution can in its turn hardly be +separated from the first prostitution in a woman's life. Or are we to +suppose that the first act of unchastity is to be explained in one way and +all the subsequent acts in quite another? that the first act was purely +secular and all the subsequent acts purely religious? + +(M43) (4) The theory fails to account for the _Kedeshim_ ("sacred men") +side by side with the _Kedeshoth_ ("sacred women") at the +sanctuaries;(191) for whatever the religious functions of these "sacred +men" may have been, it is highly probable that they were analogous to +those of the "sacred women" and are to be explained in the same way. + +(M44) (5) On the hypothesis which I am considering we should expect to +find the man who deflowers the maid remunerated for rendering a dangerous +service; and so in fact we commonly find him remunerated in places where +the supposed custom is really practised.(192) But in Western Asia it was +just the contrary. It was the woman who was paid, not the man; indeed, so +well was she paid that in Lydia and Cyprus the girls earned dowries for +themselves in this fashion.(193) This clearly shows that it was the woman, +and not the man, who was believed to render the service. Or are we to +suppose that the man had to pay for rendering a dangerous service?(194) + +These considerations seem to prove conclusively that whatever the remote +origin of these Western Asiatic customs may have been, they cannot have +been observed in historical times from any such motive as is assumed by +the hypothesis under discussion. At the period when we have to do with +them the customs were to all appearance purely religious in character, and +a religious motive must accordingly be found for them. Such a motive is +supplied by the theory I have adopted, which, so far as I can judge, +adequately explains all the known facts. + +(M45) At the same time, in justice to the writers whose views I have +criticized, I wish to point out that the practice from which they propose +to derive the sacred prostitution of Western Asia has not always been +purely secular in character. For, in the first place, the agent employed +is sometimes reported to be a priest;(195) and, in the second place, the +sacrifice of virginity has in some places, for example at Rome and in +parts of India, been made directly to the image of a male deity.(196) The +meaning of these practices is very obscure, and in the present state of +our ignorance on the subject it is unsafe to build conclusions on them. It +is possible that what seems to be a purely secular precaution may be only +a degenerate form of a religious rite; and on the other hand it is +possible that the religious rite may go back to a purely physical +preparation for marriage, such as is still observed among the aborigines +of Australia.(197) But even if such an historical origin could be +established, it would not explain the motives from which the customs +described in this volume were practised by the people of Western Asia in +historical times. The true parallel to these customs is the sacred +prostitution which is carried on to this day by dedicated women in India +and Africa. An examination of these modern practices may throw light on +the ancient customs. + + + +§ 2. Sacred Women in India. + + +(M46) In India the dancing-girls dedicated to the service of the Tamil +temples take the name of _deva-dasis_, "servants or slaves of the gods," +but in common parlance they are spoken of simply as harlots. Every Tamil +temple of note in Southern India has its troop of these sacred women. +Their official duties are to dance twice a day, morning and evening, in +the temple, to fan the idol with Tibetan ox-tails, to dance and sing +before it when it is borne in procession, and to carry the holy light +called _Kumbarti_. Inscriptions show that in A.D. 1004 the great temple of +the Chola king Rajaraja at Tanjore had attached to it four hundred "women +of the temple," who lived at free quarters in the streets round about it +and were allowed land free of taxes out of its endowment. From infancy +they are trained to dance and sing. In order to obtain a safe delivery +expectant mothers will often vow to dedicate their child, if she should +prove to be a girl, to the service of God. Among the weavers of +Tiru-kalli-kundram, a little town in the Madras Presidency, the eldest +daughter of every family is devoted to the temple. Girls thus made over to +the deity are formally married, sometimes to the idol, sometimes to a +sword, before they enter on their duties; from which it appears that they +are often, if not regularly, regarded as the wives of the god.(198) Among +the Kaikolans, a large caste of Tamil weavers who are spread all over +Southern India, at least one girl in every family should be dedicated to +the temple service. The ritual, as it is observed at the initiation of one +of these girls in Coimbatore, includes "a form of nuptial ceremony. The +relations are invited for an auspicious day, and the maternal uncle, or +his representative, ties a gold band on the girl's forehead, and, carrying +her, places her on a plank before the assembled guests. A Brahman priest +recites the _mantrams_, and prepares the sacred fire (_homam_). The uncle +is presented with new cloths by the girl's mother. For the actual nuptials +a rich Brahman, if possible, and, if not, a Brahman of more lowly status +is invited. A Brahman is called in, as he is next in importance to, and +the representative of the idol. It is said that, when the man who is to +receive her first favours, joins the girl, a sword must be placed, at +least for a few minutes, by her side." When one of these dancing-girls +dies, her body is covered with a new cloth which has been taken for the +purpose from the idol, and flowers are supplied from the temple to which +she belonged. No worship is performed in the temple until the last rites +have been performed over her body, because the idol, being deemed her +husband, is held to be in that state of ceremonial pollution common to +human mourners which debars him from the offices of religion.(199) In +Mahratta such a female devotee is called Murli. Common folk believe that +from time to time the shadow of the god falls on her and possesses her +person. At such times the possessed woman rocks herself to and fro, and +the people occasionally consult her as a soothsayer, laying money at her +feet and accepting as an oracle the words of wisdom or folly that drop +from her lips.(200) Nor is the profession of a temple prostitute adopted +only by girls. In Tulava, a district of Southern India, any woman of the +four highest castes who wearies of her husband or, as a widow and +therefore incapable of marriage, grows tired of celibacy, may go to a +temple and eat of the rice offered to the idol. Thereupon, if she is a +Brahman, she has the right to live either in the temple or outside of its +precincts, as she pleases. If she decides to live in it, she gets a daily +allowance of rice, and must sweep the temple, fan the idol, and confine +her amours to the Brahmans. The male children of these women form a +special class called Moylar, but are fond of assuming the title of +Stanikas. As many of them as can find employment hang about the temple, +sweeping the areas, sprinkling them with cow-dung, carrying torches before +the gods, and doing other odd jobs. Some of them, debarred from these holy +offices, are reduced to the painful necessity of earning their bread by +honest work. The daughters are either brought up to live like their +mothers or are given in marriage to the Stanikas. Brahman women who do not +choose to live in the temples, and all the women of the three lower +castes, cohabit with any man of pure descent, but they have to pay a fixed +sum annually to the temple.(201) + +(M47) In Travancore a dancing-girl attached to a temple is known as a +_Dasi_, or _Devadasi_, or _Devaratial_, "a servant of God." The following +account of her dedication and way of life deserves to be quoted because, +while it ignores the baser side of her vocation, it brings clearly out the +idea of her marriage to the deity. "Marriage in the case of a _Devaratial_ +in its original import is a renunciation of ordinary family life and a +consecration to the service of God. With a lady-nurse at a Hospital, or a +sister at a Convent, a _Devadasi_ at a Hindu shrine, such as she probably +was in the early ages of Hindu spirituality, would have claimed favourable +comparison. In the ceremonial of the dedication-marriage of the _Dasi_, +elements are not wanting which indicate a past quite the reverse of +disreputable. The girl to be married is generally from six to eight years +in age. The bridegroom is the presiding deity of the local temple. The +ceremony is done at his house. The expenses of the celebration are +supposed to be partly paid from his funds. To instance the practice at the +Suchindram temple, a _Yoga_ or meeting of the chief functionaries of the +temple arranges the preliminaries. The girl to be wedded bathes and goes +to the temple with two pieces of cloth, a _tali_, betel, areca-nut, etc. +These are placed by the priest at the feet of the image. The girl sits +with the face towards the deity. The priest kindles the sacred fire and +goes through all the rituals of the _Tirukkalyanam_ festival. He then +initiates the bride into the _Panchakshara mantra_, if in a Saiva temple, +and the _Ashtakshara_, if in a Vaishnava temple. On behalf of the divine +bridegroom, he presents one of the two cloths she has brought as offering +and ties the _Tali_ around her neck. The practice, how old it is not +possible to say, is then to take her to her house where the usual marriage +festivities are celebrated for four days. As in Brahminical marriages, the +_Nalunku_ ceremony, _i.e._ the rolling of a cocoanut by the bride to the +bridegroom and _vice versa_ a number of times to the accompaniment of +music, is gone through, the temple priest playing the bridegroom's part. +Thenceforth she becomes the wife of the deity in the sense that she +formally and solemnly dedicates the rest of her life to his service with +the same constancy and devotion that a faithful wife united in holy +matrimony shows to her wedded lord. The life of a _Devadasi_ bedecked with +all the accomplishments that the muses could give was one of spotless +purity. Even now she is maintained by the temple. She undertakes fasts in +connection with the temple festivals, such as the seven days' fast for the +_Apamargam_ ceremony. During the period of this fast, strict continence is +enjoined; she is required to take only one meal, and that within the +temple--in fact to live and behave at least for a term, in the manner +ordained for her throughout life. Some of the details of her daily work +seem interesting; she attends the _Diparadhana_, the waving of lighted +lamps in front of the deity at sunset every day; sings hymns in his +praise, dances before his presence, goes round with him in his processions +with lights in hand. After the procession, she sings a song or two from +Jayadeva's _Gitagovinda_ and with a few lullaby hymns, her work for the +night is over. When she grows physically unfit for these duties, she is +formally invalided by a special ceremony, _i.e._ _Totuvaikkuka_, or the +laying down of the ear-pendants. It is gone through at the Maha Raja's +palace, whereafter she becomes a _Taikkizhavi_ (old mother), entitled only +to a subsistence-allowance. When she dies, the temple contributes to the +funeral expenses. On her death-bed, the priest attends and after a few +ceremonies immediately after death, gets her bathed with +saffron-powder."(202) + + + +§ 3. Sacred Men and Women in West Africa. + + +(M48) Still more instructive for our present purpose are the West African +customs. Among the Ewe-speaking peoples of the Slave Coast "recruits for +the priesthood are obtained in two ways, viz. by the affiliation of young +persons, and by the direct consecration of adults. Young people of either +sex dedicated or affiliated to a god are termed _kosio_, from _kono_, +'unfruitful,' because a child dedicated to a god passes into his service +and is practically lost to his parents, and _si_, 'to run away.' As the +females become the 'wives' of the god to whom they are dedicated, the +termination _si_ in _vodu-si_ [another name for these dedicated women], +has been translated 'wife' by some Europeans; but it is never used in the +general acceptation of that term, being entirely restricted to persons +consecrated to the gods. The chief business of the female _kosi_ is +prostitution, and in every town there is at least one institution in which +the best-looking girls, between ten and twelve years of age, are received. +Here they remain for three years, learning the chants and dances peculiar +to the worship of the gods, and prostituting themselves to the priests and +the inmates of the male seminaries; and at the termination of their +novitiate they become public prostitutes. This condition, however, is not +regarded as one for reproach; they are considered to be married to the +god, and their excesses are supposed to be caused and directed by him. +Properly speaking, their libertinage should be confined to the male +worshippers at the temple of the god, but practically it is +indiscriminate. Children who are born from such unions belong to the +god."(203) These women are not allowed to marry since they are deemed the +wives of a god.(204) + +(M49) Again, in this part of Africa "the female _Kosio_ of Danh-gbi, or +_Danh-sio_, that is, the wives, priestesses, and temple prostitutes of +Danh-gbi, the python-god, have their own organization. Generally they live +together in a group of houses or huts inclosed by a fence, and in these +inclosures the novices undergo their three years of initiation. Most new +members are obtained by the affiliation of young girls; but any woman +whatever, married or single, slave or free, by publicly simulating +possession, and uttering the conventional cries recognized as indicative +of possession by the god, can at once join the body, and be admitted to +the habitations of the order. The person of a woman who has joined in this +manner is inviolable, and during the period of her novitiate she is +forbidden, if single, to enter the house of her parents, and, if married, +that of her husband. This inviolability, while it gives women +opportunities of gratifying an illicit passion, at the same time serves +occasionally to save the persecuted slave, or neglected wife, from the +ill-treatment of the lord and master; for she has only to go through the +conventional form of possession and an asylum is assured."(205) The +python-god marries these women secretly in his temple, and they father +their offspring on him; but it is the priests who consummate the +union.(206) + +(M50) For our purpose it is important to note that a close connexion is +apparently supposed to exist between the fertility of the soil and the +marriage of these women to the serpent. For the time when new brides are +sought for the reptile-god is the season when the millet is beginning to +sprout. Then the old priestesses, armed with clubs, run frantically +through the streets shrieking like mad women and carrying off to be brides +of the serpent any little girls between the ages of eight and twelve whom +they may find outside of the houses. Pious people at such times will +sometimes leave their daughters at their doors on purpose that they may +have the honour of being dedicated to the god.(207) The marriage of wives +to the serpent-god is probably deemed necessary to enable him to discharge +the important function of making the crops to grow and the cattle to +multiply; for we read that these people "invoke the snake in excessively +wet, dry, or barren seasons; on all occasions relating to their government +and the preservation of their cattle; or rather, in one word, in all +necessities and difficulties, in which they do not apply to their new +batch of gods."(208) Once in a bad season the Dutch factor Bosman found +the King of Whydah in a great rage. His Majesty explained the reason of +his discomposure by saying "that that year he had sent much larger +offerings to the snake-house than usual, in order to obtain a good crop; +and that one of his vice-roys (whom he shewed me) had desired him afresh, +in the name of the priests, who threatened a barren year, to send yet +more. To which he answered that he did not intend to make any further +offerings this year; and if the snake would not bestow a plentiful harvest +on them, he might let it alone; for (said he) I cannot be more damaged +thereby, the greatest part of my corn being already rotten in the +field."(209) + +(M51) The Akikuyu of British East Africa "have a custom which reminds one +of the West African python-god and his wives. At intervals of, I believe, +several years the medicine-men order huts to be built for the purpose of +worshipping a river snake. The snake-god requires wives, and women or more +especially girls go to the huts. Here the union is consummated by the +medicine-men. If the number of females who go to the huts voluntarily is +not sufficient, girls are seized and dragged there. I believe the +offspring of such a union is said to be fathered by God (Ngai): at any +rate there are children in Kikuyu who are regarded as the children of +God."(210) + +(M52) Among the negroes of the Slave Coast there are, as we have seen, +male _kosio_ as well as female _kosio_; that is, there are dedicated men +as well as dedicated women, priests as well as priestesses, and the ideas +and customs in regard to them seem to be similar. Like the women, the men +undergo a three years' novitiate, at the end of which each candidate has +to prove that the god accepts him and finds him worthy of inspiration. +Escorted by a party of priests he goes to a shrine and seats himself on a +stool that belongs to the deity. The priests then anoint his head with a +mystic decoction and invoke the god in a long and wild chorus. During the +singing the youth, if he is acceptable to the deity, trembles violently, +simulates convulsions, foams at the mouth, and dances in a frenzied style, +sometimes for more than an hour. This is the proof that the god has taken +possession of him. After that he has to remain in a temple without +speaking for seven days and nights. At the end of that time, he is brought +out, a priest opens his mouth to show that he may now use his tongue, a +new name is given him, and he is fully ordained.(211) Henceforth he is +regarded as the priest and medium of the deity whom he serves, and the +words which he utters in that morbid state of mental excitement which +passes for divine inspiration, are accepted by the hearers as the very +words of the god spoken by the mouth of the man.(212) Any crime which a +priest committed in a state of frenzy used to remain unpunished, no doubt +because the act was thought to be the act of the god. But this benefit of +clergy was so much abused that under King Gezo the law had to be altered; +and although, while he is still possessed by the god, the inspired +criminal is safe, he is now liable to punishment as soon as the divine +spirit leaves him. Nevertheless on the whole among these people "the +person of a priest or priestess is sacred. Not only must a layman not lay +hands on or insult one; he must be careful not even to knock one by +accident, or jostle against one in the street. The Abbe Bouche +relates(213) that once when he was paying a visit to the chief of Agweh, +one of the wives of the chief was brought into the house by four +priestesses, her face bloody, and her body covered with stripes. She had +been savagely flogged for having accidentally trodden upon the foot of one +of them; and the chief not only dared not give vent to his anger, but had +to give them a bottle of rum as a peace-offering."(214) + +(M53) Among the Tshi-speaking peoples of the Gold Coast, who border on the +Ewe-speaking peoples of the Slave Coast to the west, the customs and +beliefs in regard to the dedicated men and dedicated women, the priests +and priestesses, are very similar. These persons are believed to be from +time to time possessed or inspired by the deity whom they serve; and in +that state they are consulted as oracles. They work themselves up to the +necessary pitch of excitement by dancing to the music of drums; each god +has his special hymn, sung to a special beat of the drum, and accompanied +by a special dance. It is while thus dancing to the drums that the priest +or priestess lets fall the oracular words in a croaking or guttural voice +which the hearers take to be the voice of the god. Hence dancing has an +important place in the education of priests and priestesses; they are +trained in it for months before they may perform in public. These +mouthpieces of the deity are consulted in almost every concern of life and +are handsomely paid for their services.(215) "Priests marry like any other +members of the community, and purchase wives; but priestesses are never +married, nor can any 'head money' be paid for a priestess. The reason +appears to be that a priestess belongs to the god she serves, and +therefore cannot become the property of a man, as would be the case if she +married one. This prohibition extends to marriage only, and a priestess is +not debarred from sexual commerce. The children of a priest or priestess +are not ordinarily educated for the priestly profession, one generation +being usually passed over, and the grandchildren selected. Priestesses are +ordinarily most licentious, and custom allows them to gratify their +passions with any man who may chance to take their fancy."(216) The ranks +of the hereditary priesthood are constantly recruited by persons who +devote themselves or who are devoted by their relations or masters to the +profession. Men, women, and even children can thus become members of the +priesthood. If a mother has lost several of her children by death, she +will not uncommonly vow to devote the next born to the service of the +gods; for in this way she hopes to save the child's life. So when the +child is born it is set apart for the priesthood, and on arriving at +maturity generally fulfils the vow made by the mother and becomes a priest +or priestess. At the ceremony of ordination the votary has to prove his or +her vocation for the sacred life in the usual way by falling into or +simulating convulsions, dancing frantically to the beat of drums, and +speaking in a hoarse unnatural voice words which are deemed to be the +utterance of the deity temporarily lodged in the body of the man or +woman.(217) + + + +§ 4. Sacred Women in Western Asia. + + +(M54) Thus in Africa, and sometimes if not regularly in India, the sacred +prostitutes attached to temples are regarded as the wives of the god, and +their excesses are excused on the ground that the women are not +themselves, but that they act under the influence of divine inspiration. +This is in substance the explanation which I have given of the custom of +sacred prostitution as it was practised in antiquity by the peoples of +Western Asia. In their licentious intercourse at the temples the women, +whether maidens or matrons or professional harlots, imitated the +licentious conduct of a great goddess of fertility for the purpose of +ensuring the fruitfulness of fields and trees, of man and beast; and in +discharging this sacred and important function the women were probably +supposed, like their West African sisters, to be actually possessed by the +goddess. The hypothesis at least explains all the facts in a simple and +natural manner; and in assuming that women could be married to gods it +assumes a principle which we know to have been recognized in Babylon, +Assyria, and Egypt.(218) At Babylon a woman regularly slept in the great +bed of Bel or Marduk, which stood in his temple on the summit of a lofty +pyramid; and it was believed that the god chose her from all the women of +Babylon and slept with her in the bed. However, unlike the Indian and West +African wives of gods, this spouse of the Babylonian deity is reported by +Herodotus to have been chaste.(219) Yet we may doubt whether she was so; +for these wives or perhaps paramours of Bel are probably to be identified +with the wives or votaries of Marduk mentioned in the code of Hammurabi, +and we know from the code that female votaries of the gods might be +mothers and married to men.(220) At Babylon the sun-god Shamash as well as +Marduk had human wives formerly dedicated to his service, and they like +the votaries of Marduk might have children.(221) It is significant that a +name for these Babylonian votaries was _kadishtu_, which is the same word +as _kedesha_, "consecrated woman," the regular Hebrew word for a temple +harlot.(222) It is true that the law severely punished any disrespect +shown to these sacred women;(223) but the example of West Africa warns us +that a formal respect shown to such persons, even when it is enforced by +severe penalties, need be no proof at all of their virtuous +character.(224) In Egypt a woman used to sleep in the temple of Ammon at +Thebes, and the god was believed to visit her.(225) Egyptian texts often +mention her as "the divine consort," and in old days she seems to have +usually been the Queen of Egypt herself.(226) But in the time of Strabo, +at the beginning of our era, these consorts or concubines of Ammon, as +they were called, were beautiful young girls of noble birth, who held +office only till puberty. During their term of office they prostituted +themselves freely to any man who took their fancy. After puberty they were +given in marriage, and a ceremony of mourning was performed for them as if +they were dead.(227) When they died in good earnest, their bodies were +laid in special graves.(228) + + + +§ 5. Sacred Men in Western Asia. + + +(M55) As in West Africa the dedicated women have their counterpart in the +dedicated men, so it was in Western Asia; for there the sacred men +(_kedeshim_) clearly corresponded to the sacred women (_kedeshoth_), in +other words, the sacred male slaves(229) of the temples were the +complement of the sacred female slaves. And as the characteristic feature +of the dedicated men in West Africa is their supposed possession or +inspiration by the deity, so we may conjecture was it with the sacred male +slaves (the _kedeshim_) of Western Asia; they, too, may have been regarded +as temporary or permanent embodiments of the deity, possessed from time to +time by his divine spirit, acting in his name, and speaking with his +voice.(230) At all events we know that this was so at the sanctuary of the +Moon among the Albanians of the Caucasus. The sanctuary owned church lands +of great extent peopled by sacred slaves, and it was ruled by a +high-priest, who ranked next after the king. Many of these slaves were +inspired by the deity and prophesied; and when one of them had been for +some time in this state of divine frenzy, wandering alone in the forest, +the high-priest had him caught, bound with a sacred chain, and maintained +in luxury for a year. Then the poor wretch was led out, anointed with +unguents, and sacrificed with other victims to the Moon. The mode of +sacrifice was this. A man took a sacred spear, and thrust it through the +victim's side to the heart. As he staggered and fell, the rest observed +him closely and drew omens from the manner of his fall. Then the body was +dragged or carried away to a certain place, where all his fellows stood +upon it by way of purification.(231) In this custom the prophet, or rather +the maniac, was plainly supposed to be moon-struck in the most literal +sense, that is, possessed or inspired by the deity of the Moon, who was +perhaps thought by the Albanians, as by the Phrygians,(232) to be a male +god, since his chosen minister and mouthpiece was a man, not a woman.(233) +It can hardly therefore be deemed improbable that at other sanctuaries of +Western Asia, where sacred men were kept, these ministers of religion +should have discharged a similar prophetic function, even though they did +not share the tragic fate of the moon-struck Albanian prophet. Nor was the +influence of these Asiatic prophets confined to Asia. In Sicily the spark +which kindled the devastating Servile War was struck by a Syrian slave, +who simulated the prophetic ecstasy in order to rouse his fellow-slaves to +arms in the name of the Syrian goddess. To inflame still more his +inflammatory words this ancient Mahdi ingeniously interlarded them with +real fire and smoke, which by a common conjurer's trick he breathed from +his lips.(234) + +(M56) In like manner the Hebrew prophets were believed to be temporarily +possessed and inspired by a divine spirit who spoke through them, just as +a divine spirit is supposed by West African negroes to speak through the +mouth of the dedicated men his priests. Indeed the points of resemblance +between the prophets of Israel and West Africa are close and curious. Like +their black brothers, the Hebrew prophets employed music in order to bring +on the prophetic trance;(235) like them, they received the divine spirit +through the application of a magic oil to their heads;(236) like them, +they were apparently distinguished from common people by certain marks on +the face;(237) and like them they were consulted not merely in great +national emergencies but in the ordinary affairs of everyday life, in +which they were expected to give information and advice for a small fee. +For example, Samuel was consulted about lost asses,(238) just as a Zulu +diviner is consulted about lost cows;(239) and we have seen Elisha acting +as a dowser when water ran short.(240) Indeed, we learn that the old name +for a prophet was a seer,(241) a word which may be understood to imply +that his special function was divination rather than prophecy in the sense +of prediction. Be that as it may, prophecy of the Hebrew type has not been +limited to Israel; it is indeed a phenomenon of almost world-wide +occurrence; in many lands and in many ages the wild, whirling words of +frenzied men and women have been accepted as the utterances of an +indwelling deity.(242) What does distinguish Hebrew prophecy from all +others is that the genius of a few members of the profession wrested this +vulgar but powerful instrument from baser uses, and by wielding it in the +interest of a high morality rendered a service of incalculable value to +humanity. That is indeed the glory of Israel, but it is not the side of +prophecy with which we are here concerned. + +(M57) More to our purpose is to note that prophecy of the ordinary sort +appears to have been in vogue at Byblus, the sacred city of Adonis, +centuries before the life-time of the earliest Hebrew prophet whose +writings have come down to us. When the Egyptian traveller, Wen-Ammon, was +lingering in the port of Byblus, under the King's orders to quit the +place, the spirit of God came on one of the royal pages or henchmen, and +in a prophetic frenzy he announced that the King should receive the +Egyptian stranger as a messenger sent from the god Ammon.(243) The god who +thus took possession of the page and spoke through him was probably +Adonis, the god of the city. With regard to the office of these royal +pages we have no information; but as ministers of a sacred king and liable +to be inspired by the deity, they would naturally be themselves sacred; in +fact they may have belonged to the class of sacred slaves or _kedeshim_. +If that was so it would confirm the conclusion to which the foregoing +investigation points, namely, that originally no sharp line of distinction +existed between the prophets and the _kedeshim_; both were "men of God," +as the prophets were constantly called;(244) in other words, they were +inspired mediums, men in whom the god manifested himself from time to time +by word and deed, in short temporary incarnations of the deity. But while +the prophets roved freely about the country, the _kedeshim_ appear to have +been regularly attached to a sanctuary; and among the duties which they +performed at the shrines there were clearly some which revolted the +conscience of men imbued with a purer morality. What these duties were, we +may surmise partly from the behaviour of the sons of Eli to the women who +came to the tabernacle,(245) partly from the beliefs and practices as to +"holy men" which survive to this day among the Syrian peasantry. + +(M58) Of these "holy men" we are told that "so far as they are not +impostors, they are men whom we would call insane, known among the Syrians +as _mejnun_, possessed by a _jinn_ or spirit. They often go in filthy +garments, or without clothing. Since they are regarded as intoxicated by +deity, the most dignified men, and of the highest standing among the +Moslems, submit to utter indecent language at their bidding without +rebuke, and ignorant Moslem women do not shrink from their approach, +because in their superstitious belief they attribute to them, as men +possessed by God, a divine authority which they dare not resist. Such an +attitude of compliance may be exceptional, but there are more than rumours +of its existence. These 'holy men' differ from the ordinary derwishes whom +travellers so often see in Cairo, and from the ordinary madmen who are +kept in fetters, so that they may not do injury to themselves and others. +But their appearance, and the expressions regarding them, afford some +illustrations of the popular estimate of ancient seers, or prophets, in +the time of Hosea: 'The prophet is a fool, the man that hath the spirit is +mad';(246) and in the time of Jeremiah,(247) the man who made himself a +prophet was considered as good as a madman."(248) To complete the parallel +these vagabonds "are also believed to be possessed of prophetic power, so +that they are able to foretell the future, and warn the people among whom +they live of impending danger."(249) + +(M59) We may conjecture that with women a powerful motive for submitting +to the embraces of the "holy men" is a hope of obtaining offspring by +them. For in Syria it is still believed that even dead saints can beget +children on barren women, who accordingly resort to their shrines in order +to obtain the wish of their hearts. For example, at the Baths of Solomon +in Northern Palestine, blasts of hot air escape from the ground; and one +of them, named Abu Rabah, is a famous resort of childless wives who wish +to satisfy their maternal longings. They let the hot air stream up over +their bodies and really believe that children born to them after such a +visit are begotten by the saint of the shrine.(250) But the saint who +enjoys the highest reputation in this respect is St. George. He reveals +himself at his shrines which are scattered all over the country; at each +of them there is a tomb or the likeness of a tomb. The most celebrated of +these sanctuaries is at Kalat el Hosn in Northern Syria. Barren women of +all sects, including Moslems, resort to it. "There are many natives who +shrug their shoulders when this shrine is mentioned in connection with +women. But it is doubtless true that many do not know what seems to be its +true character, and who think that the most puissant saint, as they +believe, in the world can give them sons." "But the true character of the +place is beginning to be recognized, so that many Moslems have forbidden +their wives to visit it."(251) + + + +§ 6. Sons of God. + + +(M60) Customs like the foregoing may serve to explain the belief, which is +not confined to Syria, that men and women may be in fact and not merely in +metaphor the sons and daughters of a god; for these modern saints, whether +Christian or Moslem, who father the children of Syrian mothers, are +nothing but the old gods under a thin disguise. If in antiquity as at the +present day Semitic women often repaired to shrines in order to have the +reproach of barrenness removed from them--and the prayer of Hannah is a +familiar example of the practice,(252) we could easily understand not only +the tradition of the sons of God who begat children on the daughters of +men,(253) but also the exceedingly common occurrence of the divine titles +in Hebrew names of human beings.(254) Multitudes of men and women, in +fact, whose mothers had resorted to holy places in order to procure +offspring, would be regarded as the actual children of the god and would +be named accordingly. Hence Hannah called her infant Samuel, which means +"name of God" or "his name is God";(255) and probably she sincerely +believed that the child was actually begotten in her womb by the +deity.(256) The dedication of such children to the service of God at the +sanctuary was merely giving back the divine son to the divine father. +Similarly in West Africa, when a woman has got a child at the shrine of +Agbasia, the god who alone bestows offspring on women, she dedicates him +or her as a sacred slave to the deity.(257) + +(M61) Thus in the Syrian beliefs and customs of to-day we probably have +the clue to the religious prostitution practised in the very same regions +in antiquity. Then as now women looked to the local god, the Baal or +Adonis of old, the Abu Rabah or St. George of to-day, to satisfy the +natural craving of a woman's heart; and then as now, apparently, the part +of the local god was played by sacred men, who in personating him may +often have sincerely believed that they were acting under divine +inspiration, and that the functions which they discharged were necessary +for the fertility of the land as well as for the propagation of the human +species. The purifying influence of Christianity and Mohammedanism has +restricted such customs within narrow limits; even under Turkish rule they +are now only carried on in holes and corners. Yet if the practice has +dwindled, the principle which it embodies appears to be fundamentally the +same; it is a desire for the continuance of the species, and a belief that +an object so natural and legitimate can be accomplished by divine power +manifesting itself in the bodies of men and women. + +(M62) The belief in the physical fatherhood of God has not been confined +to Syria in ancient and modern times. Elsewhere many men have been counted +the sons of God in the most literal sense of the word, being supposed to +have been begotten by his holy spirit in the wombs of mortal women. Here I +shall merely illustrate the creed by a few examples drawn from classical +antiquity.(258) Thus in order to obtain offspring women used to resort to +the great sanctuary of Aesculapius, situated in a beautiful upland valley, +to which a path, winding through a long wooded gorge, leads from the bay +of Epidaurus. Here the women slept in the holy place and were visited in +dreams by a serpent; and the children to whom they afterwards gave birth +were believed to have been begotten by the reptile.(259) That the serpent +was supposed to be the god himself seems certain; for Aesculapius +repeatedly appeared in the form of a serpent,(260) and live serpents were +kept and fed in his sanctuaries for the healing of the sick, being no +doubt regarded as his incarnations.(261) Hence the children born to women +who had thus visited a sanctuary of Aesculapius were probably fathered on +the serpent-god. Many celebrated men in classical antiquity were thus +promoted to the heavenly hierarchy by similar legends of a miraculous +birth. The famous Aratus of Sicyon was certainly believed by his +countrymen to be a son of Aesculapius; his mother is said to have got him +in intercourse with a serpent.(262) Probably she slept either in the +shrine of Aesculapius at Sicyon, where a figurine of her was shown seated +on a serpent,(263) or perhaps in the more secluded sanctuary of the god at +Titane, not many miles off, where the sacred serpents crawled among +ancient cypresses on the hill-top which overlooks the narrow green valley +of the Asopus with the white turbid river rushing in its depths.(264) +There, under the shadow of the cypresses, with the murmur of the Asopus in +her ears, the mother of Aratus may have conceived, or fancied she +conceived, the future deliverer of his country. Again, the mother of +Augustus is said to have got him by intercourse with a serpent in a temple +of Apollo; hence the emperor was reputed to be the son of that god.(265) +Similar tales were told of the Messenian hero Aristomenes, Alexander the +Great, and the elder Scipio: all of them were reported to have been +begotten by snakes.(266) In the time of Herod a serpent, according to +Aelian, in like manner made love to a Judean maid.(267) Can the story be a +distorted rumour of the parentage of Christ? + +(M63) In India even stone serpents are credited with a power of bestowing +offspring on women. Thus the Komatis of Mysore "worship _Naga_ or the +serpent god. This worship is generally confined to women and is carried on +on a large scale once a year on the fifth day of the bright fortnight of +Sravana (July and August). The representations of serpents are cut in +stone slabs and are set up round an _Asvattha_ tree on a platform, on +which is also generally planted a margosa tree. These snakes in stones are +set up in performance of vows and are said to be specially efficacious in +curing bad sores and other skin diseases and in giving children. The women +go to such places for worship with milk, fruits, and flowers on the +prescribed day which is observed as a feast day." They wash the stones, +smear them with turmeric, and offer them curds and fruits. Sometimes they +search out the dens of serpents and pour milk into the holes for the live +reptiles.(268) + + + +§ 7. Reincarnation of the Dead. + + +(M64) The reason why snakes were so often supposed to be the fathers of +human beings is probably to be found in the common belief that the dead +come to life and revisit their old homes in the shape of serpents. + +This notion is widely spread in Africa, especially among tribes of the +Bantu stock. It is held, for example, by the Zulus, the Thonga, and other +Caffre tribes of South Africa;(269) by the Ngoni of British Central +Africa;(270) by the Wabondei,(271) the Masai,(272) the Suk,(273) the +Nandi,(274) and the Akikuyu of German and British East Africa;(275) and by +the Dinkas of the Upper Nile.(276) It prevails also among the Betsileo and +other tribes of Madagascar.(277) Among the Iban or Sea Dyaks of Borneo a +man's guardian spirit (_Tua_) "has its external manifestation in a snake, +a leopard or some other denizen of the forest. It is supposed to be the +spirit of some ancestor renowned for bravery or some other virtue who at +death has taken an animal form. It is a custom among the Iban when a +person of note in the tribe dies, not to bury the body but to place it on +a neighbouring hill or in some solitary spot above ground. A quantity of +food is taken to the place every day, and if after a few days the body +disappears, the deceased is said to have become a _Tua_ or guardian +spirit. People who have been suffering from some chronic complaint often +go to such a tomb, taking with them an offering to the soul of the +deceased to obtain his help. To such it is revealed in a dream what animal +form the honoured dead has taken. The most frequent form is that of a +snake. Thus when a snake is found in a Dyak house it is seldom killed or +driven away; food is offered to it, for it is a guardian spirit who has +come to inquire after the welfare of its clients and bring them good luck. +Anything that may be found in the mouth of such a snake is taken and kept +as a charm."(278) Similarly in Kiriwina, an island of the Trobriands +Group, to the east of New Guinea, "the natives regarded the snake as one +of their ancestral chiefs, or rather as the abode of his spirit, and when +one was seen in a house it was believed that the chief was paying a visit +to his old home. The natives considered this as an ill omen and so always +tried to persuade the animal to depart as soon as possible. The honours of +a chief were paid to the snake: the natives passed it in a crouching +posture, and as they did so, saluted it as a chief of high rank. Native +property was presented to it as an appeasing gift, accompanied by prayers +that it would not do them any harm, but would go away quickly. They dared +not kill the snake, for its death would bring disease and death upon those +who did so."(279) + +(M65) Where serpents are thus viewed as ancestors come to life, the people +naturally treat them with great respect and often feed them with milk, +perhaps because milk is the food of human babes and the reptiles are +treated as human beings in embryo, who can be born again from women. Thus +"the Zulu-Caffres imagine that their ancestors generally visit them under +the form of serpents. As soon, therefore, as one of these reptiles appears +near their dwellings, they hasten to salute it by the name of _father_, +place bowls of milk in its way, and turn it back gently, and with the +greatest respect."(280) Among the Masai of East Africa, "when a +medicine-man or a rich person dies and is buried, his soul turns into a +snake as soon as his body rots; and the snake goes to his children's kraal +to look after them. The Masai in consequence do not kill their sacred +snakes, and if a woman sees one in her hut, she pours some milk on the +ground for it to lick, after which it will go away."(281) Among the Nandi +of British East Africa, "if a snake goes on to the woman's bed, it may not +be killed, as it is believed that it personifies the spirit of a deceased +ancestor or relation, and that it has been sent to intimate to the woman +that her next child will be born safely. Milk is put on the ground for it +to drink, and the man or his wife says: '... If thou wantest the call, +come, thou art being called.' It is then allowed to leave the house. If a +snake enters the houses of old people they give it milk, and say: 'If thou +wantest the call, go to the huts of the children,' and they drive it +away."(282) This association of the serpent, regarded as an incarnation of +the dead, both with the marriage bed and with the huts of young people, +points to a belief that the deceased person who is incarnate in the snake +may be born again as a human child into the world. Again, among the Suk of +British East Africa "it seems to be generally believed that a man's spirit +passes into a snake at death. If a snake enters a house, the spirit of the +dead man is believed to be very hungry. Milk is poured on to its tracks, +and a little meat and tobacco placed on the ground for it to eat. It is +believed that if no food is given to the snake one or all of the members +of the household will die. It, however, may none the less be killed if +encountered outside the house, and if at the time of its death it is +inhabited by the spirit of a dead man, 'that spirit dies also.' "(283) The +Akikuyu of British East Africa, who similarly believe that snakes are +_ngoma_ or spirits of the departed, "do not kill a snake but pour out +honey and milk for it to drink, which they say it licks up and then goes +its way. If a man causes the death of a snake he must without delay summon +the senior Elders in the village and slaughter a sheep, which they eat and +cut a _rukwaru_ from the skin of its right shoulder for the offender to +wear on his right wrist; if this ceremony is neglected he, his wife and +his children will die."(284) Among the Baganda the python god Selwanga had +his temple on the shore of the lake Victoria Nyanza, where he dwelt in the +form of a live python. The temple was a hut of the ordinary conical shape +with a round hole in the wall, through which the sinuous deity crawled out +and in at his pleasure. A woman lived in the temple, and it was her duty +to feed the python daily with fresh milk from a wooden bowl, which she +held out to the divine reptile while he drained it. The serpent was +thought to be the giver of children; hence young couples living in the +neighbourhood always came to the shrine to ensure the blessing of the god +on their union, and childless women repaired from long distances to be +relieved by him from the curse of barrenness.(285) It is not said that +this python god embodied the soul of a dead ancestor, but it may have been +so; his power of bestowing offspring on women suggests it. + +(M66) The Romans and Greeks appear to have also believed that the souls of +the dead were incarnate in the bodies of serpents. Among the Romans the +regular symbol of the _genius_ or guardian spirit of every man was a +serpent,(286) and in Roman houses serpents were lodged and fed in such +numbers that if their swarms had not been sometimes reduced by +conflagrations there would have been no living for them.(287) In Greek +legend Cadmus and his wife Harmonia were turned at death into snakes.(288) +When the Spartan king Cleomenes was slain and crucified in Egypt, a great +serpent coiled round his head on the cross and kept off the vultures from +his face. The people regarded the prodigy as a proof that Cleomenes was a +son of the gods.(289) Again, when Plotinus lay dying, a snake crawled from +under his bed and disappeared into a hole in the wall, and at the same +moment the philosopher expired.(290) Apparently superstition saw in these +serpents the souls of the dead men. In Greek religion the serpent was +indeed the regular symbol or attribute of the worshipful dead,(291) and we +can hardly doubt that the early Greeks, like the Zulus and other African +tribes at the present day, really believed the soul of the departed to be +lodged in the reptile. The sacred serpent which lived in the Erechtheum at +Athens, and was fed with honey-cakes once a month, may have been supposed +to house the soul of the dead king Erechtheus, who had reigned in his +lifetime on the same spot.(292) Perhaps the libations of milk which the +Greeks poured upon graves(293) were intended to be drunk by serpents as +the embodiments of the deceased; on two tombstones found at Tegea a man +and a woman are respectively represented holding out to a serpent a cup +which may be supposed to contain milk.(294) We have seen that various +African tribes feed serpents with milk because they imagine the reptiles +to be incarnations of their dead kinsfolk;(295) and the Dinkas, who +practise the custom, also pour milk on the graves of their friends for +some time after the burial.(296) It is possible that a common type in +Greek art, which exhibits a woman feeding a serpent out of a saucer, may +have been borrowed from a practice of thus ministering to the souls of the +departed.(297) + +(M67) Further, at the sowing festival of the Thesmophoria, held by Greek +women in October, it was customary to throw cakes and pigs to serpents, +which lived in caverns or vaults sacred to the corn-goddess Demeter.(298) +We may guess that the serpents thus propitiated were deemed to be +incarnations of dead men and women, who might easily be incommoded in +their earthy beds by the operations of husbandry. What indeed could be +more disturbing than to have the roof of the narrow house shaken and rent +over their heads by clumsy oxen dragging a plough up and down on the top +of it? No wonder that at such times it was thought desirable to appease +them with offerings. Sometimes, however, it is not the dead but the Earth +Goddess herself who is disturbed by the husbandman. An Indian prophet at +Priest Rapids, on the Middle Columbia River, dissuaded his many followers +from tilling the ground because "it is a sin to wound or cut, tear up or +scratch our common mother by agricultural pursuits."(299) "You ask me," +said this Indian sage, "to plough the ground. Shall I take a knife and +tear my mother's bosom? You ask me to dig for stone. Shall I dig under her +skin for her bones? You ask me to cut grass and hay and sell it and be +rich like white men. But how dare I cut off my mother's hair?"(300) The +Baigas, a primitive Dravidian tribe of the Central Provinces in India, +used to practise a fitful and migratory agriculture, burning down patches +of jungle and sowing seed in the soil fertilized by the ashes after the +breaking of the rains. "One explanation of their refusal to till the +ground is that they consider it a sin to lacerate the breast of their +mother earth with a ploughshare."(301) In China the disturbance caused to +the earth-spirits by the operations of digging and ploughing was so very +serious that Chinese philosophy appears to have contemplated a plan for +allowing the perturbed spirits a close time by forbidding the farmer to +put his spade or his plough into the ground except on certain days, when +the earth-spirits were either not at home or kindly consented to put up +with some temporary inconvenience for the good of man. This we may infer +from a passage in a Chinese author who wrote in the first century of our +era. "If it is true," he says, "that the spirits who inhabit the soil +object to it being disturbed and dug up, then it is proper for us to +select special good days for digging ditches and ploughing our fields. +(But this is never done); it therefore follows that the spirits of the +soil, even though really annoyed when it is disturbed, pass over such an +offence if man commits it without evil intent. As he commits it merely to +ensure his rest and comfort, the act cannot possibly excite any anger +against him in the perfect heart of those spirits; and this being the +case, they will not visit him with misfortune even if he do not choose +auspicious days for it. But if we believe that the earth-spirits cannot +excuse man on account of the object he pursues, and detest him for +annoying them by disturbing the ground, what advantage then can he derive +from selecting proper days for doing so?"(302) What advantage indeed? In +that case the only logical conclusion is, with the Indian prophet, to +forbid agriculture altogether, as an impious encroachment on the spiritual +world. Few peoples, however, who have once contracted the habit of +agriculture are willing to renounce it out of a regard for the higher +powers; the utmost concession which they are willing to make to religion +in the matter is to prohibit agricultural operations at certain times and +seasons, when the exercise of them would be more than usually painful to +the earth-spirits. Thus in Bengal the chief festival in honour of Mother +Earth is held at the end of the hot season, when she is supposed to suffer +from the impurity common to women, and during that time all ploughing, +sowing, and other work cease.(303) On a certain day of the year, when +offerings are made to the Earth, the Ewe farmer of West Africa will not +hoe the ground, and the Ewe weaver will not drive a sharp stake into it, +"because the hoe and the stake would wound the Earth and cause her +pain."(304) When Ratumaimbulu, the god who made fruit-trees to blossom and +bear fruit, came once a year to Fiji, the people had to live very quietly +for a month lest they should disturb him at his important work. During +this time they might not plant nor build nor sail about nor go to war; +indeed most kinds of work were forbidden. The priests announced the time +of the god's arrival and departure.(305) These periods of rest and quiet +would seem to be the Indian and Fijian Lent. + +(M68) Thus behind the Greek notion that women may conceive by a +serpent-god(306) seems to lie the belief that they can conceive by the +dead in the form of serpents. If such a belief was ever held, it would be +natural that barren women should resort to graves in order to have their +wombs quickened, and this may explain why they visited the shrine of the +serpent-god Aesculapius for that purpose; the shrine was perhaps at first +a grave. It is significant that in Syria the shrines of St. George, to +which childless women go to get offspring, always include a tomb or the +likeness of one;(307) and further, that in the opinion of Syrian peasants +at the present day women may, without intercourse with a living man, bear +children to a dead husband, a dead saint, or a jinnee.(308) In the East +Indies also it is still commonly believed that spirits can consort with +women and beget children on them. The Olo Ngadjoe of Borneo imagine that +albinoes are the offspring of the spirit of the moon by mortal women, the +pallid hue of the human children naturally reflecting the pallor of their +heavenly father.(309) + +(M69) Such beliefs are closely akin to the idea, entertained by many +peoples, that the souls of the dead may pass directly into the wombs of +women and be born again as infants. Thus the Hurons used to bury little +children beside the paths in the hope that their souls might enter the +passing squaws and be born again;(310) and similarly some negroes of West +Africa throw the bodies of infants into the bush in order that their souls +may choose a new mother from the women who pass by.(311) Among the tribes +of the Lower Congo "a baby is always buried near the house of its mother, +never in the bush. They think that, if the child is not buried near its +mother's house, she will be unlucky and never have any more children." The +notion probably is that the dead child, buried near its mother's house, +will enter into her womb and be born again, for these people believe in +the reincarnation of the dead. They think that "the only new thing about a +child is its body. The spirit is old and formerly belonged to some +deceased person, or it may have the spirit of some living person." For +example, if a child is like its mother, father, or uncle, they imagine +that it must have the spirit of the relative whom it resembles, and that +therefore the person whose soul has thus been abstracted by the infant +will soon die.(312) Among the Bangalas, a tribe of cannibals in Equatorial +Africa, to the north of the Congo, a woman was one day seen digging a hole +in the public road. Her husband entreated a Belgian officer to let her +alone, promising to mend the road afterwards, and explaining that his wife +wished to become a mother. The good-natured officer complied with his +request and watched the woman. She continued to dig till she had uncovered +a little skeleton, the remains of her first-born, which she tenderly +embraced, humbly entreating the dead child to enter into her and give her +again a mother's joy. The officer rightly did not smile.(313) The Bagishu, +a Bantu tribe of Mount Elgon, in the Uganda Protectorate, practise the +custom of throwing out their dead "except in the case of the youngest +child or the old grandfather or grandmother, for whom, like the child, a +prolonged life on earth is desired.... When it is desired to perpetuate on +the earth the life of some old man or woman, or that of some young baby, +the corpse is buried inside the house or just under the eaves, until +another child is born to the nearest relation of the corpse. This child, +male or female, takes the name of the corpse, and the Bagishu firmly +believe that the spirit of the dead has passed into this new child and +lives again on earth. The remains are then dug up and thrown out into the +open."(314) + +(M70) Again, just as measures are adopted to facilitate the rebirth of +good ghosts, so on the other hand precautions are taken to prevent the +rebirth of bad ones. Thus, with regard to the Baganda of Central Africa we +read that, "while the present generation know the cause of pregnancy, the +people in the earlier times were uncertain as to its real cause, and +thought that it was possible to conceive without any intercourse with the +male sex. Hence their precautions in passing places where either a suicide +had been burnt, or a child born feet first had been buried. Women were +careful to throw grass or sticks on such a spot, for by so doing they +thought that they could prevent the ghost of the dead from entering into +them, and being reborn."(315) The fear of being got with child by such +ghosts was not confined to married women, it was shared by all women +alike, whether young or old, whether married or single; and all of them +sought to avert the danger in the same way.(316) And Baganda women +imagined that without the help of the other sex they could be impregnated +not only by these unpleasant ghosts but also by the flower of the banana. +If while a woman was busy in her garden under the shadow of the banana +trees, a great purple bloom chanced to fall from one of the trees on her +back or shoulders, it was quite enough, in the opinion of the Baganda, to +get her with child; and were a wife accused of adultery because she gave +birth to a child who could not possibly have been begotten by her husband, +she had only to father the infant on a banana flower to be honourably +acquitted of the charge. The reason why this remarkable property was +ascribed to the bloom of the banana would seem to be that ghosts of +ancestors were thought to haunt banana groves, and that the afterbirths of +children, which the Baganda regarded as twins of the children, were +commonly buried at the root of the trees.(317) What more natural than that +a ghost should lurk in each flower, and dropping adroitly in the likeness +of a blossom on a woman's back effect a lodgment in her womb? + +(M71) Again, when a child dies in Northern India it is usually buried +under the threshold of the house, "in the belief that as the parents tread +daily over its grave, its soul will be reborn in the family. Here, as Mr. +Rose suggests, we reach an explanation of the rule that children of Hindus +are buried, not cremated. Their souls do not pass into the ether with the +smoke of the pyre, but remain on earth to be reincarnated in the +household."(318) In the Punjaub this belief in the reincarnation of dead +infants gives rise to some quaint or pathetic customs. Thus, "in the +Hissar District, Bishnois bury dead infants at the threshold, in the +belief that it would facilitate the return of the soul to the mother. The +practice is also in vogue in the Kangra District, where the body is buried +in front of the back door. In some places it is believed that, if the +child dies in infancy and the mother drops her milk for two or three days +on the ground, the soul of the child comes back to be born again. For this +purpose milk diluted with water is placed in a small earthen pot and +offered to the dead child's spirit for three consecutive evenings. There +is also a belief in the Ambala and Gujrat Districts that if jackals and +dogs dig out the dead body of the child and bring it towards the town or +village, it means that the child will return to its mother, but if they +take it to some other side, the soul will reincarnate in some other +family. For this purpose, the second day after the infant's death, the +mother goes out early in the morning to see whether the dogs have brought +the body towards the village. When the child is being taken away for +burial the mother cuts off and preserves a piece of its garment with a +view to persuade the soul to return to her. Barren women or those who have +lost children in infancy tear a piece off the clothing of a dead child and +stitch it to their wearing apparel, believing that the soul of the child +will return to them instead of its own mother. On this account, people +take great care not to lose the clothes of dead children, and some bury +them in the house."(319) In Bilaspore "a still-born child, or one who has +passed away before the _Chhatti_ (the sixth day, the day of purification) +is not taken out of the house for burial, but is placed in an earthen +vessel and is buried in the doorway or in the yard of the house. Some say +that this is done in order that the mother may bear another child."(320) +Here in Bilaspore the people have devised a very simple way of identifying +a dead person when he or she is born again as an infant. When anybody +dies, they mark the body with soot or oil, and the next baby born in the +family with a similar mark is hailed as the departed come to life +again.(321) Among the Kois of the Godavari district, in Southern India, +the dead are usually burnt, but the bodies of children and of young men +and women are buried. If a child dies within a month of its birth, it is +generally buried close to the house "so that the rain, dripping from the +eaves, may fall upon the grave, and thereby cause the parents to be +blessed with another child."(322) Apparently it is supposed that the soul +of the dead child, refreshed and revived by the rain, will pass again into +the mother's womb. Indian criminal records contain many cases in which +"the ceremonial killing of a male child has been performed as a cure for +barrenness, the theory being that the soul of the murdered boy becomes +reincarnated in the woman, who performs the rite with a desire to secure +offspring. Usually she effects union with the spirit of the child by +bathing over its body or in the water in which the corpse has been washed. +Cases have recently occurred in which the woman actually bathed in the +blood of the child."(323) + +(M72) On the fifth day after a death the Gonds perform the ceremony of +bringing back the soul. They go to the bank of a river, call aloud the +name of the deceased, and entering the water catch a fish or an insect. +This creature they then take home and place among the sainted dead of the +family, supposing that in this manner the spirit of the departed has been +brought back to the house. Sometimes the fish or insect is eaten in the +belief that it will be thus reborn as a child.(324) This last custom +explains the widely diffused story of virgins who have conceived by eating +of a plant or an animal or merely by taking it to their bosom.(325) In all +such cases we may surmise that the plant or animal was thought to contain +the soul of a dead person, which thus passed into the virgin's womb and +was born again as an infant. Among the South Slavs childless women often +resort to a grave in which a pregnant woman is buried. There they bite +some grass from the grave, invoke the deceased by name, and beg her to +give them the fruit of her womb. After that they take a little of the +mould from the grave and carry it about with them thenceforth under their +girdle.(326) Apparently they imagine that the soul of the unborn infant is +in the grass or the mould and will pass from it into their body. + +(M73) Among the Kai of German New Guinea, "impossible as it may be +thought, it is yet a fact that women here and there deny in all +seriousness the connexion between sexual intercourse and pregnancy. Of +course most people are clear as to the process. The ignorance of some +individuals is perhaps based on the consideration that not uncommonly +married women remain childless for years or for life. Finally, the +animistic faith contributes its share to support the ignorance."(327) In +some islands of Southern Melanesia the natives appear similarly to believe +that sexual intercourse is not necessary to impregnation, and that a woman +can conceive through the simple passage into her womb of a spirit-animal +or a spirit-fruit without the help of a man. In the island of Mota, one of +the Banks' group, "the course of events is usually as follows: a woman +sitting down in her garden or in the bush or on the shore finds an animal +or fruit in her loincloth. She takes it up and carries it to the village, +where she asks the meaning of the appearance. The people say that she will +give birth to a child who will have the characters of this animal or even, +it appeared, would be himself or herself the animal. The woman then takes +the creature back to the place where she had found it and places it in its +proper home; if it is a land animal on the land; if a water animal in the +pool or stream from which it had probably come. She builds up a wall round +it and goes to feed and visit it every day. After a time the animal will +disappear, and it is believed that that is because the animal has at the +time of its disappearance entered into the woman. It seemed quite clear +that there was no belief in physical impregnation on the part of the +animal, nor of the entry of a material object in the form of the animal +into her womb, but so far as I could gather, an animal found in this way +was regarded as more or less supernatural, a spirit animal and not one +material, from the beginning. It has happened in the memory of an old man +now living in Mota that a woman who has found an animal in her loincloth +has carried it carefully in her closed hands to the village, but that when +she opened her hands to show it to the people, the animal has gone, and in +this case it was believed that the entry had taken place while the woman +was on her way from the bush to the village.... When the child is born it +is regarded as being in some sense the animal or fruit which had been +found and tended by the mother. The child may not eat the animal during +the whole of its life, and if it does so, will suffer serious illness, if +not death. If it is a fruit which has been found, the child may not eat +this fruit or touch the tree on which it grows, the latter restriction +remaining in those cases in which the fruit is inedible.... I inquired +into the idea at the bottom of the prohibition of the animal as food, and +it appeared to be that the person would be eating himself. It seemed that +the act would be regarded as a kind of cannibalism. It was evident that +there is a belief in the most intimate relation between the person and all +individuals of the species with which he is identified. + +"A further aspect of the belief in the animal nature of a child is that it +partakes of the physical and mental characters of the animal with which it +is identified. Thus, if the animal found has been a sea-snake, and this is +a frequent occurrence, the child would be weak, indolent and slow; if an +eel, there will be a similar disposition; if a hermit crab, the child will +be hot-tempered; if a flying fox, it will also be hot-tempered and the +body will be dark; if a brush turkey, the disposition will be good; if a +lizard, the child will be soft and gentle; if a rat, thoughtless, hasty +and intemperate. If the object found has been a fruit, here also the child +will partake of its nature. In the case of a wild Malay apple +(_malmalagaviga_) the child will have a big belly, and a person with this +condition will be asked, 'Do you come from the _malmalagaviga_?' Again, if +the fruit is one called _womarakaraqat_, the child will have a good +disposition. + +(M74) "In the island of Motlav not far from Mota they have the same belief +that if a mother has found an animal in her dress, the child will be +identified with that animal and will not be allowed to eat it. Here again +the child is believed to have the characters of the animal, and two +instances given were that a child identified with a yellow crab will have +a good disposition and be of a light colour, while if a hermit crab has +been found, the child will be angry and disagreeable. In this island a +woman who desires her child to have certain characters will frequent a +place where she will be likely to encounter the animal which causes the +appearance of these characters. Thus, if she wants to have a light +coloured child, she will go to a place where there are light coloured +crabs."(328) + +(M75) Throughout a large part of Australia, particularly in the Centre, +the North, and the West, the aborigines hold that the commerce of the +human sexes is not necessary to the production of children; indeed many of +them go further and deny that sexual intercourse is the real cause of the +propagation of the species. Among the Arunta, Kaitish, Luritcha, Ilpirra +and other tribes, who roam the barren steppes of Central Australia, it +appears to be a universal article of belief that every person is the +reincarnation of a deceased ancestor, and that the souls of the dead pass +directly into the wombs of women, who give them birth without the need of +commerce with the other sex. They think that the spirits of the departed +gather and dwell at particular spots, marked by a natural feature such as +a rock or a tree, and that from these lurking-places they dart out and +enter the bodies of passing women or girls. When a woman feels her womb +quickened, she knows that a spirit has made its way into her from the +nearest abode of the dead. This is their regular explanation of conception +and childbirth. "The natives, one and all in these tribes, believe that +the child is the direct result of the entrance into the mother of an +ancestral spirit individual. They have no idea of procreation as being +associated with sexual intercourse, and firmly believe that children can +be born without this taking place."(329) The spots where the souls thus +congregate waiting to be born again are usually the places where the +remote ancestors of the dream-time are said to have passed into the +ground; that is, they are the places where the forefathers of the tribe +are supposed to have died or to have been buried. For example, in the +Warramunga tribe the ancestor of the Black-snake clan is said to have left +many spirits of Black-snake children in the rocks and trees which border a +certain creek. Hence no woman at the present day dares to strike one of +these trees with an axe, being quite convinced that the blow would release +one of the spirit-children, who would at once enter her body. They imagine +that the spirit is no larger than a grain of sand, and that it enters the +woman through her navel and grows into a child in her womb.(330) Again, at +several places in the wide territory of the Arunta tribe there are certain +stones which are in like manner thought to be the abode of souls awaiting +rebirth. Hence the stones are called "child-stones." In one of them there +is a hole through which the spirit-children look out for passing women, +and it is firmly believed that a visit to the stone would result in +conception. If a young woman is obliged to pass near the stone and does +not wish to have a child, she will carefully disguise her youth, pulling a +wry face and hobbling along on a stick. She will bend herself double like +a very old woman, and imitating the cracked voice of age she will say, +"Don't come to me, I am an old woman." Nay, it is thought that women may +conceive by the stone without visiting it. If a man and his wife both wish +for a child, the husband will tie his hair-girdle round the stone, rub it, +and mutter a direction to the spirits to give heed to his wife. And it is +believed that by performing a similar ceremony a malicious man can cause +women and even children at a distance to be pregnant.(331) + +(M76) Such beliefs are not confined to the tribes of Central Australia but +prevail among all the tribes from Lake Eyre northwards to the sea and the +Gulf of Carpentaria.(332) Thus the Mungarai say that in the far past time +their old ancestors walked about the country, making all the natural +features of the landscape and leaving spirit-children behind them where +they stopped. These children emanated from the bodies of the ancestors, +and they still wait at various spots looking out for women into whom they +may go and be born. For example, near McMinn's bar on the Roper River +there is a large gum tree full of spirit-children, who all belong to one +particular totem and are always agog to enter into women of that totem. +Again, at Crescent Lagoon an ancestor, who belonged to the thunder totem, +deposited numbers of spirit-children; and if a woman of the Gnaritjbellan +subclass so much as dips her foot in the water, one of the spirit-children +passes up her leg and into her body and in due time is born as a child, +who has thunder for its totem. Or if the woman stoops and drinks water, +one of the sprites will enter her through the mouth. Again, there are +lagoons along the Roper River where red lilies grow; and the water is full +of spirit-children which were deposited there by a kangaroo man. So when +women of the Gnaritjbellan subclass wade into the water to gather lilies, +little sprites swarm up their legs and are born as kangaroo children. +Again, in the territory of the Nullakun tribe there is a certain spring +where a man once deposited spirit-children of the rainbow totem; and to +this day when a woman of the right totem comes to drink at the spring, the +spirit of a rainbow child will dart into her and be born. Once more, in +the territory of the Yungman tribe the trees and stones near Elsey Creek +are full of spirit-children who belong to the sugar-bag (honeycomb) totem; +and these sugar-bag children are constantly entering into the right women +and being born into the world.(333) + +(M77) The natives of the Tully River in Queensland do not recognize sexual +intercourse as a cause of conception in women, though curiously enough +they do recognize it as the cause of conception in all animals, and pride +themselves on their superiority to the brutes in that they are not +indebted for the continuance of their species to such low and vulgar +means. The true causes of conception in a woman, according to them, are +four in number. First, she may have received a particular species of black +bream from a man whom the European in his ignorance would call the father; +this she may have roasted and sat over the fire inhaling the savoury smell +of the roast fish. That is quite sufficient to get her with child. Or, +secondly, she may have gone out on purpose to catch a certain kind of +bull-frog, and if she succeeds in capturing it, that again is a full and +satisfactory explanation of her pregnancy. Thirdly, some man may have told +her to conceive a child, and the mere command produces the desired effect. +Or, fourth and lastly, she may have simply dreamed that the child was put +into her, and the dream necessarily works its own fulfilment. Whatever +white men may think about the matter, these are the real causes why babies +are born among the blacks on the Tully River.(334) About Cape Bedford in +Queensland the natives believe that babies are sent by certain long-haired +spirits, with two sets of eyes in the front and back of their heads, who +live in the dense scrub and underwood. The children are made in the far +west where the sun goes down, and they are made not in the form of infants +but full grown; but on their passage from the sunset land to the wombs +they are changed into the shape of spur-winged plovers, if they are girls, +or of pretty snakes, if they are boys. So when the cry of a plover is +heard by night, the blacks prick up their ears and say, "Hallo! there is a +baby somewhere about." And if a woman is out in the bush searching for +food and sees one of the pretty snakes, which are really baby boys on the +look out for mothers, she will call out to her mates, and they will come +running and turn over stones, and leaves, and logs in the search for the +snake; and if they cannot find it they know that it has gone into the +woman and that she will soon give birth to a baby boy.(335) On the +Pennefather River in Queensland the being who puts babies into women is +called Anje-a. He takes a lump of mud out of one of the mangrove swamps, +moulds it into the shape of an infant, and insinuates it into a woman's +womb. You can never see him, for he lives in the depths of the woods, +among the rocks, and along the mangrove swamps; but sometimes you can hear +him laughing there to himself, and when you hear him you may know that he +has got a baby ready for somebody.(336) Among the tribes of the Cairns +district in North Queensland "the acceptance of food from a man by a woman +was not merely regarded as a marriage ceremony, but as the actual cause of +conception."(337) + +(M78) Similarly among the Australian tribes of the Northern Territory, +about Port Darwin and the Daly River, especially among the Larrekiya and +Wogait, "conception is not regarded as a direct result of cohabitation." +The old men of the Wogait say that there is an evil spirit who takes +babies from a big fire and puts them in the wombs of women, who must give +birth to them. In the ordinary course of events, when a man is out hunting +and kills game or collects other food, he gives it to his wife and she +eats it, believing that the game or other food will cause her to conceive +and bring forth a child. When the child is born, it may on no account +partake of the food which caused conception in the mother until it has got +its first teeth.(338) A similar belief that conception is caused by the +food which a woman eats is held by some tribes of Western Australia. On +this subject Mr. A. R. Brown reports as follows: "In the Ingarda tribe at +the mouth of the Gascoyne River, I found a belief that a child is the +product of some food of which the mother has partaken just before her +first sickness in pregnancy. My principal informant on this subject told +me that his father had speared a small animal called _bandaru_, probably a +bandicoot, but now extinct in this neighbourhood. His mother ate the +animal, with the result that she gave birth to my informant. He showed me +the mark in his side where, as he said, he had been speared by his father +before being eaten by his mother. A little girl was pointed out to me as +being the result of her mother eating a domestic cat, and her brother was +said to have been produced from a bustard.... The bustard was one of the +totems of the father of these two children and, therefore, of the children +themselves. This, however, seems to have been purely accidental. In most +cases the animal to which conception is due is not one of the father's +totems. The species that is thus connected with an individual by birth is +not in any way sacred to him. He may kill or eat it; he may marry a woman +whose conceptional animal is of the same species, and he is not by the +accident of his birth entitled to take part in the totemic ceremonies +connected with it. + +"I found traces of this same belief in a number of tribes north of the +Ingarda, but everywhere the belief seemed to be sporadic; that is to say, +some persons believed in it and others did not. Some individuals could +tell the animal or plant from which they or others were descended, while +others did not know or in some cases denied that conception was so caused. +There were to be met with, however, some beliefs of the same character. A +woman of the Buduna tribe said that native women nowadays bear half-caste +children because they eat bread made of white flour. Many of the men +believed that conception is due to sexual intercourse, but as these +natives have been for many years in contact with the whites this cannot be +regarded as satisfactory evidence of the nature of their original beliefs. + +(M79) "In some tribes further to the north I found a more interesting and +better organised system of beliefs. In the Kariera, Namal, and Injibandi +tribes the conception of a child is believed to be due to the agency of a +particular man, who is not the father. This man is the _wororu_ of the +child when it is born. There were three different accounts of how the +_wororu_ produces conception, each of them given to me on several +different occasions. According to the first, the man gives some food, +either animal or vegetable, to the woman, and she eats this and becomes +pregnant. According to the second, the man when he is out hunting kills an +animal, preferably a kangaroo or an emu, and as it is dying he tells its +spirit or ghost to go to a particular woman. The spirit of the dead animal +goes into the woman and is born as a child. The third account is very +similar to the last. A hunter, when he has killed a kangaroo or an emu, +takes a portion of the fat of the dead animal which he places on one side. +This fat turns into what we may speak of as a spirit-baby, and follows the +man to his camp. When the man is asleep at night the spirit-baby comes to +him and he directs it to enter a certain woman who thus becomes pregnant. +When the child is born the man acknowledges that he sent it, and becomes +its _wororu_. In practically every case that I examined, some forty in +all, the _wororu_ of a man or woman was a person standing to him or her in +the relation of father's brother own or tribal. In one case a man had a +_wororu_ who was his father's sister. The duties of a man to his _wororu_ +are very vaguely defined. I was told that a man 'looks after' his +_wororu_, that is, performs small services for him, and, perhaps, gives +him food. The conceptional animal or plant is not the totem of either the +child or the _wororu_. The child has no particular magical connection with +the animal from which he is derived. In a very large number of cases that +animal is either the kangaroo or the emu."(339) + +(M80) Thus it appears that a childlike ignorance as to the physical +process of procreation still prevails to some extent among certain rude +races of mankind, who are accordingly driven to account for it in various +fanciful ways such as might content the curiosity of children. We may +safely assume that formerly a like ignorance was far more widely spread +than it is now; indeed in the long ages which elapsed before any portion +of mankind emerged from savagery, it is probable that the true cause of +childbirth was universally unknown, and that people made shift to explain +the mystery by some such theories as are still current among the savage or +barbarous races of Central Africa, Melanesia, and Australia. A little +reflection on the conditions of savage life may satisfy us that the +ignorance is by no means so surprising as it may seem at first sight to a +civilized observer, or, to put it otherwise, that the true cause of the +birth of children is not nearly so obvious as we are apt to think. Among +low savages, such as all men were originally, it is customary for boys and +girls to cohabit freely with each other under the age of puberty, so that +they are familiar with a commerce of the sexes which is not and cannot be +attended with the birth of children. It is, therefore, not very wonderful +that they should confidently deny the connexion of sexual intercourse with +the production of offspring. Again, the long interval of time which +divides the act of conception from the first manifest symptoms of +pregnancy might easily disguise from the heedless savage the vital +relation between the two. These considerations may remove or lessen the +hesitation which civilized man naturally feels at admitting that a +considerable part or even the whole of his species should ever have +doubted or denied what seems to him one of the most obvious and elementary +truths of nature.(340) + +(M81) In the light of the foregoing evidence, stories of the miraculous +birth of gods and heroes from virgin mothers lose much of the glamour that +encircled them in days of old, and we view them simply as relics of +superstition surviving like fossils to tell us of a bygone age of +childlike ignorance and credulity. + + + +§ 8. Sacred Stocks and Stones among the Semites. + + +(M82) Traces of beliefs and customs like the foregoing may perhaps be +detected among the ancient Semites. When the prophet Jeremiah speaks of +the Israelites who said to a stock or to a tree (for in Hebrew the words +are the same), "Thou art my father," and to a stone, "Thou hast brought me +forth,"(341) it is probable that he was not using vague rhetorical +language, but denouncing real beliefs current among his contemporaries. +Now we know that at all the old Canaanite sanctuaries, including the +sanctuaries of Jehovah down to the reformations of Hezekiah and Josiah, +the two regular objects of worship were a sacred stock and a sacred +stone,(342) and that these sanctuaries were the seats of profligate rites +performed by sacred men (_kedeshim_) and sacred women (_kedeshoth_). Is it +not natural to suppose that the stock and stone which the superstitious +Israelites regarded as their father and mother were the sacred stock +(_asherah_) and the sacred stone (_massebah_) of the sanctuary, and that +the children born of the loose intercourse of the sexes at these places +were believed to be the offspring or emanations of these uncouth but +worshipful idols in which, as in the sacred trees and stones of Central +Australia, the souls of the dead may have been supposed to await rebirth? +On this view the sacred men and women who actually begot or bore the +children were deemed the human embodiments of the two divinities, the men +perhaps personating the sacred stock, which appears to have been a tree +stripped of its branches, and the women personating the sacred stone, +which seems to have been in the shape of a cone, an obelisk, or a +pillar.(343) + +(M83) These conclusions are confirmed by the result of recent researches +at Gezer, an ancient Canaanitish city, which occupied a high, isolated +point on the southern border of Ephraim, between Jerusalem and the sea. +Here the English excavations have laid bare the remains of a sanctuary +with the sacred stone pillars or obelisks (_masseboth_) still standing in +a row, while between two of them is set a large socketed stone, +beautifully squared, which perhaps contained the sacred stock or pole +(_asherah_). In the soil which had accumulated over the floor of the +temple were found vast numbers of male emblems rudely carved out of soft +limestone; and tablets of terra-cotta, representing in low relief the +mother-goddess, were discovered throughout the strata. These objects were +no doubt votive-offerings presented by the worshippers to the male and +female deities who were represented by the sacred stock and the sacred +stones; and their occurrence in large quantities raises a strong +presumption that the divinities of the sanctuary were a god and goddess +regarded as above all sources of fertility. The supposition is further +strengthened by a very remarkable discovery. Under the floor of the temple +were found the bones of many new-born children, none more than a week old, +buried in large jars. None of these little bodies showed any trace of +mutilation or violence; and in the light of the customs practised in many +other lands(344) we seem to be justified in conjecturing that the infants +were still-born or died soon after birth, and that they were buried by +their parents in the sanctuary in the hope that, quickened by the divine +power, they might enter again into the mother's womb and again be born +into the world.(345) If the souls of these buried babes were supposed to +pass into the sacred stocks and stones and to dart from them into the +bodies of would-be mothers who resorted to the sanctuary, the analogy with +Central Australia would be complete. That the analogy is real and not +fanciful is strongly suggested by the modern practice of Syrian women who +still repair to the shrines of saints to procure offspring, and who still +look on "holy men" as human embodiments of divinity. In this, as in many +other dark places of superstition, the present is the best guide to the +interpretation of the past; for while the higher forms of religious faith +pass away like clouds, the lower stand firm and indestructible like rocks. +The "sacred men" of one age are the dervishes of the next, the Adonis of +yesterday is the St. George of to-day. + + + + +Chapter V. The Burning of Melcarth. + + +(M84) If a custom of putting a king or his son to death in the character +of a god has left small traces of itself in Cyprus, an island where the +fierce zeal of Semitic religion was early tempered by Greek humanity, the +vestiges of that gloomy rite are clearer in Phoenicia itself and in the +Phoenician colonies, which lay more remote from the highways of Grecian +commerce. We know that the Semites were in the habit of sacrificing some +of their children, generally the first-born, either as a tribute regularly +due to the deity or to appease his anger in seasons of public danger and +calamity.(346) If commoners did so, is it likely that kings, with all +their heavy responsibilities, could exempt themselves from this dreadful +sacrifice for the fatherland? In point of fact, history informs us that +kings steeled themselves to do as others did.(347) It deserves to be +noticed that if Mesha, king of Moab, who sacrificed his eldest son by +fire, claimed to be a son of his god,(348) he would no doubt transmit his +divinity to his offspring; and further, that the same sacrifice is said to +have been performed in the same way by the divine founder of Byblus, the +great seat of the worship of Adonis.(349) This suggests that the human +representatives of Adonis formerly perished in the flames. At all events, +a custom of periodically burning the chief god of the city in effigy +appears to have prevailed at Tyre and in the Tyrian colonies down to a +late time, and the effigy may well have been a later substitute for a man. +For Melcarth, the great god of Tyre, was identified by the Greeks with +Hercules,(350) who is said to have burned himself to death on a great +pyre, ascending up to heaven in a cloud and a peal of thunder.(351) The +common Greek legend, immortalized by Sophocles, laid the scene of the +fiery tragedy on the top of Mount Oeta, but another version transferred it +significantly to Tyre itself.(352) Combined with the other evidence which +I shall adduce, this latter tradition raises a strong presumption that an +effigy of Hercules, or rather of Melcarth, was regularly burned at a great +festival in Tyre. That festival may have been the one known as "the +awakening of Hercules," which was held in the month of Peritius, answering +nearly to January.(353) The name of the festival suggests that the +dramatic representation of the death of the god on the pyre was followed +by a semblance of his resurrection. The mode in which the resurrection was +supposed to be effected is perhaps indicated by the statement of a Greek +writer that the Phoenicians used to sacrifice quails to Hercules, because +Hercules on his journey to Libya had been slain by Typhon and brought to +life again by Iolaus, who held a quail under his nose: the dead god +snuffed at the bird and revived.(354) According to another account Iolaus +burnt a quail alive, and the dead hero, who loved quails, came to life +again through the savoury smell of the roasted bird.(355) This latter +tradition seems to point to a custom of burning the quails alive in the +Phoenician sacrifices to Melcarth.(356) A festival of the god's +resurrection might appropriately be held in spring, when the quails +migrate northwards across the Mediterranean in great bands, and immense +numbers of them are netted for the market.(357) In the month of March the +birds return to Palestine by myriads in a single night, and remain to +breed in all the open plains, marshes, and cornfields.(358) Certainly a +close connexion seems to have subsisted between quails and Melcarth; for +legend ran that Asteria, the mother of the Tyrian Hercules, that is, of +Melcarth, was transformed into a quail.(359) It was probably to this +annual festival of the death and resurrection of Melcarth that the +Carthaginians were wont to send ambassadors every year to Tyre, their +mother-city.(360) + +(M85) In Gades, the modern Cadiz, an early colony of Tyre on the Atlantic +coast of Spain,(361) there was an ancient, famous, and wealthy sanctuary +of Hercules, the Tyrian Melcarth. Indeed the god was said to be buried on +the spot. No image stood in his temple, but a perpetual fire burned on the +altar, and incense was offered by white-robed priests, with bare feet and +shorn heads, who were bound to chastity. Neither women nor pigs might +pollute the holy place by their presence. In later times many +distinguished Romans went on pilgrimage to this remote shrine on the +Atlantic shore when they were about to embark on some perilous enterprise, +and they returned to it to pay their vows when their petitions had been +granted.(362) One of the last things Hannibal himself did before he +marched on Italy was to repair to Gades and offer up to Melcarth prayers +which were never to be answered. Soon after he dreamed an ominous +dream.(363) Now it would appear that at Gades, as at Tyre, though no image +of Melcarth stood in the temple, an effigy of him was made up and burned +at a yearly festival. For a certain Cleon of Magnesia related how, +visiting Gades, he was obliged to sail away from the island with the rest +of the multitude in obedience to the command of Hercules, that is, of +Melcarth, and how on their return they found a monstrous man of the sea +stranded on the beach and burning; for the god, they were told, had struck +him with a thunderbolt.(364) We may conjecture that at the annual festival +of Melcarth strangers were obliged to quit the city, and that in their +absence the mystery of burning the god was consummated. What Cleon and the +rest saw on their return to Gades would, on this hypothesis, be the +smouldering remains of a gigantic effigy of Melcarth in the likeness of a +man riding on a sea-horse, just as he is represented on coins of +Tyre.(365) In like manner the Greeks portrayed the sea-god Melicertes, +whose name is only a slightly altered form of Melcarth, riding on a +dolphin or stretched on the beast's back.(366) + +(M86) At Carthage, the greatest of the Tyrian colonies, a reminiscence of +the custom of burning a deity in effigy seems to linger in the story that +Dido or Elissa, the foundress and queen of the city, stabbed herself to +death upon a pyre, or leaped from her palace into the blazing pile, to +escape the fond importunities of one lover or in despair at the cruel +desertion of another.(367) We are told that Dido was worshipped as a +goddess at Carthage so long as the country maintained its +independence.(368) Her temple stood in the centre of the city shaded by a +grove of solemn yews and firs.(369) The two apparently contradictory views +of her character as a queen and a goddess may be reconciled if we suppose +that she was both the one and the other; that in fact the queen of +Carthage in early days, like the queen of Egypt down to historical times, +was regarded as divine, and had, like human deities elsewhere, to die a +violent death either at the end of a fixed period or whenever her bodily +and mental powers began to fail. In later ages the stern old custom might +be softened down into a pretence by substituting an effigy for the queen +or by allowing her to pass through the fire unscathed. A similar +modification of the ancient rule appears to have been allowed at Tyre +itself, the mother-city of Carthage. We have seen reason to think that the +kings of Tyre, from whom Dido was descended, claimed to personate the god +Melcarth, and that the deity was burned either in effigy or in the person +of a man at an annual festival.(370) Now in the same chapter in which +Ezekiel charges the king of Tyre with claiming to be a god, the prophet +describes him as walking "up and down amidst the stones of fire."(371) The +description becomes at once intelligible if we suppose that in later times +the king of Tyre compounded for being burnt in the fire by walking up and +down on hot stones, thereby saving his life at the expense perhaps of a +few blisters on his feet. It is possible that when all went well with the +commonwealth, children whom strict law doomed to the furnace of Moloch may +also have been mercifully allowed to escape on condition of running the +fiery gauntlet. At all events, a religious rite of this sort has been and +is still practised in many parts of the world: the performers solemnly +pace through a furnace of heated stones or glowing wood-ashes in the +presence of a multitude of spectators. Examples of the custom have been +adduced in another part of this work.(372) Here I will cite only one. At +Castabala, in Southern Cappadocia, there was worshipped an Asiatic goddess +whom the Greeks called the Perasian Artemis. Her priestesses used to walk +barefoot over a fire of charcoal without sustaining any injury. That this +rite was a substitute for burning human beings alive or dead is suggested +by the tradition which placed the adventure of Orestes and the Tauric +Artemis at Castabala;(373) for the men or women sacrificed to the Tauric +Artemis were first put to the sword and then burned in a pit of sacred +fire.(374) Among the Carthaginians another trace of such a practice may +perhaps be detected in the story that at the desperate battle of Himera, +fought from dawn of day till late in the evening, the Carthaginian king +Hamilcar remained in the camp and kept sacrificing holocausts of victims +on a huge pyre; but when he saw his army giving way before the Greeks, he +flung himself into the flames and was burned to death. Afterwards his +countrymen sacrificed to him and erected a great monument in his honour at +Carthage, while lesser monuments were reared to his memory in all the +Punic colonies.(375) In public emergencies which called for extraordinary +measures a king of Carthage may well have felt bound in honour to +sacrifice himself in the old way for the good of his country. That the +Carthaginians regarded the death of Hamilcar as an act of heroism and not +as a mere suicide of despair, is proved by the posthumous honours they +paid him. + +(M87) The foregoing evidence, taken altogether, raises a strong +presumption, though it cannot be said to amount to a proof, that a +practice of burning a deity, and especially Melcarth, in effigy or in the +person of a human representative, was observed at an annual festival in +Tyre and its colonies. We can thus understand how Hercules, in so far as +he represented the Tyrian god, was believed to have perished by a +voluntary death on a pyre. For on many a beach and headland of the Aegean, +where the Phoenicians had their trading factories, the Greeks may have +watched the bale-fires of Melcarth blazing in the darkness of night, and +have learned with wonder that the strange foreign folk were burning their +god. In this way the legend of the voyages of Hercules and his death in +the flames may be supposed to have originated. Yet with the legend the +Greeks borrowed the custom of burning the god; for at the festivals of +Hercules a pyre used to be kindled in memory of the hero's fiery death on +Mount Oeta.(376) We may surmise, though we are not expressly told, that an +effigy of Hercules was regularly burned on the pyre. + + + + +Chapter VI. The Burning of Sandan. + + + +§ 1. The Baal of Tarsus. + + +(M88) In Cyprus the Tyrian Melcarth was worshipped side by side with +Adonis at Amathus,(377) and Phoenician inscriptions prove that he was +revered also at Idalium and Larnax Lapethus. At the last of these places +he seems to have been regarded by the Greeks as a marine deity and +identified with Poseidon.(378) A remarkable statue found at Amathus may +represent Melcarth in the character of the lion-slayer, a character which +the Greeks bestowed on Hercules. The statue in question is of colossal +size, and exhibits a thick-set, muscular, hirsute deity of almost bestial +aspect, with goggle eyes, huge ears, and a pair of stumpy horns on the top +of his head. His beard is square and curly: his hair falls in three +pigtails on his shoulders: his brawny arms appear to be tattooed. A lion's +skin, clasped by a buckle, is knotted round his loins; and he holds the +skin of a lioness in front of him, grasping a hind paw with each hand, +while the head of the beast, which is missing, hung down between his legs. +A fountain must have issued from the jaws of the lioness, for a +rectangular hole, where the beast's head should be, communicates by a +channel with another hole in the back of the statue. Greek artists working +on this or a similar barbarous model produced the refined type of the +Grecian Hercules with the lion's scalp thrown like a cowl over his head. +Statues of him have been found in Cyprus, which represent intermediate +stages in this artistic evolution.(379) But there is no proof that in +Cyprus the Tyrian Melcarth was burned either in effigy or in the person of +a human representative.(380) + +(M89) On the other hand, there is clear evidence of the observance of such +a custom in Cilicia, the country which lies across the sea from Cyprus, +and from which the worship of Adonis, according to tradition, was +derived.(381) Whether the Phoenicians ever colonized Cilicia or not is +doubtful,(382) but at all events the natives of the country, down to late +times, worshipped a male deity who, in spite of a superficial assimilation +to a fashionable Greek god, appears to have been an Oriental by birth and +character. He had his principal seat at Tarsus, in a plain of luxuriant +fertility and almost tropical climate, tempered by breezes from the snowy +range of Tarsus on the north and from the sea on the south.(383) Though +Tarsus boasted of a school of Greek philosophy which at the beginning of +our era surpassed those of Athens and Alexandria,(384) the city apparently +remained in manners and spirit essentially Oriental. The women went about +the streets muffled up to the eyes in Eastern fashion, and Dio Chrysostom +reproaches the natives with resembling the most dissolute of the +Phoenicians rather than the Greeks whose civilization they aped.(385) On +the coins of the city they assimilated their native deity to Zeus by +representing him seated on a throne, the upper part of his body bare, the +lower limbs draped in a flowing robe, while in one hand he holds a +sceptre, which is topped sometimes with an eagle but often with a lotus +flower. Yet his foreign nature is indicated both by his name and his +attributes; for in Aramaic inscriptions on the coins he bears the name of +the Baal of Tarsus, and in one hand he grasps an ear of corn and a bunch +of grapes.(386) These attributes clearly mark him out as a god of +fertility in general, who conferred on his worshippers the two things +which they prized above all other gifts of nature, the corn and the wine. +He was probably therefore a Semitic, or at all events an Oriental, rather +than a Greek deity. For while the Semite cast all his gods more or less in +the same mould, and expected them all to render him nearly the same +services, the Greek, with his keener intelligence and more pictorial +imagination, invested his deities with individual characteristics, +allotting to each of them his or her separate function in the divine +economy of the world. Thus he assigned the production of the corn to +Demeter, and that of the grapes to Dionysus; he was not so unreasonable as +to demand both from the same hard-worked deity. + + + +§ 2. The God of Ibreez. + + +(M90) Now the suspicion that the Baal of Tarsus, for all his posing in the +attitude of Zeus, was really an Oriental is confirmed by a remarkable +rock-hewn monument which is to be seen at Ibreez in Southern Cappadocia. +Though the place is distant little more than fifty miles from Tarsus as +the crow flies, yet the journey on horseback occupies five days; for the +great barrier of the Taurus mountains rises like a wall between. The road +runs through the famous pass of the Cilician Gates, and the scenery +throughout is of the grandest Alpine character. On all sides the mountains +tower skyward, their peaks sheeted in a dazzling pall of snow, their lower +slopes veiled in the almost inky blackness of dense pine-forests, torn +here and there by impassable ravines, or broken into prodigious precipices +of red and grey rock which border the narrow valley for miles. The +magnificence of the landscape is enhanced by the exhilarating influence of +the brisk mountain air, all the more by contrast with the sultry heat of +the plain of Tarsus which the traveller has left behind. When he emerges +from the defile on the wide open tableland of Anatolia he feels that in a +sense he has passed out of Asia, and that the highroad to Europe lies +straight before him. The great mountains on which he now looks back formed +for centuries the boundary between the Christian West and the Mohammedan +East; on the southern side lay the domain of the Caliphs, on the northern +side the Byzantine Empire. The Taurus was the dam that long repelled the +tide of Arab invasion; and though year by year the waves broke through the +pass of the Cilician Gates and carried havoc and devastation through the +tableland, the refluent waters always retired to the lower level of the +Cilician plains. A line of beacon lights stretching from the Taurus to +Constantinople flashed to the Byzantine capital tidings of the approach of +the Moslem invaders.(387) + +(M91) The village of Ibreez is charmingly situated at the northern foot of +the Taurus, some six or seven miles south of the town of Eregli, the +ancient Cybistra, From the town to the village the path goes through a +richly cultivated district of wheat and vines along green lanes more +lovely than those of Devonshire, lined by thick hedges and rows of willow, +poplar, hazel, hawthorn, and huge old walnut-trees, where in early summer +the nightingales warble on every side. Ibreez itself is embowered in the +verdure of orchards, walnuts, and vines. It stands at the mouth of a deep +ravine enclosed by great precipices of red rock. From the western of these +precipices a river clear as crystal, but of a deep blue tint, bursts in a +powerful jet, and being reinforced by a multitude of springs becomes at +once a raging impassable torrent foaming and leaping with a roar of waters +over the rocks in its bed. A little way from the source a branch of the +main stream flows in a deep narrow channel along the foot of a reddish +weather-stained rock which rises sheer from the water. On its face, which +has been smoothed to receive them, are the sculptures. They consist of two +colossal figures, representing a god adored by his worshipper. The deity, +some fourteen feet high, is a bearded male figure, wearing on his head a +high pointed cap adorned with several pairs of horns, and plainly clad in +a short tunic, which does not reach his knees and is drawn in at the waist +by a belt. His legs and arms are bare; the wrists are encircled by bangles +or bracelets. His feet are shod in high boots with turned-up toes. In his +right hand he holds a vine-branch laden with clusters of grapes, and in +his raised left hand he grasps a bunch of bearded wheat, such as is still +grown in Cappadocia; the ears of corn project above his fingers, while the +long stalks hang down to his feet. In front of him stands the lesser +figure, some eight feet high. He is clearly a priest or king, more +probably perhaps both in one. His rich vestments contrast with the simple +costume of the god. On his head he wears a round but not pointed cap, +encircled by flat bands and ornamented in front with a rosette or bunch of +jewels, such as is still worn by Eastern princes. He is draped from the +neck to the ankles in a long robe heavily fringed at the bottom, over +which is thrown a shawl or mantle secured at the breast by a clasp of +precious stones. Both robe and shawl are elaborately carved with patterns +in imitation of embroidery. A heavy necklace of rings or beads encircles +the neck; a bracelet or bangle clasps the one wrist that is visible; the +feet are shod in boots like those of the god. One or perhaps both hands +are raised in the act of adoration. The large aquiline nose, like the beak +of a hawk, is a conspicuous feature in the face both of the god and of his +worshipper; the hair and beard of both are thick and curly.(388) + +(M92) The situation of this remarkable monument resembles that of Aphaca +on the Lebanon;(389) for in both places we see a noble river issuing +abruptly from the rock to spread fertility through the rich vale below. +Nowhere, perhaps, could man more appropriately revere those great powers +of nature to whose favour he ascribes the fruitfulness of the earth, and +through it the life of animate creation. With its cool bracing air, its +mass of verdure, its magnificent stream of pure ice-cold water--so grateful +in the burning heat of summer--and its wide stretch of fertile land, the +valley may well have been the residence of an ancient prince or +high-priest, who desired to testify by this monument his devotion and +gratitude to the god. The seat of this royal or priestly potentate may +have been at Cybistra,(390) the modern Eregli, now a decayed and miserable +place straggling amid orchards and gardens full of luxuriant groves of +walnut, poplar, willow, mulberry, and oak. The place is a paradise of +birds. Here the thrush and the nightingale sing full-throated, the hoopoe +waves his crested top-knot, the bright-hued woodpeckers flit from bough to +bough, and the swifts dart screaming by hundreds through the air. Yet a +little way off, beyond the beneficent influence of the springs and +streams, all is desolation--in summer an arid waste broken by great marshes +and wide patches of salt, in winter a broad sheet of stagnant water, which +as it dries up with the growing heat of the sun exhales a poisonous +malaria. To the west, as far as the eye can see, stretches the endless +expanse of the dreary Lycaonian plain, barren, treeless, and solitary, +till it fades into the blue distance, or is bounded afar off by abrupt +ranges of jagged volcanic mountains, on which in sunshiny weather the +shadows of the clouds rest, purple and soft as velvet.(391) No wonder that +the smiling luxuriance of the one landscape, sharply contrasting with the +bleak sterility of the other, should have rendered it in the eyes of +primitive man a veritable garden of God. + +(M93) Among the attributes which mark out the deity of Ibreez as a power +of fertility the horns on his high cap should not be overlooked. They are +probably the horns of a bull; for to primitive cattle-breeders the bull is +the most natural emblem of generative force. At Carchemish, the great +Hittite capital on the Euphrates, a relief has been discovered which +represents a god or a priest clad in a rich robe, and wearing on his head +a tall horned cap surmounted by a disc.(392) Sculptures found at the +palace of Euyuk in North-Western Cappadocia prove that the Hittites +worshipped the bull and sacrificed rams to it.(393) Similarly the Greeks +conceived the vine-god Dionysus in the form of a bull.(394) + + + +§ 3. Sandan of Tarsus. + + +(M94) That the god of Ibreez, with the grapes and corn in his hands, is +identical with the Baal of Tarsus, who bears the same emblems, may be +taken as certain.(395) But what was his name? and who were his +worshippers? The Greeks apparently called him Hercules; at least in +Byzantine times the neighbouring town of Cybistra adopted the name of +Heraclea, which seems to show that Hercules was deemed the principal deity +of the place.(396) Yet the style and costume of the figures at Ibreez +prove unquestionably that the god was an Oriental. If any confirmation of +this view were needed, it is furnished by the inscriptions carved on the +rock beside the sculptures, for these inscriptions are composed in the +peculiar system of hieroglyphics now known as Hittite. It follows, +therefore, that the deity worshipped at Tarsus and Ibreez was a god of the +Hittites, that ancient and little-known people who occupied the centre of +Asia Minor, invented a system of writing, and extended their influence, if +not their dominion, at one time from the Euphrates to the Aegean. From the +lofty and arid tablelands of the interior, a prolongation of the great +plateau of Central Asia, with a climate ranging from the most burning heat +in summer to the most piercing cold in winter,(397) these hardy +highlanders seem to have swept down through the mountain-passes and +established themselves at a very early date in the rich southern lowlands +of Syria and Cilicia.(398) Their language and race are still under +discussion, but a great preponderance of opinion appears to declare that +neither the one nor the other was Semitic.(399) + +(M95) In the inscription attached to the colossal figure of the god at +Ibreez two scholars have professed to read the name of Sandan or +Sanda.(400) Be that as it may, there are independent grounds for thinking +that Sandan, Sandon, or Sandes may have been the name of the Cappadocian +and Cilician god of fertility. For the god of Ibreez in Cappadocia +appears, as we saw, to have been identified by the Greeks with Hercules, +and we are told that a Cappadocian and Cilician name of Hercules was +Sandan or Sandes.(401) Now this Sandan or Hercules is said to have founded +Tarsus, and the people of the city commemorated him at an annual or, at +all events, periodical festival by erecting a fine pyre in his +honour.(402) Apparently at this festival, as at the festival of Melcarth, +the god was burned in effigy on his own pyre. For coins of Tarsus often +exhibit the pyre as a conical structure resting on a garlanded altar or +basis, with the figure of Sandan himself in the midst of it, while an +eagle with spread wings perches on the top of the pyre, as if about to +bear the soul of the burning god in the pillar of smoke and fire to +heaven.(403) In like manner when a Roman emperor died leaving a son to +succeed him on the throne, a waxen effigy was made in the likeness of the +deceased and burned on a huge pyramidal pyre, which was reared upon a +square basis of wood; and from the summit of the blazing pile an eagle was +released for the purpose of carrying to heaven the soul of the dead and +deified emperor.(404) The Romans may have borrowed from the East a +grandiose custom which savours of Oriental adulation rather than of Roman +simplicity.(405) + +(M96) The type of Sandan or Hercules, as he is portrayed on the coins of +Tarsus, is that of an Asiatic deity standing on a lion. It is thus that he +is represented on the pyre, and it is thus that he appears as a separate +figure without the pyre. From these representations we can form a fairly +accurate conception of the form and attributes of the god. They exhibit +him as a bearded man standing on a horned and often winged lion. Upon his +head he wears a high pointed cap or mitre, and he is clad sometimes in a +long robe, sometimes in a short tunic. On at least one coin his feet are +shod in high boots with flaps. At his side or over his shoulder are slung +a sword, a bow-case, and a quiver, sometimes only one or two of them. His +right hand is raised and sometimes holds a flower. His left hand grasps a +double-headed axe, and sometimes a wreath either in addition to the axe or +instead of it; but the double-headed axe is one of Sandan's most constant +attributes.(406) + + + +§ 4. The Gods of Boghaz-Keui. + + +(M97) Now a deity of almost precisely the same type figures prominently in +the celebrated group of Hittite sculptures which is carved on the rocks at +Boghaz-Keui in North-Western Cappadocia. The village of Boghaz-Keui, that +is, "the village of the defile," stands at the mouth of a deep, narrow, +and picturesque gorge in a wild upland valley, shut in by rugged mountains +of grey limestone. The houses are built on the lower slopes of the hills, +and a stream issuing from the gorge flows past them to join the Halys, +which is distant about ten hours' journey to the west. Immediately above +the modern village a great ancient city, enclosed by massive fortification +walls, rose on the rough broken ground of the mountainside, culminating in +two citadels perched on the tops of precipitous crags. The walls are still +standing in many places to a height of twelve feet or more. They are about +fourteen feet thick and consist of an outer and inner facing built of +large blocks with a core of rubble between them. On the outer side they +are strengthened at intervals of about a hundred feet by projecting towers +or buttresses, which seem designed rather as architectural supports than +as military defences. The masonry, composed of large stones laid in +roughly parallel courses, resembles in style that of the walls of Mycenae, +with which it may be contemporary; and the celebrated Lion-gate at Mycenae +has its counterpart in the southern gate of Boghaz-Keui, which is flanked +by a pair of colossal stone lions executed in the best style of Hittite +art. The eastern gate is adorned on its inner side with the figure of a +Hittite warrior or Amazon carved in high relief. A dense undergrowth of +stunted oak coppice now covers much of the site. The ruins of a large +palace or temple, built of enormous blocks of stone, occupy a terrace in a +commanding situation within the circuit of the walls. This vast city, some +four or five miles in circumference, appears to have been the ancient +Pteria, which Croesus, king of Lydia, captured in his war with Cyrus. It +was probably the capital of a powerful Hittite empire before the Phrygians +made their way from Europe into the interior of Asia Minor and established +a rival state to the west of the Halys.(407) + +(M98) From the village of Boghaz-Keui a steep and rugged path leads up +hill to a sanctuary, distant about a mile and a half to the east. Here +among the grey limestone cliffs there is a spacious natural chamber or +hall of roughly oblong shape, roofed only by the sky, and enclosed on +three sides by high rocks. One of the short sides is open, and through it +you look out on the broken slopes beyond and the more distant mountains, +which make a graceful picture set in a massy frame. The length of the +chamber is about a hundred feet; its breadth varies from twenty-five to +fifty feet. A nearly level sward forms the floor. On the right-hand side, +as you face inward, a narrow opening in the rock leads into another but +much smaller chamber, or rather corridor, which would seem to have been +the inner sanctuary or Holy of Holies. It is a romantic spot, where the +deep shadows of the rocks are relieved by the bright foliage of +walnut-trees and by the sight of the sky and clouds overhead. On the +rock-walls of both chamber are carved the famous bas-reliefs. In the outer +sanctuary these reliefs represent two great processions which defile along +the two long sides of the chamber and meet face to face on the short wall +at the inner end. The figures on the left-hand wall are for the most part +men clad in the characteristic Hittite costume, which consists of a high +pointed cap, shoes with turned-up toes, and a tunic drawn in at the waist +and falling short of the knees.(408) The figures on the right-hand wall +are women wearing tall, square, flat-topped bonnets with ribbed sides; +their long dresses fall in perpendicular folds to their feet, which are +shod in shoes like those of the men. On the short wall, where the +processions meet, the greater size of the central figures, as well as +their postures and attributes, mark them out as divine. At the head of the +male procession marches or is carried a bearded deity clad in the ordinary +Hittite costume of tall pointed cap, short tunic, and turned-up shoes; but +his feet rest on the bowed heads of two men, in his right hand he holds on +his shoulder a mace or truncheon topped with a knob, while his extended +left hand grasps a symbol, which apparently consists of a trident +surmounted by an oval with a cross-bar. Behind him follows a similar, +though somewhat smaller, figure of a man, or perhaps rather of a god, +carrying a mace or truncheon over his shoulder in his right hand, while +with his left he holds aloft a long sword with a flat hilt; his feet rest +not on two men but on two flat-topped pinnacles, which perhaps represent +mountains. At the head of the female procession and facing the great god +who is borne on the two men, stands a goddess on a lioness or panther. Her +costume does not differ from that of the women: her hair hangs down in a +long plait behind: in her extended right hand she holds out an emblem to +touch that of the god. The shape and meaning of her emblem are obscure. It +consists of a stem with two pairs of protuberances, perhaps leaves or +branches, one above the other, the whole being surmounted, like the emblem +of the god, by an oval with a cross-bar. Under the outstretched arms of +the two deities appear the front parts of two animals, which have been +usually interpreted as bulls but are rather goats; each of them wears on +its head the high conical Hittite cap, and its body is concealed by that +of the deity. Immediately behind the goddess marches a smaller and +apparently youthful male figure, standing like her upon a lioness or +panther. He is beardless and wears the Hittite dress of high pointed cap, +short tunic, and shoes with turned-up toes. A crescent-hilted sword is +girt at his side; in his left hand he holds a double-headed axe, and in +his right a staff topped by an armless doll with the symbol of the +cross-barred oval instead of a head. Behind him follow two women, or +rather perhaps goddesses, resembling the goddess at the head of the +procession, but with different emblems and standing not on a lioness but +on a single two-headed eagle with outspread wings. + +(M99) The entrance to the smaller chamber is guarded on either side by the +figure of a winged monster carved on the rock; the bodies of both figures +are human, but one of them has the head of a dog, the other the head of a +lion. In the inner sanctuary, to which this monster-guarded passage leads, +the walls are also carved in relief. On one side we see a procession of +twelve men in Hittite costume marching with curved swords in their right +hands. On the opposite wall is a colossal erect figure of a deity with a +human head and a body curiously composed of four lions, two above and two +below, the latter standing on their heads. The god wears the high conical +Hittite hat: his face is youthful and beardless like that of the male +figure standing on the lioness in the large chamber; and the ear turned to +the spectator is pierced with a ring. From the knees downwards the legs, +curiously enough, are replaced by a device which has been interpreted as +the tapering point of a great dagger or dirk with a midrib. To the right +of this deity a square panel cut in the face of the rock exhibits a group +of two figures in relief. The larger of the two figures closely resembles +the youth on the lioness in the outer sanctuary. His chin is beardless; he +wears the same high pointed cap, the same short tunic, the same turned-up +shoes, the same crescent-hilted sword, and he carries a similar armless +doll in his right hand. But his left arm encircles the neck of the smaller +figure, whom he seems to clasp to his side in an attitude of protection. +The smaller figure thus embraced by the god is clearly a priest or +priestly king. His face is beardless; he wears a skull-cap and a long +mantle reaching to his feet with a sort of chasuble thrown over it. The +crescent-shaped hilt of a sword projects from under his mantle. The wrist +of his right arm is clasped by the god's left hand; in his left hand the +priest holds a crook or pastoral staff which ends below in a curl. Both +the priest and his protector are facing towards the lion-god. In an upper +corner of the panel behind them is a divine emblem composed of a winged +disc resting on what look like two Ionic columns, while between them +appear three symbols of doubtful significance. The figure of the priest or +king in this costume, though not in this attitude, is a familiar one; for +it occurs twice in the outer sanctuary and is repeated twice at the great +Hittite palace of Euyuk, distant about four and a half hours' ride to the +north-east of Boghaz-Keui. In the outer sanctuary at Boghaz-Keui we see +the priest marching in the procession of the men, and holding in one hand +his curled staff, or _lituus_, and in the other a symbol like that of the +goddess on the lioness: above his head appears the winged disc without the +other attributes. Moreover he occupies a conspicuous place by himself on +the right-hand wall of the outer sanctuary, quite apart from the two +processions, and carved on a larger scale than any of the other figures in +them. Here he stands on two heaps, perhaps intended to represent +mountains, and he carries in his right hand the emblem of the winged disc +supported on two Ionic columns with the other symbols between them, except +that the central symbol is replaced by a masculine figure wearing a +pointed cap and a long robe decorated with a dog-tooth pattern. On one of +the reliefs at the palace of Euyuk we see the priest with his +characteristic dress and staff followed by a priestess, each of them with +a hand raised as if in adoration: they are approaching the image of a bull +which stands on a high pedestal with an altar before it. Behind them a +priest leads a flock of rams to the sacrifice. On another relief at Euyuk +the priest, similarly attired and followed by a priestess, is approaching +a seated goddess and apparently pouring a libation at her feet. Both these +scenes doubtless represent acts of worship paid in the one case to a +goddess, in the other to a bull.(409) + +(M100) We have still to inquire into the meaning of the rock-carvings at +Boghaz-Keui. What are these processions which are meeting? Who are the +personages represented? and what are they doing? Some have thought that +the scene is historical and commemorates a great event, such as a treaty +of peace between two peoples or the marriage of a king's son to a king's +daughter.(410) But to this view it has been rightly objected that the +attributes of the principal figures prove them to be divine or priestly, +and that the scene is therefore religious or mythical rather than +historical. With regard to the two personages who head the processions and +hold out their symbols to each other, the most probable opinion appears to +be that they stand for the great Asiatic goddess of fertility and her +consort, by whatever names these deities were known; for under diverse +names a similar divine couple appears to have been worshipped with similar +rites all over Western Asia.(411) The bearded god who, grasping a trident +in his extended left hand, heads the procession of male figures is +probably the Father deity, the great Hittite god of the thundering sky, +whose emblems were the thunderbolt and the bull; for the trident which he +carries may reasonably be interpreted as a thunderbolt. The deity is +represented in similar form on two stone monuments of Hittite art which +were found at Zenjirli in Northern Syria and at Babylon respectively. On +both we see a bearded male god wearing the usual Hittite costume of tall +cap, short tunic, and shoes turned up at the toes: a crescent-hilted sword +is girt at his side: his hands are raised: in the right he holds a +single-headed axe or hammer, in the left a trident of wavy lines, which is +thought to stand for forked lightning or a bundle of thunderbolts. On the +Babylonian slab, which bears a long Hittite inscription, the god's cap is +ornamented with a pair of horns.(412) The horns on the cap are probably +those of a bull; for on another Hittite monument, found at Malatia on the +Euphrates, there is carved a deity in the usual Hittite costume standing +on a bull and grasping a trident or thunderbolt in his left hand, while +facing him stands a priest clad in a long robe, holding a crook or curled +staff in one hand and pouring a libation with the other.(413) The Hittite +thunder-god is also known to us from a treaty of alliance which about the +year 1290 B.C. was contracted between Hattusil, King of the Hittites, and +Rameses II., King of Egypt. By a singular piece of good fortune we possess +copies of this treaty both in the Hittite and in the Egyptian language. +The Hittite copy was found some years ago inscribed in cuneiform +characters on a clay tablet at Boghaz-Keui; two copies of the treaty in +the Egyptian language are engraved on the walls of temples at Thebes. From +the Egyptian copies, which have been read and translated, we gather that +the thunder-god was the principal deity of the Hittites, and that the two +Hittite seals which were appended to the treaty exhibited the King +embraced by the thunder-god and the Queen embraced by the sun-goddess of +Arenna.(414) This Hittite divinity of the thundering sky appears to have +long survived at Doliche in Commagene, for in later Roman art he reappears +under the title of Jupiter Dolichenus, wearing a Phrygian cap, standing on +a bull, and wielding a double axe in one hand and a thunderbolt in the +other. In this form his worship was transported from his native Syrian +home by soldiers and slaves, till it had spread over a large part of the +Roman empire, especially on the frontiers, where it flourished in the +camps of the legions.(415) The combination of the bull with the +thunderbolt as emblems of the deity suggests that the animal may have been +chosen to represent the sky-god for the sake not merely of its virility +but of its voice; for in the peal of thunder primitive man may well have +heard the bellowing of a celestial bull. + +(M101) The goddess who at the head of the procession of women confronts +the great sky-god in the sanctuary at Boghaz-Keui is generally recognized +as the divine Mother, the great Asiatic goddess of life and fertility. The +tall flat-topped hat with perpendicular grooves which she wears, and the +lioness or panther on which she stands, remind us of the turreted crown +and lion-drawn car of Cybele, who was worshipped in the neighbouring land +of Phrygia across the Halys.(416) So Atargatis, the great Syrian goddess +of Hierapolis-Bambyce, was portrayed sitting on lions and wearing a tower +on her head.(417) At Babylon an image of a goddess whom the Greeks called +Rhea had the figures of two lions standing on her knees.(418) + +(M102) But in the rock-hewn sculptures of Boghaz-Keui, who is the youth +with the tall pointed cap and double axe who stands on a lioness or +panther immediately behind the great goddess? His figure is all the more +remarkable because he is the only male who interrupts the long procession +of women. Probably he is at once the divine son and the divine lover of +the goddess; for we shall find later on that in Phrygian mythology Attis +united in himself both these characters.(419) The lioness or panther on +which he stands marks his affinity with the goddess, who is supported by a +similar animal. It is natural that the lion-goddess should have a lion-son +and a lion-lover. For we may take it as probable that the Oriental deities +who are represented standing or sitting in human form on the backs of +lions and other animals were originally indistinguishable from the beasts, +and that the complete separation of the bestial from the human or divine +shape was a consequence of that growth of knowledge and of power which led +man in time to respect himself more and the brutes less. The hybrid gods +of Egypt with their human bodies and animal heads form an intermediate +stage in this evolution of anthropomorphic deities out of beasts. + +(M103) We may now perhaps hazard a conjecture as to the meaning of that +strange colossal figure in the inner shrine at Boghaz-Keui with its human +head and its body composed of lions. For it is to be observed that the +head of the figure is youthful and beardless, and that it wears a tall +pointed cap, thus resembling in both respects the youth with the +double-headed axe who stands on a lion in the outer sanctuary. We may +suppose that the leonine figure in the inner shrine sets forth the true +mystic, that is, the old savage nature of the god who in the outer shrine +presented himself to his worshippers in the decent semblance of a man. To +the chosen few who were allowed to pass the monster-guarded portal into +the Holy of Holies, the awful secret may have been revealed that their god +was a lion, or rather a lion-man, a being in whom the bestial and human +natures mysteriously co-existed.(420) The reader may remember that on the +rock beside this leonine divinity is carved a group which represents a god +with his arm twined round the neck of his priest in an attitude of +protection, holding one of the priest's hands in his own. Both figures are +looking and stepping towards the lion-monster, and the god is holding out +his right hand as if pointing to it. The scene may represent the deity +revealing the mystery to the priest, or preparing him to act his part in +some solemn rite for which all his strength and courage will be needed. He +seems to be leading his minister onward, comforting him with an assurance +that no harm can come near him while the divine arm is around him and the +divine hand clasps his. Whither is he leading him? Perhaps to death. The +deep shadows of the rocks which fall on the two figures in the gloomy +chasm may be an emblem of darker shadows soon to fall on the priest. Yet +still he grasps his pastoral staff and goes forward, as though he said, +"Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear +no evil; for thou art with me: thy rod and thy staff they comfort me." + +(M104) If there is any truth in these guesses--for they are little more--the +three principal figures in the processional scene at Boghaz-Keui represent +the divine Father, the divine Mother, and the divine Son. But we have +still to ask, What are they doing? That they are engaged in the +performance of some religious rite seems certain. But what is it? We may +conjecture that it is the rite of the Sacred Marriage, and that the scene +is copied from a ceremony which was periodically performed in this very +place by human representatives of the deities.(421) Indeed, the solemn +meeting of the male and female figures at the head of their respective +processions obviously suggests a marriage, and has been so interpreted by +scholars, who, however, regarded it as the historical wedding of a prince +and princess instead of the mystic union of a god and goddess, overlooking +or explaining away the symbols of divinity which accompany the principal +personages.(422) We may suppose that at Boghaz-Keui, as at many other +places in the interior of Asia Minor, the government was in the hands of a +family who combined royal with priestly functions and personated the gods +whose names they bore. Thus at Pessinus in Phrygia, as we shall see later +on, the priests of Cybele bore the name of her consort Attis, and +doubtless represented him in the ritual.(423) If this was so at +Boghaz-Keui, we may surmise that the chief pontiff and his family annually +celebrated the marriage of the divine powers of fertility, the Father God +and the Mother Goddess, for the purpose of ensuring the fruitfulness of +the earth and the multiplication of men and beasts. The principal parts in +the ceremony would naturally be played by the pontiff himself and his +wife, unless indeed they preferred for good reasons to delegate the +onerous duty to others. That such a delegation took place is perhaps +suggested by the appearance of the pontiff himself in a subordinate place +in the procession, as well as by his separate representation in another +place, as if he were in the act of surveying the ceremony from a +distance.(424) The part of the divine Son at the rite would fitly devolve +upon one of the high-priest's own offspring, who may well have been +numerous. For it is probable that here, as elsewhere in Asia Minor, the +Mother Goddess was personated by a crowd of sacred harlots,(425) with whom +the spiritual ruler may have been required to consort in his character of +incarnate deity. But if the personation of the Son of God at the rites +laid a heavy burden of suffering on the shoulders of the actor, it is +possible that the representative of the deity may have been drawn, perhaps +by lot, from among the numerous progeny of the consecrated courtesans; for +these women, as incarnations of the Mother Goddess, were probably supposed +to transmit to their offspring some portion of their own divinity. Be that +as it may, if the three principal personages in the processional scene at +Boghaz-Keui are indeed the Father, the Mother, and the Son, the remarkable +position assigned to the third of them in the procession, where he walks +behind his Mother alone in the procession of women, appears to indicate +that he was supposed to be more closely akin to her than to his Father. +From this again we may conjecturally infer that mother-kin rather than +father-kin was the rule which regulated descent among the Hittites. The +conjecture derives some support from Hittite archives, for the names of +the Great Queen and the Queen Mother are mentioned along with that of the +King in state documents.(426) The other personages who figure in the +procession may represent human beings masquerading in the costumes and +with the attributes of deities. Such, for example, are the two female +figures who stand on a double-headed eagle; the two male figures stepping +on what seem to be two mountains; and the two winged beings in the +procession of men, one of whom may be the Moon-god, for he wears a +crescent on his head.(427) + + + +§ 5. Sandan and Baal at Tarsus. + + +(M105) Whatever may be thought of these speculations, one thing seems +fairly clear and certain. The figure which I have called the divine Son at +Boghaz-Keui is identical with the god Sandan, who appears on the pyre at +Tarsus. In both personages the costume, the attributes, the attitude are +the same. Both represent a man clad in a short tunic with a tall pointed +cap on his head, a sword at his side, a double-headed axe in his hand, and +a lion or panther under his feet.(428) Accordingly, if we are right in +identifying him as the divine Son at Boghaz-Keui, we may conjecture that +under the name of Sandan he bore the same character at Tarsus. The +conjecture squares perfectly with the title of Hercules, which the Greeks +bestowed on Sandan; for Hercules was the son of Zeus, the great +father-god. Moreover, we have seen that the Baal of Tarsus, with the +grapes and the corn in his hand, was assimilated to Zeus.(429) Thus it +would appear that at Tarsus as at Boghaz-Keui there was a pair of deities, +a divine Father and a divine Son, whom the Greeks identified with Zeus and +Hercules respectively. If the Baal of Tarsus was a god of fertility, as +his attributes clearly imply, his identification with Zeus would be +natural, since it was Zeus who, in the belief of the Greeks, sent the +fertilizing rain from heaven.(430) And the identification of Sandan with +Hercules would be equally natural, since the lion and the death on the +pyre were features common to both. Our conclusion then is that it was the +divine Son, the lion-god, who was burned in effigy or in the person of a +human representative at Tarsus, and perhaps at Boghaz-Keui. Semitic +parallels suggest that the victim who played the part of the Son of God in +the fiery furnace ought in strictness to be the king's son.(431) But no +doubt in later times an effigy would be substituted for the man. + + + +§ 6. Priestly Kings of Olba. + + +(M106) Unfortunately we know next to nothing of the kings and priests of +Tarsus. In Greek times we hear of an Epicurean philosopher of the city, +Lysias by name, who was elected by his fellow-citizens to the office of +Crown-wearer, that is, to the priesthood of Hercules. Once raised to that +dignity, he would not lay it down again, but played the part of tyrant, +wearing a white robe edged with purple, a costly cloak, white shoes, and a +golden wreath of laurel. He truckled to the mob by distributing among them +the property of the wealthy, while he put to death such as refused to open +their money-bags to him.(432) Though we cannot distinguish in this account +between the legal and the illegal exercise of authority, yet we may safely +infer that the priesthood of Hercules, that is of Sandan, at Tarsus +continued down to late times to be an office of great dignity and power, +not unworthy to be held in earlier times by the kings themselves. Scanty +as is our information as to the kings of Cilicia, we hear of two whose +names appear to indicate that they stood in some special relation to the +divine Sandan. One of them was Sandu'arri, lord of Kundi and Sizu, which +have been identified with Anchiale and Sis in Cilicia.(433) The other was +Sanda-sarme, who gave his daughter in marriage to Ashurbanipal, king of +Assyria.(434) It would be in accordance with analogy if the kings of +Tarsus formerly held the priesthood of Sandan and claimed to represent him +in their own person. + +(M107) We know that the whole of Western or Mountainous Cilicia was ruled +by kings who combined the regal office with the priesthood of Zeus, or +rather of a native deity whom, like the Baal of Tarsus, the Greeks +assimilated to their own Zeus. These priestly potentates had their seat at +Olba, and most of them bore the name either of Teucer or of Ajax,(435) but +we may suspect that these appellations are merely Greek distortions of +native Cilician names. Teucer (_Teukros_) may be a corruption of Tark, +Trok, Tarku, or Troko, all of which occur in the names of Cilician priests +and kings. At all events, it is worthy of notice that one, if not two, of +these priestly Teucers had a father called Tarkuaris,(436) and that in a +long list of priests who served Zeus at the Corycian cave, not many miles +from Olba, the names Tarkuaris, Tarkumbios, Tarkimos, Trokoarbasis, and +Trokombigremis, besides many other obviously native names, occur side by +side with Teucer and other purely Greek appellations.(437) In like manner +the Teucrids, who traced their descent from Zeus and reigned at Salamis in +Cyprus,(438) may well have been a native dynasty, who concocted a Greek +pedigree for themselves in the days when Greek civilization was +fashionable. The legend which attributed the foundation of the Cyprian +Salamis to Teucer, son of Telamon, appears to be late and unknown to +Homer.(439) Moreover, a cruel form of human sacrifice which was practised +in the city down to historical times savours rather of Oriental barbarity +than of Greek humanity. Led or driven by the youths, a man ran thrice +round the altar; then the priest stabbed him in the throat with a spear +and burned his body whole on a heaped-up pyre. The sacrifice was offered +in the month of Aphrodite to Diomede, who along with Agraulus, daughter of +Cecrops, had a temple at Salamis. A temple of Athena stood within the same +sacred enclosure. It is said that in olden times the sacrifice was offered +to Agraulus, and not to Diomede. According to another account it was +instituted by Teucer in honour of Zeus. However that may have been, the +barbarous custom lasted down to the reign of Hadrian, when Diphilus, king +of Cyprus, abolished or rather mitigated it by substituting the sacrifice +of an ox for that of a man.(440) On the hypothesis here suggested we must +suppose that these Greek names of divine or heroic figures at the Cyprian +Salamis covered more or less similar figures of the Asiatic pantheon. And +in the Salaminian burnt-sacrifice of a man we may perhaps detect the +original form of the ceremony which in historical times appears to have +been performed upon an image of Sandan or Hercules at Tarsus. When an ox +was sacrificed instead of a man, the old sacrificial rites would naturally +continue to be observed in all other respects exactly as before: the +animal would be led thrice round the altar, stabbed with a spear, and +burned on a pyre. Now at the Syrian Hierapolis the greatest festival of +the year bore the name of the Pyre or the Torch. It was held at the +beginning of spring. Great trees were then cut down and planted in the +court of the temple: sheep, goats, birds, and other creatures were hung +upon them: sacrificial victims were led round: then fire was set to the +whole, and everything was consumed in the flames.(441) Perhaps here also +the burning of animals was a substitute for the burning of men. When the +practice of human sacrifice becomes too revolting to humanity to be +tolerated, its abolition is commonly effected by substituting either +animals or images for living men or women. At Salamis certainly, and +perhaps at Hierapolis, the substitutes were animals: at Tarsus, if I am +right, they were images. In this connexion the statement of a Greek writer +as to the worship of Adonis in Cyprus deserves attention. He says that as +Adonis had been honoured by Aphrodite, the Cyprians after his death cast +live doves on a pyre to him, and that the birds, flying away from the +flames, fell into another pyre and were consumed.(442) The statement seems +to be a description of an actual custom of burning doves in sacrifice to +Adonis. Such a mode of honouring him would be very remarkable, since doves +were commonly sacred to his divine mistress Aphrodite or Astarte. For +example, at the Syrian Hierapolis, one of the chief seats of her worship, +these birds were so holy that they might not even be touched. If a man +inadvertently touched a dove, he was unclean or tabooed for the rest of +the day. Hence the birds, never being molested, were so tame that they +lived with the people in their houses, and commonly picked up their food +fearlessly on the ground.(443) Can the burning of the sacred bird of +Aphrodite in the Cyprian worship of Adonis have been a substitute for the +burning of a sacred man who personated the lover of the goddess? + +(M108) If, as many scholars think, Tark or Tarku was the name, or part of +the name, of a great Hittite deity, sometimes identified as the god of the +sky and the lightning,(444) we may conjecture that Tark or Tarku was the +native name of the god of Olba, whom the Greeks called Zeus, and that the +priestly kings who bore the name of Teucer represented the god Tark or +Tarku in their own persons. This conjecture is confirmed by the +observation that Olba, the ancient name of the city, is itself merely a +Grecized form of Oura, the name which the place retains to this day.(445) +The situation of the town, moreover, speaks strongly in favour of the view +that it was from the beginning an aboriginal settlement, though in after +days, like so many other Asiatic cities, it took on a varnish of Greek +culture. For it stood remote from the sea on a lofty and barren tableland, +with a rigorous winter climate, in the highlands of Cilicia. + +(M109) Great indeed is the contrast between the bleak windy uplands of +Western or Rugged Cilicia, as the ancients called it, and the soft +luxuriant lowlands of Eastern Cilicia, where winter is almost unknown and +summer annually drives the population to seek in the cool air of the +mountains a refuge from the intolerable heat and deadly fevers of the +plains. In Western Cilicia, on the other hand, a lofty tableland, ending +in a high sharp edge on the coast, rises steadily inland till it passes +gradually into the chain of heights which divide it from the interior. +Looked at from the sea it resembles a great blue wave swelling in one +uniform sweep till its crest breaks into foam in the distant snows of the +Taurus. The surface of the tableland is almost everywhere rocky and +overgrown, in the intervals of the rocks, with dense, thorny, almost +impenetrable scrub. Only here and there in a hollow or glen the niggardly +soil allows of a patch of cultivation; and here and there fine oaks and +planes, towering over the brushwood, clothe with a richer foliage the +depth of the valleys. None but wandering herdsmen with their flocks now +maintain a precarious existence in this rocky wilderness. Yet the ruined +towns which stud the country prove that a dense population lived and +throve here in antiquity, while numerous remains of wine-presses and +wine-vats bear witness to the successful cultivation of the grape. The +chief cause of the present desolation is lack of water; for wells are few +and brackish, perennial streams hardly exist, and the ancient aqueducts, +which once brought life and fertility to the land, have long been suffered +to fall into disrepair. + +(M110) But for ages together the ancient inhabitants of these uplands +earned their bread by less reputable means than the toil of the husbandman +and the vinedresser. They were buccaneers and slavers, scouring the high +seas with their galleys and retiring with their booty to the inaccessible +fastnesses of their mountains. In the decline of Greek power all over the +East the pirate communities of Cilicia grew into a formidable state, +recruited by gangs of desperadoes and broken men who flocked to it from +all sides. The holds of these robbers may still be seen perched on the +brink of the profound ravines which cleave the tableland at frequent +intervals. With their walls of massive masonry, their towers and +battlements, overhanging dizzy depths, they are admirably adapted to bid +defiance to the pursuit of justice. In antiquity the dark forests of +cedar, which clothed much of the country and supplied the pirates with +timber for their ships, must have rendered access to these fastnesses +still more difficult. The great gorge of the Lamas River, which eats its +way like a sheet of forked lightning into the heart of the mountains, is +dotted every few miles with fortified towns, some of them still +magnificent in their ruins, dominating sheer cliffs high above the stream. +They are now the haunt only of the ibex and the bear. Each of these +communities had its own crest or badge, which may still be seen carved on +the corners of the mouldering towers. No doubt, too, it blazoned the same +crest on the hull, the sails, or the streamers of the galley which, manned +with a crew of ruffians, it sent out to prey upon the rich merchantmen in +the Golden Sea, as the corsairs called the highway of commerce between +Crete and Africa. + +(M111) A staircase cut in the rock connects one of these ruined castles +with the river in the glen, a thousand feet below. But the steps are worn +and dangerous, indeed impassable. You may go for miles along the edge of +these stupendous cliffs before you find a way down. The paths keep on the +heights, for in many of its reaches the gully affords no foothold even to +the agile nomads who alone roam these solitudes. At evening the winding +course of the river may be traced for a long distance by a mist which, as +the heat of the day declines, rises like steam from the deep gorge and +hangs suspended in a wavy line of fleecy cloud above it. But even more +imposing than the ravine of the Lamas is the terrific gorge known as the +_Sheitan dere_ or Devil's Glen near the Corycian cave. Prodigious walls of +rock, glowing in the intense sunlight, black in the shadow, and spanned by +a summer sky of the deepest blue, hem in the dry bed of a winter torrent, +choked with rocks and tangled with thickets of evergreens, among which the +oleanders with their slim stalks, delicate taper leaves, and bunches of +crimson blossom stand out conspicuous.(446) + +(M112) The ruins of Olba, among the most extensive and remarkable in Asia +Minor, were discovered in 1890 by Mr. J. Theodore Bent. But three years +before another English traveller had caught a distant view of its +battlements and towers outlined against the sky like a city of enchantment +or dreams.(447) Standing at a height of nearly six thousand feet above the +sea, the upper town commands a free, though somewhat uniform, prospect for +immense distances in all directions. The sea is just visible far away to +the south. On these heights the winter is long and severe. Snow lies on +the ground for months. No Greek would have chosen such a site for a city, +so bleak and chill, so far from blue water; but it served well for a +fastness of brigands. Deep gorges, one of them filled for miles with +tombs, surround it on all sides, rendering fortification walls +superfluous. But a great square tower, four stories high, rises +conspicuous on the hill, forming a landmark and earning for this upper +town the native name of _Jebel Hissar_, or the Mountain of the Castle. A +Greek inscription cut on the tower proves that it was built by Teucer, son +of Tarkuaris, one of the priestly potentates of Olba. Among other remains +of public buildings the most notable are forty tall Corinthian columns of +the great temple of Olbian Zeus. Though coarse in style and corroded by +long exposure to frost and snow, these massive pillars, towering above the +ruins, produce an imposing effect. That the temple of which they formed +part belonged indeed to Olbian Zeus is shown by a Greek inscription found +within the sacred area, which records that the pent-houses on the inner +side of the boundary wall were built by King Seleucus Nicator and repaired +for Olbian Zeus by "the great high-priest Teucer, son of Zenophanes." +About two hundred yards from this great temple are standing five elegant +granite columns of a small temple dedicated to the goddess Fortune. +Further, the remains of two theatres and many other public buildings +attest the former splendour of this mountain city. An arched colonnade, of +which some Corinthian columns are standing with their architraves, ran +through the town; and an ancient paved road, lined with tombs and ruins, +leads down hill to a lower and smaller city two or three miles distant. It +is this lower town which retains the ancient name of Oura. Here the +principal ruins occupy an isolated fir-clad height bounded by two narrow +ravines full of rock-cut tombs. Below the town the ravines unite and form +a fine gorge, down which the old road passed seaward.(448) + + + +§ 7. The God of the Corycian Cave. + + +(M113) Nothing yet found at Olba throws light on the nature of the god who +was worshipped there under the Greek name of Zeus. But at two places near +the coast, distant only some fourteen or fifteen miles from Olba, a deity +also called Zeus by the Greeks was revered in natural surroundings of a +remarkable kind, which must have stood in close relation with the worship, +and are therefore fitted to illustrate it. In both places the features of +the landscape are of the same general cast, and at one of them the god was +definitely identified with the Zeus of Olba. The country here consists of +a tableland of calcareous rock rent at intervals by those great chasms +which are characteristic of a limestone formation. Similar fissures, with +the accompaniment of streams or rivers which pour into them and vanish +under ground, are frequent in Greece, and may be observed in our own +country near Ingleborough in Yorkshire. Fossil bones of extinct animals +are often found embedded in the stalagmite or breccia of limestone caves. +For example, the famous Kent's Hole near Torquay contained bones of the +mammoth, rhinoceros, lion, hyaena, and bear; and red osseous breccias, +charged with the bones of quadrupeds which have long disappeared from +Europe, are common in almost all the countries bordering on the +Mediterranean.(449) Western Cilicia is richer in Miocene deposits than any +other part of Anatolia, and the limestone gorges of the coast near Olba +are crowded with fossil oysters, corals, and other shells.(450) Here, too, +within the space of five miles the limestone plateau is rent by three +great chasms, which Greek religion associated with Zeus and Typhon. One of +these fissures is the celebrated Corycian cave. + +(M114) To visit this spot, invested with the double charm of natural +beauty and legendary renown, you start from the dead Cilician city of +Corycus on the sea, with its ruined walls, towers, and churches, its +rock-hewn houses and cisterns, its shattered mole, its island-fortress, +still imposing in decay. Viewed from the sea, this part of the Cilician +coast, with its long succession of white ruins, relieved by the dark +wooded hills behind, presents an appearance of populousness and splendour. +But a nearer approach reveals the nakedness and desolation of the once +prosperous land.(451) Following the shore westward from Corycus for about +an hour you come to a pretty cove enclosed by wooded heights, where a +spring of pure cold water bubbles up close to the sea, giving to the spot +its name of _Tatlu-su_, or the Sweet Water. From this bay a steep ascent +of about a mile along an ancient paved road leads inland to a plateau. +Here, threading your way through a labyrinth or petrified sea of jagged +calcareous rocks, you suddenly find yourself on the brink of a vast chasm +which yawns at your feet. This is the Corycian cave. In reality it is not +a cave but an immense hollow or trough in the plateau, of oval shape and +perhaps half a mile in circumference. The cliffs which enclose it vary +from one hundred to over two hundred feet in depth. Its uneven bottom +slopes throughout its whole length from north to south, and is covered by +a thick jungle of trees and shrubs--myrtles, pomegranates, carobs, and many +more, kept always fresh and green by rivulets, underground water, and the +shadow of the great cliffs. A single narrow path leads down into its +depths. The way is long and rough, but the deeper you descend the denser +grows the vegetation, and it is under the dappled shade of whispering +leaves and with the purling of brooks in your ears that you at last reach +the bottom. The saffron which of old grew here among the bushes is no +longer to be found, though it still flourishes in the surrounding +district. This luxuriant bottom, with its rich verdure, its refreshing +moisture, its grateful shade, is called Paradise by the wandering +herdsmen. They tether their camels and pasture their goats in it and come +hither in the late summer to gather the ripe pomegranates. At the southern +and deepest end of this great cliff-encircled hollow you come to the +cavern proper. The ruins of a Byzantine church, which replaced a heathen +temple, partly block the entrance. Inwards the cave descends with a gentle +slope into the bowels of the earth. The old path paved with polygonal +masonry still runs through it, but soon disappears under sand. At about +two hundred feet from its mouth the cave comes to an end, and a tremendous +roar of subterranean water is heard. By crawling on all fours you may +reach a small pool arched by a dripping stalactite-hung roof, but the +stream which makes the deafening din is invisible. It was otherwise in +antiquity. A river of clear water burst from the rock, but only to vanish +again into a chasm. Such changes in the course of streams are common in +countries subject to earthquakes and to the disruption caused by volcanic +agency. The ancients believed that this mysterious cavern was haunted +ground. In the rumble and roar of the waters they seemed to hear the clash +of cymbals touched by hands divine.(452) + +(M115) If now, quitting the cavern, we return by the same path to the +summit of the cliffs, we shall find on the plateau the ruins of a town and +of a temple at the western edge of the great Corycian chasm. The wall of +the holy precinct was built within a few feet of the precipices, and the +sanctuary must have stood right over the actual cave and its subterranean +waters. In later times the temple was converted into a Christian church. +By pulling down a portion of the sacred edifice Mr. Bent had the good +fortune to discover a Greek inscription containing a long list of names, +probably those of the priests who superintended the worship. One name +which meets us frequently in the list is Zas, and it is tempting to regard +this as merely a dialectical form of Zeus. If that were so, the priests +who bore the name might be supposed to personate the god.(453) But many +strange and barbarous-looking names, evidently foreign, occur in the list, +and Zas may be one of them. However, it is certain that Zeus was +worshipped at the Corycian cave; for about half a mile from it, on the +summit of a hill, are the ruins of a larger temple, which an inscription +proves to have been dedicated to Corycian Zeus.(454) + +(M116) But Zeus, or whatever native deity masqueraded under his name, did +not reign alone in the deep dell. A more dreadful being haunted a still +more awful abyss which opens in the ground only a hundred yards to the +east of the great Corycian chasm. It is a circular cauldron, about a +quarter of a mile in circumference, resembling the Corycian chasm in its +general character, but smaller, deeper, and far more terrific in +appearance. Its sides overhang and stalactites droop from them. There is +no way down into it. The only mode of reaching the bottom, which is +covered with vegetation, would be to be lowered at the end of a long rope. +The nomads call this chasm Purgatory, to distinguish it from the other +which they name Paradise. They say that there is a subterranean passage +between the two, and that the smoke of a fire kindled in the Corycian cave +may be seen curling out of the other. The one ancient writer who expressly +mentions this second and more grisly cavern is Mela, who says that it was +the lair of the giant Typhon, and that no animal let down into it could +live.(455) Aeschylus puts into the mouth of Prometheus an account of "the +earth-born Typhon, dweller in Cilician caves, dread monster, +hundred-headed," who in his pride rose up against the gods, hissing +destruction from his dreadful jaws, while from his Gorgon eyes the +lightning flashed. But him a flaming levin bolt, crashing from heaven, +smote to the very heart, and now he lies, shrivelled and scorched, under +the weight of Etna by the narrow sea. Yet one day he will belch a fiery +hail, a boiling angry flood, rivers of flame, to devastate the fat +Sicilian fields.(456) This poetical description of the monster, confirmed +by a similar passage of Pindar,(457) clearly proves that Typhon was +conceived as a personification of those active volcanoes which spout fire +and smoke to heaven as if they would assail the celestial gods. The +Corycian caverns are not volcanic, but the ancients apparently regarded +them as such, else they would hardly have made them the den of Typhon. + +(M117) According to one legend Typhon was a monster, half man and half +brute, begotten in Cilicia by Tartarus upon the goddess Earth. The upper +part of him was human, but from the loins downward he was an enormous +snake. In the battle of the gods and giants, which was fought out in +Egypt, Typhon hugged Zeus in his snaky coils, wrested from him his crooked +sword, and with the blade cut the sinews of the god's hands and feet. Then +taking him on his back he conveyed the mutilated deity across the sea to +Cilicia, and deposited him in the Corycian cave. Here, too, he hid the +severed sinews, wrapt in a bear's skin. But Hermes and Aegipan contrived +to steal the missing thews and restore them to their divine owner. Thus +made whole and strong again, Zeus pelted his beaten adversary with +thunderbolts, drove him from place to place, and at last overwhelmed him +under Mount Etna. And the spots where the hissing bolts fell are still +marked by jets of flame.(458) + +(M118) It is possible that the discovery of fossil bones of large extinct +animals may have helped to localize the story of the giant at the Corycian +cave. Such bones, as we have seen, are often found in limestone caverns, +and the limestone gorges of Cilicia are in fact rich in fossils. The +Arcadians laid the scene of the battle of the gods and the giants in the +plain of Megalopolis, where many bones of mammoths have come to light, and +where, moreover, flames have been seen to burst from the earth and even to +burn for years.(459) These natural conditions would easily suggest a fable +of giants who had fought the gods and had been slain by thunderbolts; the +smouldering earth or jets of flame would be regarded as the spots where +the divine lightnings had struck the ground. Hence the Arcadians +sacrificed to thunder and lightning.(460) In Sicily, too, great quantities +of bones of mammoths, elephants, hippopotamuses, and other animals long +extinct in the island have been found, and have been appealed to with +confidence by patriotic Sicilians as conclusive evidence of the gigantic +stature of their ancestors or predecessors.(461) These remains of huge +unwieldy creatures which once trampled through the jungle or splashed in +the rivers of Sicily may have contributed with the fires of Etna to build +up the story of giants imprisoned under the volcano and vomiting smoke and +flame from its crater. "Tales of giants and monsters, which stand in +direct connexion with the finding of great fossil bones, are scattered +broadcast over the mythology of the world. Huge bones, found at Punto +Santa Elena, in the north of Guayaquil, have served as a foundation for +the story of a colony of giants who dwelt there. The whole area of the +Pampas is a great sepulchre of enormous extinct animals; no wonder that +one great plain should be called the 'Field of the giants,' and that such +names as 'the hill of the giant,' 'the stream of the animal,' should be +guides to the geologist in his search for fossil bones."(462) + +(M119) About five miles to the north-east of the Corycian caverns, but +divided from them by many deep gorges and impassable rocks, is another and +very similar chasm. It may be reached in about an hour and a quarter from +the sea by an ancient paved road, which ascends at first very steeply and +then gently through bush-clad and wooded hills. Thus you come to a stretch +of level ground covered with the well-preserved ruins of an ancient town. +Remains of fortresses constructed of polygonal masonry, stately churches, +and many houses, together with numerous tombs and reliefs, finely +chiselled in the calcareous limestone of the neighbourhood, bear witness +to the extent and importance of the place. Yet it is mentioned by no +ancient writer. Inscriptions prove that its name was Kanyteldeis or +Kanytelideis, which still survives in the modern form of Kanidiwan. The +great chasm opens in the very heart of the city. So crowded are the ruins +that you do not perceive the abyss till you are within a few yards of it. +It is almost a complete circle, about a quarter of a mile wide, +three-quarters of a mile in circumference, and uniformly two hundred feet +or more in depth. The cliffs go sheer down and remind the traveller of the +great quarries at Syracuse. But like the Corycian caves, the larger of +which it closely resembles, the huge fissure is natural; and its bottom, +like theirs, is overgrown with trees and vegetation. Two ways led down +into it in antiquity, both cut through the rock. One of them was a tunnel, +which is now obstructed; the other is still open. Remains of columns and +hewn stones in the bottom of the chasm seem to show that a temple once +stood there. But there is no cave at the foot of the cliffs, and no stream +flows in the deep hollow or can be heard to rumble underground. A ruined +tower of polygonal masonry, which stands on the southern edge of the +chasm, bears a Greek inscription stating that it was dedicated to Olbian +Zeus by the priest Teucer, son of Tarkuaris. The letters are beautifully +cut in the style of the third century before Christ. We may infer that at +the time of the dedication the town belonged to the priestly kings of +Olba, and that the great chasm was sacred to Olbian Zeus.(463) + +(M120) What, then, was the character of the god who was worshipped under +the name of Zeus at these two great natural chasms? The depth of the +fissures, opening suddenly and as it were without warning in the midst of +a plateau, was well fitted to impress and awe the spectator; and the sight +of the rank evergreen vegetation at their bottom, fed by rivulets or +underground water, must have presented a striking contrast to the grey, +barren, rocky wilderness of the surrounding tableland. Such a spot must +have seemed to simple folk a paradise, a garden of God, the abode of +higher powers who caused the wilderness to blossom, if not with roses, at +least with myrtles and pomegranates for man, and with grass and underwood +for his flocks. So to the Semite, as we saw, the Baal of the land is he +who fertilizes it by subterranean water rather than by rain from the sky, +and who therefore dwells in the depths of earth rather than in the height +of heaven.(464) In rainless countries the sky-god is deprived of one of +the principal functions which he discharges in cool cloudy climates like +that of Europe. He has, in fact, little or nothing to do with the +water-supply, and has therefore small excuse for levying a water-rate on +his worshippers. Not, indeed, that Cilicia is rainless; but in countries +bordering on the Mediterranean the drought is almost unbroken through the +long months of summer. Vegetation then withers: the face of nature is +scorched and brown: most of the rivers dry up; and only their white stony +beds, hot to the foot and dazzling to the eye, remain to tell where they +flowed. It is at such seasons that a green hollow, a shady rock, a +murmuring stream, are welcomed by the wanderer in the South with a joy and +wonder which the untravelled Northerner can hardly imagine. Never do the +broad slow rivers of England, with their winding reaches, their grassy +banks, their grey willows mirrored with the soft English sky in the placid +stream, appear so beautiful as when the traveller views them for the first +time after leaving behind him the aridity, the heat, the blinding glare of +the white southern landscape, set in seas and skies of caerulean blue. + +(M121) We may take it, then, as probable that the god of the Corycian and +Olbian caverns was worshipped as a source of fertility. In antiquity, when +the river, which now roars underground, still burst from the rock in the +Corycian cave, the scene must have resembled Ibreez, where the god of the +corn and the vine was adored at the source of the stream; and we may +compare the vale of Adonis in the Lebanon, where the divinity who gave his +name to the river was revered at its foaming cascades. The three +landscapes had in common the elements of luxuriant vegetation and copious +streams leaping full-born from the rock. We shall hardly err in supposing +that these features shaped the conception of the deities who were supposed +to haunt the favoured spots. At the Corycian cave the existence of a +second chasm, of a frowning and awful aspect, might well suggest the +presence of an evil being who lurked in it and sought to undo the +beneficent work of the good god. Thus we should have a fable of a conflict +between the two, a battle of Zeus and Typhon. + +(M122) On the whole we conclude that the Olbian Zeus, worshipped at one of +these great limestone chasms, and clearly identical in nature with the +Corycian Zeus, was also identical with the Baal of Tarsus, the god of the +corn and the vine, who in his turn can hardly be separated from the god of +Ibreez. If my conjecture is right the native name of the Olbian Zeus was +Tark or Trok, and the priestly Teucers of Olba represented him in their +own persons. On that hypothesis the Olbian priests who bore the name of +Ajax embodied another native deity of unknown name, perhaps the father or +the son of Tark. A comparison of the coin-types of Tarsus with the Hittite +monuments of Ibreez and Boghaz-Keui led us to the conclusion that the +people of Tarsus worshipped at least two distinct gods, a father and a +son, the father-god being known to the Semites as Baal and to the Greeks +as Zeus, while the son was called Sandan by the natives, but Hercules by +the Greeks. We may surmise that at Olba the names of Teucer and Ajax +designated two gods who corresponded in type to the two gods of Tarsus; +and if the lesser figure at Ibreez, who appears in an attitude of +adoration before the deity of the corn and the vine, could be interpreted +as the divine Son in presence of the divine Father, we should have in all +three places the same pair of deities, represented probably in the flesh +by successive generations of priestly kings. But the evidence is far too +slender to justify us in advancing this hypothesis as anything more than a +bare conjecture. + + + +§ 8. Cilician Goddesses. + + +(M123) So far, the Cilician deities discussed have been males; we have as +yet found no trace of the great Mother Goddess who plays so important a +part in the religion of Cappadocia and Phrygia, beyond the great dividing +range of the Taurus. Yet we may suspect that she was not unknown in +Cilicia, though her worship certainly seems to have been far less +prominent there than in the centre of Asia Minor. The difference may +perhaps be interpreted as evidence that mother-kin and hence the +predominance of Mother Goddesses survived, in the bleak highlands of the +interior, long after a genial climate and teeming soil had fostered the +growth of a higher civilization, and with it the advance from female to +male kinship, in the rich lowlands of Cilicia. Be that as it may, Cilician +goddesses with or without a male partner are known to have been revered in +various parts of the country. + +(M124) Thus at Tarsus itself the goddess 'Atheh was worshipped along with +Baal; their effigies are engraved on the same coins of the city. She is +represented wearing a veil and seated upon a lion, with her name in +Aramaic letters engraved beside her.(465) Hence it would seem that at +Tarsus, as at Boghaz-Keui, the Father God mated with a lion-goddess like +the Phrygian Cybele or the Syrian Atargatis. Now the name Atargatis is a +Greek rendering of the Aramaic 'Athar-'atheh, a compound word which +includes the name of the goddess of Tarsus.(466) Thus in name as well as +in attributes the female partner of the Baal of Tarsus appears to +correspond to Atargatis, the Syrian Mother Goddess whose image, seated on +a lion or lions, was worshipped with great pomp and splendour at +Hierapolis-Bambyce near the Euphrates.(467) May we go a step farther and +find a correspondence between the Baal of Tarsus and the husband-god of +Atargatis at Hierapolis-Bambyce? That husband-god, like the Baal of +Tarsus, was identified by the Greeks with Zeus, and Lucian tells us that +the resemblance of his image to the images of Zeus was in all respects +unmistakable. But his image, unlike those of Zeus, was seated upon +bulls.(468) In point of fact he was probably Hadad, the chief male god of +the Syrians, who appears to have been a god of thunder and fertility; for +at Baalbec in the Lebanon, where the ruined temple of the Sun is the most +imposing monument bequeathed to the modern world by Greek art in its +decline, his image grasped in his left hand a thunderbolt and ears of +corn,(469) and a colossal statue of the deity, found near Zenjirli in +Northern Syria, represents him with a bearded human head and horns, the +emblem of strength and fertility.(470) A similar god of thunder and +lightning was worshipped from early times by the Babylonians and +Assyrians; he bore the similar name of Adad and his emblems appear to have +been a thunderbolt and a bull. On an Assyrian relief his image is +represented as that of a bearded man clad in a short tunic, wearing a cap +with two pairs of horns, and grasping an axe in his right hand and a +thunderbolt in his left. His resemblance to the Hittite god of the +thundering sky was therefore very close. An alternative name for this +Babylonian and Assyrian deity was Ramman, an appropriate term, derived +from a verb _ramamu_ to "scream" or "roar."(471) Now we have seen that the +god of Ibreez, whose attributes tally with those of the Baal of Tarsus, +wears a cap adorned with bull's horns;(472) that the Father God at +Boghaz-Keui, meeting the Mother Goddess on her lioness, is attended by an +animal which according to the usual interpretation is a bull;(473) and +that the bull itself was worshipped, apparently as an emblem of fertility, +at Euyuk near Boghaz-Keui.(474) Thus at Tarsus and Boghaz-Keui, as at +Hierapolis-Bambyce, the Father God and the Mother Goddess would seem to +have had as their sacred animals or emblems the bull and the lion +respectively. In later times, under Greek influence, the goddess was +apparently exchanged for, or converted into, the Fortune of the City, who +appears on coins of Tarsus as a seated woman with veiled and turreted +head, grasping ears of corn and a poppy in her hand. Her lion is gone, but +a trace of him perhaps remains on a coin which exhibits the throne of the +goddess adorned with a lion's leg.(475) In general it would seem that the +goddess Fortune, who figures commonly as the guardian of cities in the +Greek East, especially in Syria, was nothing but a disguised form of Gad, +the Semitic god of fortune or luck, who, though the exigencies of grammar +required him to be masculine, is supposed to have been often merely a +special aspect of the great goddess Astarte or Atargatis conceived as the +patroness and protector of towns.(476) In Oriental religion such +permutations or combinations need not surprise us. To the gods all things +are possible. In Cyprus the goddess of love wore a beard,(477) and +Alexander the Great sometimes disported himself in the costume of Artemis, +while at other times he ransacked the divine wardrobe to figure in the +garb of Hercules, of Hermes, and of Ammon.(478) The change of the goddess +'Atheh of Tarsus into Gad or Fortune would be easy if we suppose that she +was known as Gad-'Atheh, "Luck of 'Atheh," which occurs as a Semitic +personal name.(479) In like manner the goddess of Fortune at Olba, who had +her small temple beside the great temple of Zeus,(480) may have been +originally the consort of the native god Tark or Tarku. + +(M125) Another town in Cilicia where an Oriental god and goddess appear to +have been worshipped together was Mallus. The city was built on a height +in the great Cilician plain near the mouth of the river Pyramus.(481) Its +coins exhibit two winged deities, a male and a female, in a kneeling or +running attitude. On some of the coins the male deity is represented, like +Janus, with two heads facing opposite ways, and with two pairs of wings, +while beneath him is the forepart of a bull with a human head. The obverse +of the coins which bear the female deity displays a conical stone, +sometimes flanked by two bunches of grapes.(482) This conical stone, like +those of other Asiatic cities,(483) was probably the emblem of a Mother +Goddess, and the bunches of grapes indicate her fertilizing powers. The +god with the two heads and four wings can hardly be any other than the +Phoenician El, whom the Greeks called Cronus; for El was characterized by +four eyes, two in front and two behind, and by three pairs of wings.(484) +A discrepancy in the number of wings can scarcely be deemed fatal to the +identification. The god may easily have moulted some superfluous feathers +on the road from Phoenicia to Mallus. On later coins of Mallus these +quaint Oriental deities disappear, and are replaced by corresponding Greek +deities, particularly by a head of Cronus on one side and a figure of +Demeter, grasping ears of corn, on the other.(485) The change doubtless +sprang from a wish to assimilate the ancient native divinities to the new +and fashionable divinities of the Greek pantheon. If Cronus and Demeter, +the harvest god and goddess, were chosen to supplant El and his female +consort, the ground of the choice must certainly have been a supposed +resemblance between the two pairs of deities. We may assume, therefore, +that the discarded couple, El and his wife, had also been worshipped by +the husbandman as sources of fertility, the givers of corn and wine. One +of these later coins of Mallus exhibits Dionysus sitting on a vine laden +with ripe clusters, while on the obverse is seen a male figure guiding a +yoke of oxen as if in the act of ploughing.(486) These types of the +vine-god and the ploughman probably represent another attempt to adapt the +native religion to changed conditions, to pour the old Asiatic wine into +new Greek bottles. The barbarous monster with the multiplicity of heads +and wings has been reduced to a perfectly human Dionysus. The sacred but +deplorable old conical stone no longer flaunts proudly on the coins; it +has retired to a decent obscurity in favour of a natural and graceful +vine. It is thus that a truly progressive theology keeps pace with the +march of intellect. But if these things were done by the apostles of +culture at Mallus, we cannot suppose that the clergy of Tarsus, the +capital, lagged behind their provincial brethren in their efforts to place +the ancient faith upon a sound modern basis. The fruit of their labours +seems to have been the more or less nominal substitution of Zeus, Fortune, +and Hercules for Baal, 'Atheh, and Sandan.(487) + +(M126) We may suspect that in like manner the Sarpedonian Artemis, who had +a sanctuary in South-Eastern Cilicia, near the Syrian border, was really a +native goddess parading in borrowed plumes. She gave oracular responses by +the mouth of inspired men, or more probably of women, who in their moments +of divine ecstasy may have been deemed incarnations of her divinity.(488) +Another even more transparently Asiatic goddess was Perasia, or Artemis +Perasia, who was worshipped at Hieropolis-Castabala in Eastern Cilicia. +The extensive ruins of the ancient city, now known as Bodroum, cover the +slope of a hill about three-quarters of a mile to the north of the river +Pyramus. Above them towers the acropolis, built on the summit of dark grey +precipices, and divided from the neighbouring mountain by a deep cutting +in the rock. A mediaeval castle, built of hewn blocks of reddish-yellow +limestone, has replaced the ancient citadel. The city possessed a large +theatre, and was traversed by two handsome colonnades, of which some +columns are still standing among the ruins. A thick growth of brushwood +and grass now covers most of the site, and the place is wild and solitary. +Only the wandering herdsmen encamp near the deserted city in winter and +spring. The neighbourhood is treeless; yet in May magnificent fields of +wheat and barley gladden the eye, and in the valleys the clover grows as +high as the horses' knees.(489) The ambiguous nature of the goddess who +presided over this City of the Sanctuary (_Hieropolis_)(490) was confessed +by a puzzled worshipper, a physician named Lucius Minius Claudianus, who +confided his doubts to the deity herself in some very indifferent Greek +verses. He wisely left it to the goddess to say whether she was Artemis, +or the Moon, or Hecate, or Aphrodite, or Demeter.(491) All that we know +about her is that her true name was Perasia, and that she was in the +enjoyment of certain revenues.(492) Further, we may reasonably conjecture +that at the Cilician Castabala she was worshipped with rites like those +which were held in honour of her namesake Artemis Perasia at another city +of the same name, Castabala in Cappadocia. There, as we saw, the +priestesses of the goddess walked over fire with bare feet unscathed.(493) +Probably the same impressive ceremony was performed before a crowd of +worshippers in the Cilician Castabala also. Whatever the exact meaning of +the rite may have been, the goddess was in all probability one of those +Asiatic Mother Goddesses to whom the Greeks often applied the name of +Artemis.(494) The immunity enjoyed by the priestess in the furnace was +attributed to her inspiration by the deity. In discussing the nature of +inspiration or possession by a deity, the Syrian philosopher Jamblichus +notes as one of its symptoms a total insensibility to pain. Many inspired +persons, he tells us, "are not burned by fire, the fire not taking hold of +them by reason of the divine inspiration; and many, though they are +burned, perceive it not, because at the time they do not live an animal +life. They pierce themselves with skewers and feel nothing. They gash +their backs with hatchets, they slash their arms with daggers, and know +not what they do, because their acts are not those of mere men. For +impassable places become passable to those who are filled with the spirit. +They rush into fire, they pass through fire, they cross rivers, like the +priestess at Castabala. These things prove that under the influence of +inspiration men are beside themselves, that their senses, their will, +their life are those neither of man nor of beast, but that they lead +another and a diviner life instead, whereby they are inspired and wholly +possessed."(495) Thus in traversing the fiery furnace the priestesses of +Perasia were believed to be beside themselves, to be filled with the +goddess, to be in a real sense incarnations of her divinity.(496) + +A similar touchstone of inspiration is still applied by some villagers in +the Himalayan districts of North-Western India. Once a year they worship +Airi, a local deity, who is represented by a trident and has his temples +on lonely hills and desolate tracts. At his festival the people seat +themselves in a circle about a bonfire. A kettle-drum is beaten, and one +by one his worshippers become possessed by the god and leap with shouts +round the flames. Some brand themselves with heated iron spoons and sit +down in the fire. Such as escape unhurt are believed to be truly inspired, +while those who burn themselves are despised as mere pretenders to the +divine frenzy. Persons thus possessed by the spirit are called Airi's +horses or his slaves. During the revels, which commonly last about ten +days, they wear red scarves round their heads and receive alms from the +faithful. These men deem themselves so holy that they will let nobody +touch them, and they alone may touch the sacred trident, the emblem of +their god.(497) In Western Asia itself modern fanatics still practise the +same austerities which were practised by their brethren in the days of +Jamblichus. "Asia Minor abounds in dervishes of different orders, who lap +red-hot iron, calling it their 'rose,' chew coals of living fire, strike +their heads against solid walls, stab themselves in the cheek, the scalp, +the temple, with sharp spikes set in heavy weights, shouting 'Allah, +Allah,' and always consistently avowing that during such frenzy they are +entirely insensible to pain."(498) + + + +§ 9. The Burning of Cilician Gods. + + +(M127) On the whole, then, we seem to be justified in concluding that +under a thin veneer of Greek humanity the barbarous native gods of Cilicia +continued long to survive, and that among them the great Asiatic goddess +retained a place, though not the prominent place which she held in the +highlands of the interior down at least to the beginning of our era. The +principle that the inspired priest or priestess represents the deity in +person appears, if I am right, to have been recognized at Castabala and at +Olba, as well as at the sanctuary of Sarpedonian Artemis. There can be no +intrinsic improbability, therefore, in the view that at Tarsus also the +divine triad of Baal, 'Atheh, and Sandan may also have been personated by +priests and priestesses, who, on the analogy of Olba and of the great +sanctuaries in the interior of Asia Minor, would originally be at the same +time kings and queens, princes and princesses. Further, the burning of +Sandan in effigy at Tarsus would, on this hypothesis, answer to the walk +of the priestess of Perasia through the furnace at Castabala. Both were +perhaps mitigations of a custom of putting the priestly king or queen, or +another member of the royal family, to death by fire. + + + + +Chapter VII. Sardanapalus and Hercules. + + + +§ 1. The Burning of Sardanapalus. + + +(M128) The theory that kings or princes were formerly burned to death at +Tarsus in the character of gods is singularly confirmed by another and +wholly independent line of argument. For, according to one account, the +city of Tarsus was founded not by Sandan but by Sardanapalus, the famous +Assyrian monarch whose death on a great pyre was one of the most famous +incidents in Oriental legend. Near the sea, within a day's march of +Tarsus, might be seen in antiquity the ruins of a great ancient city named +Anchiale, and outside its walls stood a monument called the monument of +Sardanapalus, on which was carved in stone the figure of the monarch. He +was represented snapping the fingers of his right hand, and the gesture +was explained by an accompanying inscription, engraved in Assyrian +characters, to the following effect:--"Sardanapalus, son of Anacyndaraxes, +built Anchiale and Tarsus in one day. Eat, drink, and play, for everything +else is not worth that," by which was implied that all other human affairs +were not worth a snap of the fingers.(499) The gesture may have been +misinterpreted and the inscription mistranslated,(500) but there is no +reason to doubt the existence of such a monument, though we may conjecture +that it was of Hittite rather than Assyrian origin; for, not to speak of +the traces of Hittite art and religion which we have found at Tarsus, a +group of Hittite monuments has been discovered at Marash, in the upper +valley of the Pyramus.(501) The Assyrians may have ruled over Cilicia for +a time, but Hittite influence was probably much deeper and more +lasting.(502) The story that Tarsus was founded by Sardanapalus may well +be apocryphal,(503) but there must have been some reason for his +association with the city. On the present hypothesis that reason is to be +found in the traditional manner of his death. To avoid falling into the +hands of the rebels, who laid siege to Nineveh, he built a huge pyre in +his palace, heaped it up with gold and silver and purple raiment, and then +burnt himself, his wife, his concubines, and his eunuchs in the fire.(504) +The story is false of the historical Sardanapalus, that is, of the great +Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, but it is true of his brother Shamashshumukin. +Being appointed king of Babylon by Ashurbanipal, he revolted against his +suzerain and benefactor, and was besieged by him in his capital. The siege +was long and the resistance desperate, for the Babylonians knew that they +had no mercy to expect from the ruthless Assyrians. But they were +decimated by famine and pestilence, and when the city could hold out no +more, King Shamashshumukin, determined not to fall alive into the hands of +his offended brother, shut himself up in his palace, and there burned +himself to death, along with his wives, his children, his slaves, and his +treasures, at the very moment when the conquerors were breaking in the +gates.(505) Not many years afterwards the same tragedy was repeated at +Nineveh itself by Saracus or Sinsharishkun, the last king of Assyria. +Besieged by the rebel Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, and by Cyaxares, king +of the Medes, he burned himself in his palace. That was the end of Nineveh +and of the Assyrian empire.(506) Thus Greek history preserved the memory +of the catastrophe, but transferred it from the real victims to the far +more famous Ashurbanipal, whose figure in after ages loomed vast and dim +against the setting sun of Assyrian glory. + + + +§ 2. The Burning of Croesus. + + +(M129) Another Oriental monarch who prepared at least to die in the flames +was Croesus, king of Lydia. Herodotus tells how the Persians under Cyrus +captured Sardes, the Lydian capital, and took Croesus alive, and how Cyrus +caused a great pyre to be erected, on which he placed the captive monarch +in fetters, and with him twice seven Lydian youths. Fire was then applied +to the pile, but at the last moment Cyrus relented, a sudden shower +extinguished the flames, and Croesus was spared.(507) But it is most +improbable that the Persians, with their profound reverence for the +sanctity of fire, should have thought of defiling the sacred element with +the worst of all pollutions, the contact of dead bodies.(508) Such an act +would have seemed to them sacrilege of the deepest dye. For to them fire +was the earthly form of the heavenly light, the eternal, the infinite, the +divine; death, on the other hand, was in their opinion the main source of +corruption and uncleanness. Hence they took the most stringent precautions +to guard the purity of fire from the defilement of death.(509) If a man or +a dog died in a house where the holy fire burned, the fire had to be +removed from the house and kept away for nine nights in winter or a month +in summer before it might be brought back; and if any man broke the rule +by bringing back the fire within the appointed time, he might be punished +with two hundred stripes.(510) As for burning a corpse in the fire, it was +the most heinous of all sins, an invention of Ahriman, the devil; there +was no atonement for it, and it was punished with death.(511) Nor did the +law remain a dead letter. Down to the beginning of our era the death +penalty was inflicted on all who threw a corpse or cow-dung on the fire, +nay, even on such as blew on the fire with their breath.(512) It is hard, +therefore, to believe that a Persian king should have commanded his +subjects to perpetrate a deed which he and they viewed with horror as the +most flagitious sacrilege conceivable. + +(M130) Another and in some respects truer version of the story of Croesus +and Cyrus has been preserved by two older witnesses--namely, by the Greek +poet Bacchylides, who was born some forty years after the event,(513) and +by a Greek artist who painted the scene on a red-figured vase about, or +soon after, the time of the poet's birth. Bacchylides tells us that when +the Persians captured Sardes, Croesus, unable to brook the thought of +slavery, caused a pyre to be erected in front of his courtyard, mounted it +with his wife and daughters, and bade a page apply a light to the wood. A +bright blaze shot up, but Zeus extinguished it with rain from heaven, and +Apollo of the Golden Sword wafted the pious king and his daughters to the +happy land beyond the North Wind.(514) In like manner the vase-painter +clearly represents the burning of Croesus as a voluntary act, not as a +punishment inflicted on him by the conqueror. He lets us see the king +enthroned upon the pyre with a wreath of laurel on his head and a sceptre +in one hand, while with the other he is pouring a libation. An attendant +is in the act of applying to the pile two objects which have been +variously interpreted as torches to kindle the wood or whisks to sprinkle +holy water. The demeanour of the king is solemn and composed: he seems to +be performing a religious rite, not suffering an ignominious death.(515) + +Thus we may fairly conclude with some eminent modern scholars(516) that in +the extremity of his fortunes Croesus prepared to meet death like a king +or a god in the flames. It was thus that Hercules, from whom the old kings +of Lydia claimed to be sprung,(517) ascended from earth to heaven: it was +thus that Zimri, king of Israel, passed beyond the reach of his enemies: +it was thus that Shamashshumukin, king of Babylon, escaped a brother's +vengeance: it was thus that the last king of Assyria expired in the ruins +of his capital; and it was thus that, sixty-six years after the capture of +Sardes, the Carthaginian king Hamilcar sought to retrieve a lost battle by +a hero's death.(518) + +(M131) Semiramis herself, the legendary queen of Assyria, is said to have +burnt herself on a pyre out of grief at the death of a favourite +horse.(519) Since there are strong grounds for regarding the queen in her +mythical aspect as a form of Ishtar or Astarte,(520) the legend that +Semiramis died for love in the flames furnishes a remarkable parallel to +the traditionary death of the love-lorn Dido, who herself appears to be +simply an Avatar of the same great Asiatic goddess.(521) When we compare +these stories of the burning of Semiramis and Dido with each other and +with the historical cases of the burning of Oriental monarchs, we may +perhaps conclude that there was a time when queens as well as kings were +expected under certain circumstances, perhaps on the death of their +consort, to perish in the fire. The conclusion can hardly be deemed +extravagant when we remember that the practice of burning widows to death +survived in India under English rule down to a time within living +memory.(522) + +(M132) At Jerusalem itself a reminiscence of the practice of burning +kings, alive or dead, appears to have lingered as late as the time of +Isaiah, who says: "For Tophet is prepared of old; yea, for the king it is +made ready; he hath made it deep and large: the pile thereof is fire and +much wood; the breath of the Lord, like a stream of brimstone, doth kindle +it."(523) We know that "great burnings" were regularly made for dead kings +of Judah,(524) and it can hardly be accidental that the place assigned by +Isaiah to the king's pyre is the very spot in the Valley of Hinnom where +the first-born children were actually burned by their parents in honour of +Moloch "the King." The exact site of the Valley of Hinnom is disputed, but +all are agreed in identifying it with one of the ravines which encircle or +intersect Jerusalem; and according to some eminent authorities it was the +one called by Josephus the Tyropoeon.(525) If this last identification is +correct, the valley where the children were burned on a pyre lay +immediately beneath the royal palace and the temple. Perhaps the young +victims died for God and the king.(526) + +(M133) With the "great burnings" for dead Jewish kings it seems worth +while to compare the great burnings still annually made for dead Jewish +Rabbis at the lofty village of Meiron in Galilee, the most famous and +venerated place of pilgrimage for Jews in modern Palestine. Here the tombs +of the Rabbis are hewn out of the rock, and here on the thirtieth of +April, the eve of May Day, multitudes of pilgrims, both men and women, +assemble and burn their offerings, which consist of shawls, scarfs, +handkerchiefs, books, and the like. These are placed in two stone basins +on the top of two low pillars, and being drenched with oil and ignited +they are consumed to ashes amid the loud applause, shouts, and cries of +the spectators. A man has been known to pay as much as two thousand +piastres for the privilege of being allowed to open the ceremony by +burning a costly shawl. On such occasions the solemn unmoved serenity of +the Turkish officials, who keep order, presents a striking contrast to the +intense excitement of the Jews.(527) This curious ceremony may be +explained by the widespread practice of burning property for the use and +benefit of the dead. So, to take a single instance, the tyrant Periander +collected the finest raiment of all the women in Corinth and burned it in +a pit for his dead wife, who had sent him word by necromancy that she was +cold and naked in the other world, because the clothes he buried with her +had not been burnt.(528) In like manner, perhaps, garments and other +valuables may have been consumed on the pyre for the use of the dead kings +of Judah. In Siam, the corpse of a king or queen is burned in a huge +structure resembling a permanent palace, which with its many-gabled and +high-pitched roofs and multitudinous tinselled spires, soaring to a height +of over two hundred feet, sometimes occupies an area of about an +acre.(529) The blaze of such an enormous catafalque may resemble, even if +it far surpasses, the "great burnings" for the Jewish kings. + + + +§ 3. Purification by Fire. + + +(M134) These events and these traditions seem to prove that under certain +circumstances Oriental monarchs deliberately chose to burn themselves to +death. What were these circumstances? and what were the consequences of +the act? If the intention had merely been to escape from the hands of a +conqueror, an easier mode of death would naturally have been chosen. There +must have been a special reason for electing to die by fire. The legendary +death of Hercules, the historical death of Hamilcar, and the picture of +Croesus enthroned in state on the pyre and pouring a libation, all combine +to indicate that to be burnt alive was regarded as a solemn sacrifice, +nay, more than that, as an apotheosis which raised the victim to the rank +of a god.(530) For it is to be remembered that Hamilcar as well as +Hercules was worshipped after death. Fire, moreover, was regarded by the +ancients as a purgative so powerful that properly applied it could burn +away all that was mortal of a man, leaving only the divine and immortal +spirit behind. Hence we read of goddesses who essayed to confer +immortality on the infant sons of kings by burning them in the fire by +night; but their beneficent purpose was always frustrated by the ignorant +interposition of the mother or father, who peeping into the room saw the +child in the flames and raised a cry of horror, thus disconcerting the +goddess at her magic rites. This story is told of Isis in the house of the +king of Byblus, of Demeter in the house of the king of Eleusis, and of +Thetis in the house of her mortal husband Peleus.(531) In a slightly +different way the witch Medea professed to give back to the old their lost +youth by boiling them with a hell-broth in her magic cauldron;(532) and +when Pelops had been butchered and served up at a banquet of the gods by +his cruel father Tantalus, the divine beings, touched with pity, plunged +his mangled remains in a kettle, from which after decoction he emerged +alive and young.(533) "Fire," says Jamblichus, "destroys the material part +of sacrifices, it purifies all things that are brought near it, releasing +them from the bonds of matter and, in virtue of the purity of its nature, +making them meet for communion with the gods. So, too, it releases us from +the bondage of corruption, it likens us to the gods, it makes us meet for +their friendship, and it converts our material nature into an +immaterial."(534) Thus we can understand why kings and commoners who +claimed or aspired to divinity should choose death by fire. It opened to +them the gates of heaven. The quack Peregrinus, who ended his disreputable +career in the flames at Olympia, gave out that after death he would be +turned into a spirit who would guard men from the perils of the night; +and, as Lucian remarked, no doubt there were plenty of fools to believe +him.(535) According to one account, the Sicilian philosopher Empedocles, +who set up for being a god in his lifetime, leaped into the crater of Etna +in order to establish his claim to godhead.(536) There is nothing +incredible in the tradition. The crack-brained philosopher, with his itch +for notoriety, may well have done what Indian fakirs(537) and the +brazen-faced mountebank Peregrinus did in antiquity, and what Russian +peasants and Chinese Buddhists have done in modern times.(538) There is no +extremity to which fanaticism or vanity, or a mixture of the two, will not +impel its victims. + + + +§ 4. The Divinity of Lydian Kings. + + +(M135) But apart from any general notions of the purificatory virtues of +fire, the kings of Lydia seem to have had a special reason for regarding +death in the flames as their appropriate end. For the ancient dynasty of +the Heraclids which preceded the house of Croesus on the throne traced +their descent from a god or hero whom the Greeks called Hercules;(539) and +this Lydian Hercules appears to have been identical in name and in +substance with the Cilician Hercules, whose effigy was regularly burned on +a great pyre at Tarsus. The Lydian Hercules bore the name of Sandon;(540) +the Cilician Hercules bore the name of Sandan, or perhaps rather of +Sandon, since Sandon is known from inscriptions and other evidence to have +been a Cilician name.(541) The characteristic emblems of the Cilician +Hercules were the lion and the double-headed axe; and both these emblems +meet us at Sardes in connexion with the dynasty of the Heraclids. For the +double-headed axe was carried as part of the sacred regalia by Lydian +kings from the time of the legendary queen Omphale down to the reign of +Candaules, the last of the Heraclid kings. It is said to have been given +to Omphale by Hercules himself, and it was apparently regarded as a +palladium of the Heraclid sovereignty; for after the dotard Candaules +ceased to carry the axe himself, and had handed it over to the keeping of +a courtier, a rebellion broke out, and the ancient dynasty of the +Heraclids came to an end. The new king Gyges did not attempt to carry the +old emblem of sovereignty; he dedicated it with other spoils to Zeus in +Caria. Hence the image of the Carian Zeus bore an axe in his hand and +received the epithet of Labrandeus, from _labrys_, the Lydian word for +"axe."(542) Such is Plutarch's account; but we may suspect that Zeus, or +rather the native god whom the Greeks identified with Zeus, carried the +axe long before the time of Candaules. If, as is commonly supposed, the +axe was the symbol of the Asiatic thunder-god,(543) it would be an +appropriate emblem in the hand of kings, who are so often expected to make +rain, thunder, and lightning for the good of their people. Whether the +kings of Lydia were bound to make thunder and rain we do not know; but at +all events, like many early monarchs, they seem to have been held +responsible for the weather and the crops. In the reign of Meles the +country suffered severely from dearth, so the people consulted an oracle, +and the deity laid the blame on the kings, one of whom had in former years +incurred the guilt of murder. The soothsayers accordingly declared that +King Meles, though his own hands were clean, must be banished for three +years in order that the taint of bloodshed should be purged away. The king +obeyed and retired to Babylon, where he lived three years. In his absence +the kingdom was administered by a deputy, a certain Sadyattes, son of +Cadys, who traced his descent from Tylon.(544) As to this Tylon we shall +hear more presently. Again, we read that the Lydians rejoiced greatly at +the assassination of Spermus, another of their kings, "for he was very +wicked, and the land suffered from drought in his reign."(545) Apparently, +like the ancient Irish and many modern Africans, they laid the drought at +the king's door, and thought that he only got what he deserved under the +knife of the assassin. + +(M136) With regard to the lion, the other emblem of the Cilician Hercules, +we are told that the same king Meles, who was banished because of a +dearth, sought to make the acropolis of Sardes impregnable by carrying +round it a lion which a concubine had borne to him. Unfortunately at a +single point, where the precipices were such that it seemed as if no human +foot could scale them, he omitted to carry the beast, and sure enough at +that very point the Persians afterwards clambered up into the +citadel.(546) Now Meles was one of the old Heraclid dynasty(547) who +boasted their descent from the lion-hero Hercules; hence the carrying of a +lion round the acropolis was probably a form of consecration intended to +place the stronghold under the guardianship of the lion-god, the +hereditary deity of the royal family. And the story that the king's +concubine gave birth to a lion's whelp suggests that the Lydian kings not +only claimed kinship with the beast, but posed as lions in their own +persons and passed off their sons as lion-cubs. Croesus dedicated at +Delphi a lion of pure gold, perhaps as a badge of Lydia,(548) and Hercules +with his lion's skin is a common type on coins of Sardes.(549) + +(M137) Thus the death, or the attempted death, of Croesus on the pyre +completes the analogy between the Cilician and the Lydian Hercules. At +Tarsus and at Sardes we find the worship of a god whose symbols were the +lion and the double-headed axe, and who was burned on a great pyre, either +in effigy or in the person of a human representative. The Greeks called +him Hercules, but his native name was Sandan or Sandon. At Sardes he seems +to have been personated by the kings, who carried the double-axe and +perhaps wore, like their ancestor Hercules, the lion's skin. We may +conjecture that at Tarsus also the royal family aped the lion-god. At all +events we know that Sandan, the name of the god, entered into the names of +Cilician kings, and that in later times the priests of Sandan at Tarsus +wore the royal purple.(550) + + + +§ 5. Hittite Gods at Tarsus and Sardes. + + +(M138) Now we have traced the religion of Tarsus back by a double thread +to the Hittite religion of Cappadocia. One thread joins the Baal of +Tarsus, with his grapes and his corn, to the god of Ibreez. The other +thread unites the Sandan of Tarsus, with his lion and his double axe, to +the similar figure at Boghaz-Keui. Without being unduly fanciful, +therefore, we may surmise that the Sandon-Hercules of Lydia was also a +Hittite god, and that the Heraclid dynasty of Lydia were of Hittite blood. +Certainly the influence, if not the rule, of the Hittites extended to +Lydia; for at least two rock-carvings accompanied by Hittite inscriptions +are still to be seen in the country. Both of them attracted the attention +of the ancient Greeks. One of them represents a god or warrior in Hittite +costume armed with a spear and bow. It is carved on the face of a grey +rock, which stands out conspicuous on a bushy hillside, where an old road +runs through a glen from the valley of the Hermus to the valley of the +Cayster. The place is now called Kara-Bel. Herodotus thought that the +figure represented the Egyptian king and conqueror Sesostris.(551) The +other monument is a colossal seated figure of the Mother of the Gods, +locally known in antiquity as Mother Plastene. It is hewn out of the solid +rock and occupies a large niche in the face of a cliff at the steep +northern foot of Mount Sipylus.(552) Thus it would seem that at some time +or other the Hittites carried their arms to the shores of the Aegean. +There is no improbability, therefore, in the view that a Hittite dynasty +may have reigned at Sardes.(553) + + + +§ 6. The Resurrection of Tylon. + + +(M139) The burning of Sandan, like that of Melcarth,(554) was probably +followed by a ceremony of his resurrection or awakening, to indicate that +the divine life was not extinct, but had only assumed a fresher and purer +form. Of that resurrection we have, so far as I am aware, no direct +evidence. In default of it, however, there is a tale of a local Lydian +hero called Tylon or Tylus, who was killed and brought to life again. The +story runs thus. Tylon or Tylus was a son of Earth.(555) One day as he was +walking on the banks of the Hermus a serpent stung and killed him. His +distressed sister Moire had recourse to a giant named Damasen, who +attacked and slew the serpent. But the serpent's mate culled a herb, "the +flower of Zeus" in the woods, and bringing it in her mouth put it to the +lips of the dead serpent, which immediately revived. In her turn Moire +took the hint and restored her brother Tylon to life by touching him with +the same plant.(556) A similar incident occurs in many folk-tales. +Serpents are often credited with a knowledge of life-giving plants.(557) +But Tylon seems to have been more than a mere hero of fairy-tales. He was +closely associated with Sardes, for he figures on the coins of the city +along with his champion Damasen or Masnes, the dead serpent, and the +life-giving branch.(558) And he was related in various ways to the royal +family of Lydia; for his daughter married Cotys, one of the earliest kings +of the country,(559) and a descendant of his acted as regent during the +banishment of King Meles.(560) It has been suggested that the story of his +death and resurrection was acted as a pageant to symbolize the revival of +plant life in spring.(561) At all events, a festival called the Feast of +the Golden Flower was celebrated in honour of Persephone at Sardes,(562) +probably in one of the vernal months, and the revival of the hero and of +the goddess may well have been represented together. The Golden Flower of +the Festival would then be the "flower of Zeus" of the legend, perhaps the +yellow crocus of nature or rather her more gorgeous sister, the Oriental +saffron. For saffron grew in great abundance at the Corycian cave of +Zeus;(563) and it is an elegant conjecture, if it is nothing more, that +the very name of the place meant "the Crocus Cave."(564) However, on the +coins of Sardes the magical plant seems to be a branch rather than a +blossom, a Golden Bough rather than a Golden Flower. + + + + +Chapter VIII. Volcanic Religion. + + + +§ 1. The Burning of a God. + + +(M140) Thus it appears that a custom of burning a god in effigy or in the +person of a human representative was practised by at least two peoples of +Western Asia, the Phoenicians and the Hittites. Whether they both +developed the custom independently, or whether one of them adopted it from +the other, we cannot say. And their reasons for celebrating a rite which +to us seems strange and monstrous are also obscure. In the preceding +inquiry some grounds have been adduced for thinking that the practice was +based on a conception of the purifying virtue of fire, which, by +destroying the corruptible and perishable elements of man, was supposed to +fit him for union with the imperishable and the divine. Now to people who +created their gods in their own likeness, and imagined them subject to the +same law of decadence and death, the idea would naturally occur that fire +might do for the gods what it was believed to do for men, that it could +purge them of the taint of corruption and decay, could sift the mortal +from the immortal in their composition, and so endow them with eternal +youth. Hence a custom might arise of subjecting the deities themselves, or +the more important of them, to an ordeal of fire for the purpose of +refreshing and renovating those creative energies on the maintenance of +which so much depended. To the coarse apprehension of the uninstructed and +unsympathetic observer the solemn rite might easily wear a very different +aspect. According as he was of a pious or of a sceptical turn of mind, he +might denounce it as a sacrilege or deride it as an absurdity. "To burn +the god whom you worship," he might say, "is the height of impiety and of +folly. If you succeed in the attempt, you kill him and deprive yourselves +of his valuable services. If you fail, you have mortally offended him, and +sooner or later he will visit you with his severe displeasure." To this +the worshipper, if he was patient and polite, might listen with a smile of +indulgent pity for the ignorance and obtuseness of the critic. "You are +much mistaken," he might observe, "in imagining that we expect or attempt +to kill the god whom we adore. The idea of such a thing is as repugnant to +us as to you. Our intention is precisely the opposite of that which you +attribute to us. Far from wishing to destroy the deity, we desire to make +him live for ever, to place him beyond the reach of that process of +degeneration and final dissolution to which all things here below appear +by their nature to be subject. He does not die in the fire. Oh no! Only +the corruptible and mortal part of him perishes in the flames: all that is +incorruptible and immortal of him will survive the purer and stronger for +being freed from the contagion of baser elements. That little heap of +ashes which you see there is not our god. It is only the skin which he has +sloughed, the husk which he has cast. He himself is far away, in the +clouds of heaven, in the depths of earth, in the running waters, in the +tree and the flower, in the corn and the vine. We do not see him face to +face, but every year he manifests his divine life afresh in the blossoms +of spring and the fruits of autumn. We eat of his broken body in bread. We +drink of his shed blood in the juice of the grape." + + + +§ 2. The Volcanic Region of Cappadocia. + + +(M141) Some such train of reasoning may suffice to explain, though +naturally not to justify, the custom which we bluntly call the burning of +a god. Yet it is worth while to ask whether in the development of the +practice these general considerations may not have been reinforced or +modified by special circumstances; for example, by the natural features of +the country where the custom grew up. For the history of religion, like +that of all other human institutions, has been profoundly affected by +local conditions, and cannot be fully understood apart from them. Now Asia +Minor, the region where the practice in question appears to have been +widely diffused, has from time immemorial been subjected to the action of +volcanic forces on a great scale. It is true that, so far as the memory of +man goes back, the craters of its volcanoes have been extinct, but the +vestiges of their dead or slumbering fires are to be seen in many places, +and the country has been shaken and rent at intervals by tremendous +earthquakes. These phenomena cannot fail to have impressed the imagination +of the inhabitants, and thereby to have left some mark on their religion. + +(M142) Among the extinct volcanoes of Anatolia the greatest is Mount +Argaeus, in the centre of Cappadocia, the heart of the old Hittite +country. It is indeed the highest point of Asia Minor, and one of the +loftiest mountains known to the ancients; for in height it falls not very +far short of Mount Blanc. Towering abruptly in a huge pyramid from the +plain, it is a conspicuous object for miles on miles. Its top is white +with eternal snow, and in antiquity its lower slopes were clothed with +dense forests, from which the inhabitants of the treeless Cappadocian +plains drew their supply of timber. In these woods, and in the low grounds +at the foot of the mountain, the languishing fires of the volcano +manifested themselves as late as the beginning of our era. The ground was +treacherous. Under a grassy surface there lurked pits of fire, into which +stray cattle and unwary travellers often fell. Experienced woodmen used +great caution when they went to fell trees in the forest. Elsewhere the +soil was marshy, and flames were seen to play over it at night.(565) +Superstitious fancies no doubt gathered thick around these perilous spots, +but what shape they took we cannot say. Nor do we know whether sacrifices +were offered on the top of the mountain, though a curious discovery may +perhaps be thought to indicate that they were. Sharp and lofty pinnacles +of red porphyry, inaccessible to the climber, rise in imposing grandeur +from the eternal snow of the summit, and here Mr. Tozer found that the +rock had been perforated in various places with human habitations. One +such rock-hewn dwelling winds inward for a considerable distance; rude +niches are hollowed in its sides, and on its roof and walls may be seen +the marks of tools.(566) The ancients certainly did not climb mountains +for pleasure or health, and it is difficult to imagine that any motive but +superstition should have led them to provide dwellings in such a place. +These rock-cut chambers may have been shelters for priests charged with +the performance of religious or magical rites on the summit. + + + +§ 3. Fire-Worship in Cappadocia. + + +(M143) Under the Persian rule Cappadocia became, and long continued to be, +a great seat of the Zoroastrian fire-worship. In the time of Strabo, about +the beginning of our era, the votaries of that faith and their temples +were still numerous in the country. The perpetual fire burned on an altar, +surrounded by a heap of ashes, in the middle of the temple; and the +priests daily chanted their liturgy before it, holding in their hands a +bundle of myrtle rods and wearing on their heads tall felt caps with +cheek-pieces which covered their lips, lest they should defile the sacred +flame with their breath.(567) It is reasonable to suppose that the natural +fires which burned perpetually on the outskirts of Mount Argaeus attracted +the devotion of the disciples of Zoroaster, for elsewhere similar fires +have been the object of religious reverence down to modern times. Thus at +Jualamukhi, on the lower slopes of the Himalayas, jets of combustible gas +issue from the earth; and a great Hindoo temple, the resort of many +pilgrims, is built over them. The perpetual flame, which is of a reddish +hue and emits an aromatic perfume, rises from a pit in the fore-court of +the sanctuary. The worshippers deliver their gifts, consisting usually of +flowers, to the attendant fakirs, who first hold them over the flame and +then cast them into the body of the temple.(568) Again, Hindoo pilgrims +make their way with great difficulty to Baku on the Caspian, in order to +worship the everlasting fires which there issue from the beds of +petroleum. The sacred spot is about ten miles to the north-east of the +city. An English traveller, who visited Baku in the middle of the +eighteenth century, has thus described the place and the worship. "There +are several ancient temples built with stone, supposed to have been all +dedicated to fire; most of them are arched vaults, not above ten to +fifteen feet high. Amongst others there is a little temple, in which the +Indians now worship; near the altar, about three feet high, is a large +hollow cane, from the end of which issues a blue flame, in colour and +gentleness not unlike a lamp that burns with spirits, but seemingly more +pure. These Indians affirm that this flame has continued ever since the +flood, and they believe it will last to the end of the world; that if it +was resisted or suppressed in that place, it would rise in some other. +Here are generally forty or fifty of these poor devotees, who come on a +pilgrimage from their own country, and subsist upon wild sallary, and a +kind of Jerusalem artichoke, which are very good food, with other herbs +and roots, found a little to the northward. Their business is to make +expiation, not for their own sins only, but for those of others; and they +continue the longer time, in proportion to the number of persons for whom +they have engaged to pray. They mark their foreheads with saffron, and +have a great veneration for a red cow."(569) Thus it would seem that a +purifying virtue is attributed to the sacred flame, since pilgrims come to +it from far to expiate sin. + + + +§ 4. The Burnt Land of Lydia. + + +(M144) Another volcanic region of Asia Minor is the district of Lydia, to +which, on account of its remarkable appearance, the Greeks gave the name +of the Burnt Land. It lies to the east of Sardes in the upper valley of +the Hermus, and covers an area of about fifty miles by forty. As described +by Strabo, the country was wholly treeless except for the vines, which +produced a wine inferior to none of the most famous vintages of antiquity. +The surface of the plains was like ashes; the hills were composed of black +stone, as if they had been scorched by fire. Some people laid the scene of +Typhon's battle with the gods in this Black Country, and supposed that it +had been burnt by the thunderbolts hurled from heaven at the impious +monster. The philosophic Strabo, however, held that the fires which had +wrought this havoc were subterranean, not celestial, and he pointed to +three craters, at intervals of about four miles, each in a hill of scoriae +which he supposed to have been once molten matter ejected by the +volcanoes.(570) His observation and his theory have both been confirmed by +modern science. The three extinct volcanoes to which he referred are still +conspicuous features of the landscape. Each is a black cone of loose +cinders, scoriae, and ashes, with steep sides and a deep crater. From each +a flood of rugged black lava has flowed forth, bursting out at the foot of +the cone, and then rushing down the dale to the bed of the Hermus. The +dark streams follow all the sinuosities of the valleys, their sombre hue +contrasting with the rich verdure of the surrounding landscape. Their +surface, broken into a thousand fantastic forms, resembles a sea lashed +into fury by a gale, and then suddenly hardened into stone. Regarded from +the geological point of view, these black cones of cinders and these black +rivers of lava are of comparatively recent formation. Exposure to the +weather for thousands of years has not yet softened their asperities and +decomposed them into vegetable mould; they are as hard and ungenial as if +the volcanic stream had ceased to flow but yesterday. But in the same +district there are upwards of thirty other volcanic cones, whose greater +age is proved by their softened forms, their smoother sides, and their +mantle of vegetation. Some of them are planted with vineyards to their +summits.(571) Thus the volcanic soil is still as favourable to the +cultivation of the vine as it was in antiquity. The relation between the +two was noted by the ancients. Strabo compares the vines of the Burnt Land +with the vineyards of Catania fertilized by the ashes of Mount Etna; and +he tells us that some ingenious persons explained the fire-born Dionysus +as a myth of the grapes fostered by volcanic agency.(572) + + + +§ 5. The Earthquake God. + + +(M145) But the inhabitants of these regions were reminded of the +slumbering fires by other and less agreeable tokens than the generous +juice of their grapes. For not the Burnt Land only but the country to the +south, including the whole valley of the Maeander, was subject to frequent +and violent shocks of earthquake. The soil was loose, friable, and full of +salts, the ground hollow, undermined by fire and water. In particular the +city of Philadelphia was a great centre of disturbance. The shocks there, +we are told, were continuous. The houses rocked, the walls cracked and +gaped; the few inhabitants were kept busy repairing the breaches or +buttressing and propping the edifices which threatened to tumble about +their ears. Most of the citizens, indeed, had the prudence to dwell +dispersed on their farms. It was a marvel, says Strabo, that such a city +should have any inhabitants at all, and a still greater marvel that it +should ever have been built.(573) However, by a wise dispensation of +Providence, the earthquakes which shook the foundations of their houses +only strengthened those of their faith. The people of Apameia, whose town +was repeatedly devastated, paid their devotions with great fervour to +Poseidon, the earthquake god.(574) Again, the island of Santorin, in the +Greek Archipelago, has been for thousands of years a great theatre of +volcanic activity. On one occasion the waters of the bay boiled and flamed +for four days, and an island composed of red-hot matter rose gradually, as +if hoisted by machinery, above the waves. It happened that the sovereignty +of the seas was then with the Rhodians, those merchant-princes whose +prudent policy, strict but benevolent oligarchy, and beautiful +island-city, rich with accumulated treasures of native art, rendered them +in a sense the Venetians of the ancient world. So when the ebullition and +heat of the eruption had subsided, their sea-captains landed in the new +island, and founded a sanctuary of Poseidon the Establisher or +Securer,(575) a complimentary epithet often bestowed on him as a hint not +to shake the earth more than he could conveniently help.(576) In many +places people sacrificed to Poseidon the Establisher, in the hope that he +would be as good as his name and not bring down their houses on their +heads.(577) + +(M146) Another instance of a Greek attempt to quiet the perturbed spirit +underground is instructive, because similar efforts are still made by +savages in similar circumstances. Once when a Spartan army under King +Agesipolis had taken the field, it chanced that the ground under their +feet was shaken by an earthquake. It was evening, and the king was at mess +with the officers of his staff. No sooner did they feel the shock than, +with great presence of mind, they rose from their dinner and struck up a +popular hymn in honour of Poseidon. The soldiers outside the tent took up +the strain, and soon the whole army joined in the sacred melody.(578) It +is not said whether the flute-band, which always played the Spartan +redcoats into action,(579) accompanied the deep voices of the men with its +shrill music. At all events, the intention of this service of praise, +addressed to the earth-shaking god, can only have been to prevail on him +to stop. I have spoken of the Spartan redcoats because the uniform of +Spartan soldiers was red.(580) As they fought in an extended, not a deep, +formation, a Spartan line of battle must always have been, what the +British used to be, a thin red line. It was in this order, and no doubt +with the music playing and the sun flashing on their arms, that they +advanced to meet the Persians at Thermopylae. Like Cromwell's Ironsides, +these men could fight as well as sing psalms.(581) + +(M147) If the Spartans imagined that they could stop an earthquake by a +soldiers' chorus, their theory and practice resembled those of many other +barbarians. Thus the people of Timor, in the East Indies, think that the +earth rests on the shoulder of a mighty giant, and that when he is weary +of bearing it on one shoulder he shifts it to the other, and so causes the +ground to quake. At such times, accordingly, they all shout at the top of +their voices to let him know that there are still people on the earth; for +otherwise they fear lest, impatient of his burden, he might tip it into +the sea.(582) The Manichaeans held a precisely similar theory of +earthquakes, except that according to them the weary giant transferred his +burden from one shoulder to the other at the end of every thirty +years,(583) a view which, at all events, points to the observation of a +cycle in the recurrence of earthquake shocks. But we are not told that +these heretics reduced an absurd theory to an absurd practice by raising a +shout in order to remind the earth-shaker of the inconvenience he was +putting them to. However, both the theory and the practice are to be found +in full force in various parts of the East Indies. When the Balinese and +the Sundanese feel an earthquake they cry out, "Still alive," or "We still +live," to acquaint the earth-shaking god or giant with their +existence.(584) The natives of Leti, Moa, and Lakor, islands of the Indian +Archipelago, imagine that earthquakes are caused by Grandmother Earth in +order to ascertain whether her descendants are still to the fore. So they +make loud noises for the purpose of satisfying her grandmotherly +solicitude.(585) The Tami of German New Guinea ascribe earthquakes to a +certain old Panku who sits under a great rock; when he stirs, the earth +quakes. If the shock lasts a long time they beat on the ground with +palm-branches, saying, "You down there! easy a little! We men are still +here."(586) The Shans of Burma are taught by Buddhist monks that under the +world there sleeps a great fish with his tail in his mouth, but sometimes +he wakes, bites his tail, and quivering with pain causes the ground to +quiver and shake likewise. That is the cause of great earthquakes. But the +cause of little earthquakes is different. These are produced by little men +who live underground and sometimes feeling lonely knock on the roof of the +world over their heads; these knockings we perceive as slight shocks of +earthquakes. When Shans feel such a shock, they run out of their houses, +kneel down, and answer the little men saying, "We are here! We are +here!"(587) Earthquakes are common in the Pampa del Sacramento of Eastern +Peru. The Conibos, a tribe of Indians on the left bank of the great +Ucayali River, attribute these disturbances to the creator, who usually +resides in heaven, but comes down from time to time to see whether the +work of his hands still exists. The result of his descent is an +earthquake. So when one happens, these Indians rush out of their huts with +extravagant gestures shouting, as if in answer to a question, "A moment, a +moment, here I am, father, here I am!" Their intention is, no doubt, to +assure their heavenly father that they are still alive, and that he may +return to his mansion on high with an easy mind. They never remember the +creator nor pay him any heed except at an earthquake.(588) In Africa the +Atonga tribe of Lake Nyassa used to believe that an earthquake was the +voice of God calling to inquire whether his people were all there. So when +the rumble was heard underground they all shouted in answer, "_Ye, ye_," +and some of them went to the mortars used for pounding corn and beat on +them with pestles. They thought that if any one of them did not thus +answer to the divine call he would die.(589) In Ourwira the people think +that an earthquake is caused by a dead sultan marching past underground; +so they stand up to do him honour, and some raise their hands to the +salute. Were they to omit these marks of respect to the deceased, they +would run the risk of being swallowed up alive.(590) The Baganda of +Central Africa used to attribute earthquakes to a certain god named +Musisi, who lived underground and set the earth in a tremor when he moved +about. At such times persons who had fetishes to hand patted them and +begged the god to be still; women who were with child patted their bellies +to keep the god from taking either their own life or that of their unborn +babes; others raised a shrill cry to induce him to remain quiet.(591) + +(M148) When the Bataks of Sumatra feel an earthquake they shout "The +handle! The handle!" The meaning of the cry is variously explained. Some +say that it contains a delicate allusion to the sword which is thrust up +to the hilt into the body of the demon or serpent who shakes the earth. +Thus explained the words are a jeer or taunt levelled at that mischievous +being.(592) Others say that when Batara-guru, the creator, was about to +fashion the earth he began by building a raft, which he commanded a +certain Naga-padoha to support. While he was hard at work his chisel +broke, and at the same moment Naga-padoha budged under his burden. +Therefore Batara-guru said, "Hold hard a moment! The handle of the chisel +is broken off." And that is why the Bataks call out "The handle of the +chisel" during an earthquake. They believe that the deluded Naga-padoha +will take the words for the voice of the creator, and that he will hold +hard accordingly.(593) + +(M149) When the earth quakes in some parts of Celebes, it is said that all +the inhabitants of a village will rush out of their houses and grub up +grass by handfuls in order to attract the attention of the earth-spirit, +who, feeling his hair thus torn out by the roots, will be painfully +conscious that there are still people above ground.(594) So in Samoa, +during shocks of earthquake, the natives sometimes ran and threw +themselves on the ground, gnawed the earth, and shouted frantically to the +earthquake god Mafuie to desist lest he should shake the earth to +pieces.(595) They consoled themselves with the thought that Mafuie has +only one arm, saying, "If he had two, what a shake he would give!"(596) +The Bagobos of the Philippine Islands believe that the earth rests on a +great post, which a large serpent is trying to remove. When the serpent +shakes the post, the earth quakes. At such times the Bagobos beat their +dogs to make them howl, for the howling of the animals frightens the +serpent, and he stops shaking the post. Hence so long as an earthquake +lasts the howls of dogs may be heard to proceed from every house in a +Bagobo village.(597) The Tongans think that the earth is supported on the +prostrate form of the god Moooi. When he is tired of lying in one posture, +he tries to turn himself about, and that causes an earthquake. Then the +people shout and beat the ground with sticks to make him lie still.(598) +During an earthquake the Burmese make a great uproar, beating the walls of +their houses and shouting, to frighten away the evil genius who is shaking +the earth.(599) On a like occasion and for a like purpose some natives of +the Gazelle Peninsula in New Britain beat drums and blow on shells.(600) +The Dorasques, an Indian tribe of Panama, believed that the volcano of +Chiriqui was inhabited by a powerful spirit, who, in his anger, caused an +earthquake. At such times the Indians shot volleys of arrows in the +direction of the volcano to terrify him and make him desist.(601) Some of +the Peruvian Indians regarded an earthquake as a sign that the gods were +thirsty, so they poured water on the ground.(602) In Ashantee several +persons used to be put to death after an earthquake; they were slain as a +sacrifice to Sasabonsun, the earthquake god, in the hope of satiating his +cruelty for a time. Houses which had been thrown down or damaged by an +earthquake were sprinkled with human blood before they were rebuilt. When +part of the wall of the king's house at Coomassie was knocked down by an +earthquake, fifty young girls were slaughtered, and the mud to be used in +the repairs was kneaded with their blood.(603) + +(M150) An English resident in Fiji attributed a sudden access of piety in +Kantavu, one of the islands, to a tremendous earthquake which destroyed +many of the natives. The Fijians think that their islands rest on a god, +who causes earthquakes by turning over in his sleep. So they sacrifice to +him things of great value in order that he may turn as gently as +possible.(604) In Nias a violent earthquake has a salutary effect on the +morals of the natives. They suppose that it is brought about by a certain +Batoo Bedano, who intends to destroy the earth because of the iniquity of +mankind. So they assemble and fashion a great image out of the trunk of a +tree. They make offerings, they confess their sins, they correct the +fraudulent weights and measures, they vow to do better in the future, they +implore mercy, and if the earth has gaped, they throw a little gold into +the fissure. But when the danger is over, all their fine vows and promises +are soon forgotten.(605) + +(M151) We may surmise that in those Greek lands which have suffered +severely from earthquakes, such as Achaia and the western coasts of Asia +Minor, Poseidon was worshipped not less as an earthquake god than as a +sea-god.(606) It is to be remembered that an earthquake is often +accompanied by a tremendous wave which comes rolling in like a mountain +from the sea, swamping the country far and wide; indeed on the coasts of +Chili and Peru, which have often been devastated by both, the wave is said +to be even more dreaded than the earthquake.(607) The Greeks often +experienced this combination of catastrophes, this conspiracy, as it were, +of earth and sea against the life and works of man.(608) It was thus that +Helice, on the coast of Achaia, perished with all its inhabitants on a +winter night, overwhelmed by the billows; and its destruction was set down +to the wrath of Poseidon.(609) Nothing could be more natural than that to +people familiar with the twofold calamity the dreadful god of the +earthquake and of the sea should appear to be one and the same. The +historian Diodorus Siculus observes that Peloponnese was deemed to have +been in ancient days the abode of Poseidon, that the whole country was in +a manner sacred to him, and that every city in it worshipped him above all +the gods. The devotion to Poseidon he explains partly by the earthquakes +and floods by which the land has been visited, partly by the remarkable +chasms and subterranean rivers which are a conspicuous feature of its +limestone mountains.(610) + + + +§ 6. The Worship of Mephitic Vapours. + + +(M152) But eruptions and earthquakes, though the most tremendous, are not +the only phenomena of volcanic regions which have affected the religion of +the inhabitants. Poisonous mephitic vapours and hot springs, which abound +especially in volcanic regions,(611) have also had their devotees, and +both are, or were formerly, to be found in those western districts of Asia +Minor with which we are here concerned. To begin with vapours, we may take +as an illustration of their deadly effect the Guevo Upas, or Valley of +Poison, near Batur in Java. It is the crater of an extinct volcano, about +half a mile in circumference, and from thirty to thirty-five feet deep. +Neither man nor beast can descend to the bottom and live. The ground is +covered with the carcases of tigers, deer, birds, and even the bones of +men, all killed by the abundant emanations of carbonic acid gas which +exhale from the soil. Animals let down into it die in a few minutes. The +whole range of hills is volcanic. Two neighbouring craters constantly emit +smoke.(612) In another crater of Java, near the volcano Talaga Bodas, the +sulphureous exhalations have proved fatal to tigers, birds, and countless +insects; and the soft parts of these creatures, such as fibres, muscles, +hair, and skin, are well preserved, while the bones are corroded or +destroyed.(613) + +(M153) The ancients were acquainted with such noxious vapours in their own +country, and they regarded the vents from which they were discharged as +entrances to the infernal regions.(614) The Greeks called them places of +Pluto (_Plutonia_) or places of Charon (_Charonia_).(615) In Italy the +vapours were personified as a goddess, who bore the name of Mefitis and +was worshipped in various parts of the peninsula.(616) She had a temple in +the famous valley of Amsanctus in the land of the Hirpini, where the +exhalations, supposed to be the breath of Pluto himself, were of so deadly +a character that all who set foot on the spot died.(617) The place is a +glen, partly wooded with chestnut trees, among limestone hills, distant +about four miles from the town of Frigento. Here, under a steep shelving +bank of decomposed limestone, there is a pool of dark ash-coloured water, +which continually bubbles up with an explosion like distant thunder. A +rapid stream of the same blackish water rushes into the pool from under +the barren rocky hill, but the fall is not more than a few feet. A little +higher up are apertures in the ground, through which warm blasts of +sulphuretted hydrogen are constantly issuing with more or less noise, +according to the size of the holes. These blasts are no doubt what the +ancients deemed the breath of Pluto. The pool is now called _Mefite_ and +the holes _Mefitinelle_. On the other side of the pool is a smaller pond +called the _Coccaio_, or Cauldron, because it appears to be perpetually +boiling. Thick masses of mephitic vapour, visible a hundred yards off, +float in rapid undulations on its surface. The exhalations given off by +these waters are sometimes fatal, especially when they are borne on a high +wind. But as the carbonic acid gas does not naturally rise more than two +or three feet from the ground, it is possible in calm weather to walk +round the pools, though to stoop is difficult and to fall would be +dangerous. The ancient temple of Mefitis has been replaced by a shrine of +the martyred Santa Felicita.(618) + +(M154) Similar discharges of poisonous vapours took place at various +points in the volcanic district of Caria, and were the object of +superstitious veneration in antiquity. Thus at the village of Thymbria +there was a sacred cave which gave out deadly emanations, and the place +was deemed a sanctuary of Charon.(619) A similar cave might be seen at the +village of Acharaca near Nysa, in the valley of the Maeander. Here, below +the cave, there was a fine grove with a temple dedicated to Pluto and +Persephone. The place was sacred to Pluto, yet sick people resorted to it +for the restoration of their health. They lived in the neighbouring +village, and the priests prescribed for them according to the revelations +which they received from the two deities in dreams. Often the priests +would take the patients to the cave and leave them there for days without +food. Sometimes the sufferers themselves were favoured with revelations in +dreams, but they always acted under the spiritual direction of the +priests. To all but the sick the place was unapproachable and fatal. Once +a year a festival was held in the village, and then afflicted folk came in +crowds to be rid of their ailments. About the hour of noon on that day a +number of athletic young men, their naked bodies greased with oil, used to +carry a bull up to the cave and there let it go. But the beast had not +taken a few steps into the cavern before it fell to the ground and +expired: so deadly was the vapour.(620) + +(M155) Another Plutonian sanctuary of the same sort existed at Hierapolis, +in the upper valley of the Maeander, on the borders of Lydia and +Phrygia.(621) Here under a brow of the hill there was a deep cave with a +narrow mouth just large enough to admit the body of a man. A square space +in front of the cave was railed off, and within the railing there hung so +thick a cloudy vapour that it was hardly possible to see the ground. In +calm weather people could step up to the railing with safety, but to pass +within it was instant death. Bulls driven into the enclosure fell to the +earth and were dragged out lifeless; and sparrows, which spectators by way +of experiment allowed to fly into the mist, dropped dead at once. Yet the +eunuch priests of the Great Mother Goddess could enter the railed-off area +with impunity; nay more, they used to go up to the very mouth of the cave, +stoop, and creep into it for a certain distance, holding their breath; but +there was a look on their faces as if they were being choked. Some people +ascribed the immunity of the priests to the divine protection, others to +the use of antidotes.(622) + + + +§ 7. The Worship of Hot Springs. + + +(M156) The mysterious chasm of Hierapolis, with its deadly mist, has not +been discovered in modern times; indeed it would seem to have vanished +even in antiquity.(623) It may have been destroyed by an earthquake. But +another marvel of the Sacred City remains to this day. The hot springs +with their calcareous deposit, which, like a wizard's wand, turns all that +it touches to stone, excited the wonder of the ancients, and the course of +ages has only enhanced the fantastic splendour of the great transformation +scene. The stately ruins of Hierapolis occupy a broad shelf or terrace on +the mountain-side commanding distant views of extraordinary beauty and +grandeur, from the dark precipices and dazzling snows of Mount Cadmus away +to the burnt summits of Phrygia, fading in rosy tints into the blue of the +sky. Hills, broken by wooded ravines, rise behind the city. In front the +terrace falls away in cliffs three hundred feet high into the desolate +treeless valley of the Lycus. Over the face of these cliffs the hot +streams have poured or trickled for thousands of years, encrusting them +with a pearly white substance like salt or driven snow. The appearance of +the whole is as if a mighty river, some two miles broad, had been suddenly +arrested in the act of falling over a great cliff and transformed into +white marble. It is a petrified Niagara. The illusion is strongest in +winter or in cool summer mornings when the mist from the hot springs hangs +in the air, like a veil of spray resting on the foam of the waterfall. A +closer inspection of the white cliff, which attracts the traveller's +attention at a distance of twenty miles, only adds to its beauty and +changes one illusion for another. For now it seems to be a glacier, its +long pendent stalactites looking like icicles, and the snowy whiteness of +its smooth expanse being tinged here and there with delicate hues of blue, +rose and green, all the colours of the rainbow. These petrified cascades +of Hierapolis are among the wonders of the world. Indeed they have +probably been without a rival in their kind ever since the famous white +and pink terraces or staircases of Rotomahana in New Zealand were +destroyed by a volcanic eruption. + +(M157) The hot springs which have wrought these miracles at Hierapolis +rise in a large deep pool among the vast and imposing ruins of the ancient +city. The water is of a greenish-blue tint, but clear and transparent. At +the bottom may be seen the white marble columns of a beautiful Corinthian +colonnade, which must formerly have encircled the sacred pool. Shimmering +through the green-blue water they look like the ruins of a Naiad's palace. +Clumps of oleanders and pomegranate-trees overhang the little lake and add +to its charm. Yet the enchanted spot has its dangers. Bubbles of carbonic +acid gas rise incessantly from the bottom and mount like flickering +particles of silver to the surface. Birds and beasts which come to drink +of the water are sometimes found dead on the bank, stifled by the noxious +vapour; and the villagers tell of bathers who have been overpowered by it +and drowned, or dragged down, as they say, to death by the water-spirit. + +(M158) The streams of hot water, no longer regulated by the care of a +religious population, have for centuries been allowed to overflow their +channels and to spread unchecked over the tableland. By the deposit which +they leave behind they have raised the surface of the ground many feet, +their white ridges concealing the ruins and impeding the footstep, except +where the old channels, filled up solidly to the brim, now form hard level +footpaths, from which the traveller may survey the strange scene without +quitting the saddle. In antiquity the husbandmen used purposely to lead +the water in rills round their lands, and thus in a few years their fields +and vineyards were enclosed with walls of solid stone. The water was also +peculiarly adapted for the dyeing of woollen stuffs. Tinged with dyes +extracted from certain roots, it imparted to cloths dipped in it the +finest shades of purple and scarlet.(624) + +(M159) We cannot doubt that Hierapolis owed its reputation as a holy city +in great part to its hot springs and mephitic vapours. The curative virtue +of mineral and thermal springs was well known to the ancients, and it +would be interesting, if it were possible, to trace the causes which have +gradually eliminated the superstitious element from the use of such +waters, and so converted many old seats of volcanic religion into the +medicinal baths of modern times. It was an article of Greek faith that all +hot springs were sacred to Hercules.(625) "Who ever heard of cold baths +that were sacred to Hercules?" asks Injustice in Aristophanes; and Justice +admits that the brawny hero's patronage of hot baths was the excuse +alleged by young men for sprawling all day in the steaming water when they +ought to have been sweating in the gymnasium.(626) Hot springs were said +to have been first produced for the refreshment of Hercules after his +labours; some ascribed the kindly thought and deed to Athena, others to +Hephaestus, and others to the nymphs.(627) The warm water of these sources +appears to have been used especially to heal diseases of the skin; for a +Greek proverb, "the itch of Hercules," was applied to persons in need of +hot baths for the scab.(628) On the strength of his connexion with +medicinal springs Hercules set up as a patron of the healing art. In +heaven, if we can trust Lucian, he even refused to give place to +Aesculapius himself, and the difference between the two deities led to a +very unseemly brawl. "Do you mean to say," demanded Hercules of his father +Zeus, in a burst of indignation, "that this apothecary is to sit down to +table before me?" To this the apothecary replied with much acrimony, +recalling certain painful episodes in the private life of the burly hero. +Finally the dispute was settled by Zeus, who decided in favour of +Aesculapius on the ground that he died before Hercules, and was therefore +entitled to rank as senior god.(629) + +(M160) Among the hot springs sacred to Hercules the most famous were those +which rose in the pass of Thermopylae, and gave to the defile its name of +the Hot Gates.(630) The warm baths, called by the natives "the Pots," were +enlarged and improved for the use of invalids by the wealthy sophist +Herodes Atticus in the second century of our era. An altar of Hercules +stood beside them.(631) According to one story, the hot springs were here +produced for his refreshment by the goddess Athena.(632) They exist to +this day apparently unchanged, although the recession of the sea has +converted what used to be a narrow pass into a wide, swampy flat, through +which the broad but shallow, turbid stream of the Sperchius creeps +sluggishly seaward. On the other side the rugged mountains descend in +crags and precipices to the pass, their grey rocky sides tufted with low +wood or bushes wherever vegetation can find a foothold, and their summits +fringed along the sky-line with pines. They remind a Scotchman of the +"crags, knolls, and mounds confusedly hurled" in which Ben Venue comes +down to the Silver Strand of Loch Katrine. The principal spring bursts +from the rocks just at the foot of the steepest and loftiest part of the +range. After forming a small pool it flows in a rapid stream eastward, +skirting the foot of the mountains. The water is so hot that it is almost +painful to hold the hands in it, at least near the source, and steam rises +thickly from its surface along the course of the brook. Indeed the clouds +of white steam and the strong sulphurous smell acquaint the traveller with +his approach to the famous spot before he comes in sight of the springs. +The water is clear, but has the appearance of being of a deep sea-blue or +sea-green colour. This appearance it takes from the thick, slimy deposits +of blue-green sulphur which line the bed of the stream. From its source +the blue, steaming, sulphur-reeking brook rushes eastward for a few +hundred yards at the foot of the mountain, and is then joined by the water +of another spring, which rises much more tranquilly in a sort of natural +bath among the rocks. The sides of this bath are not so thickly coated +with sulphur as the banks of the stream; hence its water, about two feet +deep, is not so blue. Just beyond it there is a second and larger bath, +which, from its square shape and smooth sides, would seem to be in part +artificial. These two baths are probably the Pots mentioned by ancient +writers. They are still used by bathers, and a few wooden dressing-rooms +are provided for the accommodation of visitors. Some of the water is +conducted in an artificial channel to turn a mill about half a mile off at +the eastern end of the pass. The rest crosses the flat to find its way to +the sea. In its passage it has coated the swampy ground with a white +crust, which sounds hollow under the tread.(633) + +(M161) We may conjecture that these remarkable springs furnished the +principal reason for associating Hercules with this district, and for +laying the scene of his fiery death on the top of the neighbouring Mount +Oeta. The district is volcanic, and has often been shaken by +earthquakes.(634) Across the strait the island of Euboea has suffered from +the same cause and at the same time; and on its southern shore sulphureous +springs, like those of Thermopylae, but much hotter and more powerful, +were in like manner dedicated to Hercules.(635) The strong medicinal +qualities of the waters, which are especially adapted for the cure of skin +diseases and gout, have attracted patients in ancient and modern times. +Sulla took the waters here for his gout;(636) and in the days of Plutarch +the neighbouring town of Aedepsus, situated in a green valley about two +miles from the springs, was one of the most fashionable resorts of Greece. +Elegant and commodious buildings, an agreeable country, and abundance of +fish and game united with the health-giving properties of the baths to +draw crowds of idlers to the place, especially in the prime of the +glorious Greek spring, the height of the season at Aedepsus. While some +watched the dancers dancing or listened to the strains of the harp, others +passed the time in discourse, lounging in the shade of cloisters or pacing +the shore of the beautiful strait with its prospect of mountains beyond +mountains immortalized in story across the water.(637) Of all this Greek +elegance and luxury hardly a vestige remains. Yet the healing springs flow +now as freely as of old. In the course of time the white and yellow +calcareous deposit which the water leaves behind it, has formed a hillock +at the foot of the mountains, and the stream now falls in a steaming +cascade from the face of the rock into the sea.(638) Once, after an +earthquake, the springs ceased to flow for three days, and at the same +time the hot springs of Thermopylae dried up.(639) The incident proves the +relation of these Baths of Hercules on both sides of the strait to each +other and to volcanic agency. On another occasion a cold spring suddenly +burst out beside the hot springs of Aedepsus, and as its water was +supposed to be peculiarly beneficial to health, patients hastened from far +and near to drink of it. But the generals of King Antigonus, anxious to +raise a revenue, imposed a tax on the use of the water; and the spring, as +if in disgust at being turned to so base a use, disappeared as suddenly as +it had come.(640) + +(M162) The association of Hercules with hot springs was not confined to +Greece itself. Greek influence extended it to Sicily,(641) Italy,(642) and +even to Dacia.(643) Why the hero should have been chosen as the patron of +thermal waters, it is hard to say. Yet it is worth while, perhaps, to +remember that such springs combine in a manner the twofold and seemingly +discordant principles of water and fire,(644) of fertility and +destruction, and that the death of Hercules in the flames seems to connect +him with the fiery element. Further, the apparent conflict of the two +principles is by no means as absolute as at first sight we might be +tempted to suppose; for heat is as necessary as moisture to the support of +animal and vegetable life. Even volcanic fires have their beneficent +aspect, since their products lend a more generous flavour to the juice of +the grape. The ancients themselves, as we have seen, perceived the +connexion between good wine and volcanic soil, and proposed more or less +seriously to interpret the vine-god Dionysus as a child of the fire.(645) +As a patron of hot springs Hercules combined the genial elements of heat +and moisture, and may therefore have stood, in one of his many aspects, +for the principle of fertility. + +(M163) In Syria childless women still resort to hot springs in order to +procure offspring from the saint or the jinnee of the waters.(646) This, +for example, they do at the famous hot springs in the land of Moab which +flow through a wild gorge into the Dead Sea. In antiquity the springs went +by the Greek name of Callirrhoe, the Fair-flowing. It was to them that the +dying Herod, weighed down by a complication of disorders which the pious +Jews traced to God's vengeance, repaired in the vain hope of arresting or +mitigating the fatal progress of disease. The healing waters brought no +alleviation of his sufferings, and he retired to Jericho to die.(647) The +hot springs burst in various places from the sides of a deep romantic +ravine to form a large and rapid stream of lukewarm water, which rushes +down the depths of the lynn, dashing and foaming over boulders, under the +dense shade of tamarisk-trees and cane-brakes, the rocks on either bank +draped with an emerald fringe of maidenhair fern. One of the springs falls +from a high rocky shelf over the face of a cliff which is tinted bright +yellow by the sulphurous water. The lofty crags which shut in the narrow +chasm are bold and imposing in outline and varied in colour, for they +range from red sandstone through white and yellow limestone to black +basalt. The waters issue from the line where the sandstone and limestone +meet. Their temperature is high, and from great clefts in the +mountain-sides you may see clouds of steam rising and hear the rumbling of +the running waters. The bottom of the glen is clothed and half choked with +rank vegetation; for, situated far below the level of the sea, the hot +ravine is almost African in climate and flora. Here grow dense thickets of +canes with their feathery tufts that shake and nod in every passing breath +of wind: here the oleander flourishes with its dark-green glossy foliage +and its beautiful pink blossoms: here tall date-palms rear their stately +heads wherever the hot springs flow. Gorgeous flowers, too, carpet the +ground. Splendid orobanches, some pinkish purple, some bright yellow, grow +in large tufts, each flower-stalk more than three feet high, and covered +with blossoms from the ground upwards. An exquisite rose-coloured geranium +abounds among the stones; and where the soil is a little richer than usual +it is a mass of the night-scented stock, while the crannies of the rocks +are gay with scarlet ranunculus and masses of sorrel and cyclamen. Over +all this luxuriant vegetation flit great butterflies of brilliant hues. +Looking down the far-stretching gorge to its mouth you see in the distance +the purple hills of Judah framed between walls of black basaltic columns +on the one side and of bright red sandstone on the other.(648) + +(M164) Every year in the months of April and May the Arabs resort in +crowds to the glen to benefit by the waters. They take up their quarters +in huts made of the reeds which they cut in the thickets. They bathe in +the steaming water, or allow it to splash on their bodies as it gushes in +a powerful jet from a crevice in the rocks. But before they indulge in +these ablutions, the visitors, both Moslem and Christian, propitiate the +spirit or genius of the place by sacrificing a sheep or goat at the spring +and allowing its red blood to tinge the water. Then they bathe in what +they call the Baths of Solomon. Legend runs that Solomon the Wise made his +bathing-place here, and in order to keep the water always warm he +commanded the jinn never to let the fire die down. The jinn obey his +orders to this day, but sometimes they slacken their efforts, and then the +water runs low and cool. When the bathers perceive that, they say, "O +Solomon, bring green wood, dry wood," and no sooner have they said so than +the water begins to gurgle and steam as before. Sick people tell the saint +or sheikh, who lives invisible in the springs, all about their ailments; +they point out to him the precise spot that is the seat of the malady, it +may be the back, or the head, or the legs; and if the heat of the water +diminishes, they call out, "Thy bath is cold, O sheikh, thy bath is cold!" +whereupon the obliging sheikh stokes up the fire, and out comes the water +boiling. But if in spite of their remonstrances the temperature of the +spring continues low, they say that the sheikh has gone on pilgrimage, and +they shout to him to hasten his return. Barren Moslem women also visit +these hot springs to obtain children, and they do the same at the similar +baths near Kerak. At the latter place a childless woman has been known to +address the spirit of the waters saying, "O sheikh Solomon, I am not yet +an old woman; give me children."(649) The respect thus paid by Arab men +and women to the sheikh Solomon at his hot springs may help us to +understand the worship which at similar spots Greek men and women used to +render to the hero Hercules. As the ideal of manly strength he may have +been deemed the father of many of his worshippers, and Greek wives may +have gone on pilgrimage to his steaming waters in order to obtain the wish +of their hearts. + + + +§ 8. The Worship of Volcanoes in other Lands. + + +(M165) How far these considerations may serve to explain the custom of +burning Hercules, or gods identified with him, in effigy or in the person +of a human being, is a question which deserves to be considered. It might +be more easily answered if we were better acquainted with analogous +customs in other parts of the world, but our information with regard to +the worship of volcanic phenomena in general appears to be very scanty. +However, a few facts may be noted. + +(M166) The largest active crater in the world is Kirauea in Hawaii. It is +a huge cauldron, several miles in circumference and hundreds of feet deep, +the bottom of which is filled with boiling lava in a state of terrific +ebullition; from the red surge rise many black cones or insulated craters +belching columns of grey smoke or pyramids of brilliant flame from their +roaring mouths, while torrents of blazing lava roll down their sides to +flow into the molten, tossing sea of fire below. The scene is especially +impressive by night, when flames of sulphurous blue or metallic red sweep +across the heaving billows of the infernal lake, casting a broad glare on +the jagged sides of the insulated craters, which shoot up eddying streams +of fire with a continuous roar, varied at frequent intervals by loud +detonations, as spherical masses of fusing lava or bright ignited stones +are hurled into the air.(650) It is no wonder that so appalling a +spectacle should have impressed the imagination of the natives and filled +it with ideas of the dreadful beings who inhabit the fiery abyss. They +considered the great crater, we are told, as the primaeval abode of their +volcanic deities: the black cones that rise like islands from the burning +lake appeared to them the houses where the gods often amused themselves by +playing at draughts: the roaring of the furnaces and the crackling of the +flames were the music of their dance; and the red flaming surge was the +surf wherein they played, sportively swimming on the rolling wave.(651) + +(M167) For these fearful divinities they had appropriate names; one was +the King of Steam or Vapour, another the Rain of Night, another the +Husband of Thunder, another the Child of War with a Spear of Fire, another +the Fiery-eyed Canoe-breaker, another the Red-hot Mountain holding or +lifting Clouds, and so on. But above them all was the great goddess Pele. +All were dreaded: they never journeyed on errands of mercy but only to +receive offerings or to execute vengeance; and their arrival in any place +was announced by the convulsive trembling of the earth, by the lurid light +of volcanic eruption, by the flash of lightning, and the clap of thunder. +The whole island was bound to pay them tribute or support their temples +and devotees; and whenever the chiefs or people failed to send the proper +offerings, or incurred their displeasure by insulting them or their +priests or breaking the taboos which should be observed round about the +craters, they filled the huge cauldron on the top of Kirauea with molten +lava, and spouted the fiery liquid on the surrounding country; or they +would march to some of their other houses, which mortals call craters, in +the neighbourhood of the sinners, and rushing forth in a river or column +of fire overwhelm the guilty. If fishermen did not bring them enough fish +from the sea, they would go down, kill all the fish, fill the shoals with +lava, and so destroy the fishing-grounds. Hence, when the volcano was in +active eruption or threatened to break out, the people used to cast vast +numbers of hogs, alive or dead, into the craters or into the rolling +torrent of lava in order to appease the gods and arrest the progress of +the fiery stream.(652) To pluck certain sacred berries, which grow on the +mountain, to dig sand on its slopes, or to throw stones into the crater +were acts particularly offensive to the deities, who would instantly rise +in volumes of smoke, crush the offender under a shower of stones, or so +involve him in thick darkness and rain that he could never find his way +home. However, it was lawful to pluck and eat of the sacred berries, if +only a portion of them were first offered to the goddess Pele. The offerer +would take a branch laden with clusters of the beautiful red and yellow +berries, and standing on the edge of the abyss and looking towards the +place where the smoke rose in densest volumes, he would say, "Pele, here +are your berries: I offer some to you, some I also eat." With that he +would throw some of the berries into the crater and eat the rest.(653) A +kind of brittle volcanic glass, of a dark-olive colour and +semi-transparent, is found on the mountain in the shape of filaments as +fine as human hair; the natives call it the hair of the goddess Pele.(654) +Worshippers used to cast locks of their own hair into the crater of +Kirauea as an offering to the dreadful goddess who dwelt in it. She had +also a temple at the bottom of a valley, where stood a number of rude +stone idols wrapt in white and yellow cloth. Once a year the priests and +devotees of Pele assembled there to perform certain rites and to feast on +hogs, dogs, and fruit, which the pious inhabitants of Hamakua brought to +the holy place in great abundance. This annual festival was intended to +propitiate the volcanic goddess and thereby to secure the country from +earthquakes and floods of molten lava.(655) The goddess of the volcano was +supposed to inspire people, though to the carnal eye the inspiration +resembled intoxication. One of these inspired priestesses solemnly +affirmed to an English missionary that she was the goddess Pele herself +and as such immortal. Assuming a haughty air, she said, "I am Pele; I +shall never die; and those who follow me, when they die, if part of their +bones be taken to Kirauea (the name of the volcano), will live with me in +the bright fires there."(656) For "the worshippers of Pele threw a part of +bones of their dead into the volcano, under the impression that the +spirits of the deceased would then be admitted to the society of the +volcanic deities, and that their influence would preserve the survivors +from the ravages of volcanic fire."(657) + +(M168) This last belief may help to explain a custom, which some peoples +have observed, of throwing human victims into volcanoes. The intention of +such a practice need not be simply to appease the dreadful volcanic +spirits by ministering to their fiendish lust of cruelty; it may be a +notion that the souls of the men or women who have been burnt to death in +the crater will join the host of demons in the fiery furnace, mitigate +their fury, and induce them to spare the works and the life of man. But, +however we may explain the custom, it has been usual in various parts of +the world to throw human beings as well as less precious offerings into +the craters of active volcanoes. Thus the Indians of Nicaragua used to +sacrifice men, women, and children to the active volcano Massaya, flinging +them into the craters: we are told that the victims went willingly to +their fate.(658) In the island of Siao, to the north of Celebes, a child +was formerly sacrificed every year in order to keep the volcano Goowoong +Awoo quiet. The poor wretch was tortured to death at a festival which +lasted nine days. In later times the place of the child has been taken by +a wooden puppet, which is hacked to pieces in the same way. The +Galelareese of Halmahera say that the Sultan of Ternate used annually to +require some human victims, who were cast into the crater of the volcano +to save the island from its ravages.(659) In Java the volcano Bromo or +Bromok is annually worshipped by people who throw offerings of coco-nuts, +plantains, mangoes, rice, chickens, cakes, cloth, money, and so forth into +the crater.(660) To the Tenggereese, an aboriginal heathen tribe +inhabiting the mountains of which Bromo is the central crater, the +festival of making offerings to the volcano is the greatest of the year. +It is held at full moon in the twelfth month, the day being fixed by the +high priest. Each household prepares its offerings the night before. Very +early in the morning the people set out by moonlight for Mount Bromo, men, +women, and children all arrayed in their best. Before they reach the +mountain they must cross a wide sandy plain, where the spirits of the dead +are supposed to dwell until by means of the Festival of the Dead they +obtain admittance to the volcano. It is a remarkable sight to see +thousands of people streaming across the level sands from three different +directions. They have to descend into it from the neighbouring heights, +and the horses break into a gallop when, after the steep descent, they +reach the level. The gay and varied colours of the dresses, the fantastic +costumes of the priests, the offerings borne along, the whole lit up by +the warm beams of the rising sun, lend to the spectacle a peculiar charm. +All assemble at the foot of the crater, where a market is held for +offerings and refreshments. The scene is a lively one, for hundreds of +people must now pay the vows which they made during the year. The priests +sit in a long row on mats, and when the high priest appears the people +pray, saying, "Bromo, we thank thee for all thy gifts and benefits with +which thou ever blessest us, and for which we offer thee our +thank-offerings to-day. Bless us, our children, and our children's +children." The prayers over, the high priest gives a signal, and the whole +multitude arises and climbs the mountain. On reaching the edge of the +crater, the pontiff again blesses the offerings of food, clothes, and +money, which are then thrown into the crater. Yet few of them reach the +spirits for whom they are intended; for a swarm of urchins now scrambles +down into the crater, and at more or less risk to life and limb succeeds +in appropriating the greater part of the offerings. The spirits, defrauded +of their dues, must take the will for the deed.(661) Tradition says that +once in a time of dearth a chief vowed to sacrifice one of his children to +the volcano, if the mountain would bless the people with plenty of food. +His prayer was answered, and he paid his vow by casting his youngest son +as a thank-offering into the crater.(662) + +(M169) On the slope of Mount Smeroe, another active volcano in Java, there +are two small idols, which the natives worship and pray to when they +ascend the mountain. They lay food before the images to obtain the favour +of the god of the volcano.(663) In antiquity people cast into the craters +of Etna vessels of gold and silver and all kinds of victims. If the fire +swallowed up the offerings, the omen was good; but if it rejected them, +some evil was sure to befall the offerer.(664) + +(M170) These examples suggest that a custom of burning men or images may +possibly be derived from a practice of throwing them into the craters of +active volcanoes in order to appease the dreaded spirits or gods who dwell +there. But unless we reckon the fires of Mount Argaeus in Cappadocia(665) +and of Mount Chimaera in Lycia,(666) there is apparently no record of any +mountain in Western Asia which has been in eruption within historical +times. On the whole, then, we conclude that the Asiatic custom of burning +kings or gods was probably in no way connected with volcanic phenomena. +Yet it was perhaps worth while to raise the question of the connexion, +even though it has received only a negative answer. The whole subject of +the influence which physical environment has exercised on the history of +religion deserves to be studied with more attention than it has yet +received.(667) + + + + +Chapter IX. The Ritual of Adonis. + + +(M171) Thus far we have dealt with the myth of Adonis and the legends +which associated him with Byblus and Paphos. A discussion of these legends +led us to the conclusion that among Semitic peoples in early times, +Adonis, the divine lord of the city, was often personated by priestly +kings or other members of the royal family, and that these his human +representatives were of old put to death, whether periodically or +occasionally, in their divine character. Further, we found that certain +traditions and monuments of Asia Minor seem to preserve traces of a +similar practice. As time went on, the cruel custom was apparently +mitigated in various ways; for example, by substituting an effigy or an +animal for the man, or by allowing the destined victim to escape with a +merely make-believe sacrifice. The evidence of all this is drawn from a +variety of scattered and often ambiguous indications: it is fragmentary, +it is uncertain, and the conclusions built upon it inevitably partake of +the weakness of the foundation. Where the records are so imperfect, as +they happen to be in this branch of our subject, the element of hypothesis +must enter largely into any attempt to piece together and interpret the +disjointed facts. How far the interpretations here proposed are sound, I +leave to future inquiries to determine. + +(M172) From dim regions of the past, where we have had to grope our way +with small help from the lamp of history, it is a relief to pass to those +later periods of classical antiquity on which contemporary Greek writers +have shed the light of their clear intelligence. To them we owe almost all +that we know for certain about the rites of Adonis. The Semites who +practised the worship have said little about it; at all events little that +they said has come down to us. Accordingly, the following account of the +ritual is derived mainly from Greek authors who saw what they describe; +and it applies to ages in which the growth of humane feeling had softened +some of the harsher features of the worship. + +(M173) At the festivals of Adonis, which were held in Western Asia and in +Greek lands, the death of the god was annually mourned, with a bitter +wailing, chiefly by women; images of him, dressed to resemble corpses, +were carried out as to burial and then thrown into the sea or into +springs;(668) and in some places his revival was celebrated on the +following day.(669) But at different places the ceremonies varied somewhat +in the manner and apparently also in the season of their celebration. At +Alexandria images of Aphrodite and Adonis were displayed on two couches; +beside them were set ripe fruits of all kinds, cakes, plants growing in +flower-pots, and green bowers twined with anise. The marriage of the +lovers was celebrated one day, and on the morrow women attired as +mourners, with streaming hair and bared breasts, bore the image of the +dead Adonis to the sea-shore and committed it to the waves. Yet they +sorrowed not without hope, for they sang that the lost one would come back +again.(670) The date at which this Alexandrian ceremony was observed is +not expressly stated; but from the mention of the ripe fruits it has been +inferred that it took place in late summer.(671) In the great Phoenician +sanctuary of Astarte at Byblus the death of Adonis was annually mourned, +to the shrill wailing notes of the flute, with weeping, lamentation, and +beating of the breast; but next day he was believed to come to life again +and ascend up to heaven in the presence of his worshippers. The +disconsolate believers, left behind on earth, shaved their heads as the +Egyptians did on the death of the divine bull Apis; women who could not +bring themselves to sacrifice their beautiful tresses had to give +themselves up to strangers on a certain day of the festival, and to +dedicate to Astarte the wages of their shame.(672) + +(M174) This Phoenician festival appears to have been a vernal one, for its +date was determined by the discoloration of the river Adonis, and this has +been observed by modern travellers to occur in spring. At that season the +red earth washed down from the mountains by the rain tinges the water of +the river, and even the sea, for a great way with a blood-red hue, and the +crimson stain was believed to be the blood of Adonis, annually wounded to +death by the boar on Mount Lebanon.(673) Again, the scarlet anemone is +said to have sprung from the blood of Adonis, or to have been stained by +it;(674) and as the anemone blooms in Syria about Easter, this may be +thought to show that the festival of Adonis, or at least one of his +festivals, was held in spring. The name of the flower is probably derived +from Naaman ("darling"), which seems to have been an epithet of Adonis. +The Arabs still call the anemone "wounds of the Naaman."(675) The red rose +also was said to owe its hue to the same sad occasion; for Aphrodite, +hastening to her wounded lover, trod on a bush of white roses; the cruel +thorns tore her tender flesh, and her sacred blood dyed the white roses +for ever red.(676) It would be idle, perhaps, to lay much weight on +evidence drawn from the calendar of flowers, and in particular to press an +argument so fragile as the bloom of the rose. Yet so far as it counts at +all, the tale which links the damask rose with the death of Adonis points +to a summer rather than to a spring celebration of his passion. In Attica, +certainly, the festival fell at the height of summer. For the fleet which +Athens fitted out against Syracuse, and by the destruction of which her +power was permanently crippled, sailed at midsummer, and by an ominous +coincidence the sombre rites of Adonis were being celebrated at the very +time. As the troops marched down to the harbour to embark, the streets +through which they passed were lined with coffins and corpse-like +effigies, and the air was rent with the noise of women wailing for the +dead Adonis. The circumstance cast a gloom over the sailing of the most +splendid armament that Athens ever sent to sea.(677) Many ages afterwards, +when the Emperor Julian made his first entry into Antioch, he found in +like manner the gay, the luxurious capital of the East plunged in mimic +grief for the annual death of Adonis: and if he had any presentiment of +coming evil, the voices of lamentation which struck upon his ear must have +seemed to sound his knell.(678) + +(M175) The resemblance of these ceremonies to the Indian and European +ceremonies which I have described elsewhere is obvious. In particular, +apart from the somewhat doubtful date of its celebration, the Alexandrian +ceremony is almost identical with the Indian.(679) In both of them the +marriage of two divine beings, whose affinity with vegetation seems +indicated by the fresh plants with which they are surrounded, is +celebrated in effigy, and the effigies are afterwards mourned over and +thrown into the water.(680) From the similarity of these customs to each +other and to the spring and midsummer customs of modern Europe we should +naturally expect that they all admit of a common explanation. Hence, if +the explanation which I have adopted of the latter is correct, the +ceremony of the death and resurrection of Adonis must also have been a +dramatic representation of the decay and revival of plant life. The +inference thus based on the resemblance of the customs is confirmed by the +following features in the legend and ritual of Adonis. His affinity with +vegetation comes out at once in the common story of his birth. He was said +to have been born from a myrrh-tree, the bark of which bursting, after a +ten month' gestation, allowed the lovely infant to come forth. According +to some, a boar rent the bark with his tusk and so opened a passage for +the babe. A faint rationalistic colour was given to the legend by saying +that his mother was a woman named Myrrh, who had been turned into a +myrrh-tree soon after she had conceived the child.(681) The use of myrrh +as incense at the festival of Adonis may have given rise to the +fable.(682) We have seen that incense was burnt at the corresponding +Babylonian rites,(683) just as it was burnt by the idolatrous Hebrews in +honour of the Queen of Heaven,(684) who was no other than Astarte. Again, +the story that Adonis spent half, or according to others a third, of the +year in the lower world and the rest of it in the upper world,(685) is +explained most simply and naturally by supposing that he represented +vegetation, especially the corn, which lies buried in earth half the year +and reappears above ground the other half. Certainly of the annual +phenomena of nature there is none which suggests so obviously the idea of +death and resurrection as the disappearance and reappearance of vegetation +in autumn and spring. Adonis has been taken for the sun; but there is +nothing in the sun's annual course within the temperate and tropical zones +to suggest that he is dead for half or a third of the year and alive for +the other half or two-thirds. He might, indeed, be conceived as weakened +in winter, but dead he could not be thought to be; his daily reappearance +contradicts the supposition.(686) Within the Arctic Circle, where the sun +annually disappears for a continuous period which varies from twenty-four +hours to six months according to the latitude, his yearly death and +resurrection would certainly be an obvious idea; but no one except the +unfortunate astronomer Bailly(687) has maintained that the Adonis worship +came from the Arctic regions. On the other hand, the annual death and +revival of vegetation is a conception which readily presents itself to men +in every stage of savagery and civilization; and the vastness of the scale +on which this ever-recurring decay and regeneration takes place, together +with man's intimate dependence on it for subsistence, combine to render it +the most impressive annual occurrence in nature, at least within the +temperate zones. It is no wonder that a phenomenon so important, so +striking, and so universal should, by suggesting similar ideas, have given +rise to similar rites in many lands. We may, therefore, accept as probable +an explanation of the Adonis worship which accords so well with the facts +of nature and with the analogy of similar rites in other lands. Moreover, +the explanation is countenanced by a considerable body of opinion amongst +the ancients themselves, who again and again interpreted the dying and +reviving god as the reaped and sprouting grain.(688) + +(M176) The character of Tammuz or Adonis as a corn-spirit comes out +plainly in an account of his festival given by an Arabic writer of the +tenth century. In describing the rites and sacrifices observed at the +different seasons of the year by the heathen Syrians of Harran, he says: +"Tammuz (July). In the middle of this month is the festival of el-Bugat, +that is, of the weeping women, and this is the Ta-uz festival, which is +celebrated in honour of the god Ta-uz. The women bewail him, because his +lord slew him so cruelly, ground his bones in a mill, and then scattered +them to the wind. The women (during this festival) eat nothing which has +been ground in a mill, but limit their diet to steeped wheat, sweet +vetches, dates, raisins, and the like."(689) Ta-uz, who is no other than +Tammuz, is here like Burns's John Barleycorn-- + + + "_They wasted o'er a scorching flame_ + _The marrow of his bones;_ + _But a miller us'd him worst of all--_ + _For he crush'd him between two stones._" + + +This concentration, so to say, of the nature of Adonis upon the cereal +crops is characteristic of the stage of culture reached by his worshippers +in historical times. They had left the nomadic life of the wandering +hunter and herdsman far behind them; for ages they had been settled on the +land, and had depended for their subsistence mainly on the products of +tillage. The berries and roots of the wilderness, the grass of the +pastures, which had been matters of vital importance to their ruder +forefathers, were now of little moment to them: more and more their +thoughts and energies were engrossed by the staple of their life, the +corn; more and more accordingly the propitiation of the deities of +fertility in general and of the corn-spirit in particular tended to become +the central feature of their religion. The aim they set before themselves +in celebrating the rites was thoroughly practical. It was no vague +poetical sentiment which prompted them to hail with joy the rebirth of +vegetation and to mourn its decline. Hunger, felt or feared, was the +mainspring of the worship of Adonis. + +(M177) It has been suggested by Father Lagrange that the mourning for +Adonis was essentially a harvest rite designed to propitiate the corn-god, +who was then either perishing under the sickles of the reapers, or being +trodden to death under the hoofs of the oxen on the threshing-floor. While +the men slew him, the women wept crocodile tears at home to appease his +natural indignation by a show of grief for his death.(690) The theory fits +in well with the dates of the festivals, which fell in spring or summer; +for spring and summer, not autumn, are the seasons of the barley and wheat +harvests in the lands which, worshipped Adonis.(691) Further, the +hypothesis is confirmed by the practice of the Egyptian reapers, who +lamented, calling upon Isis, when they cut the first corn;(692) and it is +recommended by the analogous customs of many hunting tribes, who testify +great respect for the animals which they kill and eat.(693) + +(M178) Thus interpreted the death of Adonis is not the natural decay of +vegetation in general under the summer heat or the winter cold; it is the +violent destruction of the corn by man, who cuts it down on the field, +stamps it to pieces on the threshing-floor, and grinds it to powder in the +mill. That this was indeed the principal aspect in which Adonis presented +himself in later times to the agricultural peoples of the Levant, may be +admitted; but whether from the beginning he had been the corn and nothing +but the corn, may be doubted. At an earlier period he may have been to the +herdsman, above all, the tender herbage which sprouts after rain, offering +rich pasture to the lean and hungry cattle. Earlier still he may have +embodied the spirit of the nuts and berries which the autumn woods yield +to the savage hunter and his squaw. And just as the husbandman must +propitiate the spirit of the corn which he consumes, so the herdsman must +appease the spirit of the grass and leaves which his cattle munch, and the +hunter must soothe the spirit of the roots which he digs, and of the +fruits which he gathers from the bough. In all cases the propitiation of +the injured and angry sprite would naturally comprise elaborate excuses +and apologies, accompanied by loud lamentations at his decease whenever, +through some deplorable accident or necessity, he happened to be murdered +as well as robbed. Only we must bear in mind that the savage hunter and +herdsman of those early days had probably not yet attained to the abstract +idea of vegetation in general; and that accordingly, so far as Adonis +existed for them at all, he must have been the _Adon_ or lord of each +individual tree and plant rather than a personification of vegetable life +as a whole. Thus there would be as many Adonises as there were trees and +shrubs, and each of them might expect to receive satisfaction for any +damage done to his person or property. And year by year, when the trees +were deciduous, every Adonis would seem to bleed to death with the red +leaves of autumn and to come to life again with the fresh green of spring. + +(M179) We have seen reason to think that in early times Adonis was +sometimes personated by a living man who died a violent death in the +character of the god. Further, there is evidence which goes to show that +among the agricultural peoples of the Eastern Mediterranean, the +corn-spirit, by whatever name he was known, was often represented, year by +year, by human victims slain on the harvest-field.(694) If that was so, it +seems likely that the propitiation of the corn-spirit would tend to fuse +to some extent with the worship of the dead. For the spirits of these +victims might be thought to return to life in the ears which they had +fattened with their blood, and to die a second death at the reaping of the +corn. Now the ghosts of those who have perished by violence are surly and +apt to wreak their vengeance on their slayers whenever an opportunity +offers. Hence the attempt to appease the souls of the slaughtered victims +would naturally blend, at least in the popular conception, with the +attempt to pacify the slain corn-spirit. And as the dead came back in the +sprouting corn, so they might be thought to return in the spring flowers, +waked from their long sleep by the soft vernal airs. They had been laid to +their rest under the sod. What more natural than to imagine that the +violets and the hyacinths, the roses and the anemones, sprang from their +dust, were empurpled or incarnadined by their blood, and contained some +portion of their spirit? + + + "_I sometimes think that never blows so red_ + _The Rose as where some buried Caesar bled;_ + _That every Hyacinth the Garden wears_ + _Dropt in her Lap from some once lovely Head._ + + "_And this reviving Herb whose tender Green_ + _Fledges the River-Lip on which we lean--_ + _Ah, lean upon it lightly, for who knows_ + _From what once lovely Lip it springs unseen?_" + + +(M180) In the summer after the battle of Landen, the most sanguinary +battle of the seventeenth century in Europe, the earth, saturated with the +blood of twenty thousand slain, broke forth into millions of poppies, and +the traveller who passed that vast sheet of scarlet might well fancy that +the earth had indeed given up her dead.(695) At Athens the great +Commemoration of the Dead fell in spring about the middle of March, when +the early flowers are in bloom. Then the dead were believed to rise from +their graves and go about the streets, vainly endeavoring to enter the +temples and the dwellings, which were barred against these perturbed +spirits with ropes, buckthorn, and pitch. The name of the festival, +according to the most obvious and natural interpretation, means the +Festival of Flowers, and the title would fit well with the substance of +the ceremonies if at that season the poor ghosts were indeed thought to +creep from the narrow house with the opening flowers.(696) There may +therefore be a measure of truth in the theory of Renan, who saw in the +Adonis worship a dreamy voluptuous cult of death, conceived not as the +King of Terrors, but as an insidious enchanter who lures his victims to +himself and lulls them into an eternal sleep. The infinite charm of nature +in the Lebanon, he thought, lends itself to religious emotions of this +sensuous, visionary sort, hovering vaguely between pain and pleasure, +between slumber and tears.(697) It would doubtless be a mistake to +attribute to Syrian peasants the worship of a conception so purely +abstract as that of death in general. Yet it may be true that in their +simple minds the thought of the reviving spirit of vegetation was blent +with the very concrete notion of the ghosts of the dead, who come to life +again in spring days with the early flowers, with the tender green of the +corn and the many-tinted blossoms of the trees. Thus their views of the +death and resurrection of nature would be coloured by their views of the +death and resurrection of man, by their personal sorrows and hopes and +fears. In like manner we cannot doubt that Renan's theory of Adonis was +itself deeply tinged by passionate memories, memories of the slumber akin +to death which sealed his own eyes on the slopes of the Lebanon, memories +of the sister who sleeps in the land of Adonis never again to wake with +the anemones and the roses. + + + + +Chapter X. The Gardens of Adonis. + + +(M181) Perhaps the best proof that Adonis was a deity of vegetation, and +especially of the corn, is furnished by the gardens of Adonis, as they +were called. These were baskets or pots filled with earth, in which wheat, +barley, lettuces, fennel, and various kinds of flowers were sown and +tended for eight days, chiefly or exclusively by women. Fostered by the +sun's heat, the plants shot up rapidly, but having no root they withered +as rapidly away, and at the end of eight days were carried out with the +images of the dead Adonis, and flung with them into the sea or into +springs.(698) + +(M182) These gardens of Adonis are most naturally interpreted as +representatives of Adonis or manifestations of his power; they represented +him, true to his original nature, in vegetable form, while the images of +him, with which they were carried out and cast into the water, portrayed +him in his later human shape. All these Adonis ceremonies, if I am right, +were originally intended as charms to promote the growth or revival of +vegetation; and the principle by which they were supposed to produce this +effect was homoeopathic or imitative magic. For ignorant people suppose +that by mimicking the effect which they desire to produce they actually +help to produce it; thus by sprinkling water they make rain, by lighting a +fire they make sunshine, and so on. Similarly, by mimicking the growth of +crops they hope to ensure a good harvest. The rapid growth of the wheat +and barley in the gardens of Adonis was intended to make the corn shoot +up; and the throwing of the gardens and of the images into the water was a +charm to secure a due supply of fertilizing rain.(699) The same, I take +it, was the object of throwing the effigies of Death and the Carnival into +water in the corresponding ceremonies of modern Europe.(700) Certainly the +custom of drenching with water a leaf-clad person, who undoubtedly +personifies vegetation, is still resorted to in Europe for the express +purpose of producing rain.(701) Similarly the custom of throwing water on +the last corn cut at harvest, or on the person who brings it home (a +custom observed in Germany and France, and till quite lately in England +and Scotland), is in some places practised with the avowed intent to +procure rain for the next year's crops. Thus in Wallachia and amongst the +Roumanians in Transylvania, when a girl is bringing home a crown made of +the last ears of corn cut at harvest, all who meet her hasten to throw +water on her, and two farm-servants are placed at the door for the +purpose; for they believe that if this were not done, the crops next year +would perish from drought.(702) So amongst the Saxons of Transylvania, the +person who wears the wreath made of the last corn cut is drenched with +water to the skin; for the wetter he is, the better will be next year's +harvest, and the more grain there will be threashed out. Sometimes the +wearer of the wreath is the reaper who cut the last corn.(703) In Northern +Euboea, when the corn-sheaves have been piled in a stack, the farmer's +wife brings a pitcher of water and offers it to each of the labourers that +he may wash his hands. Every man, after he has washed his hands, sprinkles +water on the corn and on the threshing-floor, expressing at the same time +a wish that the corn may last long. Lastly, the farmer's wife holds the +pitcher slantingly and runs at full speed round the stack without spilling +a drop, while she utters a wish that the stack may endure as long as the +circle she has just described.(704) At the spring ploughing in Prussia, +when the ploughmen and sowers returned in the evening from their work in +the fields, the farmer's wife and the servants used to splash water over +them. The ploughmen and sowers retorted by seizing every one, throwing +them into the pond, and ducking them under the water. The farmer's wife +might claim exemption on payment of a forfeit, but every one else had to +be ducked. By observing this custom they hoped to ensure a due supply of +rain for the seed.(705) Also after harvest in Prussia, the person who wore +a wreath made of the last corn cut was drenched with water, while a prayer +was uttered that "as the corn had sprung up and multiplied through the +water, so it might spring up and multiply in the barn and granary."(706) +At Schlanow, in Brandenburg, when the sowers return home from the first +sowing they are drenched with water "in order that the corn may +grow."(707) In Anhalt on the same occasion the farmer is still often +sprinkled with water by his family; and his men and horses, and even the +plough, receive the same treatment. The object of the custom, as people at +Arensdorf explained it, is "to wish fertility to the fields for the whole +year."(708) So in Hesse, when the ploughmen return with the plough from +the field for the first time, the women and girls lie in wait for them and +slyly drench them with water.(709) Near Naaburg, in Bavaria, the man who +first comes back from sowing or ploughing has a vessel of water thrown +over him by some one in hiding.(710) At Hettingen in Baden the farmer who +is about to begin the sowing of oats is sprinkled with water, in order +that the oats may not shrivel up.(711) Before the Tusayan Indians of North +America go out to plant their fields, the women sometimes pour water on +them; the reason for doing so is that "as the water is poured on the men, +so may water fall on the planted fields."(712) The Indians of Santiago +Tepehuacan steep the seed of the maize in water before they sow it, in +order that the god of the waters may bestow on the fields the needed +moisture.(713) + +(M183) The opinion that the gardens of Adonis are essentially charms to +promote the growth of vegetation, especially of the crops, and that they +belong to the same class of customs as those spring and midsummer +folk-customs of modern Europe which I have described elsewhere,(714) does +not rest for its evidence merely on the intrinsic probability of the case. +Fortunately we are able to show that gardens of Adonis (if we may use the +expression in a general sense) are still planted, first, by a primitive +race at their sowing season, and, second, by European peasants at +midsummer. Amongst the Oraons and Mundas of Bengal, when the time comes +for planting out the rice which has been grown in seed-beds, a party of +young people of both sexes go to the forest and cut a young Karma-tree, or +the branch of one. Bearing it in triumph they return dancing, singing, and +beating drums, and plant it in the middle of the village dancing-ground. A +sacrifice is offered to the tree; and next morning the youth of both +sexes, linked arm-in-arm, dance in a great circle round the Karma-tree, +which is decked with strips of coloured cloth and sham bracelets and +necklets of plaited straw. As a preparation for the festival, the +daughters of the headman of the village cultivate blades of barley in a +peculiar way. The seed is sown in moist, sandy soil, mixed with turmeric, +and the blades sprout and unfold of a pale-yellow or primrose colour. On +the day of the festival the girls take up these blades and carry them in +baskets to the dancing-ground, where, prostrating themselves +reverentially, they place some of the plants before the Karma-tree. +Finally, the Karma-tree is taken away and thrown into a stream or +tank.(715) The meaning of planting these barley blades and then presenting +them to the Karma-tree is hardly open to question. Trees are supposed to +exercise a quickening influence upon the growth of crops, and amongst the +very people in question--the Mundas or Mundaris--"the grove deities are held +responsible for the crops."(716) Therefore, when at the season for +planting out the rice the Mundas bring in a tree and treat it with so much +respect, their object can only be to foster thereby the growth of the rice +which is about to be planted out; and the custom of causing barley blades +to sprout rapidly and then presenting them to the tree must be intended to +subserve the same purpose, perhaps by reminding the tree-spirit of his +duty towards the crops, and stimulating his activity by this visible +example of rapid vegetable growth. The throwing of the Karma-tree into the +water is to be interpreted as a rain-charm. Whether the barley blades are +also thrown into the water is not said; but if my interpretation of the +custom is right, probably they are so. A distinction between this Bengal +custom and the Greek rites of Adonis is that in the former the tree-spirit +appears in his original form as a tree; whereas in the Adonis worship he +appears in human form, represented as a dead man, though his vegetable +nature is indicated by the gardens of Adonis, which are, so to say, a +secondary manifestation of his original power as a tree-spirit. + +(M184) Gardens of Adonis are cultivated also by the Hindoos, with the +intention apparently of ensuring the fertility both of the earth and of +mankind. Thus at Oodeypoor in Rajputana a festival is held "in honour of +Gouri, or Isani, the goddess of abundance, the Isis of Egypt, the Ceres of +Greece. Like the Rajpoot Saturnalia, which it follows, it belongs to the +vernal equinox, when nature in these regions proximate to the tropic is in +the full expanse of her charms, and the matronly Gouri casts her golden +mantle over the verdant Vassanti, personification of spring. Then the +fruits exhibit their promise to the eye; the kohil fills the ear with +melody; the air is impregnated with aroma, and the crimson poppy contrasts +with the spikes of golden grain to form a wreath for the beneficent Gouri. +Gouri is one of the names of Isa or Parvati, wife of the greatest of the +gods, Mahadeva or Iswara, who is conjoined with her in these rites, which +almost exclusively appertain to the women. The meaning of _gouri_ is +'yellow,' emblematic of the ripened harvest, when the votaries of the +goddess adore her effigies, which are those of a matron painted the colour +of ripe corn." The rites begin when the sun enters the sign of the Ram, +the opening of the Hindoo year. An image of the goddess Gouri is made of +earth, and a smaller one of her husband Iswara, and the two are placed +together. A small trench is next dug, barley is sown in it, and the ground +watered and heated artificially till the grain sprouts, when the women +dance round it hand in hand, invoking the blessing of Gouri on their +husbands. After that the young corn is taken up and distributed by the +women to the men, who wear it in their turbans. Every wealthy family, or +at least every subdivision of the city, has its own image. These and other +rites, known only to the initiated, occupy several days, and are performed +within doors. Then the images of the goddess and her husband are decorated +and borne in procession to a beautiful lake, whose deep blue waters mirror +the cloudless Indian sky, marble palaces, and orange groves. Here the +women, their hair decked with roses and jessamine carry the image of Gouri +down a marble staircase to the water's edge, and dance round it singing +hymns and love-songs. Meantime the goddess is supposed to bathe in the +water. No men take part in the ceremony; even the image of Iswara, the +husband-god, attracts little attention.(717) In these rites the +distribution of the barley shoots to the men, and the invocation of a +blessing on their husbands by the wives, point clearly to the desire of +offspring as one motive for observing the custom. The same motive probably +explains the use of gardens of Adonis at the marriage of Brahmans in the +Madras Presidency. Seeds of five or nine sorts are mixed and sown in +earthen pots, which are made specially for the purpose and are filled with +earth. Bride and bridegroom water the seeds both morning and evening for +four days; and on the fifth day the seedlings are thrown, like the real +gardens of Adonis, into a tank or river.(718) + +(M185) In the Himalayan districts of North-Western India the cultivators +sow barley, maize, pulse, or mustard in a basket of earth on the +twenty-fourth day of the fourth month (_Asarh_), which falls about the +middle of July. Then on the last day of the month they place amidst the +new sprouts small clay images of Mahadeo and Parvati and worship them in +remembrance of the marriage of those deities. Next day they cut down the +green stalks and wear them in their head-dress.(719) Similar is the barley +feast known as Jayi or Jawara in Upper India and as Bhujariya in the +Central Provinces. On the seventh day of the light half of the month Sawan +grains of barley are sown in a pot of manure, and spring up so quickly +that by the end of the month the vessel is full of long, yellowish-green +stalks. On the first day of the next month, Bhadon, the women and girls +take the stalks out, throw the earth and manure into water, and distribute +the plants among their male friends, who bind them in their turbans and +about their dress.(720) At Sargal in the Central Provinces of India this +ceremony is observed about the middle of September. None but women may +take part in it, though crowds of men come to look on. Some little time +before the festival wheat or other grain has been sown in pots ingeniously +constructed of large leaves, which are held together by the thorns of a +species of acacia. Having grown up in the dark, the stalks are of a pale +colour. On the day appointed these gardens of Adonis, as we may call them, +are carried towards a lake which abuts on the native city. The women of +every family or circle of friends bring their own pots, and having laid +them on the ground they dance round them. Then taking the pots of +sprouting corn they descend to the edge of the water, wash the soil away +from the pots, and distribute the young plants among their friends.(721) +At the temple of the goddess Padmavati, near Pandharpur in the Bombay +Presidency, a Nine Nights' festival is held in the bright half of the +month Ashvin (September-October). At this time a bamboo frame is hung in +front of the image, and from it depend garlands of flowers and strings of +wheaten cakes. Under the frame the floor in front of the pedestal is +strewn with a layer of earth in which wheat is sown and allowed to +sprout.(722) A similar rite is observed in the same month before the +images of two other goddesses, Ambabai and Lakhubai, who also have temples +at Pandharpur.(723) + +(M186) In some parts of Bavaria it is customary to sow flax in a pot on +the last three days of the Carnival; from the seed which grows best an +omen is drawn as to whether the early, the middle, or the late sowing will +produce the best crop.(724) In Sardinia the gardens of Adonis are still +planted in connexion with the great Midsummer festival which bears the +name of St. John. At the end of March or on the first of April a young man +of the village presents himself to a girl, and asks her to be his _comare_ +(gossip or sweetheart), offering to be her _compare_. The invitation is +considered as an honour by the girl's family, and is gladly accepted. At +the end of May the girl makes a pot of the bark of the cork-tree, fills it +with earth, and sows a handful of wheat and barley in it. The pot being +placed in the sun and often watered, the corn sprouts rapidly and has a +good head by Midsummer Eve (St. John's Eve, the twenty-third of June). The +pot is then called _Erme_ or _Nenneri_. On St. John's Day the young man +and the girl, dressed in their best, accompanied by a long retinue and +preceded by children gambolling and frolicking, move in procession to a +church outside the village. Here they break the pot by throwing it against +the door of the church. Then they sit down in a ring on the grass and eat +eggs and herbs to the music of flutes. Wine is mixed in a cup and passed +round, each one drinking as it passes. Then they join hands and sing +"Sweethearts of St. John" (_Compare e comare di San Giovanni_) over and +over again, the flutes playing the while. When they tire of singing they +stand up and dance gaily in a ring till evening. This is the general +Sardinian custom. As practised at Ozieri it has some special features. In +May the pots are made of cork-bark and planted with corn, as already +described. Then on the Eve of St. John the window-sills are draped with +rich cloths, on which the pots are placed, adorned with crimson and blue +silk and ribbons of various colours. On each of the pots they used +formerly to place a statuette or cloth doll dressed as a woman, or a +Priapus-like figure made of paste; but this custom, rigorously forbidden +by the Church, has fallen into disuse. The village swains go about in a +troop to look at the pots and their decorations and to wait for the girls, +who assemble on the public square to celebrate the festival. Here a great +bonfire is kindled, round which they dance and make merry. Those who wish +to be "Sweethearts of St. John" act as follows. The young man stands on +one side of the bonfire and the girl on the other, and they, in a manner, +join hands by each grasping one end of a long stick, which they pass three +times backwards and forwards across the fire, thus thrusting their hands +thrice rapidly into the flames. This seals their relationship to each +other. Dancing and music go on till late at night.(725) The correspondence +of these Sardinian pots of grain to the gardens of Adonis seems complete, +and the images formerly placed in them answer to the images of Adonis +which accompanied his gardens. + +(M187) Customs of the same sort are observed at the same season in Sicily. +Pairs of boys and girls become gossips of St. John on St. John's Day by +drawing each a hair from his or her head and performing various ceremonies +over them. Thus they tie the hairs together and throw them up in the air, +or exchange them over a potsherd, which they afterwards break in two, +preserving each a fragment with pious care. The tie formed in the latter +way is supposed to last for life. In some parts of Sicily the gossips of +St. John present each other with plates of sprouting corn, lentils, and +canary seed, which have been planted forty days before the festival. The +one who receives the plate pulls a stalk of the young plants, binds it +with a ribbon, and preserves it among his or her greatest treasures, +restoring the platter to the giver. At Catania the gossips exchange pots +of basil and great cucumbers; the girls tend the basil, and the thicker it +grows the more it is prized.(726) + +(M188) In these midsummer customs of Sardinia and Sicily it is possible +that, as Mr. R. Wuensch supposes,(727) St. John has replaced Adonis. We +have seen that the rites of Tammuz or Adonis were commonly celebrated +about midsummer; according to Jerome, their date was June.(728) And +besides their date and their similarity in respect of the pots of herbs +and corn, there is another point of affinity between the two festivals, +the heathen and the Christian. In both of them water plays a prominent +part. At his midsummer festival in Babylon the image of Tammuz, whose name +is said to mean "true son of the deep water," was bathed with pure water: +at his summer festival in Alexandria the image of Adonis, with that of his +divine mistress Aphrodite, was committed to the waves; and at the +midsummer celebration in Greece the gardens of Adonis were thrown into the +sea or into springs. Now a great feature of the midsummer festival +associated with the name of St. John is, or used to be, the custom of +bathing in the sea, springs, rivers, or the dew on Midsummer Eve or the +morning of Midsummer Day. Thus, for example, at Naples there is a church +dedicated to St. John the Baptist under the name of St. John of the Sea +(_S. Giovan a mare_); and it was an old practice for men and women to +bathe in the sea on St. John's Eve, that is, on Midsummer Eve, believing +that thus all their sins were washed away.(729) In the Abruzzi water is +still supposed to acquire certain marvellous and beneficent properties on +St. John's Night. They say that on that night the sun and moon bathe in +the water. Hence many people take a bath in the sea or in a river at that +season, especially at the moment of sunrise. At Castiglione a Casauria +they go before sunrise to the Pescara River or to springs, wash their +faces and hands, then gird themselves with twigs of bryony (_vitalba_) and +twine the plant round their brows, in order that they may be free from +pains. At Pescina boys and girls wash each other's faces in a river or a +spring, then exchange kisses, and become gossips. The dew, also, that +falls on St. John's Night is supposed in the Abruzzi to benefit whatever +it touches, whether it be water, flowers, or the human body. For that +reason people put out vessels of water on the window-sills or the +terraces, and wash themselves with the water in the morning in order to +purify themselves and escape headaches and colds. A still more efficacious +mode of accomplishing the same end is to rise at the peep of dawn, to wet +the hands in the dewy grass, and then to rub the moisture on the eyelids, +the brow, and the temples, because the dew is believed to cure maladies of +the head and eyes. It is also a remedy for diseases of the skin. Persons +who are thus afflicted should roll on the dewy grass. When patients are +prevented by their infirmity or any other cause from quitting the house, +their friends will gather the dew in sheets or tablecloths and so apply it +to the suffering part.(730) At Marsala in Sicily there is a spring of +water in a subterranean grotto called the Grotto of the Sibyl. Beside it +stands a church of St. John, which has been supposed to occupy the site of +a temple of Apollo. On St. John's Eve, the twenty-third of June, women and +girls visit the grotto, and by drinking of the prophetic water learn +whether their husbands have been faithful to them in the year that is +past, or whether they themselves will wed in the year that is to come. +Sick people, too, imagine that by bathing in the water, drinking of it, or +ducking thrice in it in the name of the Trinity, they will be made +whole.(731) At Chiaramonte in Sicily the following custom is observed on +St. John's Eve. The men repair to one fountain and the women to another, +and dip their heads thrice in the water, repeating at each ablution +certain verses in honour of St. John. They believe that this is a cure or +preventive of the scald.(732) When Petrarch visited Cologne, he chanced to +arrive in the town on St. John's Eve. The sun was nearly setting, and his +host at once led him to the Rhine. A strange sight there met his eyes, for +the banks of the river were covered with pretty women. The crowd was great +but good-humoured. From a rising ground on which he stood the poet saw +many of the women, girt with fragrant herbs, kneel down on the water's +edge, roll their sleeves up above their elbows, and wash their white arms +and hands in the river, murmuring softly some words which the Italian did +not understand. He was told that the custom was a very old one, much +honoured in the observance; for the common folk, especially the women, +believed that to wash in the river on St. John's Eve would avert every +misfortune in the coming year.(733) On St. John's Eve the people of +Copenhagen used to go on pilgrimage to a neighbouring spring, there to +heal and strengthen themselves in the water.(734) In Spain people still +bathe in the sea or roll naked in the dew of the meadows on St. John's +Eve, believing that this is a sovereign preservative against diseases of +the skin.(735) To roll in the dew on the morning of St. John's Day is also +esteemed a cure for diseases of the skin in Normandy and Perigord. In +Perigord a field of hemp is especially recommended for the purpose, and +the patient should rub himself with the plants on which he has +rolled.(736) At Ciotat in Provence, while the midsummer bonfire blazed, +young people used to plunge into the sea and splash each other vigorously. +At Vitrolles they bathed in a pond in order that they might not suffer +from fever during the year, and at Saint-Maries they watered the horses to +protect them from the itch.(737) A custom of drenching people on this +occasion with water formerly prevailed in Toulon, Marseilles, and other +towns of the south of France. The water was squirted from syringes, poured +on the heads of passers-by from windows, and so forth.(738) From Europe +the practice of bathing in rivers and springs on St. John's Day appears to +have passed with the Spaniards to the New World.(739) + +(M189) It may perhaps be suggested that this wide-spread custom of bathing +in water or dew on Midsummer Eve or Midsummer Day is purely Christian in +origin, having been adopted as an appropriate mode of celebrating the day +dedicated to the Baptist. But in point of fact the custom is older than +Christianity, for it was denounced and forbidden as a heathen practice by +Augustine,(740) and to this day it is practised at midsummer by the +Mohammedan peoples of North Africa.(741) We may conjecture that the +Church, unable to put down this relic of paganism, followed its usual +policy of accommodation by bestowing on the rite of a Christian name and +acquiescing, with a sigh, in its observance. And casting about for a saint +to supplant a heathen patron of bathing, the Christian doctors could +hardly have hit upon a more appropriate successor than St. John the +Baptist. + +(M190) But into whose shoes did the Baptist step? Was the displaced deity +really Adonis, as the foregoing evidence seems to suggest? In Sardinia and +Sicily it may have been so, for in these islands Semitic influence was +certainly deep and probably lasting. The midsummer pastimes of Sardinian +and Sicilian children may therefore be a direct continuation of the +Carthaginian rites of Tammuz. Yet the midsummer festival seems too widely +spread and too deeply rooted in Central and Northern Europe to allow us to +trace it everywhere to an Oriental origin in general and to the cult of +Adonis in particular. It has the air of a native of the soil rather than +of an exotic imported from the East. We shall do better, therefore, to +suppose that at a remote period similar modes of thought, based on similar +needs, led men independently in many distant lands, from the North Sea to +the Euphrates, to celebrate the summer solstice with rites which, while +they differed in some things, yet agreed closely in others; that in +historical times a wave of Oriental influence, starting perhaps from +Babylonia, carried the Tammuz or Adonis form of the festival westward till +it met with native forms of a similar festival; and that under pressure of +the Roman civilization these different yet kindred festivals fused with +each other and crystallized into a variety of shapes, which subsisted more +or less separately side by side, till the Church, unable to suppress them +altogether, stripped them so far as it could of their grosser features, +and dexterously changing the names allowed them to pass muster as +Christian. And what has just been said of the midsummer festivals probably +applies, with the necessary modifications, to the spring festivals also. +They, too, seem to have originated independently in Europe and the East, +and after ages of separation to have amalgamated under the sway of the +Roman Empire and the Christian Church. In Syria, as we have seen, there +appears to have been a vernal celebration of Adonis; and we shall +presently meet with an undoubted instance of an Oriental festival of +spring in the rites of Attis. Meantime we must return for a little to the +midsummer festival which goes by the name of St. John. + +(M191) The Sardinian practice of making merry round a great bonfire on St. +John's Eve is an instance of a custom which has been practised at the +midsummer festival from time immemorial in many parts of Europe. That +custom has been more fully dealt with by me elsewhere.(742) The instances +which I have cited in other parts of this work seem to indicate a +connexion of the midsummer bonfire with vegetation. For example, both in +Sweden and Bohemia an essential part of the festival is the raising of a +May-pole or Midsummer-tree, which in Bohemia is burned in the +bonfire.(743) Again, in a Russian midsummer ceremony a straw figure of +Kupalo, the representative of vegetation, is placed beside a May-pole or +Midsummer-tree and then carried to and fro across a bonfire.(744) Kupalo +is here represented in duplicate, in tree-form by the Midsummer-tree, and +in human form by the straw effigy, just as Adonis was represented both by +an image and a garden of Adonis; and the duplicate representatives of +Kupalo, like those of Adonis, are finally cast into water. In the +Sardinian and Sicilian customs the Gossips or Sweethearts of St. John +probably answer, on the one hand to Adonis and Astarte, on the other to +the King and Queen of May. In the Swedish province of Blekinge part of the +midsummer festival is the election of a Midsummer Bride, who chooses her +bridegroom; a collection is made for the pair, who for the time being are +looked upon as man and wife.(745) Such Midsummer pairs may be supposed, +like the May pairs, to stand for the powers of vegetation or of fertility +in general: they represent in flesh and blood what the images of Siva or +Mahadeo and Parvati in the Indian ceremonies, and the images of Adonis and +Aphrodite in the Alexandrian ceremony, set forth in effigy. + +(M192) The reason why ceremonies whose aim is to foster the growth of +vegetation should thus be associated with bonfires; why in particular the +representative of vegetation should be burned in the likeness of a tree, +or passed across the fire in effigy or in the form of a living couple, has +been discussed by me elsewhere.(746) Here it is enough to have adduced +evidence of such association, and therefore to have obviated the objection +which might have been raised to my theory of the Sardinian custom, on the +ground that the bonfires have nothing to do with vegetation. One more +piece of evidence may here be given to prove the contrary. In some parts +of Germany and Austria young men and girls leap over midsummer bonfires +for the express purpose of making the hemp or flax grow tall.(747) We may, +therefore, assume that in the Sardinian custom the blades of wheat and +barley which are forced on in pots for the midsummer festival, and which +correspond so closely to the gardens of Adonis, form one of those +widely-spread midsummer ceremonies, the original object of which was to +promote the growth of vegetation, and especially of the crops. But as, by +an easy extension of ideas, the spirit of vegetation was believed to +exercise a beneficent and fertilizing influence on human as well as animal +life, the gardens of Adonis would be supposed, like the May-trees or +May-boughs, to bring good luck, and more particularly perhaps +offspring,(748) to the family or to the person who planted them; and even +after the idea had been abandoned that they operated actively to confer +prosperity, they might still be used to furnish omens of good or evil. It +is thus that magic dwindles into divination. Accordingly we find modes of +divination practised at midsummer which resemble more or less closely the +gardens of Adonis. Thus an anonymous Italian writer of the sixteenth +century has recorded that it was customary to sow barley and wheat a few +days before the festival of St. John (Midsummer Day) and also before that +of St. Vitus; and it was believed that the person for whom they were sown +would be fortunate, and get a good husband or a good wife, if the grain +sprouted well; but if it sprouted ill, he or she would be unlucky.(749) In +various parts of Italy and all over Sicily it is still customary to put +plants in water or in earth on the Eve of St. John, and from the manner in +which they are found to be blooming or fading on St. John's Day omens are +drawn, especially as to fortune in love. Amongst the plants used for this +purpose are _Ciuri di S. Giuvanni_ (St. John's wort?) and nettles.(750) In +Prussia two hundred years ago the farmers used to send out their servants, +especially their maids, to gather St. John's wort on Midsummer Eve or +Midsummer Day (St. John's Day). When they had fetched it, the farmer took +as many plants as there were persons and stuck them in the wall or between +the beams; and it was thought that he or she whose plant did not bloom +would soon fall sick or die. The rest of the plants were tied in a bundle, +fastened to the end of a pole, and set up at the gate or wherever the corn +would be brought in at the next harvest. The bundle was called _Kupole_: +the ceremony was known as Kupole's festival; and at it the farmer prayed +for a good crop of hay, and so forth.(751) This Prussian custom is +particularly notable, inasmuch as it strongly confirms the opinion that +Kupalo (doubtless identical with Kupole) was originally a deity of +vegetation.(752) For here Kupalo is represented by a bundle of plants +specially associated with midsummer in folk-custom; and her influence over +vegetation is plainly signified by placing her vegetable emblem over the +place where the harvest is brought in, as well as by the prayers for a +good crop which are uttered on the occasion. This furnishes a fresh +argument in support of the view that the Death, whose analogy to Kupalo, +Yarilo, and the rest I have shown elsewhere, originally personified +vegetation, more especially the dying or dead vegetation of winter.(753) +Further, my interpretation of the gardens of Adonis is confirmed by +finding that in this Prussian custom the very same kind of plants is used +to form the gardens of Adonis (as we may call them) and the image of the +deity. Nothing could set in a stronger light the truth of the theory that +the gardens of Adonis are merely another manifestation of the god himself. + +(M193) In Sicily gardens of Adonis are still sown in spring as well as in +summer, from which we may perhaps infer that Sicily as well as Syria +celebrated of old a vernal festival of the dead and risen god. At the +approach of Easter, Sicilian women sow wheat, lentils, and canary-seed in +plates, which they keep in the dark and water every two days. The plants +soon shoot up; the stalks are tied together with red ribbons, and the +plates containing them are placed on the sepulchres which, with the +effigies of the dead Christ, are made up in Catholic and Greek churches on +Good Friday,(754) just as the gardens of Adonis were placed on the grave +of the dead Adonis.(755) The practice is not confined to Sicily, for it is +observed also at Cosenza in Calabria,(756) and perhaps in other places. +The whole custom--sepulchres as well as plates of sprouting grain--may be +nothing but a continuation, under a different name, of the worship of +Adonis. + +(M194) Nor are these Sicilian and Calabrian customs the only Easter +ceremonies which resemble the rites of Adonis. "During the whole of Good +Friday a waxen effigy of the dead Christ is exposed to view in the middle +of the Greek churches and is covered with fervent kisses by the thronging +crowd, while the whole church rings with melancholy, monotonous dirges. +Late in the evening, when it has grown quite dark, this waxen image is +carried by the priests into the street on a bier adorned with lemons, +roses, jessamine, and other flowers, and there begins a grand procession +of the multitude, who move in serried ranks, with slow and solemn step, +through the whole town. Every man carries his taper and breaks out into +doleful lamentation. At all the houses which the procession passes there +are seated women with censers to fumigate the marching host. Thus the +community solemnly buries its Christ as if he had just died. At last the +waxen image is again deposited in the church, and the same lugubrious +chants echo anew. These lamentations, accompanied by a strict fast, +continue till midnight on Saturday. As the clock strikes twelve, the +bishop appears and announces the glad tidings that 'Christ is risen,' to +which the crowd replies, 'He is risen indeed,' and at once the whole city +bursts into an uproar of joy, which finds vent in shrieks and shouts, in +the endless discharge of carronades and muskets, and the explosion of +fire-works of every sort. In the very same hour people plunge from the +extremity of the fast into the enjoyment of the Easter lamb and neat +wine."(757) + +(M195) In like manner the Catholic Church has been accustomed to bring +before its followers in a visible form the death and resurrection of the +Redeemer. Such sacred dramas are well fitted to impress the lively +imagination and to stir the warm feelings of a susceptible southern race, +to whom the pomp and pageantry of Catholicism are more congenial than to +the colder temperament of the Teutonic peoples. The solemnities observed +in Sicily on Good Friday, the official anniversary of the Crucifixion, are +thus described by a native Sicilian writer. "A truly moving ceremony is +the procession which always takes place in the evening in every commune of +Sicily, and further the Deposition from the Cross. The brotherhoods took +part in the procession, and the rear was brought up by a great many boys +and girls representing saints, both male and female, and carrying the +emblems of Christ's Passion. The Deposition from the Cross was managed by +the priests. The coffin with the dead Christ in it was flanked by Jews +armed with swords, an object of horror and aversion in the midst of the +profound pity excited by the sight not only of Christ but of the Mater +Dolorosa, who followed behind him. Now and then the 'mysteries' or symbols +of the Crucifixion went in front. Sometimes the procession followed the +'three hours of agony' and the 'Deposition from the Cross.' The 'three +hours' commemorated those which Jesus Christ passed upon the Cross. +Beginning at the eighteenth and ending at the twenty-first hour of Italian +time two priests preached alternately on the Passion. Anciently the +sermons were delivered in the open air on the place called the Calvary: at +last, when the third hour was about to strike, at the words _emisit +spiritum_ Christ died, bowing his head amid the sobs and tears of the +bystanders. Immediately afterwards in some places, three hours afterwards +in others, the sacred body was unnailed and deposited in the coffin. In +Castronuovo, at the Ave Maria, two priests clad as Jews, representing +Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus, with their servants in costume, +repaired to the Calvary, preceded by the Company of the Whites. There, +with doleful verses and chants appropriate to the occasion, they performed +the various operations of the Deposition, after which the procession took +its way to the larger church.... In Salaparuta the Calvary is erected in +the church. At the preaching of the death, the Crucified is made to bow +his head by means of machinery, while guns are fired, trumpets sound, and +amid the silence of the people, impressed by the death of the Redeemer, +the strains of a melancholy funeral march are heard. Christ is removed +from the Cross and deposited in the coffin by three priests. After the +procession of the dead Christ the burial is performed, that is, two +priests lay Christ in a fictitious sepulchre, from which at the mass of +Easter Saturday the image of the risen Christ issues and is elevated upon +the altar by means of machinery."(758) Scenic representations of the same +sort, with variations of detail, are exhibited at Easter in the +Abruzzi,(759) and probably in many other parts of the Catholic world.(760) + +(M196) When we reflect how often the Church has skilfully contrived to +plant the seeds of the new faith on the old stock of paganism, we may +surmise that the Easter celebration of the dead and risen Christ was +grafted upon a similar celebration of the dead and risen Adonis, which, as +we have seen reason to believe, was celebrated in Syria at the same +season. The type, created by Greek artists, of the sorrowful goddess with +her dying lover in her arms, resembles and may have been the model of the +_Pieta_ of Christian art, the Virgin with the dead body of her divine Son +in her lap, of which the most celebrated example is the one by Michael +Angelo in St. Peter's. That noble group, in which the living sorrow of the +mother contrasts so wonderfully with the languor of death in the son, is +one of the finest compositions in marble. Ancient Greek art has bequeathed +to us few works so beautiful, and none so pathetic.(761) + +(M197) In this connexion a well-known statement of Jerome may not be +without significance. He tells us that Bethlehem, the traditionary +birthplace of the Lord, was shaded by a grove of that still older Syrian +Lord, Adonis, and that where the infant Jesus had wept, the lover of Venus +was bewailed.(762) Though he does not expressly say so, Jerome seems to +have thought that the grove of Adonis had been planted by the heathen +after the birth of Christ for the purpose of defiling the sacred spot. In +this he may have been mistaken. If Adonis was indeed, as I have argued, +the spirit of the corn, a more suitable name for his dwelling-place could +hardly be found than Bethlehem, "the House of Bread,"(763) and he may well +have been worshipped there at his House of Bread long ages before the +birth of Him who said, "I am the bread of life."(764) Even on the +hypothesis that Adonis followed rather than preceded Christ at Bethlehem, +the choice of his sad figure to divert the allegiance of Christians from +their Lord cannot but strike us as eminently appropriate when we remember +the similarity of the rites which commemorated the death and resurrection +of the two. One of the earliest seats of the worship of the new god was +Antioch, and at Antioch, as we have seen,(765) the death of the old god +was annually celebrated with great solemnity. A circumstance which +attended the entrance of Julian into the city at the time of the Adonis +festival may perhaps throw some light on the date of its celebration. When +the emperor drew near to the city he was received with public prayers as +if he had been a god, and he marvelled at the voices of a great multitude +who cried that the Star of Salvation had dawned upon them in the +East.(766) This may doubtless have been no more than a fulsome compliment +paid by an obsequious Oriental crowd to the Roman emperor. But it is also +possible that the rising of a bright star regularly gave the signal for +the festival, and that as chance would have it the star emerged above the +rim of the eastern horizon at the very moment of the emperor's approach. +The coincidence, if it happened, could hardly fail to strike the +imagination of a superstitious and excited multitude, who might thereupon +hail the great man as the deity whose coming was announced by the sign in +the heavens. Or the emperor may have mistaken for a greeting to himself +the shouts which were addressed to the star. Now Astarte, the divine +mistress of Adonis, was identified with the planet Venus, and her changes +from a morning to an evening star were carefully noted by the Babylonian +astronomers, who drew omens from her alternate appearance and +disappearance.(767) Hence we may conjecture that the festival of Adonis +was regularly timed to coincide with the appearance of Venus as the +Morning or Evening Star. But the star which the people of Antioch saluted +at the festival was seen in the East; therefore, if it was indeed Venus, +it can only have been the Morning Star. At Aphaca in Syria, where there +was a famous temple of Astarte, the signal for the celebration of the +rites was apparently given by the flashing of a meteor, which on a certain +day fell like a star from the top of Mount Lebanon into the river Adonis. +The meteor was thought to be Astarte herself,(768) and its flight through +the air might naturally be interpreted as the descent of the amorous +goddess to the arms of her lover. At Antioch and elsewhere the appearance +of the Morning Star on the day of the festival may in like manner have +been hailed as the coming of the goddess of love to wake her dead leman +from his earthy bed. If that were so, we may surmise that it was the +Morning Star which guided the wise men of the East to Bethlehem,(769) the +hallowed spot which heard, in the language of Jerome, the weeping of the +infant Christ and the lament for Adonis. + + + + + +BOOK SECOND. ATTIS. + + + + +Chapter I. The Myth and Ritual of Attis. + + +(M198) Another of those gods whose supposed death and resurrection struck +such deep roots into the faith and ritual of Western Asia is Attis. He was +to Phrygia what Adonis was to Syria. Like Adonis, he appears to have been +a god of vegetation, and his death and resurrection were annually mourned +and rejoiced over at a festival in spring.(770) The legends and rites of +the two gods were so much alike that the ancients themselves sometimes +identified them.(771) Attis was said to have been a fair young shepherd or +herdsman beloved by Cybele, the Mother of the Gods, a great Asiatic +goddess of fertility, who had her chief home in Phrygia.(772) Some held +that Attis was her son.(773) His birth, like that of many other heroes, is +said to have been miraculous. His mother, Nana, was a virgin, who +conceived by putting a ripe almond or a pomegranate in her bosom. Indeed +in the Phrygian cosmogony an almond figured as the father of all +things,(774) perhaps because its delicate lilac blossom is one of the +first heralds of the spring, appearing on the bare boughs before the +leaves have opened. Such tales of virgin mothers are relics of an age of +childish ignorance when men had not yet recognized the intercourse of the +sexes as the true cause of offspring. That ignorance, still shared by the +lowest of existing savages, the aboriginal tribes of central +Australia,(775) was doubtless at one time universal among mankind. Even in +later times, when people are better acquainted with the laws of nature, +they sometimes imagine that these laws may be subject to exceptions, and +that miraculous beings may be born in miraculous ways by women who have +never known a man. In Palestine to this day it is believed that a woman +may conceive by a jinnee or by the spirit of her dead husband. There is, +or was lately, a man at Nebk who is currently supposed to be the offspring +of such a union, and the simple folk have never suspected his mother's +virtue.(776) Two different accounts of the death of Attis were current. +According to the one he was killed by a boar, like Adonis. According to +the other he unmanned himself under a pine-tree, and bled to death on the +spot. The latter is said to have been the local story told by the people +of Pessinus, a great seat of the worship of Cybele, and the whole legend +of which the story forms a part is stamped with a character of rudeness +and savagery that speaks strongly for its antiquity.(777) Both tales might +claim the support of custom, or rather both were probably invented to +explain certain customs observed by the worshippers. The story of the +self-mutilation of Attis is clearly an attempt to account for the +self-mutilation of his priests, who regularly castrated themselves on +entering the service of the goddess. The story of his death by the boar +may have been told to explain why his worshippers, especially the people +of Pessinus, abstained from eating swine.(778) In like manner the +worshippers of Adonis abstained from pork, because a boar had killed their +god.(779) After his death Attis is said to have been changed into a +pine-tree.(780) + +(M199) The worship of the Phrygian Mother of the Gods was adopted by the +Romans in 204 B.C. towards the close of their long struggle with Hannibal. +For their drooping spirits had been opportunely cheered by a prophecy, +alleged to be drawn from that convenient farrago of nonsense, the +Sibylline Books, that the foreign invader would be driven from Italy if +the great Oriental goddess were brought to Rome. Accordingly ambassadors +were despatched to her sacred city Pessinus in Phrygia. The small black +stone which embodied the mighty divinity was entrusted to them and +conveyed to Rome, where it was received with great respect and installed +in the temple of Victory on the Palatine Hill. It was the middle of April +when the goddess arrived,(781) and she went to work at once. For the +harvest that year was such as had not been seen for many a long day,(782) +and in the very next year Hannibal and his veterans embarked for Africa. +As he looked his last on the coast of Italy, fading behind him in the +distance, he could not foresee that Europe, which had repelled the arms, +would yet yield to the gods, of the Orient. The vanguard of the conquerors +had already encamped in the heart of Italy before the rearguard of the +beaten army fell sullenly back from its shores. + +(M200) We may conjecture, though we are not told, that the Mother of the +Gods brought with her the worship of her youthful lover or son to her new +home in the West. Certainly the Romans were familiar with the Galli, the +emasculated priests of Attis, before the close of the Republic. These +unsexed beings, in their Oriental costume, with little images suspended on +their breasts, appear to have been a familiar sight in the streets of +Rome, which they traversed in procession, carrying the image of the +goddess and chanting their hymns to the music of cymbals and tambourines, +flutes and horns, while the people, impressed by the fantastic show and +moved by the wild strains, flung alms to them in abundance, and buried the +image and its bearers under showers of roses.(783) A further step was +taken by the Emperor Claudius when he incorporated the Phrygian worship of +the sacred tree, and with it probably the orgiastic rites of Attis, in the +established religion of Rome.(784) The great spring festival of Cybele and +Attis is best known to us in the form in which it was celebrated at Rome; +but as we are informed that the Roman ceremonies were also Phrygian,(785) +we may assume that they differed hardly, if at all, from their Asiatic +original. The order of the festival seems to have been as follows.(786) + +(M201) On the twenty-second day of March, a pine-tree was cut in the woods +and brought into the sanctuary of Cybele, where it was treated as a great, +divinity. The duty of carrying the sacred tree was entrusted to a guild of +Tree-bearers. The trunk was swathed like a corpse with woollen bands and +decked with wreaths, of violets, for violets were said to have sprung from +the blood of Attis, as roses and anemones from the blood of Adonis; and +the effigy of a young man, doubtless Attis himself, was tied to the middle +of the stem.(787) On the second day of the festival, the twenty-third of +March, the chief ceremony seems to have been a blowing of trumpets.(788) +The third day, the twenty-fourth of March, was known as the Day of Blood: +the Archigallus or high-priest drew blood from his arms and presented it +as an offering.(789) Nor was he alone in making this bloody sacrifice. +Stirred by the wild barbaric music of clashing cymbals, rumbling drums, +droning horns, and screaming flutes, the inferior clergy whirled about in +the dance with waggling heads and streaming hair, until, rapt into a +frenzy of excitement and insensible to pain, they gashed their bodies with +potsherds or slashed them with knives in order to bespatter the altar and +the sacred tree with their flowing blood.(790) The ghastly rite probably +formed part of the mourning for Attis and may have been intended to +strengthen him for the resurrection. The Australian aborigines cut +themselves in like manner over the graves of their friends for the +purpose, perhaps, of enabling them to be born again.(791) Further, we may +conjecture, though we are not expressly told, that it was on the same Day +of Blood and for the same purpose that the novices sacrificed their +virility. Wrought up to the highest pitch of religious excitement they +dashed the severed portions of themselves against the image of the cruel +goddess. These broken instruments of fertility were afterwards reverently +wrapt up and buried in the earth or in subterranean chambers sacred to +Cybele,(792) where, like the offering of blood, they may have been deemed +instrumental in recalling Attis to life and hastening the general +resurrection of nature, which was then bursting into leaf and blossom in +the vernal sunshine. Some confirmation of this conjecture is furnished by +the savage story that the mother of Attis conceived by putting in her +bosom a pomegranate sprung from the severed genitals of a man-monster +named Agdestis, a sort of double of Attis.(793) + +(M202) If there is any truth in this conjectural explanation of the +custom, we can readily understand why other Asiatic goddesses of fertility +were served in like manner by eunuch priests. These feminine deities +required to receive from their male ministers, who personated the divine +lovers, the means of discharging their beneficent functions: they had +themselves to be impregnated by the life-giving energy before they could +transmit it to the world. Goddesses thus ministered to by eunuch priests +were the great Artemis of Ephesus(794) and the great Syrian Astarte of +Hierapolis,(795) whose sanctuary, frequented by swarms of pilgrims and +enriched by the offerings of Assyria and Babylonia, of Arabia and +Phoenicia, was perhaps in the days of its glory the most popular in the +East.(796) Now the unsexed priests of this Syrian goddess resembled those +of Cybele so closely that some people took them to be the same.(797) And +the mode in which they dedicated themselves to the religious life was +similar. The greatest festival of the year at Hierapolis fell at the +beginning of spring, when multitudes thronged to the sanctuary from Syria +and the regions round about. While the flutes played, the drums beat, and +the eunuch priests slashed themselves with knives, the religious +excitement gradually spread like a wave among the crowd of onlookers, and +many a one did that which he little thought to do when he came as a +holiday spectator to the festival. For man after man, his veins throbbing +with the music, his eyes fascinated by the sight of the streaming blood, +flung his garments from him, leaped forth with a shout, and seizing one of +the swords which stood ready for the purpose, castrated himself on the +spot. Then he ran through the city, holding the bloody pieces in his hand, +till he threw them into one of the houses which he passed in his mad +career. The household thus honoured had to furnish him with a suit of +female attire and female ornaments, which he wore for the rest of his +life.(798) When the tumult of emotion had subsided, and the man had come +to himself again, the irrevocable sacrifice must often have been followed +by passionate sorrow and lifelong regret. This revulsion of natural human +feeling after the frenzies of a fanatical religion is powerfully depicted +by Catullus in a celebrated poem.(799) + +(M203) The parallel of these Syrian devotees confirms the view that in the +similar worship of Cybele the sacrifice of virility took place on the Day +of Blood at the vernal rites of the goddess, when the violets, supposed to +spring from the red drops of her wounded lover, were in bloom among the +pines. Indeed the story that Attis unmanned himself under a pine-tree(800) +was clearly devised to explain why his priests did the same beside the +sacred violet-wreathed tree at his festival. At all events, we can hardly +doubt that the Day of Blood witnessed the mourning for Attis over an +effigy of him which was afterwards buried.(801) The image thus laid in the +sepulchre was probably the same which had hung upon the tree.(802) +Throughout the period of mourning the worshippers fasted from bread, +nominally because Cybele had done so in her grief for the death of +Attis,(803) but really perhaps for the same reason which induced the women +of Harran to abstain from eating anything ground in a mill while they wept +for Tammuz.(804) To partake of bread or flour at such a season might have +been deemed a wanton profanation of the bruised and broken body of the +god. Or the fast may possibly have been a preparation for a sacramental +meal.(805) + +(M204) But when night had fallen, the sorrow of the worshippers was turned +to joy. For suddenly a light shone in the darkness: the tomb was opened: +the god had risen from the dead; and as the priest touched the lips of the +weeping mourners with balm, he softly whispered in their ears the glad +tidings of salvation. The resurrection of the god was hailed by his +disciples as a promise that they too would issue triumphant from the +corruption of the grave.(806) On the morrow, the twenty-fifth day of +March, which was reckoned the vernal equinox, the divine resurrection was +celebrated with a wild outburst of glee. At Rome, and probably elsewhere, +the celebration took the form of a carnival. It was the Festival of Joy +(_Hilaria_). A universal licence prevailed. Every man might say and do +what he pleased. People went about the streets in disguise. No dignity was +too high or too sacred for the humblest citizen to assume with impunity. +In the reign of Commodus a band of conspirators thought to take advantage +of the masquerade by dressing in the uniform of the Imperial Guard, and +so, mingling with the crowd of merrymakers, to get within stabbing +distance of the emperor. But the plot miscarried.(807) Even the stern +Alexander Severus used to relax so far on the joyous day as to admit a +pheasant to his frugal board.(808) The next day, the twenty-sixth of +March, was given to repose, which must have been much needed after the +varied excitements and fatigues of the preceding days.(809) Finally, the +Roman festival closed on the twenty-seventh of March with a procession to +the brook Almo. The silver image of the goddess, with its face of jagged +black stone, sat in a wagon drawn by oxen. Preceded by the nobles walking +barefoot, it moved slowly, to the loud music of pipes and tambourines, out +by the Porta Capena, and so down to the banks of the Almo, which flows +into the Tiber just below the walls of Rome. There the high-priest, robed +in purple, washed the wagon, the image, and the other sacred objects in +the water of the stream. On returning from their bath, the wain and the +oxen were strewn with fresh spring flowers. All was mirth and gaiety. No +one thought of the blood that had flowed so lately. Even the eunuch +priests forgot their wounds.(810) + +(M205) Such, then, appears to have been the annual solemnization of the +death and resurrection of Attis in spring. But besides these public rites, +his worship is known to have comprised certain secret or mystic +ceremonies, which probably aimed at bringing the worshipper, and +especially the novice, into closer communication with his god. Our +information as to the nature of these mysteries and the date of their +celebration is unfortunately very scanty, but they seem to have included a +sacramental meal and a baptism of blood. In the sacrament the novice +became a partaker of the mysteries by eating out of a drum and drinking +out of a cymbal, two instruments of music which figured prominently in the +thrilling orchestra of Attis.(811) The fast which accompanied the mourning +for the dead god(812) may perhaps have been designed to prepare the body +of the communicant for the reception of the blessed sacrament by purging +it of all that could defile by contact the sacred elements.(813) In the +baptism the devotee, crowned with gold and wreathed with fillets, +descended into a pit, the mouth of which was covered with a wooden +grating. A bull, adorned with garlands of flowers, its forehead glittering +with gold leaf, was then driven on to the grating and there stabbed to +death with a consecrated spear. Its hot reeking blood poured in torrents +through the apertures, and was received with devout eagerness by the +worshipper on every part of his person and garments, till he emerged from +the pit, drenched, dripping, and scarlet from head to foot, to receive the +homage, nay the adoration, of his fellows as one who had been born again +to eternal life and had washed away his sins in the blood of the +bull.(814) For some time afterwards the fiction of a new birth was kept up +by dieting him on milk like a new-born babe.(815) The regeneration of the +worshipper took place at the same time as the regeneration of his god, +namely at the vernal equinox.(816) At Rome the new birth and the remission +of sins by the shedding of bull's blood appear to have been carried out +above all at the sanctuary of the Phrygian goddess on the Vatican Hill, at +or near the spot where the great basilica of St. Peter's now stands; for +many inscriptions relating to the rites were found when the church was +being enlarged in 1608 or 1609.(817) From the Vatican as a centre this +barbarous system of superstition seems to have spread to other parts of +the Roman empire. Inscriptions found in Gaul and Germany prove that +provincial sanctuaries modelled their ritual on that of the Vatican.(818) +From the same source we learn that the testicles as well as the blood of +the bull played an important part in the ceremonies.(819) Probably they +were regarded as a powerful charm to promote fertility and hasten the new +birth. + + + + +Chapter II. Attis As a God of Vegetation. + + +(M206) The original character of Attis as a tree-spirit is brought out +plainly by the part which the pine-tree plays in his legend, his ritual, +and his monuments.(820) The story that he was a human being transformed +into a pine-tree is only one of those transparent attempts at +rationalizing old beliefs which meet us so frequently in mythology. The +bringing in of the pine-tree from the woods, decked with violets and +woollen bands, is like bringing in the May-tree or Summer-tree in modern +folk-custom; and the effigy which was attached to the pine-tree was only a +duplicate representative of the tree-spirit Attis. After being fastened to +the tree, the effigy was kept for a year and then burned.(821) The same +thing appears to have been sometimes done with the May-pole; and in like +manner the effigy of the corn-spirit, made at harvest, is often preserved +till it is replaced by a new effigy at next year's harvest.(822) The +original intention of such customs was no doubt to maintain the spirit of +vegetation in life throughout the year. Why the Phrygians should have +worshipped the pine above other trees we can only guess. Perhaps the sight +of its changeless, though sombre, green cresting the ridges of the high +hills above the fading splendour of the autumn woods in the valleys may +have seemed to their eyes to mark it out as the seat of a diviner life, of +something exempt from the sad vicissitudes of the seasons, constant and +eternal as the sky which stooped to meet it. For the same reason, perhaps, +ivy was sacred to Attis; at all events, we read that his eunuch priests +were tattooed with a pattern of ivy leaves.(823) Another reason for the +sanctity of the pine may have been its usefulness. The cones of the +stone-pine contain edible nut-like seeds, which have been used as food +since antiquity, and are still eaten, for example, by the poorer classes +in Rome.(824) Moreover, a wine was brewed from these seeds,(825) and this +may partly account for the orgiastic nature of the rites of Cybele, which +the ancients compared to those of Dionysus.(826) Further, pine-cones were +regarded as symbols or rather instruments of fertility. Hence at the +festival of the Thesmophoria they were thrown, along with pigs and other +agents or emblems of fecundity, into the sacred vaults of Demeter for the +purpose of quickening the ground and the wombs of women.(827) + +(M207) Like tree-spirits in general, Attis was apparently thought to wield +power over the fruits of the earth or even to be identical with the corn. +One of his epithets was "very fruitful": he was addressed as the "reaped +green (or yellow) ear of corn"; and the story of his sufferings, death, +and resurrection was interpreted as the ripe grain wounded by the reaper, +buried in the granary, and coming to life again when it is sown in the +ground.(828) A statue of him in the Lateran Museum at Rome clearly +indicates his relation to the fruits of the earth, and particularly to the +corn; for it represents him with a bunch of ears of corn and fruit in his +hand, and a wreath of pine-cones, pomegranates, and other fruits on his +head, while from the top of his Phrygian cap ears of corn are +sprouting.(829) On a stone urn, which contained the ashes of an +Archigallus or high-priest of Attis, the same idea is expressed in a +slightly different way. The top of the urn is adorned with ears of corn +carved in relief, and it is surmounted by the figure of a cock, whose tail +consists of ears of corn.(830) Cybele in like manner was conceived as a +goddess of fertility who could make or mar the fruits of the earth; for +the people of Augustodunum (Autun) in Gaul used to cart her image about in +a wagon for the good of the fields and vineyards, while they danced and +sang before it,(831) and we have seen that in Italy an unusually fine +harvest was attributed to the recent arrival of the Great Mother.(832) The +bathing of the image of the goddess in a river may well have been a +rain-charm to ensure an abundant supply of moisture for the crops. Or +perhaps, as Mr. Hepding has suggested, the union of Cybele and Attis, like +that of Aphrodite and Adonis, was dramatically represented at the +festival, and the subsequent bath of the goddess was a ceremonial +purification of the bride, such as is often observed at human +marriages.(833) In like manner Aphrodite is said to have bathed after her +union with Adonis,(834) and so did Demeter after her intercourse with +Poseidon.(835) Hera washed in the springs of the river Burrha after her +marriage with Zeus;(836) and every year she recovered her virginity by +bathing in the spring of Canathus.(837) However that may be, the rules of +diet observed by the worshippers of Cybele and Attis at their solemn fasts +are clearly dictated by a belief that the divine life of these deities +manifested itself in the fruits of the earth, and especially in such of +them as are actually hidden by the soil. For while the devotees were +allowed to partake of flesh, though not of pork or fish, they were +forbidden to eat seeds and the roots of vegetables, but they might eat the +stalks and upper parts of the plants.(838) + + + + +Chapter III. Attis As The Father God. + + +(M208) The name Attis appears to mean simply "father."(839) This +explanation, suggested by etymology, is confirmed by the observation that +another name for Attis was Papas;(840) for Papas has all the appearance of +being a common form of that word for "father" which occurs independently +in many distinct families of speech all the world over. Similarly the +mother of Attis was named Nana,(841) which is itself a form of the +world-wide word for "mother." "The immense list of such words collected by +Buschmann shows that the types _pa_ and _ta_, with the similar forms _ap_ +and _at_, preponderate in the world as names for 'father,' while _ma_ and +_na_, _am_ and _an_, preponderate as names for 'mother.' "(842) + +(M209) Thus the mother of Attis is only another form of his divine +mistress the great Mother Goddess,(843) and we are brought back to the +myth that the lovers were mother and son. The story that Nana conceived +miraculously without commerce with the other sex shows that the Mother +Goddess of Phrygia herself was viewed, like other goddesses of the same +primitive type, as a Virgin Mother.(844) That view of her character does +not rest on a perverse and mischievous theory that virginity is more +honourable than matrimony. It is derived, as I have already indicated, +from a state of savagery in which the mere fact of paternity was unknown. +That explains why in later times, long after the true nature of paternity +had been ascertained, the Father God was often a much less important +personage in mythology than his divine partner the Mother Goddess. With +regard to Attis in his paternal character it deserves to be noticed that +the Bithynians used to ascend to the tops of the mountains and there call +upon him under the name of Papas. The custom is attested by Arrian,(845) +who as a native of Bithynia must have had good opportunities of observing +it. We may perhaps infer from it that the Bithynians conceived Attis as a +sky-god or heavenly father, like Zeus, with whom indeed Arrian identifies +him. If that were so, the story of the loves of Attis and Cybele, the +Father God and the Mother Goddess, might be in one of its aspects a +particular version of the widespread myth which represents Mother Earth +fertilized by Father Sky;(846) and, further, the story of the emasculation +of Attis would be parallel to the Greek legend that Cronus castrated his +father, the old sky-god Uranus,(847) and was himself in turn castrated by +his own son, the younger sky-god Zeus.(848) The tale of the mutilation of +the sky-god by his son has been plausibly explained as a myth of the +violent separation of the earth and sky, which some races, for example the +Polynesians, suppose to have originally clasped each other in a close +embrace.(849) Yet it seems unlikely that an order of eunuch priests like +the Galli should have been based on a purely cosmogonic myth: why should +they continue for all time to be mutilated because the sky-god was so in +the beginning? The custom of castration must surely have been designed to +meet a constantly recurring need, not merely to reflect a mythical event +which happened at the creation of the world. Such a need is the +maintenance of the fruitfulness of the earth, annually imperilled by the +changes of the seasons. Yet the theory that the mutilation of the priests +of Attis and the burial of the severed parts were designed to fertilize +the ground may perhaps be reconciled with the cosmogonic myth if we +remember the old opinion, held apparently by many peoples, that the +creation of the world is year by year repeated in that great +transformation which depends ultimately on the annual increase of the +sun's heat.(850) However, the evidence for the celestial aspect of Attis +is too slight to allow us to speak with any confidence on this subject. A +trace of that aspect appears to survive in the star-spangled cap which he +is said to have received from Cybele,(851) and which is figured on some +monuments supposed to represent him.(852) His identification with the +Phrygian moon-god Men Tyrannus(853) points in the same direction, but is +probably due rather to the religious speculation of a later age than to +genuine popular tradition.(854) + + + + +Chapter IV. Human Representatives of Attis. + + +(M210) From inscriptions it appears that both at Pessinus and Rome the +high-priest of Cybele regularly bore the name of Attis.(855) It is +therefore a reasonable conjecture that he played the part of his namesake, +the legendary Attis, at the annual festival.(856) We have seen that on the +Day of Blood he drew blood from his arms, and this may have been an +imitation of the self-inflicted death of Attis under the pine-tree. It is +not inconsistent with this supposition that Attis was also represented at +these ceremonies by an effigy; for instances can be shown in which the +divine being is first represented by a living person and afterwards by an +effigy, which is then burned or otherwise destroyed.(857) Perhaps we may +go a step farther and conjecture that this mimic killing of the priest, +accompanied by a real effusion of his blood, was in Phrygia, as it has +been elsewhere, a substitute for a human sacrifice which in earlier times +was actually offered. Sir W. M. Ramsay, whose authority on all questions +relating to Phrygia no one will dispute, is of opinion that at these +Phrygian ceremonies "the representative of the god was probably slain each +year by a cruel death, just as the god himself died."(858) We know from +Strabo(859) that the priests of Pessinus were at one time potentates as +well as priests; they may, therefore, have belonged to that class of +divine kings or popes whose duty it was to die each year for their people +and the world. The name of Attis, it is true, does not occur among the +names of the old kings of Phrygia, who seem to have borne the names of +Midas and Gordias in alternate generations; but a very ancient inscription +carved in the rock above a famous Phrygian monument, which is known as the +Tomb of Midas, records that the monument was made for, or dedicated to, +King Midas by a certain Ates, whose name is doubtless identical with +Attis, and who, if not a king himself, may have been one of the royal +family.(860) It is worthy of note also that the name Atys, which, again, +appears to be only another form of Attis, is recorded as that of an early +king of Lydia;(861) and that a son of Croesus, king of Lydia, not only +bore the name Atys but was said to have been killed, while he was hunting +a boar, by a member of the royal Phrygian family, who traced his lineage +to King Midas and had fled to the court of Croesus because he had +unwittingly slain his own brother.(862) Scholars have recognized in this +story of the death of Atys, son of Croesus, a mere double of the myth of +Attis;(863) and in view of the facts which have come before us in the +present inquiry(864) it is a remarkable circumstance that the myth of a +slain god should be told of a king's son. May we conjecture that the +Phrygian priests who bore the name of Attis and represented the god of +that name were themselves members, perhaps the eldest sons, of the royal +house, to whom their fathers, uncles, brothers, or other kinsmen deputed +the honour of dying a violent death in the character of gods, while they +reserved to themselves the duty of living, as long as nature allowed them, +in the humbler character of kings? If this were so, the Phrygian dynasty +of Midas may have presented a close parallel to the Greek dynasty of +Athamas, in which the eldest sons seem to have been regularly destined to +the altar.(865) But it is also possible that the divine priests who bore +the name of Attis may have belonged to that indigenous race which the +Phrygians, on their irruption into Asia from Europe, appear to have found +and conquered in the land afterwards known as Phrygia.(866) On the latter +hypothesis the priests may have represented an older and higher +civilization than that of their barbarous conquerors. Be that as it may, +the god they personated was a deity of vegetation whose divine life +manifested itself especially in the pine-tree and the violets of spring; +and if they died in the character of that divinity, they corresponded to +the mummers who are still slain in mimicry by European peasants in spring, +and to the priest who was slain long ago in grim earnest on the wooded +shore of the Lake of Nemi. + + + + +Chapter V. The Hanged God. + + +(M211) A reminiscence of the manner in which these old representatives of +the deity were put to death is perhaps preserved in the famous story of +Marsyas. He was said to be a Phrygian satyr or Silenus, according to +others a shepherd or herdsman, who played sweetly on the flute. A friend +of Cybele, he roamed the country with the disconsolate goddess to soothe +her grief for the death of Attis.(867) The composition of the Mother's +Air, a tune played on the flute in honour of the Great Mother Goddess, was +attributed to him by the people of Celaenae in Phrygia.(868) Vain of his +skill, he challenged Apollo to a musical contest, he to play on the flute +and Apollo on the lyre. Being vanquished, Marsyas was tied up to a +pine-tree and flayed or cut limb from limb either by the victorious Apollo +or by a Scythian slave.(869) His skin was shown at Celaenae in historical +times. It hung at the foot of the citadel in a cave from which the river +Marsyas rushed with an impetuous and noisy tide to join the Maeander.(870) +So the Adonis bursts full-born from the precipices of the Lebanon; so the +blue river of Ibreez leaps in a crystal jet from the red rocks of the +Taurus; so the stream, which now rumbles deep underground, used to gleam +for a moment on its passage from darkness to darkness in the dim light of +the Corycian cave. In all these copious fountains, with their glad promise +of fertility and life, men of old saw the hand of God and worshipped him +beside the rushing river with the music of its tumbling waters in their +ears. At Celaenae, if we can trust tradition, the piper Marsyas, hanging +in his cave, had a soul for harmony even in death; for it is said that at +the sound of his native Phrygian melodies the skin of the dead satyr used +to thrill, but that if the musician struck up an air in praise of Apollo +it remained deaf and motionless.(871) + +(M212) In this Phrygian satyr, shepherd, or herdsman who enjoyed the +friendship of Cybele, practised the music so characteristic of her +rites,(872) and died a violent death on her sacred tree, the pine, may we +not detect a close resemblance to Attis, the favourite shepherd or +herdsman of the goddess, who is himself described as a piper,(873) is said +to have perished under a pine-tree, and was annually represented by an +effigy hung, like Marsyas, upon a pine? We may conjecture that in old days +the priest who bore the name and played the part of Attis at the spring +festival of Cybele was regularly hanged or otherwise slain upon the sacred +tree, and that this barbarous custom was afterwards mitigated into the +form in which it is known to us in later times, when the priest merely +drew blood from his body under the tree and attached an effigy instead of +himself to its trunk. In the holy grove at Upsala men and animals were +sacrificed by being hanged upon the sacred trees.(874) The human victims +dedicated to Odin were regularly put to death by hanging or by a +combination of hanging and stabbing, the man being strung up to a tree or +a gallows and then wounded with a spear. Hence Odin was called the Lord of +the Gallows or the God of the Hanged, and he is represented sitting under +a gallows tree.(875) Indeed he is said to have been sacrificed to himself +in the ordinary way, as we learn from the weird verses of the _Havamal_, +in which the god describes how he acquired his divine power by learning +the magic runes: + + + "_I know that I hung on the windy tree_ + _For nine whole nights,_ + _Wounded with the spear, dedicated to Odin,_ + _Myself to myself._"(876) + + +The Bagobos of Mindanao, one of the Philippine Islands, used annually to +sacrifice human victims for the good of the crops in a similar way. Early +in December, when the constellation Orion appeared at seven o'clock in the +evening, the people knew that the time had come to clear their fields for +sowing and to sacrifice a slave. The sacrifice was presented to certain +powerful spirits as payment for the good year which the people had +enjoyed, and to ensure the favour of the spirits for the coming season. +The victim was led to a great tree in the forest; there he was tied with +his back to the tree and his arms stretched high above his head, in the +attitude in which ancient artists portrayed Marsyas hanging on the fatal +tree. While he thus hung by the arms, he was slain by a spear thrust +through his body at the level of the armpits. Afterwards the body was cut +clean through the middle at the waist, and the upper part was apparently +allowed to dangle for a little from the tree, while the under part +wallowed in blood on the ground. The two portions were finally cast into a +shallow trench beside the tree. Before this was done, anybody who wished +might cut off a piece of flesh or a lock of hair from the corpse and carry +it to the grave of some relation whose body was being consumed by a ghoul. +Attracted by the fresh corpse, the ghoul would leave the mouldering old +body in peace. These sacrifices have been offered by men now living.(877) + +(M213) In Greece the great goddess Artemis herself appears to have been +annually hanged in effigy in her sacred grove of Condylea among the +Arcadian hills, and there accordingly she went by the name of the Hanged +One.(878) Indeed a trace of a similar rite may perhaps be detected even at +Ephesus, the most famous of her sanctuaries, in the legend of a woman who +hanged herself and was thereupon dressed by the compassionate goddess in +her own divine garb and called by the name of Hecate.(879) Similarly, at +Melite in Phthia, a story was told of a girl named Aspalis who hanged +herself, but who appears to have been merely a form of Artemis. For after +her death her body could not be found, but an image of her was discovered +standing beside the image of Artemis, and the people bestowed on it the +title of Hecaerge or Far-shooter, one of the regular epithets of the +goddess. Every year the virgins sacrificed a young goat to the image by +hanging it, because Astypalis was said to have hanged herself.(880) The +sacrifice may have been a substitute for hanging an image or a human +representative of Artemis. Again, in Rhodes the fair Helen was worshipped +under the title of Helen of the Tree, because the queen of the island had +caused her handmaids, disguised as Furies, to string her up to a +bough.(881) That the Asiatic Greeks sacrificed animals in this fashion is +proved by coins of Ilium, which represent an ox or cow hanging on a tree +and stabbed with a knife by a man, who sits among the branches or on the +animal's back.(882) At Hierapolis also the victims were hung on trees +before they were burnt.(883) With these Greek and Scandinavian parallels +before us we can hardly dismiss as wholly improbable the conjecture that +in Phrygia a man-god may have hung year by year on the sacred but fatal +tree. + +(M214) The tradition that Marsyas was flayed and that his skin was +exhibited at Celaenae down to historical times may well reflect a ritual +practice of flaying the dead god and hanging his skin upon the pine as a +means of effecting his resurrection, and with it the revival of vegetation +in spring. Similarly, in ancient Mexico the human victims who personated +gods were often flayed and their bloody skins worn by men who appear to +have represented the dead deities come to life again.(884) When a Scythian +king died, he was buried in a grave along with one of his concubines, his +cup-bearer, cook, groom, lacquey, and messenger, who were all killed for +the purpose, and a great barrow was heaped up over the grave. A year +afterwards fifty of his servants and fifty of his best horses were +strangled; and their bodies, having been disembowelled and cleaned out, +were stuffed with chaff, sewn up, and set on scaffolds round about the +barrow, every dead man bestriding a dead horse, which was bitted and +bridled as in life.(885) These strange horsemen were no doubt supposed to +mount guard over the king. The setting up of their stuffed skins might be +thought to ensure their ghostly resurrection. + +(M215) That some such notion was entertained by the Scythians is made +probable by the account which the mediaeval traveller de Plano Carpini +gives of the funeral customs of the Mongols. The traveller tells us that +when a noble Mongol died, the custom was to bury him seated in the middle +of a tent, along with a horse saddled and bridled, and a mare and her +foal. Also they used to eat another horse, stuff the carcase with straw, +and set it up on poles. All this they did in order that in the other world +the dead man might have a tent to live in, a mare to yield milk, and a +steed to ride, and that he might be able to breed horses. Moreover, the +bones of the horse which they ate were burned for the good of his +soul.(886) When the Arab traveller Ibn Batuta visited Peking in the +fourteenth century, he witnessed the funeral of an emperor of China who +had been killed in battle. The dead sovereign was buried along with four +young female slaves and six guards in a vault, and an immense mound like a +hill was piled over him. Four horses were then made to run round the +hillock till they could run no longer, after which they were killed, +impaled, and set up beside the tomb.(887) When an Indian of Patagonia +dies, he is buried in a pit along with some of his property. Afterwards +his favourite horse, having been killed, skinned, and stuffed, is propped +up on sticks with its head turned towards the grave. At the funeral of a +chief four horses are sacrificed, and one is set up at each corner of the +burial-place. The clothes and other effects of the deceased are burned; +and to conclude all, a feast is made of the horses' flesh.(888) The +Scythians certainly believed in the existence of the soul after death and +in the possibility of turning it to account. This is proved by the +practice of one of their tribes, the Taurians of the Crimea, who used to +cut off the heads of their prisoners and set them on poles over their +houses, especially over the chimneys, in order that the spirits of the +slain men might guard the dwellings.(889) Some of the savages of Borneo +allege a similar reason for their favourite custom of taking human heads. +"The custom," said a Kayan chief, "is not horrible. It is an ancient +custom, a good, beneficent custom, bequeathed to us by our fathers and our +fathers' fathers; it brings us blessings, plentiful harvests, and keeps +off sickness and pains. Those who were once our enemies, hereby become our +guardians, our friends, our benefactors."(890) Thus to convert dead foes +into friends and allies all that is necessary is to feed and otherwise +propitiate their skulls at a festival when they are brought into the +village. "An offering of food is made to the heads, and their spirits, +being thus appeased, cease to entertain malice against, or to seek to +inflict injury upon, those who have got possession of the skull which +formerly adorned the now forsaken body."(891) When the Sea Dyaks of +Sarawak return home successful from a head-hunting expedition, they bring +the head ashore with much ceremony, wrapt in palm leaves. "On shore and in +the village, the head, for months after its arrival, is treated with the +greatest consideration, and all the names and terms of endearment of which +their language is capable are abundantly lavished on it; the most dainty +morsels, culled from their abundant though inelegant repast, are thrust +into its mouth, and it is instructed to hate its former friends, and that, +having been now adopted into the tribe of its captors, its spirit must be +always with them; sirih leaves and betel-nut are given to it, and finally +a cigar is frequently placed between its ghastly and pallid lips. None of +this disgusting mockery is performed with the intention of ridicule, but +all to propitiate the spirit by kindness, and to procure its good wishes +for the tribe, of whom it is now supposed to have become a member."(892) +Amongst these Dyaks the "Head-Feast," which has been just described, is +supposed to be the most beneficial in its influence of all their feasts +and ceremonies. "The object of them all is to make their rice grow well, +to cause the forest to abound with wild animals, to enable their dogs and +snares to be successful in securing game, to have the streams swarm with +fish, to give health and activity to the people themselves, and to ensure +fertility to their women. All these blessings, the possessing and feasting +of a fresh head are supposed to be the most efficient means of securing. +The very ground itself is believed to be benefited and rendered fertile, +more fertile even than when the water in which fragments of gold presented +by the Rajah have been washed, has been sprinkled over it."(893) + +(M216) In like manner, if my conjecture is right, the man who represented +the father-god of Phrygia used to be slain and his stuffed skin hung on +the sacred pine in order that his spirit might work for the growth of the +crops, the multiplication of animals, and the fertility of women. So at +Athens an ox, which appears to have embodied the corn-spirit, was killed +at an annual sacrifice, and its hide, stuffed with straw and sewn up, was +afterwards set on its feet and yoked to a plough as if it were ploughing, +apparently in order to represent, or rather to promote, the resurrection +of the slain corn-spirit at the end of the threshing.(894) This employment +of the skins of divine animals for the purpose of ensuring the revival of +the slaughtered divinity might be illustrated by other examples.(895) +Perhaps the hide of the bull which was killed to furnish the regenerating +bath of blood in the rites of Attis may have been put to a similar use. + + + + +Chapter VI. Oriental Religions in the West. + + +(M217) The worship of the Great Mother of the Gods and her lover or son +was very popular under the Roman Empire. Inscriptions prove that the two +received divine honours, separately or conjointly, not only in Italy, and +especially at Rome, but also in the provinces, particularly in Africa, +Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, and Bulgaria.(896) Their worship +survived the establishment of Christianity by Constantine; for Symmachus +records the recurrence of the festival of the Great Mother,(897) and in +the days of Augustine her effeminate priests still paraded the streets and +squares of Carthage with whitened faces, scented hair, and mincing gait, +while, like the mendicant friars of the Middle Ages, they begged alms from +the passers-by.(898) In Greece, on the other hand, the bloody orgies of +the Asiatic goddess and her consort appear to have found little +favour.(899) The barbarous and cruel character of the worship, with its +frantic excesses, was doubtless repugnant to the good taste and humanity +of the Greeks, who seem to have preferred the kindred but gentler rites of +Adonis. Yet the same features which shocked and repelled the Greeks may +have positively attracted the less refined Romans and barbarians of the +West. The ecstatic frenzies, which were mistaken for divine +inspiration,(900) the mangling of the body, the theory of a new birth and +the remission of sins through the shedding of blood, have all their origin +in savagery,(901) and they naturally appealed to peoples in whom the +savage instincts were still strong. Their true character was indeed often +disguised under a decent veil of allegorical or philosophical +interpretation,(902) which probably sufficed to impose upon the rapt and +enthusiastic worshippers, reconciling even the more cultivated of them to +things which otherwise must have filled them with horror and disgust. + +(M218) The religion of the Great Mother, with its curious blending of +crude savagery with spiritual aspirations, was only one of a multitude of +similar Oriental faiths which in the later days of paganism spread over +the Roman Empire, and by saturating the European peoples with alien ideals +of life gradually undermined the whole fabric of ancient +civilization.(903) Greek and Roman society was built on the conception of +the subordination of the individual to the community, of the citizen to +the state; it set the safety of the commonwealth, as the supreme aim of +conduct, above the safety of the individual whether in this world or in a +world to come. Trained from infancy in this unselfish ideal, the citizens +devoted their lives to the public service and were ready to lay them down +for the common good; or if they shrank from the supreme sacrifice, it +never occurred to them that they acted otherwise than basely in preferring +their personal existence to the interests of their country. All this was +changed by the spread of Oriental religions which inculcated the communion +of the soul with God and its eternal salvation as the only objects worth +living for, objects in comparison with which the prosperity and even the +existence of the state sank into insignificance. The inevitable result of +this selfish and immoral doctrine was to withdraw the devotee more and +more from the public service, to concentrate his thoughts on his own +spiritual emotions, and to breed in him a contempt for the present life +which he regarded merely as a probation for a better and an eternal. The +saint and the recluse, disdainful of earth and rapt in ecstatic +contemplation of heaven, became in popular opinion the highest ideal of +humanity, displacing the old ideal of the patriot and hero who, forgetful +of self, lives and is ready to die for the good of his country. The +earthly city seemed poor and contemptible to men whose eyes beheld the +City of God coming in the clouds of heaven. Thus the centre of gravity, so +to say, was shifted from the present to a future life, and however much +the other world may have gained, there can be little doubt that this one +lost heavily by the change. A general disintegration of the body politic +set in. The ties of the state and the family were loosened: the structure +of society tended to resolve itself into its individual elements and +thereby to relapse into barbarism; for civilization is only possible +through the active co-operation of the citizens and their willingness to +subordinate their private interests to the common good. Men refused to +defend their country and even to continue their kind.(904) In their +anxiety to save their own souls and the souls of others, they were content +to leave the material world, which they identified with the principle of +evil, to perish around them. This obsession lasted for a thousand years. +The revival of Roman law, of the Aristotelian philosophy, of ancient art +and literature at the close of the Middle Ages, marked the return of +Europe to native ideals of life and conduct, to saner, manlier views of +the world. The long halt in the march of civilization was over. The tide +of Oriental invasion had turned at last. It is ebbing still.(905) + +(M219) Among the gods of eastern origin who in the decline of the ancient +world competed against each other for the allegiance of the West was the +old Persian deity Mithra. The immense popularity of his worship is +attested by the monuments illustrative of it which have been found +scattered in profusion all over the Roman Empire.(906) In respect both of +doctrines and of rites the cult of Mithra appears to have presented many +points of resemblance not only to the religion of the Mother of the +Gods(907) but also to Christianity.(908) The similarity struck the +Christian doctors themselves and was explained by them as a work of the +devil, who sought to seduce the souls of men from the true faith by a +false and insidious imitation of it.(909) So to the Spanish conquerors of +Mexico and Peru many of the native heathen rites appeared to be diabolical +counterfeits of the Christian sacraments.(910) With more probability the +modern student of comparative religion traces such resemblances to the +similar and independent workings of the mind of man in his sincere, if +crude, attempts to fathom the secret of the universe, and to adjust his +little life to its awful mysteries. However that may be, there can be no +doubt that the Mithraic religion proved a formidable rival to +Christianity, combining as it did a solemn ritual with aspirations after +moral purity and a hope of immortality.(911) Indeed the issue of the +conflict between the two faiths appears for a time to have hung in the +balance.(912) An instructive relic of the long struggle is preserved in +our festival of Christmas, which the Church seems to have borrowed +directly from its heathen rival. In the Julian calendar the twenty-fifth +of December was reckoned the winter solstice,(913) and it was regarded as +the Nativity of the Sun, because the day begins to lengthen and the power +of the sun to increase from that turning-point of the year.(914) The +ritual of the nativity, as it appears to have been celebrated in Syria and +Egypt, was remarkable. The celebrants retired into certain inner shrines, +from which at midnight they issued with a loud cry, "The Virgin has +brought forth! The light is waxing!"(915) The Egyptians even represented +the new-born sun by the image of an infant which on his birthday, the +winter solstice, they brought forth and exhibited to his worshippers.(916) +No doubt the Virgin who thus conceived and bore a son on the twenty-fifth +of December was the great Oriental goddess whom the Semites called the +Heavenly Virgin or simply the Heavenly Goddess; in Semitic lands she was a +form of Astarte.(917) Now Mithra was regularly identified by his +worshippers with the Sun, the Unconquered Sun, as they called him;(918) +hence his nativity also fell on the twenty-fifth of December.(919) The +Gospels say nothing as to the day of Christ's birth, and accordingly the +early Church did not celebrate it. In time, however, the Christians of +Egypt came to regard the sixth of January as the date of the Nativity, and +the custom of commemorating the birth of the Saviour on that day gradually +spread until by the fourth century it was universally established in the +East. But at the end of the third or the beginning of the fourth century +the Western Church, which had never recognized the sixth of January as the +day of the Nativity, adopted the twenty-fifth of December as the true +date, and in time its decision was accepted also by the Eastern Church. At +Antioch the change was not introduced till about the year 375 A.D.(920) + +(M220) What considerations led the ecclesiastical authorities to institute +the festival of Christmas? The motives for the innovation are stated with +great frankness by a Syrian writer, himself a Christian. "The reason," he +tells us, "why the fathers transferred the celebration of the sixth of +January to the twenty-fifth of December was this. It was a custom of the +heathen to celebrate on the same twenty-fifth of December the birthday of +the Sun, at which they kindled lights in token of festivity. In these +solemnities and festivities the Christians also took part. Accordingly +when the doctors of the Church perceived that the Christians had a leaning +to this festival, they took counsel and resolved that the true Nativity +should be solemnized on that day and the festival of the Epiphany on the +sixth of January. Accordingly, along with this custom, the practice has +prevailed of kindling fires till the sixth."(921) The heathen origin of +Christmas is plainly hinted at, if not tacitly admitted, by Augustine when +he exhorts his Christian brethren not to celebrate that solemn day like +the heathen on account of the sun, but on account of him who made the +sun.(922) In like manner Leo the Great rebuked the pestilent belief that +Christmas was solemnized because of the birth of the new sun, as it was +called, and not because of the nativity of Christ.(923) + +(M221) Thus it appears that the Christian Church chose to celebrate the +birthday of its Founder on the twenty-fifth of December in order to +transfer the devotion of the heathen from the Sun to him who was called +the Sun of Righteousness.(924) If that was so, there can be no intrinsic +improbability in the conjecture that motives of the same sort may have led +the ecclesiastical authorities to assimilate the Easter festival of the +death and resurrection of their Lord to the festival of the death and +resurrection of another Asiatic god which fell at the same season. Now the +Easter rites still observed in Greece, Sicily, and Southern Italy bear in +some respects a striking resemblance to the rites of Adonis, and I have +suggested that the Church may have consciously adapted the new festival to +its heathen predecessor for the sake of winning souls to Christ.(925) But +this adaptation probably took place in the Greek-speaking rather than in +the Latin-speaking parts of the ancient world; for the worship of Adonis, +while it flourished among the Greeks, appears to have made little +impression on Rome and the West.(926) Certainly it never formed part of +the official Roman religion. The place which it might have taken in the +affections of the vulgar was already occupied by the similar but more +barbarous worship of Attis and the Great Mother. Now the death and +resurrection of Attis were officially celebrated at Rome on the +twenty-fourth and twenty-fifth of March,(927) the latter being regarded as +the spring equinox,(928) and therefore as the most appropriate day for the +revival of a god of vegetation who had been dead or sleeping throughout +the winter. But according to an ancient and widespread tradition Christ +suffered on the twenty-fifth of March, and accordingly some Christians +regularly celebrated the Crucifixion on that day without any regard to the +state of the moon. This custom was certainly observed in Phrygia, +Cappadocia, and Gaul, and there seem to be grounds for thinking that at +one time it was followed also in Rome.(929) Thus the tradition which +placed the death of Christ on the twenty-fifth of March was ancient and +deeply rooted. It is all the more remarkable because astronomical +considerations prove that it can have had no historical foundation.(930) +The inference appears to be inevitable that the passion of Christ must +have been arbitrarily referred to that date in order to harmonize with an +older festival of the spring equinox. This is the view of the learned +ecclesiastical historian Mgr. Duchesne, who points out that the death of +the Saviour was thus made to fall upon the very day on which, according to +a widespread belief, the world had been created.(931) But the resurrection +of Attis, who combined in himself the characters of the divine Father and +the divine Son,(932) was officially celebrated at Rome on the same day. +When we remember that the festival of St. George in April has replaced the +ancient pagan festival of the Parilia;(933) that the festival of St. John +the Baptist in June has succeeded to a heathen Midsummer festival of +water;(934) that the festival of the Assumption of the Virgin in August +has ousted the festival of Diana;(935) that the feast of All Souls in +November is a continuation of an old heathen feast of the dead;(936) and +that the Nativity of Christ himself was assigned to the winter solstice in +December because that day was deemed the Nativity of the Sun;(937) we can +hardly be thought rash or unreasonable in conjecturing that the other +cardinal festival of the Christian church--the solemnization of Easter--may +have been in like manner, and from like motives of edification, adapted to +a similar celebration of the Phrygian god Attis at the vernal +equinox.(938) + +(M222) At least it is a remarkable coincidence, if it is nothing more, +that the Christian and the heathen festivals of the divine death and +resurrection should have been solemnized at the same season and in the +same places. For the places which celebrated the death of Christ at the +spring equinox were Phrygia, Gaul, and apparently Rome, that is, the very +regions in which the worship of Attis either originated or struck deepest +root. It is difficult to regard the coincidence as purely accidental. If +the vernal equinox, the season at which in the temperate regions the whole +face of nature testifies to a fresh outburst of vital energy, had been +viewed from of old as the time when the world was annually created afresh +in the resurrection of a god, nothing could be more natural than to place +the resurrection of the new deity at the same cardinal point of the year. +Only it is to be observed that if the death of Christ was dated on the +twenty-fifth of March, his resurrection, according to Christian tradition, +must have happened on the twenty-seventh of March, which is just two days +later than the vernal equinox of the Julian calendar and the resurrection +of Attis. A similar displacement of two days in the adjustment of +Christian to heathen celebrations occurs in the festivals of St. George +and the Assumption of the Virgin. However, another Christian tradition, +followed by Lactantius and perhaps by the practice of the Church in Gaul, +placed the death of Christ on the twenty-third and his resurrection on the +twenty-fifth of March.(939) If that was so, his resurrection coincided +exactly with the resurrection of Attis. + +(M223) In point of fact it appears from the testimony of an anonymous +Christian, who wrote in the fourth century of our era, that Christians and +pagans alike were struck by the remarkable coincidence between the death +and resurrection of their respective deities, and that the coincidence +formed a theme of bitter controversy between the adherents of the rival +religions, the pagans contending that the resurrection of Christ was a +spurious imitation of the resurrection of Attis, and the Christians +asserting with equal warmth that the resurrection of Attis was a +diabolical counterfeit of the resurrection of Christ. In these unseemly +bickerings the heathen took what to a superficial observer might seem +strong ground by arguing that their god was the older and therefore +presumably the original, not the counterfeit, since as a general rule an +original is older than its copy. This feeble argument the Christians +easily rebutted. They admitted, indeed, that in point of time Christ was +the junior deity, but they triumphantly demonstrated his real seniority by +falling back on the subtlety of Satan, who on so important an occasion had +surpassed himself by inverting the usual order of nature.(940) + +(M224) Taken altogether, the coincidences of the Christian with the +heathen festivals are too close and too numerous to be accidental. They +mark the compromise which the Church in the hour of its triumph was +compelled to make with its vanquished yet still dangerous rivals. The +inflexible Protestantism of the primitive missionaries, with their fiery +denunciations of heathendom, had been exchanged for the supple policy, the +easy tolerance, the comprehensive charity of shrewd ecclesiastics, who +clearly perceived that if Christianity was to conquer the world it could +do so only by relaxing the too rigid principles of its Founder, by +widening a little the narrow gate which leads to salvation. In this +respect an instructive parallel might be drawn between the history of +Christianity and the history of Buddhism.(941) Both systems were in their +origin essentially ethical reforms born of the generous ardour, the lofty +aspirations, the tender compassion of their noble Founders, two of those +beautiful spirits who appear at rare intervals on earth like beings come +from a better world to support and guide our weak and erring nature.(942) +Both preached moral virtue as the means of accomplishing what they +regarded as the supreme object of life, the eternal salvation of the +individual soul, though by a curious antithesis the one sought that +salvation in a blissful eternity, the other in a final release from +suffering, in annihilation. But the austere ideals of sanctity which they +inculcated were too deeply opposed not only to the frailties but to the +natural instincts of humanity ever to be carried out in practice by more +than a small number of disciples, who consistently renounced the ties of +the family and the state in order to work out their own salvation in the +still seclusion of the cloister. If such faiths were to be nominally +accepted by whole nations or even by the world, it was essential that they +should first be modified or transformed so as to accord in some measure +with the prejudices, the passions, the superstitions of the vulgar. This +process of accommodation was carried out in after ages by followers who, +made of less ethereal stuff than their masters, were for that reason the +better fitted to mediate between them and the common herd. Thus as time +went on, the two religions, in exact proportion to their growing +popularity, absorbed more and more of those baser elements which they had +been instituted for the very purpose of suppressing. Such spiritual +decadences are inevitable. The world cannot live at the level of its great +men. Yet it would be unfair to the generality of our kind to ascribe +wholly to their intellectual and moral weakness the gradual divergence of +Buddhism and Christianity from their primitive patterns. For it should +never be forgotten that by their glorification of poverty and celibacy +both these religions struck straight at the root not merely of civil +society but of human existence. The blow was parried by the wisdom or the +folly of the vast majority of mankind, who refused to purchase a chance of +saving their souls with the certainty of extinguishing the species. + + + + +Chapter VII. Hyacinth. + + +(M225) Another mythical being who has been supposed to belong to the class +of gods here discussed is Hyacinth. He too has been interpreted as the +vegetation which blooms in spring and withers under the scorching heat of +the summer sun.(943) Though he belongs to Greek, not to Oriental +mythology, some account of him may not be out of place in the present +discussion. According to the legend, Hyacinth was the youngest and +handsomest son of the ancient king Amyclas, who had his capital at Amyclae +in the beautiful vale of Sparta. One day playing at quoits with Apollo, he +was accidentally killed by a blow of the god's quoit. Bitterly the god +lamented the death of his friend. The hyacinth--"that sanguine flower +inscribed with woe"--sprang from the blood of the hapless youth, as +anemones and roses from the blood of Adonis, and violets from the blood of +Attis:(944) like these vernal flowers it heralded the advent of another +spring and gladdened the hearts of men with the promise of a joyful +resurrection. The flower is usually supposed to be not what we call a +hyacinth, but a little purple iris with the letters of lamentation (AI, +which in Greek means "alas") clearly inscribed in black on its petals. In +Greece it blooms in spring after the early violets but before the +roses.(945) One spring, when the hyacinths were in bloom, it happened that +the red-coated Spartan regiments lay encamped under the walls of Corinth. +Their commander gave the Amyclean battalion leave to go home and celebrate +as usual the festival of Hyacinth in their native town. But the sad flower +was to be to these men an omen of death; for they had not gone far before +they were enveloped by clouds of light-armed foes and cut to pieces.(946) + +(M226) The tomb of Hyacinth was at Amyclae under a massive altar-like +pedestal, which supported an archaic bronze image of Apollo. In the left +side of the pedestal was a bronze door, and through it offerings were +passed to Hyacinth, as to a hero or a dead man, not as to a god, before +sacrifices were offered to Apollo at the annual Hyacinthian festival. +Bas-reliefs carved on the pedestal represented Hyacinth and his maiden +sister Polyboea caught up to heaven by a company of goddesses.(947) The +annual festival of the Hyacinthia was held in the month of Hecatombeus, +which seems to have corresponded to May.(948) The ceremonies occupied +three days. On the first the people mourned for Hyacinth, wearing no +wreaths, singing no paeans, eating no bread, and behaving with great +gravity. It was on this day probably that the offerings were made at +Hyacinth's tomb. Next day the scene was changed. All was joy and bustle. +The capital was emptied of its inhabitants, who poured out in their +thousands to witness and share the festivities at Amyclae. Boys in +high-girt tunics sang hymns in honour of the god to the accompaniment of +flutes and lyres. Others, splendidly attired, paraded on horseback in the +theatre: choirs of youths chanted their native ditties: dancers danced: +maidens rode in wicker carriages or went in procession to witness the +chariot races: sacrifices were offered in profusion: the citizens feasted +their friends and even their slaves.(949) This outburst of gaiety may be +supposed to have celebrated the resurrection of Hyacinth and perhaps also +his ascension to heaven, which, as we have seen, was represented on his +tomb. However, it may be that the ascension took place on the third day of +the festival; but as to that we know nothing. The sister who went to +heaven with him was by some identified with Artemis or Persephone.(950) + +(M227) It is highly probable, as Erwin Rohde perceived,(951) that Hyacinth +was an old aboriginal deity of the underworld who had been worshipped at +Amyclae long before the Dorians invaded and conquered the country. If that +was so, the story of his relation to Apollo must have been a comparatively +late invention, an attempt of the newcomers to fit the ancient god of the +land into their own mythical system, in order that he might extend his +protection to them. On this theory it may not be without significance that +sacrifices at the festival were offered to Hyacinth, as to a hero, before +they were offered to Apollo.(952) Further, on the analogy of similar +deities elsewhere, we should expect to find Hyacinth coupled, not with a +male friend, but with a female consort. That consort may perhaps be +detected in his sister Polyboea, who ascended to heaven with him. The new +myth, if new it was, of the love of Apollo for Hyacinth would involve a +changed conception of the aboriginal god, which in its turn must have +affected that of his spouse. For when Hyacinth came to be thought of as +young and unmarried there was no longer room in his story for a wife, and +she would have to be disposed of in some other way. What was easier for +the myth-maker than to turn her into his unmarried sister? However we may +explain it, a change seems certainly to have come over the popular idea of +Hyacinth; for whereas on his tomb he was portrayed as a bearded man, later +art represented him as the pink of youthful beauty.(953) But it is perhaps +needless to suppose that the sisterly relation of Polyboea to him was a +late modification of the myth. The stories of Cronus and Rhea, of Zeus and +Hera, of Osiris and Isis, remind us that in old days gods, like kings, +often married their sisters, and probably for the same reason, namely, to +ensure their own title to the throne under a rule of female kinship which +treated women and not men as the channel in which the blood royal +flowed.(954) It is not impossible that Hyacinth may have been a divine +king who actually reigned in his lifetime at Amyclae and was afterwards +worshipped at his tomb. The representation of his triumphal ascent to +heaven in company with his sister suggests that, like Adonis and +Persephone, he may have been supposed to spend one part of the year in the +under-world of darkness and death, and another part in the upper-world of +light and life. And as the anemones and the sprouting corn marked the +return of Adonis and Persephone, so the flowers to which he gave his name +may have heralded the ascension of Hyacinth. + +End Of Vol. 1. + + + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + + M1 The changes of the seasons explained by the life and death of gods. + M2 Magical ceremonies to revive the failing energies of the gods. + + 1 As in the present volume I am concerned with the beliefs and + practices of Orientals I may quote the following passage from one + who has lived long in the East and knows it well: "The Oriental mind + is free from the trammels of logic. It is a literal fact that the + Oriental mind can accept and believe two opposite things at the same + time. We find fully qualified and even learned Indian doctors + practising Greek medicine, as well as English medicine, and + enforcing sanitary restrictions to which their own houses and + families are entirely strangers. We find astronomers who can predict + eclipses, and yet who believe that eclipses are caused by a dragon + swallowing the sun. We find holy men who are credited with + miraculous powers and with close communion with the Deity, who live + in drunkenness and immorality, and who are capable of elaborate + frauds on others. To the Oriental mind, a thing must be incredible + to command a ready belief" ("Riots and Unrest in the Punjab, from a + correspondent," _The Times Weekly Edition_, May 24, 1907, p. 326). + Again, speaking of the people of the Lower Congo, an experienced + missionary describes their religious ideas as "chaotic in the + extreme and impossible to reduce to any systematic order. The same + person will tell you at different times that the departed spirit + goes to the nether regions, or to a dark forest, or to the moon, or + to the sun. There is no coherence in their beliefs, and their ideas + about cosmogony and the future are very nebulous. Although they + believe in punishment after death their faith is so hazy that it has + lost all its deterrent force. If in the following pages a lack of + logical unity is observed, it must be put to the debit of the native + mind, as that lack of logical unity really represents the mistiness + of their views." See Rev. John H. Weeks, "Notes on some Customs of + the Lower Congo People," _Folk-lore_, xx. (1909) pp. 54 _sq._ Unless + we allow for this innate capacity of the human mind to entertain + contradictory beliefs at the same time, we shall in vain attempt to + understand the history of thought in general and of religion in + particular. + + M3 The principles of animal and of vegetable life confused in these + ceremonies. + M4 Prevalence of these rites in Western Asia and Egypt. + + 2 The equivalence of Tammuz and Adonis has been doubted or denied by + some scholars, as by Renan (_Mission de Phenicie_, Paris, 1864, pp. + 216, 235) and by Chwolsohn (_Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus_, St. + Petersburg, 1856, ii. 510). But the two gods are identified by + Origen (_Selecta in Ezechielem_, Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, xiii. + 797), Jerome (_Epist._ lviii. 3 and _Commentar. in Ezechielem_, + viii. 13, 14, Migne's _Patrologia Latina_, xxii. 581, xxv. 82), + Cyril of Alexandria (_In Isaiam_, lib. ii. tomus. iii., and + _Comment. on Hosea_, iv. 15, Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, lxx. 441, + lxxi. 136), Theodoretus (_In Ezechielis cap._ viii., Migne's + _Patrologia Graeca_, lxxxi. 885), the author of the Paschal + Chronicle (Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, xcii. 329) and Melito (in W. + Cureton's _Spicilegium Syriacum_, London, 1855, p. 44); and + accordingly we may fairly conclude that, whatever their remote + origin may have been, Tammuz and Adonis were in the later period of + antiquity practically equivalent to each other. Compare W. W. Graf + Baudissin, _Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte_ (Leipsic, + 1876-1878), i. 299; _id._, in _Realencyclopaedie fuer protestantische + Theologie und Kirchengeschichte_,3 _s.v._ "Tammuz"; _id._, _Adonis + und Esmun_ (Leipsic, 1911), pp. 94 _sqq._; W. Mannhardt, _Antike + Wald- und Feldkulte_ (Berlin, 1877), pp. 273 _sqq._; Ch. Vellay, "Le + dieu Thammuz," _Revue de l'Histoire des Religions_, xlix. (1904) pp. + 154-162. Baudissin holds that Tammuz and Adonis were two different + gods sprung from a common root (_Adonis und Esmun_, p. 368). An + Assyrian origin of the cult of Adonis was long ago affirmed by + Macrobius (_Sat._ i. 21. 1). On Adonis and his worship in general + see also F. C. Movers, _Die Phoenizier_, i. (Bonn, 1841) pp. 191 + _sqq._; W. H. Engel, _Kypros_ (Berlin, 1841), ii. 536 _sqq._; Ch. + Vellay, _Le culte et les fetes d' Adonis-Thammouz dans l'Orient + antique_ (Paris, 1904). + + M5 Tammuz or Adonis in Babylonia. His worship seems to have originated + with the Sumerians. + + 3 The mourning for Adonis is mentioned by Sappho, who flourished about + 600 B.C. See Th. Bergk's _Poetae Lyrici Graeci_,3 iii. (Leipsic, + 1867) p. 897; Pausanias, ix. 29. 8. + + 4 Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2 (Berlin, 1909), pp. 394 + _sq._; W. W. Graf Baudissin, _Adonis und Esmun_, pp. 65 _sqq._ + +_ 5 Encyclopaedia Biblica_, ed. T. K. Cheyne and J. S. Black, iii. + 3327. In the Old Testament the title _Adoni_, "my lord," is + frequently given to men. See, for example, Genesis xxxiii. 8, 13, + 14, 15, xlii. 10, xliii. 20, xliv. 5, 7, 9, 16, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24. + + 6 C. P. Tiele, _Geschichte der Religion im Altertum_ (Gotha, + 1896-1903), i. 134 _sqq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire Ancienne des + Peuples de l'Orient Classique, les Origines_ (Paris, 1895), pp. 550 + _sq._; L. W. King, _Babylonian Religion and Mythology_ (London, + 1899), pp. 1 _sqq._; _id._, _A History of Sumer and Akkad_ (London, + 1910), pp. 1 _sqq._, 40 _sqq._; H. Winckler, in E. Schrader's _Die + Keilinschriften und das alte Testament_3 (Berlin, 1902), pp. 10 + _sq._, 349; Fr. Hommel, _Grundriss der Geographie und Geschichte des + alten Orients_ (Munich, 1904), pp. 18 _sqq._; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte + des Altertums_,2 i. 2 (Berlin, 1909), pp. 401 _sqq._ As to the + hypothesis that the Sumerians were immigrants from Central Asia, see + L. W. King, _History of Sumer and Akkad_, pp. 351 _sqq._ The gradual + desiccation of Central Asia, which is conjectured to have caused the + Sumerian migration, has been similarly invoked to explain the + downfall of the Roman empire; for by rendering great regions + uninhabitable it is supposed to have driven hordes of fierce + barbarians to find new homes in Europe. See Professor J. W. + Gregory's lecture "Is the earth drying up?" delivered before the + Royal Geographical Society and reported in _The Times_, December + 9th, 1913. It is held by Prof. Hommel (_op. cit._ pp. 19 _sqq._) + that the Sumerian language belongs to the Ural-altaic family, but + the better opinion seems to be that its linguistic affinities are + unknown. The view, once ardently advocated, that Sumerian was not a + language but merely a cabalistic mode of writing Semitic, is now + generally exploded. + + 7 H. Zimmern, "Der babylonische Gott Tamuez," _Abhandlungen der + philologisch-historischen Klasse der Koenigl. Saechsischen + Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften_, xxvii. No. xx. (Leipsic, 1909) pp. + 701, 722. + +_ 8 Dumu-zi_, or in fuller form _Dumuzi-abzu_. See P. Jensen, + _Assyrisch-Babylonische Mythen und Epen_ (Berlin, 1900), p. 560; H. + Zimmern, _op. cit._ pp. 703 _sqq._; _id._, in E. Schrader's _Die + Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament_3 (Berlin, 1902), p. 397; P. + Dhorme, _La Religion Assyro-Babylonienne_ (Paris, 1910), p. 105; W. + W. Graf Baudissin, _Adonis und Esmun_ (Leipsic, 1911), p. 104. + + 9 H. Zimmern, "Der babylonische Gott Tamuez," _Abhandl. d. Koen. Saechs. + Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften_, xxvii. No. xx. (Leipsic, 1909) p, + 723. For the text and translation of the hymns, see H. Zimmern, + "Sumerisch-babylonische Tamuezlieder," _Berichte ueber die + Verhandlungen der Koeniglich Saechsischen Gesellschaft der + Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, Philologisch-historische Klasse_, lix. + (1907) pp. 201-252. Compare H. Gressmann, _Altorientalische Texte + und Bilder_ (Tuebingen, 1909), i. 93 _sqq._; W. W. Graf Baudissin, + _Adonis und Esmun_ (Leipsic, 1911), pp. 99 _sq._; R. W. Rogers, + _Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament_ (Oxford, N.D.), pp. + 179-185. + + M6 Tammuz the lover of Ishtar. Descent of Ishtar to the nether world to + recover Tammuz. + M7 Laments for Tammuz. + + 10 A. Jeremias, _Die babylonisch-assyrischen Vorstellungen vom Leben + nach dem Tode_ (Leipsic, 1887), pp. 4 _sqq._; _id._, in W. H. + Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und roem. Mythologie_, ii. 808, iii. + 258 _sqq._; M. Jastrow, _The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_ + (Boston, 1898), pp. 565-576, 584, 682 _sq._; W. L. King, _Babylonian + Religion and Mythology_, pp. 178-183; P. Jensen, + _Assyrisch-babylonische Mythen und Epen_, pp. 81 _sqq._, 95 _sqq._, + 169; R. F. Harper, _Assyrian and Babylonian Literature_ (New York, + 1901), pp. 316 _sq._, 338, 408 _sqq._; H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader's + _Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament_,3 pp. 397 _sqq._, 561 + _sqq._; _id._, "Sumerisch-babylonische Tamuzlieder," _Berichte ueber + die Verhandlungen der Koeniglich Saechsischen Gesellschaft der + Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, Philologisch-historische Klasse_, lix. + (1907) pp. 220, 232, 236 _sq._; _id._, "Der babylonische Gott + Tamuz," _Abhandlungen der philologisch-historischen Klasse der + Koenigl. Saechsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften_, xxvii. No. xx. + (Leipsic, 1909) pp. 725 _sq._, 729-735; H. Gressmann, + _Altorientalische Texte und Bilder zum Alten Testamente_ (Tuebingen, + 1909), i. 65-69; R. W. Rogers, _Cuneiform Parallels to the Old + Testament_ (Oxford, N.D.), pp. 121-131; W. W. Graf Baudissin, + _Adonis und Esmun_ (Leipsic, 1911), pp. 99 _sqq._, 353 _sqq._ + According to Jerome (on Ezekiel viii. 14) the month of Tammuz was + June; but according to modern scholars it corresponded rather to + July, or to part of June and part of July. See F. C. Movers, _Die + Phoenizier_, i. 210; F. Lenormant, "Il mito di Adone-Tammuz nei + documenti cuneiformi," _Atti del IV. Congresso Internazionale degli + Orientalisti_ (Florence, 1880), i. 144 _sq._; W. Mannhardt, _Antike + Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 275; Encyclopaedia Biblica_, _s.v._ + "Months," iii. 3194. My friend W. Robertson Smith informed me that + owing to the variations of the local Syrian calendars the month of + Tammuz fell in different places at different times, from midsummer + to autumn, or from June to September. According to Prof. M. Jastrow, + the festival of Tammuz was celebrated just before the summer + solstice (_The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 547, 682). He + observes that "the calendar of the Jewish Church still marks the + 17th day of Tammuz as a fast, and Houtsma has shown that the + association of the day with the capture of Jerusalem by the Romans + represents merely the attempt to give an ancient festival a worthier + interpretation." + + M8 Adonis in Greek mythology merely a reflection of the Oriental + Tammuz. + + 11 Ezekiel viii. 14. + + 12 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 14. 4; Bion, _Idyl_, i., J. + Tzetzes. _Schol. on Lycophron_, 831; Ovid, _Metam._ x. 503 _sqq._; + Aristides, _Apology_, edited by J. Rendel Harris (Cambridge, 1891), + pp. 44, 106 _sq._ In Babylonian texts relating to Tammuz no + reference has yet been found to death by a boar. See H. Zimmern, + "Sumerisch-babylonische Tamuzlieder," p. 451; _id._, "Der + babylonische Gott Tamuz," p. 731. Baudissin inclines to think that + the incident of the boar is a late importation into the myth of + Adonis. See his _Adonis und Esmun_, pp. 142 _sqq._ As to the + relation of the boar to the kindred gods Adonis, Attis, and Osiris + see _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 22 _sqq._, where I + have suggested that the idea of the boar as the foe of the god may + be based on the terrible ravages which wild pigs notoriously commit + in fields of corn. + + 13 W. W. Graf Baudissin, _Adonis und Esmun_ (Leipsic, 1911), pp. 152 + _sq._, with plate iv. As to the representation of the myth of Adonis + on Etruscan mirrors and late works of Roman art, especially + sarcophaguses and wall-paintings, see Otto Jahn, _Archaeologische + Beitraege_ (Berlin, 1847), pp. 45-51. + + M9 Worship of Adonis and Astarte at Byblus, the kingdom of Cinyras. The + kings of Byblus. + + 14 The ancients were aware that the Syrian and Cyprian Aphrodite, the + mistress of Adonis, was no other than Astarte. See Cicero, _De + natura deorum_, iii. 23. 59; Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iv. 44. + On Adonis in Phoenicia see W. W. Graf Baudissin, _Adonis und Esmun_ + (Leipsic, 1911), pp. 71 _sqq._ + + 15 As to Cinyras, see F. C. Movers, _Die Phoenizier_, i. 238 _sqq._, + ii. 2. 226-231; W. H. Engel, _Kypros_ (Berlin, 1841), i. 168-173, + ii. 94-136; Stoll, _s.v._ "Kinyras," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der + griech. und roem. Mythologie_, ii. 1189 _sqq._ Melito calls the + father of Adonis by the name of Cuthar, and represents him as king + of the Phoenicians with his capital at Gebal (Byblus). See Melito, + "Oration to Antoninus Caesar," in W. Cureton's _Spicilegium + Syriacum_ (London, 1855), p. 44. + + 16 Philo of Byblus, quoted by Eusebius, _Praeparatio Evangelii_, i. 10; + _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. Mueller, iii. 568; + Stephanus Byzantius, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. Byblus is a Greek corruption of + the Semitic Gebal ({~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}), the name which the place still retains. See + E. Renan, _Mission de Phenicie_ (Paris, 1864), p. 155. + + 17 R. Pietschmann, _Geschichte der Phoenizier_ (Berlin, 1889), p. 139. + On the coins it is designated "Holy Byblus." + + 18 Strabo, xvi. 1. 18, p. 755. + + 19 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 6. + + 20 The sanctuary and image are figured on coins of Byblus. See T. L. + Donaldson, _Architectura Numismatica_ (London, 1859), pp. 105 _sq._; + E. Renan, _Mission de Phenicie_, p. 177; G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, + _Histoire de l'Art dans l'Antiquite_, iii. (Paris, 1885) p. 60; R. + Pietschmann, _Geschichte der Phoenizier_, p. 202; G. Maspero, + _Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient Classique_, ii. (Paris, + 1897) p. 173. Renan excavated a massive square pedestal built of + colossal stones, which he thought may have supported the sacred + obelisk (_op. cit._ pp. 174-178). + + 21 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 6. + + 22 Strabo, xvi. 1. 18, p. 755. + + 23 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 8; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ v. 78; E. Renan, + _Mission de Phenicie_, pp. 282 _sqq._ + + 24 Eustathius, _Commentary on Dionysius Periegetes_, 912 (_Geographi + Graeci Minores_, ed. C. Mueller, ii. 376); Melito, in W. Cureton's + _Spicilegium Syriacum_, p. 44. + + 25 Ezekiel xxvii. 9. As to the name Gebal see above, p. 13, note 1. + + 26 L. B. Paton, _The Early History of Syria and Palestine_ (London, + 1902), pp. 169-171. See below, pp. 75 _sq._ + + 27 L. B. Paton, _op. cit._ p. 235; R. F. Harper, _Assyrian and + Babylonian Literature_, p. 57 (the Nimrud inscription of + Tiglath-pileser III.). + + 28 The inscription was discovered by Renan. See Ch. Vellay, _Le culte + et les fetes d'Adonis-Thammouz dans l'Orient antique_ (Paris, 1904), + pp. 38 _sq._; G. A. Cooke, _Text-book of North-Semitic Inscriptions_ + (Oxford 1903), No. 3, pp. 18 _sq._ In the time of Alexander the + Great the king of Byblus was a certain Enylus (Arrian, _Anabasis_, + ii. 20), whose name appears on a coin of the city (F. C. Movers, + _Die Phoenizier_, ii. 1, p. 103, note 81). + + M10 Divinity of Semitic kings. + + 29 On the divinity of Semitic kings and the kingship of Semitic gods + see W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_2 (London, 1894), pp. 44 + _sq._, 66 _sqq._ + + 30 H. Radau, _Early Babylonian History_ (New York and London, 1900), + pp. 307-317; P. Dhorme, _La Religion Assyro-Babylonienne_ (Paris, + 1910), pp. 168 _sqq._ + + 31 The evidence for this is the Moabite stone, but the reading of the + inscription is doubtful. See S. R. Driver, in _Encyclopaedia + Biblica_, _s.v._ "Mesha," vol. iii. 3041 _sqq._; _id._, _Notes on + the Hebrew Text and the Topography of the Books of Samuel_, Second + Edition (Oxford, 1913), pp. lxxxv., lxxxvi., lxxxviii. _sq._; G. A. + Cooke, _Text-book of North-Semitic Inscriptions_, No. 1, pp. 1 + _sq._, 6. + + 32 2 Kings viii. 7, 9, xiii. 24 _sq._; Jeremiah xlix. 27. As to the god + Hadad see Macrobius, _Saturn_, i. 23. 17-19 (where, as so often in + late writers, the Syrians are called Assyrians); Philo of Byblus, in + _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. Mueller, iii. 569; F. + Baethgen, _Beitraege zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte_ (Berlin, + 1888), pp. 66-68; G. A. Cooke, _Text-book of North-Semitic + Inscriptions_, Nos. 61, 62, pp. 161 _sq._, 164, 173, 175; M. J. + Lagrange, _Etudes sur les Religions Semitiques_2 (Paris, 1905), pp. + 93, 493, 496 _sq._ The prophet Zechariah speaks (xii. 11) of a great + mourning of or for Hadadrimmon in the plain of Megiddon. This has + been taken to refer to a lament for Hadad-Rimmon, the Syrian god of + rain, storm, and thunder, like the lament for Adonis. See S. R. + Driver's note on the passage (_The Minor Prophets_, pp. 266 _sq._, + _Century Bible_); W. W. Graf Baudissin, _Adonis und Esmun_, p. 92. + + 33 Josephus, _Antiquit. Jud._ ix. 4. 6. + + 34 Genesis xxxvi. 35 _sq._; 1 Kings xi. 14-22; 1 Chronicles i. 50 _sq._ + Of the eight kings of Edom mentioned in Genesis (xxxvi. 31-39) and + in 1 Chronicles (i. 43-50) not one was the son of his predecessor. + This seems to indicate that in Edom, as elsewhere, the blood royal + was traced in the female line, and that the kings were men of other + families, or even foreigners, who succeeded to the throne by + marrying the hereditary princesses. See _The Magic Art and the + Evolution of Kings_, ii. 268 _sqq._ The Israelites were forbidden to + have a foreigner for a king (Deuteronomy xvii. 15 with S. R. + Driver's note), which seems to imply that the custom was known among + their neighbours. It is significant that some of the names of the + kings of Edom seem to be those of divinities, as Prof. A. H. Sayce + observed long ago (_Lectures on the Religion of the Ancient + Babylonians_, London and Edinburgh, 1887, p. 54). + + 35 G. A. Cooke, _op. cit._ Nos. 62, 63, pp. 163, 165, 173 _sqq._, 181 + _sqq._; M. J. Lagrange, _op. cit._ pp. 496 _sqq._ The god Rekub-el + is mentioned along with the gods Hadad, El, Reshef, and Shamash in + an inscription of King Bar-rekub's mortal father, King Panammu (G. + A. Cooke, _op. cit._ No. 61, p. 161). + + 36 Virgil, _Aen._ i. 729 _sq._, with Servius's note; Silius Italicus, + _Punica_, i. 86 _sqq._ + + 37 Ezekiel xxviii. 2, 9. + + 38 Menander of Ephesus, quoted by Josephus, _Contra Apionem_, i. 18 and + 21; _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. Mueller, iv. 446 _sq._ + According to the text of Josephus, as edited by B. Niese, the names + of the kings in question were Abibal, Balbazer, Abdastart, + Methusastart, son of Leastart, Ithobal, Balezor, Baal, Balator, + Merbal. The passage of Menander is quoted also by Eusebius, + _Chronic._ i. pp. 118, 120, ed. A. Schoene. + + 39 G. A. Cooke, _Text-book of North-Semitic Inscriptions_, No. 36, p. + 102. As to Melcarth, the Tyrian Hercules, see Ed. Meyer, _s.v._ + "Melqart," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon d. griech. u. roem. + Mythologie_, ii. 2650 _sqq._ One of the Tyrian kings seems to have + been called Abi-milk (Abi-melech), that is, "father of a king" or + "father of Moloch," that is, of Melcarth. A letter of his to the + king of Egypt is preserved in the Tel-el-Amarna correspondence. See + R. F. Harper, _Assyrian and Babylonian Literature_, p. 237. As to a + title which implies that the bearer of it was the father of a god, + see below, pp. 51 _sq._ + + M11 Divinity of the Phoenician kings of Byblus and the Canaanite kings + of Jerusalem. The "sacred men" at Jerusalem. + + 40 E. Renan, quoted by Ch. Vellay, _Le culte et les fetes + d'Adonis-Thammouz_, p. 39. Mr. Cooke reads {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL KAF~} (Uri-milk) instead + of {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL KAF~} (Adon-milk) (G. A. Cooke, _Text-book of North-Semitic + Inscriptions_, No. 3, p. 18). + + 41 Judges i. 4-7; Joshua x. 1 _sqq._ + + 42 Genesis xiv. 18-20, with Prof. S. R. Driver's commentary; + _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, _s.vv._ "Adoni-bezek," "Adoni-zedek," + "Melchizedek." It is to be observed that names compounded with + Adoni- were occasionally borne by private persons. Such names are + Adoni-kam (Ezra ii. 13) and Adoni-ram (1 Kings iv. 6), not to + mention Adoni-jah (1 Kings i. 5 _sqq._), who was a prince and + aspired to the throne of his father David. These names are commonly + interpreted as sentences expressive of the nature of the god whom + the bearer of the name worshipped. See Prof. Th. Noeldeke, in + _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, _s.v._ "Names," iii. 3286. It is quite + possible that names which once implied divinity were afterwards + degraded by application to common men. + + 43 Ezekiel viii. 14. + + 44 They were banished from the temple by King Josiah, who came to the + throne in 637 B.C. Jerusalem fell just fifty-one years later. See 2 + Kings xxiii. 7. As to these "sacred men" (_kedeshim_), see below, + pp. 72 _sqq._ + + 45 2 Kings xxiii. 7, where, following the Septuagint, we must + apparently read {~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER NUN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} for the {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} of the Massoretic Text. So R. + Kittel and J. Skinner. + + 46 The _asherah_ (singular of _asherim_) was certainly of wood (Judges + vi. 26): it seems to have been a tree stripped of its branches and + planted in the ground beside an altar, whether of Jehovah or of + other gods (Deuteronomy xvi. 21; Jeremiah xvii. 2). That the + _asherah_ was regarded as a goddess, the female partner of Baal, + appears from 1 Kings xviii. 19; 2 Kings xxi. 3, xxiii. 4; and that + this goddess was identified with Ashtoreth (Astarte) may be inferred + from a comparison of Judges ii. 13 with Judges iii. 7. Yet on the + other hand the pole or tree seems by others to have been viewed as a + male power (Jeremiah ii. 27; see below, pp. 107 _sqq._), and the + identification of the _asherah_ with Astarte has been doubted or + disputed by some eminent modern scholars. See on this subject W. + Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_,2 pp. 187 _sqq._; S. R. + Driver, on Deuteronomy xvi. 21; J. Skinner, on 1 Kings xiv. 23; M. + J. Lagrange, _Etudes sur les religions Semitiques_,2 pp. 173 _sqq._; + G. F. Moore, in _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, vol. i. 330 _sqq._, _s.v._ + "Asherah." + + 47 Deuteronomy xxiii. 17 _sq._ (in Hebrew 18 _sq._). The code of + Deuteronomy was published in 621 B.C. in the reign of King Josiah, + whose reforms, including the ejection of the _kedeshim_ from the + temple, were based upon it. See W. Robertson Smith, _The Old + Testament in the Jewish Church_2 (London and Edinburgh, 1892), pp. + 256 _sqq._, 353 _sqq._; S. R. Driver, _Critical and Exegetical + Commentary on Deuteronomy_3 (Edinburgh, 1902), pp. xliv. _sqq._; K. + Budde, _Geschichte der althebraeischen Litteratur_ (Leipsic, 1906), + pp. 105 _sqq._ + + M12 David as heir of the old sacred kings of Jerusalem. + + 48 He reigned seven years in Hebron and thirty-three in Jerusalem (2 + Samuel v. 5; 1 Kings ii. 11; 1 Chronicles xxix. 27). + + 49 Professor A. H. Sayce has argued that David's original name was + Elhanan (2 Samuel xxi. 19 compared with xxiii. 24), and that the + name David, which he took at a later time, should be written Dod or + Dodo, "the Beloved One," which according to Prof. Sayce was a name + for Tammuz (Adonis) in Southern Canaan, and was in particular + bestowed by the Jebusites of Jerusalem on their supreme deity. See + A. H. Sayce, _Lectures on the Religion of the Ancient Babylonians_ + (London and Edinburgh, 1887), pp. 52-57. If he is right, his + conclusions would accord perfectly with those which I had reached + independently, and it would become probable that David only assumed + the name of David (Dod, Dodo) after the conquest of Jerusalem, and + for the purpose of identifying himself with the god of the city, who + had borne the same title from time immemorial. But on the whole it + seems more likely, as Professor Kennett points out to me, that in + the original story Elhanah, a totally different person from David, + was the slayer of Goliath, and that the part of the giant-killer was + thrust on David at a later time when the brightness of his fame had + eclipsed that of many lesser heroes. + + 50 2 Samuel xii. 26-31; 1 Chronicles xx. 1-3. Critics seem generally to + agree that in these passages the word {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} must be pointed _Milcom_, + not _malcham_ "their king," as the Massoretic text, followed by the + English version, has it. The reading _Milcom_, which involves no + change of the original Hebrew text, is supported by the reading of + the Septuagint {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, where the three last words + are probably a gloss on {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}. See S. R. Driver, _Notes on the + Hebrew Text and the Topography of the Books of Samuel_, Second + Edition (Oxford, 1913), p. 294; Dean Kirkpatrick, in his note on 2 + Samuel xii. 30 (_Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges_); + _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, iii. 3085; R. Kittel, _Biblia Hebraica_, i. + 433; Brown, Driver, and Briggs, _Hebrew and English Lexicon of the + Old Testament_ (Oxford, 1906), pp. 575 _sq._ David's son and + successor adopted the worship of Milcom and made a high place for + him outside Jerusalem. See 1 Kings xi. 5; 2 Kings xxiii. 13. + + 51 2 Samuel v. 6-10; 1 Chronicles xi. 4-9. + + M13 Traces of the divinity of Hebrew kings. + + 52 See for example 1 Samuel xxiv. 8; 2 Samuel xiv. 9, 12, 15, 17, 18, + 19, 22, xv. 15, 21, xvi. 4, 9, xviii. 28, 31, 32; 1 Kings i. 2, 13, + 18, 20, 21, 24, 27; 1 Chronicles xxi. 3, 23. + + 53 Jeremiah xxii. 18, xxxiv. 5. In the former passage, according to the + Massoretic text, the full formula of mourning was, "Alas my brother! + alas sister! alas lord! alas his glory!" Who was the lamented + sister? Professor T. K. Cheyne supposes that she was Astarte, and by + a very slight change ({~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} for {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}) he would read "Dodah" for "his + glory," thus restoring the balance between the clauses; for "Dodah" + would then answer to "Adon" (lord) as "sister" answers to "brother." + I have to thank Professor Cheyne for kindly communicating this + conjecture to me by letter. He writes that Dodah "is a title of + Ishtar, just as Dod is a title of Tamuz," and for evidence he refers + me to the Dodah of the Moabite Stone, where, however, the reading + Dodah is not free from doubt. See G. A. Cooke, _Text-book of + North-Semitic Inscriptions_, No. 1, pp. 1, 3, 11; _Encyclopaedia + Biblica_, ii. 3045; S. R. Driver, _Notes on the Hebrew Text and the + Topography of the Books of Samuel_, Second Edition (Oxford, 1913), + pp. lxxxv., lxxxvi., xc.; F. Baethgen, _Beitraege zur semitischen + Religionsgeschichte_ (Berlin, 1888), p. 234; H. Winckler, + _Geschichte Israels_ (Leipsic, 1895-1900), ii. 258. As to Hebrew + names formed from the root _dod_ in the sense of "beloved," see + Brown, Driver, and Briggs, _Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old + Testament_, pp. 187 _sq._; G. B. Gray, _Studies in Hebrew Proper + Names_ (London, 1896), pp. 60 _sqq._ + + 54 This was perceived by Renan (_Histoire du peuple d'Israel_, iii. + 273), and Prof. T. K. Cheyne writes to me: "The formulae of public + mourning were derived from the ceremonies of the Adonia; this + Lenormant saw long ago." + + 55 1 Chronicles xxix. 23; 2 Chronicles ix. 8. + + 56 1 Samuel xvi. 13, 14, compare _id._, x. 1 and 20. The oil was poured + on the king's head (1 Samuel x. 1; 2 Kings ix. 3, 6). For the + conveyance of the divine spirit by means of oil, see also Isaiah lx. + 1. The kings of Egypt appear to have consecrated their vassal Syrian + kings by pouring oil on their heads. See the Tell-el-Amarna letters, + No. 37 (H. Winckler, _Die Thontafeln von Tell-el-Amarna_, p. 99). + Some West African priests are consecrated by a similar ceremony. See + below, p. 68. The natives of Buru, an East Indian island, imagine + that they can keep off demons by smearing their bodies with coco-nut + oil, but the oil must be prepared by young unmarried girls. See G. + A. Wilken, "Bijdrage tot de kennis der Alfoeren van het eiland + Boeroe," _Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten + en Wetenschappen_, xxxviii. (Batavia, 1875) p. 30; _id._, + _Verspreide Geschriften_ (The Hague, 1912), i. 61. In some tribes of + North-West America hunters habitually anointed their hair with + decoctions of certain plants and deer's brains before they set out + to hunt. The practice was probably a charm to secure success in the + hunt. See C. Hill-Tout, _The Home of the Salish and Dene_ (London, + 1907), p. 72. + + 57 1 Samuel xxiv. 6. Messiah in Hebrew is _Mashiah_ ({~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}). The English + form Messiah is derived from the Aramaic through the Greek. See T. + K. Cheyne, in _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, _s.v._ "Messiah," vol. iii. + 3057 _sqq._ Why hair oil should be considered a vehicle of + inspiration is by no means clear. It would have been intelligible if + the olive had been with the Hebrews, as it was with the Athenians, a + sacred tree under the immediate protection of a deity; for then a + portion of the divine essence might be thought to reside in the oil. + W. Robertson Smith supposed that the unction was originally + performed with the fat of a sacrificial victim, for which vegetable + oil was a later substitute (_Religion of the Semites_,2 pp. 383 + _sq._). On the whole subject see J. Wellhausen, "Zwei Rechtsriten + bei den Hebraeern," _Archiv fuer Religionswissenschaft_, vii. (1904) + pp. 33-39; H. Weinel, "{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER SHIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~} und seine Derivate," _Zeitschrift fuer die + alttestamentliche Wissenschaft_, xviii. (1898) pp. 1-82. + + M14 The Hebrew kings seem to have been held responsible for drought and + famine. + + 58 2 Samuel xxi. 1-14, with Dean Kirkpatrick's notes on 1 and 10. + +_ 59 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 284 _sq._ + + 60 1 Samuel xii. 17 _sq._ Similarly, Moses stretched forth his rod + toward heaven and the Lord sent thunder and rain (Exodus ix. 23). + The word for thunder in both these passages is "voices" ({~HEBREW LETTER QOF~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}). The + Hebrews heard in the clap of thunder the voice of Jehovah, just as + the Greeks heard in it the voice of Zeus and the Romans the voice of + Jupiter. + + M15 Excessive rain set down to the wrath of the deity. + + 61 Ezekiel xiii. 11, 13, xxxviii. 22; Jeremiah iii. 2 _sq._ The Hebrews + looked to Jehovah for rain (Leviticus xxvi. 3-5; Jeremiah v. 24) + just as the Greeks looked to Zeus and the Romans to Jupiter. + + 62 Ezra x. 9-14. The special sin which they laid to heart on this + occasion was their marriage with Gentile women. It is implied, + though not expressly said, that they traced the inclemency of the + weather to these unfortunate alliances. Similarly, "during the rainy + season, when the sun is hidden behind great masses of dark clouds, + the Indians set up a wailing for their sins, believing that the sun + is angry and may never shine on them again." See Francis C. + Nicholas, "The Aborigines of Santa Maria, Colombia," _American + Anthropologist_, N.S., iii. (New York, 1901) p. 641. The Indians in + question are the Aurohuacas of Colombia, in South America. + + 63 Psalm cxxxvii. The willows beside the rivers of Babylon are + mentioned in the laments for Tammuz. See above, pp. 9, 10. + + 64 The line of the Dead Sea, lying in its deep trough, is visible from + the Mount of Olives; indeed, so clear is the atmosphere that the + blue water seems quite near the eye, though in fact it is more than + fifteen miles off and nearly four thousand feet below the spectator. + See K. Baedeker, _Palestine and Syria_4 (Leipsic, 1906), p. 77. When + the sun shines on it, the lake is of a brilliant blue (G. A. Smith, + _Historical Geography of the Holy Land_, London, 1894, pp. 501 + _sq._); but its brilliancy is naturally dimmed under clouded skies. + + M16 Hebrew kings apparently supposed to heal disease and stop epidemics. + + 65 2 Kings v. 5-7. + + 66 2 Samuel xxiv.; 1 Chronicles xxi. In this passage, contrary to his + usual practice, the Chronicler has enlivened the dull tenor of his + history with some picturesque touches which we miss in the + corresponding passage of Kings. It is to him that we owe the vision + of the Angel of the Plague first stretching out his sword over + Jerusalem and then returning it to the scabbard. From him Defoe + seems to have taken a hint in his account of the prodigies, real or + imaginary, which heralded the outbreak of the Great Plague in + London. "One time before the plague was begun, otherwise than as I + have said in St. Giles's, I think it was in March, seeing a crowd of + people in the street, I joined with them to satisfy my curiosity, + and found them all staring up into the air to see what a woman told + them appeared plain to her, which was an angel clothed in white with + a fiery sword in his hand, waving it or brandishing it over his + head.... One saw one thing and one another. I looked as earnestly as + the rest, but, perhaps, not with so much willingness to be imposed + upon; and I said, indeed, that I could see nothing but a white + cloud, bright on one side, by the shining of the sun upon the other + part." See Daniel Defoe, _History of the Plague in London_ + (Edinburgh, 1810, pp. 33 _sq._). It is the more likely that Defoe + had here the Chronicler in mind, because a few pages earlier he + introduces the prophet Jonah and a man out of Josephus with very + good effect. + + M17 The rarity of references to the divinity of Hebrew kings in the + historical books may be explained by the circumstances in which + these works were composed or edited. + + 67 2 Kings xvii. 5 _sq._, xviii. 9 _sq._ + + 68 2 Kings xix. 32-36. + + 69 We owe to Ezekiel (xxiii. 5 _sq._, 12) the picture of the handsome + Assyrian cavalrymen in their blue uniforms and gorgeous trappings. + The prophet writes as if in his exile by the waters of Babylon he + had seen the blue regiments filing past, in all the pomp of war, on + their way to the front. + + M18 The historical books were composed or edited under the influence of + the prophetic reformation. + + 70 Samaria fell in 722 B.C., during or just before the reign of + Hezekiah: the Book of Deuteronomy, the cornerstone of king Josiah's + reformation, was produced in 621 B.C.; and Jerusalem fell in 586 + B.C. The date of Hezekiah's accession is a much-disputed point in + the chronology of Judah. See the Introduction to Kings and Isaiah + i.-xxxix. by J. Skinner and O. C. Whitehouse respectively, in _The + Century Bible_. + + 71 Or the Deuteronomic redactor, as the critics call him. See W. + Robertson Smith, _The Old Testament in the Jewish Church_2 (London + and Edinburgh, 1892), pp. 395 _sq._, 425; _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, + ii. 2078 _sqq._, 2633 _sqq._, iv. 4273 _sqq._; K. Budde, _Geschichte + der althebraeischen Litteratur_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 99, 121 _sqq._, + 127 _sqq._, 132; Principal J. Skinner, in his introduction to Kings + (in _The Century Bible_), pp. 10 _sqq._ + + M19 The Baal and his female Baalath the sources of all fertility. + + 72 Menander of Ephesus, quoted by Josephus, _Contra Apionem_, i. 18 + (_Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. Mueller, iv. 446); G. A. + Cooke, _Text-book of North-Semitic Inscriptions_, No. 4, p. 26. + According to Justin, however, the priest of Hercules, that is, of + Melcarth, at Tyre, was distinct from the king and second to him in + dignity. See Justin, xviii. 4, 5. + + 73 Hosea ii. 5 _sqq._; W. Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_2 + (London, 1894), pp. 95-107. + + 74 W. Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_,2 pp. 107 _sq._ + + M20 Personation of the Baal by the king. + +_ 75 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 120 _sqq._, 376 + _sqq._ + + M21 Cinyras, king of Byblus. Aphaca and the vale of the Adonis. + Monuments of Adonis. + + 76 Strabo, xvi. 1. 18, p. 755. + + 77 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 9. + + 78 Eusebius, _Vita Constantini_, iii. 55; Sozomenus, _Historia + Ecclesiastica_, ii. 5; Socrates, _Historia Ecclesiastica_, i. 18; + Zosimus, i. 58. + + 79 On the valley of the Nahr Ibrahim, its scenery and monuments, see + Edward Robinson, _Biblical Researches in Palestine_3 (London, 1867), + iii. 603-609; W. M. Thomson, _The Land and the Book, Lebanon, + Damascus, and beyond Jordan_ (London, 1886), pp. 239-246; E. Renan, + _Mission de Phenicie_, pp. 282 _sqq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire + Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient Classique_, ii. (Paris, 1897) pp. + 175-179; Sir Charles Wilson, _Picturesque Palestine_ (London, N.D.), + iii. 16, 17, 27. Among the trees which line the valley are oak, + sycamore, bay, plane, orange, and mulberry (W. M. Thomson, _op. + cit._ p. 245). Travellers are unanimous in testifying to the + extraordinary beauty of the vale of the Adonis. Thus Robinson + writes: "There is no spot in all my wanderings on which memory + lingers with greater delight than on the sequestered retreat and + exceeding loveliness of Afka." Renan says that the landscape is one + of the most beautiful in the world. My friend the late Sir Francis + Galton wrote to me (20th September 1906): "I have no good map of + Palestine, but strongly suspect that my wanderings there, quite + sixty years ago, took me to the place you mention, above the gorge + of the river Adonis. Be that as it may, I have constantly asserted + that the view I then had of a deep ravine and blue sea seen through + the cliffs that bounded it, was the most beautiful I had ever set + eyes on." + +_ 80 Etymologicum Magnum_, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, p. 175. + + 81 Melito, "Oration to Antoninus Caesar," in W. Cureton's _Spicilegium + Syriacum_ (London, 1855), p. 44. + + 82 E. Renan, _Mission de Phenicie_, pp. 292-294. The writer seems to + have no doubt that the beast attacking Adonis is a bear, not a boar. + Views of the monument are given by A. Jeremias, _Das Alte Testament + im Lichte des Alten Orients_2 (Leipsic, 1906), p. 90, and by + Baudissin, _Adonis und Esmun_, plates i. and ii., with his + discussion, pp. 78 _sqq._ + + 83 Macrobius, _Saturn_, i. 21. 5. + + 84 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 8. + + M22 Phoenician colonies in Cyprus. + + 85 F. C. Movers, _Die Phoenizier_, ii. 2, p. 224; G. Maspero, _Histoire + Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient Classique_, ii. 199; G. A. Smith, + _Historical Geography of the Holy Land_ (London, 1894), p. 135. + + 86 On the natural wealth of Cyprus see Strabo, xiv. 6. 5; W. H. Engel, + _Kypros_, i. 40-71; F. C. Movers, _Die Phoenizier_, ii. 2, pp. 224 + _sq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient + Classique_, ii. 200 _sq._; E. Oberhummer, _Die Insel Cypern_, i. + (Munich, 1903) pp. 175 _sqq._, 243 _sqq._ As to the firs and cedars + of Cyprus see Theophrastus, _Historia Plantarum_, v. 7. 1, v. 9. 1. + The Cyprians boasted that they could build and rig a ship complete, + from her keel to her topsails, with the native products of their + island (Ammianus Marcellinus, xiv. 8. 14). + + 87 G. A. Cooke, _Text-Book of North-Semitic Inscriptions_, Nos. 12-25, + pp. 55-76, 347-349; P. Gardner, _New Chapters in Greek History_ + (London, 1892), pp. 179, 185. It has been held that the name of + Citium is etymologically identical with Hittite. If that was so, it + would seem that the town was built and inhabited by a non-Semitic + people before the arrival of the Phoenicians. See _Encyclopaedia + Biblica_, _s.v._ "Kittim." Other traces of this older race, akin to + the primitive stock of Asia Minor, have been detected in Cyprus; + amongst them the most obvious is the Cyprian syllabary, the + characters of which are neither Phoenician nor Greek in origin. See + P. Gardner, _op. cit._ pp. 154, 173-175, 178 _sq._ + + 88 G. A. Cooke, _Text-Book of North-Semitic Inscriptions_, No. 11, p. + 52. + + 89 Stephanus Byzantius, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; Pausanias, ix. 41. 2 _sq._ + According to Pausanias, there was a remarkable necklace of green + stones and gold in the sanctuary of Adonis and Aphrodite at Amathus. + The Greeks commonly identified it with the necklace of Harmonia or + Eriphyle. A terra-cotta statuette of Astarte, found at Amathus (?), + represents her wearing a necklace which she touches with one hand. + See L. P. di Cesnola, _Cyprus_ (London, 1877), p. 275. The scanty + ruins of Amathus occupy an isolated hill beside the sea. Among them + is an enormous stone jar, half buried in the earth, of which the + four handles are adorned with figures of bulls. It is probably of + Phoenician manufacture. See L. Ross, _Reisen nach Kos, + Halikarnassos, Rhodes und der Insel Cypern_ (Halle, 1852), pp. 168 + _sqq._ + + 90 Stephanus Byzantius, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. For the relation of Adonis to + Osiris at Byblus see below, vol. ii. pp. 9 _sq._, 22 _sq._, 127. + + 91 Hesychius, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. + + 92 L. P. di Cesnola, _Cyprus_, pp. 254-283; G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, + _Histoire de l'Art dans l'Antiquite_, iii. (Paris, 1885) pp. + 216-222. + + M23 Kingdom of Paphos. Sanctuary of Aphrodite at Paphos. + + 93 D. G. Hogarth, _Devia Cypria_ (London, 1889), pp. 1-3; + _Encyclopaedia Britannica_,9 vi. 747; Elisee Reclus, _Nouvelle + Geographie Universelle_ (Paris, 1879-1894), ix. 668. + + 94 T. L. Donaldson, _Architectura Numismatica_ (London, 1859), pp. + 107-109, with fig. 31; _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, ix. (1888) pp. + 210-213; G. F. Hill, _Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Cyprus_ + (London, 1904), pp. cxxvii-cxxxiv, with plates xiv. 2, 3, 6-8, xv. + 1-4, 7, xvi. 2, 4, 6-9, xvii. 4-6, 8, 9, xxvi. 3, 6-16; George + Macdonald, _Catalogue of Greek Coins in the Hunterian Collection_ + (Glasgow, 1899-1905), ii. 566, with pl. lxi. 19. As to the existing + remains of the temple, which were excavated by an English expedition + in 1887-1888, see "Excavations in Cyprus, 1887-1888," _Journal of + Hellenic Studies_, ix. (1888) pp. 193 _sqq._ Previous accounts of + the temple are inaccurate and untrustworthy. + + 95 C. Schuchhardt, _Schliemann's Ausgrabungen_2 (Leipsic, 1891), pp. + 231-233; G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, _Histoire de l'Art dans + l'Antiquite_, vi. (Paris, 1894) pp. 336 _sq._, 652-654; _Journal of + Hellenic Studies_, ix. (1888) pp. 213 _sq._; P. Gardner, _New + Chapters in Greek History_, p. 181. + + 96 J. Selden, _De dis Syris_ (Leipsic, 1668), pp. 274 _sqq._; S. + Bochart, _Hierozoicon_, Editio Tertia (Leyden, 1692), ii. 4 _sqq._ + Compare the statue of a priest with a dove in his hand, which was + found in Cyprus (Perrot et Chipiez, _Histoire de l'Art dans + l'Antiquite_, iii. Paris, 1885, p. 510), with fig. 349. + + 97 A. J. Evans, "Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult," _Journal of Hellenic + Studies_, xxi. (1901) pp. 99 _sqq._ + + M24 The Aphrodite of Paphos a Phoenician or aboriginal deity. Her + conical image. + + 98 Tacitus, _Annals_, iii. 62. + + 99 Herodotus, i. 105; compare Pausanias, i. 14. 7. Herodotus only + speaks of the sanctuary of Aphrodite in Cyprus, but he must refer to + the great one at Paphos. At Ascalon a goddess was worshipped in + mermaid-shape under the name of Derceto, and fish and doves were + sacred to her (Diodorus Siculus, ii. 4; compare Lucian, _De dea + Syria_, 14). The name Derceto, like the much more correct Atargatis, + is a Greek corruption of _'Attar_, the Aramaic form of _Astarte_, + but the two goddesses Atargatis and Astarte, in spite of the + affinity of their names, appear to have been historically distinct. + See Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2 (Stuttgart and + Berlin, 1909), pp. 605, 650 _sq._; F. Baethgen, _Beitraege zur + Semitischen Religionsgeschichte_ (Berlin, 1888), pp. 68 _sqq._; F. + Cumont, _s.vv._ "Atargatis" and "Dea Syria," in Pauly-Wissowa's + _Real-Encyclopaedie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_; Rene + Dussaud, _Notes de Mythologie Syrienne_ (Paris, 1903), pp. 82 + _sqq._; R. A. Stewart Macalister, _The Philistines, their History + and Civilization_ (London, 1913), pp. 94 _sqq._ + + 100 It is described by ancient writers and figured on coins. See + Tacitus, _Hist._ ii. 3; Maximus Tyrius, _Dissert._ viii. 8; Servius + on Virgil, _Aen._ i. 720; T. L. Donaldson, _Architectura + Numismatica_, p. 107, with fig. 31; _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, + ix. (1888) pp. 210-212. According to Maximus Tyrius, the material of + the pyramid was unknown. Probably it was a stone. The English + archaeologists found several fragments of white cones on the site of + the temple at Paphos: one which still remains in its original + position in the central chamber was of limestone and of somewhat + larger size (_Journal of Hellenic Studies_, ix. (1888) p. 180). + + 101 See above, p. 14. + + 102 On coins of Perga the sacred cone is represented as richly decorated + and standing in a temple between sphinxes. See B. V. Head, _Historia + Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), p. 585; P. Gardner, _Types of Greek Coins_ + (Cambridge, 1883), pl. xv. No. 3; G. F. Hill, _Catalogue of the + Greek Coins of Lycia, Pamphylia, and Pisidia_ (London, 1897), pl. + xxiv. 12, 15, 16. However, Mr. G. F. Hill writes to me: "Is the + stone at Perga really a cone? I have always thought it was a cube or + something of that kind. On the coins the upper, sloping portion is + apparently an elaborate veil or head-dress. The head attached to the + stone is seen in the middle of this, surmounted by a tall + _kalathos_." The sanctuary stood on a height, and a festival was + held there annually (Strabo, xiv. 4. 2, p. 667). The native title of + the goddess was _Anassa_, that is, "Queen." See B. V. Head, _l.c._; + Wernicke, _s.v._ "Artemis," in Pauly-Wissowa, _Real-Encyclopaedie der + classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, ii. 1, col. 1397. Aphrodite at + Paphos bore the same title. See below, p. 42, note 6. The worship of + Pergaean Artemis at Halicarnassus was cared for by a priestess, who + held office for life and had to make intercession for the city at + every new moon. See G. Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum_2 (Leipsic, 1898-1901), vol. ii. p. 373, No. 601. + + 103 Herodian, v. 3. 5. This cone was of black stone, with some small + knobs on it, like the stone of Cybele at Pessinus. It is figured on + coins of Emesa. See B. V. Head, _Historia Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), + p. 659; P. Gardner, _Types of Greek Coins_, pl. xv. No. 1. The + sacred stone of Cybele, which the Romans brought from Pessinus to + Rome during the Second Punic War, was small, black, and rugged, but + we are not told that it was of conical shape. See Arnobius, + _Adversus Nationes_, vii. 49; Livy, xxix. 11. 7. According to one + reading, Servius (on Virgil, _Aen._ vii. 188) speaks of the stone of + Cybele as a needle (_acus_), which would point to a conical shape. + But the reading appears to be without manuscript authority, and + other emendations have been suggested. + + 104 G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, _Histoire de l'Art dans l'Antiquite_, iii. + 273, 298 _sq._, 304 _sq._ The sanctuary of Aphrodite, or rather + Astarte, at Golgi is said to have been even more ancient than her + sanctuary at Paphos (Pausanias, viii. 5. 2). + + 105 W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Researches in Sinai_ (London, 1906), pp. 135 + _sq._, 189. Votive cones made of clay have been found in large + numbers in Babylonia, particularly at Lagash and Nippur. See M. + Jastrow, _The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_ (Boston, U.S.A., + 1898), pp. 672-674. + + 106 Tacitus, _Hist._ ii. 3. + + 107 We learn this from an inscription found at Paphos. See _Journal of + Hellenic Studies_, ix. (1888) pp. 188, 231. + + 108 Pausanias, x. 24. 6, with my note. + + 109 D. G. Hogarth, _A Wandering Scholar in the Levant_ (London, 1896), + pp. 179 _sq._ Women used to creep through a holed stone to obtain + children at a place on the Dee in Aberdeenshire. See _Balder the + Beautiful_, ii. 187. + + 110 G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, _Histoire de l'Art dans l'Antiquite_, iii. + 628. + + M25 Sacred prostitution in the worship of the Paphian Aphrodite and of + other Asiatic goddesses. + + 111 Herodotus, i. 199; Athenaeus, xii. 11, p. 516 A; Justin, xviii. 5. + 4; Lactantius, _Divin. Inst._ i. 17; W. H. Engel, _Kypros_, ii. 142 + _sqq._ Asiatic customs of this sort have been rightly explained by + W. Mannhardt (_Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 283 _sqq._). + + 112 Herodotus, i. 199; Strabo, xvi. 1. 20, p. 745. As to the identity of + Mylitta with Astarte see H. Zimmern in E. Schrader's _Die + Keilinschriften und das alte Testament_,3 pp. 423, note 7, 428, note + 4. According to him, the name Mylitta comes from _Mu'allidtu_, "she + who helps women in travail." In this character Ishtar would answer + to the Greek Artemis and the Latin Diana. As to sacred prostitution + in the worship of Ishtar see M. Jastrow, _The Religion of Babylonia + and Assyria_, pp. 475 _sq._, 484 _sq._; P. Dhorme, _La Religion + Assyro-Babylonienne_ (Paris, 1910), pp. 86, 300 _sq._ + + 113 Eusebius, _Vita Constantini_, iii. 58; Socrates, _Historia + Ecclesiastica_, i. 18. 7-9; Sozomenus, Historia Ecclesiastica, v. + 10. 7. Socrates says that at Heliopolis local custom obliged the + women to be held in common, so that paternity was unknown, "for + there was no distinction of parents and children, and the people + prostituted their daughters to the strangers who visited them" ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}). The prostitution of matrons as well as of maids is + mentioned by Eusebius. As he was born and spent his life in Syria, + and was a contemporary of the practices he describes, the bishop of + Caesarea had the best opportunity of informing himself as to them, + and we ought not, as Prof. M. P. Nilsson does (_Griechische Feste_, + Leipsic, 1906, p. 366 n.2), to allow his positive testimony on this + point to be outweighed by the silence of the later historian + Sozomenus, who wrote long after the custom had been abolished. + Eusebius had good reason to know the heathenish customs which were + kept up in his diocese; for he was sharply taken to task by + Constantine for allowing sacrifices to be offered on altars under + the sacred oak or terebinth at Mamre; and in obedience to the + imperial commands he caused the altars to be destroyed and an + oratory to be built instead under the tree. So in Ireland the + ancient heathen sanctuaries under the sacred oaks were converted by + Christian missionaries into churches and monasteries. See Socrates, + _Historia Ecclesiastica_, i. 18; _The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings_, ii. 242 _sq._ + + 114 Athanasius, _Oratio contra Gentes_, 26 (Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, + xxv. 52), {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. The account of the + Phoenician custom which is given by H. Ploss (_Das Weib_,2 i. 302) + and repeated after him by Fr. Schwally (_Semitische + Kriegsaltertuemer_, Leipsic, 1901, pp. 76 _sq._) may rest only on a + misapprehension of this passage of Athanasius. But if it is correct, + we may conjecture that the slaves who deflowered the virgins were + the sacred slaves of the temples, the _kedeshim_, and that they + discharged this office as the living representatives of the god. As + to these _kedeshim_, or "sacred men," see above, pp. 17 _sq._, and + below, pp. 72 _sqq._ + +_ 115 The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs_, translated and edited by + R. H. Charles (London, 1908), chapter xii. p. 81. + + 116 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 6. The writer is careful to indicate that + none but strangers were allowed to enjoy the women ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}). + +_ 117 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 30 _sq._ + + 118 Herodotus, i. 93 _sq._; Athenaeus, xii. 11, pp. 515 _sq._ + + 119 W. M. Ramsay, "Unedited Inscriptions of Asia Minor," _Bulletin de + Correspondance Hellenique_, vii. (1883) p. 276; _id._, _Cities and + Bishoprics of Phrygia_, i. (Oxford, 1895) pp. 94 _sq._, 115. + + 120 Strabo, xi. 14. 16, p. 532. + + 121 Strabo, xii. 3. 32, 34 and 36, pp. 557-559; compare xii. 2. 3, p. + 535. Other sanctuaries in Pontus, Cappadocia, and Phrygia swarmed + with sacred slaves, and we may conjecture, though we are not told, + that many of these slaves were prostitutes. See Strabo, xi. 8. 4, + xii. 2. 3 and 6, xii. 3. 31 and 37, xii. 8. 14. + + M26 The Asiatic Mother Goddess a personification of all the reproductive + energies of nature. Her worship perhaps reflects a period of sexual + communism. + + 122 On this great Asiatic goddess and her lovers see especially Sir W. + M. Ramsay, _Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_, i. 87 _sqq._ + + 123 Compare W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 284 _sq._; + W. Robertson Smith, _The Prophets of Israel_, New Edition (London, + 1902), pp. 171-174. Similarly in Camul, formerly a province of the + Chinese Empire, the men used to place their wives at the disposal of + any foreigners who came to lodge with them, and deemed it an honour + if the guests made use of their opportunities. The emperor, hearing + of the custom, forbade the people to observe it. For three years + they obeyed, then, finding that their lands were no longer fruitful + and that many mishaps befell them, they prayed the emperor to allow + them to retain the custom, "for it was by reason of this usage that + their gods bestowed upon them all the good things that they + possessed, and without it they saw not how they could continue to + exist." See _The Book of Ser Marco Polo_, translated and edited by + Colonel Henry Yule, Second Edition (London, 1875), i. 212 _sq._ Here + apparently the fertility of the soil was deemed to depend on the + intercourse of the women with strangers, not with their husbands. + Similarly, among the Oulad Abdi, an Arab tribe of Morocco, "the + women often seek a divorce and engage in prostitution in the + intervals between their marriages; during that time they continue to + dwell in their families, and their relations regard their conduct as + very natural. The administrative authority having bestirred itself + and attempted to regulate this prostitution, the whole population + opposed the attempt, alleging that such a measure would impair the + abundance of the crops." See Edmond Doutte, _Magie et Religion dans + l'Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers, 1908), pp. 560 _sq._ + + 124 Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 14, p. 13, ed. Potter; + Arnobius, _Adversus Nationes_, v. 19; compare Firmicus Maternus, _De + errore profanarum religionum_, 10. + + 125 In Hebrew a temple harlot was regularly called "a sacred woman" + (_kedesha_). See _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, _s.v._ "Harlot"; S. R. + Driver, on Genesis xxxviii. 21. As to such "sacred women" see below, + pp. 70 _sqq._ + + M27 The daughters of Cinyras. + + 126 Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 13, p. 12, ed. Potter; + Arnobius, _Adversus Nationes_, v. 19; Firmicus Maternus, _De errore + profanarum religionum_, 10. + + 127 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 14. 3. + + M28 The Paphian dynasty of the Cinyrads. + + 128 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 14. 3. I follow the text of R. + Wagner's edition in reading {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. As to + Hyria in Isauria see Stephanus Byzantius, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. The city of + Celenderis, on the south coast of Cilicia, possessed a small harbour + protected by a fortified peninsula. Many ancient tombs survived till + recent times, but have now mostly disappeared. It was the port from + which the Turkish couriers from Constantinople used to embark for + Cyprus. As to the situation and remains see F. Beaufort, _Karmania_ + (London, 1817), p. 201; W. M. Leake, _Journal of a Tour in Asia + Minor_ (London, 1824), pp. 114-118; R. Heberdey und A. Wilhelm, + "Reisen in Kilikien," _Denkschriften der kais. Akademie der + Wissenschaften, Philosoph.-historische Classe_, xliv. (1896) No. vi. + p. 94. The statement that the sanctuary of Aphrodite at Paphos was + founded by the Arcadian Agapenor, who planted a colony in Cyprus + after the Trojan war (Pausanias, viii. 5. 2), may safely be + disregarded. + + 129 Tacitus, _Hist._ ii. 3; _Annals_, iii. 62. + + 130 Tacitus, _Hist._ ii. 3; Hesychius, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. + + 131 Pindar, _Pyth._ ii. 13-17. + + 132 Tyrtaeus, xii. 6 (_Poetae Lyrici Graeci_, ed. Th. Bergk,3 Leipsic, + 1866-1867, ii. 404); Pindar, _Pyth._ viii. 18; Plato, _Laws_, ii. 6, + p. 660 E; Clement of Alexandria, _Paedag._ iii. 6, p. 274, ed. + Potter; Dio Chrysostom, _Orat._ viii. (vol. i. p. 149, ed. L. + Dindorf); Julian, _Epist._ lix. p. 574, ed. F. C. Hertlein; + Diogenianus, viii. 53; Suidas, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 133 Schol. on Pindar, _Pyth._ ii. 15 (27); Hesychius, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}; + Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ iii. 45, p. 40, ed. Potter; + Arnobius, _Adversus Nationes_, vi. 6. That the kings of Paphos were + also priests of the goddess is proved, apart from the testimony of + ancient writers, by inscriptions found on the spot. See H. Collitz, + _Sammlung der griechischen Dialektinschriften_, i. (Goettingen, 1884) + p. 22, Nos. 38, 39, 40. The title of the goddess in these + inscriptions is Queen or Mistress ({~GREEK LETTER DIGAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}({~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}){~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}). It is perhaps a + translation of the Semitic Baalath. + + 134 Plutarch, _De Alexandri Magni fortuna aut virtute_, ii. 8. The name + of the gardener-king was Alynomus. That the Cinyrads existed as a + family down to Macedonian times is further proved by a Greek + inscription found at Old Paphos, which records that a certain + Democrates, son of Ptolemy, head of the Cinyrads, and his wife + Eunice, dedicated a statue of their daughter to the Paphian + Aphrodite. See L. Ross, "Inschriften von Cypern," _Rheinisches + Museum_, N.F. vii. (1850) pp. 520 _sq._ It seems to have been a + common practice of parents to dedicate statues of their sons or + daughters to the goddess at Paphos. The inscribed pedestals of many + such statues were found by the English archaeologists. See _Journal + of Hellenic Studies_, ix. (1888) pp. 228, 235, 236, 237, 241, 244, + 246, 255. + + 135 Tacitus, _Hist._ ii. 4; Pausanias, viii. 24. 6. + + 136 Plutarch, _Cato the Younger_, 35. + + M29 Incest of Cinyras with his daughter Myrrha, and birth of Adonis. + Legends of royal incest--a suggested explanation. + + 137 Ovid, _Metam._ x. 298 _sqq._; Hyginus, _Fab._ 58, 64; Fulgentius, + _Mytholog._ iii. 8; Lactantius Placidius, _Narrat. Fabul._ x. 9; + Servius on Virgil, _Ecl._ x. 18, and _Aen._ v. 72; Plutarch, + _Parallela_, 22; Schol. on Theocritus, i. 107. It is Ovid who + describes (_Metam._ x. 431 _sqq._) the festival of Ceres, at which + the incest was committed. His source was probably the + _Metamorphoses_ of the Greek writer Theodorus, which Plutarch + (_l.c._) refers to as his authority for the story. The festival in + question was perhaps the Thesmophoria, at which women were bound to + remain chaste (Schol. on Theocritus, iv. 25; Schol. on Nicander, + _Ther._ 70 _sq._; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxiv. 59; Dioscorides, _De + Materia Medica_, i. 134 (135); compare Aelian, _De natura + animalium_, ix. 26). Compare E. Fehrle, _Die kultische Keuschheit im + Altertum_ (Giessen, 1910), pp. 103 _sqq._, 121 _sq._, 151 _sqq._ The + corn and bread of Cyprus were famous in antiquity. See Aeschylus, + _Suppliants_, 549 (555); Hipponax, cited by Strabo, viii. 3. 8, p. + 340; Eubulus, cited by Athenaeus, iii. 78, p. 112 F; E. Oberhummer, + _Die Insel. Cypern_, i. (Munich, 1903) pp. 274 _sqq._ According to + another account, Adonis was the fruit of the incestuous intercourse + of Theias, a Syrian king, with his daughter Myrrha. See Apollodorus, + _Bibliotheca_, iii. 14. 4 (who cites Panyasis as his authority); J. + Tzetzes, _Schol. on Lycophron_, 829; Antoninus Liberalis, + _Transform._ 34 (who lays the scene of the story on Mount Lebanon). + With the corn-wreaths mentioned in the text we may compare the + wreaths which the Roman Arval Brethren wore at their sacred + functions, and with which they seem to have crowned the images of + the goddesses. See G. Henzen, _Acta Fratrum Arvalium_ (Berlin, + 1874), pp. 24-27, 33 _sq._ Compare Pausanias, vii. 20. 1. _sq._ + + 138 A list of these cases is given by Hyginus, _Fab._ 253. It includes + the incest of Clymenus, king of Arcadia, with his daughter Harpalyce + (compare Hyginus, _Fab._ 206); that of Oenomaus, king of Pisa, with + his daughter Hippodamia (compare J. Tzetzes, _Schol. on Lycophron_, + 156; Lucian, _Charidemus_, 19); that of Erechtheus, king of Athens, + with his daughter Procris; and that of Epopeus, king of Lesbos, with + his daughter Nyctimene (compare Hyginus, _Fab._ 204). + + 139 The custom of brother and sister marriage seems to have been + especially common in royal families. See my note on Pausanias, i. 7. + 1 (vol. ii. pp. 84 _sq._); as to the case of Egypt see below, vol. + ii. pp. 213 _sqq._ The true explanation of the custom was first, so + far as I know, indicated by J. F. McLennan (_The Patriarchal + Theory_, London, 1885, p. 95). + + M30 The Flamen Dialis and his Flaminica at Rome. + + 140 Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 22; J. Marquardt, _Roemische Staatsverwaltung_, + iii.2 (Leipsic, 1885) p. 328. + + 141 Priestesses are said to have preceded priests in some Egyptian + cities. See W. M. Flinders Petrie, _The Religion of Ancient Egypt_ + (London, 1906), p. 74. + +_ 142 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 179, 190 _sqq._ + +_ 143 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 268 _sqq._ + +_ 144 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 12 note 1. + + M31 Priestesses among the Khasis of Assam. + + 145 Major P. R. T. Gurdon, _The Khasis_ (London, 1907), pp. 109-112, 120 + _sq._ + + M32 Sacred marriage of a priest and priestess as representatives of the + Sun-god and the Earth-goddess. Marriage of the Sun-god and + Earth-goddess acted by a priest and his wife. + +_ 146 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 191 _sqq._ + +_ 147 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 148. + + 148 The late Rev. P. Dehon, S.J., "Religion and Customs of the Uraons," + _Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, vol. i. No. 9 (Calcutta, + 1906), pp. 144-146. + + 149 For more evidence see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, + ii. 97 _sqq._ + + M33 Cinyras beloved by Aphrodite. Pygmalion and Aphrodite. The + Phoenician kings of Cyprus or their sons appear to have been + hereditary lovers of the goddess. Sacred marriage of the kings of + Paphos. Sons and daughters, fathers and mothers of a god. + + 150 Lucian, _Rhetorum praeceptor_, 11; Hyginus, _Fab._ 270. + + 151 Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 33, p. 29, ed. Potter. + + 152 W. H. Engel, _Kypros_, ii. 585, 612; A. Maury, _Histoire des + Religions de la Grece Antique_ (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 197, note 3. + + 153 Arnobius, _Adversus Nationes_, vi. 22; Clement of Alexandria, + _Protrept._ iv. 57, p. 51, ed. Potter; Ovid, _Metam._ x. 243-297. + The authority for the story is the Greek history of Cyprus by + Philostephanus, cited both by Arnobius and Clement. In Ovid's + poetical version of the legend Pygmalion is a sculptor, and the + image with which he falls in love is that of a lovely woman, which + at his prayer Venus endows with life. That King Pygmalion was a + Phoenician is mentioned by Porphyry (_De abstinentia_, iv. 15) on + the authority of Asclepiades, a Cyprian. + + 154 See above, p. 42. + + 155 Probus, on Virgil, _Ecl._ x. 18. I owe this reference to my friend + Mr. A. B. Cook. + + 156 In his treatise on the political institutions of Cyprus, Aristotle + reported that the sons and brothers of the kings were called "lords" + ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}), and their sisters and wives "ladies" ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}). See + Harpocration and Suidas, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. Compare Isocrates, ix. 72; + Clearchus of Soli, quoted by Athenaeus, vi. 68, p. 256 A. Now in the + bilingual inscription of Idalium, which furnished the clue to the + Cypriote syllabary, the Greek version gives the title {~GREEK LETTER DIGAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~} as the + equivalent of the Phoenician _Adon_ ({~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER DALET~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}). See _Corpus Inscriptionum + Semiticarum_, i. No. 89; G. A. Cooke, _Text-book of North-Semitic + Inscriptions_, p. 74, note 1. + + 157 Josephus, _Contra Apionem_, i. 18, ed. B. Niese; Appian, _Punica_, + i; Virgil, _Aen._ i. 346 _sq._; Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 574; Justin, + xviii. 4; Eustathius on Dionysius Periegetes, 195 (_Geographi Graeci + Minores_, ed. C. Mueller Paris, 1882, ii. 250 _sq._). + + 158 Pumi-yathon, son of Milk-yathon, is known from Phoenician + inscriptions found at Idalium. See G. A. Cooke, _Text-book of + North-Semitic Inscriptions_, Nos. 12 and 13, pp. 55 _sq._, 57 _sq._ + Coins inscribed with the name of King Pumi-yathon are also in + existence. See G. F. Hill, _Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Cyprus_ + (London, 1904), pp. xl. _sq._, 21 _sq._, pl. iv. 20-24. He was + deposed by Ptolemy (Diodorus Siculus, xix. 79. 4). Most probably he + is the Pymaton of Citium who purchased the kingdom from a dissolute + monarch named Pasicyprus some time before the conquests of Alexander + (Athenaeus, iv. 63, p. 167). In this passage of Athenaeus the name + Pymaton, which is found in the MSS. and agrees closely with the + Phoenician Pumi-yathon, ought not to be changed into Pygmalion, as + the latest editor (G. Kaibel) has done. + + 159 G. A. Cooke, _op. cit._ p. 55, note 1. Mr. Cooke remarks that the + form of the name ({~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~} instead of {~HEBREW LETTER PE~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL NUN~}) must be due to Greek + influence. + + 160 See above, p. 41. + + 161 Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 13, p. 12; Arnobius, + _Adversus Nationes_, v. 9; Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profanarum + religionum_, 10. + + 162 That the king was not necessarily succeeded by his eldest son is + proved by the case of Solomon, who on his accession executed his + elder brother Adoni-jah (1 Kings ii. 22-24). Similarly, when + Abimelech became king of Shechem, he put his seventy brothers in + ruthless oriental fashion to death. See Judges viii. 29-31, ix. 5 + _sq._, 18. So on his accession Jehoram, King of Judah, put all his + brothers to the sword (2 Chronicles xxi. 4). King Rehoboam had + eighty-eight children (2 Chronicles xi. 21) and King Abi-jah had + thirty-eight (2 Chronicles xiii. 21). These examples illustrate the + possible size of the family of a polygamous king. + +_ 163 The Dying God_, pp. 160 _sqq._ + + 164 The names which imply that a man was the father of a god have proved + particularly puzzling to some eminent Semitic scholars. See W. + Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_,2 p. 45, note 2; Th. + Noeldeke, _s.v._ "Names," _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, iii. 3287 _sqq._; + W. W. Graf Baudissin, _Adonis und Esmun_, pp. 39 _sq._, 43 _sqq._ + Such names are Abi-baal ("father of Baal"), Abi-el ("father of El"), + Abi-jah ("father of Jehovah"), and Abi-melech ("father of a king" or + "father of Moloch"). On the hypothesis put forward in the text the + father of a god and the son of a god stood precisely on the same + footing, and the same person would often be both one and the other. + Where the common practice prevailed of naming a father after his son + (_Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 331 _sqq._), a divine king + in later life might often be called "father of such-and-such a god." + +_ 165 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 418 _sq._ + + 166 A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_ (Tuebingen, + N.D.), p. 113. + + 167 L. Borchardt, "Der aegyptische Titel 'Vater des Gottes' als + Bezeichnung fuer 'Vater oder Schwiegervater des Koenigs,' " _Berichte + ueber die Verhandlungen der Koeniglich Saechsischen Gesellschaft der + Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, Philolog.-histor. Klasse_, lvii. (1905) + pp. 254-270. + + M34 Cinyras, like King David, a harper. The use of music as a means of + prophetic inspiration among the Hebrews. + + 168 F. C. Movers, _Die Phoenizier_, i. 243; Stoll, _s.v._ "Kinyras," in + W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und roem. Mythologie_, ii. 1191; + 1 Samuel xvi. 23. + + 169 1 Chronicles xxv. 1-3; compare 2 Samuel vi. 5. + + 170 W. Robertson Smith, _The Prophets of Israel_2 (London, 1902), pp. + 391 _sq._; E. Renan, _Histoire du peuple d'Israel_ (Paris, 1893), + ii. 280. + + 171 1 Samuel x. 5. + + 172 2 Kings iii. 4-24. And for the explanation of the supposed miracle, + see W. Robertson Smith, _The Old Testament in the Jewish Church_2 + (London and Edinburgh, 1892), pp. 146 _sq._ I have to thank + Professor Kennett for the suggestion that the Moabites took the + ruddy light on the water for an omen of blood rather than for actual + gore. + + M35 The influence of music on religion. + + 173 1 Samuel xvi. 14-23. + + 174 J. H. Newman, _Sermons preached before the University of Oxford_, + No. xv. pp. 346 _sq._ (third edition). + + 175 It would be interesting to pursue a similar line of inquiry in + regard to the other arts. What was the influence of Phidias on Greek + religion? How much does Catholicism owe to Fra Angelico? + + M36 The function of string music in Greek and Semitic ritual. + + 176 Pindar, _Pyth._ ii. 15 _sq._ + + 177 On the lyre and the flute in Greek religion and Greek thought, see + L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_ (Oxford, 1896-1909), + iv. 243 _sqq._ + + 178 Pindar, _Pyth._ i. 13 _sqq._ + + 179 This seems to be the view also of Dr. Farnell, who rightly connects + the musical with the prophetic side of Apollo's character (_op. + cit._ iv. 245). + + M37 Traditions as to the death of Cinyras. + + 180 Hyginus, _Fab._ 242. So in the version of the story which made + Adonis the son of Theias, the father is said to have killed himself + when he learned what he had done (Antoninus Liberalis, _Transform._ + 34). + + 181 Scholiast and Eustathius on Homer, _Iliad_, xi. 20. Compare F. C. + Movers, _Die Phoenizier_, i. 243 _sq._; W. H. Engel, _Kypros_, ii. + 109-116; Stoll, _s.v._ "Kinyras," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der + griech. und roem. Mythologie_, ii. 1191. + + 182 Anacreon, cited by Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ vii. 154. Nonnus also refers + to the long life of Cinyras (_Dionys._ xxxii. 212 _sq._). + +_ 183 Encyclopaedia Britannica_,9 xiv. 858. + + M38 Sacred prostitution of Western Asia. + M39 Theory of its secular origin. + + 184 L. R. Farnell, "Sociological hypotheses concerning the position of + women in ancient religion," _Archiv fuer Religionswissenschaft_, vii. + (1904) p. 88; M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906), + pp. 366 _sq._; Fr. Cumont, _Les religions orientales dans le + paganisme Romain_2 (Paris, 1909), pp. 361 _sq._ A different and, in + my judgment, a truer view of these customs was formerly taken by + Prof. Nilsson. See his _Studia de Dionysiis Atticis_ (Lund, 1900), + pp. 119-121. For a large collection of facts bearing on this subject + and a judicious discussion of them, see W. Hertz, "Die Sage vom + Giftmaedchen," _Gesammelte Abhandlungen_ (Stuttgart and Berlin, + 1905), pp. 195-219. My attention was drawn to this last work by + Prof. G. L. Hamilton of the University of Michigan after my + manuscript had been sent to the printer. With Hertz's treatment of + the subject I am in general agreement, and I have derived from his + learned treatise several references to authorities which I had + overlooked. + + M40 The theory does not account for the religious character of the + custom, + + 185 Above, p. 37. + + 186 Above, p. 38. Prof. Nilsson is mistaken in affirming (_op. cit._ p. + 367) that the Lydian practice was purely secular: the inscription + which I have cited proves the contrary. Both he and Dr. Farnell + fully recognize the religious aspect of most of these customs in + antiquity, and Prof. Nilsson attempts, as it seems to me, + unsuccessfully, to indicate how a practice supposed to be purely + secular in origin should have come to contract a religious + character. + + M41 Nor for the prostitution of married women. + + 187 Above, p. 37. + + 188 Above, pp. 36 _sq._, 38. + + 189 Hosea iv. 13 _sq._ + + M42 Nor for the repeated prostitution of the same women. + + 190 Above, pp. 37 _sqq._ + + M43 Nor for the "sacred men" beside the "sacred women". + + 191 See above, pp. 17 _sq._ + + M44 And is irreconcilable with the payment of the women. + + 192 L. di Varthema, _Travels_ (Hakluyt Society, 1863), pp. 141, 202-204 + (Malabar); J. A. de Mandlesloe, in J. Harris's _Voyages and + Travels_, i. (London, 1744), p. 767 (Malabar); Richard, "History of + Tonquin," in J. Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, ix. 760 _sq._ + (Aracan); A. de Morga, _The Philippine Islands, Moluccas, Siam, + Cambodia, Japan, and China_ (Hakluyt Society, 1868), pp. 304 _sq._ + (the Philippines); J. Mallat, _Les Philippines_ (Paris, 1846), i. 61 + (the Philippines); L. Moncelon, in _Bulletins de la Societe + d'Anthropologie de Paris_, 3me Serie, ix. (1886) p. 368 (New + Caledonia); H. Crawford Angas, in _Verhandlungen der Berliner + Gesellschaft fuer Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte_, 1898, + p. 481 (Azimba, Central Africa); Sir H. H. Johnston, _British + Central Africa_ (London, 1897), p. 410 (the Wa-Yao of Central + Africa). See further, W. Hertz, "Die Sage vom Giftmaedchen," + _Gesammelte Abhandlungen_, pp. 198-204. + + 193 Herodotus, i. 93; Justin, xviii. 5. 4. Part of the wages thus earned + was probably paid into the local temple. See above, pp. 37, 38. + However, according to Strabo (xi. 14. 16, p. 532) the Armenian girls + of rich families often gave their lovers more than they received + from them. + + 194 This fatal objection to the theory under discussion has been clearly + stated by W. Hertz, _op. cit._ p. 217. I am glad to find myself in + agreement with so judicious and learned an inquirer. + + M45 The practice of destroying virginity has sometimes had a religious + character. + + 195 L. di Varthema, _Travels_ (Hakluyt Society, 1863), p. 141; J. A. de + Mandlesloe, in J. Harris's _Voyages and Travels_, i. (London, 1744) + p. 767; A. Hamilton, "New Account of the East Indies," in J. + Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, viii. 374; Ch. Lassen, _Indische + Alterthumskunde_, iv. (Leipsic, 1861), p. 408; A. de Herrera, _The + General History of the Vast Continent and Islands of America_, + translated by Captain J. Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iii. 310, 340; + Fr. Coreal, _Voyages aux Indes Occidentales_ (Amsterdam, 1722), i. + 10 _sq._, 139 _sq._; C. F. Ph. v. Martius, _Beitraege zur + Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerika's_, i. (Leipsic, 1867) pp. + 113 _sq._ The first three of these authorities refer to Malabar; the + fourth refers to Cambodia; the last three refer to the Indians of + Central and South America. See further W. Hertz, "Die Sage vom + Giftmaedchen," _Gesammelte Abhandlungen_, pp. 204-207. For a + criticism of the Malabar evidence see K. Schmidt, _Jus primae + noctis_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1881), pp. 312-320. + + 196 Lactantius, _Divin. Institut._ i. 20; Arnobius, _Adversus Nationes_, + iv. 7; Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vi. 9, vii. 24; D. Barbosa, + _Description of the Coasts of East Africa and Malabar_ (Hakluyt + Society, 1866), p. 96; Sonnerat, _Voyage aux Indes Orientales et a + la Chine_ (Paris, 1782), i. 68; F. Liebrecht, _Zur Volkskunde_ + (Heilbronn, 1879), pp. 396 _sq._, 511; W. Hertz, "Die Sage vom + Giftmaedchen," _Gesammelte Abhandlungen_, pp. 270-272. According to + Arnobius, it was matrons, not maidens, who resorted to the image. + This suggests that the custom was a charm to procure offspring. + + 197 R. Schomburgk, in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fuer + Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte_, 1879, pp. 235 _sq._; + Miklucho-Maclay, _ibid._ 1880, p. 89; W. E. Roth, _Studies among the + North-West-Central Queensland Aborigines_ (Brisbane and London, + 1897), pp. 174 _sq._, 180; B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native + Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1899), pp. 92-95; _id._, + _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1904), pp. 133-136. + In Australia the observance of the custom is regularly followed by + the exercise of what seem to be old communal rights of the men over + the women. + + M46 Sacred women in the Tamil temples of Southern India. Such women are + sometimes married to the god and possessed by him. + + 198 J. A. Dubois, _Moeurs, Institutions et Ceremonies des Peuples de + l'Inde_ (Paris, 1825), ii. 353 _sqq._; J. Shortt, "The Bayadere or + dancing-girls of Southern India," _Memoirs of the Anthropological + Society of London_, iii. (1867-69) pp. 182-194; Edward Balfour, + _Cyclopaedia of India_3 (London, 1885), i. 922 _sqq._; W. Francis, + in _Census of India, 1901_, vol. xv., _Madras_, Part I. (Madras, + 1902) pp. 151 _sq._; E. Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern + India_ (Madras, 1906), pp. 36 _sq._, 40 _sq._ The office of these + sacred women has in recent years been abolished, on the ground of + immorality, by the native Government of Mysore. See _Homeward Mail_, + 6th June 1909 (extract kindly sent me by General Begbie). + + 199 Edgar Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, + 1909), iii. 37-39. Compare _id._, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern + India_ (Madras, 1906), pp. 29 _sq._ In Southern India the maternal + uncle often takes a prominent part in the marriage ceremony to the + exclusion of the girl's father. See, for example, E. Thurston, + _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_, ii. 497, iv. 147. The custom + is derived from the old system of mother-kin, under which a man's + heirs are not his own children but his sister's children. As to this + system see below, Chapter XII., "Mother-kin and Mother Goddesses." + + 200 E. Balfour, _op. cit._ ii. 1012. + + 201 Francis Buchanan, "A Journey from Madras through the countries of + Mysore, Canara, and Malabar," in J. Pinkerton's _Voyages and + Travels_, viii. (London, 1811), p. 749. + + M47 In Travancore the dancing-girls are regularly married to the god. + + 202 N. Subramhanya Aiyar, in _Census of India, 1901_, vol. xxvi., + _Travancore_, Part i. (Trivandrum, 1903), pp. 276 _sq._ I have to + thank my friend Mr. W. Crooke for referring me to this and other + passages on the sacred dancing-girls of India. + + M48 Among the Ewe peoples of West Africa the sacred prostitutes are + regarded as the wives of the god. + + 203 A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West + Africa_ (London, 1890), pp. 140 _sq._ + + 204 A. B. Ellis, _op. cit._ p. 142. + + M49 The human wives of the python-god. + + 205 A. B. Ellis, _op. cit._ pp. 148 _sq._ Compare Des Marchais, _Voyage + en Guinee et a Cayenne_ (Amsterdam, 1731), ii. 144-151; P. Bouche, + _La Cote des Esclaves_ (Paris, 1885), p. 128. The Abbe Bouche calls + these women _danwes_. + + 206 A. B. Ellis, _op. cit._ p. 60; Des Marchais, _op. cit._ ii. 149 + _sq._ + + M50 Supposed connexion between the fertility of the soil and the + marriage of women to the serpent. + + 207 Des Marchais, _Voyage en Guinee et a Cayenne_ (Amsterdam, 1731), ii. + 146 _sq._ + + 208 W. Bosman, "Description of the Coast of Guinea," in J. Pinkerton's + _Voyages and Travels_, xvi. (London, 1814), p. 494. + + 209 W. Bosman, _l.c._ The name of Whydah is spelt by Bosman as Fida, and + by Des Marchais as Juda. + + M51 Human wives of a snake-god among the Akikuyu. + + 210 MS. notes, kindly sent to me by the author, Mr. A. C. Hollis, 21st + May, 1908. + + M52 Sacred men as well as women in West Africa: they are thought to be + possessed by the deity. + + 211 A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_, pp. + 142-144; Le R. P. Baudin, "Feticheurs ou ministres religieux des + Negres de la Guinee," _Les Missions Catholiques_, No. 787 (4 juillet + 1884), p. 322. + + 212 A. B. Ellis, _op. cit._ pp. 150 _sq._ + +_ 213 La Cote des Esclaves_, pp. 127 _sq._ + + 214 A. B. Ellis, _op. cit._ p. 147. + + M53 Similarly among the Tshi peoples of the Gold Coast there are sacred + men and women, who are supposed to be inspired by the deity. + + 215 A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast of West + Africa_ (London, 1887), pp. 120-138. + + 216 A. B. Ellis, _op. cit._ p. 121. + + 217 A. B. Ellis, _op. cit._ pp. 120 _sq._, 129-138. The slaves, male and + female, dedicated to a god from childhood are often mentioned by the + German missionary Mr. J. Spieth in his elaborate work on the Ewe + people (_Die Ewe-Staemme: Material zur Kunde des Ewe-Volkes in + Deutsch-Togo_, Berlin, 1906, pp. 228, 229, 309, 450, 474, 792, 797, + etc.). But his information does not illustrate the principal points + to which I have called attention in the text. + + M54 In like manner the sacred prostitutes of Western Asia may have been + viewed as possessed by the deity and married to the god. + +_ 218 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 129-135. + + 219 Herodotus, i. 181 _sq._ It is not clear whether the same or a + different woman slept every night in the temple. + + 220 H. Winckler, _Die Gesetze Hammurabi_2 (Leipsic, 1903), p. 31, § 182; + C. H. W. Johns, _Babylonian and Assyrian Laws, Contracts, and + Letters_ (Edinburgh, 1904), pp. 54, 55, 59, 60, 61 (§§ 137, 144, + 145, 146, 178, 182, 187, 192, 193, of the Code of Hammurabi). As to + these female votaries see especially C. H. W. Johns, "Notes on the + Code of Hammurabi," _American Journal of Semitic Languages and + Literatures_, xix. (January 1903) pp. 98-107. Compare S. A. Cook, + _The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi_ (London, 1903), pp. + 147-150. + + 221 C. H. W. Johns, "Notes on the Code of Hammurabi," _l.c._, where we + read (p. 104) of a female votary of Shamash who had a daughter. + +_ 222 Code of Hammurabi_, § 181; C. H. W. Johns, "Notes on the Code of + Hammurabi," _op. cit._ pp. 100 sq.; S. A. Cook, _op. cit._ p. 148. + Dr. Johns translates the name by "temple maid" (_Babylonian and + Assyrian Laws_, _Contracts, and Letters_, p. 61). He is scrupulously + polite to these ladies, but I gather from him that a far less + charitable view of their religious vocation is taken by Father + Scheil, the first editor and translator of the code. + + 223 Any man proved to have pointed the finger of scorn at a votary was + liable to be branded on the forehead (_Code of Hammurabi_, § 127). + + 224 See above, pp. 66, 69. + + 225 Herodotus, i. 182. + + 226 A. Wiedemann, _Herodots Zweites Buch_ (Leipsic, 1890), pp. 268 _sq._ + See further _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 130 + _sqq._ + + 227 Strabo, xvii. 1. 46, p. 816. The title "concubines of Zeus (Ammon)" + is mentioned by Diodorus Siculus (i. 47). + + 228 Diodorus Siculus, i. 47. + + M55 Similarly the sacred men (_kedeshim_) of Western Asia may have been + regarded as possessed by the deity and as acting and speaking in his + name. + + 229 The {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, as the Greeks called them. + + 230 I have to thank the Rev. Professor R. H. Kennett for this important + suggestion as to the true nature of the _kedeshim_. The passages of + the Bible in which mention is made of these men are Deuteronomy + xxiii. 17 (in Hebrew 18); 1 Kings xiv. 24, xv. 12, xxii. 46 (in + Hebrew 47); 2 Kings xxiii. 7; Job xxxvi. 14 (where _kedeshim_ is + translated "the unclean" in the English version). The usual + rendering of _kedeshim_ in the English Bible is not justified by any + of these passages; but it may perhaps derive support from a + reference which Eusebius makes to the profligate rites observed at + Aphaca (_Vita Constantini_, iii. 55; Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, + xx. 1120); {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}. But probably + Eusebius is here speaking of the men who castrated themselves in + honour of the goddess, and thereafter wore female attire. See + Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 51; and below, pp. 269 _sq._ + + 231 Strabo, xi. 4. 7, p. 503. + + 232 Drexler, in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und roem. + Mythologie_, _s.v._ "Men," ii. 2687 _sqq._ + + 233 It is true that Strabo (_l.c._) speaks of the Albanian deity as a + goddess, but this may be only an accommodation to the usage of the + Greek language, in which the moon is feminine. + + 234 Florus, _Epitoma_, ii. 7; Diodorus Siculus, Frag. xxxiv. 2 (vol. v. + pp. 87 _sq._, ed. L. Dindorf, in the Teubner series). + + M56 Resemblance of the Hebrew prophets to the sacred men of Western + Africa. + + 235 Above, pp. 52 _sq._ + + 236 1 Kings xix. 16; Isaiah lx. 1. + + 237 1 Kings xx. 41. So in Africa "priests and priestesses are readily + distinguishable from the rest of the community. They wear their hair + long and unkempt, while other people, except the women in the towns + on the seaboard, have it cut close to the head.... Frequently both + appear with white circles painted round their eyes, or with various + white devices, marks, or lines painted on the face, neck, shoulders, + or arms" (A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold + Coast_, p. 123). "Besides the ordinary tribal tattoo-marks borne by + all natives, the priesthood in Dahomi bear a variety of such marks, + some very elaborate, and an expert can tell by the marks on a priest + to what god he is vowed, and what rank he holds in the order. These + hierarchical marks consist of lines, scrolls, diamonds, and other + patterns, with sometimes a figure, such as that of the crocodile or + chameleon. The shoulders are frequently seen covered with an + infinite number of small marks like dots, set close together. All + these marks are considered sacred, and the laity are forbidden to + touch them" (A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave + Coast_, p. 146). The reason why the prophet's shoulders are + especially marked is perhaps given by the statement of a Zulu that + "the sensitive part with a doctor [medicine-man] is his shoulders. + Everything he feels is in the situation of his shoulders. That is + the place where black men feel the Amatongo" (ancestral spirits). + See H. Callaway, _The Religious System of the Amazulu_, part ii. p. + 159. These African analogies suggest that the "wounds between the + arms" (literally, "between the hands") which the prophet Zechariah + mentions (xiii. 6) as the badge of a Hebrew prophet were marks + tattooed on his shoulders in token of his holy office. The + suggestion is confirmed by the prophet's own statement (_l.c._) that + he had received the wounds in the house of his lovers ({~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} {~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}); + for the same word lovers is repeatedly applied by the prophet Hosea + to the Baalim (Hosea, ii. 5, 7, 10, 12, 13, verses 7, 9, 12, 14, 15 + in Hebrew). + + 238 1 Samuel ix. 1-20. + + 239 H. Callaway, _The Religious System of the Amazulu_, part iii. pp. + 300 _sqq._ + + 240 See above, pp. 52 _sq._ + + 241 1 Samuel ix. 9. In the Wiimbaio tribe of South-Eastern Australia a + medicine-man used to be called "_mekigar_, from _meki_, 'eye' or 'to + see,' otherwise 'one who sees,' that is, sees the causes of maladies + in people, and who could extract them from the sufferer, usually in + the form of quartz crystals" (A. W. Howitt, _The Native Tribes of + South-East Australia_, London, 1904, p. 380). + + 242 That the prophet's office in Canaan was developed out of the + widespread respect for insanity is duly recognized by Ed. Meyer, + _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. p. 383. + + M57 Inspired prophets at Byblus. + + 243 W. Max Mueller, in _Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft_, + 1900, No. 1, p. 17; A. Erman, "Eine Reise nach Phoenizien im 11 + Jahrhundert v. Chr." _Zeitschrift fuer Agyptische Sprache und + Altertumskunde_, xxxviii. (1900) pp. 6 _sq._; G. Maspero, _Les + contes populaires de l'Egypte Ancienne_,3 p. 192; A. Wiedemann, + _Altaegyptische Sagen und Maerchen_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 99 _sq._; H. + Gressmann, _Altorientalische Texte und Bilder zum Alten Testamente_ + (Tuebingen, 1909), p. 226. Scholars differ as to whether Wen-Ammon's + narrative is to be regarded as history or romance; but even if it + were proved to be a fiction, we might safely assume that the + incident of the prophetic frenzy at Byblus was based upon familiar + facts. Prof. Wiedemann thinks that the god who inspired the page was + the Egyptian Ammon, not the Phoenician Adonis, but this view seems + to me less probable. + + 244 1 Samuel ix. 6-8, 10; 1 Kings xiii. 1, 4-8, 11, etc. + + 245 1 Samuel ii. 22. Totally different from their Asiatic namesakes were + the "sacred men" and "sacred women" who were charged with the + superintendence of the mysteries at Andania in Messenia. They were + chosen by lot and held office for a year. The sacred women might be + either married or single; the married women had to swear that they + had been true to their husbands. See G. Dittenberger, _Sylloge + Inscriptionum Graecarum_2 (Leipsic, 1898-1901), vol. ii. pp. 461 + _sqq._, No. 653; Ch. Michel, _Recueil d'Inscriptions Grecques_ + (Brussels, 1900), pp. 596 _sqq._, No. 694; _Leges Graecorum Sacrae_, + ed. J. de Prott, L. Ziehen, Pars Altera, Fasciculus i. (Leipsic, + 1906), No. 58, pp. 166 _sqq._ + + M58 "Holy men" in modern Syria. + + 246 Hosea ix. 7. + + 247 Jeremiah xxix. 26. + + 248 S. I. Curtiss, _Primitive Semitic Religion To-day_ (Chicago, New + York, Toronto, 1902), pp. 150 _sq._ + + 249 S. I. Curtiss, _op. cit._ p. 152. As to these "holy men," see + further C. R. Conder, _Tent-work in Palestine_ (London, 1878), ii. + 231 _sq._: "The most peculiar class of men in the country is that of + the Derwishes, or sacred personages, who wander from village to + village, performing tricks, living on alms, and enjoying certain + social and domestic privileges, which very often lead to scandalous + scenes. Some of these men are mad, some are fanatics, but the + majority are, I imagine, rogues. They are reverenced not only by the + peasantry, but also sometimes by the governing class. I have seen + the Kady of Nazareth ostentatiously preparing food for a miserable + and filthy beggar, who sat in the justice-hall, and was consulted as + if he had been inspired. A Derwish of peculiar eminence is often + dressed in good clothes, with a spotless turban, and is preceded by + a banner-bearer, and followed by a band, with drum, cymbal, and + tambourine.... It is natural to reflect whether the social position + of the Prophets among the Jews may not have resembled that of the + Derwishes." + + M59 The licence accorded to such "holy men" may be explained by the + desire of women for offspring. + + 250 S. I. Curtiss, _op. cit._ pp. 116 _sq._ + + 251 S. I. Curtiss, _op. cit._ pp. 118, 119. In India also some + Mohammedan saints are noted as givers of children. Thus at + Fatepur-Sikri, near Agra, is the grave of Salim Chishti, and + childless women tie rags to the delicate tracery of the tomb, "thus + bringing them into direct communion with the spirit of the holy man" + (W. Crooke, _Natives of Northern India_, London, 1907, p. 203). + + M60 Belief that men and women may be the offspring of a god. + + 252 1 Samuel i. + + 253 Genesis vi. 1-3. In this passage "the sons of God (or rather of the + gods)" probably means, in accordance with a common Hebrew idiom, no + more than "the gods," just as the phrase "sons of the prophets" + means the prophets themselves. For more examples of this idiom, see + Brown, Driver, and Briggs, _Hebrew and English Lexicon_, p. 121. + + 254 For example, all Hebrew names ending in _-el_ or _-iah_ are + compounds of El or Yahwe, two names of the divinity. See G. B. Gray, + _Studies in Hebrew Proper Names_ (London, 1896), pp. 149 _sqq._ + + 255 Brown, Driver, and Briggs, _Hebrew and English Lexicon_, p. 1028. + But compare _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, iii. 3285, iv. 4452. + + 256 A trace of a similar belief perhaps survives in the narratives of + Genesis xxxi. and Judges xiii., where barren women are represented + as conceiving children after the visit of God, or of an angel of + God, in the likeness of a man. + + 257 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Staemme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 446, 448-450. + + M61 The saints in modern Syria are the equivalents of the ancient Baal + or Adonis. + M62 Belief in the physical fatherhood of God not confined to Syria. Sons + of the serpent-god. + + 258 For more instances see H. Usener, _Das Weihnachtsfest_2 (Bonn, + 1911), i. 71 _sqq._ + + 259 G. Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 vol. ii. pp. + 662, 663, No. 803, lines 117 _sqq._, 129 _sqq._ + + 260 Pausanias, ii. 10. 3 (with my note), iii. 23. 7; Livy, xi. Epitome; + Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxix. 72; Valerius Maximus, i. 8. 2; Ovid, + _Metam._ xv. 626-744; Aurelius Victor, _De viris illustr._ 22; + Plutarch, _Quaest. Rom._ 94. + + 261 Aristophanes, _Plutus_, 733; Pausanias, ii. 11. 8; Herodas, + _Mimiambi_, iv. 90 _sq._; G. Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum_,2 vol. ii. p. 655, No. 802, lines 116 _sqq._; Ch. Michel, + _Recueil d'Inscriptions Grecques_, p. 826, No. 1069. + + 262 Pausanias, ii. 10. 3, iv. 14. 7 _sq._ + + 263 Pausanias, ii. 10. 4. + + 264 Pausanias, ii. 11. 5-8. + + 265 Suetonius, _Divus Augustus_, 94; Dio Cassius, xlv. 1. 2. Tame + serpents were kept in a sacred grove of Apollo in Epirus. A virgin + priestess fed them, and omens of plenty and health or the opposites + were drawn from the way in which the reptiles took their food from + her. See Aelian, _Nat. Hist._ xi. 2. + + 266 Pausanias, iv. 14. 7; Livy, xxvi. 19; Aulus Gellius, vi. 1; + Plutarch, _Alexander_, 2. All these cases have been already cited in + this connexion by L. Deubner, _De incubatione_ (Leipsic, 1900), p. + 33 note. + + 267 Aelian, _De natura animalium_, vi. 17. + + M63 Women fertilized by stone serpents in India. + + 268 H. V. Nanjundayya, _The Ethnographical Survey of Mysore_, vi. + _Komati Caste_ (Bangalore, 1906), p. 29. + + M64 Belief that the dead come to life in the form of serpents. + + 269 T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Voyage d'Exploration au Nord-Est de la + Colonie du Cap de Bonne-Esperance_ (Paris, 1842), p. 277; H. + Callaway, _Religious System of the Amazulu_, part ii. pp. 140-144, + 196-200, 208-212; J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal_ (London, 1857), + p. 162; E. Casalis, _The Basutos_ (London, 1861), p. 246; "Words + about Spirits," (_South African_) _Folk-lore Journal_, ii. (1880) + pp. 101-103; A. Kranz, _Natur- und Kulturleben der Zulus_ + (Wiesbaden, 1880), p. 112; F. Speckmann, _Die Hermannsburger Mission + in Afrika_ (Hermannsburg, 1876), pp. 165-167; Dudley Kidd, _The + Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), pp. 85-87; Henri A. Junod, _The + Life of a South African Tribe_ (Neuchatel, 1912-1913), ii. 358 _sq._ + + 270 W. A. Elmslie, _Among the Wild Ngoni_ (London, 1899), pp. 71 _sq._ + + 271 O. Baumann, _Usambara und seine Nachbargebiete_ (Berlin, 1891), pp. + 141 _sq._ + + 272 S. L. Hinde and H. Hinde, _The Last of the Masai_ (London, 1901), + pp. 101 _sq._; A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), pp. 307 + _sq._; Sir H. Johnston, _The Uganda Protectorate_ (London, 1904), + ii. 832. + + 273 M. W. H. Beech, _The Suk_ (Oxford, 1911), p. 20. + + 274 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 90. + + 275 H. R. Tate, "The Native Law of the Southern Gikuyu of British East + Africa," _Journal of the African Society_, No. xxxv. April 1910, p. + 243. + + 276 E. de Pruyssenaere, _Reisen und Forschungen im Gebiete des Weissen + und Blauen Nil_ (Gotha, 1877), p. 27 (_Petermann's Mittheilungen, + Ergaenzungsheft_, No. 50). Compare G. Schweinfurth, _The Heart of + Africa_3 (London, 1878), i. 55. Among the Bahima of Ankole dead + chiefs turn into serpents, but dead kings into lions. See J. Roscoe, + "The Bahima, a Cow Tribe of Enkole in the Uganda Protectorate," + _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvii. (1907), pp. 101 + _sq._; Major J. A. Meldon, "Notes on the Bahima of Ankole," _Journal + of the African Society_, No. xxii. (January 1907), p. 151. Major + Leonard holds that the pythons worshipped in Southern Nigeria are + regarded as reincarnations of the dead; but this seems very + doubtful. See A. G. Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_ + (London, 1906), pp. 327 _sqq._ Pythons are worshipped by the + Ewe-speaking peoples of the Slave Coast, but apparently not from a + belief that the souls of the dead are lodged in them. See A. B. + Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa_, + pp. 54 _sqq._ + + 277 G. A. Shaw, "The Betsileo," _The Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar + Magazine, Reprint of the First Four Numbers_ (Antananarivo, 1885), + p. 411; H. W. Little, _Madagascar, its History and People_ (London, + 1884), pp. 86 _sq._; A. van Gennep, _Tabou et Totemisme a + Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), pp. 272 _sqq._ + + 278 "Religious Rites and Customs of the Iban or Dyaks of Sarawak," by + Leo Nyuak, translated from the Dyak by the Very Rev. Edm. Dunn, + _Anthropos_, i. (1906) p. 182. As to the Sea Dyak reverence for + snakes and their belief that spirits (_antus_) are incarnate in the + reptiles, see further J. Perham, "Sea Dyak Religion," _Journal of + the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 10 (December, + 1882), pp. 222-224; H. Ling Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and + British North Borneo_ (London, 1896), i. 187 _sq._ But from this + latter account it does not appear that the spirits (_antus_) which + possess the snakes are supposed to be those of human ancestors. + + 279 George Brown, D.D., _Melanesians and Polynesians_ (London, 1910), + pp. 238 _sq._ + + M65 Serpents which are viewed as ancestors come to life are treated with + respect and often fed with milk. + + 280 Rev. E. Casalis, _The Basutos_ (London, 1861), p. 246. Compare A. + Kranz, _Natur- und Kulturleben der Zulus_ (Wiesbaden, 1880), p. 112. + + 281 A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), p. 307. + + 282 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 90. + + 283 Mervyn W. H. Beech, _The Suk, their Language and Folklore_ (Oxford, + 1911), p. 20. + + 284 H. R. Tate (District Commissioner, East Africa Protectorate), "The + Native Law of the Southern Gikuyu of British East Africa," _Journal + of the African Society_, No. xxxv., April 1910, p. 243. See further + C. W. Hobley, "Further Researches into Kikuyu and Kamba Religious + Beliefs and Customs," _Journal of the Royal Anthropological + Institute_, xli. (1911) p. 408. According to Mr. Hobley it is only + one particular sort of snake, called _nyamuyathi_, which is thought + to be the abode of a spirit and is treated with ceremonious respect + by the Akikuyu. Compare P. Cayzac, "La Religion des Kikuyu," + _Anthropos_, v. (1910) p. 312; and for more evidence of milk offered + to serpents as embodiments of the dead see E. de Pruyssenaere and H. + W. Little, cited above, p. 83, notes 1 and 2. + + 285 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 320 _sq._ My + friend Mr. Roscoe tells me that serpents are revered and fed with + milk by the Banyoro to the north of Uganda; but he cannot say + whether the creatures are supposed to be incarnations of the dead. + Some of the Gallas also regard serpents as sacred and offer milk to + them, but it is not said that they believe the reptiles to embody + the souls of the departed. See Rev. J. L. Krapf, _Travels, + Researches and Missionary Labours in Eastern Africa_ (London, 1860), + pp. 77 _sq._ The negroes of Whydah in Guinea likewise feed with milk + the serpents which they worship. See Thomas Astley's _New General + Collection of Voyages and Travels_, iii. (London, 1746) p. 29. + + M66 The Greeks and Romans seem to have shared the belief that the souls + of the dead can be reincarnated in serpents. + + 286 L. Preller, _Roemische Mythologie_3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), ii. 196 + _sq._; G. Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Roemer_2 (Munich, 1912), + pp. 176 _sq._ The worship of the _genius_ was very popular in the + Roman Empire. See J. Toutain, _Les Cultes Paiens dans l'Empire + Romain_, Premiere Partie, i. (Paris, 1907) pp. 439 _sqq._ + + 287 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxix. 72. Compare Seneca, _De Ira_, iv. 31. 6. + + 288 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 5. 4; Hyginus, _Fab._ 6; Ovid, + _Metam._ iv. 563-603. + + 289 Plutarch, _Cleomenes_, 39. + + 290 Porphyry, _De vita Plotini_, p. 103, Didot edition (appended to the + lives of Diogenes Laertius). + + 291 Plutarch, _Cleomenes_, 39; Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Plutus_, 733. + + 292 Herodotus, viii. 41; Plutarch, _Themistocles_, 10; Aristophanes, + _Lysistra_, 758 _sq._, with the Scholium; Philostratus, _Imag._ ii. + 17. 6. See further my note on Pausanias, i, 18, 2 (vol. ii. pp. 168 + _sqq._). + + 293 Sophocles, _Electra_, 893 _sqq._; Euripides, _Orestes_, 112 _sqq._ + +_ 294 Mittheilungen des Deutsch. Archaeo log. Institutes in Athen_, iv. + (1879) pl. viii. Compare _ib._ pp. 135 _sq._, 162 _sq._ + + 295 Above, pp. 84 _sq._ + + 296 E. de Pruyssenaere, _l.c._ (above, p. 83, note 1). + + 297 See C. O. Mueller, _Denkmaeler der alten Kunst_2 (Goettingen, 1854), + pl. lxi. with the corresponding text in vol. i. (where the eccentric + system of paging adopted renders references to it practically + useless). In these groups the female figure is commonly, and perhaps + correctly, interpreted as the Goddess of Health (Hygieia). It is to + be remembered that Hygieia was deemed a daughter of the serpent-god + Aesculapius (Pausanias i. 23. 4), and was constantly associated with + him in ritual and art. See, for example, Pausanias, i. 40. 6, ii. 4. + 5, ii. 11. 6, ii. 23. 4, ii. 27. 6, iii. 22. 13, v. 20. 3, v. 26. 2, + vii. 23. 7, viii. 28. 1, viii. 31. 1, viii. 32. 4, viii. 47. 1. The + snake-entwined goddess whose image was found in a prehistoric shrine + at Gournia in Crete may have been a predecessor of the + serpent-feeding Hygieia. See R. M. Burrows, _The Discoveries in + Crete_ (London, 1907), pp. 137 _sq._ The snakes, which were the + regular symbol of the Furies, may have been originally nothing but + the emblems or rather embodiments of the dead; and the Furies + themselves may, like Aesculapius, have been developed out of the + reptiles, sloughing off their serpent skins through the + anthropomorphic tendency of Greek thought. + + M67 The serpents fed at the Thesmophoria may have been deemed + incarnations of the dead. Reluctance to disturb the Earth Goddess or + the spirits of the earth by the operations of digging and ploughing. + Hence agricultural operations are sometimes forbidden. + + 298 Scholia on Lucian, _Dial. Meretr._ ii. (_Scholia in Lucianum_, ed. + H. Rabe, Leipsic, 1906, pp. 275 _sq._). As to the Thesmophoria, see + my article, "Thesmophoria," _Encyclopaedia Britannica_,9 xxiii. 295 + _sqq._; _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 17 _sqq._ + + 299 A. S. Gatschet, _The Klamath Indians of South-Western Oregon_ + (Washington, 1890), p. xcii. + + 300 Washington Matthews, "Myths of Gestation and Parturition," _American + Anthropologist_, New Series, iv. (New York, 1902) p. 738. + +_ 301 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, iii. _Draft Articles on + Forest Tribes_ (Allahabad, 1907), p. 23. + + 302 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, v. (Leyden, + 1907) pp. 536 _sq._ + + 303 W. Crooke, _Natives of Northern India_ (London, 1907), p. 232. + + 304 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Staemme_ (Berlin, 1906), p. 796. + + 305 J. E. Erskine, _Journal of a Cruise among the Islands of the Western + Pacific_ (London, 1853), pp. 245 _sq._ + + M68 Graves as places of conception for women. + + 306 Persons initiated into the mysteries of Sabazius had a serpent drawn + through the bosom of their robes, and the reptile was identified + with the god ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ + ii. 16, p. 14, ed. Potter). This may be a trace of the belief that + women can be impregnated by serpents, though it does not appear that + the ceremony was performed only on women. + + 307 See above, p. 78. Among the South Slavs women go to graves to get + children. See below, p. 96. + + 308 S. I. Curtiss, _Primitive Semitic Religion To-day_, pp. 115 _sqq._ + + 309 A. C. Kruijt, _Het Animisme in den Indischen Archipel_ (The Hague, + 1906), P. 398. + + M69 Reincarnation of the dead in America and Africa. + +_ 310 Relations des Jesuites_, 1636, p. 130 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, + 1858). A similar custom was practised for a similar reason by the + Musquakie Indians. See Miss Mary Alicia Owen, _Folk-lore of the + Musquakie Indians of North America_ (London, 1904), pp. 22 _sq._, + 86. Some of the instances here given have been already cited by Mr. + J. E. King, who suggests, with much probability, that the special + modes of burial adopted for infants in various parts of the world + may often have been intended to ensure their rebirth. See J. E. + King, "Infant Burial," _Classical Review_, xvii. (1903) pp. 83 _sq._ + For a large collection of evidence as to the belief in the + reincarnation of the dead, see E. S. Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_ + (London, 1909-1910), i. 156 _sqq._ + + 311 Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897), p. 478. + + 312 Rev. John H. Weeks, "Notes on some Customs of the Lower Congo + People," _Folk-lore_, xix. (1908) p. 422. + + 313 Th. Masui, _Guide de la Section de l'Etat Independant du Congo a + l'Exposition de Bruxelles-Tervueren en 1897_ (Brussels, 1897), pp. + 113 _sq._ + + 314 J. B. Purvis, _Through Uganda to Mount Elgon_ (London, 1909), pp. + 302 _sq._ As to the Bagishu or Bageshu and their practice of + throwing out the dead, see Rev. J. Roscoe, "Notes on the Bageshu," + _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxix. (1909) pp. + 181 _sqq._ + + M70 Measures taken to prevent the rebirth of undesirable spirits. Belief + of the Baganda that a woman can be impregnated by the flower of the + banana. + + 315 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 46 _sq._ Women + adopted a like precaution at the grave of twins to prevent the + ghosts of the twins from entering into them and being born again + (_id._, pp. 124 _sq._). The Baganda always strangled children that + were born feet first and buried their bodies at cross-roads. The + heaps of sticks or grass thrown on these graves by passing women and + girls rose in time into mounds large enough to deflect the path and + to attract the notice of travellers. See J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ pp. + 126 _sq._, 289. + + 316 Rev. J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ pp. 126 _sq._ In the Senegal and Niger + region of Western Africa it is said to be commonly believed by women + that they can conceive without any carnal knowledge of a man. See + Maurice Delafosse, _Haut-Senegal-Niger, Le Pays, les Peuples, les + Langues, l'Histoire, les Civilisations_ (Paris, 1912), iii. 171. + + 317 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, pp. 47 _sq._; _Totemism and Exogamy_, + ii. 506 _sq._ As to the custom of depositing the afterbirths of + children at the foot of banana (plantain) trees, see J. Roscoe, _op. + cit._ pp. 52, 54 _sq._ + + M71 Reincarnation of the dead in India. Means taken to facilitate the + rebirth of dead children. + + 318 W. Crooke, _Natives of Northern India_ (London, 1907), p. 202. As to + the Hindoo custom of burying infants but burning older persons, see + _The Belief in Immortality and the Worship of the Dead_, i. 162 + _sq._ + +_ 319 Census of India, 1911_, vol. xiv. _Punjab_, Part i., Report, by + Pandit Harikishan Kaul (Lahore, 1912), p. 299. + + 320 E. M. Gordon, _Indian Folk Tales_ (London, 1908), p. 49. Other + explanations of the custom are reported by the writer, but the + original motive was probably a desire to secure the reincarnation of + the dead child in the mother. + + 321 E. M. Gordon, _op. cit._ pp. 50 _sq._ + + 322 E. Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_ (Madras, 1906), + p. 155; _id._, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909), + iv. 52. + + 323 W. Crooke, _Natives of Northern India_, p. 202; _Census of India, + 1901_, vol. xvii. _Punjab_, Part i., Report, by H. A. Rose (Simla, + 1902), pp. 213 _sq._ + + M72 Bringing back the soul of the dead in a fish or insect. Stories of + the Virgin Birth. Reincarnation of the dead among the South Slavs. + +_ 324 Census of India, 1901_, vol. xiii. _Central Provinces_, Part i., + Report, by R. V. Russell (Nagpur, 1902), p. 93. + + 325 For stories of such virgin births see Comte H. de Charency, _Le + folklore dans les deux Mondes_ (Paris, 1894), pp. 121-256; E. S. + Hartland, _The Legend of Perseus_, vol. i. (London, 1894) pp. 71 + _sqq._; and my note on Pausanias vii. 17. 11 (vol. iv. pp. 138-140). + To the instances there cited by me add: A. Thevet, _Cosmographie + Universelle_ (Paris, 1575), ii. 918 [wrongly numbered 952]; K. von + den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvoelkern Zentral-Brasiliens_ (Berlin, + 1884), pp. 370, 373; H. A. Coudreau, _La France Equinoxiale_, ii. + (Paris, 1887) pp. 184 _sq._; _Relations des Jesuites_, 1637, pp. 123 + _sq._ (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858); Franz Boas, _Indianische + Sagen von der Nord-Pacifischen Kueste Amerikas_ (Berlin, 1895), pp. + 311 _sq._; A. G. Morice, _Au pays de l'Ours Noir_ (Paris and Lyons, + 1897), p. 153; A. Raffray, "Voyage a la cote nord de la Nouvelle + Guinee," _Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie_ (Paris), VIe Serie, + xv. (1878) pp. 392 _sq._; J. L. van der Toorn, "Het animisme bij den + Minangkabauer der Padangsche Bovenlanden," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- + Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, xxxix. (1890) p. 78; + E. Aymonier, "Les Tchames et leurs religions," _Revue de l'Histoire + des Religions_, xxiv. (1901) pp. 215 _sq._; Major P. R. T. Gurdon, + _The Khasis_ (London, 1907), p. 195. In some stories the conception + is brought about not by eating food but by drinking water. But the + principle is the same. + + 326 F. S. Krauss, _Sitte und Brauch der Sued-Slaven_ (Vienna, 1885), p. + 531. + + M73 Belief of the Kai that women may be impregnated without sexual + intercourse. Belief in the island of Mota that a woman can conceive + through the entrance into her of a spirit animal or fruit. + + 327 Ch. Keysser, "Aus dem Leben der Kaileute," in R. Neuhauss's _Deutsch + Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) p. 26. + + M74 Similar belief in the island of Motlav. + + 328 W. H. R. Rivers, "Totemism in Polynesia and Melanesia," _Journal of + the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxix. (1909) pp. 173-175. + Compare _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 89 _sqq._ As to this Melanesian + belief that animals can enter into women and be born from them as + human children with animal characteristics, Dr. Rivers observes (p. + 174): "It was clear that this belief was not accompanied by any + ignorance of the physical _role_ of the human father, and that the + father played the same part in conception as in cases of birth + unaccompanied by an animal appearance. We found it impossible to get + definitely the belief as to the nature of the influence exerted by + the animal on the woman, but it must be remembered that any belief + of this kind can hardly have escaped the many years of European + influence and Christian teaching which the people of this group have + received. It is doubtful whether even a prolonged investigation of + this point could now elicit the original belief of the people about + the nature of the influence." To me it seems that the belief + described by Dr. Rivers in the text is incompatible with the + recognition of human fatherhood as a necessary condition for the + birth of children, and that though the people may now recognize that + necessity, perhaps as a result of intercourse with Europeans, they + certainly cannot have recognized it at the time when the belief in + question originated. + + M75 Australian beliefs as to the birth of children. Reincarnation of the + dead in Central Australia. + + 329 Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central + Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 330, compare _id._ _ibid._ pp. xi, + 145, 147-151, 155 _sq._, 161 _sq._, 169 _sq._, 173 _sq._, 174-176, + 606; _id._, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_ (London, 1899), pp. + 52, 123-125, 126, 132 _sq._, 265, 335-338. + + 330 B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, + pp. 162, 330 _sq._ + + 331 B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, + pp. 337 _sq._ + + M76 Reincarnation of the dead in Northern Australia. + + 332 W. Baldwin Spencer, _An Introduction to the Study of Certain Native + Tribes of the Northern Territory_ (Melbourne, 1912), p. 6: "The two + fundamental beliefs of reincarnation and of children not being of + necessity the result of sexual intercourse, are firmly held by the + tribes in their normal wild state. There is no doubt whatever of + this, and we now know that these two beliefs extend through all the + tribes northwards to Katherine Creek and eastwards to the Gulf of + Carpentaria." In a letter (dated Melbourne, July 27th, 1913) + Professor Baldwin Spencer writes to me that the natives on the + Alligator River in the Northern Territory "have detailed + traditions--as also have all the tribes--of how great ancestors + wandered over the country leaving numbers of spirit children behind + them who have been reincarnated time after time. They know who + everyone is a reincarnation of, as the names are perpetuated." + + 333 W. Baldwin Spencer, _An Introduction to the Study of Certain Native + Tribes of the Northern Territory_ (Melbourne, 1912), pp. 41-45. + + M77 Theories as to the birth of children among the tribes of Queensland. + + 334 Walter E. Roth, _North Queensland Ethnography_, _Bulletin_ No. 5, + _Superstition, Magic, and Medicine_ (Brisbane, 1903), pp. 22, § 81. + + 335 Walter E. Roth, _op. cit._ p. 23, § 82. + + 336 Walter E. Roth, _op. cit._ p. 23, § 83. Mr. Roth adds, very justly: + "When it is remembered that as a rule in all these Northern tribes, + a little girl may be given to and will live with her spouse as wife + long before she reaches the stage of puberty--the relationship of + which to fecundity is not recognised--the idea of conception not + being necessarily due to sexual connection becomes partly + intelligible." + + 337 The Bishop of North Queensland (Dr. Frodsham) in a letter to me, + dated Bishop's Lodge, Townsville, Queensland, July 9th, 1909. The + Bishop's authority for the statement is the Rev. C. W. Morrison, + M.A., acting head of the Yarrubah Mission. In the same letter Dr. + Frodsham, speaking from personal observation, refers to "the belief, + practically universal among the northern tribes, that copulation is + not the cause of conception." See J. G. Frazer, "Beliefs and Customs + of the Australian Aborigines," _Folk-lore_, xx. (1909) pp. 350-352; + _Man_, ix. (1909) pp. 145-147; _Totemism and Exogamy_, i. 577 _sq._ + + M78 Theories as to the birth of children in Northern and Western + Australia. Belief that conception in women is caused by the food + they eat. + + 338 Herbert Basedow, _Anthropological Notes on the Western Coastal + Tribes of the Northern Territory of South Australia_, pp. 4 _sq._ + (separate reprint from the _Transactions of the Royal Society of + South Australia_, vol. xxxi. 1907). + + M79 Conception supposed to be caused by a man who is not the father. + + 339 A. R. Brown, "Beliefs concerning Childbirth in some Australian + Tribes," _Man_, xii. (1912) pp. 180 _sq._ Compare _id._, "Three + Tribes of Western Australia," _Journal of the Royal Anthropological + Institute_, xliii. (1913) p. 168. + + M80 Some rude races still ignorant as to the cause of procreation. + + 340 Those who desire to pursue this subject further may consult with + advantage Mr. E. S. Hartland's learned treatise _Primitive + Paternity_ (London, 1909-1910), which contains an ample collection + of facts and a careful discussion of them. Elsewhere I have argued + that the primitive ignorance of paternity furnishes the key to the + origin of totemism. See _Totemism and Exogamy_, i. 155 _sqq._, iv. + 40 _sqq._ + + M81 Legends of virgin mothers. + M82 Procreative virtue apparently ascribed to the sacred stocks and + stones at Semitic sanctuaries. + + 341 Jeremiah ii. 27. The ancient Greeks seem also to have had a notion + that men were sprung from trees or rocks. See Homer, _Od._ xix. 163; + F. G. Welcker, _Griechische Goetterlehre_ (Goettingen, 1857-1862), i. + 777 _sqq._; A. B. Cook, "Oak and Rock," _Classical Review_, xv. + (1901) pp. 322 _sqq._ + + 342 The _ashera_ and the _masseba_. See 1 Kings xiv. 23; 2 Kings xviii. + 4, xxiii. 14; Micah v. 13 _sq._ (in Hebrew, 12 _sq._); Deuteronomy + xvi. 21 _sq._; W. Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_,2 pp. + 187 _sqq._, 203 _sqq._; G. F. Moore, in _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, + _svv._, "Asherah" and "Massebah." In the early religion of Crete + also the two principal objects of worship seem to have been a sacred + tree and a sacred pillar. See A. J. Evans, "Mycenaean Tree and + Pillar Cult," _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xxi. (1901) pp. 99 + _sqq._ + + 343 As to conical images of Semitic goddesses, see above, pp. 34 _sqq._ + The sacred pole (_asherah_) appears also to have been by some people + regarded as the embodiment of a goddess (Astarte), not of a god. See + above, p. 18, note 2. Among the Khasis of Assam the sacred upright + stones, which resemble the Semitic _masseboth_, are regarded as + males, and the flat table-stones as female. See P. R. T. Gurdon, + _The Khasis_ (London, 1907), pp. 112 _sq._, 150 _sqq._ So in + Nikunau, one of the Gilbert Islands in the South Pacific, the + natives had sandstone slabs or pillars which represented gods and + goddesses. "If the stone slab represented a goddess it was not + placed erect, but laid down on the ground. Being a lady they thought + it would be cruel to make her stand so long." See G. Turner, LL.D., + _Samoa_ (London, 1884), p. 296. + + M83 These conclusions confirmed by the excavation of a sanctuary at the + Canaanitish city of Gezer. The infants buried in the sanctuary may + have been expected to be born again. + + 344 See above, pp. 91 _sqq._ + + 345 As to the excavations at Gezer, see R. A. Stewart Macalister, + _Reports on the Excavation of Gezer_ (London, N.D.), pp. 76-89 + (reprinted from the _Quarterly Statement of the Palestine + Exploration Fund_); _id._, _Bible Side-lights from the Mound of + Gezer_ (London, 1906), pp. 57-67, 73-75. Professor Macalister now + inclines to regard the socketed stone as a laver rather than as the + base of the sacred pole. He supposes that the buried infants were + first-born children sacrificed in accordance with the ancient law of + the dedication of the first-born. The explanation which I have + adopted in the text agrees better with the uninjured state of the + bodies, and it is further confirmed by the result of the Austrian + excavations at Tell Ta'annek (Taanach) in Palestine, which seem to + prove that there children up to the age of two years were not buried + in the family graves but interred separately in jars. Some of these + sepulchral jars were deposited under or beside the houses, but many + were grouped round a rock-hewn altar in a different part of the + hill. There is nothing to indicate that any of the children were + sacrificed: the size of some of the skeletons precludes the idea + that they were slain at birth. Probably they all died natural + deaths, and the custom of burying them in or near the house or + beside an altar was intended to ensure their rebirth in the family. + See Dr. E. Sellin, "Tell Ta'annek," _Denkschriften der Kaiser. + Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-historische Klasse_, l. + (Vienna, 1904), No. iv. pp. 32-37, 96 _sq._ Compare W. W. Graf + Baudissin, _Adonis und Esmun_, p. 59 n.3. I have to thank Professor + R. A. Stewart Macalister for kindly directing my attention to the + excavations at Tell Ta'annek (Taanach). It deserves to be mentioned + that in an enclosure close to the standing stones at Gezer, there + was found a bronze model of a cobra (R. A. Stewart Macalister, + _Bible Side-lights_, p. 76). Perhaps the reptile was the deity of + the shrine, or an embodiment of an ancestral spirit. + + M84 Semitic custom of sacrificing a member of the royal family. The + burning of Melcarth at Tyre. Festival of "the awakening of Hercules" + at Tyre. + +_ 346 The Dying God_, pp. 166 _sqq._ See Note I., "Moloch the King," at + the end of this volume. + + 347 Philo of Byblus, quoted by Eusebius, _Praepar. Evang._ i. 10. 29 + _sq._; 2 Kings iii. 27. + + 348 See above, p. 15. + + 349 Philo of Byblus, in _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. + Mueller, iii. pp. 569, 570, 571. See above, p. 13. + + 350 See above, p. 16. + + 351 Sophocles, _Trachiniae_, 1191 _sqq._; Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, + ii. 7. 7; Diodorus Siculus, iv. 38; Hyginus, _Fab._ 36. + + 352 [S. Clementis Romani,] _Recognitiones_, x. 24, p. 233, ed. E. G. + Gersdorf (Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, i. 1434). + + 353 Josephus, _Antiquit. Jud._ viii. 5. 3, _Contra Apionem_, i. 18. + Whether the quadriennial festival of Hercules at Tyre (2 Maccabees + iv. 18-20) was a different celebration, or only "the awakening of + Melcarth," celebrated with unusual pomp once in four years, we do + not know. + + 354 Eudoxus of Cnidus, quoted by Athenaeus, ix. 47, p. 392 D, E. That + the death and resurrection of Melcarth were celebrated in an annual + festival at Tyre has been recognised by scholars. See + Raoul-Rochette, "Sur l'Hercule Assyrien et Phenicien," _Memoires de + l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_, xvii. Deuxieme + Partie (Paris, 1848), pp. 25 _sqq._; H. Hubert et M. Mauss, "Essai + sur le sacrifice," _L'Annee Sociologique_, ii. (1899) pp. 122, 124; + M. J. Lagrange, _Etudes sur les Religions Semitiques_,2 pp. 308-311. + Iolaus is identified by some modern scholars with Eshmun, a + Phoenician and Carthaginian deity about whom little is known. See F. + C. Movers, _Die Phoenizier_, i. (Bonn, 1841) pp. 536 _sqq._; F. + Baethgen, _Beitraege zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte_ (Berlin, + 1888), pp. 44 _sqq._; C. P. Tiele, _Geschichte der Religion im + Altertum_ (Gotha, 1896-1903), i. 268; W. W. Graf Baudissin, _Adonis + und Esmun_, pp. 282 _sqq._ + + 355 Zenobius, _Centur._ v. 56 (_Paroemiographi Graeci_, ed. E. L. + Leutsch et F. G. Schneidewin, Goettingen, 1839-1851, vol. i. p. 143). + + 356 Quails were perhaps burnt in honour of the Cilician Hercules or + Sandan at Tarsus. See below, p. 126, note 2. + + 357 Alfred Newton, _Dictionary of Birds_ (London, 1893-96), p. 755. + + 358 H. B. Tristram, _The Fauna and Flora of Palestine_ (London, 1884), + p. 124. For more evidence as to the migration of quails see Aug. + Dillmann's commentary on Exodus xvi. 13, pp. 169 _sqq._ (Leipsic, + 1880). + + 359 The Tyrian Hercules was said to be a son of Zeus and Asteria + (Eudoxus of Cnidus, quoted by Athenaeus, ix. 47, p. 392 D; Cicero, + _De natura deorum_, iii. 16. 42). As to the transformation of + Asteria into a quail see Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, i. 4. 1; J. + Tzetzes, _Schol. on Lycophron_, 401; Hyginus, _Fab._ 53; Servius on + Virgil, _Aen._ iii. 73. The name Asteria may be a Greek form of + Astarte. See W. W. Graf Baudissin, _Adonis und Esmun_, p. 307. + + 360 Quintus Curtius, iv. 2. 10; Arrian, _Anabasis_, ii. 24. 5. + + M85 Worship of Melcarth at Gades, and trace of a custom of burning him + there in effigy. + + 361 Strabo, iii. 5. 5, pp. 169 _sq._; Mela, iii. 46; Scymnus Chius, + _Orbis Descriptio_, 159-161 (_Geographi Graeci Minores_, ed. C. + Mueller, i. 200 _sq._). + + 362 Silius Italicus, iii. 14-32; Mela, iii. 46; Strabo, iii. 5. 3, 5, 7, + pp. 169, 170, 172; Diodorus Siculus, v. 20. 2; Philostratus, _Vita + Apollonii_, v. 4 _sq._; Appian, _Hispanica_, 65. Compare Arrian, + _Anabasis_, ii. 16. 4. That the bones of Hercules were buried at + Gades is mentioned by Mela (_l.c._). Compare Arnobius, _Adversus + Nationes_, i. 36. In Italy women were not allowed to participate in + sacrifices offered to Hercules (Aulus Gellius, xi. 6. 2; Macrobius, + _Saturn._ i. 12. 28; Sextus Aurelius Victor, _De origine gentis + Romanae_, vi. 6; Plutarch, _Quaestiones Romanae_, 60). Whether the + priests of Melcarth at Gades were celibate, or had only to observe + continence at certain seasons, does not appear. At Tyre the priest + of Melcarth might be married (Justin, xviii. 4. 5). The worship of + Melcarth under the name of Hercules continued to flourish in the + south of Spain down to the time of the Roman Empire. See J. Toutain, + _Les Cultes paiens dans l'Empire Romain_, Premiere Partie, i. + (Paris, 1907) pp. 400 _sqq._ + + 363 Livy, xxi. 21. 9, 22. 5-9; Cicero, _De Divinatione_, i. 24. 49; + Silius Italicus, iii. 1 _sqq._, 158 _sqq._ + + 364 Pausanias, x. 4. 5. + + 365 B. V. Head, _Historia Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), p. 674; G. A. Cooke, + _Text-Book of North-Semitic Inscriptions_, p. 351. + + 366 F. Imhoof-Blumer and P. Gardner, _Numismatic Commentary on + Pausanias_, pp. 10-12, with pl. A; Stoll, _s.v._ "Melikertes," in W. + H. Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und roem. Mythologie_, ii. 2634. + + M86 Evidence of a custom of burning a god or goddess at Carthage. The + fire-walk at Tyre. The fire-walk at Castabala. The Carthaginian king + Hamilcar sacrifices himself in the fire. + + 367 Justin, xviii. 6. 1-7; Virgil, _Aen._ iv. 473 _sqq._, v. i. _sqq._; + Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 545 _sqq._; Timaeus, in _Fragmenta Historicorum + Graecorum_, ed. C. Mueller, i. 197. Compare W. Robertson Smith, + _Religion of the Semites_,2 pp. 373 _sqq._ The name of Dido has been + plausibly derived by Gesenius, Movers, E. Meyer, and A. H. Sayce + from the Semitic _dod_, "beloved." See F. C. Movers, _Die + Phoenizier_, i. 616; Meltzer, _s.v._ "Dido," in W. H. Roscher's + _Lexikon der griech. und roem. Mythologie_, i. 1017 _sq._; A. H. + Sayce, _Lectures on the Religion of the Ancient Babylonians_ (London + and Edinburgh, 1887), pp. 56 _sqq._ If they are right, the divine + character of Dido becomes more probable than ever, since "the + Beloved" (_Dodah_) seems to have been a title of a Semitic goddess, + perhaps Astarte. See above, p. 20, note 2. According to Varro it was + not Dido but her sister Anna who slew herself on a pyre for love of + Aeneas (Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ iv. 682). + + 368 Justin, xviii. 6. 8. + + 369 Silius Italicus, i. 81 _sqq._ + + 370 See above, pp. 16, 110 _sqq._ + + 371 Ezekiel xxviii. 14, compare 16. + +_ 372 Balder the Beautiful_, ii. 1 _sqq._ But, as I have there pointed + out, there are grounds for thinking that the custom of walking over + fire is not a substitute for human sacrifice, but merely a stringent + form of purification. On fire as a purificatory agent see below, pp. + 179 _sqq._, 188 _sq._ + + 373 Strabo, xii. 2. 7, p. 537. In Greece itself accused persons used to + prove their innocence by walking through fire (Sophocles, + _Antigone_, 264 _sq._, with Jebb's note). Possibly the fire-walk of + the priestesses at Castabala was designed to test their chastity. + For this purpose the priests and priestesses of the Tshi-speaking + people of the Gold Coast submit to an ordeal, standing one by one in + a narrow circle of fire. This "is supposed to show whether they have + remained pure, and refrained from sexual intercourse, during the + period of retirement, and so are worthy of inspiration by the gods. + If they are pure they will receive no injury and suffer no pain from + the fire" (A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold + Coast_, London, 1887, p. 138). These cases favour the purificatory + explanation of the fire-walk. + + 374 Euripides, _Iphigenia in Tauris_, 621-626. Compare Diodorus Siculus, + xx. 14. 6. + + 375 Herodotus, vii. 167. This was the Carthaginian version of the story. + According to another account, Hamilcar was killed by the Greek + cavalry (Diodorus Siculus, xi. 22. 1). His worship at Carthage is + mentioned by Athenagoras (_Supplicatio pro Christianis_, p. 64, ed. + J. C. T. Otto, Jena, 1857.) I have called Hamilcar a king in + accordance with the usage of Greek writers (Herodotus, vii. 165 + _sq._; Aristotle, _Politics_, ii. 11; Polybius, vi. 51; Diodorus + Siculus, xiv. 54. 5). But the _suffetes_, or supreme magistrates, of + Carthage were two in number; whether they were elected for a year or + for life seems to be doubtful. Cornelius Nepos, who calls them + kings, says that they were elected annually (_Hannibal_, vii. 4), + and Livy (xxx. 7. 5) compares them to the consuls; but Cicero (_De + re publica_, ii. 23. 42 _sq._) seems to imply that they held office + for life. See G. A. Cooke, _Text-book of North-Semitic + Inscriptions_, pp. 115 _sq._ + + M87 The death of Hercules a Greek version of the burning of Melcarth. + + 376 Lucian, _Amores_, 1 and 54. + + M88 The Tyrian Melcarth in Cyprus. The lion-slaying god. + + 377 See above, p. 32. + + 378 G. A. Cooke, _Text-book of North-Semitic Inscriptions_, Nos. 23 and + 29, PP. 73, 83 _sq._, with the notes on pp. 81, 84. + + 379 G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, _Histoire de l'Art dans l'Antiquite_, iii. + 566-578. The colossal statue found at Amathus may be related, + directly or indirectly, to the Egyptian god Bes, who is represented + as a sturdy misshapen dwarf, wearing round his body the skin of a + beast of the panther tribe, with its tail hanging down. See E. A. + Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_ (London, 1904), ii. 284 + _sqq._; A. Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, + 1897), pp. 159 _sqq._; A. Furtwaengler, _s.v._ "Herakles," in W. H. + Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und roem. Mythologie_, i. 2143 _sq._ + + 380 However, human victims were burned at Salamis in Cyprus. See below, + p. 145. + + M89 The Baal of Tarsus, an Oriental god of corn and grapes. + + 381 See above, p. 41. + + 382 For traces of Phoenician influence in Cilicia see F. C. Movers, _Die + Phoenizier_, ii. 2, pp. 167-174, 207 _sqq._ Herodotus says (vii. 91) + that the Cilicians were named after Cilix, a son of the Phoenician + Agenor. + + 383 As to the fertility and the climate of the plain of Tarsus, which is + now very malarious, see E. J. Davis, _Life in Asiatic Turkey_ + (London, 1879), chaps. i.-vii. The gardens for miles round the city + are very lovely, but wild and neglected, full of magnificent trees, + especially fine oak, ash, orange, and lemon-trees. The vines run to + the top of the highest branches, and almost every garden resounds + with the song of the nightingale (E. J. Davis, _op. cit._ p. 35). + + 384 Strabo, xiv. 5. 13, pp. 673 _sq._ + + 385 Dio Chrysostom, _Or._ xxxiii. vol. ii. pp. 14 _sq._, 17, ed. L. + Dindorf (Leipsic, 1857). + + 386 F. C. Movers, _Die Phoenizier_, ii. 2, pp. 171 _sq._; P. Gardner, + _Types of Greek Coins_ (Cambridge, 1883), pl. x. Nos. 29, 30; B. V. + Head, _Historia Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), p. 614; G. F. Hill, + _Catalogue of Greek Coins of Lycaonia, Isauria, and Cilicia_ + (London, 1900), pp. 167-176, pl. xxix.-xxxii.; G. Macdonald, + _Catalogue of Greek Coins in the Hunterian Collection_ (Glasgow, + 1899-1905), ii. 547; G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, _Histoire de l'Art + dans l'Antiquite_, iv. 727. In later times, from about 175 B.C. + onward, the Baal of Tarsus was completely assimilated to Zeus on the + coins. See B. V. Head, _op. cit._ p. 617; G. F. Hill, _op. cit._ pp. + 177, 181. + + M90 The Baal of Tarsus has his counterpart at Ibreez in Cappadocia. The + pass of the Cilician Gates. + + 387 Sir W. M. Ramsay, _Luke the Physician, and other Studies in the + History of Religion_ (London, 1908), pp. 112 _sqq._ + + M91 The rock-sculptures at Ibreez represent a god of corn and grapes + adored by his worshipper, a priest or king. + + 388 E. J. Davis, "On a New Hamathite Inscription at Ibreez," + _Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archaeology_, iv. (1876) + pp. 336-346; _id._, _Life in Asiatic Turkey_ (London, 1879), pp. + 245-260; G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, _Histoire de l'Art dans + l'Antiquite_, iv. 723-729; Ramsay and Hogarth, "Prehellenic + Monuments of Cappadocia," _Recueil de Travaux relatifs a la + Philologie et a l'Archeologie Egyptiennes et Assyriennes_, xiv. + (1903) pp. 77-81, 85 _sq._, with plates iii. and iv.; L. + Messerschmidt, _Corpus Inscriptionum Hettiticarum_ (Berlin, 1900), + Tafel xxxiv.; Sir W. M. Ramsay, _Luke the Physician_ (London, 1908), + pp. 171 _sqq._; John Garstang, _The Land of the Hittites_ (London, + 1910), pp. 191-195, 378 _sq._ Of this sculptured group Messrs. W. M. + Ramsay and D. G. Hogarth say that "it yields to no rock-relief in + the world in impressive character" (_American Journal of + Archaeology_, vi. (1890) p. 347). Professor Garstang would date the + sculptures in the tenth or ninth century B.C. Another inscribed + Hittite monument found at Bor, near the site of the ancient Tyana, + exhibits a very similar figure of a priest or king in an attitude of + adoration. The resemblance extends even to the patterns embroidered + on the robe and shawl, which include the well-known _swastika_ + carved on the lower border of the long robe. The figure is + sculptured in high relief on a slab of stone and would seem to have + been surrounded by inscriptions, though a portion of them has + perished. See J. Garstang, _op. cit._ pp. 185-188, with plate lvi. + For the route from Tarsus to Ibreez (Ivriz) see E. J. Davis, _Life + in Asiatic Turkey_, pp. 198-244; J. Garstang, _op. cit._ pp. 44 + _sqq._ + + M92 The fertility of Ibreez contrasted with the desolation of the + surrounding country. + + 389 See above, pp. 28 _sq._ + + 390 Strabo, xii. 2. 7, p. 537. When Cicero was proconsul of Cilicia + (51-50 B.C.) he encamped with his army for some days at Cybistra, + from which two of his letters to Atticus are dated. But hearing that + the Parthians, who had invaded Syria, were threatening Cilicia, he + hurried by forced marches through the pass of the Cilician Gates to + Tarsus. See Cicero, _Ad Atticum_, v. 18, 19, 20; _Ad Familiares_, + xv. 2, 4. + + 391 E. J. Davis, in _Transactions of the Society of Biblical + Archaeology_, iv. (1876) pp. 336 _sq._, 346; _id._, _Life in Asiatic + Turkey_, pp. 232 _sq._, 236 _sq._, 264 _sq._, 270-272. Compare W. J. + Hamilton, _Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus, and Armenia_ (London, + 1842), ii. 304-307. + + M93 The horned god. + + 392 L. Messerschmidt, _The Hittites_ (London, 1903), pp. 49 _sq._ On an + Assyrian cylinder, now in the British Museum, we see a warlike deity + with bow and arrows standing on a lion, and wearing a similar bonnet + decorated with horns and surmounted by a star or sun. See De Voguee, + _Melanges d'Archeologie Orientale_ (Paris, 1868), p. 46, who + interprets the deity as the great Asiatic goddess. As to the horned + god of Ibreez "it is a plausible theory that the horns may, in this + case, be analogous to the Assyrian emblem of divinity. The sculpture + is late and its style rather suggests Semitic influence" (Professor + J. Garstang, in some MS. notes with which he has kindly furnished + me). + + 393 See below, p. 132. + +_ 394 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 16 _sq._, ii. 3 _sqq._ + + M94 The god of Ibreez a Hittite deity. + + 395 The identification is accepted by E. Meyer (_Geschichte des + Altertums_,2 i. 2. p. 641), G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez (_Histoire de + l'Art dans l'Antiquite_, iv. 727), and P. Jensen (_Hittiter und + Armenier_, Strasburg, 1898, p. 145). + + 396 Ramsay and Hogarth, "Pre-Hellenic Monuments of Cappadocia," _Recueil + de Travaux relatifs a la Philologie et a l'Archeologie Egyptiennes + et Assyriennes_, xiv. (1893) p. 79. + + 397 G. Maspero, _Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient Classique_, + ii. 360-362; G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, _Histoire de l'Art dans + l'Antiquite_, iv. 572 _sqq._, 586 _sq._ + + 398 That the cradle of the Hittites was in the interior of Asia Minor, + particularly in Cappadocia, and that they spread from there south, + east, and west, is the view of A. H. Sayce, W. M. Ramsay, D. G. + Hogarth, W. Max Mueller, F. Hommel, L. B. Paton, and L. + Messerschmidt. See _Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement + for 1884_, p. 49; A. H. Sayce, _The Hittites_3 (London, 1903), pp. + 80 _sqq._; W. Max Mueller, _Asien und Europa_ (Leipsic, 1893), pp. + 319 _sqq._; Ramsay and Hogarth, "Pre-Hellenic Monuments of + Cappadocia," _Recueil de Travaux relatifs a la Philologie et a + l'Archeologie Egyptiennes et Assyriennes_, xv. (1893) p. 94; F. + Hommel, _Grundriss der Geographie und Geschichte des alten Orients_ + (Munich, 1904), pp. 42, 48, 54; L. B. Paton, _The Early History of + Syria and Palestine_ (London, 1902), pp. 105 _sqq._; L. + Messerschmidt, _The Hittites_ (London, 1903), pp. 12, 13, 19, 20; D. + G. Hogarth, "Recent Hittite Research," _Journal of the Royal + Anthropological Institute_, xxxix. (1909) pp. 408 _sqq._ Compare Ed. + Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. (Stuttgart and Berlin, + 1909) pp. 617 sqq.; J. Garstang, _The Land of the Hittites_, pp. 315 + _sqq._ The native Hittite writing is a system of hieroglyphics which + has not yet been read, but in their intercourse with foreign nations + the Hittites used the Babylonian cuneiform script. Clay tablets + bearing inscriptions both in the Babylonian and in the Hittite + language have been found by Dr. H. Winckler at Boghaz-Keui, the + great Hittite capital in Cappadocia; so that the sounds of the + Hittite words, though not their meanings, are now known. According + to Professor Ed. Meyer, it seems certain that the Hittite language + was neither Semitic nor Indo-European. As to the inscribed tablets + of Boghaz-Keui, see H. Winckler, "Vorlaeufige Nachrichten ueber die + Ausgrabungen in Boghaz-koei im Sommer 1907, 1. Die Tontafelfunde," + _Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft zu Berlin_, No. 35, + December 1907, pp. 1-59; "Hittite Archives from Boghaz-Keui," + translated from the German transcripts of Dr. Winckler by Meta E. + Williams, _Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology_, iv. (Liverpool, + 1912), pp. 90-98. + + 399 G. Maspero, _Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient Classique_, + ii. 351, note 3, with his references; L. B. Paton, _op. cit._ p. + 109; L. Messerschmidt, _The Hittites_, p. 10; F. Hommel, _op. cit._ + p. 42; W. Max Mueller, _Asien und Europa_, p. 332. See the preceding + note. + + M95 The burning of Sandan or Hercules at Tarsus. + + 400 A. H. Sayce, "The Hittite Inscriptions," _Recueil de Travaux + relatifs a la Philologie et a l'Archeologie Egyptiennes et + Assyriennes_, xiv. (1893) pp. 48 _sq._; P. Jensen, _Hittiter und + Armenier_ (Strasburg, 1898), pp. 42 _sq._ + + 401 Georgius Syncellus, _Chronographia_, vol. i. p. 290, ed. G. Dindorf + (Bonn, 1829): {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. In this + passage {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} is a correction of F. C. Movers's (_Die Phoenizier_, + i. 460) for the MS. reading {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, the {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA~} having apparently + arisen by dittography from the preceding {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA~}; and {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} is a + correction of E. Meyer's ("Ueber einige semitische Goetter," + _Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlaendischen Gesellschaft_, xxxi. + 737) for the MS. reading {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. Compare Jerome (quoted by Movers and + Meyer, _ll.cc._): "_Hercules cognomento Desanaus in Syria Phoenice + clarus habetur. Inde ad nostram usque memoriam a Cappadocibus et + Eliensibus (al. Deliis) Desanaus adhuc dicitur._" If the text of + Jerome is here sound, he would seem to have had before him a Greek + original which was corrupt like the text of Syncellus or of + Syncellus's authority. The Cilician Hercules is called Sandes by + Nonnus (_Dionys._, xxxiv. 183 _sq._). Compare Raoul-Rochette in + _Memoires de l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_, xvii. + Deuxieme Partie (Paris, 1848), pp. 159 _sqq._ + + 402 Ammianus Marcellinus, xiv. 8. 3; Dio Chrysostom, _Or._ xxxiii. vol. + ii. p. 16, ed. L. Dindorf (Leipsic, 1857). The pyre is mentioned + only by Dio Chrysostom, whose words clearly imply that its erection + was a custom observed periodically. On Sandan or Sandon see K. O. + Mueller, "Sandon und Sardanapal," _Kunstarchaeologische Werke_, iii. + 6 _sqq._; F. C. Movers, _Die Phoenizier_, i. 458 _sqq._; + Raoul-Rochette, "Sur l'Hercule Assyrien et Phenicien," _Memoires de + l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_, xvii. Deuxieme + Partie (Paris, 1848), pp. 178 _sqq._; E. Meyer, "Ueber einige + Semitische Goetter," _Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlaendischen + Gesellschaft_, xxxi. (1877) pp. 736-740: _id._, _Geschichte des + Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 641 _sqq._ § 484. + + 403 P. Gardner, _Catalogue of Greek Coins, the Seleucid Kings of Syria_ + (London, 1878), pp. 72, 78, 89, 112, pl. xxi. 6, xxiv. 3, xxviii. 8; + G. F. Hill, _Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Lycaonia, Isauria, and + Cilicia_ (London, 1900), pp. 180, 181, 183, 190, 221, 224, 225, pl. + xxxiii. 2, 3, xxxiv. 10, xxxvii. 9; F. Imhoof-Blumer, "Coin-types of + some Kilikian Cities," _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xviii. (1898) + p. 169, pl. xiii. 1, 2. The structure represented on the coins is + sometimes called not the pyre but the monument of Sandan or + Sardanapalus. Certainly the cone resting on the square base reminds + us of the similar structure on the coins of Byblus as well as of the + conical image of Aphrodite at Paphos (see above, pp. 14, 34); but + the words of Dio Chrysostom make it probable that the design on the + coins of Tarsus represents the pyre. At the same time, the burning + of the god may well have been sculptured on a permanent monument of + stone. The legend {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA~}, literally "quail-hunt," which appears + on some coins of Tarsus (G. F. Hill, _op. cit._ pp. lxxxvi. _sq._), + may refer to a custom of catching quails and burning them on the + pyre. We have seen (above, pp. 111 _sq._) that quails were + apparently burnt in sacrifice at Byblus. This explanation of the + legend on the coins of Tarsus was suggested by Raoul-Rochette (_op. + cit._ pp. 201-205). However, Mr. G. F. Hill writes to me that "the + interpretation of {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} as anything but a personal name is + rendered very unlikely by the analogy of all the other inscriptions + on coins of the same class." Doves were burnt on a pyre in honour of + Adonis (below, p. 147). Similarly birds were burnt on a pyre in + honour of Laphrian Artemis at Patrae (Pausanias, vii. 18. 12). + + 404 Herodian, iv. 2. + + 405 See Franz Cumont, "L'Aigle funeraire des Syriens et l'Apotheose des + Empereurs," _Revue de l'Histoire des Religions_, lxii, (1910) pp. + 119-163. + + M96 Sandan of Tarsus an Asiatic god with the symbols of the lion and the + double axe. + + 406 F. Imhoof-Blumer, _Monnaies Grecques_ (Amsterdam, 1883), pp. 366 + _sq._, 433, 435, with plates F. 24, 25, H. 14 (_Verhandelingen der + Konink. Akademie von Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde, xiv.); + F. Imhoof-Blumer und O. Keller, _Tier- und Pflanzenbilder auf Muenzen + und Gemmen des klassischen Altertums_ (Leipsic, 1889), pp. 70 _sq._, + with pl. xii. 7, 8, 9; F. Imhoof-Blumer, "Coin-types of some + Kilikian Cities," _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xviii. (1898) pp. + 169-171; P. Gardner, _Types of Greek Coins_, pl. xiii. 20; G. F. + Hill, _Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Lycaonia, Isauria, and + Cilicia_, pp. 178, 179, 184, 186, 206, 213, with plates xxxii. 13, + 14, 15, 16, xxxiv. 2, xxxvi. 9; G. Macdonald, _Catalogue of Greek + Coins in the Hunterian Collection_, ii. 548, with pl. lx. 11. The + booted Sandan is figured by G. F. Hill, _op. cit._ pl. xxxvi. 9. + + M97 Boghaz-Keui the ancient capital of a Hittite kingdom in Cappadocia. + + 407 Herodotus, i. 76; Stephanus Byzantius, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. As to the + situation of Boghaz-Keui and the ruins of Pteria see W. J. Hamilton, + _Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus, and Armenia_ (London, 1842), i. + 391 _sqq._; H. Barth, "Reise von Trapezunt durch die noerdliche + Haelfte Klein-Asiens," _Ergaenzungsheft zu Petermann's Geographischen + Mittheilungen_, No. 2 (1860), pp. 44-52; H. F. Tozer, _Turkish + Armenia and Eastern Asia Minor_ (London, 1881), pp. 64, 71 _sqq._; + W. M. Ramsay, "Historical Relations of Phrygia and Cappadocia," + _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, N.S., xv. (1883) p. 103; + _id._, _Historical Geography of Asia Minor_ (London, 1890), pp. 28 + _sq._, 33 _sq._; G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, _Histoire de l'Art dans + l'Antiquite_, iv. 596 _sqq._; K. Humann und O. Puchstein, _Reisen in + Kleinasien und Nordsyrien_ (Berlin, 1890), pp. 71-80, with Atlas, + plates xi.-xiv.; E. Chantre, _Mission en Cappadoce_ (Paris, 1898), + pp. 13 _sqq._; O. Puchstein, "Die Bauten von Boghaz-Koei," + _Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft zu Berlin_, No. 35, + December 1907, pp. 62 _sqq._; J. Garstang, _The Land of the + Hittites_ (London, 1910), pp. 196 _sqq._ + + M98 The sanctuary in the rocks. The rock-sculptures in the outer + sanctuary at Boghaz-Keui represent two processions meeting. The + central figures. + + 408 This procession of men is broken (_a_) by two women clad in long + plaited robes like the women on the opposite wall; (_b_) by two + winged monsters; and (_c_) by the figure of a priest or king as to + which see below, pp. 131 _sq._ + + M99 The rock-sculptures in the inner sanctuary at Boghaz-Keui. The + lion-god. The god protecting his priest. Other representations of + the priest at Boghaz-Keui and Euyuk. + + 409 W. J. Hamilton, _Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus, and Armenia_ + (London, 1842), i. 393-395; H. F. Tozer, _Turkish Armenia and + Eastern Asia Minor_, pp. 59 _sq._, 66-78; W. M. Ramsay, "Historical + Relations of Phrygia and Asia Minor," _Journal of the Royal Asiatic + Society_, N.S. xv. (1883) pp. 113-120; G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, + _Histoire de l'Art dans l'Antiquite_, iv. 623-656, 666-672; K. + Humann und O. Puchstein, _Reisen in Kleinasien und Nordsyrien_, pp. + 55-70, with Atlas, plates vii.-x.; E. Chantre, _Mission en + Cappadoce_, pp. 3-5, 16-26; L. Messerschmidt, _The Hittites_, pp. + 42-50; Th. Macridy-Bey, _La Porte des Sphinx a Eyuk_, pp. 13 _sq._ + (_Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft_, 1908, No. 3, + Berlin); Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 631 + _sq._; J. Garstang, _The Land of the Hittites_ (London, 1910), pp. + 196 _sqq._ (Boghaz-Keui) 256 _sqq._ (Eyuk). Compare P. Jensen, + _Hittiter und Armenier_, pp. 165 _sqq._ In some notes with which my + colleague Professor J. Garstang has kindly furnished me he tells me + that the two animals wearing Hittite hats, which appear between the + great god and goddess in the outer sanctuary, are not bulls but + certainly goats; and he inclines to think that the two heaps on + which the priest stands in the outer sanctuary are fir-cones. + Professor Ed. Meyer holds that the costume which the priestly king + wears is that of the Sun-goddess, and that the corresponding figure + in the procession of males on the left-hand side of the outer + sanctuary does not represent the priestly king but the Sun-goddess + in person. "The attributes of the King," he says (_op. cit._ p. + 632), "are to be explained by the circumstance that he, as the + Hittite inscriptions prove, passed for an incarnation of the Sun, + who with the Hittites was a female divinity; the temple of the Sun + is therefore his emblem." As to the title of "the Sun" bestowed on + Hittite kings in inscriptions, see H. Winckler, "Vorlaeufige + Nachrichten ueber die Ausgrabungen in Boghaz-koei im Sommer 1907," + _Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft zu Berlin_, No. 35, + December 1907, pp. 32, 33, 36, 44, 45, 53. The correct form of the + national name appears to be Chatti or Hatti rather than Hittites, + which is the Hebrew form ({~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}) of the name. Compare M. Jastrow, in + _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, ii. coll. 2094 _sqq._, _s.v._ "Hittites." + + An interesting Hittite symbol which occurs both in the sanctuary at + Boghaz-Keui and at the palace of Euyuk is the double-headed eagle. + In both places it serves as the support of divine or priestly + personages. After being adopted as a badge by the Seljuk Sultans in + the Middle Ages, it passed into Europe with the Crusaders and became + in time the escutcheon of the Austrian and Russian empires. See W. + J. Hamilton, _op. cit._ i. 383; G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, _op. cit._ + iv. 681-683, pl. viii. E; L. Messerschmidt, _The Hittites_, p. 50. + + M100 The two deities at the head of the processions at Boghaz-Keui appear + to be the great Asiatic goddess and her consort. The Hittite god of + the thundering sky. Jupiter Dolichenus. + + 410 W. J. Hamilton, _Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus, and Armenia_, i. + 394 _sq._; H. Barth, in _Monatsberichte der koenigl. Preuss. Akademie + der Wissenschaften_, 1859, pp. 128 _sqq._; _id._, "Reise von + Trapezunt," _Ergaenzungsheft zu Petermann's Geograph. Mittheilungen_, + No. 2 (Gotha, 1860), pp. 45 _sq._; H. F. Tozer, _Turkish Armenia and + Eastern Asia Minor_, p. 69; E. Chantre, _Mission en Cappadoce_, pp. + 20 _sqq._ According to Barth, the scene represented is the marriage + of Aryenis, daughter of Alyattes, king of Lydia, to Astyages, son of + Cyaxares, king of the Medes (Herodotus, i. 74). For a discussion of + various interpretations which have been proposed see G. Perrot et + Ch. Chipiez, _Histoire de l'Art dans l'Antiquite_, iv. 630 _sqq._ + + 411 This is in substance the view of Raoul-Rochette, Lajard, W. M. + Ramsay, G. Perrot, C. P. Tiele, Ed. Meyer, and J. Garstang. See + Raoul-Rochette, "Sur l'Hercule Assyrien et Phenicien," _Memoires de + l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_, xvii. Deuxieme + Partie (Paris, 1848), p. 180 note 1; W. M. Ramsay, "On the Early + Historical Relations between Phrygia and Cappadocia," _Journal of + the Royal Asiatic Society_, N.S. xv. (1883) pp. 113-120; G. Perrot + et Ch. Chipiez, _Histoire de l'Art dans l'Antiquite_, iv. 630 + _sqq._; C. P. Tiele, _Geschichte der Religion im Altertum_, i. + 255-257; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 633 + _sq._; J. Garstang, _The Land of the Hittites_, pp. 235-237; _id._, + _The Syrian Goddess_ (London, 1913), pp. 5 _sqq._ + + 412 K. Humann und O. Puchstein, _Reisen in Kleinasien und Nordsyrien_ + (Berlin, 1902), Atlas, pl. xlv. 3; _Ausgrabungen zu Sendschirli_, + iii. (Berlin, 1902) pl. xli.; J. Garstang, _The Land of the + Hittites_, p. 291, with plate lxxvii.; R. Koldewey, _Die Hettitische + Inschrift gefunden in der Koenigsburg von Babylon_ (Leipsic, 1900), + plates 1 and 2 (_Wissenschaftliche Veroeffentlichungen der Deutschen + Orient-Gesellschaft_, Heft 1); L. Messerschmidt, _Corpus + Inscriptionum Hettiticarum_, pl. i. 5 and 6; _id._, _The Hittites_ + (London, 1903), pp. 40-42, with fig. 6 on p. 41; M. J. Lagrange, + _Etudes sur les Religions Semitiques_2 (Paris, 1905), p. 93. The + name of the god is thought to have been Teshub or Teshup; for a god + of that name is known from the Tel-el-Amarna letters to have been + the chief deity of the Mitani, a people of Northern Mesopotamia akin + in speech and religion to the Hittites, but ruled by an Aryan + dynasty. See Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 578, + 591 _sq._, 636 _sq._; R. F. Harper, _Assyrian and Babylonian + Literature_, pp. 222, 223 (where the god's name is spelt Tishub). + The god is also mentioned repeatedly in the Hittite archives which + Dr. H. Winckler found inscribed on clay tablets at Boghaz-Keui. See + H. Winckler, "Vorlaeufige Nachrichten ueber die Ausgrabungen in + Boghaz-koei im Sommer 1907," _Mitteilungen der Deutschen + Orient-Gesellschaft zu Berlin_, No. 35, December 1907, pp. 13 _sq._, + 32, 34, 36, 38, 39, 43, 44, 51 _sq._, 53; "Hittite Archives from + Boghaz-Keui," translated from the German transcripts of Dr. + Winckler, _Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology_, iv. (Liverpool + and London, 1912) pp. 90 _sqq._ As to the Mitani, their language and + their gods, see H. Winckler, _op. cit._ pp. 30 _sqq._, 46 _sqq._ In + thus interpreting the Hittite god who heads the procession at + Boghaz-Keui I follow my colleague Prof. J. Garstang (_The Land of + the Hittites_, p. 237; _The Syrian Goddess_, pp. 5 _sqq._), who has + kindly furnished me with some notes on the subject. I formerly + interpreted the deity as the Hittite equivalent of Tammuz, Adonis, + and Attis. But against that view it may be urged that (1) the god is + bearded and therefore of mature age, whereas Tammuz and his fellows + were regularly conceived as youthful; (2) the thunderbolt which he + seems to carry would be quite inappropriate to Tammuz, who was not a + god of thunder but of vegetation; and (3) the Hittite Tammuz is + appropriately represented in the procession of women immediately + behind the Mother Goddess (see below, pp. 137 _sq._), and it is + extremely improbable that he should be represented twice over with + different attributes in the same scene. These considerations seem to + me conclusive against the interpretation of the bearded god as a + Tammuz and decisive in favour of Professor Garstang's view of him. + + 413 J. Garstang, "Notes of a Journey through Asia Minor," _Annals of + Archaeology and Anthropology_, i. (Liverpool and London, 1908) pp. 3 + _sq._, with plate iv.; _id._, _The Land of the Hittites_, pp. 138, + 359, with plate xliv. In this sculpture the god on the bull holds in + his right hand what is described as a triangular bow instead of a + mace, an axe, or a hammer. + + 414 A. Wiedemann, _Aegyptische Geschichte_ (Gotha, 1884), ii. 438-440; G. + Maspero, _Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient Classique_, ii. + (Paris, 1897) pp. 401 _sq._; W. Max Mueller, _Der Buendnisvortrag + Ramses' II. und des Chetitirkoenigs_, pp. 17-19, 21 _sq._, 38-44 + (_Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft_, 1902, No. 5, + Berlin); L. Messerschmidt, _The Hittites_, pp. 14-19; J. H. + Breasted, _Ancient Records of Egypt_ (Chicago, 1906-1907), iii. + 163-174; _id._, _A History of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1908), + p. 311; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 631, 635 + _sqq._; J. Garstang, _The Land of the Hittites_, pp. 347-349. The + Hittite copy of the treaty was discovered by Dr. H. Winckler at + Boghaz-Keui in 1906. The identification of Arenna or Arinna is + uncertain. In a forthcoming article, "The Sun God[dess] of Arenna," + to be published in the Liverpool _Annals of Archaeology and + Anthropology_, Professor J. Garstang argues that Arenna is to be + identified with the Cappadocian Comana. + + 415 Ed. Meyer, "Dolichenus," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und + roem. Mythologie_, i. 1191-1194; A. von Domaszewski, _Die Religion + des roemischen Heeres_ (Treves, 1895), pp. 59 _sq._, with plate iiii. + fig. 1 and 2; Franz Cumont, _s.v._ "Dolichenus," in Pauly-Wissowa's + _Real-Encyclopaedie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, v. i. + coll. 1276 _sqq._; J. Toutain, _Les Cultes paiens dans l'Empire + Romain_, ii. (Paris, 1911) pp. 35-43. For examples of the + inscriptions which relate to his worship see H. Dessau, + _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, vol. ii. Pars i. (Berlin, 1902) + pp. 167-172, Nos. 4296-4324. + + M101 The Mother Goddess. + + 416 As to the lions and mural crown of Cybele see Lucretius, ii. 600 + _sqq._; Catullus, lxiii. 76 _sqq._; Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 23. 20; + Rapp, _s.v._ "Kybele," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und + roem. Mythologie_, ii. 1644 _sqq._ + + 417 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 31; Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 23. 19. Lucian's + description of her image is confirmed by coins of Hierapolis, on + which the goddess is represented wearing a high head-dress and + seated on a lion. See B. V. Head, _Historia Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), + p. 654; G. Macdonald, _Catalogue of Greek Coins in the Hunterian + Collection_ (Glasgow, 1899-1905), iii. 139 _sq._; J. Garstang, _The + Syrian Goddess_, pp. 21 _sqq._, 70, with fig. 7. That the name of + the Syrian goddess of Hierapolis-Bambyce was Atargatis is mentioned + by Strabo (xvi. 1. 27, p. 748). On Egyptian monuments the Semitic + goddess Kadesh is represented standing on a lion. See W. Max Mueller, + _Asien und Europa_, pp. 314 _sq._ It is to be remembered that + Hierapolis-Bambyce was the direct successor of Carchemish, the great + Hittite capital on the Euphrates, and may have inherited many + features of Hittite religion. See A. H. Sayce, _The Hittites_,3 pp. + 94 _sqq._, 105 _sqq._; and as to the Hittite monuments at + Carchemish, see J. Garstang, _The Land of the Hittites_, pp. 122 + _sqq._ + + 418 Diodorus Siculus, ii. 9. 5. + + M102 The youth on the lioness, bearing the double axe, at Boghaz-Keui may + be the divine son and lover of the goddess. + + 419 In thus interpreting the youth with the double axe I agree with Sir + W. M. Ramsay ("On the Early Historical Relations between Phrygia and + Cappadocia," _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, N.S. xv. (1883) + pp. 118, 120), C. P. Tiele (_Geschichte der Religion im Alterturm_, + i. 246, 255), and Prof. J. Garstang (_The Land of the Hittites_, p. + 235; _The Syrian Goddess_, p. 8). That the youthful figure on the + lioness or panther represents the lover of the great goddess is the + view also of Professors Jensen and Hommel. See P. Jensen, _Hittiter + und Armenier_, pp. 173-175, 180; F. Hommel, _Grundriss der + Geographie und Geschichte des alten Orients_, p. 51. Prof. Perrot + holds that the youth in question is a double of the bearded god who + stands at the head of the male procession, their costume being the + same, though their attributes differ (G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, + _Histoire de l'Art dans l'Antiquite_, iv. 651). But, as I have + already remarked, it is unlikely that the same god should be + represented twice over with different attributes in the same scene. + The resemblance between the two figures is better explained on the + supposition that they are Father and Son. The same two deities, + Father and Son, appear to be carved on a rock at Giaour-Kalesi, a + place on the road which in antiquity may have led from Ancyra by + Gordium to Pessinus. Here on the face of the rock are cut in relief + two gigantic figures in the usual Hittite costume of pointed cap, + short tunic, and shoes turned up at the toes. Each wears a + crescent-hilted sword at his side, each is marching to the + spectator's left with raised right hand; and the resemblance between + them is nearly complete except that the figure in front is beardless + and the figure behind is bearded. See G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, + _Histoire de l'Art dans l'Antiquite_, iv. 714 _sqq._, with fig. 352; + J. Garstang, _The Land of the Hittites_, pp. 162-164. A similar, but + solitary, figure is carved in a niche of the rock at Kara-Bel, but + there the deity, or the man, carries a triangular bow over his right + shoulder. See below, p. 185. + + With regard to the lionesses or panthers, a bas-relief found at + Carchemish, the capital of a Hittite kingdom on the Euphrates, shows + two male figures in Hittite costume, with pointed caps and turned-up + shoes, standing on a crouching lion. The foremost of the two figures + is winged and carries a short curved truncheon in his right hand. + According to Prof. Perrot, the two figures represent a god followed + by a priest or a king. See G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, _Histoire de + l'Art dans l'Antiquite_, iv. 549 _sq._; J. Garstang, _The Land of + the Hittites_, pp. 123 _sqq._ Again, on a sculptured slab found at + Amrit in Phoenicia we see a god standing on a lion and holding a + lion's whelp in his left hand, while in his right hand he brandishes + a club or sword. See Perrot et Chipiez, _op. cit._ iii. 412-414. The + type of a god or goddess standing or sitting on a lion occurs also + in Assyrian art, from which the Phoenicians and Hittites may have + borrowed it. See Perrot et Chipiez, _op. cit._ ii. 642-644. Much + evidence as to the representation of Asiatic deities with lions has + been collected by Raoul-Rochette, in his learned dissertation "Sur + l'Hercule Assyrien et Phenicien," _Memoires de l'Academie des + Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_, xvii. Deuxieme Partie (Paris, + 1848), pp. 106 _sqq._ Compare De Voguee, _Melanges d'Archeologie + Orientale_, pp. 44 _sqq._ + + M103 The mystery of the lion-god. + + 420 Similarly in Yam, one of the Torres Straits Islands, two brothers + named Sigai and Maiau were worshipped in a shrine under the form of + a hammer-headed shark and a crocodile respectively, and were + represented by effigies made of turtle-shell in the likeness of + these animals. But "the shrines were so sacred that no uninitiated + persons might visit them, nor did they know what they contained; + they were aware of Sigai and Maiau, but they did not know that the + former was a hammer-headed shark and the latter a crocodile; this + mystery was too sacred to be imparted to uninitiates. When the + heroes were addressed it was always by their human names, and not by + their animal or totem names." See A. C. Haddon, "The Religion of the + Torres Straits Islanders," _Anthropological Essays presented to E. + B. Tylor_ (Oxford, 1907), p. 185. + + M104 The processions at Boghaz-Keui appear to represent the Sacred + Marriage of the god and goddess. Traces of mother-kin among the + Hittites. + + 421 "There can be no doubt that there is here represented a Sacred + Marriage, the meeting of two deities worshipped in different places, + like the Horus of Edfu and the Hathor of Denderah" (C. P. Tiele, + _Geschichte der Religion im Altertum_, i. 255). This view seems to + differ from, though it approaches, the one suggested in the text. + That the scene represents a Sacred Marriage between a great god and + goddess is the opinion also of Prof. Ed. Meyer (_Geschichte des + Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 633 _sq._), and Prof. J. Garstang (_The Land + of the Hittites_, pp. 238 _sq._; _The Syrian Goddess_, p. 7). + + 422 See above, p. 133. + + 423 See below, p. 285. Compare the remarks of Sir W. M. Ramsay + ("Pre-Hellenic Monuments of Cappadocia," _Recueil de Travaux + relatifs a la Philologie et a l'Archeologie Egyptiennes et + Assyriennes_, xiii. (1890) p. 78): "Similar priest-dynasts are a + widespread feature of the primitive social system of Asia Minor; + their existence is known with certainty or inferred with probability + at the two towns Komana; at Venasa not far north of Tyana, at Olba, + at Pessinous, at Aizanoi, and many other places. Now there are two + characteristics which can be regarded as probable in regard to most + of these priests, and as proved in regard to some of them: (1) they + wore the dress and represented the person of the god, whose priests + they were; (2) they were {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, losing their individual name at + their succession to the office, and assuming a sacred name, often + that of the god himself or some figure connected with the cultus of + the god. The priest of Cybele at Pessinous was called Attis, the + priests of Sabazios were Saboi, the worshippers of Bacchos Bacchoi." + As to the priestly rulers of Olba, see below, pp. 144 _sqq._ + + 424 See above, p. 132. However, Prof. Ed. Meyer may be right in thinking + that the priest-like figure in the procession is not really that of + the priest but that of the god or goddess whom he personated. See + above, p. 133 note. + + 425 See above, pp. 36 _sqq._ + + 426 H. Winckler, "Vorlaeufige Nachrichten ueber die Ausgrabungen in + Boghaz-koei im Sommer 1907," _Mitteilungen der Deutschen + Orient-Gesellschaft_, No. 35, December, 1907, pp. 27 _sq._, 29; J. + Garstang, _The Land of the Hittites_, pp. 352 _sq._; "Hittite + Archives from Boghaz-Keui," translated from the German transcripts + of Dr. Winckler by Meta E. Williams, _Annals of Archaeology and + Anthropology_, iv. (Liverpool and London, 1912) p. 98. We have seen + (above, p. 136) that in the seals of the Hittite treaty with Egypt + the Queen appears along with the King. If Dr. H. Winckler is right + in thinking (_op. cit._ p. 29) that one of the Hittite queens was at + the same time sister to her husband the King, we should have in this + relationship a further proof that mother-kin regulated the descent + of the kingship among the Hittites as well as among the ancient + Egyptians. See above, p. 44, and below, vol. ii. pp. 213 _sqq._ + + 427 Compare Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 629-633. + + M105 Sandan at Tarsus appears to be a son of Baal, as Hercules was a son + of Zeus. + + 428 The figure exhibits a few minor variations on the coins of Tarsus. + See the works cited above, p. 127. + + 429 Above, p. 119. + +_ 430 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 358 _sqq._ + +_ 431 The Dying God_, pp. 166 _sqq._ + + M106 Priests of Sandan-Hercules at Tarsus. Kings of Cilicia related to + Sandan. + + 432 Athenaeus, v. 54, p. 215 B, C. The high-priest of the Syrian goddess + at Hierapolis held office for a year, and wore a purple robe and a + golden tiara (Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 42). We may conjecture that + the priesthood of Hercules at Tarsus was in later times at least an + annual office. + + 433 E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alterthums_, i. (Stuttgart, 1884) § 389, + p. 475; H. Winckler, in E. Schrader's _Keilinschriften und das Alte + Testament_,3 p. 88. Kuinda was the name of a Cilician fortress a + little way inland from Anchiale (Strabo, xiv. 5. 10, p. 672). + + 434 E. Meyer, _op. cit._ i. § 393, p. 480; C. P. Tiele, + _Babylonisch-assyrische Geschichte_, p. 360. Sandon and Sandas occur + repeatedly as names of Cilician men. They are probably identical + with, or modified forms of, the divine name. See Strabo, xiv. 5. 14, + p. 674; Plutarch, _Poplicola_, 17; _Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_, + ed. August Boeckh, etc. (Berlin, 1828-1877) vol. iii. p. 200, No. + 4401; Ch. Michel, _Recueil d'Inscriptions Grecques_ (Brussels, + 1900), p. 718, No. 878; R. Heberdey und A. Wilhelm, "Reisen in + Kilikien," _Denkschriften der Kaiser. Akademie der Wissenschaften, + Philosoph.-histor. Classe_, xliv. (Vienna, 1896) No. vi. pp. 46, 131 + _sq._, 140 (Inscriptions 115, 218, 232). + + M107 Priestly kings of Olba who bore the names of Teucer and Ajax. The + Teucrids of Salamis in Cyprus. Burnt sacrifices of human victims at + Salamis and traces of a similar custom elsewhere. Burnt sacrifice of + doves to Adonis. + + 435 Strabo, xiv. 5. 10, p. 672. The name of the high-priest Ajax, son of + Teucer, occurs on coins of Olba, dating from about the beginning of + our era (B. V. Head, _Historia Numorum_, Oxford, 1887, p. 609); and + the name of Teucer is also known from inscriptions. See below, pp. + 145, 151, 159. + + 436 E. L. Hicks, "Inscriptions from Western Cilicia," _Journal of + Hellenic Studies_, xii. (1891) pp. 226, 263; R. Heberdey und A. + Wilhelm, "Reisen in Kilikien," _Denkschriften der Kaiser. Akademie + der Wissenschaften_, xliv. (1896) No. vi. pp. 53, 88. + + 437 Ch. Michel, _Recueil d'Inscriptions Grecques_, pp. 718 _sqq._, No. + 878. Tarkondimotos was the name of two kings of Eastern Cilicia in + the first century B.C. One of them corresponded with Cicero and fell + at the battle of Actium. See Cicero, _Epist. ad Familiares_, xv. 1. + 2; Strabo, xiv. 5. 18, p. 676; Dio Cassius, xli. 63. 1, xlvii. 26. + 2, l. 14. 2, li. 2. 2, li. 7. 4, liv. 9. 2; Plutarch, _Antoninus_, + 61; B. V. Head, _Historia Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), p. 618; W. + Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_ (Leipsic, + 1903-1905), ii. pp. 494 _sq._, Nos. 752, 753. Moreover, Tarkudimme + or Tarkuwassimi occurs as the name of a king of Erme (?) or Urmi (?) + in a bilingual Hittite and cuneiform inscription engraved on a + silver seal. See W. Wright, _The Empire of the Hittites_2 (London, + 1886), pp. 163 _sqq._; L. Messerschmidt, _Corpus Inscriptionum + Hettiticarum_, pp. 42 _sq._, pl. xlii. 9; _id._, _The Hittites_, pp. + 29 _sq._; P. Jensen, _Hittiter und Armenier_ (Strasburg, 1898), pp. + 22, 50 _sq._ In this inscription Prof. Jensen suggests Tarbibi- as + an alternative reading for Tarku-. Compare P. Kretschmer, + _Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache_ (Goettingen, + 1896), pp. 362-364. + + 438 Isocrates, _Or._ ix. 14 and 18 _sq._; Pausanias, ii. 29. 2 and 4; W. + E. Engel, _Kypros_, i. 212 _sqq._ As to the names Teucer and + Teucrian see P. Kretschmer, _op. cit._ pp. 189-191. Prof. Kretschmer + believes that the native population of Cyprus belonged to the + non-Aryan stock of Asia Minor. + + 439 W. E. Engel, _Kypros_, i. 216. + + 440 Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, ii. 54 _sq._; Lactantius, _Divin. Inst._ + i. 21. As to the date when the custom was abolished, Lactantius says + that it was done "recently in the reign of Hadrian." Porphyry says + that the practice was put down by Diphilus, king of Cyprus, "in the + time of Seleucus the Theologian." As nothing seems to be known as to + the date of King Diphilus and Seleucus the Theologian, I have + ventured to assume, on the strength of Lactantius's statement, that + they were contemporaries of Hadrian. But it is curious to find kings + of Cyprus reigning so late. Beside the power of the Roman governors, + their authority can have been little more than nominal, like that of + native rajahs in British India. Seleucus the Theologian may be, as + J. A. Fabricius supposed (_Bibliotheca Graeca_,4 Hamburg, 1780-1809, + vol. i. p. 86, compare p. 522), the Alexandrian grammarian who + composed a voluminous work on the gods (Suidas, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}). + Suetonius tells an anecdote (_Tiberius_, 56) about a grammarian + named Seleucus who flourished, and faded prematurely, at the court + of Tiberius. + + 441 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 49. + + 442 Diogenianus, _Praefatio_, in _Paroemiographi Graeci_, ed. E. L. + Leutsch et F. G. Schneidewin (Goettingen, 1839-1851), i. 180. + Raoul-Rochette regarded the custom as part of the ritual of the + divine death and resurrection. He compared it with the burning of + Melcarth at Tyre. See his memoir, "Sur l'Hercule Assyrien et + Phenicien," _Memoires de l'Academie des Inscriptions et + Belles-Lettres_, xvii. Deuxieme Partie (1848), p. 32. + + 443 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 54. + + M108 The priestly Teucers of Olba perhaps personated a native god Tark. + + 444 A. H. Sayce, in W. Wright's _Empire of the Hittites_,2 p. 186; W. M. + Ramsay, "Pre-Hellenic Monuments of Cappadocia," _Recueil de Travaux + relatifs a la Philologie et a l'Archeologie Egyptiennes et + Assyriennes_, xiv. (1903) pp. 81 _sq._; C. P. Tiele, _Geschichte der + Religion im Altertum_, i. 251; W. Max Mueller, _Asien und Europa_, p. + 333; P. Jensen, _Hittiter und Armenier_, pp. 70, 150 _sqq._, 155 + _sqq._; F. Hommel, _Grundriss der Geographie und Geschichte des + alten Orients_, pp. 44, 51 _sq._; L. Messerschmidt, _The Hittites_, + p. 40. Sir W. M. Ramsay thinks (_l.c._) that Tark was the native + name of the god who had his sanctuary at Dastarkon in Cappadocia and + who was called by the Greeks the Cataonian Apollo: his sanctuary was + revered all over Cappadocia (Strabo, xiv. 2. 5, p. 537). Prof. + Hommel holds that Tarku or Tarchu was the chief Hittite deity, + worshipped all over the south of Asia Minor. Prof. W. Max Mueller is + of opinion that Targh or Tarkh did not designate any particular + deity, but was the general Hittite name for "god." There are grounds + for holding that the proper name of the Hittite thunder-god was + Teshub or Teshup. See above, p. 135 note. + + 445 J. T. Bent, "Explorations in Cilicia Tracheia," _Proceedings of the + Royal Geographical Society_, N.S. xii. (1890) p. 458; _id._, "A + Journey in Cilicia Tracheia," _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xii. + (1891) p. 222; W. M. Ramsay, _Historical Geography of Asia Minor_ + (London, 1890), pp. 22, 364. Sir W. M. Ramsay had shown grounds for + thinking that Olba was a Grecized form of a native name Ourba + (pronounced Ourwa) before Mr. J. T. Bent discovered the site and the + name. + + M109 Western or Rugged Cilicia. + M110 The Cilician pirates. + M111 The deep gorges of Rugged Cilicia. + + 446 J. Theodore Bent, "Explorations in Cilicia Tracheia," _Proceedings + of the Royal Geographical Society_, N.S. xii. (1890) pp. 445, + 450-453; _id._, "A Journal in Cilicia Tracheia," _Journal of + Hellenic Studies_, xii. (1891) pp. 208, 210-212, 217-219; R. + Heberdey und A. Wilhelm, "Reisen in Kilikien," _Denkschriften der + kaiser. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosoph.-historische Classe_, + xliv. (Vienna, 1896) No. vi. pp. 49, 70; D. G. Hogarth and J. A. R. + Munro, "Modern and Ancient Roads in Eastern Asia Minor," _Royal + Geographical Society, Supplementary Papers_, vol. iii. part 5 + (London, 1893), pp. 653 _sq._ As to the Cilician pirates see Strabo, + xiv. 5. 2, pp. 668 _sq._; Plutarch, _Pompeius_, 24; Appian, _Bellum + Mithridat._ 92 _sq._; Dio Cassius, xxxvi. 20-24 [3-6], ed. L. + Dindorf; Cicero, _De imperio Cn. Pompeii_, 11 _sq._; Th. Mommsen, + _Roman History_ (London, 1868), iii. 68-70, iv. 40-45, 118-120. As + to the crests carved on their towns see J. T. Bent, "Cilician + Symbols," _Classical Review_, iv. (1890) pp. 321 _sq._ Among these + crests are a club (the badge of Olba), a bunch of grapes, the caps + of the Dioscuri, the three-legged symbol, and so on. As to the + cedars and ship-building timber of Cilicia in antiquity see + Theophrastus, _Historia Plantarum_, iii. 2. 6, iv. 5. 5. The cedars + and firs have now retreated to the higher slopes of the Taurus. + Great destruction is wrought in the forests by the roving Yuruks + with their flocks; for they light their fires under the trees, tap + the firs for turpentine, bark the cedars for their huts and + bee-hives, and lay bare whole tracts of country that the grass may + grow for their sheep and goats. See J. T. Bent, in _Proceedings of + the Royal Geographical Society_, N.S. xii. (1890) pp. 453-458. + + M112 The site and ruins of Olba. The temple of Olbian Zeus. + + 447 D. G. Hogarth, _A Wandering Scholar in the Levant_ (London, 1896), + pp. 57 _sq._ + + 448 J. Theodore Bent, "Explorations in Cilicia Tracheia," _Proceedings + of the Royal Geographical Society_, N.S. xii. (1890) pp. 445 _sq._, + 458-460; _id._, "A Journey in Cilicia Tracheia," _Journal of + Hellenic Studies_, xii. (1890) pp. 220-222; E. L. Hicks, + "Inscriptions from Western Cilicia," _ib._ pp. 262-270; R. Heberdey + und A. Wilhelm, "Reisen in Kilikien," _Denkschriften der kaiser. + Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philos.-histor. Classe_, xliv. (Vienna, + 1896) No. vi. pp. 83-91; W. M. Ramsay and D. G. Hogarth, in + _American Journal of Archaeology_, vi. (1890) p. 345; Ch. Michel, + _Recueil d'Inscriptions Grecques_, p. 858, No. 1231. In one place + (_Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xii. 222) Bent gives the height of + Olba as 3800 feet; but this is a misprint, for elsewhere + (_Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society_, N.S. xii. 446, + 458) he gives the height as exactly 5850 or roughly 6000 feet. The + misprint has unfortunately been repeated by Messrs. Heberdey and + Wilhelm (_op. cit._ p. 84 note 1). The tall tower of Olba is figured + on the coins of the city. See G. F. Hill, _Catalogue of the Greek + Coins of Lycaonia, Isauria, and Cilicia_ (London, 1900), pl. xxii. + 8. + + M113 Limestone caverns of Western Cilicia. + + 449 Sir Charles Lyell, _Principles of Geology_12 (London, 1875), ii. 518 + _sqq._; _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, Ninth Edition, _s.v._ "Caves," + v. 265 _sqq._ Compare my notes on Pausanias, i. 35. 7, viii. 29. 1. + + 450 J. T. Bent, in _Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society_, N.S. + xii. (1890) p. 447. + + M114 The city of Corycus. The Corycian cave. + + 451 Fr. Beaufort, _Karmania_ (London, 1817), pp. 240 _sq._ + + 452 Strabo, xiv. 5. 5, pp. 670 _sq._; Mela, i. 72-75, ed. G. Parthey; J. + T. Bent, "Explorations in Cilicia Tracheia," _Proceedings of the + Royal Geographical Society_, N.S. xii. (1890) pp. 446-448; _id._, "A + Journey in Cilicia Tracheia," _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xii. + (1891) pp. 212-214; R. Heberdey und A. Wilhelm, "Reisen in + Kilikien," _Denkschriften der kaiser. Akademie der Wissenschaften, + Philos.-histor. Classe_, xliv. (1896) No. vi. pp. 70-79. Mr. D. G. + Hogarth was so good as to furnish me with some notes embodying his + recollections of the Corycian cave. All these modern writers confirm + the general accuracy of the descriptions of the cave given by Strabo + and Mela. Mr. Hogarth indeed speaks of exaggeration in Mela's + account, but this is not admitted by Mr. A. Wilhelm. As to the ruins + of the city of Corycus on the coast, distant about three miles from + the cave, see Fr. Beaufort, _Karmania_ (London, 1817), pp. 232-238; + R. Heberdey und A. Wilhelm, _op. cit._ pp. 67-70. + + M115 Priests of Corycian Zeus. + + 453 The suggestion is Mr. A. B. Cook's. See his article, "The European + Sky-god," _Classical Review_, xvii. (1903) p. 418, note 2. + + 454 J. T. Bent, in _Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society_, N.S. + xii. (1890) p. 448; _id_., in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xii. + (1891) pp. 214-216. For the inscription containing the names of the + priests see R. Heberdey und A. Wilhelm, _op. cit._ pp. 71-79; Ch. + Michel, _Recueil d'Inscriptions Grecques_, pp. 718 _sqq_., No. 878; + above, p. 145. + + M116 The cave of the giant Typhon. + + 455 Mela, i. 76, ed. G. Parthey (Berlin, 1867). The cave of Typhon is + described by J. T. Bent, _ll.cc._ + + 456 Aeschylus, _Prometheus Vinctus_, 351-372. + + 457 Pindar, _Pyth._ i. 30 _sqq._, who speaks of the giant as "bred in + the many-named Cilician cave." + + M117 Battle of Zeus and Typhon. + + 458 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, i. 6. 3. + + M118 Fossil bones of extinct animals give rise to stories of giants. + + 459 Pausanias, viii. 29. 1, with my notes. Pausanias mentions (viii. 32. + 5) bones of superhuman size which were preserved at Megalopolis, and + which popular superstition identified as the bones of the giant + Hopladamus. + + 460 Pausanias, viii. 29. 1. + + 461 A. Holm, _Geschichte Siciliens im Alterthum_ (Leipsic, 1870-1874), + i. 57, 356. + + 462 (Sir) Edward B. Tylor, _Researches into the Early History of + Mankind_3 (London, 1878), p. 322, who adduces much more evidence of + the same sort. + + M119 Chasm of Olbian Zeus at Kanytelideis. + + 463 J. T. Bent, "Explorations in Cilicia Tracheia," _Proceedings of the + Royal Geographical Society_, N.S. xii. (1890) pp. 448 _sq._; _id._, + "A Journey in Cilicia Tracheia," _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xii. + (1891) pp. 208-210; R. Heberdey und A. Wilhelm, "Reisen in + Kilikien," _Denkschriften der kaiserlichen Akademie der + Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-historische Classe_, xliv. (Vienna, + 1896) No. vi. pp. 51-61. + + M120 The deity of these great chasms was called Zeus by the Greeks, but + he was probably a god of fertility embodied in vegetation and water. + + 464 See above, pp. 26 _sq._ + + M121 Analogy of the Corycian and Olbian caverns to Ibreez and the vale of + the Adonis. + M122 Two gods at Olba, perhaps a father and a son, corresponding to the + Baal and Sandan of Tarsus. + M123 Goddesses less prominent than gods in Cilician religion. + M124 The goddess 'Atheh, partner of Baal at Tarsus, seems to have been a + form of Atargatis. The lion-goddess and the bull-god. In later times + the old goddess became the Fortune of the City. + + 465 B. V. Head, _Historia Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), p. 616. [However, Mr. + G. F. Hill writes to me: "The attribution to Tarsus of the 'Atheh + coins is unfounded. Head himself only gives it as doubtful. I should + think they belong further East." In the uncertainty which prevails + on this point I have left the text unchanged. _Note to Second + Edition._] + + 466 The name 'Athar-'atheh occurs in a Palmyrene inscription. See G. A. + Cooke, _Text-book of North-Semitic Inscriptions_, No. 112, pp. + 267-270. In analysing Atargatis into 'Athar-'atheh ('Atar-'ata) I + follow E. Meyer (_Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 605, 650 + _sq._), F. Baethgen (_Beitraege zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte_, + pp. 68-75), Fr. Cumont (_s.v._ "Atargatis," Pauly-Wissowa, + _Real-Encyclopaedie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, ii. + 1896), G. A. Cooke (_l.c._), C. P. Tiele (_Geschichte der Religion + im Altertum_, i. 245), F. Hommel (_Grundriss der Geographie und + Geschichte des alten Orients_, pp. 43 _sq._), Father Lagrange + (_Etudes sur les Religions Semitiques_,2 p. 130), and L. B. Paton + (_s.v._ "Atargatis," J. Hastings's _Encyclopaedia of Religion and + Ethics_, ii. 164 _sq._). In the great temple at Hierapolis-Bambyce a + mysterious golden image stood between the images of Atargatis and + her male partner. It resembled neither of them, yet combined the + attributes of other gods. Some interpreted it as Dionysus, others as + Deucalion, and others as Semiramis; for a golden dove, traditionally + associated with Semiramis, was perched on the head of the figure. + The Syrians called the image by a name which Lucian translates + "sign" ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}). See Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 33. It has been + plausibly conjectured by F. Baethgen that the name which Lucian + translates "sign" was really 'Atheh ({~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}), which could easily be + confused with the Syriac word for "sign" ({~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}). See F. Baethgen, + _op. cit._ p. 73. A coin of Hierapolis, dating from the third + century A.D., exhibits the images of the god and goddess seated on + bulls and lions respectively, with the mysterious object between + them enclosed in a shrine, which is surmounted by a bird, probably a + dove. See J. Garstang, _The Syrian Goddess_ (London, 1913), pp. 22 + _sqq._, 70 _sq._, with fig. 7. + + The modern writers cited at the beginning of this note have + interpreted the Syrian 'Atheh as a male god, the lover of Atargatis, + and identical in name and character with the Phrygian Attis. They + may be right; but none of them seems to have noticed that the same + name 'Atheh ({~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}) is applied to a goddess at Tarsus. + + 467 As to the image, see above, p. 137. + + 468 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 31. + + 469 Macrobius, _Saturn_, i. 23. 12 and 17-19. The Greek name of Baalbec + was Heliopolis, "the City of the Sun." + + 470 G. A. Cooke, _Text-book of North-Semitic Inscriptions_, pp. 163, + 164. The statue bears a long inscription, which in the style of its + writing belongs to the archaic type represented by the Moabite + Stone. The contents of the inscription show that it is earlier than + the time of Tiglath-Pileser III. (745-727 B.C.). On Hadad, the + Syrian thunder-god, see F. Baethgen, _Beitraege zur semitischen + Religionsgeschichte_, pp. 66-68; C. P. Tiele, _Geschichte der + Religion im Altertum_, i. 248 _sq._; M. J. Lagrange, _Etudes sur les + Religions Semitiques_,2 pp. 92 _sq._ That Hadad was the consort of + Atargatis at Hierapolis-Bambyce is the opinion of P. Jensen + (_Hittiter und Armenier_, p. 171), who also indicates his character + as a god both of thunder and of fertility (_ib._, p. 167). The view + of Prof. J. Garstang is similar (_The Syrian Goddess_, pp. 25 + _sqq._). That the name of the chief male god of Hierapolis-Bambyce + was Hadad is rendered almost certain by coins of the city which were + struck in the time of Alexander the Great by a priestly king + Abd-Hadad, whose name means "Servant of Hadad." See B. V. Head, + _Historia Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), p. 654; J. Garstang, _The Syrian + Goddess_, p. 27, with fig. 5. + + 471 H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader's _Die Keilinschriften und das Alte + Testament_,3 pp. 442-449; M. Jastrow, _Die Religion Babyloniens und + Assyriens_ (Giessen, 1905-1912), i. 146-150, with _Bildermappe_, + plate 32, fig. 97. The Assyrian relief is also figured in W. H. + Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und roem. Mythologie_, _s.v._ + "Marduk," ii. 2350. The Babylonian _ramamu_ "to scream, roar" has + its equivalent in the Hebrew _ra'am_ ({~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}) "to thunder." The two + names Adad (Hadad) and Ramman occur together in the form Hadadrimmon + in Zechariah, xii. 11 (with S. R. Driver's note, _Century Bible_). + + 472 See above, pp. 121, 123. + + 473 See above, p. 130. However, the animal seems to be rather a goat. + See above, p. 133 note. + + 474 See above, p. 132. + + 475 G. F. Hill, _Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Lycaonia, Isauria, and + Cilicia_, pp. 181, 182, 185, 188, 190, 228. + + 476 E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alterthums_, i. (Stuttgart, 1884) pp. 246 + _sq._; F. Baethgen, _Beitraege zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte_, + pp. 76 _sqq._ The idolatrous Hebrews spread tables for Gad, that is, + for Fortune (Isaiah lxv. 11, Revised Version). + + 477 Macrobius, _Saturn_. iii. 8. 2; Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ ii. 632. + + 478 Ephippus, cited by Athenaeus, xii. 53, p. 537. + + 479 F. Baethgen, _op. cit._ p. 77; G. A. Cooke, _Text-book of + North-Semitic Inscriptions_, p. 269. + + 480 See above, p. 151. + + M125 The Phoenician god El and his wife at Mallus in Cilicia. + Assimilation of native Oriental deities to Greek divinities. + + 481 Strabo, xiv. 5. 16, p. 675. + + 482 B. V. Head, _Historia Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), pp. 605 _sq._; G. F. + Hill, _Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Lycaonia, Isauria, and + Cilicia_, pp. cxvii. _sqq._, 95-98, plates xv. xvi. xl. 9; G. + Macdonald, _Catalogue of Greek Coins in the Hunterian Collection_, + ii. 536 _sq._, pl. lix. 11-14. The male and female figures appear on + separate coins. The attribution to Mallus of the coins with the + female figure and conical stone has been questioned by Messrs. J. P. + Six and G. F. Hill. I follow the view of Messrs. F. Imhoof-Blumer + and B. V. Head. [However, Mr. G. F. Hill writes to me that the + attribution of these coins to Mallus is no longer maintained by any + one. Imhoof-Blumer himself now conjecturally assigns them to + Aphrodisias in Cilicia, and Mr. Hill regards this conjecture as very + plausible. See F. Imhoof-Blumer, _Kleinasiatische Muenzen_ (Vienna, + 1901-1902), ii. 435 _sq._ In the uncertainty which still prevails on + the subject I have left the text unchanged. For my purpose it + matters little whether this Cilician goddess was worshipped at + Mallus or at Aphrodisias. _Note to Second Edition._] + + 483 See above, pp. 34 _sq._ + + 484 Philo of Byblus, in _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. + Mueller, iii. 569. El is figured with three pairs of wings on coins + of Byblus. See G. Maspero, _Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de + l'Orient Classique_, ii. 174; M. J. Lagrange, _Etudes sur les + Religions Semitiques_,2 p. 72. + + 485 Imhoof-Blumer, _s.v._ "Kronos," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der + griech. und roem. Mythologie_, ii. 1572; G. F. Hill, _Catalogue of + Greek Coins of Lycaonia, Isauria, and Cilicia_, pp. cxxii. 99, pl. + xvii. 2. + + 486 G. F. Hill, _op. cit._ pp. cxxi. _sq._, 98, pl. xvii. 1. + + 487 Another native Cilician deity who masqueraded in Greek dress was + probably the Olybrian Zeus of Anazarba or Anazarbus, but of his true + nature and worship we know nothing. See W. Dittenberger, _Orientis + Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_ (Leipsic, 1903-1905), ii. p. 267, No. + 577; Stephanus Byzantius, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} (where the MS. reading + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} was wrongly changed by Salmasius into {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}). + + M126 Sarpedonian Artemis. The goddess Perasia at Hieropolis-Castabala. + The fire-walk in the worship of Perasia. Insensibility to pain + regarded as a mark of inspiration. + + 488 Strabo, xiv. 5. 19, p. 676. The expression of Strabo leaves it + doubtful whether the ministers of the goddess were men or women. + There was a headland called Sarpedon near the mouth of the + Calycadnus River in Western Cilicia (Strabo, xiii. 4. 6, p. 627, + xiv. 5. 4, p. 670), where Sarpedon or Sarpedonian Apollo had a + temple and an oracle. The temple was hewn in the rock, and contained + an image of the god. See R. Heberdey und A. Wilhelm, "Reisen in + Kilikien," _Denkschriften der kaiser. Akademie der Wissenschaften, + Philosoph.-histor. Classe_, xliv. (Vienna, 1896) No. vi. pp. 100, + 107. Probably this Sarpedonian Apollo was a native deity akin to + Sarpedonian Artemis. + + 489 E. J. Davis, _Life in Asiatic Turkey_, pp. 128-134; J. T. Bent, + "Recent Discoveries in Eastern Cilicia," _Journal of Hellenic + Studies_, xi. (1890) pp. 234 _sq._; E. L. Hicks, "Inscriptions from + Eastern Cilicia," _ibid._ pp. 243 _sqq._; R. Heberdey und A. + Wilhelm, _op. cit._ pp. 25 _sqq._ The site of Hieropolis-Castabala + was first identified by J. T. Bent by means of inscriptions. As to + the coins of the city, see Fr. Imhoof-Blumer, "Zur Muenzkunde + Kilikiens," _Zeitschrift fuer Numismatik_, x. (1883) pp. 267-290; G. + F. Hill, _Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Lycaonia, Isauria, and + Cilicia_, pp. c.-cii. 82-84, pl. xiv. 1-6; G. Macdonald, _Catalogue + of Greek Coins in the Hunterian Collection_, ii. 534 _sq._ + + 490 On the difference between Hieropolis and Hierapolis see (Sir) W. M. + Ramsay, _Historical Geography of Asia Minor_, pp. 84 _sq._ According + to him, the cities designated by such names grew up gradually round + a sanctuary; where Greek influence prevailed the city in time + eclipsed the sanctuary and became known as Hierapolis, or the Sacred + City, but where the native element retained its predominance the + city continued to be known as Hieropolis, or the City of the + Sanctuary. + + 491 E. L. Hicks, "Inscriptions from Eastern Cilicia," _Journal of + Hellenic Studies_, xi. (1890) pp. 251-253; R. Heberdey und A. + Wilhelm, _op. cit._ p. 26. These writers differ somewhat in their + reading and restoration of the verses, which are engraved on a + limestone basis among the ruins. I follow the version of Messrs. + Heberdey and Wilhelm. + + 492 J. T. Bent and E. L. Hicks, _op. cit._ pp. 235, 246 _sq._; R. + Heberdey und A. Wilhelm, _op. cit._ p. 27. + + 493 Strabo, xii. 2. 7, p. 537. See above, p. 115. The Cilician + Castabala, the situation of which is identified by inscriptions, is + not mentioned by Strabo. It is very unlikely that, with his intimate + knowledge of Asia Minor, he should have erred so far as to place the + city in Cappadocia, to the north of the Taurus mountains, instead of + in Cilicia, to the south of them. It is more probable that there + were two cities of the same name, and that Strabo has omitted to + mention one of them. Similarly, there were two cities called Comana, + one in Cappadocia and one in Pontus; at both places the same goddess + was worshipped with similar rites. See Strabo, xii. 2. 3, p. 535, + xii. 3. 32, p. 557. The situation of the various Castabalas + mentioned by ancient writers is discussed by F. Imhoof-Blumer, "Zur + Muenzkunde Kilikiens," _Zeitschrift fuer Numismatik_, x. (1883) pp. + 285-288. + + 494 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 37 _sq._ + + 495 Jamblichus, _De mysteriis_, iii. 4. + + 496 Another Cilician goddess was Athena of Magarsus, to whom Alexander + the Great sacrificed before the battle of Issus. See Arrian, + _Anabasis_, ii. 5. 9; Stephanus Byzantius, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; J. + Tzetzes, _Schol. on Lycophron_, 444. The name of the city seems to + be Oriental, perhaps derived from the Semitic word for "cave" + ({~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER GIMEL~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER HE~}). As to the importance of caves in Semitic religion, see W. + Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_,2 pp. 197 _sqq._ The site + of Magarsus appears to be at Karatash, a hill rising from the sea at + the southern extremity of the Cilician plain, about forty-five miles + due south of Adana. The walls of the city, built of great limestone + blocks, are standing to a height of several courses, and an + inscription which mentions the priests of Magarsian Athena has been + found on the spot. See R. Heberdey und A. Wilhelm, "Reisen in + Kilikien," _Denkschriften der kaiser. Akademie der Wissenschaften, + Philosoph.-histor. Classe_, xliv. (1896) No. vi. pp. 6-10. + + 497 E. T. Atkinson, _The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western + Provinces of India_, ii. (Allahabad, 1884) pp. 826 _sq._ + + 498 The Rev. G. E. White (Missionary at Marsovan, in the ancient + Pontus), in a letter to me dated 19 Southmoor Road, Oxford, February + 11, 1907. + + M127 The divine triad, Baal, 'Atheh, and Sandan, at Tarsus may have been + personated by priests and priestesses. + M128 Tarsus said to have been founded by the Assyrian king Sardanapalus, + who burned himself on a pyre. Deaths of Babylonian and Assyrian + kings on the pyre. + + 499 Strabo, xiv. 5. 9, pp. 671 _sq._; Arrian, _Anabasis_, ii. 5; + Athenaeus, xii. 39, p. 530 A, B. Compare Stephanus Byzantius, _s.v._ + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}; Georgius Syncellus, _Chronographia_, vol. i. p. 312, ed. G. + Dindorf (Bonn, 1829). The site of Anchiale has not yet been + discovered. At Tarsus itself the ruins of a vast quadrangular + structure have sometimes been identified with the monument of + Sardanapalus. See E. J. Davis, _Life in Asiatic Turkey_, pp. 37-39; + G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, _Histoire de l'Art dans l'Antiquite_, iv. + 536 _sqq._ But Mr. D. G. Hogarth tells me that the ruins in question + seem to be the concrete foundations of a Roman temple. The mistake + had already been pointed out by Mr. R. Koldewey. See his article, + "Das sogenannte Grab des Sardanapal zu Tarsus," _Aus der Anomia_ + (Berlin, 1890), pp. 178-185. + + 500 See G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, _Histoire de l'Art dans l'Antiquite_, + iv. 542 _sq._ They think that the figure probably represented the + king in a common attitude of adoration, his right arm raised and his + thumb resting on his forefinger. + + 501 L. Messerschmidt, _Corpus Inscriptionum Hettiticarum_, pp. 17-19, + plates xxi.-xxv.; G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, _Histoire de l'Art dans + l'Antiquite_, iv. 492, 494 _sq._, 528-530, 547; J. Garstang, _The + Land of the Hittites_, pp. 107-122. + + 502 Prof. W. Max Mueller is of opinion that the Hittite civilization and + the Hittite system of writing were developed in Cilicia rather than + in Cappadocia (_Asien und Europa_, p. 350). + + 503 According to Berosus and Abydenus it was not Sardanapalus + (Ashurbanipal) but Sennacherib who built or rebuilt Tarsus after the + fashion of Babylon, causing the river Cydnus to flow through the + midst of the city. See _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. + Mueller, ii. 504, iv. 282; C. P. Tiele, _Babylonisch-assyrische + Geschichte_, pp. 297 _sq._ + + 504 Diodorus Siculus, ii. 27; Athenaeus, xii. 38, p. 529; Justin, i. 3. + + 505 G. Maspero, _Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient Classique_, + iii. 422 _sq._ For the inscriptions referring to him and a full + discussion of them, see C. F. Lehmann (-Haupt), _Samas-sumukin, + Koenig von Babylonien, 668-648 v. Chr._ (Leipsic, 1892). + + 506 Abydenus, in _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. Mueller, iv. + 282; Georgius Syncellus, _Chronographia_, i. p. 396, ed. G. Dindorf; + E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alterthums_, i. (Stuttgart, 1884) pp. 576 + _sq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient + Classique_, iii. 482-485. C. P. Tiele thought that the story of the + death of Saracus might be a popular but mistaken duplicate of the + death of Shamash-shumukin (_Babylonisch-assyrische Geschichte_, pp. + 410 _sq._). Zimri, king of Israel, also burned himself in his palace + to escape falling into the hands of his enemies (1 Kings xvi. 18). + + M129 Story that Cyrus intended to burn Croesus alive. It is unlikely that + the Persians would thus have polluted the sacred element of fire. + + 507 Herodotus, i. 86 _sq._ + + 508 Raoul-Rochette, "Sur l'Hercule Assyrien et Phenicien," _Memoires de + l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_, xvii. Deuxieme + Partie (Paris, 1848), p. 274. + + 509 J. Darmesteter, _The Zend-Avesta_, vol. i. (Oxford, 1880) pp. + lxxxvi., lxxxviii-xc. (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. iv.). + +_ 510 Zend-Avesta_, _Vendidad_, Fargard, v. 7. 39-44 (_Sacred Books of + the East_, iv. 60 _sq._). + +_ 511 Zend-Avesta_, translated by J. Darmesteter, i. pp. xc. 9, 110 _sq._ + (_Sacred Books of the East_, iv.). + + 512 Strabo, xv. 3. 14, p. 732. Even gold, on account of its resemblance + to fire, might not be brought near a corpse (_id._ xv. 3. 18, p. + 734). + + M130 The older and truer tradition was that in the extremity of his + fortunes Croesus attempted to burn himself. + + 513 Sardes fell in the autumn of 546 B.C. (E. Meyer, _Geschichte des + Alterthums_, i. (Stuttgart, 1884), p. 604). Bacchylides was probably + born between 512 and 505 B.C. See R. C. Jebb, _Bacchylides, the + Poems and Fragments_ (Cambridge, 1905), pp. 1 _sq._ + + 514 Bacchylides, iii. 24-62. + + 515 F. G. Welcker, _Alte Denkmaeler_ (Goettingen, 1849-1864), iii. pl. + xxxiii.; A. Baumeister, _Denkmaeler des klassischen Altertums_ + (Munich and Leipsic, 1885-1888), ii. 796, fig. 860; A. H. Smith, + "Illustrations to Bacchylides," _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, + xviii. (1898) pp. 267-269; G. Maspero, _Histoire Ancienne des + Peuples de l'Orient Classique_, iii. 618 _sq._ It is true that + Cambyses caused the dead body of the Egyptian king Amasis to be + dragged from the tomb, mangled, and burned; but the deed is + expressly branded by the ancient historian as an outrage on Persian + religion (Herodotus, iii. 16). + + 516 Raoul-Rochette, "Sur l'Hercule Assyrien et Phenicien," _Memoires de + l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_, xvii. Deuxieme + Partie (Paris, 1848), pp. 277 _sq._; M. Duncker, _Geschichte des + Alterthums_, iv.5 330-332; E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alterthums_, i. + (Stuttgart, 1884) p. 604; G. Maspero, _Histoire Ancienne des Peuples + de l'Orient Classique_, iii. 618. + + 517 Herodotus, i. 7. + + 518 See above, pp. 115 _sq._, 173 _sq._ + + M131 Legend that Semiramis burnt herself on a pyre. + + 519 Hyginus, _Fab._ 243; Pliny, viii. 155. + + 520 See W. Robertson Smith, "Ctesias and the Semiramis Legend," _English + Historical Review_, ii. (1887) pp. 303-317. But the legend of + Semiramis appears to have gathered round the person of a real + Assyrian queen, by name Shammuramat, who lived towards the end of + the ninth century B.C. and is known to us from historical + inscriptions. See C. F. Lehmann-Haupt, _Die historische Semiramis + und ihre Zeit_ (Tuebingen, 1910), pp. 1 _sqq._; _id._, _s.v._ + "Semiramis," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und roem. + Mythologie_, iv. 678 _sqq._; _The Scapegoat_, pp. 369 _sqq._ + + 521 See above, p. 114. + + 522 In ancient Greece we seem to have a reminiscence of widow-burning in + the legend that when the corpse of Capaneus was being consumed on + the pyre, his wife Evadne threw herself into the flames and + perished. See Euripides, _Supplices_, 980 _sqq._; Apollodorus, + _Bibliotheca_, iii. 7. 1; Zenobius, _Cent._ i. 30; Ovid, _Tristia_, + v. 14. 38. + + M132 The "great burnings" for Jewish kings. + + 523 Isaiah xxx. 33. The Revised Version has "a Topheth" instead of + "Tophet." But Hebrew does not possess an indefinite article (the few + passages of the Bible in which the Aramaic {~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} is so used are no + exception to the rule), and there is no evidence that Tophet + (Topheth) was ever employed in a general sense. The passage of + Isaiah has been rightly interpreted by W. Robertson Smith in the + sense indicated in the text, though he denies that it contains any + reference to the sacrifice of the children. See his _Lectures on the + Religion of the Semites_,2 pp. 372 _sq._ He observes (p. 372, note + 3): "Saul's body was burned (1 Sam. xxxi. 12), possibly to save it + from the risk of exhumation by the Philistines, but perhaps rather + with a religious intention, and almost as an act of worship, since + his bones were buried under the sacred tamarisk at Jabesh." In 1 + Chronicles x. 12 the tree under which the bones of Saul were buried + is not a tamarisk but a terebinth or an oak. + + 524 2 Chronicles xvi. 14, xxi. 19; Jeremiah xxxiv. 5. There is no ground + for assuming, as the Authorized version does in Jeremiah xxxiv. 5, + that only spices were burned on these occasions; indeed the burning + of spices is not mentioned at all in any of the three passages. The + "sweet odours and divers kinds of spices prepared by the + apothecaries' art," which were laid in the dead king's bed (2 + Chronicles xvi. 14), were probably used to embalm him, not to be + burned at his funeral. For though "great burnings" were regularly + made for the dead kings of Judah, there is no evidence (apart from + the doubtful case of Saul) that their bodies were cremated. They are + regularly said to have been buried, not burnt. The passage of Isaiah + seems to show that what was burned at a royal funeral was a great, + but empty, pyre. That the burnings for the kings formed part of a + heathen custom was rightly perceived by Renan (_Histoire du peuple + d'Israel_, iii. 121, note). + + 525 Josephus, _Bell. Jud._ v. 4. 1. See _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, _s.v._ + "Jerusalem," vol. ii. 2423 _sq._ + + 526 As to the Moloch worship, see Note I. at the end of the volume. I + have to thank the Rev. Professor R. H. Kennett for indicating to me + the inference which may be drawn from the identification of the + Valley of Hinnom with the Tyropoeon. + + M133 The great burnings for Jewish Rabbis at Meiron in Galilee. + + 527 W. M. Thomson, _The Land and the Book, Central Palestine and + Phoenicia_ (London, 1883), pp. 575-579; Ed. Robinson, _Biblical + Researches in Palestine_3 (London, 1867), ii. 430. _sq._; K. + Baedeker, _Palestine and Syria_4 (Leipsic, 1906), p. 255. + + 528 Herodotus, v. 92. 7. + + 529 C. Bock, _Temples and Elephants_ (London, 1884), pp. 73-76. + + M134 Death by fire regarded by the ancients as a kind of apotheosis. Fire + was supposed to purge away the mortal parts of men, leaving the + immortal. + + 530 This view was maintained long ago by Raoul-Rochette in regard to the + deaths both of Sardanapalus and of Croesus. He supposed that "the + Assyrian monarch, reduced to the last extremity, wished, by the mode + of death which he chose, to give to his sacrifice the form of an + apotheosis and to identify himself with the national god of his + country by allowing himself to be consumed, like him, on a pyre.... + Thus mythology and history would be combined in a legend in which + the god and the monarch would finally be confused. There is nothing + in this which is not conformable to the ideas and habits of Asiatic + civilization." See his memoir, "Sur l'Hercule Assyrien et + Phenicien," _Memoires de l'Academie des Inscriptions et + Belles-Lettres_, xvii. Deuxieme Partie (Paris, 1848), pp. 247 _sq._, + 271 _sqq._ The notion of regeneration by fire was fully recognized + by Raoul-Rochette (_op. cit._ pp. 30 _sq._). It deserves to be noted + that Croesus burned on a huge pyre the great and costly offerings + which he dedicated to Apollo at Delphi. He thought, says Herodotus + (i. 50), that in this way the god would get possession of the + offerings. + + 531 As to Isis see Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 16. As to Demeter see + Homer, _Hymn to Demeter_, 231-262; Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, i. 5. + 1; Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 547-560. As to Thetis see Apollonius Rhodius, + _Argon_, iv. 865-879; Apollodorus, _Bibl._ iii. 13. 6. Most of these + writers express clearly the thought that the fire consumed the + mortal element, leaving the immortal. Thus Plutarch says, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. Apollodorus says (i. 5. 1), {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}, and again (iii. 13. + 6), {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. Apollonius Rhodius says, + + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + And Ovid has, + + "_Inque foco pueri corpus vivente favilla Obruit, humanum purget ut + ignis onus._" + + On the custom of passing children over a fire as a purification, see + my note, "The Youth of Achilles," _Classical Review_, vii. (1893) + pp. 293 sq. On the purificatory virtue which the Greeks ascribed to + fire see also Erwin Rohde, _Psyche_3 (Tuebingen and Leipsic, 1903), + ii. 101, note 2. The Warramunga of Central Australia have a + tradition of a great man who "used to burn children in the fire so + as to make them grow strong" (B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _The + Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, London, 1904, p. 429). + + 532 She is said to have thus restored the youth of her husband Jason, + her father-in-law Aeson, the nurses of Dionysus, and all their + husbands (Euripides, _Medea_, Argum.; Scholiast on Aristophanes, + _Knights_, 1321; compare Plautus, _Pseudolus_, 879 _sqq._); and she + applied the same process with success to an old ram (Apollodorus, + _Bibl._ i. 9. 27; Pausanias, viii. 11. 2; Hyginus, _Fab._ 24). + + 533 Pindar, _Olymp._ i. 40 _sqq._, with the Scholiast; J. Tzetzes, + _Schol. on Lycophron_, 152. + + 534 Jamblichus, _De mysteriis_, v. 12. + + 535 Lucian, _De morte Peregrini_, 27 _sq._ + + 536 Diogenes Laertius, viii. 2. 69 _sq._ + + 537 Lucian, _De morte Peregrini_, 25; Strabo, xv. 1. 64 and 68, pp. 715, + 717; Arrian, _Anabasis_, vii. 3. + +_ 538 The Dying God_, pp. 42 _sqq._ + + M135 The Lydian kings seem to have claimed divinity on the ground of + their descent from Hercules, the god of the double-axe and of the + lion; and this Lydian Hercules or Sandon appears to have been the + same with the Cilician Sandan. Lydian kings held responsible for the + weather and the crops. + + 539 Herodotus, i. 7. + + 540 Joannes Lydus, _De magistratibus_, iii. 64. + + 541 See above, p. 144, note 2. + + 542 Plutarch, _Quaestiones Graecae_, 45. Zeus Labrandeus was worshipped + at the village of Labraunda, situated in a pass over the mountains, + near Mylasa in Caria. The temple was ancient. A road called the + Sacred Way led downhill for ten miles to Mylasa, a city of white + marble temples and colonnades which stood in a fertile plain at the + foot of a precipitous mountain, where the marble was quarried. + Processions bearing the holy emblems went to and fro along the + Sacred Way from Mylasa to Labraunda. See Strabo, xiv. 2. 23, pp. 658 + _sq._ The double-headed axe figures on the ruins and coins of Mylasa + (Ch. Fellows, _An Account of Discoveries in Lycia_, London, 1841, p. + 75; B. V. Head, _Historia Numorum_, Oxford, 1887, pp. 528 _sq._). A + horseman carrying a double-headed axe is a type which occurs on the + coins of many towns in Lydia and Phrygia. At Thyatira this + axe-bearing hero was called Tyrimnus, and games were held in his + honour. He was identified with Apollo and the sun. See B. V. Head, + _Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Lydia_ (London, 1901), p. cxxviii. + On a coin of Mostene in Lydia the double-headed axe is represented + between a bunch of grapes and ears of corn, as if it were an emblem + of fertility (B. V. Head, _op. cit._ p. 162, pl. xvii. 11). + + 543 L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_, i.4 (Berlin, 1894) pp. 141 + _sq._ As to the Hittite thunder-god and his axe see above, pp. 134 + _sqq._ + + 544 Nicolaus Damascenus, in _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. + Mueller, iii. 382 _sq._ + +_ 545 Ibid._ iii. 381. + + M136 The lion-god of Lydia. + + 546 Herodotus, i. 84. + + 547 Eusebius, _Chronic._ i. 69, ed. A. Schoene (Berlin, 1866-1875). + + 548 Herodotus, i. 50. At Thebes there was a stone lion which was said to + have been dedicated by Hercules (Pausanias, ix. 17. 2). + + 549 B. V. Head, _Historia Numorum_ (Oxford, 1887), p. 553; _id._, + _Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Lydia_ (London, 1901), pp. xcviii, + 239, 240, 241, 244, 247, 253, 254, 264, with plates xxiv. 9-11, 13, + XXV. 2, 12, xxvii. 8. + + M137 Identity of the Lydian and Cilician Hercules. + + 550 See above, p. 143. + + M138 The Cilician and Lydian Hercules (Sandan or Sandon) seems to have + been a Hittite deity. + + 551 Herodotus, ii. 106; G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, _Histoire de l'Art + dans l'Antiquite_, iv. 742-752; L. Messerschmidt, _Corpus + Inscriptionum Hettiticarum_, pp. 33-37, with plates xxxvii., + xxxviii.; J. Garstang, _The Land of the Hittites_, pp. 170-173, with + plate liv. + + 552 Pausanias, iii. 24. 2, v. 13. 7 with my note; G. Perrot et Ch. + Chipiez, _op. cit._ iv. 752-759; L. Messerschmidt, _op. cit._ pp. 37 + _sq._, pl. xxxix. 1; J. Garstang, _The Land of the Hittites_, pp. + 167-170, with plate liii. Unlike most Hittite sculptures the figure + of Mother Plastene is carved almost in the round. The inscriptions + which accompany both these Lydian monuments are much defaced. + + 553 The suggestion that the Heraclid kings of Lydia were Hittites, or + under Hittite influence, is not novel. See W. Wright, _Empire of the + Hittites_, p. 59; E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alterthums_, i. + (Stuttgart, 1884) p. 307, § 257; Fr. Hommel, _Grundriss der + Geographie und Geschichte des alten Orients_, p. 54, note 2; L. + Messerschmidt, _The Hittites_, p. 22. + + M139 Death and resurrection of the Lydian hero Tylon. Feast of the Golden + Flower at Sardes. + + 554 See above, pp. 110 _sqq._ + + 555 Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Roman._ i. 27. 1. + + 556 Nonnus, _Dionys._ xxv. 451-551; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxv. 14. The + story, as we learn from Pliny, was told by Xanthus, an early + historian of Lydia. + + 557 Thus Glaucus, son of Minos, was restored to life by the seer + Polyidus, who learned the trick from a serpent. See Apollodorus, + _Bibliotheca_, iii. 3. 1. For references to other tales of the same + sort see my note on Pausanias, ii. 10. 3 (vol. iii. pp. 65 _sq._). + The serpent's acquaintance with the tree of life in the garden of + Eden perhaps belongs to the same cycle of stories. + + 558 B. V. Head, _Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Lydia_, pp. cxi-cxiii, + with pl. xxvii. 12. On the coins the champion's name appears as + Masnes or Masanes, but the reading is doubtful. The name Masnes + occurred in Xanthus's history of Lydia (_Fragmenta Historicorum + Graecorum_, ed. C. Mueller, iv. 629). It is probably the same with + Manes, the name of a son of Zeus and Earth, who is said to have been + the first king of Lydia (Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Ant. Rom._ i. + 27. 1). Manes was the father of King Atys (Herodotus, i. 94). Thus + Tylon was connected with the royal family of Lydia through his + champion as well as in the ways mentioned in the text. + + 559 Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _l.c._ + + 560 See above, p. 183. + + 561 B. V. Head, _Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Lydia_, p. cxiii. + + 562 B. V. Head, _Catalogue of the Greek Coins of Lydia_, pp. cx, cxiii. + The festival seems to be mentioned only on coins. + + 563 See above, p. 154. + + 564 V. Hehn, _Kulturpflanzen und Haustiere_7 (Berlin, 1902), p. 261. He + would derive the name from the Semitic, or at all events the + Cilician language. The Hebrew word for saffron is _karkom_. As to + the spring flowers of North-Western Asia Minor, W. M. Leake remarks + (April 1, 1800) that "primroses, violets, and crocuses, are the only + flowers to be seen" (_Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor_, London, + 1824, p. 143). Near Mylasa in Caria, Fellows saw (March 20, 1840) + the broom covered with yellow blossoms and a great variety of + anemones, like "a rich Turkey carpet, in which the green grass did + not form a prominent colour amidst the crimson, lilac, blue, + scarlet, white, and yellow flowers" (Ch. Fellows, _An Account of + Discoveries in Lycia_, London, 1841, pp. 65, 66). In February the + yellow stars of _Gagea arvensis_ cover the rocky and grassy grounds + of Lycia, and the field-marigold often meets the eye. At the same + season in Lycia the shrub _Colutea arborescens_ opens its yellow + flowers. See T. A. B. Spratt and E. Forbes, _Travels in Lycia_ + (London, 1847), ii. 133. I must leave it to others to identify the + Golden Flower of Sardes. + + M140 The custom of burning a god may have been intended to recruit his + divine energies. + M141 The custom of burning a god may have stood in some relation to + volcanic phenomena. + M142 The great extinct volcano Mount Argaeus in Cappadocia. + + 565 Strabo, xii. 2. 7, p. 538. Mount Argaeus still retains its ancient + name in slightly altered forms (_Ardjeh_, _Erdjich_, _Erjaeus_). Its + height is about 13,000 feet. In the nineteenth century it was + ascended by at least two English travellers, W. J. Hamilton and H. + F. Tozer. See W. J. Hamilton, _Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus, and + Armenia_, ii. 269-281; H. F. Tozer, _Turkish Armenia and Eastern + Asia Minor_, pp. 94, 113-131; Elisee Reclus, _Nouvelle Geographie + Universelle_ (Paris, 1879-1894), ix. 476-478. A Hittite inscription + is carved at a place called Tope Nefezi, near Asarjik, on the slope + of Mount Argaeus. See J. Garstang, _The Land of the Hittites_, pp. + 152 _sq._ + + 566 H. F. Tozer, _op. cit._ pp. 125-127. + + M143 Persian fire-worship in Cappadocia. Worship of natural fires which + burn perpetually. The perpetual fires of Baku. + + 567 Strabo, xv. 3. 14 _sq._, pp. 732 _sq._ A bundle of twigs, called the + Barsom (_Beresma_ in the Avesta), is still used by the Parsee + priests in chanting their liturgy. See M. Haug, _Essays on the + Sacred Language, Writings and Religion of the Parsis_3 (London, + 1884), pp. 4, note 1, 283. When a potter in Southern India is making + a pot which is to be worshipped as a household deity, he "should + close his mouth with a bandage, so that his breath may not defile + the pot." See E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ + (Madras, 1909), iv. 151. + + 568 Baron Charles Huegel, _Travels in Kashmir and the Panjab_ (London, + 1845), pp. 42-46; W. Crooke, _Things Indian_ (London, 1906), p. 219. + + 569 Jonas Hanway, _An Historical Account of the British Trade over the + Caspian Sea: with the Author's Journal of Travels_, Second Edition + (London, 1754), i. 263. For later descriptions of the fires and + fire-worshippers of Baku, see J. Reinegg, _Beschreibung des + Kaukasus_ (Gotha, Hildesheim, and St. Petersburg, 1796-1797), i. + 151-159; A. von Haxthausen, _Transkaukasia_ (Leipsic, 1856), ii. + 80-85. Compare W. Crooke, _Things Indian_, p. 219. + + M144 The Burnt Land of Lydia. + + 570 Strabo, xii. 8. 18 _sq._, p. 579; xiii. 4. 11, p. 628. The wine of + the district is mentioned by Vitruvius (viii. 3. 12) and Pliny + (_Nat. Hist._ xiv. 75). + + 571 W. J. Hamilton, _Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus, and Armenia_, i. + 136-140, ii. 131-138. One of the three recent cones described by + Strabo is now called the _Kara Devlit_, or Black Inkstand. Its top + is about 2500 feet above the sea, but only 500 feet above the + surrounding plain. The adjoining town of Koula, built of the black + lava on which it stands, has a sombre and dismal look. Another of + the cones, almost equally high, has a crater of about half a mile in + circumference and three or four hundred feet deep. + + 572 Strabo, xiii. 4. 11, p. 628. Compare his account of the Catanian + vineyards (vi. 2. 3, p. 269). + + M145 Earthquakes in Asia Minor. Worship of Poseidon, the earthquake god. + + 573 Strabo, xii. 8. 16-18, pp. 578 _sq._; xiii. 4. 10 _sq._, p. 628. + + 574 Strabo, xii. 8. 18, p. 579. Compare Tacitus, _Annals_, xii. 58. + + 575 Strabo, i. 3. 16, p. 57. Compare Plutarch, _De Pythiae oraculis_, + 11; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 202; Justin, xxx. 4. The event seems to + have happened in 197 B.C. Several other islands are known to have + appeared in the same bay both in ancient and modern times. So far as + antiquity is concerned, the dates of their appearance are given by + Pliny, but some confusion on the subject has crept into his mind, or + rather, perhaps, into his text. See the discussion of the subject in + W. Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography_ (London, 1873), + ii. 1158-1160. As to the eruptions in the bay of Santorin, the last + of which occurred in 1866 and produced a new island, see Sir Charles + Lyell, _Principles of Geology_12 (London, 1875), i. 51, ii. 65 + _sqq._; C. Neumann und J. Partsch, _Physikalische Geographie von + Griechenland_ (Breslau, 1885), pp. 272 _sqq._ There is a monograph + on Santorin and its eruptions (F. Fouque, _Santorin et ses + eruptions_, Paris, 1879). Strabo has given a brief but striking + account of Rhodes, its architecture, its art-treasures, and its + constitution (xiv. 2. 5, pp. 652 _sq._). As to the Rhodian schools + of art see H. Brunn, _Geschichte der griechischen Kuenstler_ + (Stuttgart, 1857-1859), i. 459 _sqq._, ii. 233 _sqq._, 286 _sq._ + + 576 Aristophanes, _Acharn._ 682; Pausanias, iii. 11. 9, vii. 21. 7; + Plutarch, _Theseus_, 36; Aristides, _Isthmic._ vol. i. p. 29, ed. G. + Dindorf (Leipsic, 1829); Appian, _Bell. Civ._ v. 98; Macrobius, + _Saturn._ i. 17. 22; G. Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum_2 (Leipsic, 1898-1901), ii. p. 230, No. 543. + + 577 Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 22. + + M146 Spartan propitiation of Poseidon during an earthquake. + + 578 Xenophon, _Hellenica_, iv. 7. 4. As to the Spartan headquarters + staff ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}), see _id._ iv. 5. 8, vi. 4. 14; Xenophon, + _Respublica Lacedaem_. xiii. 1, xv. 4. Usually the Spartans desisted + from any enterprise they had in hand when an earthquake happened + (Thucydides, iii. 59. 1, v. 50. 5, vi. 95. 1). + + 579 Thucydides, v. 70. 1. The use of the music, Thucydides tells us, was + not to inspire the men, but to enable them to keep step, and so to + march in close order. Without music a long line of battle was apt to + straggle in advancing to the charge. As missiles were little used in + Greek warfare, there was no need to hurry the advance over the + intervening ground; so it was made deliberately and with the bands + playing. The air to which the Spartans charged was called Castor's + tune. It was the king in person who gave the word for the flutes to + strike up. See Plutarch, _Lycurgus_, 22. + + 580 Xenophon, _Respublica Lacedaem_. xi. 3; Aristophanes, _Lysistrata_, + 1140; Aristotle, cited by a scholiast on Aristophanes, _Acharn._ + 320; Plutarch, _Instituta Laconica_, 24. When a great earthquake had + destroyed the city of Sparta and the Messenians were in revolt, the + Spartans sent a messenger to Athens asking for help. Aristophanes + (_Lysistrata_, 1138 _sqq._) describes the man as if he had seen him, + sitting as a suppliant on the altar with his pale face and his red + coat. + + 581 I have assumed that the sun shone on the Spartans at Thermopylae. + For the battle was fought in the height of summer, when the Greek + sky is generally cloudless, and on that particular morning the + weather was very still. The evening before, the Persians had sent + round a body of troops by a difficult pass to take the Spartans in + the rear; day was breaking when they neared the summit, and the + first intimation of their approach which reached the ears of the + Phocian guards posted on the mountain was the loud crackling of + leaves under their feet in the oak forest. Moreover, the famous + Spartan saying about fighting in the shade of the Persian arrows, + which obscured the sun, points to bright, hot weather. It was at + high noon, and therefore probably in the full blaze of the mid-day + sun, that the last march-out took place. See Herodotus, vii. + 215-226; and as to the date of the battle (about the time of the + Olympic games) see Herodotus, vii. 206, viii. 12 and 26; G. Busolt, + _Griechische Geschichte_, ii.2 (Gotha, 1895) p. 673, note 9. + + M147 Modes of stopping an earthquake by informing the god or giant that + there are still men on the earth. + + 582 S. Mueller, _Reizen en Onderzoekingen in den Indischen Archipel_ + (Amsterdam, 1857), ii. 264 _sq._ Compare A. Bastian, _Indonesien_ + (Berlin, 1884-1889), ii. 3. The beliefs and customs of the East + Indian peoples in regard to earthquakes have been described by G. A. + Wilken, _Het animisme bij de volken van den Indischen Archipel_, + Tweede Stuk (Leyden, 1885), pp. 247-254; _id._, _Verspreide + Geschriften_ (The Hague, 1912), iii. 274-281. Compare _id._, + _Handleiding voor de vergelijkende Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_ (Leyden, 1893), pp. 604 _sq._; and on primitive + conceptions of earthquakes in general, E. B. Tylor, _Primitive + Culture_2 (London, 1873), i. 364-366; R. Lasch, "Die Ursache und + Bedeutung der Erdbeben im Volksglauben und Volksbrauch," _Archiv fuer + Religionswissenschaft_, v. (1902) pp. 236-257, 369-383. + + 583 Epiphanius, _Adversus Haereses_, ii. 2. 23 (Migne's _Patrologia + Graeca_, xlii. 68). + + 584 H. N. van der Tuuk, "Notes on the Kawi Language and Literature," + _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, N.S. xiii. (1881) p. 50. + + 585 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes + en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 398; compare _id._ pp. 330, 428. + + 586 G. Bamler, "Tami," in R. Neuhauss's _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii. + (Berlin, 1911) p. 492. + + 587 Mrs. Leslie Milne, _Shans at Home_ (London, 1910), p. 54. + + 588 De St. Cricq, "Voyage du Perou au Bresil par les fleuves Ucayali et + Amazone, Indiens Conibos," _Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie_ + (Paris), ive Serie, vi. (1853) p. 292. + + 589 Miss Alice Werner, _The Natives of British Central Africa_ (London, + 1906), p. 56. + + 590 Mgr. Lechaptois, _Aux Rives du Tanganika_ (Algiers, 1913), p. 217. + + 591 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 313 _sq._ + + M148 Conduct of the Bataks during an earthquake. + + 592 W. Koedding, "Die batakschen Goetter und ihr Verhaeltniss zum + Brahmanismus," _Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift_, xii. (1885) p. + 405. + + 593 G. A. Wilken, "Het Animisme bij de volken van den Indischen + Archipel," _Verspreide Geschriften_, ii. 279; H. N. van der Tuuk, + _op. cit._ pp. 49 _sq._ + + M149 Various modes of prevailing upon the earthquake god to stop. + + 594 J. G. F. Riedel, "De Topantunuasu of oorspronkelijke Volkstammen van + Central Selebes," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, xxxv. (1886) p. 95. + + 595 John Williams, _Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea + Islands_ (London, 1838), p. 379. + + 596 G. Turner, _Samoa_ (London, 1884), p. 211; Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative of + the United States Exploring Expedition_, New Edition (New York, + 1851), ii. 131. + + 597 A. Schadenburg, "Die Bewohner von Sued-Mindanao und der Insel Samal," + _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, xvii. (1885) p. 32. + + 598 W. Mariner, _Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands_, Second + Edition (London, 1818), ii. 112 _sq._ + + 599 Sangermano, _Description of the Burmese Empire_ (Rangoon, 1885), p. + 130. + + 600 P. A. Kleintitschen, _Die Kuestenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel_ + (Hiltrup bei Muenster, N.D.), p. 336. + + 601 A. Pinart, "Les Indiens de l'Etat de Panama," _Revue + d'Ethnographie_, vi. (1887) p. 119. + + 602 E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_, i. (Oxford, + 1892) p. 469. + + 603 A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast_ (London, + 1887), pp. 35 _sq._ + + M150 Religious and moral effects of earthquakes. + + 604 J. Jackson, in J. E. Erskine's _Journal of a Cruise among the + Islands of the Western Pacific_ (London, 1853), p. 473. My friend, + the late Mr. Lorimer Fison, wrote to me (December 15, 1906) that the + name of the Fijian earthquake god is Maui, not A Dage, as Jackson + says. Mr. Fison adds, "I have seen Fijians stamping and smiting the + ground and yelling at the top of their voices in order to rouse + him." + + 605 J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von Rosenberg, "Verslag omtrent het + eiland Nias," _Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van + Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, xxx. (Batavia, 1863) p. 118; Th. C. + Rappard, "Het eiland Nias en zijne bewoners," _Bijdragen tot de + Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, lxii. (1909) p. + 582. In Soerakarta, a district of Java, when an earthquake takes + place the people lie flat on their stomachs on the ground, and lick + it with their tongues so long as the earthquake lasts. This they do + in order that they may not lose their teeth prematurely. See J. W. + Winter, "Beknopte Beschrijving van het hof Soerokarta in 1824," + _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, liv. (1902) p. 85. The connexion of ideas in + this custom is not clear. + + M151 The god of the sea and of the earthquake naturally conceived as one. + + 606 On this question see C. Neumann und J. Partsch, _Physikalische + Geographie von Griechenland_ (Breslau, 1885), pp. 332-336. As to the + frequency of earthquakes in Achaia and Asia Minor see Seneca, + _Epist._ xiv. 3. 9; and as to Achaia in particular see C. Neumann + und J. Partsch, _op. cit._ pp. 324-326. On the coast of Achaia there + was a chain of sanctuaries of Poseidon (L. Preller, _Griechische + Mythologie_, i.4 575). + + 607 See Sir Ch. Lyell, _Principles of Geology_,12 ii. 147 _sqq._; J. + Milne, _Earthquakes_ (London, 1886), pp. 165 _sqq._ + + 608 See, for example, Thucydides, iii. 89. + + 609 Strabo, viii. 7. 1 _sq._, pp. 384 _sq._; Diodorus Siculus, xv. 49; + Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ xi. 19; Pausanias, vii. 24. 5 _sq._ and 12, + vii. 25. 1 and 4. + + 610 Diodorus Siculus, xv. 49. 4 _sq._ Among the most famous seats of the + worship of Poseidon in Peloponnese were Taenarum in Laconia, Helice + in Achaia, Mantinea in Arcadia, and the island of Calauria, off the + coast of Troezen. See Pausanias, ii. 33. 2, iii. 25. 4-8, vii. 24. 5 + _sq._, viii. 10. 2-4. Laconia as well as Achaia has suffered much + from earthquakes, and it contained many sanctuaries of Poseidon. We + may suppose that the deity was worshipped here chiefly as the + earthquake god, since the rugged coasts of Laconia are ill adapted + to maritime enterprise, and the Lacedaemonians were never a + seafaring folk. See C. Neumann und J. Partsch, _Physikalische + Geographie von Griechenland_, pp. 330 _sq._, 335 _sq._ For Laconian + sanctuaries of Poseidon see Pausanias, iii. 11. 9, iii. 12. 5, iii. + 14. 2 and 7, iii. 15. 10, iii. 20. 2, iii. 21. 5, iii. 25. 4. + + M152 Poisonous mephitic vapours. + + 611 Sir Ch. Lyell, _Principles of Geology_,12 i. 391 _sqq._, 590. + + 612 "Extract from a Letter of Mr. Alexander Loudon," _Journal of the + Royal Geographical Society_, ii. (1832) pp. 60-62; Sir Ch. Lyell, + _Principles of Geology_,12 i. 590. + + 613 Sir Ch. Lyell, _l.c._ + + M153 Places of Pluto or Charon. The valley of Amsanctus. + + 614 Lucretius, vi. 738 _sqq._ + + 615 Strabo, v. 4. 5, p. 244, xii. 8. 17, p. 579, xiii. 4. 14, p. 629, + xiv. 1. 11 and 44, pp. 636, 649; Cicero, _De divinatione_, i. 36. + 79; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 208. Compare [Aristotle,] _De mundo_, 4, + p. 395 B, ed. Bekker. + + 616 Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ vii. 84, who says that some people looked + on Mefitis as a god, the male partner of Leucothoe, to whom he stood + as Adonis to Venus or as Virbius to Diana. As to Mefitis see L. + Preller, _Roemische Mythologie_3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), ii. 144 _sq._; + R. Peter, _s.v._ "Mefitis" in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. + und roem. Mythologie_, ii. 2519 _sqq._ + + 617 Virgil, _Aen._ vii. 563-571, with the commentary of Servius; Cicero, + _De divinatione_, i. 36. 79; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 208. + + 618 Letter of Mr. Hamilton (British Envoy at the Court of Naples), in + _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_, ii. (1832) pp. 62-65; + W. Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography_, i. 127; H. + Nissen, _Italische Landeskunde_ (Berlin, 1883-1902), i. 242, 271, + ii. 819 _sq._ Another place in Italy infested by poisonous + exhalations is the grotto called _dei cani_ at Naples. It is + described by Addison in his "Remarks on Several Parts of Italy" + (_Works_, London, 1811, vol. ii. pp. 89-91). + + M154 Sanctuaries of Charon or Pluto in Caria. + + 619 Strabo, xiv. 1. 11, p. 636. + + 620 Strabo, xiv. 1. 44, pp. 649 _sq._ A coin of Nysa shows the bull + carried to the sacrifice by six naked youths and preceded by a naked + flute-player. See B. V. Head, _Catalogue of the Greek Coins of + Lydia_, pp. lxxxiii. 181, pl. xx. 10. Strabo was familiar with this + neighbourhood, for he tells us (xiv. 1. 48, p. 650) that in his + youth he studied at Nysa under the philosopher Aristodemus. + + M155 Sanctuary of Pluto at the Lydian or Phrygian Hierapolis. + + 621 Some of the ancients assigned Hierapolis to Lydia, and others to + Phrygia (W. M. Ramsay, _Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_, i. + (Oxford, 1895) pp. 84 _sq._ + + 622 Strabo, xiii. 4. 14, pp. 629 _sq._; Dio Cassius, lxviii. 27. 3; + Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 208; Ammianus Marcellinus, xxiii. 6. 18. + + M156 The hot springs and petrified cascades of Hierapolis. + + 623 Ammianus Marcellinus (_l.c._) speaks as if the cave no longer + existed in his time. + + M157 The hot pool of Hierapolis with its deadly exhalations. + M158 Deposits left by the waters of Hierapolis. + + 624 Strabo, xiii. 4. 14, pp. 629, 630; Vitruvius, viii. 3. 10. For + modern descriptions of Hierapolis see R. Chandler, _Travels in Asia + Minor_2 (London, 1776), pp. 228-235; Ch. Fellows, _Journal written + during an Excursion in Asia Minor_ (London, 1839), pp. 283-285; W. + J. Hamilton, _Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus, and Armenia_, i. + 517-521; E. Renan, _Saint Paul_, pp. 357 _sq._; E. J. Davis, + _Anatolica_ (London, 1874), pp. 97-112; E. Reclus, _Nouvelle + Geographie Universelle_, ix. 510-512; W. Cochran, _Pen and Pencil + Sketches in Asia Minor_ (London, 1887), pp. 387-390; W. M. Ramsay, + _Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_, i. 84 _sqq._ The temperature of + the hot pool varies from 85 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit. The volcanic + district of Tuscany which skirts the Apennines abounds in hot + calcareous springs which have produced phenomena like those of + Hierapolis. Indeed the whole ground is in some places coated over + with tufa and travertine, which have been deposited by the water, + and, like the ground at Hierapolis, it sounds hollow under the foot. + See Sir Ch. Lyell, _Principles of Geology_,12 i. 397 _sqq._ As to + the terraces of Rotomahana in New Zealand, which were destroyed by + an eruption of Mount Taravera in 1886, see R. Taylor, _Te Ika A + Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_2 (London, 1870), pp. + 464-469. + + M159 Hercules the patron of hot springs. + + 625 Athenaeus, xii. 6. p. 512. + + 626 Aristophanes, _Clouds_, 1044-1054. + + 627 Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Clouds_, 1050; Scholiast on Pindar, + _Olymp._ xii. 25; Suidas and Hesychius, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}; + Apostolius, viii. 66; Zenobius, vi. 49; Diogenianus, v. 7; Plutarch, + _Proverbia Alexandrinorum_, 21; Diodorus Siculus, iv. 23. 1, v. 3. + 4. Another story was that Hercules, like Moses, produced the water + by smiting the rock with his club (Antoninus Liberalis, _Transform._ + 4). + + 628 Apostolius, viii. 68; Zenobius, vi. 49; Diogenianus, v. 7; Plutarch, + _Proverbia Alexandrinorum_, 21. + + 629 Lucian, _Dialogi Deorum_, 13. + + M160 Hot springs of Hercules at Thermopylae. + + 630 Strabo, ix. 4. 13, p. 428. + + 631 Herodotus, vii. 176; Pausanias, iv. 35. 9; Philostratus, _Vit. + Sophist._ ii. 1. 9. + + 632 Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Clouds_, 1050. + + 633 I have described Thermopylae as I saw it in November 1895. Compare + W. M. Leake, _Travels in Northern Greece_ (London, 1835), ii. 33 + _sqq._; E. Dodwell, _Classical and Topographical Tour through + Greece_ (London, 1819), ii. 66 _sqq._; K. G. Fiedler, _Reise durch + alle Theile des Koenigreichs Griechenland_ (Leipsic, 1840-1841), i. + 207 _sqq._; L. Ross, _Wanderungen in Griechenland_ (Halle, 1851), i. + 90 _sqq._; C. Bursian, _Geographie von Griechenland_ (Leipsic, + 1862-1872), i. 92 _sqq._ + + M161 Hot springs of Hercules at Aedepsus. + + 634 Thucydides, iii. 87 and 89; Strabo, i. 3. 20, pp. 60 _sq._; C. + Neumann und J. Partsch, _Physikalische Geographie von Griechenland_, + pp. 321-323. + + 635 Aristotle, _Meteora_, ii. 8, p. 366 A, ed. Bekker; Strabo, ix. 4. 2, + p. 425. Aristotle expressly recognized the connexion of the springs + with earthquakes, which he tells us were very common in this + district. As to the earthquakes of Euboea see also Thucydides, iii. + 87, 89; Strabo, i. 3. 16 and 20, pp. 58, 60 _sq._ + + 636 Plutarch, _Sulla_, 26. + + 637 Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviviales_, iv. 4. 1; _id._, _De fraterno + Amore_, 17. + + 638 As to the hot springs of Aedepsus (the modern _Lipso_) see K. G. + Fiedler, _Reise durch alle Theile des Koenigreichs Griechenland_, i. + 487-492; H. N. Ulrichs, _Reisen und Forschungen in Griechenland_ + (Bremen, 1840--Berlin, 1863), ii. 233-235; C. Bursian, _Geographie + von Griechenland_, ii. 409; C. Neumann und J. Partsch, + _Physikalische Geographie von Griechenland_, pp. 342-344. + + 639 Strabo, i. 3. 20, p. 60. + + 640 Athenaeus, iii. 4, p. 73 E, D. + + M162 Reasons for the association of Hercules with hot springs. + + 641 The hot springs of Himera (the modern _Termini_) were said to have + been produced for the refreshment of the weary Hercules. See + Diodorus Siculus, iv. 23. 1, v. 3. 4; Scholiast on Pindar, _Olymp._ + xii. 25. The hero is said to have taught the Syracusans to sacrifice + a bull annually to Persephone at the Blue Spring (_Cyane_) near + Syracuse; the beasts were drowned in the water of the pool. See + Diodorus Siculus, iv. 23. 4, v. 4. 1 _sq._ As to the spring, which + is now thickly surrounded by tall papyrus-plants introduced by the + Arabs, see K. Baedeker, _Southern Italy_7 (Leipsic, 1880), pp. 356, + 357. + + 642 The splendid baths of Allifae in Samnium, of which there are + considerable remains, were sacred to Hercules. See G. Wilmanns, + _Exempla Inscriptionum Latinarum_ (Berlin, 1873), vol. i. p. 227, + No. 735 C; H. Nissen, _Italische Landeskunde_, ii. 798. It is + characteristic of the volcanic nature of the springs that the same + inscription which mentions these baths of Hercules records their + destruction by an earthquake. + + 643 H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, vol. ii. Pars i. + (Berlin, 1902) p. 113, No. 3891. + + 644 Speaking of thermal springs Lyell observes that the description of + them "might almost with equal propriety have been given under the + head of 'igneous causes,' as they are agents of a mixed nature, + being at once igneous and aqueous" (_Principles of Geology_,12 i. + 392). + + 645 See above, p. 194. + + M163 The hot springs of Callirrhoe in Moab. + + 646 S. I. Curtiss, _Primitive Semitic Religion To-day_ (Chicago, New + York, and Toronto, 1902), pp. 116 _sq._; Mrs. H. H. Spoer, "The + Powers of Evil in Jerusalem," _Folk-lore_, xviii. (1907) p. 55. See + above, p. 78. + + 647 Josephus, _Antiquit. Jud._ xvii. 6. 5. The medical properties of the + spring are mentioned by Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ v. 72). + + 648 C. L. Irby and J. Mangles, _Travels in Egypt and Nubia, Syria and + the Holy Land_ (London, 1844), pp. 144 _sq._; W. Smith, _Dictionary + of Greek and Roman Geography_ (London, 1873), i. 482, _s.v._ + "Callirrhoe"; K. Baedeker, _Syria and Palestine_4 (Leipsic, 1906), + p. 148; H. B. Tristram, _The Land of Moab_ (London, 1873), pp. + 233-250, 285 _sqq._; Jacob E. Spafford, "Around the Dead Sea by + Motor Boat," _The Geographical Journal_, xxxix. (1912) pp. 39 _sq._ + The river formed by the springs is now called the Zerka. + + M164 Prayers and sacrifices offered to the hot springs of Callirrhoe. + + 649 Antonin Jaussen, _Coutumes des Arabes au pays de Moab_ (Paris, + 1908), pp. 359 _sq._ The Arabs think that the evil spirits let the + hot water out of hell, lest its healing properties should assuage + the pains of the damned. See H. B. Tristram, _The Land of Moab_ + (London, 1873), p. 247. + + M165 Worship of volcanic phenomena in other lands. + M166 The great volcano of Kirauea in Hawaii. + + 650 W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, Second Edition (London, + 1832-1836), iv. 235 _sqq._ Mr. Ellis was the first European to visit + and describe the tremendous volcano. His visit was paid in the year + 1823. Compare _The Encyclopaedia Britannica_,9 xi. 531. + + 651 W. Ellis, _op. cit._ iv. 246 _sq._ + + M167 The divinities of the volcano. Offerings to the volcano. Priestess + impersonating the goddess of the volcano. + + 652 W. Ellis, _op. cit._ iv. 248-250. + + 653 W. Ellis, _op. cit._ iv. 207, 234-236. The berries resemble currants + in shape and size and grow on low bushes. "The branches small and + clear, leaves alternate, obtuse with a point, and serrated; the + flower was monopetalous, and, on being examined, determined the + plant to belong to the class _decandria_ and order _monogynia_. The + native name of the plant is _ohelo_" (W. Ellis, _op. cit._ iv. 234). + + 654 W. Ellis, _op. cit._ iv. 263. + + 655 W. Ellis, _op. cit._ iv. 350. + + 656 W. Ellis, _op. cit._ iv. 309-311. + + 657 W. Ellis, _op. cit._ iv. 361. + + M168 Sacrifices to volcanoes. Human victims thrown into volcanoes. Annual + sacrifices to the volcano Bromo in Java. + + 658 Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes, _Historia General y Natural de las + Indias_ (Madrid, 1851-1855), iv. 74. + + 659 A. C. Kruijt, _Het Animisme in den Indischen Archipel_ (The Hague, + 1906), pp. 497 _sq._ + + 660 W. B. d'Almeida, _Life in Java_ (London, 1864), i. 166-173. + + 661 J. H. F. Kohlbrugge, "Die Tenggeresen, ein alter Javanischer + Volksstamm," _Bijdragentot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van + Nederlandsch-Indie_, liii. (1901) pp. 84, 144-147. + + 662 J. H. F. Kohlbrugge, _op. cit._ pp. 100 _sq._ + + M169 Other sacrifices to volcanoes. + + 663 I. A. Stigand, "The Volcano of Smeroe, Java," _The Geographical + Journal_, xxviii. (1906) pp. 621, 624. + + 664 Pausanias, iii. 23. 9. Some have thought that Pausanias confused the + crater of Etna with the _Lago di Naftia_, a pool near Palagonia in + the interior of Sicily, of which the water, impregnated with naphtha + and sulphur, is thrown into violent ebullition by jets of volcanic + gas. See [Aristotle,] _Mirab. Auscult._ 57; Macrobius, _Saturn._ v. + 19. 26 _sqq._; Diodorus Siculus, xi. 89; Stephanus Byzantius, _s.v._ + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}; E. H. Bunbury, _s.v._ "Palicorum Iacus," in W. Smith's + _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography_, ii. 533 _sq._ The author + of the ancient Latin poem _Aetna_ says (vv. 340 _sq._) that people + offered incense to the celestial deities on the top of Etna. + + M170 No evidence that the Asiatic custom of burning kings or gods was + connected with volcanic phenomena. + + 665 See above, pp. 190 _sq._ + + 666 On Mount Chimaera in Lycia a flame burned perpetually which neither + earth nor water could extinguish. See Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 236, + v. 100; Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ vi. 288; Seneca, _Epist._ x. 3. 3; + Diodorus, quoted by Photius, _Bibliotheca_, p. 212 B, 10 _sqq._, ed. + Im. Bekker (Berlin, 1824). This perpetual flame was rediscovered by + Captain Beaufort near Porto Genovese on the coast of Lycia. It + issues from the side of a hill of crumbly serpentine rock, giving + out an intense heat, but no smoke. "Trees, brushwood, and weeds grow + close round this little crater, a small stream trickles down the + hill hard bye, and the ground does not appear to feel the effect of + its heat at more than a few feet distance." The fire is not + accompanied by earthquakes or noises; it ejects no stones and emits + no noxious vapours. There is nothing but a brilliant and perpetual + flame, at which the shepherds often cook their food. See Fr. + Beaufort, _Karmania_ (London, 1817), p. 46; compare T. A. B. Spratt + and E. Forbes, _Travels in Lycia_ (London, 1847), ii. 181 _sq._ + + 667 In the foregoing discussion I have confined myself, so far as + concerns Asia, to the volcanic regions of Cappadocia, Lydia, and + Caria. But Syria and Palestine, the home of Adonis and Melcarth, + "abound in volcanic appearances, and very extensive areas have been + shaken, at different periods, with great destruction of cities and + loss of lives. Continual mention is made in history of the ravages + committed by earthquakes in Sidon, Tyre, Berytus, Laodicea, and + Antioch, and in the island of Cyprus. The country around the Dead + Sea exhibits in some spots layers of sulphur and bitumen, forming a + superficial deposit, supposed by Mr. Tristram to be of volcanic + origin" (Sir Ch. Lyell, _Principles of Geology_,12 i. 592 _sq._). As + to the earthquakes of Syria and Phoenicia see Strabo, i. 3. 16, p. + 58; Lucretius, vi. 585; Josephus, _Antiquit. Jud._ xv. 5. 2; _id._, + _Bell. Jud._ i. 19. 3; W. M. Thomson, _The Land and the Book, + Central Palestine and Phoenicia_, pp. 568-574; Ed. Robinson, + _Biblical Researches in Palestine_,3 ii. 422-424; S. R. Driver, on + Amos iv. 11 (Cambridge _Bible for Schools and Colleges_). It is said + that in the reign of the Emperor Justin the city of Antioch was + totally destroyed by a dreadful earthquake, in which three hundred + thousand people perished (Procopius, _De Bello Persico_, ii. 14). + The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis xix. 24-28) has been + plausibly explained as the effect of an earthquake liberating large + quantities of petroleum and inflammable gases. See H. B. Tristram, + _The Land of Israel_, Fourth Edition (London, 1882), pp. 350-354; S. + R. Driver, _The Book of Genesis_4 (London, 1905), pp. 202 _sq._ + + M171 Results of the preceding inquiry. + M172 Our knowledge of the rites of Adonis derived chiefly from Greek + writers. + M173 Festivals of the death and resurrection of Adonis. The festival at + Alexandria. The festival at Byblus. + + 668 Plutarch, _Alcibiades_, 18; _id._, _Nicias_, 13; Zenobius, _Centur._ + i. 49; Theocritus, xv. 132 _sqq._; Eustathius on Homer, _Od._ xi. + 590. + + 669 Besides Lucian (cited below) see Origen, _Selecta in Ezechielem_ + (Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, xiii. 800), {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} [scil. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}] + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. Jerome, _Commentar. in Ezechielem_, viii. 13, 14 (Migne's + _Patrologia Latina_, xxv. 82, 83): "_Quem nos_ Adonidem + _interpretati sumus, et Hebraeus et Syrus sermo_ THAMUZ ({~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER ZAYIN~}) + _vocat: unde quia juxta gentilem fabulam, in mense Junis amasius + Veneris et pulcherrimus juvenis occisus, et deinceps revixisse + narratur, eundem Junium mensem eodem appellant nomine, et + anniversariam ei celebrant solemnitatem, in qua plangitur a + mulieribus quasi mortuus, et postea reviviscens canitur atque + laudatur ... interfectionem et resurrectionem Adonidis planctu et + gaudio prosequens._" Cyril of Alexandria, _In Isaiam_, lib. ii. + tomus iii. (Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, lxx. 441), {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND OXIA AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}. + From this testimony of Cyril we learn that the festival of the death + and resurrection of Adonis was celebrated at Alexandria down to his + time, that is, down to the fourth or even the fifth century, long + after the official establishment of Christianity. + + 670 Theocritus, xv. + + 671 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_ (Berlin, 1877), p. 277. + + 672 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 6. See above, p. 38. The flutes used by the + Phoenicians in the lament for Adonis are mentioned by Athenaeus (iv. + 76, p. 174 F), and by Pollux (iv. 76), who say that the same name + _gingras_ was applied by the Phoenicians both to the flute and to + Adonis himself. Compare F. C. Movers, _Die Phoenizier_, i. 243 _sq._ + We have seen that flutes were also played in the Babylonian rites of + Tammuz (above, p. 9). Lucian's words, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, imply + that the ascension of the god was supposed to take place in the + presence, if not before the eyes, of the worshipping crowds. The + devotion of Byblus to Adonis is noticed also by Strabo (xvi. 2. 18, + p. 755). + + M174 Date of the festival at Byblus. The anemone and the red rose the + flowers of Adonis. Festivals of Adonis at Athens and Antioch. + + 673 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 8. The discoloration of the river and the + sea was observed by H. Maundrell on 17/27 March 1696/1697. See his + _Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, at Easter, __A.D.__ 1697_, Fourth + Edition (Perth, 1800), pp. 59 _sq._; _id._, in Bohn's _Early Travels + in Palestine_, edited by Thomas Wright (London, 1848), pp. 411 _sq._ + Renan remarked the discoloration at the beginning of February + (_Mission de Phenicie_, p. 283). In his well-known lines on the + subject Milton has laid the mourning in summer:-- + + "_Thammuz came next behind,_ + _ Whose annual wound in Lebanon allur'd_ + _ The Syrian damsels to lament his fate_ + _ In amorous ditties all a summer's day._" + + 674 Ovid, _Metam._ x. 735; Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ v. 72; J. Tzetzes, + _Schol. on Lycophron_, 831. Bion, on the other hand, represents the + anemone as sprung from the tears of Aphrodite (_Idyl._ i. 66). + + 675 W. Robertson Smith, "Ctesias and the Semiramis Legend," _English + Historical Review_, ii. (1887) p. 307, following Lagarde. Compare W. + W. Graf Baudissin, _Adonis und Esmun_, pp. 88 _sq._ + + 676 J. Tzetzes, _Schol. on Lycophron_, 831; _Geoponica_, xi. 17; + _Mythographi Graeci_, ed. A. Westermann, p. 359. Compare Bion, + _Idyl._ i. 66; Pausanias, vi. 24. 7; Philostratus, _Epist._ i. and + iii. + + 677 Plutarch, _Alcibiades_, 18; _id._, _Nicias_, 13. The date of the + sailing of the fleet is given by Thucydides (vi. 30, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}), who, with his habitual contempt for the superstition + of his countrymen, disdains to notice the coincidence. Adonis was + also bewailed by the Argive women (Pausanias, ii. 20. 6), but we do + not know at what season of the year the lamentation took place. + Inscriptions prove that processions in honour of Adonis were held in + the Piraeus, and that a society of his worshippers existed at Loryma + in Caria. See G. Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 + Nos. 726, 741 (vol. ii. pp. 564, 604). + + 678 Ammianus Marcellinus, xxii. 9. 15. + + M175 Resemblance of these rites to Indian and European ceremonies. The + death and resurrection of Adonis a mythical expression for the + annual decay and revival of plant life. Adonis sometimes taken for + the sun. + +_ 679 The Dying God_, pp. 261-266. + + 680 In the Alexandrian ceremony, however, it appears to have been the + image of Adonis only which was thrown into the sea. + + 681 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 14. 4; Scholiast on Theocritus, i. + 109; Antoninus Liberalis, _Transform._ 34; J. Tzetzes, _Scholia on + Lycophron_, 829; Ovid, _Metamorph._ x. 489 _sqq._; Servius on + Virgil, _Aen._ v. 72, and on _Bucol._ x. 18; Hyginus, _Fab._ 58, + 164; Fulgentius, iii. 8. The word Myrrha or Smyrna is borrowed from + the Phoenician (Liddell and Scott, _Greek Lexicon_, _s.v._ {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}). + Hence the mother's name, as well as the son's, was taken directly + from the Semites. + + 682 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 383, note 2. + + 683 Above, p. 9. + + 684 Jeremiah xliv. 17-19. + + 685 Scholiast on Theocritus, iii. 48; Hyginus, _Astronom._ ii. 7; + Lucian, _Dialog. deor._ xi. 1; Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae + Compendium_, 28, p. 54, ed. C. Lang (Leipsic, 1881); Apollodorus, + _Bibliotheca_, iii. 14. 4. + + 686 The arguments which tell against the solar interpretation of Adonis + are stated more fully by the learned and candid scholar Graf + Baudissin (_Adonis und Esmun_, pp. 169 _sqq._), who himself formerly + accepted the solar theory but afterwards rightly rejected it in + favour of the view "_dass Adonis die Fruehlingsvegetation darstellt, + die im Sommer abstirbt_" (_op. cit._ p. 169). + + 687 Bailly, _Lettres sur l'Origine des Sciences_ (London and Paris, + 1777), pp. 255 _sq._; _id._, _Lettres sur l'Atlantide de Platon_ + (London and Paris, 1779), pp. 114-125. Carlyle has described how + through the sleety drizzle of a dreary November day poor innocent + Bailly was dragged to the scaffold amid the howls and curses of the + Parisian mob (_French Revolution_, bk. v. ch. 2). My friend the late + Professor C. Bendall showed me a book by a Hindoo gentleman in which + it is seriously maintained that the primitive home of the Aryans was + within the Arctic regions. See Bal Gangadhar Tilak, _The Arctic Home + in the Vedas_ (Poona and Bombay, 1903). + + 688 Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 28, pp. 54 _sq._, ed. C. + Lang (Leipsic, 1881), {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. Scholiast on Theocritus, + iii. 48, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. + Origen, _Selecta in Ezechielem_ (Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, xiii. + 800), {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. Jerome, + _Commentar. in Ezechielem_, viii. 13, 14 (Migne's _Patrologia + Latina_, xxv. 83), "_Eadem gentilitas hujuscemodi fabulas poetarum, + quae habent turpitudinem, interpretatur subtiliter, interfectionem + et resurrectionem Adonidis planctu et gaudio prosequens: quorum + alterum in seminibus, quae moriuntur in terra, alterum in segetibus, + quibus mortua semina renascuntur, ostendi putat._" Ammianus + Marcellinus, xix. 1. 11, "_in sollemnibus Adonidis sacris, quod + simulacrum aliquod esse frugum adultarum religiones mysticae + docent_." _Id._ xxii. 9. 15, "_amato Veneris, ut fabulae fingunt, + apri dente ferali deleto, quod in adulto flore sectarum est indicium + frugum_." Clement of Alexandria, _Hom._ 6. 11 (quoted by W. + Mannhardt, _Antique Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 281), {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. _Etymologieum Magnum_ _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. Eusebius, _Praepar. Evang._ iii. II. 9, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. Sallustius philosophus, "De diis et + mundo," iv. _Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_, ed. F. G. A. + Mullach, iii. 32, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + ... {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} ... {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. Joannes Lydus, _De + mensibus_, iv. 4, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DIALYTIKA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} ... {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}. The view that Tammuz or + Adonis is a personification of the dying and reviving vegetation is + now accepted by many scholars. See P. Jensen, _Kosmologie der + Babylonier_ (Strasburg, 1890), p. 480; _id._, + _Assyrisch-babylonische Mythen und Epen_, pp. 411, 560; H. Zimmern, + in E. Schrader's _Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament_,3 p. 397; + A. Jeremias, _s.v._ "Nergal," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der + griech. und roem. Mythologie_, iii. 265; R. Wuensch, _Das + Fruehlingsfest der Insel Malta_ (Leipsic, 1902), p. 21; M. J. + Lagrange, _Etudes sur les Religions Semitiques_,2 pp. 306 _sqq._; W. + W. Graf Baudissin, "Tammuz," _Realencyclopaedie fuer protestantische + Theologie und Kirchengeschichte_; _id._, _Esmun und Adonis_, pp. 81, + 141, 169, etc.; and Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. + pp. 394, 427. Prof. Jastrow regards Tammuz as a god both of the sun + and of vegetation (_Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 547, + 564, 574, 588). But such a combination of disparate qualities seems + artificial and unlikely. + + M176 Tammuz or Adonis as a corn-spirit bruised and ground in a mill. + + 689 D. Chwolsohn, _Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus_ (St. Petersburg, + 1856), ii. 27; _id._, _Ueber Tammuz und die Menschenverehrung bei + den alten Babylioniern_ (St. Petersburg, 1860), p. 38. Compare W. W. + Graf Baudissin, _Adonis und Esmun_, pp. 111 _sqq._ + + M177 The mourning for Adonis interpreted as a harvest rite. + + 690 M. J. Lagrange, _Etudes sur les Religions Semitiques_2 (Paris, + 1905), pp. 307 _sq._ + + 691 Hence Philo of Alexandria dates the corn-reaping in the middle of + spring ({~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, _De special. legibus_, + i. 183, vol. v. p. 44, ed. L. Cohn). On this subject Professor W. M. + Flinders Petrie writes to me: "The Coptic calendar puts on April 2 + beginning of wheat harvest in Upper Egypt, May 2 wheat harvest, + Lower Egypt. Barley is two or three weeks earlier than wheat in + Palestine, but probably less in Egypt. The Palestine harvest is + about the time of that in North Egypt." With regard to Palestine we + are told that "the harvest begins with the barley in April; in the + valley of the Jordan it begins at the end of March. Between the end + of the barley harvest and the beginning of the wheat harvest an + interval of two or three weeks elapses. Thus as a rule the business + of harvest lasts about seven weeks" (J. Benzinger, _Hebraeische + Archaeologie_, Freiburg i. B. and Leipsic, 1894, p. 209). "The + principal grain crops of Palestine are barley, wheat, lentils, + maize, and millet. Of the latter there is very little, and it is all + gathered in by the end of May. The maize is then only just beginning + to shoot. In the hotter parts of the Jordan valley the barley + harvest is over by the end of March, and throughout the country the + wheat harvest is at its height at the end of May, excepting in the + highlands of Galilee, where it is about a fortnight later" (H. B. + Tristram, _The Land of Israel_, Fourth Edition, London, 1882, pp. + 583 _sq._). As to Greece, Professor E. A. Gardner tells me that + harvest is from April to May in the plains and about a month later + in the mountains. He adds that "barley may, then, be assigned to the + latter part of April, wheat to May in the lower ground, but you know + the great difference of climate between different parts; there is + the same difference of a month in the vintage." Mrs. Hawes (Miss + Boyd), who excavated at Gournia, tells me that in Crete the barley + is cut in April and the beginning of May, and that the wheat is cut + and threshed from about the twentieth of June, though the dates + naturally vary somewhat with the height of the place above the sea. + June is also the season when the wheat is threshed in Euboea (R. A. + Arnold, _From the Levant_, London, 1868, i. 250). Thus it seems + possible that the spring festival of Adonis coincided with the + cutting of the first barley in March, and his summer festival with + the threshing of the last wheat in June. Father Lagrange (_op. cit._ + pp. 305 _sq._) argues that the rites of Adonis were always + celebrated in summer at the solstice of June or soon afterwards. + Baudissin also holds that the summer celebration is the only one + which is clearly attested, and that if there was a celebration in + spring it must have had a different signification than the death of + the god. See his _Adonis und Esmun_, pp. 132 _sq._ + + 692 Diodorus Siculus, i. 14. 2. See below, vol. ii. pp. 45 _sq._ + +_ 693 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 180 _sqq._, 204 _sqq._ + + M178 But probably Adonis was a spirit of fruits, edible roots, and grass + before he became a spirit of the cultivated corn. + M179 The propitiation of the corn-spirit may have fused with the worship + of the dead. + + 694 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (Strasburg, 1884), pp. 1 + _sqq._; _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 216 _sqq._ + + M180 The festival of the dead a festival of flowers. + + 695 T. B. Macaulay, _History of England_, chapter xx. vol. iv. (London, + 1855) p. 410. + + 696 This explanation of the name _Anthesteria_, as applied to a festival + of the dead, is due to Mr. R. Wuensch (_Das Fruehlingsfest der Insel + Malta_, Leipsic, 1902, pp. 43 _sqq._). I cannot accept the late Dr. + A. W. Verrall's ingenious derivation of the word from a verb + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} in the sense of "to conjure up" ("The Name + Anthesteria," _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xx. (1900) pp. + 115-117). As to the festival see E. Rohde, _Psyche_3 (Tuebingen and + Leipsic, 1903), i. 236 _sqq._; Miss J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to + the Study of Greek Religion_2 (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 32 _sqq._ In + Annam people offer food to their dead on the graves when the earth + begins to grow green in spring. The ceremony takes place on the + third day of the third month, the sun then entering the sign of + Taurus. See Paul Giran, _Magie et Religion Annamites_ (Paris, 1912), + pp. 423 _sq._ + + 697 E. Renan, _Mission de Phenicie_ (Paris, 1864), p. 216. + + M181 Pots of corn, herbs, and flowers, called the gardens of Adonis. + + 698 For the authorities see Raoul Rochette, "Memoire sur les jardins + d'Adonis," _Revue Archeologique_, viii. (1851) pp. 97-123; W. + Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 279, note 2, and p. 280, + note 2. To the authorities cited by Mannhardt add Theophrastus, + _Hist. Plant._ vi. 7. 3; _id._, _De Causis Plant._ i. 12. 2; + Gregorius Cyprius, i. 7; Macarius, i. 63; Apostolius, i. 34; + Diogenianus, i. 14; Plutarch, _De sera num. vind._ 17. Women only + are mentioned as planting the gardens of Adonis by Plutarch, _l.c._; + Julian, _Convivium_, p. 329 ed. Spanheim (p. 423 ed. Hertlein); + Eustathius on Homer, _Od._ xi. 590. On the other hand, Apostolius + and Diogenianus (_ll.cc._) say {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. The earliest + extant Greek writer who mentions the gardens of Adonis is Plato + (_Phaedrus_, p. 276 B). The procession at the festival of Adonis is + mentioned in an Attic inscription of 302 or 301 B.C. (G. + Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 vol. ii. p. 564, + No. 726). Gardens of Adonis are perhaps alluded to by Isaiah (xvii. + 10, with the commentators). + + M182 These gardens of Adonis were charms to promote the growth of + vegetation. The throwing of the "gardens" into water was a + rain-charm. Parallel European customs of drenching the corn with + water at harvest or sowing. Use of water as a rain-charm at harvest + and sowing. + + 699 In hot southern countries like Egypt and the Semitic regions of + Western Asia, where vegetation depends chiefly or entirely upon + irrigation, the purpose of the charm is doubtless to secure a + plentiful flow of water in the streams. But as the ultimate object + and the charms for securing it are the same in both cases, I have + not thought it necessary always to point out the distinction. + +_ 700 The Dying God_, pp. 232, 233 _sqq._ + +_ 701 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 272 _sqq._ + + 702 W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstaemme_ + (Berlin, 1875), p. 214; W. Schmidt, _Das Jahr und seine Tage in + Meinung und Branch der Romaenen Siebenbuergens_ (Hermannstadt, 1866), + pp. 18 _sq._ The custom of throwing water on the last wagon-load of + corn returning from the harvest-field has been practised within + living memory in Wigtownshire, and at Orwell in Cambridgeshire. See + J. G. Frazer, "Notes on Harvest Customs," _Folk-lore Journal_, vii. + (1889) pp. 50, 51. (In the first of these passages the Orwell at + which the custom used to be observed is said to be in Kent; this was + a mistake of mine, which my informant, the Rev. E. B. Birks, + formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, afterwards + corrected.) Mr. R. F. Davis writes to me (March 4, 1906) from + Campbell College, Belfast: "Between 30 and 40 years ago I was + staying, as a very small boy, at a Nottinghamshire farmhouse at + harvest-time, and was allowed--as a great privilege--to ride home on + the top of the last load. All the harvesters followed the waggon, + and on reaching the farmyard we found the maids of the farm gathered + near the gate, with bowls and buckets of water, which they proceeded + to throw on the men, who got thoroughly drenched." + + 703 G. A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebraeuche unter den Sachsen + Siebenbuergens_ (Hermanstadt, 1880), p. 24; H. von Wlislocki, _Sitten + und Brauch der Siebenbuerger Sachsen_ (Hamburg, 1888), p. 32. + + 704 G. Drosinis, _Land und Leute in Nord-Euboea_ (Leipsic, 1884), p. 53. + + 705 Matthaeus Praetorius, _Deliciae Prussicae_ (Berlin, 1871), p. 55; W. + Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 214 _sq._, note. + + 706 M. Praetorius, _op. cit._ p. 60; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 215, + note. + + 707 H. Prahn, "Glaube und Brauch in der Mark Brandenburg," _Zeitschrift + des Vereins fuer Volkskunde_, i. (1891) p. 186. + + 708 O. Hartung, "Zur Volkskunde aus Anhalt," _Zeitschrift des Vereins + fuer Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) p. 150. + + 709 W. Kolbe, _Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebraeuche_ (Marburg, 1888), p. + 51. + +_ 710 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Koenigreichs Bayern_, ii. + (Munich, 1863) p. 297. + + 711 E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 420. + + 712 J. Walter Fewkes, "The Tusayan New Fire Ceremony," _Proceedings of + the Boston Society of Natural History_, xxvi. (1895) p. 446. + + 713 "Lettre du cure de Santiago Tepehuacan a son eveque," _Bulletin de + la Societe de Geographie_ (Paris), Deuxieme Serie, ii. (1834) pp. + 181 _sq._ + + M183 Gardens of Adonis among the Oraons and Mundas of Bengal. + +_ 714 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 59 _sqq._ + + 715 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872), p. + 259. + + 716 E. T. Dalton, _op. cit._ p. 188. As to the influence which trees are + supposed to exercise on the crops, see _The Magic Art and the + Evolution of Kings_, ii. 47 _sqq._ + + M184 Gardens of Adonis in Rajputana. + + 717 Lieut.-Col. James Tod, _Annals and Antiquities of Rajast'han_, i. + (London, 1829) pp. 570-572. + + 718 G. F. D'Penha, "A Collection of Notes on Marriage Customs in the + Madras Presidency," _Indian Antiquary_, xxv. (1896) p. 144; E. + Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_ (Madras, 1906), p. + 2. + + M185 Gardens of Adonis in North-Western and Central India. + + 719 E. T. Atkinson, _The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western + Provinces of India_, ii. (Allahabad, 1884) p. 870. + + 720 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ + (Westminster, 1896), ii. 293 _sq._ Compare Baboo Ishuree Dass, + _Domestic Manners and Customs of the Hindoos of Northern India_ + (Benares, 1860), pp. 111 _sq._ According to the latter writer, the + festival of Salono [not Salonan] takes place in August, and the + barley is planted by women and girls in baskets a few days before + the festival, to be thrown by them into a river or tank when the + grain has sprouted to the height of a few inches. + + 721 Mrs. J. C. Murray-Aynsley, "Secular and Religious Dances," + _Folk-lore Journal_, v. (1887) pp. 253 _sq._ The writer thinks that + the ceremony "probably fixes the season for sowing some particular + crop." + +_ 722 Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency_, xx. (Bombay, 1884) p. 454. + This passage was pointed out to me by my friend Mr. W. Crooke. + +_ 723 Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency_, xx. 443, 460. + + M186 Gardens of Adonis in Bavaria. Gardens of Adonis on St. John's Day in + Sardinia. + +_ 724 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Koenigreichs Bayern_ (Munich, + 1860-1867), ii. 298. + + 725 Antonio Bresciani, _Dei costumi dell' isola di Sardegna comparati + cogli antichissimi popoli orientali_ (Rome and Turin, 1866), pp. 427 + _sq._; R. Tennant, _Sardinia and its Resources_ (Rome and London, + 1885), p. 187; S. Gabriele, "Usi dei contadini della Sardegna," + _Archivio per lo Studio delle Tradizioni Popolari_, vii. (1888) pp. + 469 _sq._ Tennant says that the pots are kept in a dark warm place, + and that the children leap across the fire. + + M187 Gardens of Adonis on St. John's Day in Sicily. + + 726 G. Pitre, _Usi e Costumi, Credenze e Pregiudizi del Popolo + Siciliano_ (Palermo, 1889), ii. 271-278. Compare _id._, _Spettacoli + e Feste Popolari Siciliane_ (Palermo, 1881), pp. 297 _sq._ In the + Abruzzi also young men and young women become gossips by exchanging + nosegays on St. John's Day, and the tie thus formed is regarded as + sacred. See G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_ + (Palermo, 1890), pp. 165 _sq._ + + M188 In these Sardinian and Sicilian ceremonies St. John may have taken + the place of Adonis. Custom of bathing in water or washing in dew on + the Eve or Day of St. John (Midsummer Eve or Midsummer Day). + Petrarch at Cologne on St. John's Eve. + + 727 R. Wuensch, _Das Fruehlingsfest der Insel Malta_, pp. 47-57. + + 728 See above, pp. 10, note 1, 224 _sq._, 226. + + 729 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 490. + + 730 G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_, pp. 156-160. A + passage in Isaiah (xxvi. 19) seems to imply that dew possessed the + magical virtue of restoring the dead to life. In this passage of + Isaiah the customs which I have cited in the text perhaps favour the + ordinary interpretation of {~HEBREW LETTER TET~}{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~} {~HEBREW LETTER ALEF~}{~HEBREW LETTER VAV~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~} as "dew of herbs" (compare 2 + Kings iv. 39) against the interpretation "dew of lights," which some + modern commentators (Dillmann, Skinner, Whitehouse), following + Jerome, have adopted. + + 731 G. Pitre, _Feste patronali in Sicilia_ (Turin and Palermo, 1900), + pp. 488, 491-493. + + 732 G. Pitre, _Spettacoli e Feste Popolari Siciliane_, p. 307. + + 733 Petrarch, _Epistolae de rebus familiaribus_, i. 4 (vol. i. pp. 44-46 + ed. J. Fracassetti, Florence, 1859-1862). The passage is quoted by + J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 489 _sq._ + + 734 J. Grimm, _op. cit._ i. 489. + + 735 Letter of Dr. Otero Acevado, of Madrid, _Le Temps_, September 1898. + + 736 J. Lecoeur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Conde-sur-Noireau, + 1883-1887), ii. 8; A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des + provinces de France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 150. + + 737 A. de Nore, _op. cit._ p. 20; Berenger-Feraud, _Reminiscences + populaires de la Provence_ (Paris, 1885), pp. 135-141. + + 738 A. Breuil, "Du Culte de St. Jean Baptiste," _Memoires de la Societe + des Antiquaires de Picardie_, viii. (1845) pp. 237 _sq._ Compare + _Balder the Beautiful_, i. 193 _sq._ + + 739 Diego Duran, _Historia de las Indias de Nueva Espana_, edited by J. + F. Ramirez (Mexico, 1867-1880), ii. 293. + + M189 The custom of bathing at midsummer is pagan, not Christian, in its + origin. + + 740 Augustine, _Opera_, v. (Paris, 1683) col. 903; _id._, Pars Secunda, + coll. 461 _sq._ The second of these passages occurs in a sermon of + doubtful authenticity. Both have been quoted by J. Grimm, _Deutsche + Mythologie_,4 i. 490. + + 741 E. Doutte, _Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers, + 1908), pp. 567 _sq._; E. Westermarck, "Midsummer Customs in + Morocco," _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) pp. 31 _sq._; _id._, _Ceremonies + and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, Certain Dates of the Solar + Year, and the Weather_ (Helsingfors, 1913), pp. 84-86. See _Balder + the Beautiful_, i. 216. + + M190 Old heathen festival of midsummer in Europe and the East. + M191 Midsummer fires and midsummer couples in relation to vegetation. + +_ 742 Balder the Beautiful_, i. 160 _sqq._ + +_ 743 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 65 _sq._ + +_ 744 The Dying God_, p. 262. + + 745 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), p. 257. + + M192 Gardens of Adonis intended to foster the growth of vegetation, and + especially of the crops. Modes of divination at midsummer like the + gardens of Adonis. + +_ 746 Balder the Beautiful_, i. 328 _sqq._, ii. 21 _sqq._ + + 747 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 464; K. von Leoprechting, _Aus dem + Lechrain_ (Munich, 1855), p. 183. For more evidence see _Balder the + Beautiful_, i. 165, 166, 166 _sq._, 168, 173, 174. + + 748 The use of gardens of Adonis to fertilize the human sexes appears + plainly in the corresponding Indian practices. See above, pp. 241, + 242, 243. + + 749 G. Pitre, _Spettacoli e Feste Popolari Siciliane_, pp. 296 _sq._ + + 750 G. Pitre, _op. cit._ pp. 302 _sq._; Antonio de Nino, _Usi e Costumi + Abruzzesi_ (Florence, 1879-1883), i. 55 _sq._; A. de Gubernatis, + _Usi Nuziali in Italia e presso gli altri Popoli Indo-Europei_ + (Milan, 1878), pp. 39 _sq._ Compare L. Passarini, "Il Comparatico e + la Festa di S. Giovanni nelle Marche e in Roma," _Archivio per lo + Studio delle Tradizioni Popolari_, i. (1882) p. 135. At Smyrna a + blossom of the _Agnus castus_ is used on St. John's Day for a + similar purpose, but the mode in which the omens are drawn is + somewhat different. See Teofilo, "La notte di San Giovanni in + Oriente," _Archivio per lo Studio delle Tradizioni Popolari_, vii. + (1888) pp. 128-130. + + 751 Matthaeus Praetorius, _Deliciae Prussicae_ (Berlin, 1871), p. 56. + +_ 752 The Dying God_, pp. 261 _sq._ + +_ 753 The Dying God_, pp. 233 _sqq._, 261 _sqq._ + + M193 Sicilian gardens of Adonis in spring. + + 754 G. Pitre, _Spettacoli e Feste Popolari Siciliane_, p. 211. + + 755 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, Eustathius on Homer, _Od._ xi. + 590. + + 756 Vincenzo Dorsa, _La tradizione Greco-Latina negli usi e nelle + credenze popolari della Calabria Citeriore_ (Cosenza, 1884), p. 50. + + M194 Resemblance of the Easter ceremonies in the Greek Church to the + rites of Adonis. + + 757 C. Wachsmuth, _Das alte Griechenland im neuen_ (Bonn, 1864), pp. 26. + _sq._ The writer compares these ceremonies with the Eleusinian + rites. But I agree with Mr. R. Wuensch (_Das Fruehlingsfest der Insel + Malta_, pp. 49 _sq._) that the resemblance to the Adonis festival is + still closer. Compare V. Dorsa, _La tradizione Greco-Latina negli + usi e nelle credenze popolari della Calabria Citeriore_, pp. 49 + _sq._ Prof. Wachsmuth's description seems to apply to Athens. In the + country districts the ritual is apparently similar. See R. A. + Arnold, _From the Levant_ (London, 1868), pp. 251 _sq._, 259 _sq._ + So in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem the death and + burial of Christ are acted over a life-like effigy. See Henry + Maundrell, _Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem at Easter, __A.D.__ + 1697_, Fourth Edition (Perth, 1800), pp. 110 _sqq._; _id._, in Th. + Wright's _Early Travels in Palestine_ (London, 1848), pp. 443-445. + + M195 Resemblance of the Easter ceremonies in the Catholic Church to the + rites of Adonis. + + 758 G. Pitre, _Spettacoli e Feste Popolari Siciliane_, pp. 217 _sq._ + + 759 G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_, pp. 118-120; A. de + Nino, _Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_, i. 64 _sq._, ii. 210-212. At + Roccacaramanico part of the Easter spectacle is the death of Judas, + who, personated by a living man, pretends to hang himself upon a + tree or a great branch, which has been brought into the church and + planted near the high altar for the purpose (A. de Nino, _op. cit._ + ii. 211). + + 760 The drama of the death and resurrection of Christ was formerly + celebrated at Easter in England. See Abbot Gasquet, _Parish Life in + Mediaeval England_, pp. 177 _sqq._, 182 _sq._ + + M196 The Christian festival of Easter perhaps grafted on a festival of + Adonis. + + 761 The comparison has already been made by A. Maury, who also compares + the Easter ceremonies of the Catholic Church with the rites of + Adonis (_Histoire des Religions de la Grece Antique_, Paris, + 1857-1859, vol. iii. p. 221). + + M197 The worship of Adonis at Bethlehem. The Morning Star, identified + with Venus, may have been the signal for the festival of Adonis. The + Star of Bethlehem. + + 762 Jerome, _Epist._ lviii. 3 (Migne's _Patrologia Latina_, xxii. 581). + + 763 Bethlehem is {~HEBREW LETTER BET~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER TAV~}-{~HEBREW LETTER LAMED~}{~HEBREW LETTER HET~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}, literally "House of Bread." The name is + appropriate, for "the immediate neighbourhood is very fertile, + bearing, besides wheat and barley, groves of olive and almond, and + vineyards. The wine of Bethlehem ('Talhami') is among the best of + Palestine. So great fertility must mean that the site was occupied, + in spite of the want of springs, from the earliest times" (George + Adam Smith, _s.v._ "Bethlehem," _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, i. 560). It + was in the harvest-fields of Bethlehem that Ruth, at least in the + poet's fancy, listened to the nightingale "amid the alien corn." + + 764 John vi. 35. + + 765 Above, p. 227. + + 766 Ammianus Marcellinus, xxii. 9. 14, "_Urbique propinquans in speciem + alicujus numinis votis excipitur publicis, miratus voces + multitudinis magnae, salutare sidus inluxisse eois partibus + adclamantis._" We may compare the greeting which a tribe of South + American Indians used to give to a worshipful star after its + temporary disappearance. "The Abipones think that the Pleiades, + composed of seven stars, is an image of their ancestor. As the + constellation is invisible for some months in the sky of South + America, they believe that their ancestor is ill, and every year + they are mortally afraid that he will die. But when the said stars + reappear in the month of May, they imagine that their ancestor is + recovered from his sickness and has returned; so they hail him with + joyous shouts and the glad music of pipes and war-horns. They + congratulate him on his recovery. 'How we thank you! At last you + have come back? Oh, have you happily recovered?' With such cries + they fill the air, attesting at once their gladness and their + folly." See M. Dobrizhoffer, _Historia de Abiponibus_ (Vienna, + 1784), ii. 77. + + 767 M. Jastrow, _The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 370 _sqq._; + H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader's _Die Keilinschriften und das Alte + Testament_,3 p. 424. + + 768 Sozomenus, _Historia Ecclesiastica_, ii. 5 (Migne's _Patrologia + Graeca_, lxvii. 948). The connexion of the meteor with the festival + of Adonis is not mentioned by Sozomenus, but is confirmed by + Zosimus, who says (_Hist._ i. 58) that a light like a torch or a + globe of fire was seen on the sanctuary at the seasons when the + people assembled to worship the goddess and to cast their offerings + of gold, silver, and fine raiment into a lake beside the temple. As + to Aphaca and the grave of Adonis see above, pp. 28 _sq._ + + 769 Matthew ii. 1-12. + + M198 Attis the Phrygian counterpart of Adonis. His relation to Cybele. + His miraculous birth. The death of Attis. + + 770 Diodorus Siculus, iii. 59. 7; Sallustius philosophus, "De diis et + mundo," iv., _Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_, ed. F. G. A. + Mullach, iii. 33; Scholiast on Nicander, _Alexipharmaca_, 8; + Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profanarum religionum_, 3 and 22. The + ancient evidence, literary and inscriptional, as to the myth and + ritual of Attis has been collected and discussed by Mr. H. Hepding + in his monograph, _Attis, seine Mythen und sein Kult_ (Giessen, + 1903). + + 771 Hippolytus, _Refutatio omnium haeresium_, v. 9, p. 168 ed. L. + Duncker and F. G. Schneidewin (Goettingen, 1859); Socrates, _Historia + Ecclesiastica_, iii. 23. 51 _sqq._ + + 772 Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 223 _sqq._; Tertullian, _Apologeticus_, 15; + _id._, _Ad Nationes_, i. 10; Arnobius, _Adversus Nationes_, iv. 35. + As to Cybele, the Great Mother, the Mother of the Gods, conceived as + the source of all life, both animal and vegetable, see Rapp, in W. + H. Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und roem. Mythologie_, _s.v._ + "Kybele," ii. 1638 _sqq._ + + 773 Scholiast on Lucian, _Jupiter Tragoedus_, 8, p. 60 ed. H. Rabe + (Leipsic, 1906), (vol. iv. p. 173 ed. C. Jacobitz); Hippolytus, + _Refutatio omnium haeresium_, v. 9, pp. 168, 170 ed. Duncker and + Schneidewin. + + 774 Pausanias, vii. 17. 11; Hippolytus, _Refutatio omnium haeresium_, v. + 9, pp. 166, 168 ed. Duncker and Schneidewin; Arnobius, _Adversus + Nationes_, v. 6. + + 775 See above, pp. 99 _sqq._ + + 776 S. I. Curtiss, _Primitive Semitic Religion To-day_, pp. 115 _sq._ + See above, pp. 78, 213 _sqq._ + + 777 That Attis was killed by a boar was stated by Hermesianax, an + elegiac poet of the fourth century B.C. (Pausanias, vii. 17); + compare Scholiast on Nicander, _Alexipharmaca_, 8. The other story + is told by Arnobius (_Adversus Nationes_, v. 5 _sqq._) on the + authority of Timotheus, who professed to derive it from recondite + antiquarian works and from the very heart of the mysteries. It is + obviously identical with the account which Pausanias (_l.c._) + mentions as the story current in Pessinus. According to Servius (on + Virgil, _Aen._ ix. 115), Attis was found bleeding to death under a + pine-tree, but the wound which robbed him of his virility and his + life was not inflicted by himself. The Timotheus cited by Pausanias + may be the Timotheus who was consulted by Ptolemy Soter on religious + matters and helped to establish the worship of Serapis. See + Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 28; Franz Cumont, _Les Religions + Orientales dans le Paganisme Romain_2 (Paris, 1909), pp. 77, 113, + 335. + + 778 Pausanias, vii. 17. 10; Julian, _Orat._ v. 177 B, p. 229, ed. F. C. + Hertlein (Leipsic, 1875-1876). Similarly at Comana in Pontus, the + seat of the worship of the goddess Ma, pork was not eaten, and swine + might not even be brought into the city (Strabo, xii. 8. 9, p. 575). + As to Comana see above, p. 39. + + 779 S. Sophronius, "SS. Cyri et Joannis Miracula," Migne's _Patrologia + Graeca_, lxxxvii. Pars Tertia, col. 3624, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} [_scil._ {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}] {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. + + 780 Ovid, _Metam._ x. 103 _sqq._ + + M199 Worship of Cybele introduced into Rome in 204 B.C. + + 781 Livy, xxix. chs. 10, 11, and 14; Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 259 _sqq._; + Herodian, ii. 11. As to the stone which represented the goddess see + Arnobius, _Adversus Nationes_, vii. 49. + + 782 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. 16. + + M200 Attis and his eunuch priests the Galli at Rome. + + 783 Lucretius, ii. 598 _sqq._; Catullus, lxiii.; Varro, _Satir. + Menipp._, ed. F. Buecheler (Berlin, 1882), pp. 176, 178; Ovid, + _Fasti_, iv. 181 _sqq._, 223 _sqq._, 361 _sqq._; Dionysius + Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ ii. 19, compare Polybius, xxii. 18 + ed. L. Dindorf (Leipsic, 1866-1868). + + 784 Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iv. 41. See Robinson Ellis, + _Commentary on Catullus_ (Oxford, 1876), pp. 206 _sq._; H. Hepding, + _Attis_, pp. 142 _sqq._; Fr. Cumont, _Les Religions Orientales dans + le Paganisme Romain_2 (Paris, 1909), pp. 83 _sq._ + + It is held by Prof. A. von Domaszewski that the Claudius who + incorporated the Phrygian worship of the sacred tree in the Roman + ritual was not the emperor of the first century but the emperor of + the third century, Claudius Gothicus, who came to the throne in 268 + A.D. See A. von Domaszewski, "Magna Mater in Latin Inscriptions," + _The Journal of Roman Studies_, i. (1911) p. 56. The later date, it + is said, fits better with the slow development of the worship. But + on the other hand this view is open to certain objections. (1) + Joannes Lydus, our only authority on the point, appears to identify + the Claudius in question with the emperor of the first century. (2) + The great and widespread popularity of the Phrygian worship in the + Roman empire long before 268 A.D. is amply attested by an array of + ancient writers and inscriptions, especially by a great series of + inscriptions referring to the colleges of Tree-bearers + (_Dendrophori_), from which we learn that one of these colleges, + devoted to the worship of Cybele and Attis, existed at Rome in the + age of the Antonines, about a century before the accession of + Claudius Gothicus. (3) Passages of the Augustan historians (Aelius + Lampridius, _Alexander Severus_, 37; Trebellius Pollio, _Claudius_, + iv. 2) refer to the great spring festival of Cybele and Attis in a + way which seems to imply that the festival was officially recognized + by the Roman government before Claudius Gothicus succeeded to the + purple; and we may hesitate to follow Prof. von Domaszewski in + simply excising these passages as the work of an "impudent forger." + (4) The official establishment of the bloody Phrygian superstition + suits better the life and character of the superstitious, timid, + cruel, pedantic Claudius of the first century than the gallant + soldier his namesake in the third century. The one lounged away his + contemptible days in the safety of the palace, surrounded by a hedge + of lifeguards. The other spent the two years of his brief but + glorious reign in camps and battlefields on the frontier, combating + the barbarian enemies of the empire; and it is probable that he had + as little leisure as inclination to pander to the superstitions of + the Roman populace. For these reasons it seems better with Mr. + Hepding and Prof. Cumont to acquiesce in the traditional view that + the rites of Attis were officially celebrated at Rome from the first + century onward. + + An intermediate view is adopted by Prof. G. Wissowa, who, brushing + aside the statement of Joannes Lydus altogether, would seemingly + assign the public institution of the rites to the middle of the + second century A.D. on the ground that the earliest extant evidence + of their public celebration refers to that period (_Religion und + Kultus der Roemer_,2 Munich, 1912, p. 322). But, considering the + extremely imperfect evidence at our disposal for the history of + these centuries, it seems rash to infer that an official cult cannot + have been older than the earliest notice of it which has chanced to + come down to us. + + 785 Arrian, _Tactica_, 33; Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ xii. 836. + + 786 On the festival see J. Marquardt, _Roemische Staatsverwaltung_, iii.2 + (Leipsic, 1885) pp. 370 _sqq._; the calendar of Philocalus, in + _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, vol. i.2 Pars prior (Berlin, + 1893), p. 260, with Th. Mommsen's commentary (pp. 313 _sq._); W. + Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 291 _sqq._; _id._, + _Baumkultus_, pp. 572 _sqq._; G. Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der + Roemer_,2 pp. 318 _sqq._; H. Hepding, _Attis_, pp. 147 _sqq._; J. + Toutain, _Les Cultes Paiens dans l'Empire Romain_, ii. (Paris, 1911) + pp. 82 _sqq._ + + M201 The spring festival of Cybele and Attis at Rome. The Day of Blood. + + 787 Julian, _Orat._ v. 168 C, p. 218 ed. F. C. Hertlein (Leipsic, + 1875-1876); Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iv. 41; Arnobius, + _Adversus Nationes_, v. chs. 7, 16, 39; Firmicus Maternus, _De + errore profanarum religionum_, 27; Sallustius philosophus, "De diis + et mundo," iv., _Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_, ed. F. G. A. + Mullach, iii. 33. As to the guild of Tree-bearers (_Dendrophori_) + see Joannes Lydus, _l.c._; H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae + Selectae_, Nos. 4116 _sq._, 4171-4174, 4176; H. Hepding, _Attis_, + pp. 86, 92, 93, 96, 152 _sqq._; F. Cumont, _s.v._ "Dendrophori," in + Pauly-Wissowa's _Real-Encyclopaedie der classischen + Altertumswissenschaft_, v. 1. coll. 216-219; J. Toutain, _Les Cultes + Paiens dans l'Empire Romain_, ii. 82 _sq._, 92 _sq._ + + 788 Julian, _l.c._ and 169 C, p. 219 ed. F. C. Hertlein. The ceremony + may have been combined with the old _tubilustrium_ or purification + of trumpets, which fell on this day. See Joannes Lydus, _De + mensibus_, iv. 42; Varro, _De lingua Latina_, vi. 14; Festus, pp. + 352, 353 ed. C. O. Mueller; W. Warde Fowler, _Roman Festivals of the + Period of the Republic_ (London, 1899), p. 62. + + 789 Trebellius Pollio, _Claudius_, 4; Tertullian, _Apologeticus_, 25. + + 790 Lucian, _Deorum dialogi_, xii. 1; Seneca, _Agamemnon_, 686 _sqq._; + Martial, xi. 84. 3 _sq._; Valerius Flaccus, _Argonaut._ viii. 239 + _sqq._; Statius, _Theb._ x. 170 _sqq._; Apuleius, _Metam._ viii. 27; + Lactantius, _Divinarum Institutionum Epitome_, 23 (18, vol. i. p. + 689 ed. Brandt and Laubmann); H. Hepding, _Attis_, pp. 158 _sqq._ As + to the music of these dancing dervishes see also Lucretius, ii. 618 + _sqq._ + +_ 791 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 90 _sq._, 101 _sq._ + + 792 Minucius Felix, _Octavius_, 22 and 24; Lactantius, _Divin. Instit._ + i. 21. 16; _id._, _Epitoma_, 8; Schol. on Lucian, _Jupiter + Tragoedus_, 8 (p. 60 ed. H. Rabe); Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ ix. + 115; Prudentius, _Peristephan._ x. 1066 _sqq._; "Passio Sancti + Symphoriani," chs. 2 and 6 (Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, v. 1463, + 1466); Arnobius, _Adversus Nationes_, v. 14; Scholiast on Nicander, + _Alexipharmaca_, 8; H. Hepding, _Attis_, pp. 163 _sq._ A story told + by Clement of Alexandria (_Protrept._ ii. 15, p. 13 ed. Potter) + suggests that weaker brethren may have been allowed to sacrifice the + virility of a ram instead of their own. We know from inscriptions + that rams and bulls were regularly sacrificed at the mysteries of + Attis and the Great Mother, and that the testicles of the bulls were + used for a special purpose, probably as a fertility charm. May not + the testicles of the rams have been employed for the same purpose? + and may not those of both animals have been substitutes for the + corresponding organs in men? As to the sacrifices of rams and bulls + see G. Zippel, "Das Taurobolium," _Festschrift zum fuenfzigjaehrigen + Doctorjubilaeum L. Friedlaender_ (Leipsic, 1895), pp. 498 _sqq._; H. + Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, Nos. 4118 _sqq._; J. + Toutain, _Les Cultes Paiens dans l'Empire Romain_, ii. 84 _sqq._ + + 793 Arnobius, _Adversus Nationes_, v. 5 _sq._ + + M202 Eunuch priests in the service of Asiatic goddesses. + + 794 Strabo, xiv. 1. 23, p. 641. + + 795 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 15, 27, 50-53. + + 796 Lucian, _op. cit._ 10. + + 797 Lucian, _op. cit._ 15. + + 798 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 49-51. + + 799 Catullus, _Carm._ lxiii. I agree with Mr. H. Hepding (_Attis_, p. + 140) in thinking that the subject of the poem is not the mythical + Attis, but one of his ordinary priests, who bore the name and + imitated the sufferings of his god. Thus interpreted the poem gains + greatly in force and pathos. The real sorrows of our fellow-men + touch us more nearly than the imaginary pangs of the gods. + + As the sacrifice of virility and the institution of eunuch priests + appear to be rare, I will add a few examples. At Stratonicea in + Caria a eunuch held a sacred office in connexion with the worship of + Zeus and Hecate (_Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_, No. 2715). + According to Eustathius (on Homer, _Iliad_, xix. 254, p. 1183) the + Egyptian priests were eunuchs who had sacrificed their virility as a + first-fruit to the gods. In Corea "during a certain night, known as + _Chu-il_, in the twelfth moon, the palace eunuchs, of whom there are + some three hundred, perform a ceremony supposed to ensure a + bountiful crop in the ensuing year. They chant in chorus prayers, + swinging burning torches around them the while. This is said to be + symbolical of burning the dead grass, so as to destroy the field + mice and other vermin." See W. Woodville Rockhill, "Notes on some of + the Laws, Customs, and Superstitions of Korea," _The American + Anthropologist_, iv. (Washington, 1891) p. 185. Compare Mrs. Bishop, + _Korea and her Neighbours_ (London, 1898), ii. 56 _sq._ It appears + that among the Ekoi of Southern Nigeria both men and women are, or + used to be, mutilated by the excision of their genital organs at an + annual festival, which is celebrated in order to produce plentiful + harvests and immunity from thunderbolts. The victims apparently die + from loss of blood. See P. Amaury Talbot, _In the Shadow of the + Bush_ (London, 1912), pp. 74 _sqq._ Mr. Talbot writes to me: "A + horrible case has just happened at Idua, where, at the new yam + planting, a man cut off his own _membrum virile_" (letter dated + Eket, Nr Calabar, Southern Nigeria, Feb. 7th, 1913). Amongst the + Ba-sundi and Ba-bwende of the Congo many youths are castrated "in + order to more fittingly offer themselves to the phallic worship, + which increasingly prevails as we advance from the coast to the + interior. At certain villages between Manyanga and Isangila there + are curious eunuch dances to celebrate the new moon, in which a + white cock is thrown up into the air alive, with clipped wings, and + as it falls towards the ground it is caught and plucked by the + eunuchs. I was told that originally this used to be a human + sacrifice, and that a young boy or girl was thrown up into the air + and torn to pieces by the eunuchs as he or she fell, but that of + late years slaves had got scarce or manners milder, and a white cock + was now substituted" (H. H. Johnston, "On the Races of the Congo," + _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii. (1884) p. 473; + compare _id._, _The River Congo_, London, 1884, p. 409). In India, + men who are born eunuchs or in some way deformed are sometimes + dedicated to a goddess named Huligamma. They wear female attire and + might be mistaken for women. Also men who are or believe themselves + impotent will vow to dress as women and serve the goddess in the + hope of recovering their virility. See F. Fawcett, "On Basivis," + _Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay_, ii. 343 _sq._ In + Pegu the English traveller, Alexander Hamilton, witnessed a dance in + honour of the gods of the earth. "Hermaphrodites, who are numerous + in this country, are generally chosen, if there are enough present + to make a set for the dance. I saw nine dance like mad folks for + above half-an-hour; and then some of them fell in fits, foaming at + the mouth for the space of half-an-hour; and, when their senses are + restored, they pretend to foretell plenty or scarcity of corn for + that year, if the year will prove sickly or salutary to the people, + and several other things of moment, and all by that half hour's + conversation that the furious dancer had with the gods while she was + in a trance" (A. Hamilton, "A New Account of the East Indies," in J. + Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, viii. 427). So in the worship of + Attis the Archigallus or head of the eunuch priests prophesied; + perhaps he in like manner worked himself up to the pitch of + inspiration by a frenzied dance. See H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones + Latinae Selectae_, vol. ii. Pars i. pp. 142, 143, Nos. 4130, 4136; + G. Wilmanns, _Exempla Inscriptionum Latinarum_ (Berlin, 1873), vol. + i. p. 36, Nos. 119a, 120; J. Toutain, _Les Cultes Paiens dans + l'Empire Romain_, ii. 93 _sq._ As to the sacrifice of virility in + the Syrian religion compare Th. Noeldeke, "Die Selbstentmannung bei + den Syrern," _Archiv fuer Religionswissenschaft_, x. (1907) pp. + 150-152. + + M203 The sacrifice of virility. The mourning for Attis. + + 800 Arnobius, _Adversus Nationes_, v. 7 and 16; Servius on Virgil, + _Aen._ ix. 115. + + 801 Diodorus Siculus, iii. 59; Arrian, _Tactica_, 33; Scholiast on + Nicander, _Alexipharmaca_, 8; Firmicus Maternus, _De errore + profanarum religionum_, 3 and 22; Arnobius, _Adversus Nationes_, v. + 16; Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ ix. 115. + + 802 See above, p. 267. + + 803 Arnobius, _l.c._; Sallustius philosophus, "De diis et mundo," iv., + _Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_, ed. F. G. A. Mullach, iii. 33. + + 804 Above, p. 230. + + 805 See below, p. 274. + + M204 The Festival of Joy (_Hilaria_) for the resurrection of Attis on + March 25th. The procession to the Almo. + + 806 Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profanarum religionum_, 22, "_Nocte + quadam simulacrum in lectica supinum ponitur et per numeros digestis + fletibus plangitur: deinde cum se ficta lamentatione satiaverint, + lumen infertur: tunc a sacerdote omnium qui flebant fauces + unguentur, quibus perunctis hoc lento murmure susurrat:_ + + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. + + _Quid miseros hortaris gaudeant? quid deceptos homines laetari + compellis? quam illis spem, quam salutem funesta persuasione + promittis? Dei tui mors nota est, vita non paret.... Idolum sepelis, + idolum plangis, idolum de sepultura proferis, et miser cum haec + feceris, gaudes. Tu deum tuum liberas, tu jacentia lapidis membra + componis, tu insensibile corrigis saxum._" In this passage Firmicus + does not expressly mention Attis, but that the reference is to his + rites is made probable by a comparison with chapter 3 of the same + writer's work. Compare also Damascius, in Photius's _Bibliotheca_, + p. 345 A, 5 _sqq._, ed. I. Bekker (Berlin, 1824), {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND OXIA AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. See further Fr. Cumont, + _Les Religions Orientales dans le Paganisme Romain_2 (Paris, 1909), + pp. 89 _sq._ + + 807 Macrobius, _Saturn_. i. 21. 10; Flavius Vopiscus, _Aurelianus_, i. + 1; Julian, _Or._ v. pp. 168 D, 169 D; Damascius, _l.c._; Herodian, + i. 10. 5-7; Sallustius philosophus, "De diis et mundo," _Fragmenta + Philosophorum Graecorum_, ed. F. G. A. Mullach, iii. 33. In like + manner Easter Sunday, the Resurrection-day of Christ, was called by + some ancient writers the Sunday of Joy (_Dominica Gaudii_). The + emperors used to celebrate the happy day by releasing from prison + all but the worst offenders. See J. Bingham, _The Antiquities of the + Christian Church_, bk. xx. ch. vi. §§ 5 _sq._ (Bingham's _Works_ + (Oxford, 1855), vii. 317 _sqq._). + + 808 Aelius Lampridius, _Alexander Severus_, 37. + +_ 809 Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, i.2 Pars prior (Berlin, 1893), pp. + 260, 313 _sq._; H. Hepding, _Attis_, pp. 51, 172. + + 810 Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 337-346; Silius Italicus, _Punic._ viii. 365; + Valerius Flaccus, _Argonaut._ viii. 239 _sqq._; Martial, iii. 47. 1 + _sq._; Ammianus Marcellinus, xxiii. 3. 7; Arnobius, _Adversus + Nationes_, vii. 32; Prudentius, _Peristephon._ x. 154 _sqq._ For the + description of the image of the goddess see Arnobius, _Adversus + Nationes_, vii. 49. At Carthage the goddess was carried to her bath + in a litter, not in a wagon (Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, ii. 4). + The bath formed part of the festival in Phrygia, whence the custom + was borrowed by the Romans (Arrian, _Tactica_, 33). At Cyzicus the + Placianian Mother, a form of Cybele, was served by women called + "marine" ({~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}), whose duty it probably was to wash her image + in the sea (Ch. Michel, _Recueil d'Inscriptions Grecques_, Brussels, + 1900, pp. 403 _sq._, No. 537). See further J. Marquardt, _Roemische + Staatsverwaltung_, iii.2 373; H. Hepding, _Attis_, pp. 133 _sq._ + + M205 The mysteries of Attis. The sacrament. The baptism of blood. The + Vatican a centre of the worship of Attis. + + 811 Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 15, p. 13 ed. Potter; + Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profanarum religionum_, 18. + + 812 Above, p. 272. + + 813 H. Hepding, _Attis_, p. 185. + + 814 Prudentius, _Peristephan._ x. 1006-1050; compare Firmicus Maternus, + _De errore profanarum religionum_, 28. 8. That the bath of bull's + blood (_taurobolium_) was believed to regenerate the devotee for + eternity is proved by an inscription found at Rome, which records + that a certain Sextilius Agesilaus Aedesius, who dedicated an altar + to Attis and the Mother of the Gods, was _taurobolio criobolioque in + aeternum renatus_ (_Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, vi. No. 510; H. + Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, No. 4152). The phrase + _arcanis perfusionibus in aeternum renatus_ occurs in a dedication + to Mithra (_Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, vi. No. 736), which, + however, is suspected of being spurious. As to the inscriptions + which refer to the _taurobolium_ see G. Zippel, "Das Taurobolium," + in _Festschrift zum fuenfzigjaehrigen Doctorjubilaeum L. Friedlaender + dargebracht von seinen Schuelern_ (Leipsic, 1895), pp. 498-520; H. + Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, vol. ii. Pars i. pp. + 140-147, Nos. 4118-4159. As to the origin of the _taurobolium_ and + the meaning of the word, see Fr. Cumont, _Textes et Monuments + Figures relatifs aux Mysteres de Mithra_ (Brussels, 1896-1899), i. + 334 _sq._; _id._, _Les Religions Orientales dans le Paganisme + Romain_,2 pp. 100 _sqq._; J. Toutain, _Les Cultes Paiens dans + l'Empire Romain_, ii. 84 _sqq._; G. Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus + der Roemer_,2 pp. 322 _sqq._ The _taurobolium_ seems to have formed + no part of the original worship of Cybele and to have been imported + into it at a comparatively late date, perhaps in the second century + of our era. Its origin is obscure. In the majority of the older + inscriptions the name of the rite appears as _tauropolium_, and it + has been held that this is the true form, being derived from the + worship of the Asiatic goddess Artemis Tauropolis (Strabo, xii. 2. + 7, p. 537). This was formerly the view of Prof. F. Cumont (_s.v._ + "Anaitis," in Pauly-Wissowa's _Real-Encyclopaedie der classischen + Altertumswissenschaft_, i. 2. col. 2031); but he now prefers the + form _taurobolium_, and would deduce both the name and the rite from + an ancient Anatolian hunting custom of lassoing wild bulls. + + 815 Sallustius philosophus, "De diis et mundo," iv., _Fragmenta + Philosophorum Graecorum_, ed. F. G. A. Mullach, iii. 33. + + 816 Sallustius philosophus, _l.c._ + +_ 817 Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, vi. Nos. 497-504; H. Dessau, + _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, Nos. 4145, 4147-4151, 4153; + _Inscriptiones Graecae Siciliae et Italiae_, ed. G. Kaibel (Berlin, + 1890), p. 270, No. 1020; G. Zippel, _op. cit._ pp. 509 _sq._, 519; + H. Hepding, _Attis_, pp. 83, 86-88, 176; Ch. Huelsen, _Topographie + der Stadt Rom im Alterthum, von H. Jordan_, i. 3 (Berlin, 1907), pp. + 658 _sq._ + +_ 818 Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, xiii. No. 1751; H. Dessau, + _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, No. 4131; G. Wilmanns, _Exempla + Inscriptionum Latinarum_ (Berlin, 1873), vol. ii. p. 125, No. 2278; + G. Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Roemer_,2 p. 267; H. Hepding, + _Attis_, pp. 169-171, 176. + +_ 819 Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, xiii. No. 1751; G. Wilmanns, + _Exempla Inscriptionum Latinarum_, vol. i. pp. 35-37, Nos. 119, 123, + 124; H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, Nos. 4127, 4129, + 4131, 4140; G. Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Roemer_,2 pp. 322 + _sqq._; H. Hepding, _Attis_, p. 191. + + M206 The sanctity of the pine-tree in the worship of Attis. + + 820 As to the monuments see H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, + Nos. 4143, 4152, 4153; H. Hepding, _Attis_, pp. 82, 83, 88, 89. + + 821 Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profanarum religionum_, 27. + +_ 822 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 47 _sq._, 71; + _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 138, 143, 152, 153, 154, + 155, 156, 157, 158. + + 823 Etymologicum Magnum, p. 220, line 20, {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. {~GREEK KORONIS~}{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}. But there seems to be + some confusion here between the rites of Dionysus and those of + Attis; ivy was certainly sacred to Dionysus (Pausanias, i. 31. 6 + with my note). Compare C. A. Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_ (Koenigsberg, + 1829), i. 657, who, in the passage quoted, rightly defends the + readings {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} and {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}. + +_ 824 Encyclopaedia Britannica_,9 xix. 105. Compare Athenaeus, ii. 49, p. + 57. The nuts of the silver-pine (_Pinus edulis_) are a favourite + food of the Californian Indians (S. Powers, _Tribes of California_ + (Washington, 1877), p. 421); the Wintun Indians hold a pine-nut + dance when the nuts are fit to be gathered (_ib._ p. 237). The + Shuswap Indians of British Columbia collect the cones of various + sorts of pines and eat the nutlets which they extract from them. See + G. M. Dawson, "Notes on the Shuswap People of British Columbia," + _Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada_, ix. + (Montreal, 1892) Transactions, section ii. p. 22. With regard to the + Araucanian Indians of South America we read that "the great staple + food, the base of all their subsistence, save among the coast + tribes, was the _pinon_, the fruit of the Araucanian pine + (_Araucaria imbricata_). Every year during the autumn months + excursions are made by the whole tribe to the pine forests, where + they remain until they have collected sufficient for the following + year. Each tribe has its own district, inherited by custom from + generation to generation and inviolate, by unwritten law, from other + tribes, even in time of warfare. This harvest was formerly of such + supreme importance, that all inter-tribal quarrels and warfares were + suspended by mutual accord during this period." See R. E. Latcham, + "Ethnology of the Araucanos," _Journal of the Royal Anthropological + Institute_, xxxix. (1909) p. 341. The Gilyaks of the Amoor valley in + like manner eat the nutlets of the Siberian stone-pine (L. von + Schrenk, _Die Voelker des Amur-Landes_, iii. 440). See also the + commentators on Herodotus, iv. 109 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. + + 825 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xiv. 103. + + 826 Strabo, x. 3. 12 _sqq._, pp. 469 _sqq._ However, tipsy people were + excluded from the sanctuary of Attis (Arnobius, _Adversus Nationes_, + v. 6). + + 827 Scholiast on Lucian, _Dial. Meretr._ ii. 1, p. 276 ed. H. Rabe + (Leipsic, 1906). + + M207 Attis as a corn-god. Cybele as a goddess of fertility. The bathing + of her image either a rain-charm or a marriage-rite. + + 828 Hippolytus, _Refutatio omnium haeresium_, v. 8 and 9, pp. 162, 168 + ed. Duncker and Schneidewin; Firmicus Maternus, _De errore + profanarum religionum_, 3; Sallustius philosophus, "De diis et + mundo," _Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_, ed. F. G. A. Mullach, + iii. 33. Others identified him with the spring flowers. See + Eusebius, _Praeparatio Evangelii_, iii. 11. 8 and 12, iii. 13. 10 + ed. F. A. Heinichen (Leipsic, 1842-1843); Augustine, _De civitate + Dei_, vii. 25. + + 829 W. Helbig, _Fuehrer durch die oeffentlichen Sammlungen klassischer + Altertuemer in Rom_2 (Leipsic, 1899), i. 481, No. 721. + + 830 The urn is in the Lateran Museum at Rome (No. 1046). It is not + described by W. Helbig in his _Fuehrer_.2 The inscription on the urn + (_M. Modius Maxximus archigallus coloniae Ostiens_) is published by + H. Dessau (_Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, No. 4162), who does not + notice the curious and interesting composition of the cock's tail. + The bird is chosen as an emblem of the priest with a punning + reference to the word _gallus_, which in Latin means a cock as well + as a priest of Attis. + + 831 Gregory of Tours, _De gloria confessorum_, 77 (Migne's _Patrologia + Latina_, lxxi. 884). That the goddess here referred to was Cybele + and not a native Gallic deity, as I formerly thought (_Lectures on + the Early History of the Kingship_, p. 178), seems proved by the + "Passion of St. Symphorian," chs. 2 and 6 (Migne's _Patrologia + Graeca_, v. 1463, 1466). Gregory and the author of the "Passion of + St. Symphorian" call the goddess simply Berecynthia, the latter + writer adding "the Mother of the Demons," which is plainly a + Christian version of the title "Mother of the Gods." + + 832 Above, p. 265. In the island of Thera an ox, wheat, barley, wine, + and "other first-fruits of all that the seasons produce" were + offered to the Mother of the Gods, plainly because she was deemed + the source of fertility. See G. Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum_,2 vol. ii. p. 426, No. 630. + + 833 H. Hepding, _Attis_, pp. 215-217; compare _id._ p. 175 note 7. + + 834 Ptolemaeus, _Nov. Hist._ i. p. 183 of A. Westermann's _Mythographi + Graeci_ (Brunswick, 1843). + + 835 Pausanias, viii. 25. 5 _sq._ + + 836 Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ xii. 30. The place was in Mesopotamia, and the + goddess was probably Astarte. So Lucian (_De dea Syria_) calls the + Astarte of Hierapolis "the Assyrian Hera." + + 837 Pausanias, ii. 38. 2. + + 838 Julian, _Orat._ v. 173 _sqq._ (pp. 225 _sqq._ ed. F. C. Hertlein); + H. Hepding, _Attis_, pp. 155-157. However, apples, pomegranates, and + dates were also forbidden. The story that the mother of Attis + conceived him through contact with a pomegranate (above, pp. 263, + 269) might explain the prohibition of that fruit. But the reasons + for tabooing apples and dates are not apparent, though Julian tried + to discover them. He suggested that dates may have been forbidden + because the date-palm does not grow in Phrygia, the native land of + Cybele and Attis. + + M208 The name Attis seems to mean "father." + + 839 P. Kretschmer, _Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen + Sprache_ (Goettingen, 1896), p. 355. + + 840 Diodorus Siculus, iii. 58. 4; Hippolytus, _Refutatio omnium + haeresium_, i. 9, p. 168 ed. Duncker and Schneidewin. A Latin + dedication to _Atte Papa_ has been found at Aquileia (F. Cumont, in + Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopaedie der classischen + Altertumswissenschaft_, ii. 2180, _s.v._ "Attepata" H. Hepding, + _Attis_, p. 86). Greek dedications to Papas or to Zeus Papas occur + in Phrygia (H. Hepding, _Attis_, pp. 78 _sq._). Compare A. B. Cook, + "Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak," _Classical Review_, xviii. (1904) p. + 79. + + 841 Arnobius, _Adversus Nationes_, v. 6 and 13. + + 842 (Sir) Edward B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_2 (London, 1873), i. 223. + + M209 Relation of Attis to the Mother Goddess. Attis as a Sky-god or + Heavenly Father. Stories of the emasculation of the Sky-god. + + 843 Rapp, _s.v._ "Kybele," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und + roem. Mythologie_, ii. 1648. + + 844 She is called a "motherless virgin" by Julian (_Or._ v. 166 B, p. + 215 ed. F. C. Hertlein), and there was a _Parthenon_ or virgin's + chamber in her sanctuary at Cyzicus (Ch. Michel, _Recueil + d'Inscriptions Grecques_, p. 404, No. 538). Compare Rapp, in W. H. + Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und roem. Mythologie_, ii. 1648; + Wagner, _s.v._ "Nana," _ibid._ iii. 4 _sq._ Another great goddess of + fertility who was conceived as a Virgin Mother was the Egyptian + Neith or Net. She is called "the Great Goddess, the Mother of All + the Gods," and was believed to have brought forth Ra, the Sun, + without the help of a male partner. See C. P. Tiele, _Geschichte der + Religion im Altertum_, i. 111; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the + Egyptians_ (London, 1904), i. 457-462. The latter writer says (p. + 462): "In very early times Net was the personification of the + eternal female principle of life which was self-sustaining and + self-existent, and was secret and unknown, and all-pervading; the + more material thinkers, whilst admitting that she brought forth her + son Ra without the aid of a husband, were unable to divorce from + their minds the idea that a male germ was necessary for its + production, and finding it impossible to derive it from a being + external to the goddess, assumed that she herself provided not only + the substance which was to form the body of Ra but also the male + germ which fecundated it. Thus Net was the type of + partheno-genesis." + + 845 Quoted by Eustathius on Homer, _Il._ v. 408; _Fragmenta Historicorum + Graecorum_, ed. C. Mueller, iii. 592, Frag. 30. + + 846 (Sir) Edward B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_,2 i. 321 _sqq._, ii. 270 + _sqq._ For example, the Ewe people of Togo-land, in West Africa, + think that the Earth is the wife of the Sky, and that their marriage + takes place in the rainy season, when the rain causes the seeds to + sprout and bear fruit. These fruits they regard as the children of + Mother Earth, who in their opinion is the mother also of men and of + gods. See J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Staemme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 464, 548. + In the regions of the Senegal and the Niger it is believed that the + Sky-god and the Earth-goddess are the parents of the principal + spirits who dispense life and death, weal and woe, among mankind. + The eldest son of Sky and Earth is represented in very various + forms, sometimes as a hermaphrodite, sometimes in semi-animal shape, + with the head of a bull, a crocodile, a fish, or a serpent. His name + varies in the different tribes, but the outward form of his + ceremonies is everywhere similar. His rites, which are to some + extent veiled in mystery, are forbidden to women. See Maurice + Delafosse, _Haut-Senegal-Niger_ (Paris, 1912), iii. 173-175. + + 847 Hesiod, _Theogony_, 159 _sqq._ + + 848 Porphyry, _De antro nympharum_, 16; Aristides, _Or._ iii. (vol. i. + p. 35 ed. G. Dindorf, Leipsic, 1829); Scholiast on Apollonius + Rhodius, _Argon._ iv. 983. + + 849 A. Lang, _Custom and Myth_ (London, 1884), pp. 45 _sqq._; _id._, + _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_ (London, 1887), i. 299 _sqq._ In + Egyptian mythology the separation of heaven and earth was ascribed + to Shu, the god of light, who insinuated himself between the bodies + of Seb (Keb) the earth-god and of Nut the sky-goddess. On the + monuments Shu is represented holding up the star-spangled body of + Nut on his hands, while Seb reclines on the ground. See A. + Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1897), pp. + 230 _sq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 90, + 97 _sq._, 100, 105; A. Erman, _Die aegyptische Religion_2 (Berlin, + 1909), pp. 35 _sq._; C. P. Tiele, _Geschichte der Religion im + Altertum_, i. 33 _sq._ Thus contrary to the usual mythical + conception the Egyptians regarded the earth as male and the sky as + female. An allusion in the _Book of the Dead_ (ch. 69, vol. ii. p. + 235, E. A. Wallis Budge's translation, London, 1901) has been + interpreted as a hint that Osiris mutilated his father Seb at the + separation of earth and heaven, just as Cronus mutilated his father + Uranus. See H. Brugsch, _Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_ + (Leipsic, 1885-1888), p. 581; E. A. Wallis Budge, _op. cit._ ii. 99 + _sq._ Sometimes the Egyptians conceived the sky as a great cow + standing with its legs on the earth. See A. Erman, _Die aegyptische + Religion_,2 pp. 7, 8. + + 850 Compare _The Dying God_, pp. 105 _sqq._ + + 851 Julian, _Or._ v. pp. 165 B, 170 D (pp. 214, 221, ed. F. C. + Hertlein); Sallustius philosophus, "De diis et mundo," iv. + _Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_, ed. F. G. A. Mullach, iii. 33. + + 852 Drexler, _s.v._ "Men," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und + roem. Mythologie_, ii. 2745; H. Hepding, _Attis_, p. 120, note 8. + + 853 H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, vol. ii. Pars i. pp. + 145 _sq._, Nos. 4146-4149; H. Hepding, _Attis_, pp. 82, 86 _sq._, 89 + _sq._ As to Men Tyrannus, see Drexler, _s.v._ "Men," in W. H. + Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und roem. Myth._ ii. 2687 _sqq._ + + 854 On the other hand Sir W. M. Ramsay holds that Attis and Men are + deities of similar character and origin, but differentiated from + each other by development in different surroundings (_Cities and + Bishoprics of Phrygia_, i. 169); but he denies that Men was a + moon-god (_op. cit._ i. 104, note 4). + + M210 The high priest of Attis bore the god's name and seems to have + personated him. The drawing of the high priest's blood may have been + a substitute for putting him to death in the character of the god. + The name of Attis in the royal families of Phrygia and Lydia. The + Phrygian priests of Attis may have been members of the royal family. + + 855 In letters of Eumenes and Attalus, preserved in inscriptions at + Sivrihissar, the priest at Pessinus is addressed as Attis. See A. + von Domaszewski, "Briefe der Attaliden an den Priester von + Pessinus," _Archaeologische-epigraphische Mittheilungen aus + Oesterreich-Ungarn_, viii. (1884) pp. 96, 98; Ch. Michel, _Recueil + d'Inscriptions Grecques_, pp. 57 _sq._ No. 45; W. Dittenberger, + _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_ (Leipsic, 1903-1905), vol. + i. pp. 482 _sqq._ No. 315. For more evidence of inscriptions see H. + Hepding, _Attis_, p. 79; Rapp, _s.v._ "Attis," in W. H. Roscher's + _Lexikon der griech. und roem. Mythologie_, i. 724. See also + Polybius, xxii. 18 (20), (ed. L. Dindorf), who mentions a priest of + the Mother of the Gods named Attis at Pessinus. + + 856 The conjecture is that of Henzen, in _Annal. d. Inst._ 1856, p. 110, + referred to by Rapp, _l.c._ + +_ 857 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 75 _sq._; _The Dying + God_, pp. 151 _sq._, 209. + + 858 Article "Phrygia," in _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, 9th ed. xviii. + (1885) p. 853. Elsewhere, speaking of the religions of Asia Minor in + general, the same writer says: "The highest priests and priestesses + played the parts of the great gods in the mystic ritual, wore their + dress, and bore their names" (_Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_, i. + 101). + + 859 Strabo, xii. 5. 3, p. 567. + + 860 (Sir) W. M. Ramsay, "A Study of Phrygian Art," _Journal of Hellenic + Studies_, ix. (1888) pp. 379 _sqq._; _id._, "A Study of Phrygian + Art," _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, x. (1889) pp. 156 _sqq._; G. + Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, _Histoire de l'Art dans l'Antiquite_, v. 82 + _sqq._ + + 861 Herodotus, i. 94. According to Sir W. M. Ramsay, the conquering and + ruling caste in Lydia belonged to the Phrygian stock (_Journal of + Hellenic Studies_, ix. (1888) p. 351). + + 862 Herodotus, i. 34-45. The tradition that Croesus would allow no iron + weapon to come near Atys suggests that a similar taboo may have been + imposed on the Phrygian priests named Attis. For taboos of this sort + see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 225 _sqq._ + + 863 H. Stein on Herodotus, i. 43; Ed. Meyer, _s.v._ "Atys," in + Pauly-Wissowa's _Real-Encyclopaedie der classischen + Altertumswissenschaft_, ii. 2 col. 2262. + + 864 See above, pp. 13, 16 _sq._, 48 _sqq._ + +_ 865 The Dying God_, pp. 161 _sqq._ + + 866 See (Sir) W. M. Ramsay, _s.v._ "Phrygia," _Encyclopaedia + Britannica_, 9th ed. xviii. 849 _sq._; _id._, "A Study of Phrygian + Art," _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, ix. (1888) pp. 350 _sq._ Prof. + P. Kretschmer holds that both Cybele and Attis were gods of the + indigenous Asiatic population, not of the Phrygian invaders + (_Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache_, Goettingen, + 1896, pp. 194 _sq._). + + M211 The way in which the representatives of Attis were put to death is + perhaps shown by the legend of Marsyas, who was hung on a pine-tree + and flayed by Apollo. + + 867 Diodorus Siculus, iii. 58 _sq._ As to Marsyas in the character of a + shepherd or herdsman see Hyginus, _Fab._ 165; Nonnus, _Dionys._ i. + 41 _sqq._ He is called a Silenus by Pausanias (i. 24. 1). + + 868 Pausanias, x. 30. 9. + + 869 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, i. 4. 2; Hyginus, _Fab._ 165. Many + ancient writers mention that the tree on which Marsyas suffered + death was a pine. See Apollodorus, _l.c._; Nicander, + _Alexipharmaca_, 301 _sq._, with the Scholiast's note; Lucian, + _Tragodopodagra_, 314 _sq._; Archias Mitylenaeus, in _Anthologia + Palatina_, vii. 696; Philostratus, Junior, _Imagines_, i. 3; Longus, + _Pastor._ iv. 8; Zenobius, _Cent._ iv. 81; J. Tzetzes, _Chiliades_, + i. 353 sqq. Pliny alone declares the tree to have been a plane, + which according to him was still shown at Aulocrene on the way from + Apamea to Phrygia (_Nat. Hist._ xvi. 240). On a candelabra in the + Vatican the defeated Marsyas is represented hanging on a pine-tree + (W. Helbig, _Fuehrer_,2 i. 225 _sq._); but the monumental evidence is + not consistent on this point (Jessen, _s.v._ "Marsyas," in W. H. + Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und roem. Mythologie_, ii. 2442). The + position which the pine held in the myth and ritual of Cybele + supports the preponderance of ancient testimony in favour of that + tree. + + 870 Herodotus, vii. 26; Xenophon, _Anabasis_, i. 2. 8; Livy, xxxviii. + 13. 6; Quintus Curtius, iii. 1. 1-5; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ v. 106. + Herodotus calls the river the Catarrhactes. + + 871 Aelian, _Var. Hist_. xiii. 21. + + M212 Marsyas apparently a double of Attis. The hanging and spearing of + Odin and his human victims on sacred trees. The hanging and spearing + of human victims among the Bagobos. + + 872 Catullus, lxiii. 22; Lucretius, ii. 620; Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 181 + _sq._, 341; Polyaenus, _Stratagem._ viii. 53. 4. Flutes or pipes + often appear on her monuments. See H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae + Selectae_, Nos. 4100, 4143, 4145, 4152, 4153. + + 873 Hippolytus, _Refutatio omnium haeresium_, v. 9, p. 168, ed. Duncker + and Schneidewin. + + 874 Adam of Bremen, _Descriptio insularum Aquilonis_, 27 (Migne's + _Patrologia Latina_, cxlvi. 643). + + 875 S. Bugge, _Studien ueber die Entstehung der noerdischen Goetter- und + Heldensagen_ (Munich, 1889), pp. 339 _sqq._; K. Simrock, _Die Edda_8 + (Stuttgart, 1882), p. 382; K. Muellenhoff, _Deutsche Altertumskunde_ + (Berlin, 1870-1900), iv. 244 _sq._; H. M. Chadwick, _The Cult of + Othin_ (London, 1899), pp. 3-20. The old English custom of hanging + and disembowelling traitors was probably derived from a practice of + thus sacrificing them to Odin; for among many races, including the + Teutonic and Latin peoples, capital punishment appears to have been + originally a religious rite, a sacrifice or consecration of the + criminal to the god whom he had offended. See F. Liebrecht, _Zur + Volkskunde_ (Heilbronn, 1879), pp. 8 _sq._; K. von Amira, in H. + Paul's _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_,2 iii. (Strasburg, + 1900) pp. 197 _sq._; G. Vigfusson and F. York Powell, _Corpus + Poeticum Boreale_ (Oxford, 1883), i. 410; W. Golther, _Handbuch der + germanischen Mythologie_ (Leipsic, 1895), pp. 548 _sq._; Th. + Mommsen, _Roman History_, bk. i. ch. 12 (vol. i. p. 192, ed. 1868); + _id._, _Roemisches Strafrecht_ (Leipsic, 1899), pp. 900 _sqq._; F. + Granger, _The Worship of the Romans_ (London, 1895), pp. 259 _sqq._; + E. Westermarck, _The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, i. + (London, 1906) pp. 439 _sq._ So, too, among barbarous peoples the + slaughter of prisoners in war is often a sacrifice offered by the + victors to the gods to whose aid they ascribe the victory. See A. B. + Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast_ (London, 1887), + pp. 169 _sq._; W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_2 (London, + 1832-1836), i. 289; Diodorus Siculus, xx. 65; Strabo, vii. 2. 3, p. + 294; Caesar, _De bello Gallico_, vi. 17; Tacitus, _Annals_, i. 61, + xiii. 57; Procopius, De bello Gothico, ii. 15. 24, ii. 25. 9; + Jornandes, _Getica_, vi. 41; J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_4 + (Berlin, 1875-1878), i. 36 _sq._; Fr. Schwally, _Semitische + Kriegsaltertuemer_ (Leipsic, 1901), pp. 29 _sqq._ + +_ 876 Havamal_, 139 _sqq._ (K. Simrock, _Die Edda_,8 p. 55; K. + Muellenhoff, _Deutsche Altertumskunde_, v. 270 _sq._). + + 877 Fay-Cooper Cole, _The Wild Tribes of Davao District, Mindanao_ + (Chicago, 1913), pp. 114 _sqq._ (_Field Museum of Natural History, + Publication 170_). + + M213 The hanging of Artemis. The hanging of Helen. The hanging of animal + victims. + + 878 Pausanias, viii. 23. 6 _sq._ The story, mentioned by Pausanias, that + some children tied a rope round the neck of the image of Artemis was + probably invented to explain a ritual practice of the same sort, as + scholars have rightly perceived. See L. Preller, _Griechische + Mythologie_, i.4 305, note 2; L. R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek + States_ (Oxford, 1896-1909), ii. 428 _sq._; M. P. Nilsson, + _Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 232 _sqq._ The Arcadian + worship of the Hanged Artemis was noticed by Callimachus. See + Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 38, p. 32, ed. Potter. + + 879 Eustathius on Homer, _Od._ xii. 85, p. 1714; I. Bekker, _Anecdota + Graeca_ (Berlin, 1814-1821), i. 336 _sq._, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. The + goddess Hecate was sometimes identified with Artemis, though in + origin probably she was quite distinct. See L. R. Farnell, _The + Cults of the Greek States_, ii. 499 _sqq._ + + 880 Antoninus Liberalis, _Transform._ xiii. + + 881 Pausanias, iii. 19. 9 _sq._ + + 882 H. von Fritze, "Zum griechischen Opferritual," _Jahrbuch des kaiser. + deutsch. Archaeologischen Instituts_, xviii. (1903) pp. 58-67. In the + ritual of Eleusis the sacrificial oxen were sometimes lifted up by + young men from the ground. See G. Dittenberger, _Sylloge + Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 vol. ii. pp. 166 _sq._ No. 521 ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}.); E. S. + Roberts and E. A. Gardner, _Introduction to Greek Epigraphy_, ii. + (Cambridge, 1905) pp. 176 _sq._, No. 65. In this inscription the + word {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} is differently interpreted by P. Stengel, who supposes + that it refers merely to turning backwards and upwards the head of + the victim. See P. Stengel, "Zum griechischen Opferritual," + _Jahrbuch des kaiser. deutsch. Archaeologischen Instituts_, xviii. + (1903) pp. 113-123. But it seems highly improbable that so trivial + an act should be solemnly commemorated in an inscription among the + exploits of the young men (_epheboi_) who performed it. On the other + hand, we know that at Nysa the young men did lift and carry the + sacrificial bull, and that the act was deemed worthy of + commemoration on the coins. See above, p. 206. The Wajagga of East + Africa dread the ghosts of suicides; so when a man has hanged + himself they take the rope from his neck and hang a goat in the + fatal noose, after which they slay the animal. This is supposed to + appease the ghost and prevent him from tempting human beings to + follow his bad example. See B. Gutmann, "Trauer und Begrabnissitten + der Wadschagga," _Globus_, lxxxix. (1906) p. 200. + + 883 See above, p. 146. + + M214 Use of the skins of human victims to effect their resurrection. + +_ 884 The Scapegoat_, pp. 294 _sqq._ + + 885 Herodotus, iv. 71 _sq._ + + M215 Skins of men and horses stuffed and set up at graves. Some tribes of + Borneo use the skulls of their enemies to ensure the fertility of + the ground and of women, the abundance of game, and so forth. + + 886 Jean du Plan de Carpin, _Historia Mongalorum_, ed. D'Avezac (Paris, + 1838), cap. iii. § iii. + +_ 887 Voyages d'Ibn Batoutah, texte Arabe accompagne d'une traduction_, + par C. Defremery et B. R. Sanguinetti (Paris, 1853-1858), iv. 300 + _sq._ For more evidence of similar customs, observed by Turanian + peoples, see K. Neumann, _Die Hellenen im Skythenlande_ (Berlin, + 1855), pp. 237-239. + + 888 Captain R. Fitz-roy, _Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of His + Majesty's Ships __"__Adventure__"__ and __"__Beagle__"_ (London, + 1839), ii. 155 _sq._ + + 889 Herodotus, iv. 103. Many Scythians flayed their dead enemies, and, + stretching the skin on a wooden framework, carried it about with + them on horseback (Herodotus, iv. 64). The souls of the dead may + have been thought to attend on and serve the man who thus bore their + remains about with him. It is also possible that the custom was + nothing more than a barbarous mode of wreaking vengeance on the + dead. Thus a Persian king has been known to flay an enemy, stuff the + skin with chaff, and hang it on a high tree (Procopius, _De bello + Persico_, i. 5. 28). This was the treatment which the arch-heretic + Manichaeus is said to have received at the hands of the Persian king + whose son he failed to cure (Socrates, _Historia Ecclesiastica_, i. + 22; Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, lxvii. 137, 139). Still such a + punishment may have been suggested by a religious rite. The idea of + crucifying their human victims appears to have been suggested to the + negroes of Benin by the crucifixes of the early Portuguese + missionaries. See H. Ling Roth, _Great Benin_ (Halifax, 1903), pp. + 14 _sq._ + + 890 W. H. Furness, _Home-Life of Borneo Head-Hunters_ (Philadelphia, + 1902), p. 59. According to Messrs. Hose and McDougall, the spirits + which animate the skulls appear not to be those of the persons from + whose shoulders the heads were taken. However, the spirits (called + _Toh_) reside in or about the heads, and "it is held that in some + way their presence in the house brings prosperity to it, especially + in the form of good crops; and so essential to the welfare of the + house are the heads held to be that, if through fire a house has + lost its heads and has no occasion for war, the people will beg a + head, or even a fragment of one, from some friendly house, and will + instal it in their own with the usual ceremonies." See Ch. Hose and + W. McDougall, _The Pagan Tribes of Borneo_ (London, 1912), ii. 20, + 23. + + 891 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_2 (London, + 1863), i. 197. + + 892 Hugh Low, _Sarawak_ (London, 1848), pp. 206 _sq._ In quoting this + passage I have taken the liberty to correct a grammatical slip. + + 893 Spenser St. John, _op. cit._ i. 204. See further G. A. Wilken, "Iets + over de schedelvereering," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, xxxviii. (1889) pp. 89-129; + _id._, _Verspreide Geschriften_ (The Hague, 1912), iv. 37-81. A + different view of the purpose of head-hunting is maintained by Mr. + A. C. Kruyt, in his essay, "Het koppensnellen der Toradja's van + Midden-Celebes, en zijne Beteekenis," _Verslagen en Mededeelingen + der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde, + Vierde Reeks, iii. 2 (Amsterdam, 1899), pp. 147 _sqq._ + + The natives of Nias, an island to the west of Sumatra, think it + necessary to obtain the heads of their enemies for the purpose of + celebrating the final obsequies of a dead chief. Their notion seems + to be that the ghost of the deceased ruler demands this sacrifice in + his honour, and will punish the omission of it by sending sickness + or other misfortunes on the survivors. Thus among these people the + custom of head-hunting is based on their belief in human immortality + and on their conception of the exacting demands which the dead make + upon the living. When the skulls have been presented to a dead + chief, the priest prays to him for his blessing on the sowing and + harvesting of the rice, on the fruitfulness of women, and so forth. + See C. Fries, "Das 'Koppensnellen' auf Nias," _Allgemeine + Missions-Zeitschrift_, February, 1908, pp. 73-88. From this account + it would seem that it is not the spirits of the slain men, but the + ghost of the dead chief from whom the blessings of fertility and so + forth are supposed to emanate. Compare Th. C. Rappard, "Het eiland + Nias en zijne bewoners," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en + Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, lxii. (1909) pp. 609-611. + + M216 The stuffed skin of the human representative of the Phrygian god may + have been used for like purposes. + +_ 894 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 4-7. + +_ 895 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 169 _sqq._ + + M217 Popularity of the worship of Cybele and Attis in the Roman Empire. + + 896 H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, Nos. 4099, 4100, 4103, + 4105, 4106, 4116, 4117, 4119, 4120, 4121, 4123, 4124, 4127, 4128, + 4131, 4136, 4139, 4140, 4142, 4156, 4163, 4167; H. Hepding, _Attis_, + pp. 85, 86, 93, 94, 95, Inscr. Nos. 21-24, 26, 50, 51, 52, 61, 62, + 63. See further, J. Toutain, _Les Cultes Paiens dans l'Empire + Romain_ (Paris, 1911), pp. 73 _sqq._, 103 _sqq._ + + 897 S. Dill, _Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire_2 + (London, 1899), p. 16. + + 898 Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vii. 26. + + 899 But the two were publicly worshipped at Dyme and Patrae in Achaia + (Pausanias, vii. 17. 9, vii. 20. 3), and there was an association + for their worship at Piraeus. See P. Foucart, _Des Associations + Religieuses chez les Grecs_ (Paris, 1873), pp. 85 _sqq._, 196; Ch. + Michel, _Recueil d'Inscriptions Grecques_, p. 772, No. 982. + + 900 Rapp, _s.v._ "Kybele," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und + roem. Mythologie_, ii. 1656. + + 901 As to the savage theory of inspiration or possession by a deity see + (Sir) Edward B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_,2 ii. 131 _sqq._ As to + the savage theory of a new birth see _Balder the Beautiful_, ii. 251 + _sqq._ As to the use of blood to wash away sins see _The Magic Art + and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 107 _sqq._; _Psyche's Task_, Second + Edition, pp. 44 _sq._, 47 _sqq._, 116 _sq._ Among the Cameroon + negroes accidental homicide can be expiated by the blood of an + animal. The relations of the slayer and of the slain assemble. An + animal is killed and every person present is smeared with its blood + on his face and breast. They think that the guilt of manslaughter is + thus atoned for, and that no punishment will overtake the homicide. + See Missionary Autenrieth, "Zur Religion der Kamerun-Neger," in + _Mitteilungen der geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena_, xii. (1893) + pp. 93 _sq._ In Car Nicobar a man possessed by devils is cleansed of + them by being rubbed all over with pig's blood and beaten with + leaves. The devils are thus transferred to the leaves, which are + thrown into the sea before daybreak. See V. Solomon, "Extracts from + diaries kept in Car Nicobar," in _Journal of the Anthropological + Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 227. Similarly the ancient Greeks + purified a homicide by means of pig's blood and laurel leaves. See + my note on Pausanias, ii. 31. 8 (vol. iii. pp. 276-279). The + original idea of thus purging a manslayer was probably to rid him of + the angry ghost of his victim, just as in Car Nicobar a man is rid + of devils in the same manner. The purgative virtue ascribed to the + blood in these ceremonies may be based on the notion that the + offended spirit accepts it as a substitute for the blood of the + guilty person. This was the view of C. Meiners (_Geschichte der + Religionen_, Hanover, 1806-1807, ii. 137 _sq._) and of E. Rohde + (_Psyche_,3 Tuebingen and Leipsic, 1903, ii. 77 _sq._). + + 902 A good instance of such an attempt to dress up savagery in the garb + of philosophy is the fifth speech of the emperor Julian, "On the + Mother of the Gods" (pp. 206 _sqq._ ed. F. C. Hertlein, Leipsic, + 1875-1876). + + M218 The spread of Oriental faiths over the Roman Empire contributed to + undermine the fabric of Greek and Roman civilization by inculcating + the salvation of the individual soul as the supreme aim of life. + + 903 As to the diffusion of Oriental religions in the Roman Empire see G. + Boissier, _La Religion Romaine d'Auguste aux Antonins_5 (Paris, + 1900), i. 349 _sqq._; J. Reville, _La Religion a Rome sous les + Severes_ (Paris, 1886), pp. 47 _sqq._; S. Dill, _Roman Society in + the Last Century of the Western Empire_2 (London, 1899), pp. 76 + _sqq._ + + 904 Compare Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ ii. 604, vi. 661; Origen, _Contra + Celsum_, viii. 73 (Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, xi. 1628); G. + Boissier, _La Religion Romaine d'Auguste aux Antonins_5 (Paris, + 1900), i. 357 _sq._; E. Westermarck, _The Origin and Development of + the Moral Ideas_ (London, 1906-1908), i. 345 _sq._; H. H. Milman, + _History of Latin Christianity_,4 i. 150-153, ii. 90. In the passage + just cited Origen tells us that the Christians refused to follow the + Emperor to the field of battle even when he ordered them to do so; + but he adds that they gave the emperor the benefit of their prayers + and thus did him more real service than if they had fought for him + with the sword. On the decline of the civic virtues under the + influence of Christian asceticism see W. E. H. Lecky, _History of + European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne_3 (London, 1877), ii. + 139 _sqq._ + + 905 To prevent misapprehension I will add that the spread of Oriental + religions was only one of many causes which contributed to the + downfall of ancient civilization. Among these contributory causes a + friend, for whose judgment and learning I entertain the highest + respect, counts bad government and a ruinous fiscal system, two of + the most powerful agents to blast the prosperity of nations, as may + be seen in our own day by the blight which has struck the Turkish + empire. It is probable, too, as my friend thinks, that the rapid + diffusion of alien faiths was as much an effect as a cause of + widespread intellectual decay. Such unwholesome growths could hardly + have fastened upon the Graeco-Roman mind in the days of its full + vigour. We may remember the energy with which the Roman Government + combated the first outbreak of the Bacchic plague (Th. Mommsen, + _Roman History_, iii. 115 _sq._, ed. 1894). The disastrous effects + of Roman financial oppression on the industries and population of + the empire, particularly of Greece, are described by George Finlay + (_Greece under the Romans_,2 Edinburgh and London, 1857, pp. 47 + _sqq._). + + M219 Popularity of the worship of Mithra; its resemblance to Christianity + and its rivalry with that religion. The festival of Christmas + borrowed by the Church from the religion of Mithra. + + 906 See Fr. Cumont, _Textes et Monuments figures relatifs aux Mysteres + de Mithra_ (Brussels, 1896-1899); _id._, _s.v._ "Mithras," in W. H. + Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und roem. Mythologie_, ii. 3028 _sqq._ + Compare _id._, _Les Religions Orientales dans le Paganisme Romain_2 + (Paris, 1909), pp. 207 _sqq._ + + 907 Fr. Cumont, _Textes et Monuments_, i. 333 _sqq._ + + 908 E. Renan, _Marc-Aurele et la Fin du Monde Antique_ (Paris, 1882), + pp. 576 _sqq._; Fr. Cumont, _Textes et Monuments_, i. 339 _sqq._ + + 909 Tertullian, _De corona_, 15; _id._, _De praescriptione + haereticorum_, 40; Justin Martyr, _Apologia_, i. 66; _id._, + _Dialogus cum Tryphone_, 78 (Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, vi. 429, + 660). Tertullian explained in like manner the resemblance of the + fasts of Isis and Cybele to the fasts of Christianity (_De jejunio_, + 16). Justin Martyr thought that by listening to the words of the + inspired prophets the devils discovered the divine intentions and + anticipated them by a series of profane and blasphemous imitations. + Among these travesties of Christian truth he enumerates the death, + resurrection, and ascension of Dionysus, the virgin birth of + Perseus, and Bellerophon mounted on Pegasus, whom he regards as a + parody of Christ riding on an ass. See Justin Martyr, _Apology_, i. + 54. + + 910 J. de Acosta, _Natural and Moral History of the Indies_, translated + by E. Grimston (London, 1880), bk. v. chs. 11, 16, 17, 18, 24-28, + vol. ii. pp. 324 _sq._, 334 _sqq._, 356 _sqq._ + + 911 Compare S. Dill, _Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western + Empire_2 (London, 1899), pp. 80 _sqq._; _id._, _Roman Society from + Nero to Marcus Aurelius_ (London, 1904), pp. 619 _sqq._ + + 912 E. Renan, _Marc-Aurele et la Fin du Monde Antique_ (Paris, 1882), + pp. 579 _sq._; Fr. Cumont, _Textes et Monuments_, i. 338. + + 913 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. 221; Columella, _De re rustica_, ix. 14. + 12; L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen + Chronologie_ (Berlin, 1825-1826), ii. 124; G. F. Unger, in Iwan + Mueller's _Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_, i.1 + (Noerdlingen, 1886) p. 649. + + 914 In the calendar of Philocalus the twenty-fifth of December is marked + _N. Invicti_, that is, _Natalis Solis Invicti_. See _Corpus + Inscriptionum Latinarum_, i.2 Pars prior (Berlin, 1893), p. 278, + with Th. Mommsen's commentary, pp. 338 _sq._ + + 915 Cosmas Hierosolymitanus, _Commentarii in Sancti Gregorii Nazianzeni + Carmina_ (Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, xxxviii. 464): {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + [Christmas] {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}: "{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}." {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}. The passage is quoted, with some verbal variations, by Ch. + Aug. Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_ (Koenigsberg, 1829), ii. 1227 note 2. See + Franz Cumont, "Le Natalis Invicti," _Comptes Rendus de l'Academie + des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 1911_ (Paris, 1911), pp. + 292-298, whose learned elucidations I follow in the text. That the + festival of the Nativity of the Sun was similarly celebrated in + Egypt may be inferred from a Greek calendar drawn up by the + astrologer Antiochus in Lower Egypt at the end of the second or the + beginning of the third century A.D.; for under the 25th December the + calendar has the entry, "Birthday of the Sun, the light waxes" + ({~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}). See F. Cumont, _op. cit._ p. 294. + + 916 Macrobius, _Saturnalia_, i. 18. 10. + + 917 F. Cumont, _s.v._ "Caelestis," in Pauly-Wissowa's _Real-Encyclopaedie + der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, v. i. 1247 _sqq._ She was + called the Queen of Heaven (Jeremiah vii. 18, xliv. 18), the + Heavenly Goddess (Herodotus, iii. 8; Pausanias, i. 14. 7), or the + Heavenly Virgin (Tertullian, _Apologeticus_, 23; Augustine, _De + civitate Dei_, ii. 4). The Greeks spoke of her as the Heavenly + Aphrodite (Herodotus, i. 105; Pausanias, i. 14. 7). A Greek + inscription found in Delos contains a dedication to Astarte + Aphrodite; and another found in the same island couples Palestinian + Astarte and Heavenly Aphrodite. See G. Dittenberger, _Sylloge + Inscriptionum Graecorum_,2 vol. ii. pp. 619 _sq._, No. 764; R. A. + Stewart Macalister, _The Philistines, their History and + Civilization_ (London, 1913), p. 94. + + 918 Dedications to Mithra the Unconquered Sun (_Soli invicto Mithrae_) + have been found in abundance. See Fr. Cumont, _Textes et Monuments_, + ii. 99 _sqq._ As to the worship of the Unconquered Sun (_Sol + Invictus_) see H. Usener, _Das Weihnachtsfest_2 (Bonn, 1911), pp. + 348 _sqq._ + + 919 Fr. Cumont, _op. cit._ i. 325 _sq._, 339. + + 920 J. Bingham, _The Antiquities of the Christian Church_, bk. xx. ch. + iv. (Bingham's _Works_, vol. vii. pp. 279 _sqq._, Oxford, 1855); C. + A. Credner, "De natalitiorum Christi origine," _Zeitschrift fuer die + historische Theologie_, iii. 2 (1833), pp. 236 _sqq._; Mgr. L. + Duchesne, _Origines du Culte Chretien_3 (Paris, 1903), pp. 257 + _sqq._; Th. Mommsen, in _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, i.2 Pars + prior, p. 338. The earliest mention of the festival of Christmas is + in the calendar of Philocalus, which was drawn up at Rome in 336 + A.D. The words are _VIII. kal. jan._, _natus Christus in Betleem + Judee_ (L. Duchesne, _op. cit._ p. 258). + + M220 Motives for the institution of Christmas. + + 921 Quoted by C. A. Credner, _op. cit._ p. 239, note 46; by Th. Mommsen, + _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, i.2 Pars prior, pp. 338 _sq._; and + by H. Usener, _Das Weihnachtsfest_2 (Bonn, 1911), pp. 349 _sq._ + + 922 Augustine, _Serm._ cxc. 1 (Migne's _Patrologia Latina_, xxxviii. + 1007). + + 923 Leo the Great, _Serm._ xxii. (_al._ xxi.) 6 (Migne's _Patrologia + Latina_, liv. 198). Compare St. Ambrose, _Serm._ vi. 1 (Migne's + _Patrologia Latina_, xvii. 614). + + M221 The Easter celebration of the death and resurrection of Christ + appears to have been assimilated to the celebration of the death and + resurrection of Attis, which was held at Rome at the same season. + Heathen festivals displaced by Christian. + + 924 A. Credner, _op. cit._ pp. 236 _sqq._; E. B. Tylor, _Primitive + Culture_,2 ii. 297 _sq._; Fr. Cumont, _Textes et Monuments_, i. 342, + 355 _sq._; Th. Mommsen, in _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, i.2 + Pars prior, pp. 338 _sq._; H. Usener, _Das Weihnachtsfest_2 (Bonn, + 1911), pp. 348 _sqq._ A different explanation of Christmas has been + put forward by Mgr. Duchesne. He shows that among the early + Christians the death of Christ was commonly supposed to have fallen + on the twenty-fifth of March, that day having been "chosen + arbitrarily, or rather suggested by its coincidence with the + official equinox of spring." It would be natural to assume that + Christ had lived an exact number of years on earth, and therefore + that his incarnation as well as his death took place on the + twenty-fifth of March. In point of fact the Church has placed the + Annunciation and with it the beginning of his mother's pregnancy on + that very day. If that were so, his birth would in the course of + nature have occurred nine months later, that is, on the twenty-fifth + of December. Thus on Mgr. Duchesne's theory the date of the Nativity + was obtained by inference from the date of the Crucifixion, which in + its turn was chosen because it coincided with the official equinox + of spring. Mgr. Duchesne does not notice the coincidence of the + vernal equinox with the festival of Attis. See his work, _Origines + du Culte Chretien_3 (Paris, 1903), pp. 261-265, 272. The tradition + that both the conception and the death of Christ fell on the + twenty-fifth of March is mentioned and apparently accepted by + Augustine (_De Trinitate_, iv. 9, Migne's _Patrologia Latina_, xlii. + 894). + + 925 See above, pp. 253 _sqq._ + + 926 However, the lament for Adonis is mentioned by Ovid (_Ars Amat._ i. + 75 _sq._) along with the Jewish observance of the Sabbath. + + 927 See above, pp. 268 _sqq._ + + 928 Columella, _De re rustica_, ix. 14. 1; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. + 246; Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 21. 10; L. Ideler, _Handbuch der + mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, ii. 124. + + 929 Mgr. L. Duchesne, _Origines du Culte Chretien_,3 pp. 262 _sq._ That + Christ was crucified on the twenty-fifth of March in the year 29 is + expressly affirmed by Tertullian (_Adversus Judaeos_, 8, vol. ii. p. + 719, ed. F. Oehler), Hippolytus (_Commentary on Daniel_, iv. 23, + vol. i. p. 242, ed. Bonwetsch and Achelis), and Augustine (_De + civitate Dei_, xviii. 54; _id._, _De Trinitate_, iv. 9). See also + _Thesaurus Linguae Latinae_, iv. (Leipsic, 1906- 1909) col. 1222, + _s.v._ "Crucimissio": "_POL. SILV.__ fast. Mart 25 aequinoctium. + principium veris. crucimissio gentilium. Christus passus hoc die._" + From this last testimony we learn that there was a gentile as well + as a Christian crucifixion at the spring equinox. The gentile + crucifixion was probably the affixing of the effigy of Attis to the + tree, though at Rome that ceremony appears to have taken place on + the twenty-second rather than on the twenty-fifth of March. See + above, p. 267. The Quartodecimans of Phrygia celebrated the + twenty-fifth of March as the day of Christ's death, quoting as their + authority certain acts of Pilate; in Cappadocia the adherents of + this sect were divided between the twenty-fifth of March and the + fourteenth of the moon. See Epiphanius, _Adversus Haeres._ l. 1 + (vol. ii. p. 447, ed. G. Dindorf; Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, xli. + 884 _sq._). In Gaul the death and resurrection of Christ were + regularly celebrated on the twenty-fifth and twenty-seventh of March + as late as the sixth century. See Gregory of Tours, _Historia + Francorum_, viii. 31. 6 (Migne's _Patrologia Latina_, lxxi. 566); S. + Martinus Dumiensis (bishop of Braga), _De Pascha_, 1 (Migne's + _Patrologia Latina_, lxxii. 50), who says: "_A plerisque Gallicanis + episcopis usque ante non multum tempus custoditum est, ut semper + VIII. Kal. April. diem Paschae celebrent, in quo facta Christi + resurrectio traditur._" According to this last testimony, it was the + resurrection, not the crucifixion, of Christ that was celebrated on + the twenty-fifth of March; but Mgr. Duchesne attributes the + statement to a mistake of the writer. With regard to the Roman + practice the twenty-fifth and twenty-seventh of March are marked in + ancient Martyrologies as the dates of the Crucifixion and + Resurrection. See _Vetustius Occidentalis Ecclesiae Martyrologium_, + ed. Franciscus Maria Florentinus (Lucca, 1667), pp. 396 _sq._, 405 + _sq._ On this subject Mgr. Duchesne observes: "Hippolytus, in his + Paschal Table, marks the Passion of Christ in a year in which the + fourteenth of Nisan falls on Friday twenty-fifth March. In his + commentary on Daniel he expressly indicates Friday the twenty-fifth + of March and the consulship of the two Gemini. The Philocalien + Catalogue of the Popes gives the same date as to day and year. It is + to be noted that the cycle of Hippolytus and the Philocalien + Catalogue are derived from official documents, and may be cited as + evidence of the Roman ecclesiastical usage" (_Origines du Culte + Chretien_,3 p. 262). + + 930 Mgr. L. Duchesne, _op. cit._ p. 263. + + 931 Mgr. L. Duchesne, _l.c._ A sect of the Montanists held that the + world began and that the sun and moon were created at the spring + equinox, which, however, they dated on the twenty-fourth of March + (Sozomenus, _Historia Ecclesiastica_, vii. 18). At Henen-Su in Egypt + there was celebrated a festival of the "hanging out of the heavens," + that is, the supposed reconstituting of the heavens each year in the + spring (E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 63). + But the Egyptians thought that the creation of the world took place + at the rising of Sirius (Porphyry, _De antro nympharum_, 24; + Solinus, xxxii. 13), which in antiquity fell on the twentieth of + July (L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen + Chronologie_, i. 127 _sqq._). + + 932 See above, pp. 263, 281 _sqq._ + +_ 933 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 324 _sqq._ + + 934 Above, pp. 246 _sqq._ + +_ 935 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 14 _sqq._ + + 936 See below, vol. ii. pp. 81 _sqq._ + + 937 Above, pp. 302 _sqq._ + + 938 Another instance of the substitution of a Christian for a pagan + festival may be mentioned. On the first of August the people of + Alexandria used to commemorate the defeat of Mark Antony by Augustus + and the entrance of the victor into their city. The heathen pomp of + the festival offended Eudoxia, wife of Theodosius the Younger, and + she decreed that on that day the Alexandrians should thenceforth + celebrate the deliverance of St. Peter from prison instead of the + deliverance of their city from the yoke of Antony and Cleopatra. See + L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen + Chronologie_, i. 154. + + M222 Coincidence between the pagan and the Christian festivals of the + divine death and resurrection. + + 939 Lactantius, _De mortibus persecutorum_, 2; _id._, _Divin. Institut._ + iv. 10. 18. As to the evidence of the Gallic usage see S. Martinus + Dumiensis, quoted above, p. 307 note. + + M223 Different theories by which pagans and Christians explained the + coincidence. + + 940 The passage occurs in the 84th of the _Quaestiones Veteris et Novi + Testamenti_ (Migne's _Patrologia Latina_, xxxv. 2279), which are + printed in the works of Augustine, though internal evidence is said + to shew that they cannot be by that Father, and that they were + written three hundred years after the destruction of Jerusalem. The + writer's words are as follows: "_Diabolus autem, qui est satanas, ut + fallaciae suae auctoritatem aliquam possit adhibere, et mendacia sua + commentitia veritate colorare, primo mense quo sacramenta dominica + scit celebranda, quia non mediocris potentiae est, Paganis quae + observarent instituit mysteria, ut animas eorum duabus ex causis in + errore detineret: ut quia praevenit veritatem fallacia, melius + quiddam fallacia videretur, quasi antiquitate praejudicans veritati. + Et quia in primo mense, in quo aequinoctium habent Romani, sicut et + nos, ea ipsa observatio ab his custoditur; ita etiam per sanguinem + dicant expiationem fieri, sicut et nos per crucem: hac versutia + Paganos detinet in errore, ut putent veritatem nostram imitationem + potius videri quam veritatem, quasi per aemulationem superstitione + quadam inventam. Nec enim verum potest, inquiunt, aestimari quod + postea est inventum. Sed quia apud nos pro certo veritas est, et ab + initio haec est, virtutum atque prodigiorum signa perhibent + testimonium, ut, teste virtute, diaboli improbitas innotescat._" I + have to thank my learned friend Professor Franz Cumont for pointing + out this passage to me. He had previously indicated and discussed it + ("La Polemique de l'Ambrosiaster contre les Paiens," _Revue + d'Histoire et de Litterature religieuses_, viii. (1903) pp. 419 + _sqq._). Though the name of Attis is not mentioned in the passage, I + agree with Prof. Cumont in holding that the bloody expiatory rites + at the spring equinox, to which the writer refers, can only be those + of the Day of Blood which formed part of the great aequinoctial + festival of Attis. Compare F. Cumont, _Les Religions Orientales dans + le Paganisme Romain_2 (Paris, 1909), pp. 106 _sq._, 333 _sq._ + + M224 Compromise of Christianity with paganism. Parallel with Buddhism. + + 941 On the decadence of Buddhism and its gradual assimilation to those + popular Oriental superstitions against which it was at first + directed, see Monier Williams, _Buddhism_2 (London, 1890), pp. 147 + _sqq._ + + 942 The historical reality both of Buddha and of Christ has sometimes + been doubted or denied. It would be just as reasonable to question + the historical existence of Alexander the Great and Charlemagne on + account of the legends which have gathered round them. The great + religious movements which have stirred humanity to its depths and + altered the beliefs of nations spring ultimately from the conscious + and deliberate efforts of extraordinary minds, not from the blind + unconscious co-operation of the multitude. The attempt to explain + history without the influence of great men may flatter the vanity of + the vulgar, but it will find no favour with the philosophic + historian. + + M225 The Greek Hyacinth interpreted as the vegetation which blooms and + withers away. + + 943 G. F. Schoemann, _Griechische Alterthuemer_4 (Berlin, 1897-1902), ii. + 473; L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_, i.4 (Berlin, 1894) pp. + 248 _sq._; Greve, _s.v._ "Hyakinthos," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon + der griech. und roem. Mythologie_, i. 2763 _sq._ Other views of + Hyacinth have been expressed by G. F. Welcker (_Griechische + Goetterlehre_, Goettingen, 1857-1862, i. 472), G. F. Unger ("Der + Isthmientag und die Hyakinthien," _Philologus_, xxxvii. (1877) pp. + 20 _sqq._), E. Rohde (_Psyche_,3 i. 137 _sqq._) and S. Wide + (_Lakonische Kulte_, Leipsic, 1893, p. 290). + + 944 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, i. 3. 3, iii. 10. 3; Nicander, _Ther._ + 901 _sqq._, with the Scholiast's note; Lucian, _De saltatione_, 45; + Pausanias, iii. 1. 3, iii. 19. 5; J. Tzetzes, _Chiliades_, i. 241 + _sqq._; Ovid, _Metam._ x. 161-219; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxi. 66. + + 945 Theophrastus, _Histor. Plant._ vi. 8. 1 _sq._ That the hyacinth was + a spring flower is plainly indicated also by Philostratus (_Imag._ + i. 23. 1) and Ovid (_Metam._ x. 162-166). See further Greve, _s.v._ + "Hyakinthos," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und roem. + Mythologie_, i. 2764; J. Murr, _Die Pflanzenwelt in der griechischen + Mythologie_ (Innsbruck, 1890), pp. 257 _sqq._; O. Schrader, + _Reallexikon der Indogermanischen Altertumskunde_ (Strasburg, 1901), + pp. 383 _sq._ Miss J. E. Harrison was so kind as to present me with + two specimens of the flower (_Delphinium Ajacis_) on which the woful + letters were plainly visible. A flower similarly marked, of a colour + between white and red, was associated with the death of Ajax + (Pausanias, i. 35. 4). But usually the two flowers were thought to + be the same (Ovid, _Metam._ xiii. 394 _sqq._; Scholiast on + Theocritus, x. 28; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxi. 66; Eustathius on Homer, + _Iliad_, ii. 557, p. 285). + + 946 Xenophon, _Hellenica_, iv. 5. 7-17; Pausanias, iii. 10. 1. + + M226 The tomb and the festival of Hyacinth at Amyclae. + + 947 Pausanias, iii. 1. 3, iii. 19. 1-5. + + 948 Hesychius, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; G. F. Unger in _Philologus_, xxxvii. + (1877) pp. 13-33; Greve, _s.v._ "Hyakinthos," in W. H. Roscher's + _Lexikon der griech. und roem. Mythologie_, i. 2762; W. Smith, + _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_,3 i. 339. From Xenophon + (_Hellenica_, iv. 5) we learn that in 390 B.C. the Hyacinthian + followed soon after the Isthmian festival, which that year fell in + spring. Others, however, identifying Hecatombeus with the Attic + month Hecatombaeon, would place the Hyacinthia in July (K. O. + Mueller, _Dorier_,2 Breslau, 1844, i. 358). In Rhodes, Cos, and other + Greek states there was a month called Hyacinthius, which probably + took its name from the Hyacinthian festival. The month is thought to + correspond to the Athenian Scirophorion and therefore to June. See + E. Bischof, "De fastis Graecorum antiquioribus," _Leipziger Studien + fuer classische Philologie_, vii. (1884) pp. 369 _sq._, 381, 384, + 410, 414 _sq._; G. Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 + vol. i. pp. 396, 607, Nos. 614, note 3, 744, note 1. If this latter + identification of the month is correct, it would furnish an argument + for dating the Spartan festival of Hyacinth in June also. The + question is too intricate to be discussed here. + + 949 Athenaeus, iv. 17, pp. 139 _sq._ Strabo speaks (vi. 3. 2, p. 278) of + a contest at the Hyacinthian festival. It may have been the chariot + races mentioned by Athenaeus. + + 950 Hesychius, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. + + M227 Hyacinth an aboriginal god, perhaps a king, who was worshipped in + Laconia before the invasion of the Dorians. His sister Polyboea may + perhaps have been his spouse. + + 951 E. Rohde, _Psyche_,3 i. 137 _sqq._ + + 952 Pausanias, iii. 19. 3. The Greek word here used for sacrifice + ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}) properly denotes sacrifices offered to the heroic or + worshipful dead; another word ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}) was employed for sacrifices + offered to gods. The two terms are distinguished by Pausanias here + and elsewhere (ii. 10. 1, ii. 11. 7). Compare Herodotus, ii. 44. + Sacrifices to the worshipful dead were often annual. See Pausanias, + iii. 1. 8, vii. 19. 10, vii. 20. 9, viii. 14. 11, viii. 41. 1, ix. + 38. 5, x. 24. 6. It has been observed by E. Rehde (_Psyche_,3 i. + 139, note 2) that sacrifices were frequently offered to a hero + before a god, and he suggests with much probability that in these + cases the worship of the hero was older than that of the deity. + + 953 Pausanias, iii. 19. 14. + + 954 See above, p. 44; and below, vol. ii. pp. 213 _sqq._ + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GOLDEN BOUGH: A STUDY IN MAGIC AND RELIGION (THIRD EDITION, VOL. 5 OF 12)*** + + + +CREDITS + + +August 30, 2013 + + Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1 + Produced by David Edwards, David King, and the Online + Distributed Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. 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