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diff --git a/43604-0.txt b/43604-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..03dc1b8 --- /dev/null +++ b/43604-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19355 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43604 *** + + WOOD-WORKING FOR + BEGINNERS + + A Manual for Amateurs + + BY + + CHARLES G. WHEELER, B.S. + + "Know what thou canst work at and work at it like a Hercules." + + CARLYLE. + + WITH OVER 700 ILLUSTRATIONS + + G.P. Putnam's Sons + New York and London + The Knickerbocker Press + 1900 + + + COPYRIGHT, 1899 + BY + + CHARLES G. WHEELER + + The Knickerbocker Press, New York + + + + + TO THE + YOUTHFUL FOUNDERS + OF + "TOTLET TOWN" + + WITHOUT WHOSE INSPIRATION THIS BOOK WOULD NOT + HAVE BEEN UNDERTAKEN + + + + +PREFACE + + +The aim of this book is to suggest to amateurs of all ages many things +which they can profitably make of wood, and to start them in the way to +work successfully. It is hoped that, in the case of boys, it may show +them pleasant and useful ways to work off some of their surplus energy, +and at the same time contribute toward their harmonious all-round +development. + +It is not an attempt to teach the arts of architecture, carpentry, +cabinet-making, or boat-building. Although not intended primarily to +impart skill in the use of tools (something which can only be acquired +from experience and observation and cannot be taught by any book), still +no one can go through the processes indicated without gaining at least +some slight degree of manual skill as well as a fund of practical +information and experience. + +Many books which give directions for mechanical work (particularly those +addressed to boys) have several serious faults, and can be grouped in +three classes. Some seem to be written by practical workmen, who, +however well fitted to do the work themselves, lack the pedagogical +training or the psychological insight necessary to lay out such work +with due regard to the mental and physical capacity, experience, and +development of youth, or to the amateur's lack of experience in the +rudiments of the subject. Others are written by teachers or amateurs who +lack the trained mechanic's practical and varied knowledge and +experience in serious work. Others (and this last class is, perhaps, the +worst of the three) seem to be made by compilers who have apparently +been satisfied to sweep together, without requisite knowledge or +sufficient moral purpose, whatever they may have found that would be +interesting or attractive, without due regard to its real value. All +these writers are constantly falling into errors and making omissions +harmful alike to the moral and the manual progress of the readers.[1] + +Effort has been made in the preparation of this book to avoid these +evils, to keep in line with the advanced educational ideas of the time, +and to look at the subject from the standpoints of the _teacher_, the +_mechanic_, the _boy_, and the _amateur workman_. The treatment is +neither general nor superficial, but _elementary_, and no claim is made +that it will carry anyone very far in the various subjects; but it aims +to be thorough and specific as far as it goes and to teach nothing which +will have to be unlearned. + +Great care (based upon an extended experience with boys and amateurs) +has been taken to include only what can be profitably done by an +intelligent boy of from ten to eighteen or by the average untrained +worker of more mature years. It is hoped that from the variety of +subjects treated he may find much of the information for which he may +seek--if not in the exact form desired, perhaps in some typical form or +something sufficiently similar to suggest to him what he needs to know. + +It is hoped and confidently believed that a work so comprehensive in +scope and giving such a variety of designs, with detailed and practical +directions for their execution, will be not merely novel, but may serve +as a _vade-mecum_ and ready-reference book for the amateur of +constructive tastes. + + CHARLES G. WHEELER. + + BOSTON, June, 1899. + + +FOOTNOTE: + +[1] These criticisms are meant to apply to the class of manuals, +compendiums, and so-called "Boys' Books" and "Amateurs' Books," in the +_popular_ sense of the word, and not to the many admirable works on +sloyd, manual training, and the various special branches of +wood-working. + + + + + CONTENTS + + + _PART I--A WORKSHOP FOR AMATEURS_ + + CHAPTER PAGE + + I--INTRODUCTORY 1 + + II--TOOLS 9 + + III--WOOD 29 + + IV--WORKING DRAWINGS, LAYING OUT THE WORK, + AND ESTIMATING 49 + + V--THE WORKSHOP 56 + + + _PART II--ARTICLES TO BE MADE IN THE WORKSHOP_ + + VI--INTRODUCTORY 103 + + VII--A FEW TOYS 106 + + VIII--HOUSES FOR ANIMALS 126 + + IX--IMPLEMENTS FOR OUTDOOR SPORTS AND ATHLETICS 41 + + X--FURNITURE 175 + + XI--A FEW MISCELLANEOUS OPERATIONS 218 + + + _PART III--HOUSE-BUILDING FOR BEGINNERS_ + + XII--SOME ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES 238 + + XIII--SIMPLE SUMMER COTTAGES 271 + + XIV--A FEW SIMPLE STRUCTURES 291 + + + _PART IV--BOAT-BUILDING FOR BEGINNERS_ + + XV--A FEW SIMPLE BOATS 298 + + + _PART V--TOOLS AND OPERATIONS_ + + XVI--THE COMMON HAND-TOOLS, AND SOME EVERY-DAY + OPERATIONS, ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED FOR + READY REFERENCE 344 + + APPENDIX--MATTERS RELATING TO WOOD, SUGGESTIONS + ABOUT WORKING DRAWINGS, ETC. 507 + + INDEX 539 + + + + +INTRODUCTORY NOTE + + +It has seemed best to address parts of this book particularly to boys, +because the majority of beginners are boys, because boys need more +suggestions than men, and because a man can easily pick what he needs +from a talk to boys (and perhaps be interested also), while it is +usually unprofitable to expect a boy to take hold of a technical subject +in the right spirit if it is treated in a style much in advance of his +degree of maturity. It is hoped, however, that the older reader also +will find enough of those fundamental principles of successful work +(many of which do not readily occur to the untrained amateur except as +the result of much costly experience) to be a material help to him. + + + + + "It is not strength, but art obtains the prize, + And to be swift is less than to be wise; + 'Tis more by art, than force of numerous strokes." + + HOMER, _Iliad_. + + + + +WOOD-WORKING FOR BEGINNERS + + + + +PART I + +_A WORKSHOP FOR AMATEURS_ + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INTRODUCTORY + + +When one has made up his mind to make something, he usually wants to +begin work at once; so, as I wish you to read this chapter, I will make +it quite short. There is a great deal in getting started right, and +there are some things to bear in mind if you wish to do good work, as of +course you do. + +One thing is not to be in too much of a hurry to begin the actual sawing +and pounding. The old Latin phrase, "_Festina lente_" (make haste +slowly), is a capital motto for the beginner. Do not wait until your +enthusiasm has oozed away, of course, but do stop long enough to think +how you are going to make a thing before you begin to saw. + +The workman who thinks first and acts afterwards is the one who usually +turns out good work, while the one who begins to work without any +reflection (as boys, and even men, have been known to do) is apt to +spend much of his time in undoing his work, and usually does not get +through till after the one who laid it out properly in the first +place.[2] + +If Homer, in the quotation at the head of this chapter, had been writing +about the way boys' work is sometimes done, he might, perhaps, have +reversed the positions of some of the words and made "swiftness" and +"numerous strokes" the subjects of his emphasis. He has expressed well +enough, however, the way that your work should be done, and it is one +aim of this book to give you useful hints to that end. + +Do not spend your time in working out a lot of set exercises, like +joints and odd pieces that do not belong to anything in particular, +merely for practice. You will be much more apt to put the right spirit +into your work when you make complete and useful articles, and you will +get the same practice and experience in the end. There is no need, +however, to go through a deal of toilsome experience just to learn a +number of simple little things that you might just as well be told in +the first place. Begin the process of learning by experience after you +have learned what you can from the experience of others. Begin, so far +as you can, where others have left off. + +Before you begin work it may be interesting to look for a moment at the +way boys did their work from fifty to one hundred years ago. Have you +read the books by Elijah Kellogg? The reason for speaking of these +old-fashioned books is because of the picture they give of the time, not +so very long ago, when boys and their elders made all sorts of things +which they buy to-day, and also because of the good idea they give of +how boys got along generally when they had to shift more for themselves +than they do nowadays. + +The majority of the boys of that time, not merely on Casco Bay, where +Mr. Kellogg places the scenes of his stories, but in hundreds of other +places, had to make many things themselves or go without. Of course +there was a smaller number in the cities and larger towns who had no +good opportunity to make things and were obliged to buy what they could +afford (out of what we should call a quite limited variety), or to get +the carpenter or other mechanic to make what they needed. But the +majority of the boys of that time made things well and had a good time +making them. The life they led made them capital "all-round" boys. They +could turn their hands, and their heads too, to almost any kind of work, +and do it pretty well. + +Boys did a good deal of whittling then. This habit, as you doubtless +know, still clung to them after they grew up, and opening a jack-knife +and beginning to whittle was a common diversion whenever the men rested, +whether at the country-store or in the barn or dooryard or at their own +firesides. You can see the same habit to-day in some places. The boys +whittled splint-brooms of birch in Colonial days in almost every +household.[3] Among some of the minor articles made by boys and young +men were axe-helves and handles of all sorts, wooden rakes, wooden +troughs for bread and for pigs, trays, trenchers, flails, rounds for +ladders, bobbins, reels, cheese-boxes, butter-spats or -paddles, wooden +traps, and dozens of other articles, not to speak of their handiwork in +other materials than wood. + +For that matter much of the same life can be found to-day in the remoter +regions, and I have known young men brought up to this kind of life, who +(within my recollection) have, as a matter of course, done all the farm +work of good-sized cultivated farms with live stock, cut and hauled wood +from their wood-lots, done a good deal of sea-fishing and salting down +and drying of fish, tended and mended their fish-nets, weirs, and +lobster-traps, and sailed or rowed twenty-five miles to market with +their produce and back again with their supplies. They also built their +sheds, barns, and houses, and part of their furniture, their dories, big +scows, and capital sailboats; made their own oars and rigged their +boats; made many of their farm tools and implements; built their waggons +and "ironed" them, their ox-sleds and small sleds, and shod them; made +some of their tools; did their own blacksmithing, mason-work, +brick-laying, and painting; made their own shoes, and did I do not know +how many other odd jobs--all with but a limited supply of common +hand-tools. This work did not interfere with their going to school +through the winter months until they were twenty-one years old, and they +still found time for the usual recreations of the period. + +Now a young man must have been pretty well developed after going through +all that, even if he did not know much about Greek or calculus or was +lacking in superficial polish. And it is only the truth to say that +quite a number used to tackle the higher branches of study too, with +success made all the more assured by their development in other ways, +and many, in addition to all this, paid their way through college by +teaching or other work. How did they do so much? Partly, I suppose, +because their life was so much simpler and less complex than ours. They +did not have so many wants and there were not so many interests to +distract their minds. Partly because when they wanted something they +knew they must make it or go without. They did not draw so much as we do +now, but they did a great deal of observing. They examined things like +what they were to make and asked questions, and, knowing that where they +had so much to do they could not afford to keep trying things again and +again, they learned from their relatives and neighbours what was +considered the best way to do their work, and having thought it out +carefully they went at it with great energy. + +To-day we have only to go to a large factory to see a man standing +before some machine and doing some simple piece of work, requiring but +little thought--the same thing over and over again, hour after hour, day +after day, year after year, until he seems to become almost a part of +the machine itself, and is not fitted for doing much else. That is the +other extreme. Of course we get things cheaper (even if they do not last +so long) because of the factory; but how about the workman? Which of +these two types is the better-developed man? First you want to be +well-developed all-round boys, so that you will not become machines or +badly one-sided men. After that--each to his special bent, of course. + +Now because we no longer cut down trees ourselves, haul them to the mill +to be sawed, or rive or saw or hew them ourselves, leave the wood to +season, and then laboriously work it up into whatever we have to +make--because we no longer do that, but go instead to a lumber-yard and +a mill and have a large part of the work done for us--it is a good thing +for us to pause a moment before we begin our work to take in the fact +that _all_ the advantage is not with us now, and to think what a capital +gymnasium that former life was for strengthening a boy's muscle and +mind, not to speak of his morals. + +You could not go back to those days now if you wished to, of course +(except, perhaps, when you go to some of the remoter regions in +vacation), and you are doubtless better off for all the advantages you +have now and for all our time-saving contrivances, but the advantage +depends partly on _how you use_ the time saved from their laborious +tasks, does it not? You can, however, get inspiration from the example +of those older boys and from some of their methods, and can put their +self-reliant, manly zeal, grit, and perseverance into your work, and +have a capital time making the things and more sport and satisfaction +afterwards for having made them. + +This book does not try to show you a royal road or a short cut to +proficiency in architecture, carpentry, cabinet-making, boat-building, +toy-making, or any other art or science. It does not aim to cram you +with facts, but merely to start you in the right way. It is for those of +you who want to take off your coats, roll up your sleeves, and really +make things, rather than sit down in the house and be amused and perhaps +deluded by reading enthusiastic accounts of all the wonders you can +easily do--or which somebody thinks you would like to be told that you +can do. It is for those of you who do not wish to have your ardour +dampened by finding that things will not come out as the book said they +would, or that the very things you do not know and cannot be expected to +know are left out. + +It does not aim to stir up your enthusiasm at first and then perhaps +leave you in the lurch at the most important points. I take it for +granted that if you have any mechanical bent or interest in making +things, as most boys have, and are any kind of a real live boy, you have +the enthusiasm to start with without stirring up. In fact, I have even +known boys, and possibly you may have, who, strange as it may seem, have +had so much enthusiasm to make something or other that they have +actually had to be held back lest they should spoil all the lumber +within reach in the effort to get started! + +What you want is to be told how to go to work in the right way--how to +make things successfully and like a workman--is it not? Then, if you +mean business, as I feel sure you do, and really want to make things, +read the whole book through carefully, even if it is not bristling with +interesting yarns and paragraphs of no practical application to your +work. You will not find everything in it, but you cannot help learning +something, and I hope you will find that it attends strictly to the +business in hand and will give you a start in the right +direction,--which is half the battle. + + + "Man is a Tool-using Animal.... He can use Tools, can devise Tools; + with these the granite mountain melts into light dust before him; + he kneads glowing iron as if it were soft paste; seas are his + smooth highway, winds and fire his unwearying steeds. Nowhere do + you find him without Tools; without Tools he is nothing--with Tools + he is all."--CARLYLE, _Sartor Resartus_. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[2] An old gentleman whose help, on account of his accurate +workmanship, I once frequently obtained when "rushed," was an extreme +example of this systematic way of doing work. I would give him perhaps +three hours' work, which he would agree to have done at the end of that +time. Looking in after an hour or so I would find the work apparently +untouched, which was a little provoking, of course, as the average +workman would have had it perhaps one third done. But instead, this old +gentleman would be apparently only "puttering around," touching up his +saws, fixing his planes, whetting his chisels, looking over the wood, +and not getting ahead a bit. Going off in disgust (until I got +acquainted with his ways, I mean), I would return at the end of the +three hours, to find that the work had been ready some time and done to +perfection. While he was at first apparently accomplishing nothing he +was really getting everything in perfect shape to do the work and laying +out in his mind every detail of the whole process, so that when he began +the actual work it almost did itself, and he forged right ahead of the +average workman, who would either have been behind time or slighted the +work in order to get it done, and in most cases have made some mistake +to be corrected in some part of the process. I never knew that man to +make a mistake. Why? Not because his ability was extraordinary, but +because he concentrated his mind on the work and thought it out clear +through before he began. Now I know the average boy too well to expect +him to have the patience to do just as this workman did. It would be +unreasonable. But it is the true way to do good work, so try to think it +all out as far as you can and to get ready before you begin. The work +will go ever so much more quickly and easily. + +[3] "It has been said that the snow-shoe and canoe as made by the +Indians could never be improved. To these might be added the split birch +broom, or splinter broom, also the invention of the Indians, but made in +every country household in New England in Colonial days. The branch of a +large birch tree was cut eight feet long. An inch-wide band of the bark +was left about eighteen inches from one end, and the shorter and lower +end was cut in fine pliable slivers up to the restraining bark band. A +row of slivers was cut from the upper end downward, turned down over the +band, and tied firmly down. Then the remainder of the stick was smoothed +into a handle. These brooms were pliable, cleanly, and enduring, and as +broom-corn was not grown here until the latter part of the past century, +they were, in fact, the only brooms of those days. They were made by +boys on New England farms for six cents apiece, and bought by the +country storekeepers in large numbers for the cities' use."--_The +Chautauquan._ + + + + +CHAPTER II + +TOOLS + + +You can do a great deal with very few tools. The bearing of this +observation lies in "the application on it," as Jack Bunsby would say. + +Look at the complicated and ingenious curiosities whittled with a +jack-knife by sailors, prisoners, and other people who have time to kill +in that way! Have you ever seen the Chinese artisans turning out their +wonderful work with only a few of the most primitive tools? But of +course we cannot spend time so lavishly on our work as they do, even if +we had their machine-like patience and deftness acquired through so many +generations. + +We cannot hold work with our feet and draw saws towards us or do turning +out on the lawn with a few sticks and a bit of rope for a lathe; carve a +set of wonderful open-work hollow spheres, each within the other, out of +one solid ball of ivory; and the rest of the queer things the Orientals +do: but it is merely a matter of national individuality--the training of +hundreds of generations. We could learn to do such things after a long +time doubtless, but with no such wonderful adaptability as the Japanese, +for instance, are showing, in learning our ways in one generation. + +Examine some of the exquisite work which the Orientals sell so cheaply +and think whether you know anyone with skill enough to do it if he had a +whole hardware-shop full of tools, and then see with what few simple and +rude tools (like those shown in the following illustrations, or the +simple drill, Fig. 1, still in use) the work has been done. Mr. +Holtzapffel describes the primitive apparatus in use among the natives +of India as follows[4]: + +[Illustration FIG. 1.] + + + "When any portion of household furniture has to be turned, the + wood-turner is sent for; he comes with all his outfit and + establishes himself for the occasion at the very door of his + employer. He commences by digging two holes in the ground at a + distance suitable to the length of the work, and in these he fixes + two short wooden posts, securing them as strongly as he can by + ramming the earth and driving in wedges and stones around them. The + centres, scarcely more than round nails or spikes, are driven + through the posts at about eight inches from the ground, and a + wooden rod, for the support of the tools, is either nailed to the + posts or tied to them by a piece of coir or cocoanut rope. The bar, + if long, is additionally supported, as represented, by being tied + to one or two vertical sticks driven into the ground. During most + of his mechanical operations the Indian workman is seated on the + ground, hence the small elevation of the axes of his lathe. The boy + who gives motion to the work sits or kneels on the other side of + it, holding the ends of the cord wrapped around it in his hands, + pulling them alternately; the cutting being restricted to one half + of the motion, that of the work towards the tool. The turning tools + of the Indian are almost confined to the chisel and gouge, and + their handles are long enough to suit his distant position, while + he guides their cutting edges by his toes. He grasps the bar or + tool-rest with the smaller toes and places the tool between the + large toe and its neighbour, generally out of contact with the bar. + The Indian and all other turners using the Eastern method attain a + high degree of prehensile power with the toes, and when seated at + their work not only always use them to guide the tool, but will + select indifferently the hand or the foot, whichever may happen to + be the nearer, to pick up or replace any small tool or other + object. The limited supply of tools the Indian uses for working in + wood is also remarkable; they are of the most simple kind and + hardly exceed those represented in Fig. 2; the most essential in + constructing and setting up his lathe being the small, + single-handed adze, the bassoolah. With this he shapes his + posts and digs the holes; it serves on all occasions as a hammer + and also as an anvil when the edge is for a time fixed in a block + of wood. The outer side of the cutting edge is perfectly flat, and + with it the workman will square or face a beam or board with almost + as much precision as if it had been planed; in using the + bassoolah for this latter purpose the work is generally + placed in the forked stem of a tree, driven into the ground as + shown in the illustration." + +[Illustration FIG. 2.] + +If we are inclined to feel proud of the kind of wood-work turned out by +the average wood-worker of this country or England with his great +variety of tools and appliances and facilities, we might compare his +work with that done by the Orientals without our appliances. Read what +Professor Morse tells us of the Japanese carpenter[5]: + + "His trade, as well as other trades, has been perpetuated through + generations of families. The little children have been brought + up amidst the odour of fragrant shavings,--have with childish + hands performed the duties of an adjustable vise or clamp; and + with the same tools which when children they have handed to + their fathers, they have in later days earned their daily rice. + When I see one of our carpenters' ponderous tool-chests, made + of polished woods, inlaid with brass decorations, and filled to + repletion with several hundred dollars' worth of highly polished + and elaborate machine-made implements, and contemplate the work + often done with them,--with everything binding that should go + loose, and everything rattling that should be tight, and much work + that has to be done twice over, with an indication everywhere of + a poverty of ideas,--and then recall the Japanese carpenter with + his ridiculously light and flimsy tool-box containing a meagre + assortment of rude and primitive tools,--considering the carpentry + of the two people, I am forced to the conviction that civilisation + and modern appliances count as nothing unless accompanied with a + moiety of brains and some little taste and wit.... After having + seen the good and serviceable carpentry, the perfect joints + and complex mortises, done by good Japanese workmen, one is + astonished to find that they do their work without the aid of + certain appliances considered indispensable by similar craftsmen + in our country. They have no bench, no vise, no spirit-level, + and no bit-stock; and as for labour-saving machinery, they have + absolutely nothing. With many places which could be utilised for + water-power, the old country sawmill has not occurred to them. + Their tools appear to be roughly made and of primitive design, + though evidently of the best-tempered steel. The only substitute + for the carpenter's bench is a plank on the floor, or on two + horses; a square, firm, upright post is the nearest approach to + a bench and vise, for to this beam a block of wood to be sawed + into pieces is firmly held (Fig. 3). A big wooden wedge is bound + firmly to the post with a stout rope, and this driven down with + vigorous blows till it pinches the block which is to be cut into + the desired proportions. + +[Illustration FIG.3.--A JAPANESE CARPENTER'S VISE. From Morse's +_Japanese Homes_.] + +[Illustration FIG. 4.--CARPENTERS' TOOLS IN COMMON USE. From Morse's +_Japanese Homes_.] + + "In using many of the tools, the Japanese carpenter handles them + quite differently from our workman; for instance, he draws the + plane towards him instead of pushing it from him. The planes are + very rude-looking implements. Their bodies, instead of being + thick blocks of wood, are quite wide and thin (Fig. 4, D, E), and + the blades are inclined at a greater angle than the blade in our + plane. In some planes, however, the blade stands vertical; this + is used in lieu of the steel scrapers in giving wood a smooth + finish, and might be used with advantage by our carpenters as a + substitute for the piece of glass or thin plate of steel with + which they usually scrape the surface of the wood. A huge plane + is often seen, five or six feet long. This plane, however, is + fixed in an inclined position, upside down; that is, with the + blade uppermost. The board, or piece to be planed, is moved back + and forth upon it. Draw-shaves are in common use. The saws are of + various kinds, with teeth much longer than those of our saws, and + cut in different ways.... Some saws have teeth on the back as well + as on the front, one edge being used as a cross-cut saw (Fig. 4, + B, C). The hand-saw, instead of having the curious loop-shaped + handle made to accommodate only one hand, as with us, has a + simple straight cylindrical handle as long as the saw itself, and + sometimes longer. Our carpenters engage one hand in holding the + stick to be sawed while driving the saw with the other hand; the + Japanese carpenter, on the contrary, holds the piece with his + foot, and stooping over, with his two hands drives the saw by + quick and rapid cuts through the wood. This style of working and + doing many other things could never be adopted in this country + without an importation of Japanese backs.... The adze is provided + with a rough handle bending considerably at the lower end, not + unlike a hockey-stick (Fig. 4, A).... For drilling holes a very + long-handled awl is used. The carpenter seizing the handle at the + end, between the palms of his hands, and moving his hands rapidly + back and forth, pushing down at the same time, the awl is made + rapidly to rotate back and forth; as his hands gradually slip + down on the handle he quickly seizes it at the upper end again, + continuing the motion as before. One is astonished to see how + rapidly holes are drilled in this simple yet effective way. For + large holes, augers similar to ours are used." + +When you are obliged to work some day with few and insufficient tools +(as most workmen are at times), you will quickly realise how much you +can do with very few in case of necessity, and will more fully +appreciate the skill of those Eastern people who do so much with so +little. We do not need so many hand-tools for wood-work as our +grandfathers and our great-grandfathers, although we make a greater +variety of things, because machinery now does so much of the work for +us. Wood-workers of fifty years ago had, for instance, dozens of planes +for cutting all sorts of grooves, mouldings, and the like, which are now +worked by machine at the nearest mill. + + +=Suggestions about Buying.=--Do not start in by buying a chest of tools, +certainly not one of the small cheap sets. They are not necessarily +poor, but are very apt to be. Get a few tools at a time as you need +them. In that way you will get all you need in the most satisfactory +way. + +Besides the fact that you _can_ do good work with few tools there are +various reasons which make it _better_ to begin with but few. You will +probably take better care of a few than of many. If you have thirty +chisels on the rack before you and you make a nick in the end of the one +you are using, there is a strong chance that instead of stopping to +sharpen it you will lay it aside and take one of the remaining +twenty-nine that will answer your purpose, and before you realise it +have a whole rack full of dull tools. If you have but few chisels, you +will be _compelled_ to sharpen them, and so get into the habit of taking +proper care of them--not to speak of the time which is often wasted in +putting away one tool and selecting another unnecessarily. + +The longer you work the more you will get to _rely_ on a small number of +tools only, however many you may have at hand for occasional use. After +you have worked for some time you will be very likely to have your +favourite tools, and find that certain tools do better work in your +hands than certain others which perhaps someone else would use for the +purpose, and you will naturally favour the use of those particular +implements, which is another less important reason for not starting in +with too great a variety. I do not mean that you will imagine you can do +better with one tool than another, but that you really can do so. That +is where individuality comes in--the "personal equation." + +Watch a skilful carver at a piece of ordinary work. See how few tools he +spreads before him, and how much he does with the one in his hand before +he lays it down for another. You would think it would take twenty-five +tools, perhaps, to cut such a design, but the carver may have only about +half a dozen before him. He gets right into the _spirit_ of what he is +doing, and somehow or other he does ever so many things with the tool in +his hand in less time and carries out his idea better than if he kept +breaking off to select others. + +This shows that confidence in the use of a tool goes a long way toward +the execution of good work, which is one reason for learning to use a +few tools well and making them serve for all the uses to which they can +advantageously be put. In short, if you have but few tools at first you +get the most you can out of each tool and in the way best for yourself. + +Now I do not mean by all this that it is not a good thing to have a +large kit of tools, or that you should not have the proper tools for the +various operations, and use them. I mean that you should get your tools +gradually as you find that you need them to do your work as it should be +done, and not get a lot in advance of needing them just because they +seem to be fine things to have, or because some carpenter has them in +his chest. + +Do not place too much reliance on the lists of tools which you find in +books and magazines--the "tools necessary for beginners," "a list of +tools for boys," etc. Such lists are necessarily arbitrary. To make a +short list that would be thoroughly satisfactory for such varied work as +a boy or amateur may turn his hand to is about as impracticable as the +attempts you sometimes see to name the twenty-five greatest or best men +or the one hundred best books. When you can find half a dozen +independent lists which agree it will be time enough to begin to pin +your faith to them. The most experienced or learned people cannot agree +exactly in such matters. It depends somewhat, for one thing, on what +kind of work you begin with, and, of course, somewhat upon yourself +also. + +Now while, as we have seen, most wonderful work can be done with the +most primitive tools, the fact remains that you are neither Chinese nor +Japanese, but Americans and English, and you cannot work to the best +advantage without certain tools. "Well, what are they? Why don't you +give us a list to begin with? That's what we are looking for." Simply +because a quite varied experience has taught me to think it better to +give you suggestions to help you make the selection for yourselves. + +Just as the great majority of boys would agree upon _Robinson Crusoe_, +for instance, as belonging in the front rank of boys' books, but would +make very different selections of second-rate or third-rate books, so +there are a few "universal" tools, upon the importance of which all +agree, such as the saw, hammer, hatchet or axe, and a few others; but +beyond these few you can have as many "lists" as you can find people to +make them, up to the point of including all you are likely to want. So +let your list make itself as you go along, according to your own needs. + +It is safe to say, however, that if your work is to be at all varied, +such as is given in this book, for instance, you cannot get along to +good advantage for any length of time without a _rule_, a _try-square_, +a _straight-edge_, a _knife_, two or three _chisels_, a _hatchet_, a +_gouge_, a _smoothing-plane_, a _spoke-shave_, a _panel-saw_, a _hammer_ +and _nail-set_, a _bit-brace_ and three or four _bits_ (_twist-drills_ +are good for the smaller sizes), a _countersink_, a few _bradawls_ and +_gimlets_, a _screw-driver_, a _rasp_ and _half-round file_ for wood, a +_three-cornered file_ for metal, an _oil-stone_, a _glue-pot_. An +excellent and cheap combination tool for such work as you will do can be +bought almost anywhere under the name of "_odd jobs_." Of course you +will need nails, screws, sandpaper, glue, oil, and such supplies, which +you can buy as you need them. A section (18 inches or 20 inches high) +from the trunk of a tree is very useful for a chopping-block, or any big +junk of timber can be used. + +You will, however, quickly feel the need of a few more tools to do your +work to better advantage, and according to the kind of work you are +doing you will add some of the following: a _fore-plane_, a +_splitting-saw_, a _mallet_, a _back-saw_, _compasses_, one or more +_firmer chisels_, one or more _framing-chisels_, a _block-plane_, +_pincers_, a _gauge_ or two, one or more _gouges_, a _steel square_, a +_draw-knife_, a large _screw-driver_, a _scraper_, a few _hand-screws_ +(or _iron clamps_), a few more _bits_, _gimlets_, _bradawls_, or +_drills_, _cutting-pliers_ or _nippers_, a _bevel_, a _jointer_ (plane), +a _wrench_. An iron _mitre-box_ is useful but rather expensive, and you +can get along with the wooden one described further on. A _grindstone_ +is, of course, essential when you get to the point of sharpening your +tools yourself, but you can have your tools ground or get the use of a +stone without having to buy one for a long time. + +The following list makes a fair outfit for nearly and sometimes all the +work the average amateur is likely to do, excepting the bench appliances +and such contrivances as you will make yourselves and the occasional +addition of a bit or chisel or gouge or file, etc., of some other size +or shape when needed. This is not a list to start with, of course, +unless you can afford it, for you can get along for a good while with +only a part, nor is it a complete list, but merely one with which a +great amount of useful work can be done to good advantage. You can +always add to it for special purposes. + +For further remarks about these tools and others and their uses, see +Part V., where they will be found alphabetically arranged. + + 1 two-foot rule. + 1 try-square (metal-bound). + 1 pair of wing compasses. + 1 marking-gauge. + 1 mortise-gauge. + 1 steel square (carpenter's framing-square). + 1 bevel. + 1 "odd jobs." + 1 chalk-line and chalk. + 1 knife. + 5 firmer chisels (1/8", 1/4", 1/2", 7/8", 1-1/4"). + 2 framing-or mortising-chisels (1", 1-1/2"). + 3 gouges (1/4", 1/2", 1"). + 1 iron spoke-shave (adjustable). + 1 draw-knife. + 1 hatchet. + 1 block-plane. + 1 smoothing-plane. + 1 long fore-plane (or a jointer). + 1 jack-plane. + 1 rabbet-plane (3/4" or 7/8" square). + 1 cutting-off saw (panel-saw, 24"). + 1 splitting-saw (26"). + 1 back-saw (12"). + 1 turning-saw (14"). + 1 compass and keyhole saw (combined). + 1 bit-brace. + 3 auger-bits (1/2", 3/4", 1"). + 3 twist-drills (1/8", 3/16", 1/4"). + A few bradawls and gimlets. + 1 screw-driver for bit-brace. + 1 countersink. + 1 hammer and 2 nail-sets. + 2 screw-drivers (different sizes). + Files of several kinds (flat, + three-cornered, and round + for metal, and half-round + and round for wood). + 1 large half-round rasp. + 1 cabinet scraper and burnisher. + 1 mallet. + 1 pair cutting-pliers. + 1 pair of pincers. + 1 wrench. + 1 oil-stone and oiler. + 2 or 3 oil-stone slips (different + shapes). + 1 glue-pot. + 2 or more iron clamps. + 2 or more wooden hand-screws. + 2 or more cabinet clamps (2' to + 4'). + + An adjustable iron mitre-box will be a valuable addition to this + list, and a grindstone is of use even when you get most of your + grinding done. + + A few carver's tools are also convenient at times if you can afford + them, as a skew-chisel (1/2"), a parting-tool (1/4"), and a small + veining-tool. + + General supplies, such as nails, screws, glue, etc., specified in + Part V., will of course be required. + + * * * * * + +There are still more tools than those given above, as you doubtless +know, but by the time you have become workman enough to need more you +will know what you need. Ploughs, matching-planes, and all such +implements are omitted, because it is better and usually as cheap to get +such work as they do done by machine at a mill. I also assume that all +your heavy sawing and planing will be done at some mill. It is not worth +while for the amateur to undertake the sawing and planing of large +pieces, the hewing and splitting of the rougher branches of wood-work, +for such work can be done almost anywhere by machine at very slight +expense, and stock can be bought already got out and planed for but a +trifle more than the cost of the wood alone.[6] + +Be sure to get good tools. There is a saying that a good workman is +known by his tools, and another that a poor workman is always +complaining of his tools, that is, excusing his own incompetence by +throwing the blame upon his tools. There is also another saying to the +effect that a good workman can work with poor tools; but it is simply +because he is a skilled and ingenious workman that he can if necessary +often do good work _in spite_ of inferior tools, and of course he could +do the same work more easily and quickly, if not better, with good ones. + +So do not think that because you sometimes see a skilled workman making +shift with poor tools that you are justified in beginning in that way, +for a beginner should use only good tools and in good condition or he +may never become a good workman at all, so make your tools and their +care a matter of pride. If your tools are of good quality, and proper +care is taken of them, they will last a lifetime and longer; so good +tools prove the cheapest in the end.[7] + +There are some cases, however, in which it is as well not to buy the +most expensive tools at first, as a cheap rule will do as well as an +expensive one, considering how likely you are to break or lose it, and a +cheap gauge will answer quite well for a good while; but this does not +affect the truth of the general statement that you should get only the +best tools. There are also quite a number of tools, appliances, and +makeshifts which you can make for yourselves, some of which will be +described. I advise you not to pick up tools at second-hand shops, +auctions, or junk shops, except with the assistance of some competent +workman. + + +=Care of Tools.=--Keep your tools in good order. You cannot do nice, +fine, clean work with a dull tool. A sharp tool will make a clean cut, +but a dull edge will tear or crush the fibres and not leave a clean-cut +surface. You can work so much more easily and quickly as well as +satisfactorily with sharp tools that the time it takes to keep them in +order is much less than you lose in working with dull ones, not to speak +of the waste of strength and temper. + +I assume that you will not attempt to sharpen your tools yourselves +until you have had considerable experience in using them; for sharpening +tools (particularly saws and planes) is very hard for boys and amateurs, +and not easy to learn from a book. So, until then, be sure to have them +sharpened whenever they become dull. The expense is but slight, and it +is much better to have fewer tools kept sharp than to spend the money +for more tools and have them dull. When you get to the point of +sharpening your tools, one lesson from a practical workman or even a +little time spent in watching the operations (which you can do easily) +will help you more than reading many pages from any book. So I advise +you to get instruction in sharpening from some practical workman,--not +at first, but after you have got quite handy with the tools. You can +easily do this at little or no expense. For further points, see +_Sharpening_, in Part V. + +It is a good plan to soak tool handles, mallets, and wooden planes, when +new, for a week or so in raw linseed oil and then rub them with a soft +rag every day or two for a while. If you use wooden planes give them a +good soaking. They will absorb much oil and work more freely and +smoothly. You can save tool handles from being split by pounding, by +sawing the ends off square and fastening on two round disks of +sole-leather in the way adopted by shoe-makers. If there is any tendency +to dampness in your shop the steel and iron parts of the tools should be +greased with a little fat,--tallow, lard, wax, vaseline,--or some +anti-rust preparation. + + +=Use of Tools.=--It is very important to get started right in using +tools. If your first idea of what the tool is for and how it should be +used is correct you will get along nicely afterwards, but if you start +with a wrong impression you will have to unlearn, which is always hard, +and start afresh. + +If you can go to a good wood-working school you will of course learn +much, and if you know a good-natured carpenter or cabinet-maker or any +wood-worker of the _old-fashioned_ kind, cultivate his acquaintance. If +he is willing to let you watch his work and to answer your questions you +can add much to your knowledge of the uses of the different tools. In +fact, so far as instruction goes that is about all the teaching the +average apprentice gets. He learns by observing and by practice. Do not +be afraid or ashamed to ask questions. Very few men will refuse to +answer an amateur's questions unless they are unreasonably frequent. +There will be problems enough to exercise all the ingenuity you have +after you have learned what you can from others. + +But the day for the all-round workman seems to be rapidly passing away +and the tendency nowadays is for each workman, instead of spending years +in learning the various branches and details of his trade, to be expert +in only one very limited branch--or, as sometimes happens, a general +botch in all the branches; so unless you find a real mechanic for a +friend (such as an old or middle-aged village carpenter, or +cabinet-maker, or wheelwright, or boat-builder, or carver), be a little +guarded about believing all he tells or shows you; and beware of relying +implicitly on the teachings of the man who "knows it all" and whom a +season's work at nailing up studding and boarding has turned into a +full-fledged "carpenter." + +If you can learn to use your tools with either hand you will often find +it a decided advantage, as in getting out crooked work, or particularly +in carving, where you have such an endless variety of cuts to be made in +almost every possible direction, but "that is another story." A bad +habit and one to guard against is that of carrying with you the tool you +may be using whenever you leave your work temporarily, instead of laying +it down where you are working. Edge-tools are dangerous things to carry +around in the hand and there is also much chance of their being mislaid. + +For directions for using the different tools see Part V. + + +=Edge-Tools.=--Bear in mind that all cutting tools work more or less on +the principle of the wedge. So far as the mere cutting is concerned a +keen edge is all that is required and your knife or other cutting tool +might be as thin as a sheet of paper. But of course such a tool would +break, so it must be made thicker for strength and wedge-shaped so that +it may be pushed through the wood as easily as possible. + +You know that you can safely use a very thin knife to cut butter because +the butter yields so easily that there is not much strain on the blade, +but that when you cut wood the blade must be thicker to stand the strain +of being pushed through. Soft wood cuts more easily than hard, because +it is more easily pushed aside or compressed by the wedge-shaped tool, +and it does not matter how keen the edge may be if the resistance of the +wood is so great that you cannot force the thicker part of the tool +through it. + +You will understand from all this that the more acute the angle of the +cutting edge the more easily it will do its work, provided always that +the angle is obtuse or blunt enough to give the proper strength to the +end of the tool; and also that as the end of the tool encounters more +resistance in hard than soft wood, the angle should be more obtuse or +blunter for the former than for the latter. Theoretically, therefore, +the angle of the cutting edge, to obtain the greatest possible +advantage, would need to be changed with every piece of wood and every +kind of cut, but practically all that can be done is to have a longer +bevel on the tools for soft wood than for hard. Experience and +observation will teach these angles. See _Sharpening_ in Part V. + +When you cut off a stout stick, as the branch of a tree, you do not try +to force your knife straight across with one cut. You cut a small notch +and then widen and deepen it by cutting first on one side and then on +the other (Fig. 5). The wood yields easily to the wedge on the side +towards the notch, so that the edge can easily cut deeper, and thus the +notch is gradually cut through the stick. The same principle is seen in +cutting down a tree with an axe. You have only to look at the structure +of a piece of wood when magnified, as roughly indicated in Fig. 6, to +see why it is easier to cut with the grain than across it. + +[Illustration FIG. 5.] + +[Illustration FIG. 6.] + +[Illustration FIG. 7.] + +You can often cut better with a _draw-stroke_, _i.e._, not merely +pushing the tool straight ahead, but drawing it across sideways at the +same time (Fig. 7). You can press the sharp edge of a knife or razor +against your hand without cutting, but draw the edge across and you will +be cut at once. Even a blade of grass will cut if you draw the edge +quickly through your hand, as you doubtless know. + +If you try to push a saw down into a piece of wood, as you push a knife +down through a lump of butter, or as in chopping with a hatchet, that +is, without pushing and pulling the saw back and forth, it will not +enter the wood to any extent, but when you begin to work it back and +forth it cuts (or tears) its way into the wood at once. You know how +much better you can cut a slice of fresh bread when you saw the knife +back and forth than when you merely push it straight down through the +loaf. You may have noticed (and you may not) how much better your knife +will cut, and that the cut will be cleaner, in doing some kinds of +whittling, when you _draw it through the wood from handle to point_ +(Fig. 7), instead of pushing it straight through in the common way, and +you will discover, if you try cutting various substances, that as a +general rule the softer the material the greater the advantage in the +draw-stroke. + +Now put the sharpest edge-tool you can find under a powerful microscope, +and you will see that the edge, instead of being so very smooth, is +really quite ragged,--a sort of saw-like edge. Then look at the +structure of a piece of wood as roughly indicated in Fig. 6, and you +will understand at once just what we do when we cut wood with an +edge-tool. You see the microscopically small sticks or tubes or bundles +of woody fibre of which the big stick is composed, and you also see the +microscopically fine saw to cut them. Now if the edge of the tool is +fine you can often do the work satisfactorily by simply pushing the tool +straight through the wood, but do you not see that if you can draw or +slide the tool either back or forth the edge, being saw-like, will do +its work better? + +This stroke cannot be used of course in chopping with the axe or +hatchet, splitting kindling-wood, or splitting a stick _with_ the grain +with a knife or chisel. In these operations the main principle is that +of the wedge, pure and simple, driven through by force, the keen edge +merely starting the cut, after which the wedge does the rest of the work +by bearing so hard against the wood at the sides of the cut that it +forces it to split _in advance_ of the cutting edge, as in riving a log +by the use first of an axe, then of an iron wedge, and finally a large +wooden wedge (Fig. 8). + +[Illustration FIG. 8.] + +Practical directions and suggestions about the different _Tools and +their Uses_ and the various _Operations_ will be found alphabetically +arranged in Part V. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[4] Quoted, by kind permission, from _Turning and Mechanical +Manipulation_. + +[5] Quoted, by kind permission, from the valuable and entertaining work +on _Japanese Homes and their Surroundings_ (copyright. 1885), by Edward +S. Morse. + +[6] If you are so situated, as possibly a few of you may be, that you +cannot get the benefit of modern methods, but must do all the rough +work that your grandfathers did, you will require a few additional +tools, but these you can readily select from the descriptions given +farther on. + +[7] There are many reliable makers of tools. Among them the following +can be named, and their tools can be obtained almost anywhere: +Saws--Henry Disston. Chisels and gouges--Moulson Bros.; Buck Bros. +Planes--Stanley; Moulson Bros. (plane-irons); Wm. Butcher (do.); Buck +Bros. (do.) Files--P. S. Stubs. Rules and squares, levels, gauges, +spoke-shaves, etc.--Stanley Rule & Level Co. Braces--Barber. +Bits--Jennings. Knives (sloid)--Taylor. Carving tools--Addis; Buck; +Taylor. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +WOOD + + +Before you can make anything successfully, you must have not merely +wood, but the _right kind_ of wood for the purpose. There are, also, +"choice cuts" in lumber, as the butcher says of meat, and judicious +selection of the stock often makes all the difference between a good job +and a poor one; so let us examine a log and follow it through the +sawmill. + +You have, of course, seen the rings, or circular lines, on the ends of +pieces of wood (Fig. 9). These are called the _annual rings_,[8] and +each ring marks a new layer of wood added to the tree, for, as perhaps +you may have learned, the trees we use for wood-working grow by adding +new layers of wood on the outside. Examine the ends of pieces of wood of +various kinds. In some pieces these rings will be very plain. In others +they will be quite indistinct. + +[Illustration FIG. 9.] + +Notice that the wood nearest the bark, known as the _sapwood_, usually +looks different from the inner wood, which is called the _heart_ (Fig. +9). + +In some trees you will see rays, or lines, radiating from the centre, +and known as the _medullary rays_ (Figs. 9 and 10), because they spring +from the pith (Latin _medulla_). Sometimes these lines are too fine to +be noticed. + +You will see from Fig. 10 that the layers of wood are also shown in the +lines of what we call the "grain" on the surface of a piece of wood cut +lengthways, and that the lines of the grain are continuations of the +annual rings. You will also notice at the ends of timber, after the +seasoning has begun, cracks radiating from the centre, showing the +natural lines of cleavage or separation. + +[Illustration FIG. 10.] + +[Illustration FIG. 11.] + +The way the log is sawed is important, though you might naturally think +that the only thing is to saw it any way that will give pieces of the +required size and shape. + +Why is green wood heavier and softer than dry wood, and the sapwood of +green timber softer than the heart? Because of the sap or water +contained. The amount of water is sometimes even as much as fifty per +cent. of the weight of the wood, but the quantity depends upon the kind +of tree, the season, etc. Now the more water the green log contains, the +more it will shrink. It begins to dry and shrink as soon as the tree has +been cut down. The sapwood shrinks more than the heart because it +contains more water, and faster because, being on the outside, it is +more exposed. The log shrinks most in the line of the annual rings, that +is, _around_ the tree. It shrinks much less in the line of the medullary +rays, that is, _across_ the tree. Shrinkage lengthways is too slight to +be considered[9] (Fig. 11). + +The result of all this unequal shrinking is that the log tends to split, +or crack open, at the circumference (Fig. 12), the cracks running in +toward the centre, in the line of the medullary rays. If the log is +halved or quartered, so that the inner parts are exposed, the drying +goes on more uniformly throughout, the cracking is not so bad, and the +parts of the log will shrink somewhat as shown in Figs. 13 and 14. + +[Illustration FIG. 12.] + +[Illustration FIG. 13.] + +The beams, joists, planks, or boards cut from a log have the same +tendency to shrink unevenly that is found in the log itself. This causes +them to be irregular in shape and to curl or warp more or less, +according to the part of the log from which they are taken. A piece cut +from the centre of a log will thus hold its shape better than if cut +from one side (Fig. 15). + +[Illustration FIG. 14.] + +[Illustration FIG. 15.] + +[Illustration FIG. 16.] + +When a log is sawed into boards or planks (Fig. 16) the middle board +shrinks but little in width and in thickness at the centre, but becomes +thinner towards the edges. It does not curl, because it is cut through +the centre of the log and has no more tendency to curl one way than the +other. The outside board shrinks least in thickness and most in width, +and all, except the middle one, shrink differently on one side from the +other. They become convex toward the pith, or heart, and concave toward +the outside. Different kinds of wood shrink and warp to different +degrees. You can learn something about these matters by examining the +stock in any lumber-yard. + +Now to come to the practical application of our brief study of the log +and the sawing process: if you merely wish to get the most that you can +from a log in the form of boards or plank, have the pieces sliced off in +the simple way just shown (Fig. 17). This is the usual way of sawing +for ordinary purposes. Boarding for the outside of a house, for +instance, cut in this way answers every purpose. By this process the +central boards will be good and the outer ones inferior,[10] as just +shown (Fig. 16), but for common work all can generally be used. + +[Illustration FIG. 17.] + +[Illustration FIG. 18.] + +[Illustration FIG. 19.] + + +If you wish the highly figured grain[11] often seen in oak, ash, +chestnut, etc., you can get it by sawing the log as just shown in Fig. +17. The figure of the grain will be most marked in the outer boards +(Fig. 18), because the annual rings are cut more obliquely in them than +in the boards at or near the centre. These boards (Fig. 17) will tend to +change their shape, as just shown (Fig. 19), but if they are to be +firmly fastened in some way, or confined (as in a panel), handsome grain +effects can be obtained. + +[Illustration FIG. 20.] + +[Illustration FIG. 21.] + +[Illustration FIG. 22.] + +If you wish the beautiful figure formed when the medullary rays show on +the surface of the board, as in "quartered" oak, the log should be cut +in the direction of the radii, that is, along the lines of the medullary +rays (Fig. 20). The more exactly the side of a board is cut on the +radial line the more richly the figure of the medullary rays will be +shown, as in Fig. 21. This method of sawing is more expensive than the +first way, of course, as it requires more labour and wastes more of the +wood. The wide board shown in Fig. 21 and either of those in Fig. 22 are +examples. + +If you wish boards that will shrink the least in width and remain as +true as possible, then the log should be sawed on the radial lines as +just shown, so that all the boards will be from the middle of the log. +Wood shrinks but little in the direction of the radii, as just shown, +and middle boards will be alike on both sides as regards heart- and +sapwood, etc., and, therefore, have the least tendency to change of +shape. The middle board by the method of Fig. 17 will be a good board in +these respects. + +[Illustration FIG. 23.] + +[Illustration FIG. 24.] + +[Illustration FIG. 25.] + +Various methods of radial sawing, or in which part of the boards are so +cut, are shown in Figs. 20 and 26, Figs. 23, 24, 25, and 26 showing the +log quartered and various ways of sawing into boards. Thus we see that +the middle boards, those passing through or near the centre, are the +best for most purposes. + +[Illustration FIG. 26.] + +[Illustration FIG. 27.] + +Split or rift stock is stronger than sawed. If you wish a piece +especially tough and durable, as for an axe handle or a stout pin, it +should be split out rather than sawed, unless the wood is very +straight-grained, because the splitting is sure to be in the line of the +fibres, thus avoiding "cross-grain," which cannot well be entirely +prevented in sawing. If the grain is straight, there may be no practical +difference in the result between sawing and splitting, as in the +so-called rift flooring, which is really sawed, but with crooked-grained +pieces the difference is marked in such cases as the block shown in Fig. +27, from which four pins can be sawed, while but one can be split out. +That one will be straight-grained, however, and stronger than the sawed +ones, which will be cross-grained. + +Try your best to get well-seasoned wood for your nice work. If it is not +dry before you use it, it must of course dry afterwards, which is likely +to cause cracks, warping, opened joints, and often the entire ruin of +the article you have made. You will have to trust the dealer, or some +friend, until you have had enough experience to judge for yourself, for +it is no easy matter for an amateur to decide, except in case of very +green stock, which is of course wet and soggy. + +There are two ways of drying wood in common use. One is the +old-fashioned way (commonly known as _seasoning_, _weather-drying_, or +_air-drying_) in which the wood is gradually seasoned by the natural +process of exposure to the air (but protected from the weather), that +is, letting it dry of itself. + + * * * * * + +Do not believe the statements so common in books that it "takes lumber" +some definite time, as one year or two years, "to season." It all +depends on the kind of wood, its shape and size, the condition of the +atmosphere, and various circumstances. For some rough work (a pig-pen, +for instance) there is no advantage in seasoning at all, because the +stock can just as well dry after the work is done as before. For many +kinds of common work one or two years is sufficient for some kinds and +sizes of wood; for a nicer grade of work two or three years is none too +much, while for very nice indoor work four years or more is not too long +for the stock to season. There is very little danger of its being kept +too long. It never will get perfectly dry (see Appendix). Whether it is +dry _enough_ or not depends on what you want it for. + + * * * * * + +To save time and money the artificial way (known as _kiln-drying_) of +shutting it up in a room and drying it quickly by steam or other heat +is now used, and, so far as drying the wood is concerned, this process +can do the work well and much more quickly than the old way--sometimes +too quickly. It is no exaggeration to say that in factories where cheap +furniture and other common articles are made nowadays, a standing tree +is felled on Monday, the log rolled into one end of the factory, and +before Saturday night the finished articles made from it, all varnished +and complete, are sent out from the other end of the shop--and some +articles are turned out even quicker. + +In the natural process of air-drying the moisture gradually and slowly +works out to the surface and evaporates, until the wood is _seasoned_, +though never absolutely dry, and the stock is firmer, more elastic, and +less affected by heat and cold, moisture and dryness, than if +kiln-dried. The latter process tends to dry the outside and ends of the +lumber too fast for the inside. It certainly lessens the elasticity of +the wood and weakens it. Making it so unnaturally dry (as if baked), as +is often done, only makes it more susceptible to the atmosphere when +taken from the kiln, and, unless it is at once protected from the air in +some way, it will reabsorb moisture until it gets into a more natural +condition; but that will not fully restore the loss of elasticity (see +Appendix). The deterioration in the quality of the wood can be plainly +seen by any wood-worker, and is often a subject of remark in regard to +oak. + +The kiln-drying "takes the life out of the wood," as workmen express it, +but just why this is so is not easy to explain, for the structure and +properties of wood are very complex. I have seen too many illustrations +in my own experience and that of others to have any doubt of the fact, +however, and lumber left for years to season naturally, "stands," as the +expression is, better than if kiln-dried--a fact which is, I think, +generally conceded by wood-workers who have had experience with both +kinds. + +The gain by kiln-drying, in time and money, is, therefore, more or less +offset by impairment of the quality of the wood, so if you can find +stock that you know has been seasoning for years by the natural process, +buy it by all means for your nice work, even if you have to pay more, +regardless of what the dealers in kiln-dried stock or the makers of +articles for sale may tell you about the advantages of kiln-dried wood. + +On the other hand, if a dealer brags of his new patent "chain-lightning" +dryer that will make green wood "dry as a bone" in two or three days, go +elsewhere to buy your stock, for wood dried in a few days is not the +kind to use for good work. You will probably have to use kiln-dried +stock for most, or, perhaps, all of your work, but get it from a +slow-drying kiln and keep it for further seasoning as long as you can. + +Even if wood has been well seasoned, it is best, before putting it into +nice work, to cut it up and dress it approximately to shape and leave it +in a dry place for some time for a final seasoning, particularly in the +case of thick stock. Do this with kiln-dried stock fresh from the +dry-house. Let it have a little time to get into harmony with the +atmosphere. Whenever wood has been exposed to damp air, as in a wet shed +or cellar, let it stand in the warm shop a while before using it for +nice work. + +The stock is arranged for seasoning so as to allow the air to circulate +around and between the pieces. A common way is simply to arrange them in +piles, each piece being separated from those above and below by strips +or sticks laid across (Fig. 28). These sticks should be placed directly +over one another, and so that the lumber will lie straight, else the +weight of the pile, which should tend to make the pieces dry straight, +will have the opposite effect and make them permanently crooked. There +are other ways of arranging wood for drying, but this method is common +and illustrates the most important principles. Stock is sometimes +stacked upright, and small pieces are occasionally hung up for such nice +work as billiard cues and bows. + +[Illustration FIG. 28.] + +Seasoned wood is lighter in weight than green, dryer to the touch, +usually has a different odour, cuts differently when you whittle it (and +the piece you whittle off breaks differently), and it shows a difference +when you saw it. It is impossible to define these differences and you +will have to learn them by actual work. It is not always easy even for +an experienced person to tell with certainty about some pieces until he +has "worked" them, so much do the characteristics of different pieces +vary. One test is to rap the boards sharply with a hammer. A green board +and a dry one of the same kind will "rap" differently,--that is, will +have a different vibration and give out a different sound. Of course +this cannot be described, but you can judge quite well in this way. It +is one of the many things you can learn only by experience. You can +ascertain much about the character and condition of lumber by sawing or +planing or whittling a piece. This is a good test for dryness, +toughness, and elasticity (which you can tell about by breaking the +shavings). + +Weather-dried timber is usually somewhat darkened from exposure, but +kiln-drying lightens the colour of some woods. + +Stock with a bright lustrous appearance and of dark hue is generally +superior to that of a lighter colour and duller appearance, but such +characteristics depend much upon the kind of wood. Green wood is tougher +than seasoned wood, but the latter is more elastic. To subject seasoned +wood to moisture and heat brings it back, to a certain extent, to its +original condition, and renders it for the time being tougher, hence the +process of bending wood by the application of steam or hot water (see +_Bending_ in Part V.). + +Reject "wany" lumber, or that of which the edges or corners have not +been squared (Fig. 18), and also boards and planks which have not been +sawed to a uniform thickness. It is not uncommon for a board to be +considerably thinner than it should be in some part of its length, due +to irregularity in sawing. + +For plain work avoid "cross-grained" stock, as well as that having knots +(which are sometimes "tight" and sometimes "loose"), as it is harder to +work and to smooth, is not as strong, and does not hold its shape as +well, as a rule. Sometimes it is desirable, however, on account of the +beautiful figure of the grain shown in many crooked-grained pieces, as +in mahogany for furniture (see Appendix). Bear in mind that when +especial strength is required rift stock is best. + +Reject wood which smells musty, or has rusty-looking spots, which are +signs of decay, or of the attack of fungi, which may spread and under +favourable conditions attack other pieces which are sound (see +Appendix). + +[Illustration FIG. 29.] + +[Illustration FIG. 30.] + +Reject crooked stock. The worst form is _winding_ or twisting. Of course +no one would take such an extreme case as Fig. 29, unless for some very +rough work, but even a _very slight_ winding may make much trouble in +your nice work. So look particularly for this defect, which you can +often detect at once by the eye, but if your eye is not well trained use +winding-sticks (see Part V.). _Warped_ or curled stock, with the surface +rounded or hollowed (Fig. 19), is also bad, but you will need no +instructions to detect this defect by the eye or any straight stick. +When boards are rounding on one side and hollowing on the other, it is +due either to the way the log was sawed, as we have seen, or to one side +having been more exposed and so having dried faster and shrunk faster +than the other, causing that side to be concave, while the other became +convex. Stock is sometimes crooked lengthways,--either a simple bending +in a curve or at an angle, or wavy (Fig. 30), or both,--often due to +careless "sticking" (Fig. 28) while the wood was green. Sighting +lengthways will of course show these defects. + +Reject stock badly checked at the ends, or cracked. There is apt to be +more or less of this in most lumber. In seasoning, the pieces dry faster +on the outside than in the middle, which causes checks or cracks, +usually worse at the ends of the pieces, where the drying takes place +most rapidly. The ends of valuable boards and planks are sometimes +painted or cleated, which in a measure prevents this result. +Occasionally, when the cleat is removed a crack will suddenly extend +and even split the board. + +Do not take a cracked or partly split board, thinking that you can use +the sound end from the point where the crack _appears_ to stop. Possibly +you can, but oftentimes and in some kinds of wood it is impossible to +tell before the stock is cut where the cracks end. In mahogany, for +example, they sometimes are found to extend, or develop, several feet +beyond where they appear to stop. Sometimes you can buy wood with such +defects at a discount. Unless you are _sure_, however, that there is +enough sound, clear wood outside of the cracks or knots, and unless the +discount is pretty large, it will usually be better to buy clear, sound +stock for nice work, as the waste is very apt to offset the saving, not +to speak of the extra time and labour it takes to work up such material. +(See _Shakes_ in Appendix.) + +Reject sapwood as far as possible, because it is usually inferior to the +heartwood. + + * * * * * + +In the case of elm and young ash the sapwood is, however, superior to +the heart. The heartwood is usually harder and more durable than the +sapwood, heavier, of better texture, and commonly of better colour. + +"The sapwood is, as a rule, darker in the whitewood class than the +heartwood, whether seasoned or unseasoned, but is paler in colour in +most hardwood trees which have had time to season. In some of the white, +or softer woods, when fresh cut, the difference is scarcely perceptible; +but exposure to the air quickly gives to the outer layers a greenish +tinge, due to a species of mould fungi which attack them."--LASLETT and +WARD. (See also Appendix.) + + * * * * * + +When buying, do not take boards just as they happen to come from the +pile. Select them yourself. Most good-natured dealers will let you do +this if you do not expect them to unstack a whole pile just for one or +two boards. It is better to do this for nice work even if a slight +charge should be made for the privilege. When you come to pick out +boards you will see the application of what has been said about the ways +of cutting the log, and you can tell by the annual rings at the ends of +the boards, by the sapwood (when visible), the grain, etc., from what +part of the log the pieces were sawed. + +Use good, clear stock for everything but rough work. Of course in rough +or temporary work you can save expense by using wood from packing-cases, +boxes, old fence-rails, or anything that will serve the purpose, but as +a rule avoid trying to make nice, new things of wood taken from old work +or boxes. The quality of the wood used for boxes nowadays is apt to be +poor and hard to work. The wood taken from old cabinet-work is, however, +often better than you are likely to buy, but you need to be very +cautious about working over old material, for the dirt which has been +ground into it is apt to dull your tools, and, moreover, the presence of +concealed nails, etc. (which it is sometimes almost impossible to +detect), will often injure your tools so much as to more than offset +what you save in expense. + +Do not buy thick stock with the idea of sawing it into thinner pieces +(unless necessary). Of course it can be sawed into thinner or smaller +pieces, but you cannot always be sure that these will be as true as the +original stock. Suddenly exposing the middle of a piece of wood to the +air in this way sometimes plays queer pranks with the shape of the +pieces (see Appendix). If you want to use boards for good work buy those +which have seasoned as boards, instead of splitting up thicker lumber; +and always try to treat both sides of a board alike so far as you can. + +Bear this in mind: If you take an inch board to the mill to be planed +down to three eighths of an inch, for instance, have it planed equally, +as nearly as may be, from both sides. Ignorant hands often simply smooth +off, or "surface," one side, and then plane the board down on the other +side, when it will sometimes warp badly at once and be useless, perhaps, +for the purpose intended. + +If you carefully pile and "stick" the stock you have bought (Fig. 28), +it will tend to keep the pieces straight and true. Never lay good boards +down flat directly upon one another unless they are _thoroughly_ +seasoned. It is the best of all ways, however, to _keep_ a pile of +thoroughly seasoned stock, but not the way to season it. The top board +will warp. Never lay a single board of nice stock flat on its side. Keep +short pieces of nice stock standing on end where they will be equally +exposed on both sides to heat and cold, moisture and dryness. + +The best way to learn about any kind of wood is from the wood itself. It +is a capital idea to make a collection of specimens of as many kinds as +you can.[12] You will be surprised to see how varied, interesting, and +handsome a collection you can make at little or no expense. (See +Appendix.) + +The kinds of wood which you are likely to use are commonly known as +either _hard_ or _soft_, the former class from trees with broad leaves, +as the oak, the latter from the coniferous or needle-leaved trees, as +the white pine. This distinction between hard and soft wood you may find +somewhat puzzling at first, for the common whitewood of the hardwood +class you will find softer and easier to work than hard pine of the +softwood class, but the distinction is based on botanical reasons. The +hard woods are usually more durable as well as stronger than the soft. +For various woods see Appendix. + + * * * * * + +_Timber._--The word timber is applied in a general way to the log and to +the material itself, and to the standing trees. It is also applied more +specifically to the larger squared pieces, or "dimension" stock, such as +sills, beams, etc. + +_Lumber._--As the term is used in the United States, lumber consists, +according to Webster, of "timber sawed or split for use, as beams, +joists, boards, planks, staves, hoops, and the like." + + * * * * * + +Lumber may be either _undressed_ or _dressed_, that is, rough (as it +comes from the saw) or planed. It is usually sawed in regular +thicknesses, and for stock which is in steady demand, such as joists, +floor timbers, etc., in regular widths, as 2" x 4", 4" x 6", etc. It is +commonly sold in lengths varying from 10 feet to 20 feet. Twelve feet is +a common length for boards. Planing (by machine) rough or undressed +boards on both sides will usually reduce the thickness of an inch board +to about seven eighths of an inch. Other thicknesses will of course be +reduced correspondingly. Bear this in mind. The terms 1" board, 2" +plank, etc., apply, as a rule, to the stock in the rough state as it +comes from the saw. When you buy planed or dressed lumber it will be +thinner--that is, the "inch board" that you wish to get for a shelf will +not be one inch thick (unless you get it unplaned), but seven eighths of +an inch. + + * * * * * + +You must make allowance for this when you figure on _dressed_ lumber. If +for example the board must be one inch thick when planed, you will have +to get a thin plank and have it planed down, or pull over the pile +until you find a board which happens to be sawed as thick as one inch +and one eighth. You can sometimes find boards planed one inch thick, but +as a rule you will find the thickness seven eighths of an inch. A +similar statement will apply to the various thicknesses of planks also. +The sawing is often very irregular, however, and frequently some boards +or planks will run thick enough in sawing to give the required thickness +when planed, so it is well to look for such when you need pieces a +little thicker than planed stock usually runs. + +[Illustration FIG. 31.] + + * * * * * + +For such work as you are likely to do you will chiefly need boards, +planks, and joists. Other forms will be referred to farther on. + + * * * * * + +_Boards._--These are one inch thick or less. + +_Matched-boards_, or "sheathing," have a groove on one edge and a +corresponding tongue on the other (Fig. 31.) Any number of boards can +thus be joined to make a wide surface. The edges of these boards were +formerly tongued and grooved by hand with "matching-planes," but now +this is done by machine, usually with some form of bead or moulding at +one edge (and sometimes in the middle) to render the joint less +noticeable. + +_Planks._--These are _thick_ boards,--more than one inch in thickness. +Both planks and boards can be of any width or length, the distinction +being merely in thickness. + +_Joists._--These are the same as narrow planks, but of some fixed width, +as 2" by 3", which is the same as a 3" strip sawed from the edge of a 2" +plank. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration FIG. 32.] + +[Illustration FIG. 33.] + +Most of the lumber you will require is sold by the square foot, at so +much an M (1000 feet), or so much a foot. The square foot has an area of +144 square inches and is one inch thick, or contains 144 cubic inches, +regardless of the shape or size of the piece. That is, Figs. 32, 33, and +34 each equal one square foot by board measure. + +[Illustration FIG. 34.] + + * * * * * + + Thus a board 12' long, 12" wide, and 1" thick, contains 12 feet, + board measure. A board 12' long, 6" wide, and 1" thick, contains 6 + feet. A plank 12' long, 12" wide, and 2" thick, contains 24 feet. A + plank 12' long, 6" wide, and 2" thick, contains 12 feet, or the + same as the board first mentioned. You can bear in mind that in + case of boards 12' long the contents in feet is indicated by the + width in inches, as you will see from the examples just given. A + board 12' long and 7" wide contains 7 square feet. So all you have + to do to measure 12' stock is to find the width in inches. If the + board tapers in width, measure at the middle. The same is true of + planks, only the width in inches must be multiplied by the + thickness of the plank. A plank 12' long, 7" wide, and 3" thick, + contains 21 square feet. Of course this principle can be quickly + applied to pieces whose length is any convenient multiple or + fraction of twelve. Thus a board 18' long, 8" wide, and 1" thick, + contains 1-1/2 times as many square feet as one 12' long, or 12 + feet. A plank 9' long, 6" wide, and 2" thick, contains 3/4 as many + square feet as if 12' long, or 9 square feet. + + * * * * * + +Boards less than one inch thick are usually sold by the square foot of +surface, regardless of thickness--the price varying according to the +thickness, except in cases where an inch board is planed down, when, of +course, inch thickness is charged for. There is no distinction made in +_measuring_ between a rough board 1" thick and a planed board 7/8" as, +of course, they represent the same amount of lumber. The cost by the +foot of the planed board is greater because of the expense of planing. +In cities, and sometimes in the larger towns, you can find thin boards +(1/2", 3/8", 3/16", 1/8" thick) already planed, and even scraped, for +nice work. + + * * * * * + +Some of the rarer and less commonly used woods are often sold by the +pound, as ebony, leopard wood, tulip wood, etc. Pieces turned out in +quantities for special uses, as strips, mouldings, etc., are often sold +by the "running foot," meaning simply the length, the price varying +according to the amount of lumber and labour required. Certain regular +sizes and shapes of lumber are sold by the hundred or by the piece. +Shingles, clapboards, laths, and the like, are sold in bunches or +bundles. + + * * * * * + +For other matters relating to wood, see Appendix. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[8] So called because in the common trees of temperate climes one layer +is added each year. + +[9] Although the shrinkage lengthways is not usually noticeable as +affecting the length of a board, it shows slightly by its effect in +causing the pieces to spring, or become bowed lengthwise, as you will +see in many boards which have been left free to spring while seasoning. + +[10] In addition to the curling, the outer boards will be poorer +because they contain a greater proportion of sapwood, which is usually +inferior to the heartwood. + +[11] By this is not meant the figure or flashes shown by the medullary +rays, or "silver grain," seen in _quartered_ oak and some other woods, +but the figure of the grain without the medullary rays, as seen in +_plain_ oak, etc. + +[12] The forests of North America, exclusive of Mexico, are now +believed, according to Sargent, to contain four hundred and twenty-two +species of plants, besides numerous varieties, which can fairly be +considered trees. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +WORKING DRAWINGS, LAYING OUT THE WORK, AND ESTIMATING + + +=Working Drawings.=--A simple drawing will often give you a better idea +of an object than you can get from any description in words, for drawing +is not only a very ancient form of language but one readily understood +by people of all countries and all times. It is one of the chief tools +of a workman in these days, so of course the quicker you become familiar +with it the better, for the day for "rule-of-thumb" work and feeling +one's way along step by step is fast giving way to the guidance of the +working drawing, which shows one not only exactly what is to be made but +exactly how to make it. + +When you wish to make some particular thing, you should begin by making +rough sketches to express your idea, and from them an accurate working +drawing in which every detail and measurement is clearly given. Make all +your working drawings carefully to scale (see Appendix), and whenever +you can, make them _full size_. Do not guess at the height, width, and +length, but measure, and measure very carefully. Never mind if it takes +time. Learn first to do it right, and practice will soon teach you to do +it more quickly. + +The time to make changes in your plans is when you are making the +drawings--particularly the rough preparatory sketches. Making the +drawings will, if you make them complete and accurate, show you what you +know and what you do not know about the subject. _The working drawing +should be complete and final._ + +Begin the making of sketches and detailed drawings with the first +article you make, no matter how simple it may be. You can go about the +work with confidence, which goes a long way toward success, when you +know that you have thought it out to the end and have it all done on +paper. For practical suggestions about working drawings, see Appendix. + +=Laying out the Work.=--Try to get the measurements and lines exact, and +do not be satisfied with coming within an eighth of an inch. You cannot +do good work unless it is laid out right, and cutting exactly to a line +will do no good if the line is in the wrong place. It makes no +difference how accurately you saw off a board if you have marked it half +an inch too short, nor how nicely you make the two parts of a joint if +you have laid them out so that they can not fit together. The work is +spoiled in either case. + +Go over all your measurements a second time. It is a good plan to check +them by measuring back in the opposite direction, just as you prove your +addition of a column of figures downward by adding again upward. Nothing +is easier than to make mistakes in measuring. No amount of experience +will prevent the chance of it. It takes but little time to measure +twice, much less time than to correct mistakes--as you will discover +when you cut off a mahogany board five inches too short and have to go +half a mile to the mill and pay a dollar or two for a new piece. + +In getting out stock for nice work it is best to make plenty of +allowance for the pranks which expansion and contraction may play with +the pieces (see Appendix). How to arrange the various parts of your work +with regard to this swelling and shrinking, warping and winding, is a +matter of practical importance, for a piece of wood can no more keep +still than an active boy can, and, although its movements do not cause +so widespread havoc as the motions of some boys, you will have to keep a +careful eye on its actions if you wish to turn out good work. + +This applies not merely to the way green wood shrinks, as we have +already seen, but particularly to the way _seasoned_ wood acts. Many +people think it is only green wood that causes trouble with wood-work, +but there is much difficulty with dry wood--that is, what we _call_ dry +wood. It never is really absolutely dry, except when it is baked, and +kept baked (see Appendix). The moment you take it out of the kiln or +oven, it begins to take up some of the moisture from the air, as we +have seen, and swells. If the air becomes more damp, the wood sucks in +more moisture and swells more. If the air becomes dryer, it sucks some +moisture from the wood, and the wood becomes dryer and shrinks. It is +thus continually swelling and shrinking, except in situations where the +amount of moisture in the air does not change, or when the wood is +completely water-logged. + +"What does such a little thing as that swelling and shrinking amount to? +Use more nails or screws or glue and hold it so tight it cannot move." +Well, it amounts to a good deal sometimes when you cannot open the +drawer where your ball is, or a door or a window, without breaking +something. + + * * * * * + +In the days of high-backed church pews with tall doors to every pew, +each pew door would swell in damp weather, of course, and in continued +dampness the doors of a certain church fitted quite snugly. There was +usually no special trouble, however, for, many of the doors being open, +the pew frames would give way a little so that the closed doors would +open with a slight pull; but if all the doors were shut the whole line +would be so tightly pressed together that it would take the utmost +strength of a man to start a door. Some boys one day catching on to this +idea (though they were not studying wood-work), got into the church one +Sunday morning before service and by using their combined strength +succeeded in closing every door. They then climbed over the top into +their own pew, where they awaited developments, as one after another +sedate churchgoer, after a protracted struggle, finally burst open his +pew door with a ripping squeak or a bang. You will understand that those +boys always remembered the expanding power of wood. I feel sure that I +am not putting any boys up to improper mischief in telling this story, +because pews are not so often made in that way now, and there is slight +danger of their having any chance to try it. + + * * * * * + +Did you ever see stone-workers split big rocks by drilling a row of +holes and driving dry wedges into them and then wetting the wedges, when +the stone will split?[13] Do you think nails or screws or glue will stop +a force which will do that? You cannot prevent the swelling and the +shrinking any more than you can repress a boy's animal spirits. You may +be able to crush the wood, but so long as it remains a sound, natural +board it must swell and shrink. + +What shall you do then? Why just the same as with the boy; give it a +reasonable amount of play, and a proper amount of guidance, and there +will be no trouble. You must put your work together so as to allow for +the expansion and contraction which you cannot prevent. You will find +abundant examples, in almost every house, of work which has split or +come apart or warped because proper allowance was not made for this +swelling and shrinking. So try to avoid these errors so common even +among workmen who should know better. + +[Illustration Fig. 35.] + +For instance, if you were to put cleats on one side of a drawing-board +three feet wide, and were to firmly glue the cleats for their whole +length (Fig. 35),--you sometimes see such things done,--you would +probably not have to wait many weeks before you would hear a report +like a toy pistol, and the cleats would be loosened for at least part of +their length, because of the expansion or contraction of the board. +Similar cases are continually occurring. In such cases the cleats should +be screwed, the screws having play enough in their holes to allow for +the changes in the board (see Appendix). + +You must also make plenty of allowance for planing down edges and +surfaces and for the wood wasted by sawing. No rule can be set for these +allowances. If you do not leave enough spare wood, the pieces will +finally come out too small. If you leave too much you will increase the +amount of planing or shaping to be done, but of the two extremes it is +better to err on the side of allowing too much. + +A rod (any straight stick), say six feet long, and another ten or twelve +feet long, with feet and inches marked, are very handy to have when +laying out work roughly, or for measuring outdoor work approximately. + +Lay out your work from only one edge or one surface of a piece of lumber +unless you are _sure_ the edges or surfaces are exactly parallel. Having +selected the best edge for a "working edge" and the best surface for the +"face," mark them with an X or other mark to avoid mistakes (Fig. 36). +This is quite important in laying out a number of pieces, as before the +stock is accurately worked into shape you cannot usually rely on the +edges being parallel. One mark like a V as shown in Fig. 36 will +indicate both the working edge and the face. + +[Illustration FIG. 36.] + +=Estimating.=--You must, of course, learn to make your estimates +yourself, often a very important preliminary. Prices vary, and you +cannot always rely on other people's estimates for your own work. It is +a matter of simple arithmetic and of making correct allowance for waste +and incidentals. + +You can always get the prices easily. Figure the amount of wood +required, the number of square feet (see page 47) of each kind, or +running feet, as the case may be, and multiply by the price a foot; but +after this comes the allowance for waste, etc., which cannot usually be +figured exactly, but must be estimated. + + * * * * * + +For instance, if you wish to make a double-runner, with a seat ten feet +long, the board from which to make it will very likely be twelve feet +long, in which case you must, of course, buy the whole board. Perhaps +you can use the two feet left over somewhere else on the sled, perhaps +part may be checked or injured. + +There is almost always some defective wood (worthless, except for fuel); +some pieces are too short or small to be of use; and very often some +quite good-sized pieces are left over, which, so far as the particular +job is concerned, are waste,--that is, you must buy them in order to get +enough. Such pieces can be used on other work, and are not really wasted +in the end. + +Just how much to add to the number of feet to cover waste varies, of +course, with every job. Some people add a fixed per cent. to their +measurements or calculations, which, although not exactly correct for +any one job, strikes an average for a good many. It would not be easy to +state any such per cent. for the varied work you will do, but the main +thing to bear in mind is that you must make a liberal allowance. Just so +with the other materials. Remember to allow for waste and for unforeseen +extras. Even with experienced people things are very apt to cost more +than the estimate. + +Make a neat schedule to take to the lumber-yard or mill, specifying the +kinds and dimensions of the stock required. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[13] The peculiarity of the wood is that the water is not simply drawn +in to fill up what we call the pores, as in chalk or any ordinary porous +inorganic substance, but enters into the very fibre of the body, forcing +apart the minute solid particles with an extraordinary force which does +not seem to be fully understood. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE WORKSHOP + + +If you have a place where you can build a workshop you will find one +described in Part III. If not, try to find a well-lighted shop, both on +account of your eyes and your work; one that is dry, or your tools will +rust and your work be injured; and one that can be heated, for there +will be no time you will wish to use it more than on cold, stormy days. + +As a rule, an outbuilding is better than a basement or attic, other +things being equal, because a basement is liable to be damp and dark, +and an attic is bad about carrying materials and finished work up- and +down-stairs. Noise in the top story of a house is usually more +disturbing to the occupants than noise in the basement; but all these +conditions vary in different places. + +Have a lock on the door of your workshop, partly to keep small children +from getting cut if they should come in without leave, and partly to +prevent your work being interfered with in your absence and the +edge-tools used for various domestic purposes by your feminine +relatives, who might, in their innocence, mistake your best gouge for a +tack-puller or the quarter-inch chisel for a screw-driver. + +Of course you will have overalls and jumper or a work-man's apron made +of denim, ticking, or some strong cloth. If you use an apron, have a +pocket in it. A small slip of a pocket on the outside seam of your +overalls above the right knee is also useful for holding a rule. When +you have a long job of dirty work before you, a good way is to change +your clothes for any "old duds" that you may have. This saves your +clothes, and in warm weather is more comfortable and healthful than to +wear overalls. + +[Illustration FIG. 37.] + +Your shop can be all fitted up for you by a carpenter, but it will be +better, and better fun, to do it yourself. After the workshop itself is +ready the first important thing is the work-bench. + + +=The Work-Bench.=--A very simple one (Fig. 37) will answer your purpose +for a long time. When you become a pretty good workman and feel the need +of something better (for a first-class bench with the best attachments +is really a great help toward doing good work), you will still find this +first simple affair very useful in some part of your shop.[14] There is +no need of a bench being made of stock of exactly the dimensions given, +so if you have a pile of boards and joists to draw from without buying, +you can, of course, substitute other-sized pieces, provided you use +stock heavy enough to make a firm bench. Heavier legs and top (front +board) would be better, and in fact _there is little danger of making a +bench too solid_. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning to work read carefully _Marking_, _Square_, _Rule_, +_Saw_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +The design is for a small bench, 5' 10" long, 2' wide, and 2' 6" high. A +larger one can be made on the same principle.[15] + +You will require for stock: + + 1 piece of 3" X 4" joist 10' long. + 1 board, 7/8" thick, planed, 12" wide, 12' long. + 1 " " " " 10" " 12' " + 1 " " " " 10" " 6' " + 1 plank, 1-1/2" or 2" thick, planed, 5" or 6" wide, 2' 9" long. + 1 strip, 1/2" to 7/8" thick, 3" or 4" wide, 15" long. + +Pine is good, and almost any cheap wood can be used. Hemlock is not very +suitable, unless for the legs. Spruce is cheaper than pine or whitewood, +and can be used for economy, but is prone to warp and twist and should +be thoroughly nailed. + +First make the legs and fasten them together. To do this, take the joist +and lay it on two boxes or old chairs (Fig. 38), which you can use +temporarily for horses, until you make a pair. See whether either end is +cut off squarely. If neither is, mark a line by the square a short +distance (perhaps half an inch, according to the condition of the end of +the joist) from one end, on one side of the joist. Carry this line +around the joist by applying the square to each side successively, and +saw off the waste end with the cross-cutting saw. Having one end square, +measure from that end 2' 5" and mark a line around the joist as before. +Saw this piece off, and using it as a measure (but not as a square), +mark and saw off three more pieces. These are for the legs. + +[Illustration FIG. 38.] + +[Illustration FIG. 39.] + +Next, from the short 10" board, mark and cut off two pieces 1' 10-1/4" +long in the same manner (Fig. 39), seeing first that the end from which +you begin to measure is square. You do not need to mark the under side +of the boards, but only the top and the edges. Now square a line 1" from +each end of each of these short boards, and start three nails on each of +the lines by driving them nearly through the board (Fig. 40). (See +_Nailing_.) Next, place the end of one of these boards on the narrow +side of one of the legs, and, holding it firmly in position, nail it +securely to the leg. You must take pains to keep the leg and the +cross-piece "square." Nail only one nail first and then adjust, testing +with the try-square before driving the other nails (Fig. 41). Then nail +the other end to another leg, and repeat the process with the other +board and the remaining legs. This will give two frames like Fig. 42. + +[Illustration FIG. 40.] + +[Illustration FIG. 41.] + +[Illustration FIG. 42.] + +[Illustration FIG. 43.] + +[Illustration FIG. 44.] + +[Illustration FIG. 45.] + +Next, fasten the sides to the legs. Take the 10" board and mark and +saw off two pieces 5' 10" long in the same way as before (Fig. 43). At +distances of 7" and 12" from each end of each board, mark lines across +the side with the square and start nails between these lines (Fig. 44). +Then, fitting these lines at the outside edges of the legs, nail the +sides securely to the legs, as shown in Fig. 45. But drive only one +nail through into each leg at first, until you are sure that the frame +is coming together square and true throughout. Test the angles with the +square. Stand the frame on as level a surface as you can find and sight +across the top endways and crossways to see if either corner sticks up +or down. If the top is not true, twist the frame enough to make it so, +which you can easily do if you have but one nail in each corner. When +the top is true and the legs at right angles, drive in the rest of the +nails (Fig. 45). Be sure to test the top for winding, as just said (see +Part V.), rather than to trust to the way the legs stand on the floor. +Floors are often uneven, and the legs may not be cut exactly the same +length. Make the top true and the legs can easily be made to fit the +floor afterwards. The piece of 10" board left over you can fit to slip +in between the sides, as in Fig. 45. If you nail through the sides and +top into this piece, it will stiffen the bench. In making a long bench +after this pattern, it is well to insert a few pieces of plank or joist +between the sides in this manner. + +[Illustration FIG. 46.] + +[Illustration FIG. 47.] + +[Illustration FIG. 48.] + +Next, put on the top. Cut two lengths of 5' 10" from the 12" board. Lay +them in position, square lines across as guides for the nails (as +before), and nail them down to the legs and cross-boards. Also drive +carefully a few nails at the edge down into the sides of the bench. Sink +all the nail-heads well below the surface (as much as 1/8") with the +nail-set (see _Nail-Set_). + + * * * * * + +A better bench can be made by using a plank (say a 2" plank, planed) for +the front of the top (Figs. 46, 47, 48). This bench with plank front is +much better than the common carpenter's bench just described, and the +difference in expense is but slight. It is easier to do good work on, as +it is stiffer, steadier, and much better to pound on. + + * * * * * + +Of course a thicker plank can be used if available. Hard wood is best. +Maple is excellent for a bench-top. Take particular care to select a +good sound plank, from the centre of the tree if you can (see Chapter +III.), as straight and free from winding as possible, and have it planed +so as to be straight and true. This can easily be done at any properly +equipped planing-mill. + +To make this bench with a plank in front, you can proceed exactly as +with the bench just described, except that the front legs should be as +much shorter than those at the back as the plank you have is thicker +than the 7/8" board used for the top of the bench just described. That +is, if your plank is 1-7/8" thick the front legs should be 1" shorter +than the back ones. Pieces must be cut out of the cross-boards in order +that the top may be even (Fig. 46). + +The simplest way, however, is to make the bench just like the preceding +one until you come to the top. Then, after putting on the front plank, +raise the back top-board to be flush with the plank, instead of lowering +the plank to be flush with the board. You can do this by putting small +pieces of board of the required thickness under the back part of the top +(Fig. 47). + +Some workmen prefer having the back board of the bench top lower than +the front by an inch or so, with a strip fastened on the back, and +sometimes at each end, so as to be level with the top of the front +plank, thus forming a sort of tray (Fig. 48) where tools, nails, small +bits of work, etc., can remain when in use, keeping the front plank +clear for the actual operations. The work, if large, can be rested on +the back strip as well as the front part, both being on a level. + +The bench can be all filled up underneath with shelves, drawers, +cupboards, compartments, or in any way that you wish, but at first, and +for a simple bench like this, it is as well to have only one shelf, as +shown in the frontispiece. You can easily put this shelf in after the +bench is put together. You can tell better whether you want drawers and +compartments after you have worked for some time and wish to make a more +complete bench. + + * * * * * + +A nice bench should, of course, be built independently of the +shop,--that is, be complete in itself, so that it can be readily moved. +But a common bench can sometimes be best built against the wall, using +the side of the building to support the back. Sometimes one or both of +the ends of the bench can be advantageously carried to the walls of the +room, thus requiring legs only in the middle or at one end. But such +arrangements are not to be advised if you are likely to wish to move the +bench before you have used it enough to pay for making it. + +[Illustration FIG. 49.] + + * * * * * + +Figure 49 is merely suggestive. The process of construction is the same +as already shown, except that you omit some of the legs and the back +side-board, a saving sufficient to allow you to use a plank for the +front of the top. As the floor is likely to be uneven, you can first saw +the posts a little too long, stand them in line, stretch a cord or a +chalk-line (see _Chalk-Line_) along the line of the front edge of the +bench at the proper height for the tops of the posts, cut the posts off +where this line crosses them, nail on one end of the cross-boards at +right angles, and then fasten the other end to the wall-studding, +sighting and testing to have the top straight and true, as in the case +of the bench already described. If instead of vertical studding the +joists of the wall run horizontally (as is often the case), you can +easily nail cleats on the wall if there is no horizontal timber at the +right height to nail to. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration FIG. 50.] + + +=Bench-Vise.=--The kinds shown in Figs. 50, 56, 57, though not as good +as some more improved forms, are in common use by carpenters, and will +answer your purpose very well for ordinary work--until you get to the +point of building a first-class bench. + + * * * * * + +At a distance of about 14" from the end of the bench and in the middle +of the side board mark the point _a_ (Fig. 45). Bore a hole at this +point (see _Boring_) if you have a bit a trifle larger than the screw of +the vise. If not, using this point as a centre, describe a circle (see +_Compasses_) with a diameter a trifle greater than that of the vise +screw, and remove the wood within the circle (see _Boring_ and +_Paring_.) Now take the piece of 1-1/2" or 2" plank which is to make the +movable jaw of the vise, and mark a line lengthways along the centre of +each side (Fig. 51). At a distance of about 8" from one end mark a point +upon this centre line and make a hole for the vise screw as before. The +nut for the screw must now be fastened in position on the inner side of +the bench, the vise screw passed through the movable jaw and the side +board, and the handle plate fastened upon the face of the jaw. + +[Illustration FIG. 51.] + +[Illustration FIG. 52.] + +You can now open and close the vise by the screw, but the movable jaw +needs to be made steady and the end projects above the top of the bench. +Screw the vise tight together and slide the movable jaw around until it +is in the position shown in Fig. 52, when the centre line on the back +side of the jaw will cross the edge of the leg a few inches from the +floor, according to the width of the jaw and the degree of slant given +it. When the jaw is in this position, mark from the back side the lines +indicated in Fig. 52, and saw off the projecting ends of the jaw by +these lines, which will give the shape shown in Figs. 37 and 50. + +Next take the small strip, and marking points upon its side as shown in +Fig. 53, bore holes with a 3/8" or 1/2" bit. Screw the end of the strip +to the edge of the movable jaw (being careful to get it at right angles +with the vertical edge of the jaw), as shown in Figs. 50 and 53 (see +_Screws_). Just above and below where this strip crosses the post of the +bench nail small blocks (a trifle thicker than the strip) so that it +will pass easily between them. Cover these with a longer piece, making a +slot, as shown in Fig. 53, through which the strip can slide freely. If +the two blocks are no thicker than the strip, you can put pieces of +paste-board between them and the post to make the slot wide enough to +let the strip slide through freely. Fit a pin or piece of dowel to the +holes in the strip. The use of these holes and the pin is to keep the +face of the jaw approximately parallel to the side of the bench. +Contrivances for this purpose can be bought. After the jaw is all +fitted, bevel or round the edge on the face side at the top (see +_Bevelling_), and you can also bevel or round all the front edges if you +wish. The vise is now in working order.[16] + +[Illustration FIG. 53.] + +[Illustration FIG. 54. RIGHT.] + +[Illustration FIG. 55. WRONG.] + +[Illustration FIG. 56.] + +The important point with this vise (and in fact with any vise) is to +have the inside surface of the jaw parallel with the surface of the side +of the bench, so that the wood will be pressed equally at all points, +else it will slip just when you wish it to be securely held. Be sure +that the vise is not open more at the top than at the bottom (see Figs. +54 and 55). + +[Illustration FIG. 57.] + +[Illustration FIG. 58.] + +[Illustration FIG. 59.] + +The holes bored in the side of the bench are to support the end of a +long board (Fig. 50). + +If you cannot afford to buy a vise, or have to work where there is none, +there are a number of makeshifts with which you can get along quite +well, though not as rapidly or conveniently. + +Carpenters often nail a piece on the side of the bench (Fig. 60), which +holds boards for planing fairly well, for common work, but tends to +bruise the ends of the boards a little against the cleat, and requires a +knife, or something, driven in at the other end of the boards to hold +them with any degree of security. Another cheap substitute is shown in +Fig. 61. This holds boards of regular sizes quite well. Thin pieces can +be held tighter by wedging, as shown. + +[Illustration FIG. 60.] + +[Illustration FIG. 61.] + +[Illustration FIG. 62.] + +[Illustration FIG. 63.] + +Another simple contrivance, and more of a vise, is easily made by boring +a couple of holes in a board, say 6" wide and 12" long, and screwing it +loosely to the side of the bench (Fig. 62), making the holes in the +board larger than the diameter of the screws so that it will be free to +play. By inserting the piece to be held in the end and double wedging +the opposite end (Fig. 63) the piece will be held fairly well (see +_Wedges_). For thin boards, blocks can be inserted to make the jaw +parallel with the side of the bench. An upright vise made on this +principle is often used to hold saws for filing. + +If you can find an old wooden hand-screw, you can use one jaw (sawing +off the ends if necessary) for the nut to go inside of the bench, +leaving the other for the movable jaw, using one screw to tighten or +loosen the vise and the other to keep the jaw parallel with the side of +the bench. You will require no description to contrive something of +this sort. Vises on somewhat this principle can be bought, attachable +and detachable at will. + +[Illustration FIG. 64.] + +[Illustration FIG. 65.] + +The jaw in Fig. 64 can be hinged upon the strip at the bottom and the +latter fastened to the side of the bench. The jaw can then be tightened +or loosened by the screw. This gives a square grip only when the jaw is +vertical (Fig. 65). You can put in blocks, however. The longer the jaw +the less objectionable the slanting grip becomes, of course. + +Always try to devise some such expedients, which you can think up for +yourself, when you are without the regular appliances, for even a poor +vise is better than to hold pieces in the hand or to push them against +chairs or tables or the wall. + + * * * * * + +For nice work by far the _best vise of moderate cost_ is that shown in +Fig. 143, which has been in use for a long time by wood-workers of the +better class. + + * * * * * + +There are a number of excellent iron vises (some with jaws of wood, and +also with an "instantaneous grip"). Some of them are admirable, but +quite costly compared with the common screw. + +You can work quite well with a good-sized common iron vise by fitting +wooden blocks or leather or rubber to the inside of the jaws, to save +marring your wood-work, though a regular vise for wood is much to be +preferred. + + * * * * * + +Bear in mind when doing work that requires to be held at unusual angles, +or in fashioning odd-shaped pieces, that you can usually get the angle +or position required by a combination of hand-screws or clamps with the +bench-vise as suggested in Figs. 66 and 67. + +[Illustration FIG. 66.] + +[Illustration FIG. 67.] + +[Illustration FIG. 68.] + +[Illustration FIG. 69.] + +[Illustration FIG. 70.] + + +=Bench-Stop.=--You must have something on the forward end of the +bench-top to push your work against for planing and other operations. A +simple and good way is to use one or two stout screws (Fig. 68). These +can be screwed in so as to project about a quarter of an inch, which +will answer for the greater part of your work, and the height can be +changed when necessary with the screw-driver. The heads of the screws +will be sharp enough to hold the work, and a stop of this kind will +answer your purpose very well for common work. The wooden stop (Fig. 69) +has the advantage of not making any nicks in the end of the wood, which +is important in nice work, such as furniture, but for common work screws +are just as good, except that, as they are left permanently sticking +from the bench, you may dull your tools against them or scar your work. +This applies to a common bench. Of course for a really nice bench with a +tail-screw the regular stops should be used (Fig. 143). + + * * * * * + +Carpenters sometimes nail a small piece of board, with a V-shaped notch +at one end, to the top of the bench to hold boards or joist for planing +on the edge (Fig. 70). Simply nailing a strip across the end of the +bench (Fig. 71), and setting the nails well in, will do to push boards +against for planing for common work. + +[Illustration FIG. 71.] + +[Illustration FIG. 72.] + +[Illustration FIG. 73.] + +Iron contrivances (which can be raised or lowered) can be bought for a +small sum and are convenient for common work, especially for thin +pieces. Sink them deeply enough in the bench-top so that when lowered +nothing will project to injure the tools or the work. + +The old-fashioned bench-stop shown in Fig. 69 consists merely of a +square stick of hard wood, one or two inches square, fitted quite +tightly to a hole in the top of the bench, so that it will slide up or +down by a blow from the mallet or hammer. This stop will not damage the +work or the tools. To make the mortise for this bench-stop, see +_Mortising_. Take care to keep within the lines, so as not to make the +hole too big. You can easily make it larger if too small. + +The stop should fit tightly and should be set with a very slight slant +toward the work (Fig. 72),--that is, the mortise should be cut slightly +slanting. The stop should be of hard wood, such as maple. If the top of +the bench is only of board thickness, screw cleats of hard wood on the +under side to give more bearing surface (Fig. 73), or the continued +pushing against the stop will be liable to get the hole out of shape so +that the stop will slant the wrong way, when the work will be apt to +slip or, in case of a thin board, jump over the stop (Fig. 74). If the +stop wears loose in the hole, a saw kerf is sometimes made lengthways in +one side and a bent piece of springy wire inserted, or a flat spring +fastened on the side (Fig. 75). A loose stop can easily be wedged +(preferably from underneath), and it is sometimes made loose on +purpose, the wedging tightening the stop and at the same time giving the +required slant (Fig. 72). An iron plate with teeth can be screwed on top +of a wooden stop (Fig. 76), or a screw can be inserted (Fig. 77). + +[Illustration FIG. 74.] + +[Illustration FIG. 75.] + +[Illustration FIG. 76.] + +[Illustration FIG. 77.] + +Two strips, like Fig. 78, can be nailed or screwed on the top of the +bench so as to separate V-fashion (Fig. 79). Two wedges, like Fig. 80, +can then be made of such a taper that when fitted between the strips +their inner faces will be parallel. By tapping in the wedges on each +side of the work to be held (Fig. 79), it will be securely fastened +without injury. If the inside edges of the strips and the outside edges +of the wedges are slightly bevelled, which you can do with a plane or a +knife, the wedges cannot jump out of place. The best way to fit this +contrivance is to make the wedges first, place them in position on the +bench with the square sides inside (facing each other), and then fasten +the fixed strips outside of them. Pushing the work tends to tighten this +vise. This is much better for permanent use than the notched board shown +in Fig. 70. If you have a good vise you will not often have occasion to +use such contrivances, but they are sometimes useful as makeshifts. + +[Illustration FIG. 78.] + +[Illustration FIG. 79.] + + * * * * * + +The top of a good bench should be as true and as smooth as possible (see +_Plane_ and _Scraper_). Rub it with linseed oil, wipe it off with a rag, +and after a few days give it a couple of coats of shellac (see +_Finishing_). + +[Illustration FIG. 80.] + +You should place your bench so that when you stand at it you will face +the light and not have it come from behind you. If it can come from the +forward end of the bench and also from behind the bench, as shown in the +frontispiece, it will be best, for a cross-light is often very useful, +not merely that you may have light enough, but also that when testing +your work with the try-square, straight-edge, and the like, any +inaccuracy may be detected by the light passing through the crack +between the testing tool and the work, and also when sighting by the eye +alone. Fasten the bench firmly to the floor (and wall if you can) with +screws, cleats, or L irons.[17] + +Avoid chopping on the bench top or whittling it or boring holes or +marring it by saw-cuts or chisel-marks. Do not use paint, varnish, or +glue at the bench if you can help it. If necessary to do so, clean the +bench-top carefully when you get through. Lumps of hardened glue will +hinder you and deface your work. + +[Illustration FIG. 81.] + + +=Filing-Bench.=--You cannot do much of such varied wood-work as you will +undertake without having to do a good deal of metal work. It is a poor +plan to do such work at the vise you use for your wood-work, or even at +the same bench. It scars and defaces the wooden vise and the bench, and +the particles of metal are bad for your wood-work and for the tools. It +is much better to have another bench--if nothing more than a wide shelf +or a box--for such work (Fig. 81). You will find suggestions in the +illustrations. + +An _iron_ vise is the proper thing for holding metal. There are many +different kinds at various prices, but one of the simple patterns will +probably answer every purpose. If you have room for only one bench this +vise can be put at the back part of one end. + +[Illustration FIG. 82.] + +[Illustration FIG. 83.] + +[Illustration FIG. 84.] + +A small vise can be made of a hand-screw, the hand-screw itself being +held in any desired position in the large bench-vise, but metal jaws are +better for working on metal. You can make a rough sort of vise for +metal-work with a piece of stout board or plank (Fig. 82). Find a couple +of pieces of iron with screw holes, as you can probably do in a pile of +waste iron junk, and screw them on the board and the bench to form metal +jaws. The vise can be tightened or loosened by means of a big screw or +bolt; or the board can be loosely fastened in the middle and tightened +by wedging below (Fig. 83). A screw with a handle to turn it by and a +nut for the thread is better, of course. Another form, such as you will +find in use by leather-workers, can be easily made (Fig. 84), and works +with the foot, the connection between the jaw and the treadle being made +by a strap or rope. You can make a vise in some of these ways that will +answer quite well for most of the metal-work you will have to do for +some time, although such contrivances are less reliable and less +convenient than a regular iron vise. + +An _anvil_ is often useful and is sometimes combined with a vise. It +should have a flat steel surface and also a tapering rounded (conical) +point. An old flat-iron does quite well. You can easily find some way to +keep it in position on the filing-bench. You should have some sort of +anvil, even if nothing better than a junk of old iron (which you can of +course find somewhere), for you will be continually wanting to +straighten nails, bend wire, and pound pieces of metal. Try to find a +flat plate of thick sheet iron--1/4" thick if you can--to fasten on the +top of the filing-bench (Fig. 81). It is very handy for many anvil +uses, straightening metal and nails, and for much pounding. + + +=Finishing-Bench.=--Have also a finishing-bench (Fig. 91) if +possible,--if nothing more than a shelf or box,--to keep the regular +work-bench neat and clean for its proper uses, for even a skilful +workman can hardly avoid making a mess when it comes to using paint and +varnish. + + * * * * * + +Now, while there are many of you who can afford either singly or by two +or three clubbing together to fix up a shop in first-rate style, there +are also many who cannot afford even so cheap a bench as that just +described. What can you do in such a case? Only one thing--patch up a +bench out of whatever old stuff you can find. Patched-up makeshifts are +not to be recommended, except in case of necessity, but when it comes to +the pinch, and a matter of having a bench made of whatever old materials +you can find or having no bench at all, by all means make one of boxes +and anything that can be worked in. For of course the boats, skis, +squirrel-houses, and so on, _must_ be made! + +But, whatever you patch up, make it solid and strong. Do not try to work +at a rickety, shackly apology for a bench that shakes and jumps and +sidles all over the room every time you saw or pound or plane. You can +probably get all you need in the way of boxes, packing-cases, and such +material, at very little or no expense. The illustrations (Figs. 85 and +86) are merely suggestions, for you must use your own ingenuity, +according to the materials you can find. Most experienced workmen have +often been obliged to work at much worse benches than these, frequently +with no bench at all. + +[Illustration FIG. 85.] + +[Illustration FIG. 86.] + + * * * * * + +Those of the boxes which you do not use whole you should take apart +carefully (see _Withdrawing Nails_). This will add to your supply of +nails. Use nails freely in fastening the boxes and boards together and +to the wall or floor wherever allowable. A few screws will add much +strength. + +The bench shown in Fig. 86 calls for one good board for the front of the +top. + + * * * * * + +Some of you live in the crowded parts of the city, in flats or small +houses where there is no possible chance for a shop of any kind. +Whatever wood-work you can do must be carried on in the kitchen, or some +other living-room, where even a small bench may be out of the question. +Still you would like to make such small work--model boats, for +instance--as can be carried on in such limited quarters. If you are +forced to use the kitchen table for a bench, try, for the first thing, +to brace or block or screw it to make it steady, for unsteadiness is the +greatest hindrance to doing good work at such a bench. + +[Illustration FIG. 87.] + +[Illustration FIG. 88.] + + * * * * * + +You can fit a good board to the table-top with cleats, and a stop to +hold the work (Fig. 87). If you can now get a common iron vise, you can +get along quite well for small work, and the board and attachments can +be quickly taken off and put away when the table is needed for domestic +purposes. You can easily contrive some way to attach wooden pieces or +leather or rubber to the inside of the jaws of the vise, to save marring +your wood-work. A fairly good bench can often be made from an old table +(as a kitchen table) by screwing a plank on top and a board on the front +side, and bracing the legs (Fig. 88). The plank should be screwed on +from underneath. + +If you can get hold of an old bureau or chest of drawers you can arrange +a serviceable and compact little "parlour shop" for small work. If you +cannot fasten permanent attachments to the bureau, you can fit a +removable board (Fig. 87), and you will be equipped for such work as can +be suitably done under such circumstances--and that includes quite a +long list of small things. The drawers can be fitted with compartments +and trays, according to what you have to keep in them and your own +ingenuity, but make the arrangement _simple_. Figs. 89 and 90 are merely +suggestions. + +[Illustration FIG. 89.] + +[Illustration FIG. 90.] + + * * * * * + +The best way to arrange your tools and supplies depends somewhat upon +the circumstances, but the main point is to have the _most convenient_ +place for each thing and always to _keep_ it in that place when not in +use. The first part of this proposition is almost as important as the +last. It is nearly as bad as being disorderly to keep the glue-pot in +one corner of the shop, the glue in another corner, the glue-brush in +the third corner, and the water in the fourth,--which is no exaggeration +of the way some very orderly people stow away things, and is about equal +to the arrangement of the person, of whom you may have heard, who always +kept everything in its place and that place the floor! The workshop +interior shown in the frontispiece and in Figs. 91 and 92, and the +various other illustrations, furnish suggestions which may help you in +the arrangement of your shop. + +[Illustration FIG. 91.] + +Have everything where you can lay your hand on it in the least possible +time, the tools used the most the nearest to you, tools that go +together, as bit-brace and bits, kept near together. Have all the common +tools right within reach, and not put away in chests and out-of-the-way +drawers, just because you have seen somebody pack away his tools in a +highly polished chest, inlaid with forty kinds of wood, and containing +ninety-three separate compartments and trays and seven secret drawers, +the whole cornered and strapped and decorated with shining nickel plate! +Do not be dazzled by that sort of thing, which is not an evidence of +true system and orderliness, but merely shows poor taste and a great +lack of appreciation of the value and importance of time. Time may not +be exactly money in your case, but it may be even more valuable, and +can be spent much better than in running around after tools and +supplies, and making ingenious tool-chests. To be practical, five +minutes a day saved by having things convenient and in place means about +_twenty-five hours_ in a year--which means a boat, a sled, or a lot of +Christmas presents. So study out the best arrangement for your +particular shop and then keep things in order. When working keep only +the tools in actual use lying around on the bench. As soon as you are +done with a tool for the operations actually in hand, put it back in +place, and so avoid the confused litter seen in so many shops. + +[Illustration FIG. 92.] + +Hang _saws_ against the wall on pegs, or nails, or at the end of the +bench. Hang all tools which you put on the wall well above the bench, to +be out of the way. + +Lay _planes_ on their sides or ends, for obvious reasons, or arrange a +little block to raise one end of the plane slightly from the surface of +the bench or shelf. The last way is usually more convenient than to lay +the plane on its side or end. Keep planes either at the back of the +bench or against the wall, or on a shelf under the front of the bench. + +Such tools as _squares_, _bit-braces_, and the like are usually most +accessible on the wall, in some such arrangement as shown in the +frontispiece. A convenient way to arrange such tools as _chisels_, +_gouges_, and the like, is to keep them in racks either against the wall +or fastened to the back edge of the bench, according to circumstances. +Keep each tool in a particular place in the rack and you will soon learn +to reach for it instinctively without any waste of time. + +[Illustration FIG. 93.] + +_Bits_ can be kept in a drawer or box, care being taken to arrange them +in racks or between partitions, or they can be stuck on end in the racks +at the back of the bench. A good way is to stick each bit point +downwards in a hole bored by itself. Various forms of _tool-racks_, +which you can easily arrange for yourself, are suggested in Fig. 93. + +[Illustration FIG. 94.] + + * * * * * + +Fig. 94 shows a rack to fit on the back of the bench, an excellent way, +in common use with movable benches. Get a board, say 3" or 4" wide and +the length of the bench, a strip from 1/4" to 1/2" thick, perhaps 1" +wide, and the length of the bench, and a strip 1/2" thick, perhaps 1" +wide, and perhaps two thirds of the length of the bench. Saw from this +last strip a number of blocks from 1" to 2" long. Arrange these along +the top edge of the board, according to the kinds and sizes of the +tools, as shown in Fig. 95. Then lay the long strip on them (Fig. 96) +and nail it through each block with wire nails long enough to reach +perhaps two thirds through the large strip. You can put this rack +together by first nailing at each end. Then all the intermediate blocks +can easily be fitted in place and nailed one at a time. The whole can +then be screwed to the back of the bench so that the tools will be at +the back (Fig. 94). You can make part of this rack solid and bore small +holes of various sizes for bits, gimlets, nail-sets, and such tools, +which would drop through the larger spaces. Good metal tool-racks and +holders can be bought, but the home-made ones answer every purpose. + +[Illustration FIG. 95.] + +[Illustration FIG. 96.] + +[Illustration FIG. 97.] + +[Illustration FIG. 98.] + + * * * * * + +The large _steel square_ can be hung very well with nails or small +blocks of wood bevelled toward the wall (Fig. 97). For the _try-square_ +nail a rectangular block against the wall (Fig. 98). A smaller block +nailed in front will hold another smaller square. Slanting saw-kerfs in +another block will hold _scrapers_ (Fig. 99). Always keep your +_oil-stones_ in shallow boxes for protection from dirt. You can easily +make one, or cut a depression in a block to fit the stone, with another +for a cover. Fasten one end of your _strop_ to a strip of thin board +(Fig. 100) with a hole by which to hang it. You can then use the strop +lying flat on the board or loose in your hand for curved edges. + +[Illustration FIG. 99.] + +[Illustration FIG. 100.] + +Do not keep _nails_ and _screws_ after the usual domestic fashion,--all +sizes, shapes, and kinds mixed up promiscuously with a lot of metal +rubbish and carpet tacks in some old box or pail. You will waste twice +as much time trying to find what you want as it takes to keep them in +separate boxes, or trays with divisions. A good way is to use either +small open boxes or flat open boxes with divisions, so that they can be +reached as conveniently as possible. Tin boxes or canisters or pails (of +various sizes), such as cocoa, coffee, lard, and such substances come +in, are good. Put labels on them and arrange them neatly in some +accessible place, as on a shelf over or at the end of your bench, or in +a cupboard or a drawer. + +Keep scrap boxes for old pieces of metal (iron, brass, etc., in separate +boxes), so that you will know just where to look for what you want. Keep +a brush for cleaning off the bench and the work, a broom for the floor, +and a box for shavings, sawdust, and chips. + +Any workman is liable to cut or pound his fingers, so have a small box +in a handy place with some neatly rolled bandages of cloth, some +surgeon's plaster, and a bottle of witch-hazel (_hamamelis_) or some +other preparation for cuts or bruises. In case of a bruise, or if you +pound your nail, put your finger at once in as hot water as you can +bear. Do not, as is often done, put glue on a cut, because of danger of +infection, for the glue is made, as you know, from animal refuse and is +not always in a pure state. + +Do not leave oily rags lying around in your shop to get wadded into a +pile in some corner and catch fire by spontaneous combustion. Either put +them in the stove at once, or, if you want to keep a few, put them in a +stone jar or covered tin box. Matches should always be kept in a +covered metal box in a wood-working shop. + +Lay in a supply of strips, waste junks, and odd pieces of wood, which +you can usually get at any shop at little or no expense. They will be +very useful until you accumulate a stock from your own work. + +=Chopping-Block.=--A good solid chopping-block is a great convenience, +so watch for a chance to get a section of a tree, which you can often do +when one is felled. + +=Straight-Edge.=--You should have at least one; two are very useful--one +two or three feet long and another five or six feet long. Making them is +simply a matter of skill in planing. When you can plane well enough make +some yourself of well seasoned, straight-grained white pine or mahogany, +or other wood which holds its shape well. Until you can do it +_accurately_, however, get some good workman to make one, for a +straight-edge that cannot be relied on is really worse than none at all. +(See _Straight-edge._) + +=Bench-Hook.=--The bench-hook (Fig. 101) is very useful to hold work +firmly for sawing, planing, etc., and also saves some marring of the +bench-top. Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, +_Square_, _Saw_, and _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other +references. + +[Illustration FIG. 101.] + +[Illustration FIG. 102.] + +[Illustration FIG. 103.] + +Take a board, say 15" long x 6" wide, of some good wood like white pine, +making both ends square. The surface should be planed true (see _Truing +Surfaces_). With the square mark the line _a b_ (Fig. 102) accurately, +say 2" (or the width of any blocks you may already have for the end +cleats) from each end, but on opposite sides. The cleats _c_ (Fig. 101) +must be true and the edges square. Bore the holes in the cleats with a +bit a little _larger_ than the screws (see _Boring_). Hold the cleats +exactly in place at the cross-line _a b_ and start holes in the board +with a gimlet or bit a little _smaller_ than the screws. Countersink the +holes (see _Countersink_). Use screws long enough to get a good hold on +the board but not long enough to go through it. If board and cleat are +each 7/8" thick, 1-1/2" screws will be suitable. Screw _one_ of the +middle screws in each cleat firmly to a bearing (see _Screws_), keeping +the cleat as nearly on the line as possible. Adjust each cleat exactly +in place, in case it has slipped, hold it firmly, and drive the +remaining screws. Before screwing on one of the cleats mark a line +around it in the middle with the square, as shown in Fig. 103, marking +first across the edge _o_ (against which the work is to be pressed), +from that line squaring across the top, and then across the outer edge. +After this cleat is screwed on, carefully saw it in two exactly on the +line. By letting the saw run in the kerf thus made, you can cut pieces +off square. Sometimes one cleat is made shorter, so that you can saw +clear through a piece without damage to the bench (Fig. 104). See +_Mitre-board_, page 92. Two bench-hooks are useful for long work. + +[Illustration FIG. 104.] + + * * * * * + +=Horses or Trestles.=--These are to lay stock on for marking and +sawing, to put large work together on, and are convenient for various +uses (Fig. 105). + +[Illustration FIG. 105.] + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, and +_Saw_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +The proper height for your horses, as for the bench, depends somewhat on +your own height, and may be anywhere from 18" to 2' 3". Experiment with +boxes to find the most convenient height. If too low, you will have to +stoop over too much. If too high, it will be awkward to rest your knee +on a board, to saw, and to fit work together. + +[Illustration FIG. 106.] + +If you have a piece of fairly good joist, from 1-1/2" × 3" to 3" × 6", +you can use it for the tops of your horses. Saw off two pieces from 2' +to 3' long. Mark the best sides for the top. Mark each end like Fig. 106 +(showing top and bottom) with the pencil, measuring carefully so that +the bevel or slant will be the same for both legs (see _Bevel_). Holding +the work in the vise, with saw alone or saw and chisel remove the pieces +marked, so that the end will have the shape shown in Fig. 107. If you +use the chisel, look out for the direction of the grain at each corner +and cut well outside of the line, until you find which way to push the +tool in each case (see _Paring_, etc.). Trim these cuts as accurately to +the lines as you can. Get out eight pieces for legs, of such a length +that the horses will be of the height decided on. First make them all of +a width, then saw one piece off the right length and mark the others by +it--not each new piece by the one last marked. Nail or screw these legs +in place with 2" nails or 1-3/4" screws, keeping the inner edges of the +tops of the legs even with the tops of the horses (Fig. 108). See +_Nailing_ and _Screws_, and look out for splitting. Get out the +cross-braces of board and saw the ends at a bevel to correspond with the +slant intended for the legs. See that the ends of these cross-braces are +cut at the same bevel. Use the bevel if you have one. If not, first +square each end with the square and pencil, and then measure carefully +equal distances on one edge before drawing the slanting lines (Fig. +109). Nail or screw these on (Fig. 110), adjusting the legs to the +bevels just cut. Saw or plane off the projecting ends of the legs on +top. If you plane, do so both ways to avoid splintering (see _Plane_). + +[Illustration FIG. 107.] + +[Illustration FIG. 108.] + +[Illustration FIG. 109.] + +[Illustration FIG. 110.] + +[Illustration FIG. 111.] + +Now stand the horses on their legs (Fig. 111). If they _should_ happen +to stand firmly and evenly, see first if it is not due to unevenness of +the floor. If the floor is true, and they stand steadily in different +positions, you can throw up your caps, for you will have beaten the +average workman. To make them stand evenly, see _Scribing_, +_Winding-sticks_, etc., in Part V. Make the tops of the horses as smooth +as you can. Scrape them and _keep_ them scraped (see _Scraper_), for you +will be continually dropping glue or varnish on them, to harden and +deface your nice, smooth work. Wipe them off as carefully as the +bench-top. These easily made horses will answer your purpose for a long +time.[18] + +[Illustration FIG. 112.] + +[Illustration FIG. 113.] + +[Illustration FIG. 114.] + +[Illustration FIG. 115.] + + * * * * * + +=Mitre-Box.=--Great care is necessary to make an accurate wooden +mitre-box (Fig. 116), although the process is simple. Do not make it of +spruce or any wood liable to warp or twist. Pine or mahogany is good. +Use stock from a middle board if you can (see Chapter III.). A mitre-box +can be of any desired size. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +and _Plane_, and look up any other references. + +A good size is from 1' to 2' long and from 3" to 6" square (inside), +according to the work for which it is to be used, and of stock 7/8" +thick. The pieces must be prepared with care, so that the edges shall be +square and the surfaces true, particularly on the inside, for when the +box is put together the sides must be parallel and square throughout +with the bottom, on the _inside_. Test each piece with the square. Use +care in screwing the sides to the bottom to keep them exactly in place +(see _Screws_). Nails can be used, but screws are better. Lay out the +lines for the sawing from the _inside_, with the steel square if you +have one, or with the end of the tongue of the try-square. Mark the line +_a_ on the inside of the side _x_ (Fig. 117), squaring from the bottom. +Mark the point _b_ at a distance from _a_ just equal to the distance +between the sides. Square a line at this point from the bottom, on the +inside as before. Carry this line across to the side _y_, squaring from +the inner surface of the side _x_, and mark the point _c_ on the inner +side of the side _y_. Also from the point _c_ draw a vertical line on +the inside of _y_ corresponding to the line _a_. Carefully mark the line +_g h_, which will give the mitre. The lines should be laid out from the +inside, because it is against the inside surfaces that the pieces to be +cut in the mitre-box will bear. + +[Illustration FIG. 116.] + +[Illustration FIG. 117.] + +[Illustration FIG. 118.] + +Another way is to square a line _m n_ (Fig. 118) across the top side of +the bottom piece, before putting together, and to lay off from one end +of this line a point _o_ on the edge, at a distance equal to the width +of the bottom, thus fixing the points _m_, _n_, and _o_. Next fasten on +the sides, square upright lines on the inside of one side from the point +_m_ and on the inside of the other side from the point _o_. The diagonal +line _pq_ (Fig. 119) will represent the mitre. + +[Illustration FIG. 119.] + +[Illustration FIG. 120.] + +The cuts for the saw to run in should be made with a back-saw or a +panel-saw. In a similar manner square on the inside two upright lines +opposite each other, draw a line across the tops of the sides to meet +these lines (squaring from the inside as before), and make a saw-cut, as +shown by the middle line in Fig. 116. This will be very useful to saw +strips squarely across. You can put buttons on the outside near the +lower edge to catch against the front edge of the bench-top if you wish, +or use the mitre-box on the bench-hooks when necessary to hold it +firmly. + +[Illustration FIG. 121.] + +A very useful _mitre-board_ for sawing strips, mouldings, and the like, +can be made with two short boards, one wider than the other, being sure +that the surfaces and edges are true and square (Fig. 120). This can be +of any size. A good size is from 1' to 2' long, 6" wide (in all), and of +stock 7/8" thick, but it is better to make the narrow piece thicker, +perhaps 1-1/4" or 1-3/4". Mark the lines first on the bottom of the +narrow piece, then on the edges, and lastly on the top, as with the +mitre-box just shown, to ensure the lines being at the correct angles +with the surfaces against which the wood to be sawed will rest. An +excellent plan is to make saw-kerfs for mitres in the cleat of a +bench-hook (Fig. 121), in the way just shown. + +[Illustration FIG. 122.] + +[Illustration FIG. 123.] + + * * * * * + +=Shooting-Board.=--This is useful for squaring edges and small surfaces +and ends with the plane, and for jointing edges, the plane being pushed +forward on its side (see _Shooting-board_, in Part V.). It can be of any +wood which holds its shape well. Clear white pine or mahogany is good. +If carelessly made it will be of but little use. The stock must be +planed free from winding. Several forms are shown in Figs. 122, 123, and +124. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. The construction +is plain (Fig. 122). Approximate dimensions are given, Fig. 122 being +made of 7/8" stock, Fig. 123 of 1/2" and 1/4" stock, and Fig. 124 of +7/8" stock. Screw the pieces together from the under side (see +_Screws_). See that the stop or cleat _a_ is put on at right angles to +the edge _b_. Mark the lines for this accurately with knife or chisel. A +groove is sometimes cut for this stop, but this is a refinement that is +not at all necessary if you do your work well. This board must have a +rabbet or groove cut out of the upper piece, as shown, to give room for +shavings. In Fig. 123 the top board overlaps the ends of the cleats a +trifle, which (with the spaces between the cleats) allows the escape of +the shavings. Arrange some way to hold the board firmly on the bench. +Care is necessary in using the shooting-board not to plane slices from +your left hand. Guides, to attach to the plane to ensure square edges, +can be bought and used instead of the shooting-board. Some of them are +serviceable, particularly those adjustable at various angles. + +[Illustration FIG. 124.] + +[Illustration FIG. 125.] + +A _mitre shooting-board_ (Fig. 125) is also useful. It requires to be +made with even more care than the board just given, but on the same +principle. The angular stop or stops must be fitted to make the angles +exactly 45°. A sawed mitre holds glue better than a planed mitre, but +sawed mitres often require trimming with the plane to get a perfect fit. + +=Form for Rounding Sticks.=--You will be continually wanting to make +sticks eight-sided or round. A form to hold the pieces for planing is a +great convenience. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Gauge_, _Plane_, and +_Nailing_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +[Illustration FIG. 126.] + +[Illustration FIG. 127.] + +[Illustration FIG. 128.] + +[Illustration FIG. 129.] + +Take two strips and plane off (or even chisel or whittle) one corner of +each, first gauging lines equidistant from the corner for a guide. Then +nail the two strips together, with the bevels facing each other, to make +a trough as shown in Fig. 126. Put a screw in one end to push the work +against, push the form against the bench-stop or screw it in the vise, +put the piece to be "cornered" or rounded in the V-shaped trough, and it +will be firmly held with the angle upward. Two or three of these for +larger and smaller pieces will be very useful. They are quickly made of +waste strips. If you think 2' the right length for one of these forms, +for instance, make it a foot or so longer, and after it is made saw off +the extra length in one or two pieces, which will serve as an extension +for holding a long stick (Fig. 127). If your bench has wooden +bench-stops you can make some stops with notches in the top (Fig. 128) +for this purpose. + +For making pieces tapering, as well as eight-sided or rounding, you have +only to modify this idea by planing off the corners in a tapering way +(Fig. 129). See _Rounding Sticks_. + +=Level and Plumb.=--Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, +_Rule_, _Square_, _Gauge_, _Saw_, and _Plane_, in Part V. + +To make a plumb like Fig. 130, take a piece of straight wood from 3" to +5" wide and 4' or 5' long with the edges straight and parallel. Gauge a +line down the middle of the side, exactly parallel to the edges, and cut +the notch shown at the bottom. Make a saw-kerf at the upper end of the +line and another beside it in which to catch the end of the line, or +fasten the line around a nail. (See _Plumb_.) + +[Illustration FIG. 130.] + +[Illustration FIG. 131.] + +To make the level shown in Fig. 131, it is essential that the bottom +board _c d_ be straight on the lower edge. The two braces _a c_ and _a +d_ should be of the same length. The strut _a b_ should be nailed across +at the middle of _c d_ and at right angles to it. The essential thing is +to have the line _a b_ exactly at right angles to _c d_, the object of +the braces _a c_ and _a d_ being to stiffen the board _c d_, and to keep +the lines _a b_ and _c d_ at right angles to each other. The plumb-line +is hung and used as in the case just given, the board _c d_ being used +for horizontal work. (See _Level_.) + +=Cabinets, etc., for Tools and Supplies.=--A tool-chest, though a very +convenient (and in fact necessary) thing for a workman who is moving +around from place to place or who needs a safe receptacle in which to +lock his tools in a factory, is not at all necessary in a private shop, +nor half as convenient as to have the tools where they can be more +readily reached. It is quite a piece of work to make a good one, and it +will be better to defer such a job until you feel the need. + +An old case of drawers, or bureau, or cupboard, or some such receptacle, +if you can find one, will be useful in your shop. A bureau, in fact, +makes a good tool-cabinet or substitute for a tool-chest, but if you +keep tools in drawers make compartments, trays, or divisions, else the +edge-tools may be damaged, not to speak of the inevitable confusion. + +You do not need a tool-cabinet for half a dozen tools, but when they +begin to accumulate it is a good thing to have and a good thing to make, +if there is occasion to keep your tools locked up or if you have limited +room. Otherwise it is just as well to keep the common tools as already +shown. A cabinet is fully as useful for miscellaneous articles like +brads, hinges, etc., as for tools. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, _Nailing_, and _Screws_, and look up any other references. + +[Illustration FIG. 132.] + +Perhaps you can find a good box, wide and shallow, all made, or if deep +you can saw off part to make it shallow (Fig. 132). This will answer +perfectly for a shop. For the house you would of course make a cupboard +of new wood. The size must depend on circumstances. Get two boards for +doors that will just cover the open side of the box, unless the box +cover will do, which is unlikely. If the edges are not good you must +allow extra width for jointing. Lay these boards in position and mark +the lengths (on the side next the box) by the box itself, not with the +square, for the box may not be square. From the lines just made mark the +edges with the square, and, with the straight-edge, connect these edge +marks by lines on the face sides. Saw off by these lines. Mark the box +and each door in some way (Fig. 133), as "top," and "R" (for right) and +"L" (for left), or by marks, as X, O, #, etc., to prevent finally +putting them on wrong side out or wrong end up, as is very likely to +happen if you neglect to mark them. + +[Illustration FIG. 133.] + +[Illustration FIG. 134.] + +[Illustration FIG. 135.] + +[Illustration FIG. 136.] + +Now for hinges. The best thing, on account of the weight to be hung on +the doors and the poor quality of the wood generally used for boxes, +will be iron strap-hinges made for work of this sort, screwed on the +outside (Fig. 134). Two will do for each door. Next to this come the +common iron hinges. If the sides of the box are thick and firm, three of +the common long and narrow kind (Fig. 135) will do for each door. If the +sides are thin and flimsy, nail or screw a strip inside of each edge and +use wider and shorter hinges (Fig. 136). To fit the hinges, see +_Hinges_. The doors being hung, take them off while fitting up the case. +Gauge a pencil line around the outer edge and each end of the inside +surface of each door, where it fits against the edge of the box, as a +limit beyond which racks or tools must not project or the door will not +shut (Fig. 137). + +[Illustration FIG. 137.] + +The fitting up of the cupboard must depend on its size and what and how +many tools or supplies are to be kept in it. Shelves you can simply make +of the right size and nail into place from the outside, using the rule +and square to get them in the right positions. The illustrations are +merely suggestions which you can alter or improve upon to suit your +particular case. Fig. 138 shows another form, and Fig. 139 a small +cabinet with one door, with suggestions for the arrangement of the +tools, but the matter of fitting up you must, of course, contrive for +yourselves, according to the circumstances. Do not attempt to put +full-width drawers into these wide, shallow cabinets, as is often done. +It takes an expert to fit drawers that are wide and short (from front to +back) and they are not always satisfactory even then. If you wish +drawers, either put in a row of narrow ones, or use the simple device +described below (Figs. 141 and 142), and shown in Fig. 139. (See +_Drawers_ in Part V.) + +[Illustration FIG. 138.] + +[Illustration FIG. 139.] + +To fasten the doors you can hook one on the inside and put a button +(which you can whittle out) on the outside to hold the other. If you +wish to lock, hook one door inside and lock the other to it (see +_Locks_). A padlock with staples and iron strap is easier to put on. To +make a cupboard of boards instead of using a box, you simply make a box +yourself (see _Box-making_ in Part II.) and then proceed as above. + +[Illustration FIG. 140.] + +Fig. 140 shows a good form of cabinet. Make a tight box, perhaps 2' × 3' +× 6" to 9", the sides and ends of 7/8" stock, and the top and bottom +(_i.e._, the front and back of the cabinet) of 1/2" stock. Saw it open +carefully on the line _a b c_ about 2" or 3" from the top or face, +according to the thickness of the box, first marking the ends or the +sides so that you can finally put them together again in the same +positions. When nailing the box together omit all nails which could +interfere with the sawing. They can easily be put in afterwards. (See +_Box-making_, in Part II.) Carefully smooth the edges after the saw. +Reckless and hasty planing will spoil the joint. Fit two strap-hinges, +or three of the common kind. Fit up inside as you wish, and fasten with +hasp, padlock, or a lock working on the principle of a chest lock. + +All these cabinets must be firmly fastened to the wall, for they will be +very heavy when filled. Do not trust to a couple of nails or screws, the +way amateurs so often put up shelves and cabinets in the house. A ledge +of some sort below is a great help (Fig. 140) to relieve the screws or +nails of the weight. If the back is not very strong, do not trust wholly +to it, but add cleats outside or inside. If in the house, stout +screw-eyes of heavy wire in the sides of the cabinet, through which you +can screw to the wall, are good (Fig. 140). + +Good shelves can be made by arranging empty boxes one on top of another, +or by taking a wide, thin (flat) box and fitting shelves across it, like +a bookcase, and then fastening the whole to the wall. + +A small drawer can be fixed under a shelf, anywhere in your shop, on the +principle often used in sewing-machine tables and the like, by taking a +small box of suitable shape, strengthening one corner if necessary (Fig. +141), and pivoting it with a screw at that corner (Fig. 142). + +[Illustration FIG. 141.] + +[Illustration FIG. 142.] + + * * * * * + +=First-class Bench.=--You can do all the work you will be equal to for a +long time on such a bench as has been shown, but some day you will want +a first-class bench, such as Fig. 143. Do not attempt anything of the +sort at first, however, though if you can afford it, such a bench is +good to begin with. A few details are given in the Appendix. + +[Illustration FIG. 143.] + +=Other Appliances.=--A number of other appliances and contrivances will +be found, under their respective headings, in Part V. + + + A FEW ESSENTIALS TO SUCCESSFUL WORK + + _Do one thing at a time. Finish one job before you start two or + three others._ + + _First learn to work well, then ability to work quickly will come of + itself._ + + _Plan your work to the end before beginning to use your tools._ + + _Make drawings carefully to scale before beginning any but the + simplest work._ + + _Lay out the work carefully on the wood with sharp, accurate lines, + according to the drawings, measuring everything with exactness at + least twice._ + + _Cut the work accurately with sharp tools to the lines you have laid + out._ + + _Keep testing the accuracy of the work with the square, + straight-edge, rule, level, or plumb._ + + _Keep your tools sharp and in good order._ + + _Have the most convenient place for each tool and always keep it in + that place when not in use._ + + _Do your work thoroughly and strongly. Do not half make it. Do not + half fasten it together. The only time you will regret thorough work + is when you have to take it apart again._ + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[14] If you can afford to buy one ready made, you cannot do better than +to begin with such as are sold for sloyd or manual-training schools, but +do not get a very small one unless you are only going to do very small +work. Get one as large as you can afford. A second-hand bench can often +be bought for a small sum, but be sure that it is firm and steady. + +[15] The reason for making this bench 5' 10" long, instead of cutting a +12' board into two lengths of 6' each, is that it is hard to get boards +sound and square at the ends, and so it is best to allow a few inches +for waste. Of course your bench can be of any desired length. Six or +eight feet is suitable for ordinary work, but there is no objection to +making it as much longer as your space and material will admit. The +height should bear a proper relation to the height of the workman. No +definite height can be given. Try moving a plane back and forth. If +your right elbow, when holding the plane, is slightly bent and your back +about straight, the height will be not far from right. Do a little +simple work at a table, trying different heights, and you can soon tell +what will be satisfactory. If the bench is too low, you cannot manage +your work well and your back will get tired from bending over, not to +speak of becoming round-shouldered. If the bench is too high, it will be +hard to manage your work, you cannot plane well, and your arms will be +tired from holding them up unnaturally high. A bench for heavy work like +carpentry is usually rather lower than one for cabinet- or +pattern-making, while a carver's bench is usually higher. + +[16] This vise is fitted slanting, so that the slide at the bottom +comes on the outside of the leg and at the same time in the centre +line of the movable jaw in line with the screw. A common form has the +movable jaw upright, the sliding bar being mortised into it and sliding +through a mortise cut in the leg, as shown in Figs. 56 and 57. If you +wish to make this kind, study _Mortising_, in Part V., and lay out +and cut the mortise in the leg before nailing the cross-board to it +(Figs. 41 and 42). This is the most difficult part of the bench to make +nicely, and you can spend a good deal of pains upon it. If you have +not yet the proper tools to make this mortise you can mark it out and +have it cut for a very small sum at a wood-working mill or shop. When +nailing the cross-board upon the legs, bear in mind to put this leg in +the right place. Fig. 58 shows a simple arrangement with an additional +post, or two posts can be put together and one half the notching done +in each (Fig. 59). + +[17] In case your bench is in the house and you wish to deaden the sound +and vibration from your work you can put rubber cushions under the legs. + +[18] Fig. 112 shows a nicer pair of horses. Take two pieces of pine, or +any wood not likely to warp, 2" × 3" (or 4") × 2-1/2' or 3', mark with +rule, square, and gauge (see _Gauge_), and cut with saw and chisel the +shallow gains (Fig. 113) for the legs. Make them the same depth at the +top as at the bottom (Fig. 114), and clean them out as accurately to the +lines as you can. Get out eight legs, and regulate their length as +before. Saw the upper ends on a bevel (Fig. 114) corresponding to the +slant they are to have. Nail or screw them in place. You can glue the +joints for additional strength. Fit on cross-pieces and finish the work +as described above. If you ever need horses for very heavy work you can +make the legs of plank or joist with the tops cut like Fig. 115. + + + + +"The labor is small, the pastime is great."--GOETHE. + + + + +PART II + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +ARTICLES TO BE MADE IN THE WORKSHOP + + +Even if you are able to use tools quite well, you may still not know how +to go to work to make some particular thing, so it is quite important to +know how to lay out, put together, and finish different kinds of work. + +The number of things you _can_ make is legion. The number it is _worth +while_ for you to make is much smaller. Amateurs often say that the work +they do themselves costs more (even counting their own labour as +nothing) than to hire the work done, and it is one aim of this book to +prevent that undesirable result, in some cases at least. + +The number of things which you can make more cheaply than you can buy +grows smaller every year. Many things can now be bought ready-made for +less than you would have to pay for the materials. It is foolish to take +the time and money to make many of the games and toys, for instance, +sold so cheaply nowadays. A wheelbarrow is in itself a good thing to +make, but it can be bought so cheaply that it is hardly worth while to +make one. It is true that some of these things you can make _better_, +although not cheaper, than you can easily buy (a sled perhaps); but, as +a rule, your time can be better spent than upon this class of objects, +and you will find but few such given here. + +Things like whistles, pea-shooters, and clappers, which are so familiar +to every boy and require no more instruction to make than is handed down +and around from boy to boy, are not given here, as a rule. A few other +things which you might perhaps look for, such as tennis rackets and +snow-shoes, are omitted, because they require more special knowledge and +skill than most beginners can be expected to have. It is easy enough to +see how to make a tennis racket, for instance, so far as the general +idea is concerned; but simply bending a loop, fastening it to a stick, +and lacing the loop, does not make a tennis racket. The holes for the +stringing must be made in a particular way, the stringing must be done +properly, and the whole affair must balance or "hang" right, or be of +little use. It is better to buy such things. + +You boys, and many of your elders, like to try all the new-fangled ideas +as fast as they come out, and it is well that you do, but you (as a +class) accept them "for keeps" only after they have stood the test of +many trials. A large book could be filled with descriptions of the +novelties which have appeared within my remembrance, but out of this +number I can count on my fingers all that have come to stay. You will +find all the novelties you can attend to (and more) in the magazines, +etc., so I have been rather conservative in my selection, knowing that +you will permanently accept but the best of the new ideas and come back +in the end, year after year, to the same old things, with only such +additions as have stood the test of actual use. + +The objects included embrace a sufficient variety of types to form a +basis of experience and practice, in different kinds of work and in +various details, from which you can launch out into any of these new +plans, or any experiments of your own which you may wish to try, and +thus supply for yourselves the information lacking in many of the +popular descriptions. + +Before you make anything bulky measure your shop door or window to see +that you can get it out after you have made it. This may seem a +superfluous caution, but there have been many cases where people have +spent much time in making things which could not be taken from the room +in which they were made without tearing out the door or window casing. +Even Robinson Crusoe, you know, built a boat so far from the water that +he could not launch her. + +Do not be deceived by all the complicated, new-fangled variations of +familiar things which abound in the popular publications. Try to make +everything as _simple_ as you can. Look askance on contrivances that are +all tangled up with springs, and levers, and complicated mechanism, and +study them well before you begin to make them. + +First figure the cost of the object you intend to make. This book is not +to do your work for you, but to put you on the right track to do it +yourselves, so read _Estimating_, page 54, and the whole of Part I had +best be read before you begin to make the things described hereafter. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +A FEW TOYS + + +[Illustration FIG. 144.] + +=Wooden Swords, Knives, and Daggers.=--Before beginning work, read +_Marking_, _Knife_, _Whittling_, _Paring_, _Rounding Sticks_, _Rasp_, +_File_, and _Sandpaper_, and look upany other references. The +construction of those shown in Fig. 144 is too obvious to require +special description. First cut the general outline as shown, then round +or pare or shave to the thickness required. If you have a bow-saw or +scroll-saw, it will save much time in shaping the outlines, or you can +have them sawed at the mill. If you stain these weapons with various +colours, as red, black, yellow, etc., and in various patterns, and +shellac them neatly (see _Finishing_), you can turn out quite a +formidable array of awe-inspiring weapons. They should be made of some +straight-grained and easily whittled wood. Nothing is better than white +pine. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration FIG. 145.] + +To make a sword like that shown in Fig. 145, first select a piece of +straight-grained wood (ash or any strong wood) about 2-1/2' in length, +3/16" thick, and 1" wide. About 4" from one end make a mark. From this +mark taper the edges to the other end. Do not taper the stick too +gradually. Then draw a line along the centre of each side and taper from +this centre line to the edges, leaving the edges about 1/16" thick. Next +get out two pieces of wood 1/8" thick and 4" long (some dark-coloured +wood can be used for contrast). Nail one of these pieces with brads on +each side of the 4" space left for the handle. Next get a piece 4" +long, 1/4" thick, and 3/4" wide (see Fig. 145). Mark it as shown, making +the marks for the holes (3/16") so the outside edge of one will be just +1" from the outside edge of the other. Then bore these holes carefully +(see _Boring_) and cut out the wood between them with a knife or chisel +(being careful about splitting) and shape the outside as marked. Slip +the blade through the hole in the guard you have just made up to the +handle and nail the guard to the blade. + + * * * * * + +=Wooden Snake.=--This imitation reptile (Fig. 146) if well made will +(when grasped at the middle) by a slight movement of the hand undulate +and writhe in a very lifelike manner, as you may know, so do not be +eager to terrify your feminine relatives, or those of other boys, too +much. + +[Illustration FIG. 146.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration FIG. 147.] + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Knife_, _Saw_, +and _Rounding Sticks_. The snake can be of any size--say from 2' to 6' +long and from 1" to 2" in diam. Select a piece of straight-grained +wood,--white pine or any wood easy to work. First see that the stick is +square, then make it hexagonal (six-sided), then taper it to the general +shape of the snake, and finally round and smooth it (Fig. 147). Remember +not to use sandpaper in the smoothing, as the grit will dull the tools +yet to be used. The head you must whittle or carve according to your +ingenuity and skill. The mouth can be cut with a fine saw. + +The snake having been shaped, mark pencil lines lengthways along the +middle of the top and bottom (except at the head), and cut with a knife +a little slit or groove merely wide enough to hold a fine cord (like +fish-line). This can be done with a fine saw (as a back-saw), using the +teeth only at one end of the saw blade, but much care is required and +the stick must be firmly clamped or held in the vise. You will probably +do it more easily with the knife. Mark equal spaces (Fig. 148) of 1/2" +to 2", according to the diameter of the snake, from the neck to within a +short distance of the end of the tail. If you make these marks as near +together as 3/4", the snake will look more natural, as the notches will +not have to be so wide, but you will have to cut more of them. Number +these sections so that you can finally put them together again in the +right order. With the knife or chisel notch in to the centre from each +side at each of the marks, or use the saw and knife or chisel, until the +body of the snake is cut into sections (Fig. 148). Put the sections +together again by sinking a fine strong cord in the longitudinal grooves +in the top and bottom. Set the cord in place with glue (see _Gluing_), +and fasten with little staples (which you can make of bent pins), or +something of the sort, at the end of each section. + +[Illustration FIG. 148.] + +Set beads in the head for eyes. Sandpaper the whole with fine sandpaper +(see _Sandpaper_). Paint in imitation of whatever kind of snake you +prefer (see _Painting_), using red for the inside of the mouth. + + * * * * * + +=Windmills.=--These are made in a great variety of forms. A few patterns +which can be readily constructed of wood are given below. Bear in mind +to make them strong, as they are under very great strain in a violent +wind, and, also, that the larger they are the stronger they must be; for +little models, you know, are much stronger in proportion than large +structures made after the same designs. Dimensions are given merely to +help illustrate the principles of construction. The windmills will work +just as well if made larger or smaller, within any reasonable limits. +They should be made of _straight-grained_ white pine, whitewood, or some +wood easy to work.[19] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration FIG. 149.] + +[Illustration FIG. 150.] + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Knife_, and _Paring_, and look up any other references. In case of +using heavy stock, see also _Draw-knife_, _Spokeshave_, and _Plane_. To +make a very simple form (Fig. 149), take two sticks, say 8" x 1" x 1", +and halve or notch (see _Halving_) each piece at the centre (Fig. 150), +so that when put together they will form a cross with arms of equal +length. Bore a hole through both pieces at the centre to loosely fit the +pin upon which the vanes are to turn (see _Boring_). Upon the ends of +each stick mark diagonal lines (Fig. 150) slanting in opposite +directions, or so that, if you revolve the cross edgeways and look in +turn upon each of the four ends, the lines will all slant the same way. +This is essential, for the next operation is to shave each of the sticks +down towards these lines until perhaps 1/8" thick (Fig. 150), and you +can readily see that if these vanes are not turned the same way the +windmill will not revolve. When this shaping is done fasten the sticks +together with brads (see _Nailing_). The remaining part is very simple +(Fig. 151), perhaps 1' long and 1/2" thick, with the broad vane made +thin, as the only object of this is to act as a weather-vane to keep the +windmill headed toward the wind, and if made thick and heavy the whole +affair will not balance well. + +[Illustration FIG. 151.] + +The revolving cross you can now fasten with a nail or screw upon the end +of the part last made (Fig. 151) so that it will revolve freely. Find +the point at which the whole windmill will balance over your finger or a +stick, and bore a vertical hole through the horizontal stick at this +point. Through this hole loosely screw or nail the windmill on the end +of a stick, slightly rounded to prevent friction (Fig. 151). Sandpaper +the whole with rather fine sandpaper (see _Sandpaper_). + +You can paint in one or more colours, if you wish (see _Painting_). The +vanes can be painted in light and dark bands crossways, causing an +appearance, when revolving, of concentric rings (like a target). By +having two axles or spindles (Fig. 152) two sets of vanes can revolve at +once, and, by slanting the vanes of the two sets in opposite ways, the +two will revolve in contrary directions. + +[Illustration FIG. 152.] + +[Illustration FIG. 153.] + +The weather-vane can be made of two pieces (Fig. 153). + +A more elaborate affair (Fig. 154) is made on similar principles, but +requires more care. The construction is obvious. Before beginning work +read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, _Knife_, +_Spokeshave_, _Drawshave_, _Rounding Sticks_, and look up any other +references. The general dimensions of the one illustrated are: length of +main frame (in which spindle turns) 9", height of one end 4-1/2", height +of the other end 2-1/2"; length of weather-vane (from main frame) 10", +width at end 4-1/2"; length of revolving fans 1', width at ends 2". The +spindle is held in the main frame on a slant (Fig. 155) to lessen any +tendency to slip out, so the hole through which it passes should have a +corresponding slant (see _Boring_). The revolving fans or vanes are +reduced to round pins at the small ends and fitted tightly into holes +bored in the head of the spindle, all the vanes being turned to have the +same slant. Care will be required to bore these holes so that the vanes +will be equidistant and revolve in the same line. + +[Illustration FIG. 154.] + +[Illustration FIG. 155.] + +The weather-vane is set in a slanting groove cut in the bottom of the +main frame (Fig. 155), and fastened with a couple of nails or screws. +You can cut this groove by making two saw-kerfs and paring out the wood +between with a chisel. The bent nail or wire shown on the top of the +spindle in Fig. 154 is to keep the latter from jumping out of the frame +from a sudden change of wind. The vanes should all be shaved down until +they are quite thin at the ends. + +Set up and finish this windmill like the one just described. + +[Illustration FIG. 156.] + +A form which is good practice in whittling, and upon which you can also +exercise your artistic faculties, is the "Happy Jack" shown in Fig. 156. +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Knife_, _Rasp_, and _File_, and look up any other references. Fourteen +inches is a good height for the figure itself. The outline of body and +head can be sawed from a 3/4" board and the edges trimmed and rounded +and the details cut with a knife, or rasp and file can be used for the +edges. The arms are made of separate pieces. Bore holes in the outer +ends of the arms to hold the paddles (see _Boring_). Also bore holes +lengthways into the arms, from the ends next the body, and into these +holes tightly drive the ends of a stiff metal rod long enough to also +pass through the body at the shoulders (Fig. 156). Before actually +driving this rod into both arms you must bore the hole through the body. +The holes in the arms should be smaller than the rod, so that it may +drive in tightly without danger of getting loose, but the hole in the +body must be larger than the rod, that the latter may revolve easily in +it. Bore in from the centre of each shoulder as carefully as you can, +until the holes meet, rather than attempt to bore clear through from one +side. Put in the rod and drive on the arms, but not quite up to the +shoulders. In driving on the arms be sure to keep the holes for the +paddles in the right positions, so that the paddles will be in line as +shown--that is, so that when one points directly upwards the other will +point directly downwards. Also bore a hole upwards between the legs for +the rod upon which the figure turns, and screw or nail a piece of metal +(Fig. 157), with a hole for this rod, on the bottom of the legs (Fig. +156). Fig. 158 shows a way to put on the hat. The paddles can be made +from a shingle, which will save the labour of tapering the thickness +towards the ends. The paddles must be set obliquely, or turned part way +around, as in the case of any windmill. When set at the proper angles +the man will spin around while the paddles are revolving. Sandpaper the +whole (see _Sandpaper_), and paint in various colours (see _Painting_). + +[Illustration FIG. 157.] + +[Illustration FIG. 158.] + +A set of boats to sail around in a circle is not hard to make (Fig. +159). Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, +_Saw_, and look up any other references. + +Take two sticks from 2' to 4' in length, and from 3/4" to 1-1/4" square, +of any fairly strong wood. Halve these sticks at the middle (see +_Halving_) and fasten them together in the form of a cross, +strengthening the joint (weakened by the halving) by nailing or screwing +on a piece of board above or below, as shown in Fig. 159. + +[Illustration FIG. 159.] + +The boats can be whittled from a piece of board on edge and fastened to +the ends of the sticks by halving (Fig. 160), as well as nails or +screws, or they can simply be flat pieces of board shaped as in Fig. 161 +and screwed or nailed on top of the sticks. In the first case the +halving had best be done before the sticks are fastened together. One +mast with a simple leg-of-mutton sail will answer for each boat. A +little experimenting will show you how much to haul in the sheet. Each +boat must, of course, "come about" and "jibe" once in every rotation of +the apparatus. Sandpaper with rather fine sandpaper (see _Sandpaper_), +and paint as you wish (see _Painting_). The whole affair is balanced and +pivoted on top of a pole in the same manner as the windmills just +described, which see. + +[Illustration FIG. 160.] + +[Illustration FIG. 161.] + +[Illustration FIG. 162.] + +[Illustration FIG. 163.] + +[Illustration FIG. 164.] + +A steamer with screw propeller can be made from a piece of board on +edge, shaped as shown in Fig. 162, a small windmill with short and +broad fans (Fig. 163), serving for the screw. Before beginning work read +carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Knife_, _Spokeshave_, and +look up any other references. This boat must be made of a board so as to +give a thin section (Fig. 164), in order that the screw may not be +shielded from the wind, for this vessel must always head to windward or +the screw will not revolve. To ensure this the fore and aft sail must +always be kept set and the sheet close-hauled. This sail answers the +purpose of the weather-vanes of the windmills just described. It can be +made of tin or any sheet metal, or even of thin wood. The rest of the +rigging and the smokestack you can arrange as you wish. The bottom of +the rudder can be supported by a little strip extending aft from the +keel. For the other details of the work, see the windmills already +described. + + * * * * * + +=Water-wheels.=--An undershot wheel, turned by the water passing beneath +(Fig. 165), can be easily made. It can be of any desired size, and of +any wood readily worked. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +and look up any other references. + +[Illustration FIG. 165.] + +[Illustration FIG. 166.] + +[Illustration FIG. 167.] + +One like Fig. 166 can be made by simply nailing a set of small boards or +paddles in a radial arrangement between two disks of wood. A dowel or +broomstick will do for the shaft and should be fitted tightly in the +hole bored through the wheel (see _Boring_), but should turn freely in +the bearings at the side. It will make a rather neater job to shape the +paddles as in Fig. 167, so that when put together the wheel will look +like Fig. 166, but this is not at all necessary, and it will work just +as well to make plain rectangular paddles and simply nail the disks on +the outside edges (see _Nailing_). If you have no saw with which to get +out the disks you can have them sawed at the mill, or you can work them +out by describing the required circles and sawing a hexagon outside of +the line with a common saw, when the circle can be finished with shave, +hatchet, chisel, or knife (see _Paring_). Divide the circumference of +each disk into as many parts as there are paddles and draw lines on the +side to the centre, by which to nail the paddles in the right position. +Start the nails on these lines and drive them nearly through before +placing the paddles in position. Then nail one disk to the paddles, turn +the wheel over and nail on the other disk. It is essential to a neat job +that the paddles should all be of the same width. First make one edge +straight. From this edge gauge the desired width on all the pieces (see +_Gauge_) and saw or plane or trim, with knife, chisel, or shave, exactly +to the line. If you make the paddles as shown in the cut, first square +lines across at equal distances from one end (Fig. 167), and with a +gauge set at a point equal to the thickness of the disks make lines +parallel to each edge, and with the saw or saw and chisel, or even a +knife, remove the pieces marked (see _Paring_). + +[Illustration FIG. 168.] + +[Illustration FIG. 169.] + + * * * * * + +The overshot wheel (Fig. 168) is harder to make, but is a livelier +wheel. It is put together upon the same principle as the wheel just +shown, except that the paddles, which do not project beyond the +circumference of the disks, are not placed radially, but so that, with +the addition of another set inserted to connect them, they form buckets. + + * * * * * + +To lay off the lines for the buckets, divide the circumference of each +disk as before, and from the centre describe a small circle, as shown in +Fig. 169. From the points on the circumference draw lines tangent to the +small circle. These lines will give the positions for the bottoms of the +buckets. To complete the buckets mark from the circumference equal +distances on these lines, and from these last points draw lines as _ab_ +to the next points on the circumference. First, nail together with only +the bottoms of the buckets (on the lines _ca_). Then fit in the other +pieces, to complete the buckets, on the lines _ab_. The ends of these +last pieces should properly be bevelled (see _Bevelling_) to make a +fairly tight joint. The rest of the work is the same as for the +undershot wheel. A larger form (but harder to make) is suggested in Fig. +170. See note under _Windmills_, above. + +[Illustration FIG. 170.] + + * * * * * + +[Illustration TOTLET TOWN.] + +=Play Village.=--It is capital fun for several young people to design +and build a miniature village, and it is certainly an instructive and +quite inexpensive pastime. Such a village, planned and made recently by +a family group of half a dozen youngsters, and facetiously named "Totlet +Town," was constructed entirely of old boxes and packing-cases of all +sizes up to three feet long, waste pieces of board, shingles, etc.; but +when painted and arranged in a corner of the lawn, with dirt roads, and +paths, small evergreen shade trees and hedges, well-sweeps, miniature +fences, and other accessories, it made so pretty a picture as to be the +admiration of all who saw it. If you have as good a time in making such +a village as these young people did, the experiment will be a success. +You can easily think up many additions to the suggestions here given. + +[Illustration FIG. 171.] + +The buildings were made by selecting boxes of the desired proportions, +sawing out spaces for the doors, adding the roofs and any other +alterations. The chimneys were made of blocks painted red. The doors +were made of pieces of board and hinged with leather. Bay-windows and +the like were made of blocks of the required shape nailed to the boxes. +The windows and blinds were represented by painting. Some of the roofs +were shingled with pieces of shingles. A suggestion for a light-house is +shown in Fig. 171. + +Considerable care in the use of the tools is called for to make these +buildings neatly. Much of the effect depends, also, upon the care with +which the painting is done (see _Painting_), and the taste used in the +selection of the colours. Brighter colours are suitable for a little +village of this sort than would be in good taste for real houses. White +with green blinds is good, of course; or yellow can be used. The roofs +should be painted. Red roofs are very effective. + +Before beginning work, read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, +_Saw_, _Plane_, _Nailing_, _Withdrawing Nails_, etc. + +[Illustration FIG. 172.] + +=Dolls' House.=--The house shown in Fig. 172 is quite easily made, and a +shallow affair like this has the advantage of being more convenient than +a deep one about arranging the contents. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, and look up any other references. + +Pine and whitewood are suitable, or any wood can be used that is not +hard to work. + +It can be made of any desired size. Three or four feet wide and a little +higher in the middle will probably be suitable for ordinary cases, and +twelve or fifteen inches will be a good depth (from front to back). + +The construction is plain. The roof and sides are to be cut from dressed +stock of uniform width, and from 1/2" to 7/8" in thickness. + +Carefully true one edge, if it is not already true, and get out the +bottom board, then the upright sides, and then the roof. The bevels at +the highest point of the roof and where the roof joins the sides you +must mark with the bevel (taking the slant from your drawing), or you +can find it by arranging two strips to cross at the desired angle and +marking the bevel by them (see _Bevelling_). To saw these bevels +requires much care. Draw lines by the square on both sides, as well as +the angle on the edge, and putting each board in the vise saw carefully +and steadily. + +The three floors should be narrower than the outside of the house by +just the thickness of the stock to be used for the back, and rectangular +openings must be sawed from one of the back corners at the head of the +stairs to allow the dolls to pass from one story to another. If the +sides of the house are 14" wide, make these floors 13-1/2" wide, and use +1/2" or 3/8" stock for the back. Also mark and saw out the windows. To +do this, first bore a series of holes inside of the line (see _Boring_) +and cut out whatever wood may be necessary until you make a slot in +which to start the saw. Any roughness left from the holes can be trimmed +with knife, chisel, or file (see _Paring_). Nail these parts together, +just as in making a box, carefully sighting across the face to see that +the front and back do not wind, or use _winding-sticks_ (_q. v._). Also +test with the square to see that the sides are at right angles with the +bottom. Get out stock for the back carefully (with the boards running up +and down) so that the boards will be square at the bottom, and when +these pieces are fitted in place to form the back they will ensure the +house being square. The slant by which to cut the top of the back can be +laid off by measurement from your working drawing or the back can be put +in place and the lines marked directly from the under side of the roof. +When fitted, nail the back securely in place, first cutting the windows +as before. Then fit in the upright partitions, first cutting the +doorways. The staircase can be made easily if you have, or can saw from +the corner of a larger piece, a triangular strip which can be cut in +short sections to use for the steps. Nail these to a thin strip of board +(from the under side) and fasten the whole in position (Fig. 173). The +chimney can be made of a block with a notch sawed to fit the roof, or it +can be made of four pieces, box-fashion. Glass for the windows can be +held in place by gluing strips of cloth or paper around the edges, or +thin strips can be nailed around with fine brads. Thin strips can be +nailed around the window openings on the outside, if you wish. + +[Illustration FIG. 173.] + +All the pieces should be neatly planed and scraped before putting +together, and, when entirely put together, the whole should be carefully +sandpapered with fine sandpaper. The parts coming on the inside had best +be sandpapered before putting together, however, but be sure not to do +this until all cutting with the tools has been done. Set all the nails +carefully (see _Nail-set_). The whole can be painted in one or more +colours (see _Painting_), and portieres, window drapery, etc., can be +added according to your taste and the materials at command. The inside +can be papered, if preferred. + +A more thoroughly workmanlike way is to groove the bottom into the +sides, the upright partitions into the floor boards, and to cut rabbets +around on the back edge of the sides, roof, and bottom, into which to +set the backboards. This involves a good deal more work and care in +laying out the work (see _Grooving_). If you have the pieces got out at +a mill it can be easily done, however. + +[Illustration FIG. 174.] + +It may be a convenience to screw castors on the bottom. A door (with a +door-bell or knocker) can be added to the front of the hall, if thought +best. + +A house which can be closed is shown in Fig. 174. The construction is +quite similar to the preceding. A strip must be fastened above and below +the large doors, as shown, that they may open without striking either +the roof or the floor on which the house stands. The little door, +representing the entrance to the house when closed and shown in the +closed half, can be made to open independently and can have a bell or +knocker. + +If this house is made quite deep (from front to back) it can easily be +divided lengthways by a partition and made into a double house, the back +side being made to open in the same way as the side here shown. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[19] You can attach your windmill to a building or set it up on a pole, +or you can easily make a small trestle-work tower, built of small +sticks, on the top of which you can place the windmill, with a small keg +(to represent a hogshead or tank), and thus have a very good imitation +of the large mills used for pumping water. Small windmills, if you wish +to go further into the subject than comes within the scope of this book, +can be used to do any light or "play" work by having them turn a bent +shaft (or any eccentric movement), connecting with a piston-rod or +revolving drum; or various other attachments can be applied, according +to your ingenuity. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +HOUSES FOR ANIMALS + + +The sizes and shapes of these houses and cages will depend upon the +animals for which they are built and the places you have to put them. +Frequently they can be built to advantage against the side of a +building, or a fence, or in a corner, and boxes can be utilised in +various ways. + +Make the houses, cages, and runways as large as you can afford, for +there is much more danger of the pets being cramped and crowded than of +their having too much room. + +Wire netting or wire cloth (held in place by staples) should be freely +used, as ventilation is very important for the health and comfort of the +animals. Special openings should always be made for cleaning the houses +or cages in case all parts cannot be conveniently reached from the +doors, for cleanliness is of the utmost importance in all such +structures. The floors of the larger houses should always slant or have +holes provided for drainage. Covering the floors with sheets of zinc +will promote cleanliness. In the smaller cages removable pans or trays +can often be used (Fig. 190). Houses and cages with wooden floors should +always be raised from the ground on posts, blocks, or stones, to avoid +dampness. Clean sand scattered over the floor and frequently renewed +will contribute much to the cleanliness of the cages. The bedding should +also be changed frequently. + +In the case of those animals which use their teeth for gnawing, the +corners and angles can be protected by tacking on strips of wire cloth, +tin, or zinc, but there is no need to do this over the flat surfaces. In +the case of cages or houses (and the runways) which have the ground for +the floor and are to be inhabited by animals that will burrow or dig +their way out, the wire netting should be continued underground to a +considerable depth, or it can be carried down a little way and then bent +to lie horizontally, forming a sort of wire floor, over which the dirt +can be replaced, and the animals will be unable to tunnel their way out; +but in all such cases care must be taken to proportion the mesh of the +netting and the size of the wire to the strength and escaping powers of +the animals. + +Houses for animals often look pretty when made in imitation of real +houses, but when you do this choose simple types of good proportions, +and do not try to copy all the little details of the large houses. Avoid +"gingerbread" work, and do not cover your houses with meaningless +jig-sawed scroll work and rows of towers and pinnacles, and do not use +all the colours of the rainbow in painting them. + +For houses, hutches, boxes, cages, etc., which are to be kept out of +doors or in some outbuilding, ordinary machine-planed stock of fair +quality is sufficiently good, and planing and smoothing by hand is +usually a waste of labour; but if you wish to make a small cage or box +to be kept in the house, and to be nicely finished or painted, good +clear stock should be used, and the final smoothing done by hand. + +In case you wish to make several cages or boxes of the same pattern, as, +for example, like Fig. 178, it is much less work to go through the +process with two or more at a time than to make each separately. + +A house for pets should not be built, as is sometimes done, on a +platform or base projecting beyond the base of the house, as this tends +to collect and retain moisture and dampness, but should be clear of any +platform, like an ordinary dwelling-house, so that the rain will be shed +directly upon the ground. + +When two or more boards are required for each side of the roof it is +usually better to lay them up and down, as in Fig. 187, rather than +horizontally or lengthways, because a roof laid in this way is better +about shedding the water, which tends to collect in the cracks if the +boards are laid horizontally. For the rougher structures the hinges can +be screwed flat upon the outside (as shown in Fig. 179), but for nice +work they should be fitted in the usual way. (See _Hinges_.) + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work upon these cages and houses, read carefully +_Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, _Nailing_, and look up any +other references. + +[Illustration FIG. 175.] + +[Illustration FIG. 176.] + +Cheap and serviceable cages and houses can be built by simply driving +posts or stakes into the ground and fastening wire cloth or netting to +them, much as you would build a fence. This wire-fenced enclosure can be +covered with a wooden roof if desired. A runway and playground can +easily be made in this way. + +A more portable arrangement can be made by putting together wooden +frames covered with wire. Very simple forms are shown in Fig. 175. By +putting together four or more of such frames a cage can readily be made +which can be covered with a wooden roof or with wire (Fig. 176). If +these frames are fastened with screws or screw-eyes and hooks, the whole +can quickly be taken apart if desired. + +A very simple cage can be easily made, on the principle of the common +chicken coop, with a few boards or slats and a little wire netting (Fig. +177), but a house of this sort is not especially desirable except for +economy of materials and labour. The construction is too simple to +require description. + +[Illustration FIG. 177.] + +[Illustration FIG. 178.] + +[Illustration FIG. 179.] + +A much better form is that with upright sides, or with one slanting +side. Figs. 178 and 179 show an excellent arrangement, easily made. It +can be made any desired size or proportions and is suitable for quite a +variety of animals. If small, 1/2" stock will be thick enough, but if +large, 7/8" stock should be used. The construction is similar to that +of a common box (see _Box-making_, page 219). One corner of each end +should be sawed off slantingly (Fig. 178), and a rectangular piece cut +from the opposite corner, as shown, before the box is nailed together. +The bevelling of the edges of the top and front boards can be done after +the box is put together (see _Bevelling_). For making the door, see +_Doors_, in Part V. The hinged board at the bottom gives access for +cleaning. If for indoors, and to be finished or painted, clear stock +should be selected and the outside carefully smoothed. (See _Plane_, +_Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, _Finishing_, and _Painting_.) + +[Illustration FIG. 180.] + +For something more like a house, the design shown in Fig. 180 is good +and of simple construction. This can be made of any size from that of a +small box to a small house. For the latter, see _Part III. +(House-building for Beginners)_. + +To make a little house of this pattern first get out the bottom of the +required dimensions, and then the ends, which are alike and to be nailed +to the ends of the bottom. Take pains to be accurate in getting out the +pieces, or the house will be askew when put together. The construction +of the sides is plain. The door can be made as in Fig. 180 (see +_Doors_), or the sides can be entirely of wire and the door placed at +the end (Fig. 181). The roof is simply nailed down in place, one side +being got out as much wider than the other as the thickness of the +stock, so that one will lap over the edge of the other at the ridge. If +the angle formed at the top is not a right angle, however, the edge of +the narrower roof-board must be bevelled according to the angle (see +_Bevelling_). + +[Illustration FIG. 181.] + +A house of this sort can be made with one end closed, while the other +remains open (Fig. 182). This is a good arrangement for many animals. +First get out the floor, then the pieces for the closed end, cutting out +the doorway and a window, if one is desired. These openings can be cut +as shown on page 122. Next get out the framework for the open end and +fasten it in position. A door can be fitted wherever desired and the +roof put on, as just shown. + +[Illustration FIG. 182.] + +[Illustration FIG. 183.] + +A house or cage, chiefly open-work, with two sleeping-boxes or nests +(Fig. 183) is similar in general construction. This is suitable for +indoors (as in an outbuilding). If to be left exposed to the weather, a +solid roof can be added, or it can be covered with canvas or something +of the sort when necessary. The construction is similar to that of those +already described. This cage can be used for pigeons and other pets, and +can be made of any size, according to circumstances. For the door, see +_Doors_ and _Hinges_, in Part V. The box attachments can best be made at +the same time, just alike (see _Box-making_, page 219), and fastened to +the sides of the house, the doorways having been cut in the sides before +the house was put together. If these boxes or nests cannot be readily +reached for cleaning, they should be hinged to the main house, or have +special openings with lids or doors, so that they can be kept clean. The +ridge-pole is simply a strip of board placed horizontally between the +upper ends of the rafters. + + * * * * * + +=Rabbit Hutch.=--A simple rabbit-house, or hutch, can be made by putting +together a good-sized box, partitioning off one end, to be closed by a +door, and leaving the rest open, except for the necessary wire sides +(Fig. 184). + +[Illustration FIG. 184.] + + * * * * * + +This is made just like a box (see _Box-making_, page 219), the other +details being similar to those already shown. A sliding-door (Fig. 185) +can be inserted, if desired, to cover the hole between the closed and +open parts. The hutch should be raised from the ground to avoid +dampness, and proper arrangements for cleanliness made, as referred to +above. + +[Illustration FIG. 185.] + + * * * * * + +A more elaborate hutch (Fig. 186) can be constructed in a similar manner +to the houses already shown. Access to the open part can be had by means +of the doors or lids on top. For the doors, see _Doors_ and _Hinges_. +The slides for the door at the end can be made by cutting a rabbet at +the edge of a square stick, as shown, or the rabbet can be formed by +using strips of different widths, letting the wider lap over the +narrower so as to form the rabbet. Both doors can be made to swing in +the usual way, of course, if preferred. Where the two sides of the roof +meet at the top, the edges must be bevelled (see _Bevelling_). + +[Illustration FIG. 186.] + + * * * * * + +=Kennel.=--There are many kinds of dog-houses, and the style and size +must, of course, depend upon the dog and the situation. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration FIG. 187.] + +A good kennel (Fig. 187) for a small dog can be made very much as you +would make a box (see _Box-making_, page 219). If for a very small dog +the ends, sides, floor, and sides of the roof can each be made of one +piece, but ordinarily these parts will each be made of two or more +pieces. Matched boards are suitable. First get out the bottom, then the +sides and ends. If you use boards with square edges you must of course +use pieces of different widths, so that the cracks between them will not +meet at the corners, or put posts at the corners. This is the best way +to do with matched boards, if the house is at all large. Nail these +parts together. It will be easiest to cut the slant at the top of each +end--the gable--so that the sides of the roof will meet in a right +angle. This looks well and saves the need of bevelling the edges of the +roof-boards. An opening for the doorway should be cut in one of the ends +before the roof is nailed on. If you do not use matched boards, a strip +should be nailed on the inside at each side of the doorway, to keep the +boards together. The roof-boards for one side should be as much longer +than those for the other as the thickness of the stock. The same applies +to the width of the saddle-boards which cover the extreme top. If the +roof is not made of matched boards, battens should be nailed over the +cracks as shown in Part III. + + * * * * * + +For a large dog a kennel should be built more like a real +house+ and +not so much like a box. A structure with a frame (Fig. 188) can be +built of any size suitable for a kennel, and will be more durable than +the preceding form. + +[Illustration FIG. 188.] + + * * * * * + +For the frame, small joists, or strips of plank of any size from 1-1/2" +× 2" to 2" × 3" can be used. First get out the sills or bottom pieces of +the framework, nailing them together at the corners to form a +rectangular frame, as shown in Fig. 189. + +Then get out the corner posts and fasten them in place, and on top of +them fasten the plates (a second horizontal frame like that at the +bottom); and see that all this framework is rectangular and free from +winding. The sills and plates can be halved at the corners (see +_Halving_), but this is not really necessary in so small a house, as the +boarding adds strength to the joints. The frame can be temporarily held +in place until the boarding is put on by nailing on as many diagonal +strips (Fig. 189) as may be required. Two rafters at each end should +next be put in place, their ends having been cut at an angle of 45° (see +_Mitreing_) and the upper ends being nailed to a strip of board which +serves for a ridge-pole. An intermediate rafter on each side will add +stiffness to the roof. The floor should next be laid, as it will be +inconvenient in so small a house to do this after the sides are put on. +The sides and ends should be boarded with sheathing or matched boards +laid vertically, cutting out the doorway and a small window in the back +gable for ventilation. The roof can next be laid with the boards running +horizontally, or lengthwise, as this house is to be shingled. The +shingles can be dipped in creosote stain or paint to good advantage +before laying. After the roof has been shingled the saddle-boards can be +put on and the house will be ready for painting (see _Painting_). +Another form of doorway is shown in Fig. 189_a_. For the various details +of a framed structure of this sort, see _Part III. (House-building for +Beginners)_. + +[Illustration FIG. 189.] + +[Illustration Fig. 189_a_.] + + * * * * * + +The author of _House and Pet Dogs_ gives the following suggestion: + + "The best device is an ordinary single kennel forty-eight inches by + thirty-three inches, with an A roof, but with a detached bottom of + the same size as the outside ground measurement of the kennel. This + bottom is hinged by two stout strap-iron hinges to the side of the + kennel, and is provided with two wooden axles, to which are fitted + four wooden wheels, say four inches in diameter. When closed it + looks like any other kennel on wheels. It can be easily moved by one + person from damp spots, etc.; and by turning the kennel back upon + its hinges the bedding can be daily sunned and aired and the kennel + washed and purified without trouble. The wheels also serve to keep + the bottom clear of the ground, and allow of a free circulation of + air beneath." + +=Squirrel House.=--The small squirrel house, or cage, shown in Fig. 190, +is made like a box (see _Box-making_, page 219), with the exception of +the roof. The construction is similar to that of the houses already +described. + +[Illustration FIG. 190.] + + * * * * * + +It can be made of 7/8" or 3/4" stock. The dimensions of the bottom can +be made to agree with those of any baking-pan you may have, as shown. +The slide in the roof can be made of zinc or tin. That in the side can +be of either zinc or wood. After the wire cloth has been nailed on a +strip of wood can be nailed around the front edge as a moulding. The +little sleeping-box in the upper corner can be readily reached from the +slide in the roof and connects with the floor of the house by a little +door and a flight of steps (Fig. 191). The latter can be made as shown +in Fig. 173. The most difficult part of this house to make nicely is the +joining of the roof-boards. These must be bevelled at the ridge and the +tops of the ends must also be bevelled where they join the roof (see +_Bevelling_). For other details, see the houses already described. + +[Illustration FIG. 191.] + + * * * * * + +A more +elaborate+ affair, shown below, can be made quite large and will +give room for a whole family of squirrels. This house is, however, +considerably more difficult to make than the others shown in this +chapter, and if you have not already acquired some skill as a workman +you had best be content with a simpler design. + + * * * * * + +Four or five feet by about three feet will not be too large for the +ground dimensions of the main part of the house. Regular sills can first +be nailed together for the bottom of the main house and ell in the way +shown in Fig. 189. These sills can be from 1-1/2" × 2" to 2" × 3". +Perhaps an easier way is that shown in Fig. 192, in which three cross +cleats or sills are laid and the floor nailed directly to these. When +the lengthways boards shown in Fig. 192 are nailed to the floor boards +and the sills the bottom will be sufficiently stiff for a squirrel +house. The sides and ends of the ell can be made of boards nailed +together like a box, the openings for the doors, windows, etc., being +first cut out; but the main part of the house should have posts at the +corners to which the boarding at the ends is to be nailed. Rafters +should also be put in at each gable. Plain sheathing will look better +for the outside of this house than that with beads. After the outside +has been boarded and the upper floors put in, the roofs and the cupola +can be added. If the cupola is too difficult it can be omitted, as it is +a luxury to which the average squirrel is unaccustomed. + +[Illustration FIG. 192.] + +The stairs, the openings in the floors, the doorways, the sleeping-box, +the revolving wire cage, the tree, and the swing in the cupola, are +shown in Fig. 192. The stairs can be made as shown in Fig. 192; strips +nailed vertically at the outside corners of the house, as in a real +house, will give a more finished appearance. The window casings can be +made by nailing strips on the outside. The glass can be held in place by +strips, or small rabbets can be cut as in a window sash. For the +shingling of the roof, see _Part III_. (_House-building for Beginners_). +Each door can be made of a single piece of board, cleated (see _Doors_). +For any other details, see the houses just described and also _Part +III_. (_House-building for Beginners_), and _Painting_. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration FIG. 193.] + +Several cages of various sizes can readily be built together, as shown +in Fig. 193, which is merely a suggestion, for, of course, the shape, +size, arrangement, and number of compartments must depend on the number +and kinds of animals and the situation. Various combinations will +suggest themselves as occasion calls for them. + +If you have such creatures as frogs, turtles, lizards, etc., a +water-tank should be provided. This can easily be made by taking a +tightly made flat box and caulking the cracks, or pouring hot tar or +pitch into them and also tarring or painting the whole surface of the +outside. A board can be fitted slantingly from the bottom to the edge, +at one or both ends, to form an incline by which the users of this +miniature pond can crawl in and out of the water. The box must, of +course, be sunk in the ground inside of the cage. + +For larger houses, as for hens, etc., see, also, the principles of +construction of somewhat larger structures in Part III. (_House-building +for Beginners_). + + * * * * * + +=Travelling Cage.=--A small box (Fig. 194) in which to carry a kitten, a +squirrel, a bird, or any small animal, when travelling, is often very +useful and much better than the bags and baskets so often used for the +purpose. + +[Illustration FIG. 194.] + + * * * * * + +All that is necessary is to make a small box of 1/2" stock (see +_Box-making_, page 219), with one side open (to be covered with wire +cloth or netting), and the opposite side made in two parts, the upper of +which is hinged to serve as a door or lid. Strips of moulding can be +nailed on with brads along the edges where the wire is fastened, the +door can be fastened with hook and screw-eye or catch, and a handle +fastened upon the top. It is a good plan to round the edges of a box +which is to be carried around. If this box is neatly got out and put +together and carefully smoothed and finished it will look well and serve +for many years. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +IMPLEMENTS FOR OUTDOOR SPORTS AND ATHLETICS + + +=Stilts.=--There is very little to say about the manufacture of stilts. +The construction is obvious (Figs. 195 and 196), the size and +arrangement depending on your own size and skill. The handles can either +be long, or reach up as high as the hand, or short and strapped to the +legs. + +[Illustration FIG. 195.] + +[Illustration FIG. 196.] + +=Tilt or See-Saw.=--One of small size is shown in Fig. 197. The exact +proportions given are not necessary, provided you make it strong and so +that it will not tip over. + +[Illustration FIG. 197.] + +[Illustration FIG. 198.] + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Nailing_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +[Illustration FIG. 199.] + +[Illustration FIG. 200.] + +First make the standard (Fig. 198) of any sound plank 1-1/4" to 2" thick +and 12" or more in width. Get out the pieces to the dimensions before +beginning to put together, the ends of the braces H being cut at a mitre +(see _Mitring_). Square the line EF across the plank B at the middle +(Fig. 199). Drive three or four stout wire nails (3" to 4" long, +according to the thickness of the plank) nearly through the plank on +this line. Stand the piece A on end under these nails and drive them +through firmly into it (Fig. 200), keeping the two boards at right +angles. Bore holes with a 1/4" bit (see _Boring_) in each end of the +pieces H, as shown, taking pains not to get them too near the edge. +Screw these braces in place with screws from 2-1/4" to 3-1/4" long +(according to the thickness of the plank), keeping the piece A at right +angles with the plank B (see _Screws_). Screw this frame on the +cross-pieces C and D, as shown. Nails can be used throughout, but screws +are better. With plane, draw-knife, or spoke-shave (see _Part V._ for +these tools), round the top edge of A. + +[Illustration FIG. 201.] + +The tilting-plank should be of spruce, ash, hard pine, or any strong +wood, and had best be from 1-1/2" to 2" thick, according to the length, +which can be 12' or 14'. It should of course be planed. Next get out a +few cleats 7/8" square, or thicker, and screw them on the under side of +the tilting-plank at the middle (Fig. 201, which shows the under side of +the plank), so that the spaces between them will be a little wider than +the thickness of the upright piece A--just enough to allow the plank to +tilt freely. Nail strips on the edge, to keep the plank from slipping +off sideways, shaving a little from the edges of A at the top if +necessary. Finally run over the edges with a plane (see _Plane_), and +sandpaper the plank to prevent slivers. + +Simply paint or oil and varnish (see _Painting_ or _Finishing_). + +A larger and more elaborate affair, adjustable to different heights, is +shown in Fig. 202. + +[Illustration FIG. 202.] + + * * * * * + +First get out the main pieces to the dimensions (Figs. 203, 204, 205). +The upright pieces should be mortised into the planks on which they rest +(Fig. 206) (see _Mortising_). Gauge a line lengthways along the centre +of each side of the uprights (see _Gauge_) and mark points (say 6" +apart) on these lines for holes for the iron rod on which the +tilting-plank rests, taking pains to place them alike on the two +uprights. Then bore 3/4" or 1/2" holes (see _Boring_), according to the +size of rod you can get. Next fit the cross bar at the top. This can +simply be nailed down or fitted between the uprights (Fig. 207), or made +with a shoulder (Fig. 208), which will add to the stiffness of the +frame. The rest of the construction of the standard is plain, and +similar to that just described. + +[Illustration FIG. 203.] + +[Illustration FIG. 204.] + +[Illustration FIG. 205.] + +[Illustration FIG. 206.] + +[Illustration FIG. 207.] + +[Illustration FIG. 208.] + +Iron rods can be used for braces, if you wish (Fig. 209). + +The tilting-plank should be 16' or 18' long, and of 2" plank. A thread +with nut on one end of the iron rod on which the plank rests will keep +the rod from slipping out of place. The plank can be fastened to the rod +by iron straps or even staples, or a box-like bearing can be quickly +made (Fig. 210). Washers can be placed between the plank and the +uprights if necessary. Smooth the edges with a plane (see _Plane_) and +sandpaper the plank. Simply paint or oil and varnish (see _Painting_ and +_Finishing_). + +[Illustration FIG. 209.] + +[Illustration FIG. 210.] + + * * * * * + +=Skis.=--To make as perfect skis as possible they should be of rift +stock, that is, split out instead of sawed; but this may seldom be +practicable for you and is not really necessary. Good straight-grained +sawed stock will answer, but be sure that you get clear, strong +stock--_air-dried_ if possible. Always avoid kiln-dried stock for +anything which is to be put to sudden and violent strain, if you can get +that which has been naturally seasoned (see Chapter III.). + +Ash is very good (white ash the best); spruce, light and strong; oak, +strong but heavy. Any strong and elastic wood will do, if not too heavy. +If you can get stock which is naturally sprung in a good curve upward +and is satisfactory in other respects, take it, for a convex curve +upward underneath the foot gives spring and elasticity and helps prevent +the skis from becoming hollowed too much by the weight of the body. This +curve is not necessary, but the better ones are purposely so made. Skis +are sometimes used in very rude forms--as two strips of wood with the +front ends shaved down and bent up at an angle. Small ones can even be +made of staves from barrels, but these are very unsatisfactory. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, +_Draw-knife_, _Plane_, _Spokeshave_, in Part V., and look up any other +references. + +[Illustration FIG. 211.] + +[Illustration FIG. 212.] + +[Illustration FIG. 213.] + +[Illustration FIG. 214.] + +First get out the pieces of the required size. The length for a man is +usually about 8' and the width about 4", though they are used even as +long as 12' or 13'. From 5' to 8' long and from 3-1/2" to 4" wide will +probably be right for you, but the dimensions depend on your size, of +course. Next taper the forward ends, as shown in Fig. 211. You can mark +both edges alike by drawing the curve free-hand or with a spline (see +_Spline_) on a piece of stiff paper, from which you can cut out a +pattern for drawing the curve on the wood. Next make the pieces thinner +towards the ends (Fig. 212), noticing that the forward end is thinner +than the after end and is shaved down more quickly so that the stock may +be thin where the toe bends up. This requires great care unless the +grain is very straight, for a little hasty slashing will make too deep a +cut (see _Paring_, etc.). Good forms are shown in Figs. 213 and 214, the +former showing sections at the middle and the latter nearer the ends, +but as the toe is approached the top should become flat for ease in +bending. This shaping can best be done by the draw-knife, spoke-shave, +or plane. + +[Illustration FIG. 215.] + +[Illustration FIG. 216.] + +[Illustration FIG. 217.] + +Bend the points of the toes upwards about 6" above the horizontal line +to ensure their riding clear of obstructions, but there is no gain in +curling them up a foot. For the process of bending, see _Bending Wood_. +Then turning the skis over, gauge (see _Gauge_) parallel lines for the +grooves on the bottom. Work the grooves out with the gouge or with the +saw and chisel (see _Gouge_ and _Grooving_) unless you chance to have +the plane designed for this purpose.[20] Make these grooves shallower as +they approach the toe, leaving no groove where the toe bends up. + +[Illustration FIG. 218.] + +[Illustration FIG. 219.] + +[Illustration FIG. 220.] + +[Illustration FIG. 221.] + +Balance the skis lengthways on a stick or your finger and put stout +leather straps just forward of the balancing point. These can be riveted +or even screwed to the edges of the skis (Fig. 215), but a better way is +to put them through slots cut in the wood (Fig. 216). Gauge accurately +for the slots, marking on both edges, and bore in from both sides (see +_Boring_). The slots must then be cleaned out with chisel and file (see +_Mortising_). An easier way and fully as strong is to cut grooves (Fig. +217) with saw and chisel and cover them with thin strips securely +screwed on (Fig. 218). Some use a second lighter strap to go above the +heel. This can be screwed to the edges if you use it. Strips screwed +across under the instep (Figs. 219 and 220), or behind the heel (Fig. +221), to prevent the foot sliding back are sometimes used.[21] For +racing the Norwegian skis are turned up at the rear end also. + +[Illustration FIG. 222.] + +The pole, like the skis, must be of light, strong stuff, and can be +round or eight-sided (see _Rounding Sticks_). To shape the tapering end +make the stick uniformly eight-sided for the whole length first and then +plane each side down at the end to get the taper. The hole in the disk +must not be quite so large as the diameter of the pole, so that it +cannot slip up farther than the tapering part (Fig. 222). Many dispense +with the disk. + +Finally smooth skis and pole with scraper (see _Scraper_) or glass, and +sandpaper (see _Sandpaper_), and finish with plenty of raw linseed oil +or with oil, shellac, and varnish, in successive coats (see +_Finishing_). If open-grained wood is used it can be filled to good +advantage with a coat of good wood-filler well rubbed in (see +_Finishing_), and the bottoms can also be rubbed with wax or tallow, if +you wish. + + * * * * * + +=Toboggan.=--This is now commonly made of narrow strips, in principle +much like several skis placed side by side--an easier form to make than +the older pattern, formed of one or two wide pieces, as originally made +by the Indians. + +White oak and hickory are probably the best woods. Ash, maple, birch, +basswood, or any hard wood which can be bent and has elasticity can be +used. As in the case of the ski, to make the best possible the pieces +should be rift, or split out, rather than sawed, to ensure straight +grain; but, as this may be out of the question for you, be sure to +select the straightest-grained clear stock you can find, for, besides +the bending of the ends, there is great strain put upon it in coasting. +For the same reason use air-dried stock and avoid kiln-dried if +possible. + +Probably the best and most scientific way to fasten the parts of a +toboggan together is the old way adopted by the Indians of binding or +lashing with thongs. This gives great elasticity and allows the toboggan +to adjust itself to the inequalities of the surface to a greater degree +than is possible with the tightly fastened joints now in use. You can +try this way instead of that given below, if you prefer, but be sure to +cut little grooves in the bottom for the thongs or cords to fit in, or +they will be quickly worn through. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +[Illustration FIG. 223.] + +The size can vary from 3' long by 1' wide to 10' or 12' long by 20" to +22" wide; 4' long by 15" or 16" wide is good for a single toboggan; 8' +long by 18" is a good size for three or more persons. You will probably +find the stock most readily in the form of 12' boards. One-half inch in +the rough will be thick enough, though you may have to take inch (rough) +or 7/8" (planed) boards. Let us make an 8' toboggan (Fig. 223). Have the +stock planed and sawed in strips about 10' long, 2-1/2" wide, and not +less than 1/4" nor more than 3/8" in thickness. If they are tapered a +little in thickness for 12" or 15" at the forward end they can be bent +more easily, but do not shave them down too much (see _Plane_ and +_Drawshave_). Smooth the bottom surfaces of the strips with plane and +scraper (see _Scraper_). It is hardly necessary to plane the upper +surfaces by hand, as the planer will leave them fairly smooth, though +they will look a little nicer smoothed by hand. Plane the edges. Next +get out eight cross-bars or cleats 18" long × 3/8" thick and from 1-1/2" +to 3" wide. If wide they can be tapered at the edges, and if narrow, the +edges should be rounded (Fig. 224). Get out also two or three cleats 18" +long, 1/4" thick, and 1-1/4" wide, and one piece 18" long and about 3/4" +× 7/8" (half of a hardwood broomstick will do). + +[Illustration FIG. 224.] + +The long strips must now be bent at the forward end (see _Bending +Wood_). After they are bent take the eight cleats and, laying one across +the strips as it is to go, mark points for three holes at each strip +(Fig. 224). Bore 3/16" or 1/4" holes in the cross strips and countersink +them very carefully (see _Boring_ and _Countersink_), so that the heads +of the screws will be very slightly lower than the surface--sunk barely +enough to prevent any corners or edges from sticking above the surface. +Take great care not to countersink too deeply, for the long strips are +so thin that the screws may come through on the under side. Mark and +bore the other seven cleats by this first one. + +Now take one cleat, to be put on at the rear end 8' from the beginning +of the curve. Screw one end of this cleat in place (see _Screws_), test +with the square, and screw the other end. Then put in the intermediate +screws, driving them all firmly home, and saw off the ends of the long +strips just beyond this cleat. Square lines across every foot to the +curve at the front, and screw on the other cleats. The length of the +screws (which can be quite stout) should be such that they will almost, +but not quite, go through to the under side of the toboggan. Be careful +about this or the points will have to be filed off. Then screw the +smaller cleats on the inside of the curve. Screw the remaining (stouter) +cleat on the outside of the curve at the place where the curve is to +end, and then saw off the projecting ends of the strips by this cleat. +By thongs, belt-lacing, or strong cord at the ends of the cleat last put +on fasten the curve (which will naturally tend to straighten somewhat) +in the required position to the cleat beneath (Fig. 225). + +[Illustration FIG. 225.] + +Side hand-rails can be fastened at each side on top of the cross-cleats +(Fig. 223). A common way is to make every other cross-cleat thicker (say +7/8") and fasten the side bars to these with large and stout screw-eyes, +or notches can be cut on the under side of these thicker cleats before +they are screwed on, and by passing thongs or cord through these notches +the side-bars can be lashed in place. The side bars you can plane round +or eight-sided (see _Rounding Sticks_) out of strips of any strong wood. + +Sandpaper the bottom and finish with plenty of raw linseed oil, or with +oil, shellac, and varnish, in successive coats (see _Finishing_). If +open-grained wood is used it can be filled to good advantage with a coat +of good wood-filler well rubbed in (see _Finishing_), and the bottom can +be waxed or rubbed with tallow, if you wish. + +[Illustration FIG. 226.] + +If you are willing to put in the labour you can bevel or slope off one +side of each of the long strips (except the two outer ones) so as to +leave the strip thickest in the middle (Fig. 226). Unless you are +willing to take pains enough to do it nicely (which will take some +time), it will be best not to attempt it at all, or to have it done at a +mill. If you have a good hill you can go well enough with the flat +strips and it is not important to round them unless you are scoring +fractions of a second against time. Another way is to curve the +cross-cleats slightly (Fig. 226), leaving the long strips flat. + +Some toboggans are made with low runners about an inch high. + +[Illustration FIG. 227.] + +You can, as you may know, patch up a sort of toboggan of barrel-staves, +with which, though not a very workmanlike arrangement, you can have a +lot of fun at no expense. You can get a high speed with this simple +contrivance (Fig. 227) on a _steep_ hill. It is not good, however, +unless the pitch is steep. You can even get a good deal of sport from +this apparatus in the summer on a _very steep_ grassy knoll. + + +=Wooden Guns and Pistols.=--A gun on the principle of that shown in Fig. +228, the projectile power being furnished by elastic (rubber) cord, is +easily made. + +[Illustration FIG. 228.] + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square,_, _Saw_, +_Spokeshave_, _Knife_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +First saw the outline of the gun from a straight-grained pine or +whitewood board. This can be quickly and cheaply done at any +wood-working mill. The gun can then be finally shaped with the +spoke-shave and knife. The rasp and file can be used (see _Rasp_ and +_File_.). Much of the shaping can be done with the draw-knife (see +_Draw-knife_), and, in fact, the whole can be whittled out with a knife +if other tools are wanting. + +[Illustration FIG. 229.] + +[Illustration FIG. 230.] + +The most difficult parts of the work are the groove for the arrow and +the arrangement of the trigger. Much care is needed to cut an accurate +groove with a gouge (see _Gouge_), and, unless you are skilled, you can +get a truer result by having this done by a carpenter or at a mill. A +mortise (see _Mortising_) must be cut for the trigger long enough to +allow it sufficient play (Fig. 229). The arrangement of the trigger is +shown in Fig. 229. The elastic underneath the barrel (at the lower end +of the trigger) must be sufficiently powerful (combined with its +additional leverage) to balance the elastic which propels the arrow, so +that the trigger will remain in position and hold the upper elastic +drawn, until the pressure of the finger on the trigger releases it. + +[Illustration FIG. 231.] + +[Illustration FIG. 232.] + +[Illustration FIG. 233.] + +The barrel of the gun is sometimes built of three pieces (Fig. 230, +showing section) of thinner stock, which obviates the grooving but makes +more work otherwise. The groove can be left open on top (Fig. 230) or +covered with a thin strip (Figs. 231 and 232). In the latter case a +depression must be made in the barrel, so that when the strip is put on +there will be a long slot in which the string can play back and forth +(Fig. 232). With this arrangement you can make a notch (Fig. 233) to +hold the cord when drawn. The trigger can be of wood or wire, pivoted on +a screw or nail, so that when pulled the string will be pushed up and +released (Fig. 233). + +A tube is sometimes fastened to the barrel, as in a real gun, and a +plunger is sometimes fitted to the tube to start the arrows, or bullets +in case they are used (Fig. 234). + +[Illustration FIG. 234.] + +[Illustration FIG. 235.] + +[Illustration FIG. 236.] + +The ends of the elastic cord can be fastened to screw-eyes at the +muzzle. A piece of leather thong or cord inserted at the middle of the +upper elastic cord will wear better than the rubber at that point. + +Another form of trigger is shown in Fig. 235, which can also be made of +stiff wire (Fig. 236). + +[Illustration FIG. 237.] + +To finish the gun nicely, it should be scraped (see _Scraper_) and +sandpapered with fine sandpaper (see _Sandpaper_). It can then be +finished with oil and shellac or varnish (see _Shellac_, _Varnish_, +_Finishing_). + +These same methods of construction can, of course, be applied to a +pistol. + +[Illustration FIG. 238.] + +A bow-gun or crossbow (Fig. 237) can be made on the same principle, +using a bow instead of the elastic, and inserting it in a hole made +through an enlargement of the under side of the barrel (Fig. 238). + + +=Sleds.=--Common sleds can be bought so cheaply that it is hardly worth +while, as a rule, to make them. Many are so poorly made, however, and +will stand so little rough usage, that a few suggestions may be of value +if you should wish to make a really serviceable one yourself. + +Take the dimensions from any sled which suits you. Avoid making your +sled too high, however, as one ten or twelve inches high will coast no +better than a low sled, and requires much more bracing to be strong. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +in Part V., and look up any other references. + +[Illustration FIG. 239.] + +The runners and cross-pieces should be of straight-grained oak, maple, +ash, or other strong wood; 7/8" stock will do. Mark the runners +carefully on the wood, according to your working-drawing (Fig. 239), and +before sawing them out bore the holes for the rope (see _Boring_). Saw +out the runners, or have them sawed by machine, and see that the curves +are the same on each. + +[Illustration FIG. 240.] + +Get out three cross-pieces (Fig. 240) about 2" wide, and from 7/8" to +1-1/4" thick, with a shoulder at each end as shown. Mark and cut the +mortises (see _Mortising_) in the runners (Fig. 239). + +Put these parts together, forming the frame of the sled (Fig. 241), +driving a pin through each mortise and tenon and adding the L irons +shown in Figs. 241 and 242. + +The seat may be thinner than the runners, and is to be fitted between +them and to be screwed to the cross-pieces (see _Screws_). The thickness +of the stock for the seat must be borne in mind when laying out the +mortises in the runners. + +[Illustration FIG. 241.] + +[Illustration FIG. 242.] + +Machine-planed stock is, of course, as smooth as is necessary for a +sled, but smoothing by hand (see _Plane_, _Scraper_, and _Sandpaper_) +will give a nicer surface. The runners can be shod at the blacksmith's +with half-round irons, or round steel can be used with iron at the ends. +In case of steel spring irons the runners can be slightly grooved on the +edge, so far as may be necessary to keep the irons in place. The irons +can be 1/2" to 5/8" in diameter. + +Finish with paint (see _Painting_) or with oil, shellac, and varnish +(see _Finishing_). + + * * * * * + +A "double-runner," "bob," or "traverse" sled can be built to good +advantage. The sleds can be made as just described, or ready-made ones +can be used. See that they are well put together, of the same width, and +securely braced, as the strain upon them is great. The length of the +double-runner is a matter of choice, of course. As to the height and +width, however, if the coasting is straight, smooth, and comparatively +safe there is no objection to a high seat, with a comfortable foot-board +on each side for the passengers' feet, if you wish. But if you are going +to coast on long, rough hills, with sudden curves and pitches to be +taken in uncertainty and at whirlwind speed--the kind of coasting for +real fun and exhilaration--avoid the luxurious top-heavy double-runners +frequently seen. Make the sleds rather broad (18" is not too wide for +the "track" of a 16' sled; which is a very long sled, however), and keep +the height of the top-board down to about 10" or less. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +in Part V., and look up any other references. + +[Illustration FIG. 243.] + +The seat-board can be from 8' to 16' long, and about 12" to 14" wide. +Board thickness is sufficient for a short seat, but if long a 1-1/4" +plank should be used. If you have in mind to make a very long sled you +should consider, before beginning, that you must either use a quite +thick plank to get the necessary stiffness, which will add to the weight +of the double-runner, or the plank must be stiffened or "trussed" with +rods beneath like a bridge, which will add to the expense and labour. It +should be of strong, elastic, straight-grained wood, free from bad knots +or defects, as the strain upon it is great. It should not be too +yielding and springy, however, or it may sag inconveniently. Clear hard +Southern pine or ash is good. A plank of stiff spruce of good quality +will do. The rear end can be rounded, as shown (Fig. 243). + +Machine-planing is sufficient for the sides of the seat-plank, but the +edges should be planed carefully (see _Plane_), and the angles slightly +rounded off with the plane, spoke-shave, or rasp and file (see +_Spokeshave_, _Rasp_, and _File_) to prevent splinters. + +[Illustration FIG. 244.] + +[Illustration FIG. 245.] + +To enable the front sled to turn properly, get out two pieces of 2" +plank, as shown in Fig. 244, about 3" wide and as long as the width of +the sled, one being tapered toward the ends on the under side. The +tapering is important, as it diminishes the friction when the front sled +is turned. Screw one of these pieces firmly across the top of the front +sled and the other across the lower side of the seat-board (see +_Screws_), a hole being bored through the centre of each cross-piece (as +well as through the seat-board and the top of the front sled) for the +king-bolt upon which the front sled turns. Find these centres accurately +and bore carefully with a bit 1/16" larger than the king-bolt (see +_Boring_). The front sled should turn very freely and easily, and have +plenty of play, but the bolt should not fit loosely enough to make the +double-runner rickety. + +A washer can be inserted between the cross-pieces. Sometimes a thick +rubber washer is used to lessen the shock (Fig. 245). + +[Illustration FIG. 246.] + +To give the ends of the rear sled freedom to play up and down (without +turning sideways) in passing over the inequities of the surface the +arrangement shown in Fig. 243 (and enlarged in Fig. 246) is good. Do not +make this of 7/8" stock. Pieces of plank should be used, the dimensions +being so arranged that the seat-board will be equally raised from the +front and rear sleds. The pins at the ends of the cross-piece should be +not less than 1" in diameter (1-1/4" is better) and should be carefully +cut (see _Paring_ and _Rounding Sticks_). The best way is to have them +turned to fit the holes in the rocker-shaped pieces. The latter should +be long enough (about 1') to prevent danger of the wood breaking apart +near the hole and to allow for screwing firmly to the seat-board. + +[Illustration FIG. 247.] + +Another way, sometimes adopted, is to use two cross-cleats with two +bolts (queen-bolts) and thick rubber washers (Fig. 247), the bolts being +loose enough in the holes to allow the necessary amount of play. Ropes +or chain can be fastened from the rear sled to the seat-board, to +prevent too much dropping of the former. + +[Illustration FIG. 248.] + +Many arrangements for steering have been invented. A cleat at the +forward end of the seat-board to brace the feet against, the sled being +guided by the ropes held in the hand (Fig. 248), is a simple way, though +requiring more strength and steadiness of arm, when the coast is rough +or dangerous, than is possessed by many steersmen. The brace for the +feet should be bolted to the seat-board or strongly screwed from above +and beneath. Another equally simple way is to screw the brace for the +feet upon the forward sled (Fig. 243), cutting a shallow gain in the +tops of the runners to hold it more securely. In this way of steering +the arms can reinforce the legs, or the steering can be done by the legs +alone. It is a very effective method, which gives a high degree of +control of the forward sled without cumbersome tackle and leaves the +seat-board free of obstructions.[22] + +[Illustration FIG. 252.] + +[Illustration FIG. 253.] + +In case of a high double-runner, running foot-boards along each side can +be added. A simple way to fasten these is by means of pieces of +strap-iron bent as shown in Fig. 252 and screwed to the under side of +the seat-board, with the foot-boards fastened to the projecting arms +(Fig. 253). The dimensions to which the irons should be bent depend upon +the height and size of the double-runner, but you should take pains that +the space between the edge of the seat-board and the foot-board is such +that the feet cannot become caught. + +The problem of contriving a perfectly successful brake for a +double-runner has not yet been solved. Like all other apparatus for +emergencies it should be as simple as possible. Unless it is _sure_ to +work it will be worse than not to have one, as you will come to rely on +it. The steersman is usually the one who first realises the need of +braking, and when practicable he is the one upon whom it naturally +devolves. If he steers with the hands he can brake with the foot against +a lever as shown below, but if he steers with the feet it is pretty +risky business trying to brake also with the foot and, unless you can +contrive some way by which he can safely and quickly brake by hand (not +an easy thing to do), the brake had best be worked by the rider at the +rear. This has some obvious disadvantages. A few ideas are given below, +but are not recommended as thoroughly satisfactory. + +[Illustration FIG. 254.] + +[Illustration FIG. 255.] + +The simple and primitive way, so often used in the country by drivers of +heavily loaded sleds, of dropping a chain under the runner is an +effective method of braking, provided you have some sure method of +dropping the chain under the runners. Fig. 254 shows a method which can +be worked from either the forward or rear end of the double-runner. In +the plan, or top view (Fig. 254), the details of the arrangement (being +beneath the seat) would ordinarily be represented by dotted lines, but +in this case, on account of the small size of the drawing, they are +shown by full lines, as they would look if the seat-board were +transparent. A way of holding up the middle of the chain is shown in +Fig. 255. A small block _a_, perhaps 3" long, is screwed to the under +side of the seat and the chain is held against it by the pivoted bar _b_ +(which is pivoted to the seat-board by a bolt and is kept in position by +the spring), and on the under side of which a piece of metal is screwed +at one end, which prevents the chain from dropping. The end of the bar +_b_ is connected by a wire with the lever in front. When the lever is +pushed by the steersman's foot the bar _b_ is pulled away from the block +_a_ and the chain falls by its own weight under the runners of the rear +sled, which quickly brings the double-runner to a standstill. Fig. 256 +shows the bar held in position by the spring. Fig. 257 shows the +position of the bar after the lever has been pressed, with the open +space which allows the chain to drop. The same apparatus can be worked +from the rear end of the double-runner by simply having the wire to be +pulled led back (Fig. 258), where it can be worked directly by the hand +or you can contrive a lever to be raised. + +[Illustration FIG. 256.] + +[Illustration FIG. 257.] + +[Illustration FIG. 258.] + +A method of braking sometimes used is by means of a crooked lever formed +from an iron rod, one end of which is pulled up by the hand while the +lower part has one or more prongs which dig into the surface and stop +the sled. Fig. 259 shows a form sometimes used, and Fig. 260 a top view +showing position of the handle and prongs when not in use. Any +blacksmith can arrange this apparatus, which is attached to the rear +sled. A similar arrangement can be contrived to work by the steersman's +foot if desired. One prong, attached to the under side of the +seat-board, can be arranged as suggested (side view) in Fig. 260a. + +[Illustration FIG. 259.] + +[Illustration FIG. 260.] + +The double-runner should be thoroughly oiled, and a coat of shellac, +followed after a day or two by a coat of varnish, will add much to its +durability as well as to its appearance. Lubricate the working parts +with soap or tallow. + +If you have a gong, it should be worked by someone other than the +steersman. + +The rear sled is sometimes arranged to swivel like the front sled and to +be steered by a second steersman, somewhat after the fashion of a long +hook-and-ladder truck. This gives good command of the double-runner on +curves. + +[Illustration FIG. 260a.] + + * * * * * + +=Gymnastic Apparatus.=--It will, in most cases, be out of the question +for you to attempt to put up any building roomy enough for a "gym," but +sometimes a number of you can club together and get the use of some +vacant room in which satisfactory apparatus can be fitted at moderate +expense. Some of it may be rather primitive compared with the mechanism +of a modern college gymnasium, but will answer the purpose so far as +getting up muscle is concerned. Most of you can find a place for one or +more pieces of apparatus, either indoors or out. Much outdoor apparatus +can be supported on posts driven into the ground, or even by fastening +to trees. The outdoor apparatus is usually easier and cheaper to make, +but has the obvious disadvantages of not being usable in bad weather or +winter, to any great extent, and will not last so long on account of +exposure to the weather. If, however, you fix things the right way and +take the movable parts indoors during the bad weather, such a "gym" will +last until it is outgrown, or until the next generation grows up to +build a new one. If indoors have the room well ventilated. Often the +second story of a barn makes a capital gymnasium. The few simple pieces +of apparatus given here will be treated independently, as it is of +course impossible to tell how you will be obliged to arrange them. You +can vary the designs or proportions to suit the circumstances. + +White ash, hickory, oak, hard pine, and for some purposes fir, spruce, +and white pine, are suitable for gymnastic apparatus. For everything +which is to stand violent strain or wrenching, as the horizontal bars, +vaulting poles, and such things, use _air_-dried stock, if possible, +avoiding kiln-dried, as the latter is more brittle and inelastic, and +often utterly unfit for such uses (see Chapter III.). Of course for such +parts only the toughest woods should be used, as white ash, hickory, +oak, spruce. + + * * * * * + +=Parallel Bars.=--A useful form (and not beyond the skill of an amateur) +is shown in Fig. 261. The height must, of course, depend upon the +gymnast, and can range from 3' 6" to 5' 6", the width inside (between +the bars) from 14" to 19", and the length from 6' to 8'. + +[Illustration FIG. 261.] + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +The base of the apparatus can be simply made of 2" × 6" planks, as shown +in Fig. 261, and fastened by screws (see _Screws_), or, as shown in Fig. +262, the pieces can be halved at their intersections (see _Halving_), in +which case thicker stock may be used. For a small pair of bars the +planks for the base can be somewhat lighter. + +[Illustration FIG. 262.] + +The upright posts should be of strong wood not less than 2" × 4" (unless +for a very small pair of bars) and should be mortised at top and bottom, +as shown in Figs. 263 and 264 (see _Mortising_). These joints should be +pinned. + +The bars themselves should be of the best white ash (hickory, oak, hard +pine can be used), not less than 2" × 3" (unless for a small pair of +bars). The arrangement and object of the iron braces is plain. + +[Illustration FIG. 263.] + +[Illustration FIG. 264.] + +After the apparatus is all fitted together, take off the bars and +carefully round the top edges for the entire length (see _Rounding +Sticks_). The ends which project beyond the posts can also be rounded on +the under side (_i.e._, made elliptical in section, as shown), if +desired. + +Machine-planing is sufficient for this apparatus, except for the bars +themselves, which should be carefully smoothed by hand (see _Plane_, +_Scraper_, _Sandpaper_), although, of course, the whole will appear more +nicely finished if smoothed by hand. The square edges should be "broken" +(_i.e._, slightly bevelled or rounded) so as not to be too sharp in case +of contact with them. + +The whole apparatus can be simply oiled thoroughly, or can be given in +addition one or more coats of shellac or varnish (see _Finishing_), but +a coat of oil is sufficient for the bars themselves, as they will be +polished by use. + +This arrangement has the advantage of being portable, but of course the +base can be omitted, if desired, and the posts fastened directly to the +floor. If mortises cannot be cut in the floor, blocks can be screwed to +the floor around the base of each post so as to form a socket into which +the post will fit. + +Parallel bars can be readily made for outdoor use by simply setting four +upright posts (not less than 3" × 4") firmly in the ground, at the same +distances apart as specified for the movable bars described above, and +fastening the bars to the tops of the posts by mortise and tenon, as +already shown (Fig. 263). The posts should reach 3' or more below +ground, both on account of the frost and to give increased steadiness, +and the earth should be thoroughly tamped down around them with a +sharp-pointed bar or stick. This apparatus should be thoroughly oiled +and can be varnished (see _Finishing_). The posts should be of good +thickness at the ground, but can be tapered toward the top, on the +outside, to the thickness of the bars. + + * * * * * + +=Horizontal Bar.=--A design suitable for the =amateur= wood-worker is +shown in Fig. 265. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +First make the upright posts or guides. These are somewhat like a trough +in shape, side boards about 6" wide being screwed (see _Screws_) on the +sides of a 2" × 3" joist. Fig. 266 shows sections in the middle and at +each end, blocks being inserted at the ends for strength. The joist can +be of any strong wood. The side boards, which serve as guides for the +bar, had best be of hard wood. Hard pine, oak, maple, ash, or any strong +wood can be used. You will require two of the joists and four side +boards, all sawed squarely off the exact height of the room.[23] + +The usual way would be to get out the pieces a little too long and, +after they are fastened together, to saw off the ends so as to give the +required length. Gauge lines on each side of the upright pieces (see +_Gauge_) and intersect these lines at regular distances by others +squared across and around three sides of the uprights, thus determining +the places for the holes for the pins which hold the bar in position. +These can be bored from each side with a 3/8" bit (see _Boring_). + +[Illustration FIG. 265.] + +[Illustration FIG. 266.] + +Another way sometimes adopted when you have one or two stout timbers on +hand or already in position for the posts is to screw two upright cleats +of plank to the inner side of each timber, thus forming the groove for +the bar, as shown in section in Fig. 267. + +[Illustration FIG. 267.] + +The uprights can now be fastened in place, taking care to have them +exactly vertical and in line with each other. The distance apart will +depend on the length of the bar. The uprights can of course be mortised +into the floor, or the wood-work above, if the conditions admit, but it +will usually answer every purpose to hold each end in place by four +cleats firmly screwed to the floor or ceiling. It is usually simpler to +have these uprights extend to the ceiling, but this is not necessary, +and in some cases it may be advisable to brace them to the floor only, +by wooden or iron braces, in some of the ways already shown, or they can +be guyed with wire rope and turnbuckles. + +The bar you had best have made or buy already made, in which case you +can arrange the dimensions and position of the uprights to fit the bar. +It can be from 5' in length to perhaps 6' 9" (6' is a good length), and +should be not less than 1-3/4" in diameter, +nor over+ 2". +It should be of the best clear, straight-grained white ash or hickory +(air-dried, not kiln-dried). One having a steel rod for a core is the +best. The ends can be left square and bound with a square ferrule or +band of iron of the right size to slip easily up and down in the grooves +of the upright guides (Fig. 268). Any blacksmith can arrange this, as +well as the pins to hold the bar. This apparatus can be finished in the +same way as the parallel bars just described. + +[Illustration FIG. 268.] + +[Illustration FIG. 269.] + +A suggestion for a post for outdoor apparatus is given in Fig. 269. The +post should be set in the ground at least 3' and the earth well tamped +down around it with a pointed bar or stick. The lower ends of the braces +can themselves be set in the ground or abut against heavier posts set in +the ground. This apparatus should be protected from the weather as in +the cases described above. + +=Vaulting Apparatus.=--You can buy iron standards or bases, and of +course the whole apparatus, for high jumping and pole vaulting, but it +is a simple matter to make a pair of uprights that will answer the +purpose satisfactorily (Fig. 270). + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +Take two straight sticks 10' or 12' long and about 2-1/2" square. Taper +each piece with the plane until about 1-1/2" square at one end. Make +each base of two pieces of board about 4" wide and perhaps 3' long, as +shown in Fig. 270, or halve two pieces of plank (see _Halving_). Mortise +the larger ends of the posts into these bases as shown in Fig. 271 (see +_Mortising_). + +[Illustration FIG. 270.] + +[Illustration FIG. 271.] + +Before fastening the posts to the standards, mark a line along the +middle of one side of each post. On this line lay off feet and inches +from the bottom and carefully bore a quarter-inch hole through the posts +at each of these points (except, of course, those near the ground) for +the pins which are to support the cross-bar or cord (see _Boring_). Then +fit the posts in the mortises and brace them by three braces each. The +ends of the braces can be cut at a mitre and screwed in place, or the +blacksmith will make iron braces for a small sum (Fig. 271). Finish like +the other apparatus already described. + +Vaulting poles should be round, very straight-grained, from air-dried +(not kiln-dried) stock of light, strong wood, as spruce, free from knots +or any cross-grained, weak spots. The thickness should of course depend +on the length, but should not be less than 1-1/4" for an 8' pole (which +is quite short), and the pole should taper toward each end (see +_Rounding Sticks_). + + * * * * * + +=Spring-Board.=--A form not difficult to make is shown in Fig. 272. The +framework can be made of any strong wood, but the spring-board itself +should be of the best quality of clear, straight-grained white ash. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +First make the base or framework. Get out two pieces of 2" × 3" plank +for the outside pieces (to stand on edge) and +screw blocks+ of +the same plank at each end to raise the pieces from the ground as shown. +Place these pieces so that they spread apart slightly at the forward +end (Fig. 272), being about 22" apart at the rear end. Fit a cross-tie +to connect these stringers at about 2' from the forward end. + +[Illustration FIG. 272.] + +Another cross-bar, resting on the stringers, is placed nearer the rear +end, and about 1' from the rear end a piece of 3" × 4" joist is fitted +between the stringers and held in place by a bolt passed through it and +the stringers. This should be loose enough to allow the block to turn. + +The spring-board can be made of five strips of 7/8" stock, 4" wide and +6' long, screwed to a cleat at the forward end, and securely bolted to +the block at the rear end. + +This apparatus can be finished as in the cases described above. + + * * * * * + +=Vaulting-Horse.=--A simple affair (Fig. 273) can be easily arranged by +making a box, perhaps 5' long and 8" or 10" square, which can be +supported by flaring legs of joist as shown in the illustrations. + +[Illustration FIG. 273.] + +[Illustration FIG. 274.] + +First make the box (see _Box-making_, in Part II.). The corners and +edges should be rounded (Fig. 274), and the whole padded and covered +with such materials as you may have at hand or can afford for the +purpose. Laying out and sawing the bevels for the tops of the legs is +the hardest part of the job. Transfer the bevels carefully from your +working drawing to the wood, and saw as exactly to the lines as you can. +See also _Scribing_. Unless you have had much experience some paring +will probably be required to make all the legs fit. To make the horse +stand evenly see _Scribing_, _Winding-sticks_, etc. The other general +directions given for the apparatus described above will suffice for this +horse. + +[Illustration FIG. 275.] + +A horse for outdoors (Fig. 275) can be simply made of a log, perhaps 1' +in diameter, smoothed and with the ends rounded, and mounted (by +mortising) upon posts set in the ground (see _Mortising_). The top can +be covered with rubber, as indicated in the illustration. + +The posts should be set at least 3' in the ground, and the earth well +tamped around them with a pointed bar or stick. + +The apparatus can be finished as in the cases given above. + + * * * * * + +=Giant Swing.=--This piece of apparatus is excellent for outdoors, and +affords considerable sport (Fig. 276). + +[Illustration FIG. 276.] + +[Illustration FIG. 277.] + +[Illustration FIG. 278.] + +You must have a pole or mast from 15' to 25' long and from 6" to 10" in +diameter at the lower end. At the smaller end there should be an iron +ring or ferrule. This can be heated and driven on, when it will shrink +so as to fit tightly and save the end from splitting. The upper end of +the pole should first be squarely sawed off (see _Saw_). The swing +ropes, of which you can have two or four (as you wish), can be fastened +by hooks to a pivot set into the top of the post (see _Boring_), the +latter being firmly set up in the ground. The blacksmith can quickly fix +a pivot with hooks or pins and with a washer, to which you can fasten +the ropes (Fig. 277). The lower ends of the ropes can be fastened at the +proper height to sticks for handles. Loops can also be made in which to +rest one leg if you wish. Of course you must have plenty of room for +swinging around. In setting up the pole dig a hole 3' or 4' deep and +after placing the pole tamp the earth compactly down around it with a +pointed bar or stick. + +A cheaper way, but hardly as good, is to drive a 1" or 3/4" rod in the +top of the pole, and get out a stout piece of hard wood, 3" or 4" square +and 1-1/2' or 2' long, with a hole in the middle to fit the rod, and +smaller holes near each end for fastening the ropes by a knot (Fig. +278). A washer can be put under the wooden bar, or the top of the pole +may be slightly rounded. + + * * * * * + +=Other Apparatus.=--There are, of course, other useful forms of +apparatus involving more or less wood-work, such as hanging poles, fixed +upright and slanting poles or bars, and various contrivances which you +can readily arrange without more special instruction than has been +given. + + * * * * * + +Ladders are of course good, but it is usually as well for the amateur to +buy these. A suggestion for a framework for hanging rings, trapeze, +poles, rope ladders, and the like, with fixed ladders and horizontal +bar, is given in Fig. 279. + +[Illustration FIG. 279.] + +Do not make such framework too light. Fasten the joints with bolts +rather than screws or nails, and suspend the hanging apparatus from +eye-bolts passing through the timber and with washers under the nuts. +The dimensions for such framework must depend upon the circumstances. +The suggestions about the construction of the other pieces of apparatus +given above will assist you in designing and constructing something to +suit the circumstances. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[20] All of this work can be done cheaply at any mill, leaving the +rounding or bevelling of the edges and the bending of the ends for you +to do yourself, and for that matter the rounding or bevelling can be +done by machine. + +[21] Mrs. Alec Tweedie says of the way skis are worn in Norway: + +"The toes are fastened by a leather strap. Another strap goes round the +heel in a sort of loop fashion, securing the foot, but at the same time +giving the heel full play. A special ski boot is worn over enormously +thick horsehair stockings. This boot has no hard sole at all, and, +instead of being sewn at the sides, the large piece of thick leather +which goes under the foot is brought well over the top and secured to +what might ordinarily be called a leather tongue. At the back of the +boot is a small strap, which is used to fasten the ski securely to the +boot. Once fixed on the ski, the boot is so secure no fall can loosen +it, and the only way to extricate the foot is to undo the three straps." + +[22] Various contrivances for steering with a wheel or cross-bar are +sometimes used. These work well if properly attached, and for reasonably +safe coasting can be recommended, but where a "spill" is likely to +occur, it may be well to consider the chance of being injured by these +obstructions in front of the steersman. + +[Illustration FIG. 249.] + +[Illustration FIG. 250.] + +[Illustration FIG. 251.] + +Fig. 249 shows the king-post squared at the lower end (and tapering) to +be fitted to a tapering mortise in the cross-cleat of the forward sled +and held down by the screw and nut at the extreme end. A wheel is +attached to the upper end. Any blacksmith can make an arrangement like +this, or the bottom of the king-post can be split (Fig. 250) and screwed +to the front sled, and the top can be made with a bar instead of a wheel +(Fig. 251). + +[23] You can get this height by taking two sticks whose combined length +is somewhat greater than the height of the room. By letting the ends lap +over one another in the middle, the sticks can be slipped along on each +other until they just reach from floor to ceiling. Hold them tightly +together (or fasten them with a clamp) when in this position and you +will have the exact length required. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +FURNITURE + + +Some article of furniture is frequently one of the first objects upon +which the beginner (particularly the amateur of mature years) tries his +hand; and boys, as well as their elders, sometimes confidently undertake +pieces of cabinet-work which would tax to the utmost the skill of an +experienced cabinet-maker, only to be discouraged by the unsatisfactory +result. + +Do not be beguiled by the captivating sketches and descriptions in the +popular magazines and papers which tell you how someone, at an expense +of perhaps only $2.98, easily made a roomful of desirable furniture out +of packing-cases, old bedsteads, barrels, soap-boxes, broomsticks, and +the like, with only the household hammer, saw, and screw-driver, and a +liberal supply of putty, coloured varnish, and the occasional help of +the "village carpenter." + +That sort of work does very well for your feminine relatives if they +wish to amuse themselves in such ways or to contrive makeshifts to save +the expense of furniture made in the usual way. You can very well help +them in such work, or do it for them, and some very neat, cheap, and +serviceable things can be made of such materials (particularly with the +use of cloth)--but that is not the way for _you_ to begin your +cabinet-making. Learn to do good, plain, simple, useful work in the +simplest, most straightforward, practical, _workmanlike_ way. When you +can do that, if you wish to exercise your ingenuity in patching up +useful articles from discarded ones you will know how to do it properly. + +Be sure to begin with simple articles, avoiding attempts at elaborate +decoration. Do not spend your time in making a useless object merely +because you think it is pretty. Think first whether your design is +suited for the purpose intended. If you start to make a case for your +books, select or make your design accordingly, and do not be misled, by +the multitude of overelaborated articles with which the market is +flooded, into making a parlour bric-à -brac cabinet, all built up of +turning, and jig-sawing, and machine-made carvings, too complicated and +fragile for practical use, with the result that the books continue to be +stored on a closet shelf or on the floor. + +Next look to the block-form or general proportions of the object. The +importance of this is often wholly overlooked by the average +amateur,--sometimes because he is too engrossed in trying to make the +details pretty,--but it is essential in making a handsome piece of +furniture. No amount of exquisite carving, inlaying, or decoration of +any kind (however beautiful in itself) will make an ill-shaped, badly +proportioned article a thing of beauty; while a well-shaped and +well-proportioned object will be pleasing to the eye even if free from +decoration of any kind. + +Of course, no rule can be given for designing a handsome piece of +furniture any more than for painting a beautiful picture, but when you +have sketched out the general shape and proportions and think you have +done as well as you can, there is one thing it is well to bear in +mind--that the average amateur is much more likely to spoil the +appearance of his work by adding too much so-called ornamentation than +by leaving the work too plain. When you become proficient enough to add +carving, or other form of decoration, to your work, by all means use any +skill you may have in such ways, but even then remember not to use such +ornamentation too freely. Avoid "gingerbread" work, meaningless +jig-sawed decorations, and machine-made carvings, turned out by the +gross. + +Look at some of your great-grandmother's furniture (if you are fortunate +enough to be able to do so) and think how long it has lasted, and +compare it with the cheap modern furniture after the latter has been in +use for a few years. How much of the latter would be in existence now if +it had been made when the ancestral articles were? The durability of the +old things is partly due to the quality of the wood and its seasoning. +The use of whole pieces (instead of scraps of all kinds of stuff glued +up with cheap glue), the way the articles were put together, and the +generally honest work put into them had much to do with it. + +Bear in mind in undertaking a piece of cabinet-work that you must hold +yourself to a higher standard in the matter of accuracy of detail, in +order to produce a really satisfactory result, than is necessary for +much of the other work often done by amateurs. Many slight inaccuracies, +which are of little consequence in the rougher kinds of work, become +such gaping and conspicuous defects in cabinet-work as to detract much +from the satisfaction that should be taken in home-made articles. +Remember, then, that while it is easy to make your furniture strong, it +is by no means easy to produce close, accurate joints, smooth, true +surfaces, square, clean-cut edges, and a good, smooth finish. Choose, +therefore, simple forms, easily put together, for your early attempts; +for it is much better to make a modest and unpretentious article well +than to make an elaborate one badly. + +First and foremost, when you come to the actual work, use thoroughly +seasoned wood. This is essential to making permanently satisfactory +furniture, as you will learn after you have spent much time in making an +article out of half-seasoned stock, only to see the ruin of your +carefully executed work begin as soon as the finish is dry, or even +before. + +Although it is very easy to tell you to use nothing but properly +seasoned stock, you will doubtless sometimes be deceived, however, as it +is by no means an easy matter for the beginner to determine; but you can +at least try your best to get wood in suitable condition, for it will be +time well spent. (Read the remarks on seasoning in Chapter III.) + +Be content with the more easily worked woods in your early attempts. Do +not buy highly figured, heavy, and hard San Domingo mahogany (no matter +how beautiful) for your first table or bookcase--nor even quartered oak, +nor mottled walnut burl, nor wavy maple--but begin with plain, +straight-grained material, easy to work. + +White pine is often considered rather cheap and common in appearance, +but it is suitable for many things in the way of furniture. It is one of +the best woods to "stand," or hold its shape, and if not desired of the +natural colour (which, is, however, suitable and attractive for some +objects) it can be painted. It can also be stained, but is not to be +compared with whitewood in this respect. + +Whitewood is, like pine, easy to work, durable, can be obtained in wide +boards, can be painted, and takes a stain exceedingly well. + +Black walnut is good to work and is well suited for furniture, though +its sombre hue is not always desirable. + +Cherry, when soft and straight-grained, is easy to work and is often +(when highly figured or wavy) one of the most beautiful woods. It is +easy to finish. + +Mahogany is a wood of great beauty and durability, and holds its shape +exceedingly well, but the beginner should confine himself at first to +the lighter, softer, straight-grained varieties, which can be easily +obtained. You can then try the more highly figured and harder kinds, +which will tax your skill in smoothing them. + +Oak in its softer, straight-grained forms is well suited to the work of +the beginner. It is durable, and an article made of oak will stand more +abuse without serious defacement than most of the other woods used for +furniture. When quarter-sawed it is more difficult to smooth than plain, +straight-grained oak, but as you acquire skill you will find quartered +oak one of the most satisfactory woods. Oak can be stained if desired. + +Many other kinds of wood are sometimes used, as sycamore, ash, birch, +beech, maple, rosewood, butternut, ebony, etc., but these woods you can +try for yourself, if you wish, as you progress in skill, and thus learn +their peculiar characteristics. + +An important point, not always realised by the amateur, is that the +stock for good furniture should be planed true, that is, free from +winding. Buy stock that is as true as you can find (see Chapter III.) +and have it planed to be as true as possible. Have as much of this +truing done by machine as you can afford, for it is not worth while to +spend an hour in working down a surface by hand (see _Truing Surfaces_, +in Part V.) when a machine will do it in five minutes. There are, of +course, cases in which this accuracy is not essential,--and judgment +must be used, as in all intelligent work,--but, as a rule, it is highly +important that the surfaces should be reasonably true if you wish to do +your work as it should be done. The pieces, when fitted, should come +together easily and naturally, and not require to be sprung or twisted +or bent in order to be able to put the article together. + +Your furniture should always be hand-planed and scraped, for, though the +slight hollows and ridges left by the planing-machine may not be +noticeable while the wood is in its natural state, as soon as the +surface is finished and begins to have a lustre these inequalities +become conspicuous. This applies to any small irregularities of the +surface. You cannot get the surface too smooth. You will be surprised at +first to see how noticeable slight defects in the surface become in the +finished work. + +Curved edges occur often in furniture. Many of these curves can be cut +with a turning-saw or a keyhole- and compass-saw, but the easiest way +(and the most accurate, until you have acquired considerable skill with +the saw) is to have them cut at a mill by a jig-saw or band-saw at but +slight expense. Have a piece of waste wood put on the under side to +prevent the burr, or ragged edge, left by the sawing. These curves can +be smoothed with the spoke-shave alone, or spoke-shave and file, or file +alone, according to the conditions, as you will soon learn by +experience, the final finishing of the surface being given with fine +sandpaper. + +Put the different parts of your article of furniture completely together +once (without glue or nails) to see that everything fits right, that the +joints close properly, and that the whole job is as it should be, before +putting together permanently. + +This often seems to the amateur a needless precaution (and it +occasionally is), but, although it takes some time, it is the practice +with skilled workmen and therefore a precaution which should not be +neglected by the beginner. You will discover the importance of this when +you carelessly assume that all the parts of a writing-desk, for +instance, will come together properly, or that you can easily correct +errors as you go along, only to find, when you have the work nearly put +together that something is wrong. In the effort to mend the trouble you +will be apt to loosen the parts already fastened, or will have to take +the whole apart, which, when glue or nails are used, is particularly +discouraging, and apt to damage the quality of the work. + +Be particular to clamp the parts of your work together thoroughly when +using glue and to allow time enough before removing the clamps (see +_Clamps_ and _Gluing_). + +Care should be taken in putting your work together to get it "square," +that is, to prove the accuracy of the right angles. In some cases this +is of course essential to having the work come together at all. In +others, the appearance will be much injured if the article tips to one +side or is slanting or twisted. In all cases it is essential to the +proper closing up of the joints. It will not do to assume, as the +beginner often naturally does, that because the parts of the work seem +to be accurately made that the whole, when put together, will, +therefore, be square. It must be tested. You will be surprised to see +how much "out of square" and how winding the result of your most careful +work will sometimes be if you do not test it as you put the parts +together. In addition to the obvious way of applying the square (see +_Square_) to the angles, using the large steel square when you can: +there are many cases in which measuring diagonals is a good test, +altering the angles of the work until the two opposite diagonals are +equal, when the work will, of course, be rectangular. This is a good way +for large "case" work, using a stick, or fitting two adjustable sticks, +after the manner described on page 167, between the angles, when the +latter can be altered until the diagonals are equal. + +At the same time that you are testing for squareness you must also look +out for winding, by sighting across the front or back, using +winding-sticks, if necessary. + +When your work has a back fitted in, as in the case of a bookcase or +cabinet, this will help you much in the final adjustment. + +Do not attempt to put your case work together in an upright position, +but upon horses horizontally, or flat upon its back or face. + +It is well to use corner-blocks in the angles of your furniture, in +places where they will not show (see _Corner-blocks_, in Part V.). + +After you begin to acquire some proficiency in your work, a little +beading or chamfering can sometimes be used to good advantage, but it is +well not to be too lavish with this kind of ornamentation. + +Wall-cabinets and other articles to be hung on the wall can be neatly +attached to the wall by brass mirror-plates screwed upon the back. These +should usually be sunk into the wood so that the back will be smooth. + +Your furniture can be finished with oil or wax alone, or with shellac or +varnish, as described in Part V. In the case of articles to be hung +against wall-paper or where any delicate fabric will be exposed, it is +well to avoid finishing with oil alone unless the greatest care is used, +for a very slight surplus of oil will quickly soil the paper. For the +work of the amateur nothing is better than shellac. + +When your work is made of parts which can be readily separated, such +parts as are joined without glue or nails, it is best to take the work +apart before finishing. Unhinge doors and take off locks, escutcheons, +mirror-plates, handles, and the like. Take out removable shelves, backs, +and all detachable parts. Finish all these parts separately and then put +the work together again. You can finish the separate parts better and +more easily, but of course this can only be done with such parts as are +readily separable. + +In some cases it is desirable to stain your furniture, but as a rule you +cannot improve on the natural colouring, which deepens and mellows with +age. If you wish mahogany-coloured furniture, use mahogany, or, if you +cannot afford that, simply paint or stain some cheaper wood of the +desired colour, but do not try to imitate the grain of the mahogany. +There are two objections to these attempts at imitation. First, they are +not honest; and, in the second place, the deception is usually a +failure. + +Finally, be simple and honest in all your designing, your construction +(which above all things should be strong and durable), and your +finishing. Do not put in your room an object which appears at a distance +of ten feet to be a mahogany or black walnut centre-table, but which on +closer examination turns out to be a pine washstand in disguise. + +There are, as you know, hundreds of articles of household utility, other +than those here given, which are suitable for the amateur to make, but +it is hoped that the suggestions about those which are included in this +chapter will be of service in the construction of other objects. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration FIG. 280.] + +=Book-Rack.=--A simple rack for books (Fig. 280) can be of any length +desired, about six inches wide, and of half-inch +stock+ (or slightly +thinner), but the dimensions can be varied according to circumstances. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +Be sure that the bottoms of the ends are accurately cut. The other edges +can be rounded if you wish (see _Spokeshave_ and _File_). The hinges +should be sunk in the wood, so that they will not injure the books (see +_Hinges_). + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + + * * * * * + +=Desk-Rack.=--An easily made arrangement to put on the back of a table +or desk is shown in Fig. 281, and can be made of stock of from 1/2" to +7/8" thickness, according to the size of the rack. + +[Illustration FIG. 281.] + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +First make the two boxes (see _Box-making_, page 219), and then the +shelf above them. This can be fastened to the tops of the boxes by +screws from underneath. The edge can be slightly rounded. The rail or +guard at the back and ends of the shelf should be made independently. +The back and ends can be joined as shown in Fig. 282, and the whole then +fastened to the shelf by screws (see _Boring_ and _Screws_) from +underneath before fastening the shelf to the boxes, or it can be +dowelled on, as shown in Fig. 282a (see _Dowelling_). + +[Illustration FIG. 282.] + +[Illustration FIG. 282A.] + +Partitions can be fitted in the boxes, forming pigeon-holes or +compartments, if desired. These partitions can be nailed in place or, to +be more workmanlike, can be fitted in grooves (see _Grooving_ and +_Shelves_). + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + + * * * * * + +=Hanging Book-Shelf.=--A wall-shelf (Fig. 283) is useful and good +practice for the amateur. It should not be made too deep (from front to +back). Half-inch stock is heavy enough, if the shelf is not more than +two feet long. + +[Illustration FIG. 283.] + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +This shelf can be simply put together by nailing, setting the nails +carefully (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_). Carefully mark lines (using +the square) by which to nail the pieces in their proper places. It is +not worth while to use glue if the parts are put together in this way. A +stronger and more workmanlike way is to groove the lower shelf into the +sides and the sides into the upper shelf (see _Grooving_). In this case +glue should be used and the work tightly clamped (see _Gluing_ and +_Clamps_). It will be much stronger to fit a back between the two +shelves and the sides. This should properly be set in a rabbet cut +around the space, as shown in Fig. 284 (see _Rabbet_). + +[Illustration FIG. 284.] + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + + * * * * * + +=Wall-Cabinet.=--An open cabinet or hanging case for books, magazines, +or other small articles (Fig. 285) can be of any desired proportions, +but should not be very large. Half-inch stock is sufficiently thick. + +[Illustration FIG. 285.] + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +This case should have a back. Rabbets should be cut to receive the back, +as in the case of the wall-shelf just shown (see _Rabbet_), the top and +middle shelves being narrower than the lower shelf by the thickness of +the back. + +This case can simply be nailed together (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_), +but it will be better to groove the shelves into the sides (see +_Grooving_). + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + + * * * * * + +=Hanging Bookcase.=--A simple and useful case for the wall (Fig. 286) +can be made on much the same principle as the small case just shown. It +is well not to make such cases very large, and, unless quite small, +stock from 3/4" to 7/8" in thickness will be suitable. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +Instead of a back, strips can be screwed on vertically (Fig. 286), being +sunk so as to be flush with the back of the case (Fig. 287). + + * * * * * + +[Illustration FIG. 286.] + +[Illustration FIG. 287.] + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + + * * * * * + +=Wall-Shelves.=--An easily made arrangement is suggested in Fig. 288. +The design can easily be varied if you wish. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +The construction is extremely simple, the shelves being merely screwed +on from the back. + +[Illustration FIG. 288.] + +Get out the back and the shelves, and smooth them. Mark lines across the +face of the former at the places for the shelves, bore holes through the +back from the face for the screws (see _Boring_), and countersink the +holes on the back (see _Countersink_). Screw the shelves in place (see +_Screws_) to see that everything is right, then take apart and finish. + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + + * * * * * + +=Pipe-Rack.=--A modification of the shelf arrangement just described +makes a good rack for pipes and other articles for smoking (Fig. 289). + +[Illustration FIG. 289.] + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +This differs from the article just described only in the shape of the +shelves, which have openings in the edge for holding pipes. These +openings can be made either with a fine saw or by boring holes and +cutting in to them from the edge (Fig. 290). + +[Illustration FIG. 290.] + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + + * * * * * + +=Wall-Shelves.=--A quite simple form is shown in Fig. 291, having a +small box with lid. A combination of this form with the design for a +pipe-rack can easily be made if desired. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +The construction is plain from the cases already described. The hinges +should be sunk in the edge of the lid (see _Hinges_). + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + +[Illustration FIG. 291.] + + * * * * * + +=Wall-Cabinet.=--The cabinet shown in Fig. 292 should be rather small, +for if large it will look clumsy. It can be made of half-inch stock. + +[Illustration FIG. 292.] + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +The construction is quite similar to the preceding cases. + +If you have no board wide enough for the back, two can be joined (see +_Jointing_ and _Gluing_). + +The cupboard is simply a box without front or back (see _Box-making_, +page 219) screwed to the back from behind (see _Boring_ and _Screws_). +The shelves at the sides of the cupboard and the bracket underneath it +can be screwed from the back and from the inside of the cabinet, as in +the preceding cases. + +The door (see _Doors_) can be fitted and hung (see _Hinges_) after the +whole has been put together. + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + + * * * * * + +=Corner-Shelves or Cabinets.=--A simple form of hanging corner-shelves +is shown in Fig. 293. This can be of any size, of course, but such +articles look clumsy if made very large. Half-inch stock is heavy enough +unless the case is quite large, when 3/4" or 7/8" thickness can be used. + +[Illustration FIG. 293.] + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +[Illustration FIG. 294.] + +One of the sides can be made wider than the other by the thickness of +the stock, so as to lap over and secure a tight and strong joint at the +back. The top board (with rounding front) can simply be nailed down on +the sides (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_), or, to be more workmanlike, a +rabbet (Fig. 294) can be cut around the edge of the top on the under +side into which to fit the sides, which can be screwed in place (see +_Rabbet_, _Boring_, _Countersink_, and _Screws_). This rabbet should not +come quite to the front edge of the top. + +The shelves can be screwed in place from the back (see _Screws_), +carefully marking lines with the square, for boring the holes, before +putting the case together, and countersinking +the holes+ upon +the back. + +This case (being fastened by screws) can be taken apart for finishing. + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration FIG. 295.] + +A standing cabinet like Fig. 295 can be made in the same manner as the +hanging cabinet just shown, but can, of course, be larger. Stock from +3/4" to 7/8" in thickness can be used. The rail at the top can be made +and put on as directed for the desk-rack shown in Figs. 281 and 282. + + * * * * * + +=Medicine-Cabinet.=--Any small cabinet can be used for medicines by +simply arranging the shelves in any convenient manner. A simple way is +to have a series of horizontal grooves on the inside of each side, into +which the shelves can be slipped at any desired distance apart. A design +for an easily constructed medicine-cabinet for the wall is shown in +Figs. 296 and 297. + +[Illustration FIG. 296.] + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +A good size for a small cabinet is to have the main box-part, the +cabinet proper, about 15" wide, 20" high, and 7" deep. It can be made of +1/2" stock. The construction is like that of the other cases already +shown. The joints should properly be grooved (see _Grooving_ and +_Gluing_), but the whole case can be nailed together, although the +result will be inferior (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_). The back should +be set in a rabbet as in the cases already shown. The arrangement of the +hinges is shown in the illustration (see _Hinges_). + +The partitions can be of thin stock (1/4" or 5/16"). The doors can have +thick cleats, shaped as shown in Fig. 297 (enlarged in Fig. 297a), with +holes bored down from the top for homoeopathic phials. Care must be +taken not to bore the holes through (see _Boring_). Stop boring before +the spur comes through and clean out the bottoms of the holes with a +gouge. + +A small drawer can be fitted to one of the small compartments, as in +Fig. 297 (see _Drawers_). If the edges of the doors are made to lap +slightly where they come together, rabbets being cut on opposite sides +of the edges (Fig. 298), the joint will be tighter, but a little space +must be allowed or the doors may bind. The rest of the details are like +those of the cases already described. + +[Illustration FIG. 297.] + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part. V. + +[Illustration FIG. 297a.] + +[Illustration FIG. 298.] + + * * * * * + +=Bookcases.=--A plain case (Fig. 299) can be made of any desired size. +If quite small 3/4" stock can be used, but ordinarily 7/8" thickness +will be best. The method of construction is practically the same as in +the cases already described. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +The shelves can all be fastened in, if desired, but a good way is to +groove the top and bottom shelves into the sides and make those between +movable (see _Shelves_, in Part V.). + +[Illustration FIG. 299.] + +[Illustration FIG. 300.] + +The back can be fitted by simply cutting a rabbet on the back edge of +each side for the entire length (see _Rabbet_), and making the shelves +of such a width that they will not project beyond the rabbet. A narrow +piece can be screwed from the back lengthways, above the upper shelf, as +shown in Fig. 300. The rest of the back can then be screwed in place +(see _Boring_ and _Screws_). The back, being too wide to be made of one +board, can very well (for a plain case of this sort) be of matched +boards or sheathing.[24] Do not force the back too tightly into +place,--that is, crossways of the boards. Allow a little play for the +expansion and contraction. + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + + * * * * * + +A "knock-down" method of putting together with tenons and wooden pins +(Fig. 301) is not very difficult, but requires care and accuracy. In the +case of the bookcase just shown, the upper and lower shelves can be +pinned through the sides, which will hold the case firmly, and the other +shelves can be movable (see _Shelves_). A case fastened in this way can +be readily taken apart. This method can be applied to other designs for +bookcases and cabinets. + +[Illustration FIG. 301.] + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +The general principle is that of the mortise and tenon (see +_Mortising_). If you cut the mortises for the pins before cutting the +tenons on the ends of the shelves you will avoid the liability of +splitting the tenons. The pins should taper and the angles of the pins +and tenons be very slightly bevelled, that is, the sharp edge taken off. + +The ends of these shelves can be slightly "cut under" or bevelled +inwards (see Fig. 302, which is exaggerated), on the same principle that +the ends of floor boards and the like are sometimes slightly bevelled, +to ensure a closely fitting joint. + +[Illustration FIG. 302.] + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + + * * * * * + +A good form for an open bookcase suitable for the beginner to make is +shown in Fig. 303. This design is suitable for a low, or dwarf, bookcase +of whatever length may be desired. If of quite small size it can be made +of 7/8" stock throughout, but in most cases a thin plank (perhaps 1-1/4" +to 1-1/2" thick) had best be used for the ends. + +A curtain can be added if desired. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +The curves of the ends can be sawed by hand (see _Turning-saw_ and +_Keyhole and Compass Saw_), or better by band-saw and jig-saw at a mill, +and smoothed with spoke-shave and file (see _Spokeshave_ and _File_). +The shelves (at least the upper and lower ones) should be grooved into +the sides and glued (see _Grooving_ and _Gluing_), although, as in the +other cases already described, nails can be used, but the result will be +inferior (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_). + +The plainness of the upright edges of the ends can be relieved by a +little beading (Fig. 305), which you can do yourself or have moulded at +the mill (see _Beading_). + +[Illustration FIG. 303.] + +Little brackets, screwed under the lower shelf at each end, as shown in +Fig. 306, add to the stiffness of the case. A back can be fitted into +rabbets as described above, but in this case it had best not come above +the top shelf, a rabbet being cut on the under edge of the latter as +well as in the sides. The bottom shelf can simply be made narrower and +without a rabbet. + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + + * * * * * + +The bookcase shown in Fig. 304 can be of any desired size and +proportions. It can be of 7/8" stock, although the upright ends can well +be of thin plank. + +[Illustration FIG. 304.] + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +This case can simply be nailed together (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_), +but the more workmanlike way is to groove the sides into the top and the +bottom shelf into the sides (see _Grooving_). The second shelf from the +top can be grooved into the sides, and the upright partition forming the +cupboard can also be grooved in place. This process involves careful +laying out and accurate cutting. The other shelves can be removable. The +base-board can be bevelled or curved on the top edge (or moulded by +machine) and can be mitred at the corners. It can be fastened with fine +nails (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_). The front piece can be glued as +well as the mitred joints. A moulding can be nailed around the top as +shown, being mitred at the corners.[25] + +The other details of construction do not differ from those of the cases +just given, except in the matter of making and fitting the door, for +which see _Doors_ in Part V. + +A common way of making the sides of such cases is to make the side +itself of board thickness, and to face the front edge with a strip +(which can be glued on) from 1-1/4" to 2" wide, according to the size of +the case, in the way shown in Fig. 305 (see _Gluing_). This gives a +wider edge to the side and the shelves can fit behind the facing strip. + +Beading can be worked on this strip, as shown (see _Beading_). + +[Illustration FIG. 305.] + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + + * * * * * + +=Desk and Bookcase.=--Various combinations of book-shelves with a desk +can be arranged. A useful form for a small one is shown in Fig. 306. The +height is of course regulated by the necessary position of the desk-lid +when dropped. The general principles of the construction are the same as +those of the cases already shown. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +The wing, or attachment at the side, can be grooved into the side of the +main part. + +[Illustration FIG. 306.] + +The back should reach across from one part to the other, which will give +stiffness to the whole. + +The desk-lid, which should be set in perhaps 3/8" from the front edge of +the case, can be prevented from dropping too far by chains fastened +inside to the lid and the sides of the case. Various other arrangements +can be bought for holding a desk-lid in the proper place. + +The inside of the lid must of course be smooth. If panelled as in Fig. +306 the panel must be thick enough to be flush with the frame on the +inside (see _Doors_). There will be more or less of a crack around this +panel, but this is unavoidable. Lids of this sort are sometimes made +with a smooth surface (without frame or panelling), but this requires +some form of cleating to prevent warping (see _Cleats_). + +The small brackets under the lower shelf will help to stiffen the case. + +A few shelves can easily be arranged in the desk compartment. If you +wish a number of pigeon-holes and compartments, a good way for the +amateur to fit these is to make an independent case of pigeon-holes and +compartments, without front or back, of thin wood (perhaps 1/4"), and of +such outside dimensions that it will just slip into the desk-space. This +open box-like arrangement can be nailed together with fine brads. + +The best way to make it is by fitting all the divisions into grooves, +but to do this by hand requires more work and care than can be expected +of the ordinary amateur. The grooving can be done by machine. A +convenient arrangement is to have rows of parallel grooves into which +the division boards can at any time be slipped to form compartments of +any desired size. + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + + * * * * * + +=Music-Case.=--The construction of the form shown in Fig. 307 is like +that of the examples already shown. The sides, top, and bottom should be +of 3/4" or 7/8" stock, but the shelves can be thinner. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +This case can be simply nailed together (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_), +but the more workmanlike way is to groove the bottom shelf into the +sides and the sides into the top, as in the cases already shown (see +_Grooving_). + +A moulding at the top can be made as in the bookcase shown in Fig. 304. + +For various ways of putting in the shelves, see _Shelves_, in Part V. + +The back can be thinner (1/4") and should be fitted in a rabbet cut +around, as already shown in the illustrations. + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + +[Illustration FIG. 307.] + + * * * * * + +=Plant-Stands.=--The form shown in Fig. 308 is of quite simple +construction and is useful to hold a large flower-pot. It should be made +of 7/8" stock. The top can be from 8" to 12" square. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +[Illustration FIG. 308.] + +Simply make a box (see _Box-making_, page 219), without top and bottom, +with the grain of the four sides running up and down. Before putting +together saw the curves at the bottom. As the grain of the four pieces +all runs up and down, these sides can be glued together without nailing +(see _Gluing_). Screw four cleats around the inside of the top (Fig. +309) with holes bored in them for screws with which to fasten on the top +from underneath (see _Boring_ and _Screws_). Round the top edge as shown +(see _Spokeshave_ and _File_), and smooth the surfaces. Then, having +shaped the edge of the top as shown in Fig. 308, fasten it in place and +the stand is ready to finish. + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + +[Illustration FIG. 309.] + +The form shown in Fig. 310 is made upon a similar principle, and can be +of a larger size than would be satisfactory for the first pattern. + + * * * * * + +Much care must be taken to so lay out and cut the slanting edges of the +sides that the pieces will come together accurately. After the top has +been fastened on, a little piece of moulding can be put around beneath +the edge of the top as shown, provided you have the skill to do it +neatly. The corners must be mitred, and the moulding fastened on with +fine brads, which must be set (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_).[26] + +[Illustration FIG. 310.] + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + +=Tables.=--A plain table, which although not especially ornamental is +serviceable for many purposes, is shown in Fig. 311. It can be made of +any size and proportions and the details can easily be varied. + +[Illustration FIG. 311.] + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +The construction is too simple to require special description. The legs +and the cleats at the top should be of plank thickness, the rest of 7/8" +stock. The legs can be halved where they cross (see _Halving_), or for a +rough job can be simply nailed (see _Nailing_). The cleats at the top of +the legs should be nailed or screwed to the legs, and will act as cleats +to the top, which is fastened to them. The boards forming the top can be +simply laid with the edges touching, for a rough job; but where a good +surface is required the joints should be glued (see _Jointing_ and +_Gluing_) and the surface smoothed afterwards. + +Extra cleats can be put under the top if needed for stiffness, and +additional lengthways stretchers can be added to connect the upper part +of the legs. + +The whole should be planed and sandpapered and can be shellaced or +painted. The remaining details do not differ from those of the subjects +already shown. + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + + * * * * * + +A table of simple construction and neat appearance (Fig. 312) can be of +any desired size and proportions. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +[Illustration FIG. 312.] + +The legs can be from 1-1/2" to 2-1/2" square, according to the size of +the table. After being squared and cut to a length they should be +tapered toward the bottom by planing down two opposite sides and then +the other two. The tapering, however, should not extend to the tops of +the legs, but to a point a little below the bottom of the rails, or +cross-bars, which connect the legs. On the two inner sides of the legs +mortises must be cut to receive tenons on the ends of the rails which +connect the legs, as shown in Fig. 313 (see _Mortising_). These rails +can be of 7/8" stock, the curves on the lower edge being cut with the +turning-saw or compass and keyhole saw, and finished with spoke-shave +and chisel or file. The curves can be omitted, of course, if preferred. + +[Illustration FIG. 313.] + +Do not try to put this table all together permanently at one operation. +First put together two legs and the connecting piece, then the other two +legs and the connecting piece, and finally join these two sides by the +remaining rails. Glue the joints (see _Gluing_) and the parts should be +securely clamped (see _Clamps_) until dry. Corner-blocks can be put in +at the angles (see _Corner-blocks_). + +Holes must be bored in the rails by which to fasten the top. If the +rails are not too deep, vertical holes can be bored, countersinking +deeply if necessary. Deep countersinking can be done by first boring a +hole large enough to admit the head of the screw to the depth required, +when the hole can be continued with a smaller bit. If the depth of the +rail is too great for this process, the hole can be made by a species of +counterboring, making first a larger hole in the side of the rail (on +the inside), an inch or so from the top, and boring down into this hole +from the top. A slanting cut can be made from below with the gouge to +allow the screw to be slipped into the hole (Fig. 314). Another way is +to screw cleats on the inside of the rail with a vertical hole through +which the top can be screwed on (Fig. 315). + +[Illustration FIG. 314.] + +[Illustration FIG. 315.] + +The top, if too wide for one board, should be glued up before being +dressed off (see _Jointing_ and _Gluing_), and the edge shaped and +smoothed. Then, laying the top face downward on the horses or bench, +place the frame upside down upon the top. When in the exact position +mark a line around the inside of the frame, continue the holes in the +frame a little way into the top, using a bit a trifle smaller than the +screws, and then screw the frame securely to the top (see _Boring_ and +_Screws_), measuring carefully to see that you use screws which will not +protrude through the top of the table. Depend entirely on the screws to +hold the top on. Do not fasten a table-top on with glue (see _Laying out +the work_, in Chapter IV.). If the table does not stand even, see +_Scribing_ and _Winding-sticks_. The final scraping (see _Scraper_) of +the top can well be left until the table is put together, when the +whole, after being scraped, can be carefully sandpapered with fine +sandpaper (see _Sandpaper_). + +The remaining details do not differ from those of the articles already +shown. + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Finishing_, in Part V. + + * * * * * + +An excellent centre-table for the amateur to make (Fig. 316) is useful +for many purposes. About three feet square on top is a convenient size. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V. and look up any other references. + +[Illustration FIG. 316.] + +Get out four legs, from 1-1/2" to 2" in diameter, according to the size +of the table. They can be tapered slightly, as in the preceding case. +Groove one side of each leg to receive the end of the cross-partition +shown in the cut (see _Grooving_). These partitions can be 1/2" to 3/4" +thick. One of them can extend across (diagonally) from post to post. The +other can be in two parts, reaching to the centre; or the partitions can +be in four parts, meeting in the centre. This framework of legs and +cross-partitions can be bound together at the top by cleats screwed on +top (Fig. 317), holes being made in the cleats by which they can in turn +be screwed to the top of the table. The lower shelf, or shelves (being +made in four parts), can be fastened up from underneath, cleats, also, +being used if necessary. The shelves can be of 1/2" stock. The upper +shelves can be fitted after the rest is put together and can rest upon +cleats underneath, to which they can be fastened. The shape of the top +is shown in Fig. 317a. + +[Illustration FIG. 317.] + +[Illustration FIG. 317a.] + +The remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases. + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + + * * * * * + +=Small Stand.=--A simple arrangement shown in Fig. 318 involves more +difficulties than many of the other articles shown, but is not beyond +the skill of the careful amateur. A good size is about 13" or 14" across +the top and 17" or 18" high. Such a stand is useful to hold a +flower-pot. + +[Illustration FIG. 318.] + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V. and look up any other references. + +The top can be of 1/2" or 5/8" stock and the legs of 7/8" stock, the +lower part tapering in thickness to 5/8" at the bottom. The curves can +all be sawed at a mill for a small sum, and smoothed with spoke-shave +and file (see _Spokeshave_ and _File_). The underside of the top can be +bevelled at the edge (Fig. 319). This can be done with the spoke-shave. +The file can be used to good advantage in the rounding of the extreme +edge, finishing with sandpaper, but not until after the top surface has +been finally smoothed (see _Spokeshave_, _File_, and _Sandpaper_). + +[Illustration FIG. 319.] + +The curved frame under the top and connecting the legs is to be made in +four pieces, the legs being fitted between them (Fig. 320). These curved +pieces should be got out a little too long and the ends carefully sawed +to make a tight joint with the legs. Be sure that all these parts fit +accurately before you finally put them together. Screw them together, +toeing screws into the legs. Use glue at the joints of the curved frame +and the legs, but do not glue the frame to the top. + +[Illustration FIG. 320.] + +The remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases. + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + + * * * * * + +=Small Table.=--Fig. 321 shows a good form for a small stand suitable +for various purposes, which, although not as easy to make as it looks, +is not too hard for the amateur who has acquired some familiarity with +his tools. It can be made of any desired height or proportions. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +Get out the top as in the small stand last shown. The thickness can vary +from 1/2" to 7/8" according to the size of the table. The legs should +not be fastened directly to the top, but to a cleat framework to be +screwed to the top (Fig. 322). This helps prevent the top from warping. +The legs can be round or six-sided and should be tapered (see +_Rounding-sticks_). A tenon or dowel should be made at the upper end of +each leg to fit into a hole in the cleat framework. + +[Illustration FIG. 321.] + +[Illustration FIG. 322.] + +[Illustration FIG. 323.] + +The hexagonal shelf at the bottom can be of 1/2" stock and should be +notched or grooved into the legs, the extreme angles of the shelf being +cut off (Fig. 323). A fine screw toed from underneath through the shelf +into the leg (Fig. 324) will strengthen the joint, and after the whole +is fastened together, little brackets can be screwed with fine screws in +the angle between the lower shelf and the leg. All the joints should be +glued except where the cleats are fastened to the top, in which case +screws alone should be used. Much care is required to make all these +joints accurately, and to put the whole table together properly. + +[Illustration FIG. 324.] + +The remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases. + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + + * * * * * + +=Footstool or Cricket.=--A common low seat or cricket (Fig. 325) can be +made of 5/8" or 7/8" stock and of any desired size. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +[Illustration FIG. 325.] + +The hardest part of this job is to cut the bevels where the sides meet +the top and at the ends of the stretcher between the sides (see +_Bevelling_). You will probably find it easier to lay out and cut the +ends of the sides before they are tapered. The edges of the top can be +slightly rounded. + +After the parts are nailed together (see _Nailing_) set the nails (see +_Nail-set_). The remaining details do not differ from those of the cases +already described. + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + + * * * * * + +=Out-Door Seat.=--The construction of the plain chair shown in Fig. 326 +is too obvious to require special description. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +This seat can be made of thin plank. The most difficult part is the +bevelling of the joints (see _Bevelling_). + +[Illustration FIG. 326.] + +The remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases. +For the painting see _Painting_, in Part V. + +=Bookcase and Lounge.=--"Combination" articles of furniture are, as a +rule, frequently undesirable on the ground of taste, and often are not +as convenient as to have the parts made separately. But the amateur may +sometimes find it desirable to join two or more different pieces to fit +some particular spot or for some special reason. Examples are given in +the bookcase and desk (Fig. 306), in the combination for a corner (Fig. +328), and in Fig. 327. These are given as suggestive of the kind of +combinations that can be suitably undertaken by the amateur, and many +simple arrangements can readily be contrived when desired. + +[Illustration FIG. 327.] + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +The new principles involved in this design are merely in the +combination. The bookcase and the cupboard (which can be open if +desired) are similar to those already shown, and the lounge is simply a +shelf or box-like arrangement connecting the two. The back of the lounge +is merely a board fastened by screws. The appearance of the article +depends much upon the upholstering. This should not be done until after +the finishing of the wood-work. + +The remaining details are not different from those of the articles +already shown. + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + +[Illustration FIG. 328.] + +Another combination, suitable for a corner, is shown in Fig. 328. The +principles involved are the same as for the other articles already +described and the construction is obvious. + + * * * * * + +=Table and Settle, or Chair-Table.=--This is an excellent form of table +for the amateur to make and is useful for many purposes (Figs. 329 and +330). If of moderate size, it can be made of 7/8" stock, but if large, +and to be subjected to rough usage, thin plank will be more suitable for +the ends and top. Another good form of chair-table can be made on the +same principle by making a narrower seat, or a heavy chair, and +attaching a circular top by hinges to the back of the arms of the seat. + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, +_Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +The framing of the lower part is similar to that of a box. Get out the +upright ends and the front and back of the box part and fit them +together as shown in Fig. 331, a rabbet (see _Rabbet_) or groove being +cut to receive the bottom. The lid, which forms the seat, can be +arranged as shown (see _Hinges_). The top, made like any table-top and +fastened by screws to the deep cleats shown (see _Screws_), is pivoted +to either side of the upright ends by pins when a seat is desired. When +you wish to use the table and the top is lowered, it can be held in +place by inserting pins in the other two holes also. The pins should not +be less than 1/2" or 3/4" in diameter. Care must be used in laying off +the points for making these holes (see _Boring_). + +[Illustration FIG. 329.] + +[Illustration FIG. 330.] + +The remaining details are not different from those of the articles +already shown. + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + +[Illustration FIG. 331.] + +=Cabinet for Guns, Fishing-Rods, Etc.=--A convenient form is shown in +Fig. 332. The construction is similar to that of the bookcases and +cabinets already shown. The stock for the case itself can be 7/8" in +thickness, for the larger divisions 3/4", and for the small partitions +1/2". + +[Illustration FIG. 332.] + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, +_Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +If you make the doors with glass panels, as shown, these can be set in +rabbets cut on the inside of the door frames and held in place by strips +of "quarter-round" moulding. The doors can be fitted between the sides +or can lap over the edges of the sides, as you prefer (see _Doors_). The +drawers can be omitted if too difficult to make well (see _Drawers_), +and small boxes of various sizes stored upon the shelves can be used as +a substitute. + +The remaining details are not different from those of the articles +already shown. + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + + * * * * * + +=Picture Frames.=--These are often undertaken by the amateur, but +making them well is much more difficult than it seems to the beginner. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +If you buy the prepared mouldings so much in use, they will, in most +cases, have to be mitred at the corners, which is an operation by no +means easy for the beginner, particularly when the moulding is sprung or +twisted, as is often the case. Those joints which do not close properly +must be trimmed with the plane, for which purpose the mitre +shooting-board is useful (see page 94), and all four joints should fit +accurately before finally putting together, so that none will have to +be sprung or twisted in order to close up. At the same time you must +guard against winding by sighting across the face, and the angles must +be tested with the square. The clamping together is important in such +work. This can be done by laying the frame flat, nailing strips a short +distance outside of each of the four corners, and driving in wedges +between these strips and the frame until the joints are firmly held +(Fig. 333). This can also be done by putting blocks at the corners and +passing a doubled cord around, which, by inserting a stick, can be +twisted until the frame is held tightly. But making mitred frames of +moulding is not suitable work for the beginner and should be deferred +until you have had some experience (see _Mitring_). + +[Illustration FIG. 333.] + +For a plain frame nothing is better than a joint with mortise and tenon +(Fig. 334), the rabbet (see _Rabbet_) at the back being cut through to +the ends of the shorter pieces (those having the tenons), but being +stopped before reaching the ends of the longer pieces (those having the +mortises), as shown. The latter should be got out too long, so as to +overlap a little at the ends (Fig. 334). This enables you to take the +frame apart more readily when fitting, and with less danger of injury to +the work. The projecting ends can be sawed off after the frame has been +glued together (see _Mortising_, _Gluing_, and _Clamps_). The final +planing and smoothing of the front surface and the edges should be done +after the frame is glued together, careful attention being paid to the +direction of the grain (see _Plane_, _Scraper_, and _Sandpaper_). + +[Illustration FIG. 334.] + +After a frame of this kind is all done, an inner moulding with a row of +beads, or some other simple form, can easily be fitted to the rabbet, +if desired. + +See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, +putting together, and finishing. See also _Finishing_, in Part V. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[24] This method of putting in a back answers very well for the +beginner, and is often used in cheap work, but, unless quite small, the +really workmanlike way is to make a panelled frame, which is screwed in +place as one piece. The degree to which the panelling is carried depends +upon the size and shape of the back. When you become able to make your +work more neatly and accurately than can be expected of the beginner, +you will do well to construct the backs in this way, but it involves +much more labour and is hardly worth while for such simple work as you +will do at first. + +[25] A more workmanlike way is to work all such mouldings on the edge +of the top, making it as much thicker as may be required, thus avoiding +putting on the moulding across the grain of the piece to which it is +fastened, which is not a scientific form of construction; and for that +matter it is a more thoroughly workmanlike way to work all mouldings on +the solid wood. + +The top can be made of two thicknesses, the moulding being worked on +the edge of the under piece before the two are glued together. Various +forms of moulding can be worked on the edge by a moulding machine at +almost any wood-working mill. + +[26] See footnote on page 198. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +A FEW MISCELLANEOUS OPERATIONS + + +=Wooden Chain.=--White pine or any other easily whittled, +straight-grained wood can be used. Take a stick of any length and from +1" to 2" square. If very small the whittling is more difficult. + +[Illustration FIG. 335.] + +[Illustration FIG. 336.] + +[Illustration FIG. 337.] + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Knife_, in Part +V. + +[Illustration FIG. 338.] + +Mark as shown (Fig. 335), and remove the wood at the corners, forming +four rabbets, giving a section of the piece the shape of a Greek cross +(Fig. 336). Next lay out the links, alternating as shown in Fig. 337, +and allowing space enough so that they can have some play when cut. By +notching in from the outside and finally cutting away the wood within +the links, they can be separated. The whittling must be done carefully, +of course, and wholly by _cutting_ with a _sharp_ knife. If you try to +do it by prying or twisting with the blade, you will be likely to split +the wood. Finally, round and smooth the links (Fig. 338), doing as much +of this as you can before the links are separated. Use fine sandpaper +(see _Sandpaper_). Leave the chain in the natural wood or oil and +shellac (see _Finishing_). + + * * * * * + +=Ball and Block.=--White pine or any other easily whittled, +straight-grained wood will do for this whittling exercise (Fig. 339). + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Knife_, in Part +V. + +First get out a cubical block, each edge of which may be, perhaps, +1-1/2" or 2" long. Gauge a line around each side parallel to the edge +and about 1/4" from it (see _Gauge_). Cut straight in on these lines and +then make slanting cuts to meet those first made. Remove the wood on the +same general principle as in cutting a notch, gradually shaping the +middle part into spherical form; while the cuts which are parallel with +the sides finally meet and form four posts between the top and bottom. +The wood must be removed by cuts, not by prying. Trim the ball to be as +nearly spherical as you can. If you wish to make the ring or handle +shown on top, additional length must be allowed in getting out the +original block. The whole can be sandpapered with fine sandpaper (see +_Sandpaper_) and finished with oil or shellac (see _Finishing_). + +[Illustration FIG. 339.] + + * * * * * + +=Box-making.=--In laying out common boxes, bear in mind that the sides, +top, and bottom usually lap over the ends,--the sides over the ends, and +the top and bottom over the sides and ends (Fig. 340). Sometimes, +however, to avoid joints showing on the front, the front and back are +made to lap over the top (Fig. 341), occasionally the ends lap over the +back (Fig. 342), and other arrangements are sometimes made. Do not rely +on glue for these common square joints in box-work, but place your +dependence on nails or screws. + +[Illustration FIG. 340.] + +[Illustration FIG. 341.] + +Either lid or bottom or both can sometimes project slightly to good +advantage (Fig. 343). In nice work, however, the bottom is more often +set in so as not to show, either simply fitting in between the sides and +ends or into a rabbet (see _Rabbet_) cut in the lower edge (Fig. 344, +showing box bottom up). + +[Illustration FIG. 342.] + +[Illustration FIG. 343.] + +The lid or cover can be hinged to the top edge of the back of the box, +or a narrower lid can be used and hinged to a strip fastened at the back +of the box (Fig. 345). Plain lids of this sort, for everything but rough +or temporary work, should be cleated, either by end cleats, by framing, +or simply by cleats on the under side (see _Cleats_ and _Doors_). + +[Illustration FIG. 344.] + +[Illustration FIG. 345.] + +Remember that the joints will be held more tightly (for a permanent box) +if you "toe" the nails (see _Nailing_). + +Mitring is a common way of making box-joints. It is, however, one of the +poorest of all ways in point of strength, and unless done with much +skill,--more skill than the average amateur usually acquires,--the +joints are very liable to come apart, or at least gape open, and be +weaker and look worse than the common, squarely fitted joint first +shown. + + * * * * * + +Glue can be used and is a help. Mitred joints can, however, be +strengthened by splines or keys or pieces let into saw-kerfs (see +_Mitring_). + +A mitred box is hard for an amateur to put together, particularly when +it is to be glued. The whole process should be rehearsed before gluing. +Everything must fit exactly before you begin to finally put the box +together. If you get one corner out of place, all four will probably be +thrown out of position before you get through puttering with them, and +the glue become cold and the operation be spoiled. Only a skilful +amateur can make a box with nicely fitted mitred joints that will hold +permanently. + + * * * * * + +There are various other ways of making joints by machine (see _Joints_). +The rabbeted joint shown in Fig. 346 can be made by hand very well, but +so much quicker with a circular saw that you will save much time by +having it done at a mill. It is a good, strong, neat joint and shows +less wood at the end than the common way. When it is allowable to round +what little end wood there is (Fig. 345) it makes the joint quite +inconspicuous. Glue can also be used to advantage with this joint on +account of the shoulder. + +Dowelling the corners is a method sometimes used. It is easier than +mitring, but by no means a strong joint, unless skilfully made. The +principal advantage of dowelling is in cases where it is objectionable +to have nails show. But, as a rule, there is not much gain in trying to +_conceal_ joints. Certainly not unless you can do the work in the best +of style. + +[Illustration FIG. 346.] + +Learn first to make the common, plain joints accurately, and you can +then attempt the more difficult ones with some chance of success. The +joints can sometimes be reinforced to good advantage by triangular +corner-pieces or posts, glued and screwed in place. + +There is no better or more workmanlike way of putting boxes together +than by some form of dovetailing (see _Dovetailing_), but this process +is hardly one for the beginner to undertake, and should be postponed +until he has acquired considerable skill, for, though the principle of +laying out and cutting dovetails is easy to understand, much exactness +is required in the execution. + +Where the box does not open at the top but lower down, as in Fig. 347, +the best way is not to make the two parts separately, but simply to put +together a tight box and then saw it apart wherever you wish to have it +open. + +Be careful to gauge accurately the line by which to saw it open (see +_Gauge_), and not to drive any nails too near this line. Any which you +omit can easily be added after the sawing. Saw the box open very +carefully on the line. Smooth the edges after the saw, but take pains +not to plane away the wood too hastily, for a very little carelessness +will spoil the joint and necessitate a general truing of the edges. + +[Illustration FIG. 347.] + +[Illustration FIG. 348.] + +A good form for a plain chest is shown in Fig. 348. The construction is +the same as in the other cases. The bottom can be fitted to a groove cut +around on the inside and can be inserted when the box is put together, +or for a rougher job can be simply nailed in place. + +A simple form of tool-chest is shown in Fig. 349. This can be made of +any size desired and of any wood. It is usually as well to make a +good-sized chest, for the cost is but little more than to make a small +one. Hard wood will be much more durable than soft. Stock from 3/4" to +7/8" in thickness will be suitable. + + * * * * * + +Unless you have had considerable experience you had best be content with +the simpler joints rather than to attempt dovetailing the corners, as +shown in the cut. It is not necessary to cut a rabbet for the bottom, +because of the base-board or moulding which is to be nailed around the +bottom, and the latter can be nailed or screwed directly to the edge, +before the moulding is put around. The rest of the construction of the +chest is obvious and like the cases already shown. If the moulding +around the lid is to be arranged as shown, it will be best to fit the +lock first, as it will be easier to attach the hasp of the lock before +the moulding has been added (see _Locks_ and _Hinges_). + +[Illustration FIG. 349.] + +At about two or three inches from the top, fasten a ledge on the inside +of the front and back. This can be about 1/4" thick by 1/2" deep and is +for the sliding-tray, shown in the cut, to rest upon. This tray can be +of soft wood, from 1/4" to 3/8" in thickness, and can be divided as you +wish. It will often be advantageous to arrange the lid and the top tray +so that tools can be fastened on the inside of the lid. Saws and various +flat tools are often thus disposed of, being held in place by straps, +blocks, and buttons. You can also arrange a rack around the inside of +your chest for such tools as chisels, gouges, etc. When kept in trays, +such tools should be separated by divisions. The various details of +making such a chest do not differ from those of the articles just +described in the preceding chapter on Furniture. + + * * * * * + +In nailing together rough boxes for packing or some temporary purpose, +you do not need to devote much thought to the arrangement of the pieces +with reference to the direction of the grain, so long as you put them +together in a way that your common-sense tells you will be strong. +Examination of a few packing-cases will show you all you need to know +for such work. But when you make a better grade of box, to be glued, +regard must be paid to the direction of the grain and the matter of +expansion and contraction. In the majority of boxes and chests the +grain of the sides and ends should run in the same way--horizontally or +around the box, as shown in the illustrations. + + * * * * * + +This gives a strong edge all around at the top of the box and permits +the use of glue (with some joints) where the sides and ends meet, as the +parts glued will thus naturally tend to expand and contract alike. When +the grain goes in opposite directions (_i.e._, at right angles), such +joints, unless short, should not be glued. Where the top board is +fastened to the sides and ends of the box, as in Fig. 347, it should not +be glued, except in the case of a small box, and the grain should run +lengthways, so that there will be as little change as possible due to +the expansion and contraction (see Chapter IV. on Laying Out the Work, +and Appendix). + +When several boards are required to cover the top or bottom of a box, +if you wish to have as few cracks as possible and to avoid the swelling +and shrinking across the grain as much as you can, lay the boards +lengthways of the box, but if you merely wish for strength, lay them +crossways. + + * * * * * + +Care must be taken about testing the angles with the square, and +guarding against winding (see _Winding-sticks_), in making nice boxes, +as with all framed work. If the bottom and top are got out accurately +they will, of course, assist in the matter of getting the box square, +and for common work carefully fitting the bottom (or bottom and top) in +place will be all the "squaring" required. In nice work where the joints +are glued, waste pieces should be placed over the joints (across the +grain of the sides) before applying the clamps, not merely to prevent +the work being marred by the clamps, but also to distribute the pressure +and ensure as close a joint as possible (see _Clamps_). + +The final smoothing of the outside of a box should be done after it is +permanently put together, allowing plenty of time, if glue is used in +the joints, for it to dry before dressing off the surfaces. The inside +must, of course, be smoothed before putting together. + +The variety of forms in which boxes are made is too great for all to be +specified, but the same general principles apply to nearly all forms of +box-work. In the case of chests or large boxes, you will often see them +with the sides and ends panelled, but this is rather an elaborate form +for the beginner to attempt and had best be avoided by the inexperienced +worker. A form which is not too hard for the amateur is shown, however, +in Fig. 350, the sides and ends being fitted to grooves or rabbets cut +in posts at each corner. + +[Illustration FIG. 350.] + +The work of getting out the stock for boxes and making the joints can be +done so quickly and accurately (and usually cheaply) by a circular saw +or other machine that much time is saved, when making nice boxes, by +having the parts sawed at a mill. The remarks made at the end of the +introduction to Chapter X. (on Furniture), in regard to getting out your +work, putting together, smoothing, and finishing, apply equally to +making the better class of boxes and chests, and the general details of +the work do not differ from those of the articles shown in that chapter. +See also, _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, _Nailing_, +_Nail-set_, _Screws_, _Hinges_, _Locks_, _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and +_Finishing_, in Part V. + + +=Toy Boats.=--A few suggestions about the wood-work of the hulls of toy +boats may be useful to the beginner. The details of rigging and +discussion of the merits of the various types and designs are matters +which do not come within the scope of this book, and you can easily find +information upon these points. + +Making your boats yourself is half the fun, of course, and capital +practice with tools as well as a valuable introduction to the building +of model yachts, which you may undertake later, and to the general +subject of boat-building and sailing. Making different types and sailing +them is both interesting and instructive. + +You will quite often see little boats fitted up as exact copies in +miniature of real vessels, with all the complexity of fittings, rigging, +and minor details found in the larger boats. These models are often +interesting specimens of skill,--as pieces of handiwork,--but the time +can usually be spent to better advantage in some other way. If you wish +actually to sail your boats, leave out everything which is not essential +to successful sailing. + +Very little skill, and no instruction, is required to make the simpler +forms of toy boats familiar to the small boy who lives near the water. +Almost any scrap of shingle or piece of wood upon which a little mast +can be raised will sail, as the small boy well knows. The difficulties +begin when something more like a boat is attempted, and the first and +greatest of all difficulties is that of the design, as you will discover +later if you attempt scientific model yacht-building. But advanced model +yacht-work requires much skill--more than can be expected of a beginner. +At first, in beginning to make toy boats, copy any successful boat as +nearly as you can. + +After you get beyond making boats of shingles and scraps of board, you +may very likely make something like Fig. 351, which is too simple to +require special description; but when you begin to build regular boats +you will find enough to tax your wood-working skill to the utmost. You +had best begin with simple forms and not make your first attempts too +large. + +[Illustration FIG. 351.] + +One way of making the hull (as of course you know) is to cut it from a +solid block of wood of the required size. Another way is to build it up +of layers of board laid on one another horizontally (Fig. 352).[27] + +[Illustration FIG. 352.] + +The greatest care must be taken in the selection of the wood. It should +be free from knots, checks, and bad grain, and above all things must be +thoroughly seasoned. Nothing is better than the best quality of clear +white pine. Mahogany is excellent, but is more costly and harder to +work. + + * * * * * + +Take a simple model of the fin-keel type (Fig. 353). First you must have +the design or drawing giving the different plans or views. If the +drawing is smaller than the actual size you wish to make the boat, it +must, of course, be enlarged and a full-sized working drawing made.[28] + +[Illustration FIG. 353.] + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, _Chisel_, _Gouge_, _Spokeshave_, _Paring_, etc., and look up +any other references. + +[Illustration FIG. 354.] + +To cut the hull from a solid block, first prepare the block of the right +dimensions, and plane it, making sure that the sides are true and square +with one another. The sheer plan must now be transferred to the sides of +the block, either by copying it on the wood by the use of transfer paper +placed between the drawing and the wood, by cutting out a pattern, or by +fastening the drawing itself on one side of the wood and a reversed +duplicate on the other side. In the same way transfer the half-breadth +plan twice to the top of the block, on each side of a line drawn along +the centre, reversing the pattern for one side, of course. Also continue +the centre line down each end and along the bottom. + +If the top and side outlines can be sawed to the lines marked with a +band-saw or jig-saw, the expense will be but slight and considerable +labour will be saved. Saw down on the lines 1--1, 2--2, 3--3, etc. (Fig. +354), nearly to the sheer line shown in Fig. 355. In your first attempts +at making small boats it may be well to omit the deck sheer, leaving the +top flat (Fig. 354), as this simplifies matters in the beginning. Also, +saw off the superfluous wood shown by the shaded parts of Fig. 355. Now +clamp or wedge the block, bottom up, firmly on the bench, in case you +have no vise arrangement by which it can be properly held, and rough it +out approximately to shape with a wide chisel (see _Paring_) or the +draw-knife (see _Draw-knife_). + +[Illustration FIG. 355.] + +The operation of shaping and hollowing out is slow work and requires +much care. A little haste may spoil the work of hours. As the bottom +begins to approach the desired shape you must have something more than +the eye by which to gauge your cutting, for a very little deviation from +the true curve may spoil your boat. It is very important to get both +sides of the boat alike. On card-board or stiff paper, mark a series of +patterns of the different sections shown on the body plan. Cut out each +of these patterns so as to save the part which is the reverse of the +shape of the section of the boat, thus forming a series of templates, +which you can apply to the hull at each section to test your cutting, +until the templates just fit the wood at their respective sections, when +the shape of the hull will, of course, agree with the plan. + +The spoke-shave, and sometimes the plane, can be used to good advantage +in the final shaping (see _Spokeshave_). Especial care is required not +to slice off too much, and you will, of course, work, as a rule, from +the centre (or amidships) towards the ends. The block can be held in the +lap or between the knees for this shaping, but it is better for all +kinds of crooked work to have the material firmly held by a vise or some +other contrivance, so that not merely the hands of the worker are free, +but the whole body as well. + +[Illustration FIG. 356.] + +This form of hull is simple to make, in that the curves of the outside +are all convex. There are no concave surfaces and reversed curves. The +surface can be finally shaped by the use of the rasp, followed by a +file, and finally smoothed with scraper or glass (see _Scraper_). Do not +use sandpaper until the hull is finished. + +The inside must next be hollowed. Gauge a line around the upper side, +1/2" from the edge, except at the bow and stern, where a greater +distance should be allowed (Fig. 356). The hull must now be held firmly +in some way. If you cannot contrive to clamp it firmly without bruising +the outside, you should arrange some blocks (padding them with cloth or +leather) in such a way that it can be held securely. It is better to +spend an hour in fastening the block firmly than to attempt to steady it +with one hand and to cut with the other. In all the shaping of the boat, +both hands should be free if possible. Grasp the blade of the tool with +the left hand, or lay the hand across it, so as to exert a back-pressure +on the tool. This gives great control of the tool (see _Paring_). + +Bore one or more holes (according to the size of the boat) downward from +the top (Fig. 356), being very careful not to bore too deeply, but to +leave at least half an inch of wood below the hole (see _Boring_). Now +run a groove with the gouge around the deck, inside of the line marked, +and hollow out the inside with the gouge, cutting towards the middle. +The holes bored will help in this process. Cut down straight from the +line marked on the upper side until the thickness of the sides of the +hull is reduced to perhaps 1/4 of an inch (Fig. 357). The object of the +increased thickness at the gunwale is to stiffen the sides and give a +better bearing for nailing down the deck. Below this point make the +thickness as uniform as you can, except for a narrow space at the very +bottom where the keel is to be fastened, where it is often well to leave +a thicker ridge (Fig. 357). + +[Illustration FIG. 357.] + +[Illustration FIG. 358.] + +Extreme care is required in hollowing the inside. It is best not to +attempt to make the sides thinner than one fourth of an inch, unless you +are a pretty good workman with a fair degree of patience, for it is hard +to repair the damage if you cut too deeply. Templates can be made for +the inside. You can tell quite well whether you are making the thickness +uniform by the sense of feeling, gauging the thickness between the thumb +and finger. Do not try to cut away too much at the bow and stern, as it +will weaken the boat, but leave a sufficient body of solid wood. Smooth +the inside neatly with a flatter gouge (if you have it) than that with +which you removed the bulk of the wood. + +Next, with a thin strip or batten, mark the line for the sheer of the +deck by the saw-kerfs already made and remove the wood carefully to +this sheer line. The outside can now be thoroughly sandpapered, first +with, perhaps, No. 1-1/2, and finally with No. 00. Get the surface as +smooth as possible (see _Sandpaper_). Next paint the outside and inside +with two coats of white lead and oil (see _Painting_). It is a good plan +to apply a coat of hot oil first. + +[Illustration FIG. 359.] + +[Illustration FIG. 360.] + +[Illustration FIG. 361.] + +Now to make this same simple model by the method of layers you will +readily see that if you take a piece of board of a thickness equal to +the distance between the water lines in the sheer plan (Fig. 353), and +cut from it pieces of the shape of the water lines as shown in the +half-breadth plan (Fig. 353), and also cut out the centres of the two +upper pieces as shown in Figs. 358, 359, 360, and then fasten these +pieces one upon another as shown in Fig. 361--you will see that you have +built up the general form of the boat, and saved much of the labour of +shaping and hollowing. + +Before cutting out these layers, a centre line must be accurately marked +along both sides and at the rounded ends, so that the layers can be put +together in the correct positions. Also, for the same reason, mark the +midship lines across each side and on the edges, as shown. In drawing +the inside lines (for the part to be cut out), care must be taken to +leave sufficient thickness at the sides to allow for the final shaping. +The sawing of the layers had best be done at a mill with a band-saw and +jig- or scroll-saw, but can be done by hand, of course. + +The boards or planks must be accurately dressed so as to make as perfect +joints as possible when put together. If not convenient to make the +thickness of the boards agree with the water lines of the plan, you can +easily draw in new water lines to agree with the thickness of the board +you may have--say, 3/4" or 7/8" apart. Glue must now be applied to the +joints, and the pieces firmly clamped together between boards, or laid +flat (bottom side upwards) and weights applied. It is best not to cut +out and glue up more than two or three layers at a time, lest they +become bent or sprung. Care must be used in applying the pressure to +make it uniform and not cause the somewhat flexible sides to be sprung +or twisted out of shape (see _Gluing_ and _Clamps_). Do not delay this +building-up operation needlessly. Do not leave the pieces lying around +for a fortnight. Keep them all clamped up in the proper position, or +under pressure, if you can, until the whole form is glued together, as +such pieces spring out of shape very easily. + +After the glue is thoroughly dry, complete the shaping of the outside +and inside as in the case of the solid block, care being taken to pare +off the projecting angles on the outside gradually, so as not to cut +within the curve marked on the plan. + +The fin (when flaring at the top and not too thin) can also be made of +wood, glued and screwed on, the lead being screwed to the bottom with +brass screws.[29] Be sure that the fin is in line with the centre line +of the boat. + +Unless the boat is quite small it is best to fit in two or three deck +beams to connect the sides and support the deck (Fig. 357). These should +be of thin stuff (perhaps 3/16" thick and 1/2" wide), set on edge and +very slightly arched, the ends being fitted into gains cut in the sides, +and nailed with fine brads. They can also be glued. + +The deck should be of thin stuff (perhaps 1/8" planed). Mark carefully +on the piece the deck outline and cut it approximately to shape, but +well outside of the line. Fasten small blocks of wood to the under side +of the deck wherever any attachments for the rigging are to be fastened. +Paint the lower side, and when dry bore a row of holes with a very small +brad-awl (see _Awl_) all around the edge, 1/8" inside of the line. Smear +the top edge of the hull with thick white lead, or white lead putty, and +nail the deck in place with very fine wire brads, perhaps 1/2" in +length. Care must be used not to split the deck or drive the nails +through the sides of the hull. Fine brass screws can be used if +necessary. The overhanging edge of the deck can be trimmed down +carefully with chisel, plane, or knife. The outside of the deck can now +be painted. + +The rudder can be fixed in a brass tube, the ends of which can be set in +lead. The mast can also be stepped in a brass tube, or simply pass +through the deck to the bottom, where it can be stepped in a smaller +hole, which must be bored with care lest it go through. + +When you come to making models of less simple form--those having +hollows and reversed curves in their outside form, as the majority of +boats do--the difficulty of shaping accurately is much increased and +more care is required, but the principle of construction remains the +same. + +[Illustration FIG. 362.] + +Suppose, for example, you are ambitious enough to undertake such forms +as those which compete for the _America's_ Cup, for instance, you will +find it difficult to carry the process of building by horizontal layers +below a certain point (Fig. 362) but the keel and lower part can be +added by gluing (or gluing and screwing) a piece of board or plank on +edge (or two pieces, if necessary) to the bottom. The lead can, in turn, +be fastened to the lower edge of the keel by screws. Models of such +yachts are not always the best forms for toy boats, however desirous you +may be to reproduce in miniature these famous boats. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[27] Still another way sometimes used for model yachts is to build the +hull much in the same way that a real vessel is built--making a +framework or skeleton and covering it with little planks, but this +method (though a good one in some respects) requires more skill than can +be expected of the average amateur, and this mode of construction should +not be attempted until you become a skilful workman and accomplished in +the building of regular model yachts. + +If your boat is quite small it will probably be easier and better in +most cases to cut the hull from a solid block; but if much more than +two feet in length it is usually better to build it in layers. + +Either of these methods can be used in any case, but for a small boat +the building in layers is more difficult, while for a large one it is +hard to find a block that will be sufficiently free from defects. + +[28] In making the plans for a boat, three views are usually drawn, +known as the sheer plan, the body plan, and the half-breadth plan. These +correspond to the "front or side elevation," "end elevation," and "plan" +in ordinary drawings, and give side, end, and top views of the boat,--or +of one-half of it, which is all that is needed, as the sides are of +course alike. Several equidistant horizontal lines are drawn across the +plans. One of these represents the line of the water when the boat has +its proper load. It is called the load water-line. The other lines being +parallel to it represent other imaginary levels, at equal distances +apart--like the lines which would be made by the water if the boat sunk +deeper or floated higher. Other lines are also added to show vertical +and horizontal, longitudinal and cross-sections, at regular intervals, +and also other longitudinal sections, but these details you will find +fully described in works on yacht-(and model yacht-) building. + +[29] The fin can be cut from sheet metal (brass or sheet-iron) and +inserted in a thin saw-kerf cut exactly in the centre of the bottom, +being set in thick white lead, or it can be riveted to thin plates +screwed to the bottom of the boat, or lips can be bent over alternately +on either side of the upper edge of the fin and screwed to the bottom. + +The amount of lead required for the bulb at the bottom of the fin can be +determined by loading the hull with weights until it is sunk to the +water line. The weights will, of course, represent the weight of lead +required. This can be cast in a mould and riveted to the bottom of the +fin. + + + + +PART III + +_HOUSE-BUILDING FOR BEGINNERS_ + + + + +CHAPTER XII + + +House-building in its simple forms, and on a small scale, is very +suitable work for the beginner in wood-working. + +One of the most important things to bear in mind is not to be too +ambitious in your early attempts. Content yourself with the simplest +forms until you have attained sufficient skill to undertake more +difficult buildings. + +All the work of such structures as are here shown can, in case of +necessity, be done by one person alone; but--unless, perhaps, in the +case of the smallest and simplest houses--it is much better for two or +more persons to join forces, as much time will thereby be saved, for the +lumber can be handled much more easily and quickly by two than by one. +This will be the best way if the building is to be done by boys, in +which case by all means have some system for carrying on the work. + +You know men usually work under the direction of a head man, or foreman, +and, when there is no head man, they defer as a matter of course to the +one of their number who is the best fitted to take charge of the work. +Choose one boy master-builder, foreman, or boss, letting him assign to +each his part of the work and leaving to him the decision of questions +that arise in regard to the details. If one of you is clearly more of a +mechanic than the others, choose him foreman; otherwise it will be a +good plan to have the office filled by each in turn for perhaps one day +apiece. Let the foreman divide the work as fairly as possible. That is, +instead of having one boy saw off all the boards while another drives +all the nails, arrange regular "shifts" at short intervals, letting the +two change places and work perhaps every hour. This plan will prevent +much confusion and perhaps disagreement, which might even cause the work +to be given up--an unfortunate result which sometimes happens to boys' +undertakings. + +It is not simply starting in with an understanding that you are to take +turns when one may think he is tired of what he happens to be doing, but +it is the regular rotation of work and responsibility at fixed intervals +that will ensure harmony and a successful completion of the work. + +The situation is a very important matter which will be spoken of in +treating of the larger structures farther on, but there is one thing +which should be borne in mind for even the smallest play-house in the +back yard of a town lot, and that is not to build it in a hollow where +the water will collect to make it damp or uninhabitable. A flat roof +should also be avoided, as it is much harder to keep tight than one +which has sufficient pitch to shed the water freely. + +You can determine the kind of a house to build and its general +dimensions according to the requirements of the case, but you will, of +course, wish it to be attractive in appearance, however small it may be; +and therefore, in making the drawings, it is essential to have in view +the block-form, or general shape and proportions. If these are not +pleasing and agreeable to the eye, your house will be unattractive, for +nothing you can do in the way of ornamentation or elaborate details will +make up for poor shape and proportions. + +To design a building (however small) with a pleasing and attractive +exterior is, however, no easy task. If you can make a perspective sketch +of your proposed house with reasonable accuracy, it will be a great +help, as the regular working drawings (the plan, elevations, etc.), +however well made, often fail to give one a clear mental picture of how +the structure _as a whole_ will look. + +A little model will be of the greatest service in determining whether +the shape and proportions of your house are good. A model is easily made +of paste-board with sufficient accuracy for this purpose. It is quite +remarkable how different many objects appear when actually made, from +the way one thinks they will appear, in spite of the most careful +drawings; therefore do not despise this simple precaution of making a +model in cases where attractive appearance is an element, for it may +save you from putting up a structure which will be a continual eyesore. + +The amateur (like many professional builders) is much more liable to +make his work too elaborate and with too many attempts at ornamentation +than to make it too plain. So give your first attention to the +block-form, and then to the details. Do not cover your house with an +embroidery of jig-sawing, fanciful turning, superfluous brackets, and +the like, in the effort to make it pretty or to imitate the vulgar +details of inferior summer cottages. The amateur is also liable in the +case of very small buildings to make them too tall in proportion to +their ground dimensions. A tall, narrow house is seldom homelike or +attractive, whether it be six feet square or sixty. + +Finally, be simple and modest in your designing, avoid meaningless +"gingerbread" work, do not set your house up on stilts, as it were, but +hospitably near to the ground; have generous doors and windows, avoid +flashy and gaudy colours in painting, cultivate plants and vines to run +over the outside, and keep the surroundings neat and tidy. + +The variety of small structures from which to select for your early +attempts is almost endless. You can find many ideas for your designing +and the construction in every town and in various publications. Only +simple types will be treated here, involving merely such principles of +construction as you can readily apply to such other designs as you may +wish to carry out. As it is impracticable to repeat all the suggestions +and details under each structure treated here, the prospective builder +who should begin with any of the later examples had best read these +chapters through from the beginning before starting on the actual work. + +One of the simplest and most easily built small structures that you can +make is that with a single-pitched or shed or "lean-to" roof; that is, +with the roof slanting only one way. This style of construction, though +commonly applied to a rather humble class of buildings, is by no means +to be despised, the ease with which it can be built by boys or amateurs +being one of its marked advantages. You will find this simple form of +building capitally suited to many purposes, and a good type with which +to begin. + + +=A Play-house or Play-store.=--You know that an ordinary wooden building +has a framework of timbers,--a kind of skeleton upon which the boarding +is nailed. This will be shown in the following chapters, but a very +small house or cabin, like that shown in Fig. 363, suitable for a +play-house for boys and girls, can be built very well in a simpler way +by making the four sides separately and then nailing them together as +you would do if making a box. There is no floor (except the ground), +and the roof is to be nailed down on top of the four sides as you would +nail the cover on the box. + +[Illustration FIG. 363. + + A little house, with trees a-row, + And, like its master, very low!--_Pope._] + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Nailing_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +Fig. 365 shows one of the sides (inside view). It is made of boards +running horizontally, with an upright cleat at each edge, and another +cleat at the top. + +Fig. 366 shows the back (inside view), made in the same way as the +sides, except that each cleat is set back from the edge 1-3/4", thus +forming a rabbet in which to fit either side when the house is put +together. The third, fourth, fifth, and sixth boards from the top are +not nailed to the cleats, but are omitted, to leave space for a large +open window. + +[Illustration FIG. 364. + +ELEVATION. + +SIDE ELEVATION. + +PLAN. + +REAR ELEVATION.] + +[Illustration FIG. 365.] + +[Illustration FIG. 366.] + +Fig. 367 shows the front (inside view), four upright cleats being used +and a large opening left for the doorway. + +[Illustration FIG. 367.] + +First estimate the stock you will require (see Chapter IV.),[30] and try +to get dry wood without too many large knots. + +You can get along very well for such work as this on the floor, or even +the ground, with a couple of boxes for horses, but a bench and horses +are a great convenience. + +Make the sides first, disregarding the slant for the roof. Take a +matched-board and square off one end of it, if it is not already square. +Then measure 5' 10"[31] from that end, mark across by the square, and +saw the piece off. Use this piece (5' 10" long) as a measure to mark +the lengths of enough pieces to make the two sides. If you saw them off +as you measure them, one by one, be sure to mark all the lengths by the +first piece, and not by the one last sawed, or they will probably, vary +in length. + +When you put the boards together to form the sides, be sure that the +ends are in line. Use the edge of a straight board for a straight-edge +to get them in line, or drive them against the side of the room, if that +is straight, or temporarily nail a straight-edged board to the floor and +keep them driven up squarely against it. + +Make sure, also, by testing with the square or by measuring, that each +side of the house when made is a rectangle and not a rhomboid, or the +whole house will be askew when put together. + +When you fit the matched edges be sure to make the joints as tight as +you can, but do not pound directly on the tongued and grooved edges with +the hammer. Take a short piece of waste boarding, fit it to the tongue +or groove wherever you wish to strike, and hit this waste piece with the +hammer. + +You will see that there is no need of sawing out a square hole for the +window, as you can put in short pieces at each side of the window-space. + +Nail the upright cleats at the edges with 1-1/2" nails, driving two into +each board in the way shown in the cut, bearing in mind that the cleats +must all be on the inside of the house, and also to have the tongues of +the boards uppermost when the house is put together. Mark the front edge +of each side in some way to prevent any mistake. The reason for putting +the tongues upward and the grooves downward is because the joints will +shed the water better, as otherwise each groove would be a little trough +into which the rain could soak. Measure 5' 6" from the bottom on the +front edge of each side and 4' 6" on the back edge. Draw a straight line +on the outside between these points and it will give the slant for the +roof. Saw the boards and cleats by this line and then fit and nail the +top cleats as in Fig. 365, or nail the top cleats first and saw the +boards off by them. + +Next make the back in the same way, setting the cleats 1-3/4" away from +the edges. Leave out the boards at the window-space. + +Make the shutter, and trim off its tongued and grooved edges (see +_Paring_, etc.) before nailing the back of the house together, as you +can thus determine more easily the space to be left open. Also trim off +the tongued edge of the board coming next below the shutter. Leave the +open space a little wider than the shutter (say 1/4" wider) to allow for +possible swelling of the boards. When you nail the cleats on the +drop-shutter, be sure to use nails long enough to clinch (see +_Nailing_), or use screws (see _Screws_). + +The front is to be made in the same way, the width of the door-space +being 27-1/2", and of the boarding at each side, 21-1/4". Have the two +inner cleats project about an inch inside the edge of the doorway for +the door to hit against when shut (Fig. 367), and "toe" or clinch the +nails for these cleats, or use a few screws, so that the slamming of the +door will not loosen them. + +Now the four sides are ready to put together. Find a spot as nearly +level as you can for your house. Do not, however, put it in a hollow +where the floor will be flooded with water when it rains. Hold up the +front and one side in the right position, press them closely together at +the corner, and drive in a couple of nails to hold them until you can +get the other parts in place. Then fit on the other side and the back in +the same way. Try the four corners with the steel square, and when you +have them right nail all the corners strongly with 2-1/2" nails. If you +have no large square, measure the diagonals with a stick, altering the +angles at the corners until the diagonals are equal. Toe the nails at +the corners, and, in fact, if you can do it neatly, it will be stronger +to toe the nails throughout the work. + +Now get out boards 6' long for the roof, to run from side to side. When +you nail them on have them project 1" all around. Cover the roof with +roofing- or sheathing-paper. Lay it in strips from side to side, +beginning at the back and letting the second strip overlap the first, as +shingles are laid. Three strips will cover the roof once. Of course you +can cover it with as many layers as you wish to pay for. Fasten the +paper with roofing nails or tacks. Drive them close together, but only +where the strips lap and at the edges of the roof. You can bend the +edges of the paper down over the edge of the roof to cover the joint +underneath and nail neat strips of wood outside to cover the edges of +the paper, or you can simply nail the paper around the edge of the roof. + +In making the door (Fig. 368) clinch the nails which fasten the cleats, +or use screws, and trim off the tongued and grooved edges, as with the +drop-shutter. + +Now hang the door and drop-shutter with two strap-hinges each. Place the +door and shutter exactly in position (shut), and tack them temporarily +in place with a few nails, or wedge them. Then carefully placing each +hinge so that the pin on which it turns is just in line with the crack +between the door and the door-frame, mark points for the screws. Bore +holes for the screws and fasten the hinges in place (see _Screws_). + +Put a latch, a catch, or a hasp and padlock on the door, and a hasp or +screw-eye and hook on the inside for the shutter. Also fix a brace to +hold the shutter when lifted, or you can arrange a rope to pass up from +the outside of the shutter and around a pulley to the inside of the +house, where it can hang down and be used to hold the shutter up by +fastening it round a cleat or a couple of nails. + +[Illustration FIG. 368.] + +You can fix a shelf inside under the open window at the back (Fig. 364, +Plan), resting on cleats nailed to the sides of the house, and also put +in a seat at one or both sides, supporting the middle by a short post or +a short piece of board on edge. + +A few strips will serve to hold the lights of window-glass in place. The +house is now ready to occupy. + +Of course you can save a good deal of labour (and lose some experience) +at slight expense by having the boards sawed off squarely of the given +lengths at a mill,--often where you buy the wood. In this case, remember +to make a list of the number of boards of each length to take to the +mill. + +If you would like to be able to move your house or to take it apart and +store it during the winter, you can fasten the four sides and roof +together with screws, or hook them together on the inside with stout +screw-eyes and hooks. You will find this way in very common use by +builders and contractors in the little portable tool-houses, offices, +and shops which they take apart and move from place to place. + +[Illustration FIG. 369.] + + +=Play-store or Booth.=--A good form for a simple play-store or booth +(Fig. 369) can, if small, be constructed on the same box-like principle +as the little building just shown, and the details of construction are +so similar that special directions for this design are unnecessary. If +large, it should, however, have a frame, which you can readily pattern +after that shown in Fig. 371. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any +other references. + +By using heavier cleats, as 2" × 2" or 2" × 4", on the ends, those on +the front and back can be omitted, and the boards nailed directly to the +sides. An arrangement for one end (that with the door) is suggested in +Fig. 370, 2" × 2" or 2" × 4" joist being used. + +[Illustration FIG. 370.] + +A shelf or counter can be fitted inside the drop-window for the display +of your wares. + + * * * * * + +This general shape can often be advantageously used for a quite +good-sized building--a little cottage, for instance--and when an +addition to a larger structure is desired, it is sometimes the best form +for the purpose, for its shape renders it more easily attached than any +other form of ell (Fig. 391). + +A building of this style, however suitable as an attachment to a larger +structure, will not be an attractive object in some situations. It will +not stand alone, regardless of the surroundings, as well as some other +forms. Therefore it is well to consider, before deciding to build +anything of this kind larger than the play-houses and stores just shown, +whether your house will have a building, a fence, or a wall for a +background; or a steep bluff or ledge under which it will nestle, or +trees or shrubbery behind or around it. In such cases it will often be +attractive in appearance. If, however, it is to be put in a prominent +place where it can be viewed from all positions, it may be better to +select some other type. + + +=Frame for Larger Building with Lean-to Roof.=--While the simple +box-like arrangement described above is suitable for a very small +structure, it must be discarded for a frame of some sort when you +undertake a larger and more permanent building. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, +_Saw_, _Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up +any other references. + +This frame can be put together as shown for the framed structures +described farther on, the only difference being at the top. A simple +method of framing is shown in Fig. 371. + +Fig. 382 shows a simple way of fitting boards around the edge of the +roof where it overhangs, and other arrangements for this detail can be +found in the various illustrations. It is not necessary to have roofs +overhang, even for a large building, but it is usually desirable on the +ground of appearance and for shedding the water away from the walls. + +[Illustration FIG. 371.] + +For matters relating to the foundation, see pages 259-264. + + +=Play-house or Cabin.=--The house shown in Fig. 372 can be put together +in the way already shown. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any +other references. + +The ground dimensions can be 5' or 6' × 7' or 8'. The ends must be made +higher than the sides, as shown, to allow for the slant of the roof. +Mark lines, using a straight-edge, to give the slant for both sides of +the roof, and saw the boards off by these lines. A short cleat can be +added at the top in the middle to stiffen these top boards. + +After the sides and ends are put together, get out two boards, of the +shape shown in Fig. 373, to rest in four rectangular notches cut in the +front and back sides of the house. These pieces are to support the +roof-boards, and their upper edges are to be cut at the same angle as +the top of either end of the house. Nail these pieces firmly in place at +each end (Fig. 374). + +[Illustration FIG. 372.] + +Now get out boards for the roof, to run from end to end and about 4" +longer than the house. Begin to nail them on at the top, and have the +roof overhang the sides and ends 2" all around. + +You can easily put in the window-sash, either by hinging it so as to +swing open, or by having it slide to the right or left on strips nailed +above and below it, as shown in Fig. 369. + +[Illustration FIG. 373.] + +The roof-boards can also be laid the other way by putting in a +ridge-piece in the form of a piece of studding or joist of any size not +less than 2" × 2" (Fig. 377), or even a board on edge, to which the +upper ends of the roof-boards can be nailed. + +[Illustration FIG. 374.] + +Another form of roof, but arranged in the same way, is shown in Fig. +375. + +You will require a compass-saw for the curves, or you can have them +sawed by a band-saw, or the wood can be trimmed to the line with the +hatchet and draw-knife or chisel (see _Paring_). + +Another way to put any such little structure as this together is to have +the sheathing run up and down and the cleats horizontally. This makes a +neater structure than the way just given. The general principle of the +construction is the same, the four sides being made separately and then +fastened together. + +[Illustration FIG. 375.] + + +=Play-house, Store, or Cabin.=--The design shown in Fig. 376 can be +carried out in the manner already described. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any +other references. + +The ground dimensions can be 6' or 7' × 8' or 9'. In making the ends +where they are cut off at the top to give the slant for the roof, +inside cleats should be used. Mark lines, using a straight-edge, for the +slant for both sides of the roof, and saw the boards off by these lines. +It will be convenient and will look well to make the angle at the top a +right angle. At the top saw out a notch in which to rest the ridge-pole, +as shown in Fig. 377. + +[Illustration FIG. 376.] + +After the sides and ends are fastened together, nail the ridge-pole in +place and get out short boards for the roof. Cut these for one side of +the roof so as to be about 2" longer than the slant of the end of the +house, and make those for the other side of the roof as much longer as +the thickness of the boards, so that they will lap over at the top, as +shown in Fig. 377. Nail them on, beginning at one end, so that the roof +will overlap the ends and sides 2" all around. + +Nailing upright strips at the corners, as is commonly done on wooden +houses, and as is shown in the picture, will give the house a more +finished appearance. The other details are similar to those already +shown. + +[Illustration FIG. 377.] + +[Illustration FIG. 378.] + +[Illustration FIG. 379.] + +This house can have a floor, which can be made of 2" × 4" studding +simply nailed together and floored over (Fig. 378), forming a sort of +platform to which the sides and ends can be nailed when the house is put +together; and the best way to make the whole structure is that shown in +Fig. 377, the boards running vertically and cleats horizontally. In case +of using a platform floor with this last method of construction, the +lower cleats can be raised from the bottom so as to rest on the floor, +as shown in Fig. 378. This makes the putting together of the house quite +simple, as the fitting of the sides and ends and floor in their proper +places obviates the need of testing with square or measuring diagonals. +The lower cleats on the sides and ends are not really necessary, +however, except for convenience in putting together and taking apart, as +the vertical sheathing can be nailed directly to the floor-frame or +sills, as shown in Fig. 377. + +[Illustration FIG. 380.] + +[Illustration FIG. 381.] + +The whole can then be levelled (see _Level_ and _Plumb_), being blocked +up underneath as may be required. + +The design is also suitable for a larger structure, in which case a +frame should be made as shown in Fig. 389. + + * * * * * + +Another very, similar design is shown in Fig. 379, and can be put +together according to the principles already shown. The boarding runs +vertically and the cleats horizontally, as shown in Fig. 377. + +[Illustration FIG. 382.] + +Figs. 380 and 381 show other simple arrangements, the ground dimensions +of which can be, perhaps, 8' × 12', and which can be put together in the +same way as the preceding cases, with or without a floor, and with the +boarding running vertically or horizontally. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration FIG. 383.] + +[Illustration FIG. 384.] + +[Illustration FIG. 385.] + +If a stove is to be used, the smoke-pipe can be arranged to pass through +the side of the house, as in Figs. 382, 383, etc. If to pass through the +roof, it should be soldered or riveted to a sheet of metal, as +galvanized iron, the upper edge of the latter being slipped under the +roof covering while the lower edge laps over it (Fig. 384), on just the +same principle that shingles are laid, the idea being, of course, that +the water will run down over the metal without leaking through, just as +it runs down over the shingles. This simple principle must always be +observed whenever metal is used to prevent joints leaking. With such +small houses as these it is usually easier and safer about leakage to +have the pipe run through the side of the house. If to go through the +roof (particularly when there is no special roof covering but boards), +it is a good plan to have the pipe pass through the roof near the ridge, +so that the upper edges of the metal sheet can be slipped under one of +the saddle-boards (Fig. 385). In any case, an air space must be allowed +between the smoke-pipe and the wood, and it is always well to have a +collar an inch or two outside of the pipe. Any tinsmith or metal-worker +can arrange these details. + +Round drain-pipe set in cement is often used for a cheap pipe or +chimney, and answers the purpose very well. + +Fig. 383 also shows the way to lay sheathing- or roofing-paper in case +you wish to use it for a temporary structure. It also gives a suggestion +for a window-shutter to be raised by a cord passing through to the +inside, where it can be fastened to a cleat. + + +=A Workshop.=--A small building, like that shown in Fig. 386, from 8' to +12' wide by 12' to 18' long, will be suitable for a workshop or for +various other purposes. + +[Illustration FIG. 386.] + +While it will do for a little play-house without a floor, like those +described at first, to rest directly upon the ground, a better structure +like this should have some sort of underpinning. + + * * * * * + +It is not customary to lay a stone or brick and cement foundation for +such a structure as this, because the building is not usually worth it. +It can very well be rested upon stones at the corners and middle of the +sides or upon posts set in the ground. If the soil is sandy and large +stones abundant, it can be rested upon piers of stones. So far as +supporting the building for one season is concerned, simply resting it +upon stones laid on top of the ground is sufficient, but the action of +the frost will move the stones and heave the building more or less out +of place, which will require it to be occasionally levelled and blocked +up. A hole can be dug to a depth of about three feet, so as to be below +the action of the frost, and a pier of flat stones built up. If the +soil is of clear, well-packed sand, a pier of this sort will last for +some time before being thrown out of shape by the frost, although, of +course, if laid in cement (or if bricks laid in cement are used), it +will be much more permanent. If the soil is clayey, the foundation, of +whatever kind, should be carried to a depth of three feet or more and +cemented, and even then it will be liable to be heaved by the action of +the frost. This involves considerable labour and perhaps expense, and +for such a small building it will usually be better to rest it upon flat +stones laid on the surface, or to block it up in some way so as to be +clear of the ground, and then level it whenever necessary, which is not +difficult with so small a structure.[32] + + * * * * * + +While brick piers built upon a foundation of stone laid in cement and +carried to a depth of three feet or more is doubtless the best +underpinning you can have (next to a regular foundation wall), it is not +always advisable to incur the necessary expense and labour, and a common +and usually satisfactory way for a building of this sort is to rest it +upon posts set in the ground. But before placing the posts the exact +position of the building must be determined. + + * * * * * + +Having fixed upon the position of the building, proceed to stake it out. +First measure off with the tape, or rod, or even a string, the length +of one of the sides of the building, and drive a stake at each end of +the line. Stretch a line between these stakes and measure off the length +of the end of the building from each stake, as nearly as possible at +right angles with the first line. You can do this approximately with the +help of a "mason's square," or large triangle, which you can make +yourself of thin strips of wood nailed together in the form of a +right-angled triangle with sides 6', 8', and 10' long, or the sides can +be 3', 4', and 5' long.[33] Whatever method you use, be sure that the +figure is rectangular, and move one or two of the stakes, if necessary, +until the diagonals are of equal length. + +If the ground is uneven, keep the tape horizontal when measuring, and to +determine the points required drop a plumb-line from the end of the tape +which is raised from the ground. + +Having in this way accurately fixed upon the lines for the four sides of +the house, continue these lines a few feet (perhaps 4 or 5 feet) beyond +the corners to the points marked E (Fig. 388), and drive a stake at each +of these points. You can easily get these eight stakes in line by +sighting from the four first driven. Next drive in one of these outside +stakes (the one where the ground is the highest in case the surface is +uneven) until it sticks out of the ground a few inches, and then drive +the other seven until their tops are level with the top of the first. +This you can determine by applying the level to a line stretched taut +from the top of one post to the top of another. Drive a nail into the +top of each stake to hold the string, or cut a notch for the same +purpose. Now if strings are tightly stretched between these stakes, they +will intersect over the four stakes first driven at the corners of the +house. These four stakes you can now remove when you dig the holes for +the posts, and the exact position of each post and its height above the +surface will be determined by the intersection of the strings from the +outside stakes. The strings can be taken off while you are digging and +replaced when you are getting the posts in position. + +[Illustration FIG. 388.] + +Next dig a hole at one corner, about 18" in diameter and about 2-1/2' or +3' in depth. In this hole set a post about 6" in diameter, sawed off +squarely at the upper end, and of such a length that when pounded down +to a firm and upright bearing the top of it will reach the string +stretched between the levelling stakes. When you fill up the hole put in +only a little earth at a time, "tamping" each layer compactly around the +post with an iron bar or stick before adding more earth. Contrary to +what one might naturally think, the earth can be tamped more compactly +with a bar or stick than with a heavy joist. + +Set another post in the same way at the next corner, fixing it +accurately in position by means of the strings, as in the case of the +first post, and seeing that the distance from the outside of this post +to the outside of the first one is that required by the plan. + +Set the other corner-posts in the same way, testing all the distances +(including the diagonals) as before. You can try the height of each post +now and then as you dig, and thus avoid making too deep a hole. + +If you prefer, you can set all the posts in the right positions at +first, but without trying to level the tops, merely seeing that the tops +all stick up above the line. You can then strike a horizontal line all +around with a cord, and saw all the posts off by this line--a process +which you very likely have seen when watching the work on a pile-bridge +or wharf. Sawing off the posts squarely will be much easier, however, +before they are set in the ground. + + * * * * * + +The posts may be of locust, cedar, cypress, or chestnut. Locust is +considered very durable, but is the most expensive. Cedar is excellent, +and will be perfectly satisfactory. Chestnut will do very well for a +house of this sort, and is comparatively cheap. If you do not mind the +slight increase in cost, cedar is better. If you wish to be as +economical as possible, chestnut will answer.[34] + +The reason for selecting wood of greater natural durability for the +posts than for the rest of the house is to withstand the greater +exposure of the posts to alternate moisture and dryness. Timber will +last for centuries if placed in a sheltered position and exposed to a +free circulation of air. It will also last for a long period when +immersed in fresh water or sunk underground, so as to be beyond the +influence of atmospheric changes. But the alternate exposure to dryness +and moisture, as in the case of posts partly above and partly below +ground, or piles for a wharf or bridge, causes decay in a comparatively +short time (see Appendix). + +If your site is too rocky for posts, you will be saved some digging, but +must provide a level and stable foundation in some other way. It rarely +happens that the surface will be quite level, and you must use stone or +timbers for underpinning. If there are one or two corners that must be +raised, owing to inequality of the surface, and you cannot find large +stones that will be sure to stay in place, you can rest the raised parts +of the house upon posts securely braced. Rock is not the most desirable +foundation for a building with a regular underpinning and cellar--the +biblical parable to the contrary notwithstanding--and there is no +foundation superior to sand or gravel (only the sand or gravel must be +confined and not free to slide or move). But as your house merely rests +on the surface, and has no cellar to be dug or drained, there is no +disadvantage in putting it on a rock, provided you support it properly. +Do not rest one end of it on a pile of loose cobble-stones, five feet +high, only to have the stones slip some wet, stormy night and let the +building down. + +Having the foundation set, the next thing is the frame, which for a +small building of this kind can be made of almost any kind of wood which +you can readily obtain, provided, of course, that it is dry enough and +not weakened by large knots or other defects. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any +other references. + +[Illustration FIG. 389.] + +The sills, or the lower timbers of the frame which rest upon the +foundation, should be got out first, and can be of 4" × 4" stock, and +halved at the ends (see _Halving_) (Fig. 389). Upon these sills is to be +set up a 4" × 4" post of the desired length at each corner.[35] + +On top of these are placed the plates, which can be of 2" × 4" studding +laid flat and halved at the ends. Be sure to get out these pieces before +beginning to put them together. Toe-nail the posts to the sills and nail +the plates directly down on top of the posts, keeping the latter in a +vertical position by temporarily nailing on strips of board diagonally, +adjusting these until the posts are vertical and at right angles to the +sills (see _Plumb_ and _Square_). + +Next put in vertical studding (2" × 4") at each side of the door-space, +and at the sides of the window-spaces, allowing a little more space than +the exact widths of the door and window-frames. In the same way +horizontal studding should be fitted in above the door-space and above +and below the window-spaces, and in any places where it will be a help +in stiffening the frame or for nailing on the boarding. Another way is +to first fit in pieces of joist horizontally, either midway between the +sills and plates (except at the window and door-spaces), or running the +entire length above and below the windows. Just where and how many of +these pieces are to be put in depends upon the arrangement of the doors +and windows, and pieces of vertical studding can be fitted in at each +side of the door and window-spaces and wherever advisable. Short braces, +with their ends sawed at an angle of 45°, can also be fitted at the +corners, where the corner-posts meet the sills and plates, and be nailed +in place to help stiffen the frame. + +It will be a convenience in working to lay the floor next. For this you +will require a number of floor-joists. If the building is only 8' or 10' +wide, 2" × 4" studding will do; but if the width is as great as 12', 2" +× 6" will be better. These are to be placed on edge on top of the sills, +as shown. Place one at each end against the corner-posts (to which it +can be nailed), sawing off each end so that it will be flush with the +outside of the sill. Distribute these floor-joists so that they will be +about 18" apart, and hold them in position by "toeing" a nail through +them at each end into the sill beneath, or nailing them to the studding +when practicable. Before laying any of these floor-joists trim them off +on the under edge, which will rest upon the sills, if necessary to +ensure a level surface on top for the floor. Do not neglect this, as +such joists frequently vary in width. Now measure the diagonals again, +before laying the floor-boards, to be sure that the base of the house is +rectangular. If one diagonal is longer than the other, push those +corners towards each other until the diagonals are of equal length. + +Next lay the floor-boards, lengthways of the building, driving them +together tightly by pounding on a waste piece, and nailing them firmly +to each floor-joist with two nails. If your floor-boards are not long +enough to reach the entire length of the house, you will take pains, of +course, to saw them of such a length that the ends of the boards will +meet over the middle of one of the floor-joists, arranging the joints so +that they will alternate or come at different points of the floor. Saw +off neatly all projecting ends of the floor-boards. + +You will frequently wish to use more force in driving the floor-boards +to a tight joint at the edges than you can easily apply with the hammer. +You can easily apply all the pressure required by using two short boards +on the principle of the toggle-joint. Arrange these as shown in Fig. +390, one end resting against a temporary cleat or any firm object and +the other against the edge of the floor-board. By stepping upon this +toggle-joint at its apex, the floor-board will be forced into place. A +common way is to pry the board into place with a chisel driven down at +the edge. + +[Illustration FIG. 390.] + +If the building is to be used in cold weather, by all means lay double +flooring. The under floor can be of cheaper stock and laid less +carefully. Between the two lay sheathing- or roofing-paper, and you will +have accomplished much towards keeping the room warm. + +The frame is now ready for the roof-timbers. These can be of 2" × 4" +studding, except the ridge-board, which can be any common board about 6" +wide. + +To obtain the length of the rafters and the angle at which the ends are +to be cut, you can easily make a full-sized pattern on the floor by +simply laying off a right-angled triangle of the required height and +base, which will give the length of the rafters and the angle at each +end, after cutting off a little piece at the upper end to represent one +half the thickness of the ridge-board; or two pieces of the rafter stock +can simply be laid on the floor in the right relative positions for the +roof, when their points of crossing can be marked on each edge and the +bevel marked on the sides of the pieces. The bevel at the lower end can +be found in a similar manner. Take off enough at the upper end to allow +for one half the thickness of the ridge-board, and saw off one rafter as +marked. This will serve for a pattern by which to mark the others. The +end rafters and the ridge-board (which should first be sawed the length +of the house) can easily be nailed in position by two persons, one at +each end, being temporarily stayed in place by a board nailed outside +(Fig. 389). + +The roof-boards can be nailed either lengthways, or up and down. If the +former way, the rafters must be put quite near together to give +sufficient support to the boards. If the latter, purlins, or lengthways +stringers, should be added between the ridge-board and the side-plates, +as shown. If the roof is to be shingled, the boards can as well be laid +lengthways--otherwise they should be laid up and down. If not to be +covered in any way, matched-boards (or battened joints) should be used. +If well painted, such a roof will last for some time, but shingling is +much better. + +Saddle-boards should be put along the ridge, as they add much to the +tightness and durability of the roof. + +The sides require to be sheathed before covering the roof, leaving open +spaces for the door and windows. Shorter pieces can be used above and +below these spaces. The boarding can be put on vertically and battens +(narrow boards 2" or 3" wide, or strips of "half-round" moulding) nailed +over the cracks, as shown in Fig. 391, or, of course, the sides can be +clapboarded or shingled if preferred, in which case the boarding can be +put on horizontally. + +The door can be made of boards, cleated, as already shown, or one can be +bought ready-made. A casing should be nailed around the door-space, +previously putting at the bottom a threshold upon which the lower ends +of the casing can fit. This you will at once understand by examining the +arrangement of these details in almost any dwelling-house. The +arrangement of the windows (which you can buy ready-made of almost any +desired shape and size) does not differ from the cases already shown. + +The smoke-pipe can be arranged as shown on page 258. + +A few floor-beams put across on top of the plates and wholly or partly +floored over will provide a loft useful for storage. If the building is +for a shop, this will be a good place to keep lumber. + +The roof can be covered according to the methods already shown, but +shingling will be much better. If a building is worth shingling at all, +it is usually best to use a good quality of shingles. The cheapest ones +are apt to be unsatisfactory for a permanent building, but, on the other +hand, for such structures as these it is not necessary to get an extra +quality, for some knots or defects at the thin ends where they will be +covered by two or three layers may do no harm. Cedar shingles are better +than spruce. + +It is a good plan to lay roofing-paper over the roof before shingling. +Begin the shingling at the eaves and work upward. Lay a row the length +of the roof, letting the butts slightly overhang the edge. Directly on +top of this row lay another, breaking joints with those underneath; that +is, lay the first row double, taking pains that the spaces between the +shingles of the lower layer are covered by the shingles of the upper +layer. Leave a slight space (perhaps 1/8" to 3/8") between the shingles +in laying them. This gives room for swelling, and allows the water to +run off freely. If the edges are close together at the lower end, the +tendency is to dam up these water-courses and retain the moisture, which +is injurious. Some people pare off the edges to make the butt-ends +narrower, in order to obviate this; but simply laying the shingles +slightly apart answers the purpose. Fasten each shingle with two shingle +nails (one near each edge, within perhaps 1"), far enough up from the +butt to be covered by the next row of shingles. Common shingles can be +laid about 4-1/2" to the weather, that is, with that portion of the +length exposed at the butt. If shingles of extra length are used this +distance can be varied accordingly. Lay the butts of each row by a +chalk-line or against the edge of a narrow board, which can be adjusted +and temporarily held in place by two strips nailed to the board and to +the ridge of the roof. The upper ends of the top row of shingles can be +trimmed off and saddle-boards can be put on at the top, letting the edge +of one overlap the other. + +It is doubtful economy to paint shingles after they are laid. The paint +tends to clog the spaces between them. It is better to dip them in paint +before laying. A much better way is to dip them in some one of the +prepared "creosote stains," which can be had in a great variety of +colours. These are excellent, although, except to obtain some desired +colour effect, it is hardly worth while to use any preparation on the +roofs of such buildings as these. Cut nails are considered better than +wire nails for shingling, on the ground of durability. Take pains to +keep the lines of the rows straight and at equal distances apart. + +For the painting, see _Painting_, in Part V. + +If this building is for a workshop, various suggestions about the +interior arrangement will be found in Part I. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[30] To find the number of square feet in the cleats, first find the +number of "running" feet, that is, the total length of the cleats if +they were stretched out in a long line, like one of the rails of a +railroad track. Then, as the cleats are 3" wide (or one fourth of a +foot), it will take four running feet to make one square foot. Therefore +divide the number of running feet by four and the quotient will be the +number of square feet. + +[31] Boards twelve feet long will be the best to buy for this house, +because you can get two lengths from each board without waste. You could +not be sure, however, of getting two lengths of exactly six feet from +each twelve-foot board, because the ends are frequently checked or +damaged in some way; so it will be safest to make the length 5' 10", as +given above. + +[32] If you have only small stones or blocks upon which to rest it, the +building can be put together directly upon the ground, the sills being +rested temporarily upon any material at hand, and then the supports +adjusted underneath. + +[33] You can mark a point on one string 3' from one stake and a point on +the other string 4' from the same stake, and then increase or decrease +the angle made by the two strings until another string exactly 5' long +will just reach from the marked point on one string to that on the +other. This process is based on the principle of mathematics that if the +two sides of a right-angled triangle are respectively 3 units and 4 +units in length, the length of the hypothenuse will be 5 units. Another +way, if you are fond of mathematics, is to find the length of the +diagonals of the plan of the house by extracting the square root of the +sum of the squares of the two sides. (The square described on the +hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal to the sum of the +squares described on the other two sides.) You can measure the diagonal +directly from a plan if you understand mechanical drawing well enough to +make an accurate plan on a scale of perhaps 1/2" or 1" to a foot. Then +take one tape, or string, measuring the width of the building, with one +end held on the stake C (Fig. 387), and another tape measuring the +length of the diagonal, with the end held on the stake D. Drive the +stake A at the point where the two tapes meet when brought together. +Reversing the positions of the tapes will give in the same way the +fourth corner B. The distance A B should equal C D. + +[Illustration FIG. 387.] + +[34] The part of the post which is embedded in the ground is sometimes +charred or painted to preserve it from decay. This can be easily done, +but the process is advisable only with thoroughly seasoned wood. It +is highly injurious to green timber, as by closing the pores and +obstructing evaporation from the surface it prevents the seasoning of +the wood and causes fermentation and decay within (see Appendix). + +[35] These posts, and even the sills, can be built up if necessary +of 2" × 4" studding, two pieces being placed side by side and nailed +together, but this is not so desirable as regards strength, its only +advantage consisting in the readiness with which the joints can be made +by simply cutting one of the two pieces shorter than the other. + + + + + "The cottage is one of the embellishments of natural scenery which + deserves attentive consideration. It is beautiful always, and + everywhere; whether looking out of the woody dingle with its + eye-like window, and sending up the motion of azure smoke between + the silver trunks of aged trees; or grouped among the bright + cornfields of the fruitful plain; or forming grey clusters along + the slope of the mountain side, the cottage always gives the idea + of a thing to be beloved: a quiet life-giving voice, that is as + peaceful as silence itself."--RUSKIN, _The Poetry of Architecture_. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +SIMPLE SUMMER COTTAGES + + +"=Cottage Row.="--The little houses shown in the accompanying +illustrations[36] afford excellent examples of what can be done by the +beginner. These were built by boys, and form, with others, a most +interesting little village or street, known as "Cottage Row." They are +small, but have many of the details of larger houses. They are shingled +and clapboarded, have regular doors and windows, and are very +attractively fitted up inside with curtains, cupboards, shelves, tables, +chairs, lounges, bookcases, and other articles of furniture. The walls +are hung or covered with prettily figured cretonne or calico. + +These little structures are good models for boys' first attempts at +house-building, in that they are simple, modest, and unpretentious, and +have a homelike air which does not pertain to many more elaborate and +pretentious houses. The visitor is attracted by their neat, trim, +inviting appearance, and wishes to enter. + +Houses of this character can easily be made by two or more boys working +together; and by the united forces of a number of boys a very attractive +little village can be built (and much simple carpentry be learned at the +same time), in which many pleasant hours can be spent. + +Such houses as these can be framed and put together without difficulty +by the methods already shown. It will not add very much to the expense +to have the parts of the frame which show on the inside of the house +planed by machine, and this will much improve the appearance of the +interior. Shingling the roofs, putting casing around the windows and +doors and at the corners of the houses, and clapboarding or shingling +the sides, adds much to the attractiveness of such small structures, as +you can see from the illustrations. + +[Illustration] + +The windows and casings you can buy ready-made, or the latter you can +make yourself. The doors and casings you can also buy, or make. The +door-casings and window-casings should be nailed in place before the +sides are clapboarded. The tops of these casings should always be +protected by strips of sheet lead, the upper edges of which are slipped +up under the clapboarding (Fig. 390a), thus covering the crack where the +casing joins the side of the building and shedding the water--on the +same principle as shown in Figs. 384 and 385. This is important, as the +rain will drive through such cracks, even though they seem very tight. +Tonguing and grooving can be used in such cases, but flashing with lead +is a simpler process. The same precaution should always be taken where +roofs or attachments join a building in such a way as to expose a crack +through which the water can leak. Zinc, or even tin, can be used, but +are inferior to lead. The corner-boards and the water-table (the +horizontal board at the bottom of the house) should also be nailed in +place. The latter should have the top edge slightly bevelled, to shed +the water. All these pieces having been carefully nailed in place, the +clapboarding or shingling of the sides can be done. + +[Illustration 390a.] + +It will cost but little to sheath the outside with sheathing-paper, and +the house will be much tighter and dryer. This should be put on under +the casings, corner-boards, etc., so as to avoid a crack where these +boards and the clapboards or shingles meet. + + * * * * * + +Laying clapboards, unlike shingling, is begun at the top. Lay the upper +row by a line, as in shingling, keeping the clapboards in place by a few +nails in the upper part only. Then slip the clapboards for the next row +up from underneath under the first row until only the desired amount of +the clapboards is exposed. The first row can then be firmly nailed near +the lower edge with clapboard nails. This will hold the next row in +position while the third row is put in place, and so on. The thin edge +of the upper row can be finally covered with a strip of board or +moulding. The clapboarding can be continued to the very bottom of the +house. If, however, a water-table is used at the bottom, the lower edge +of the bottom row of clapboards should be slightly bevelled to fit +closely down on the slanting upper edge of the water-table. Be careful +to lay the clapboards in line and at equal distances apart, as +variations in the alignment are quite noticeable. Examine the clapboards +of any house on which they are used. In arranging them break joints at +the ends, that is, do not have the joints of one row directly under, or +very near, those of the rows above and below. Do not saw the ends by +eye. Mark them accurately with the try-square and knife and saw them +carefully with a fine saw, trying to make as close joints as possible. + +[Illustration] + +A fair quality of clapboards should be used, but a few defects near the +thin edges which are to be covered may do no serious harm for such +structures as these. + +When you begin to attempt more ambitious structures, such as modest +summer cottages for camping in vacations, for hunting- or +fishing-lodges, or for family use,--such houses as are often undertaken +by older boys or men with a taste for amateur carpentry,--there are a +number of things to be considered before beginning to do any actual +work. + +[Illustration] + +Do not begin a house you cannot pay for. If you find that the more +elaborate plans suggested will exceed your means, do not let them tempt +you to run in debt, but content yourself with the simplest plan.[37] You +will find it perfectly comfortable, and whenever you can afford the +expense you can easily add to it and improve it. That is the best +principle to go on, morally as well as financially. + +In addition to points already spoken of in the preceding pages, bear in +mind, in making your plans, to use only simple forms for your first +efforts. Avoid dormer windows and complicated roofs (especially +combinations producing "valleys") and bay-windows, and the like, at +first. Such arrangements add many difficulties for the beginner. When +you can make a plain, simple building, with everything snug and tight, +and can lay a plain roof that will not leak, you can then attempt such +variations of form with a fair chance of success, but do not be too +ambitious in your first attempts. A simple piazza can often be added to +good advantage, if desired. + +[Illustration] + +It is well to ascertain the sizes of the ready-made doors and windows +which you can buy in the place where your house is to be built, before +drawing your plans. + +If there is a choice of situations in which to place your house, a few +suggestions about the selection of a site may be of value. + + * * * * * + +If you are going to build in the mountains, or the pine woods, or on +rocky islands or promontories in the ocean,--in places where there are +almost no unsanitary conditions, where the climate is so invigourating, +the air so purifying,--there is no need to think of many precautions +important in a cleared and settled country. As much sunlight and +circulation of air as you can get, pure drinking water, and the simple +precaution of not building in a hollow or on the edge of a swamp, are +about all the sanitary points you need consider in such places. + +In selecting a site in any ordinary country or seashore region, first +make sure above all things of _dryness_, _sunlight_, _pure air_, and +_pure water_. + +Avoid building a cottage for regular occupancy in a dense thicket, not +merely on account of the mosquitoes and other insects, but because the +thicket shuts out the sun and cuts off the free circulation of air which +there should always be in summer around and through a house. Of course, +for shooting or fishing, a lodge, camp, or cabin must be built wherever +required by the circumstances. Sunshine is very important in securing +dryness and in purifying the air. + +You will naturally reject wet land. Avoid also soil that retains +moisture,[38] even though it may not be actually wet to step upon, for +land saturated with moisture may be the unsuspected source of serious +diseases. There is air in the ground, which may be the means of +spreading dampness and foul gases. + +Do not place your house in a depression or in the bottom of a valley +where dampness is likely to settle. At the seashore there will, of +course, be fogs from the ocean at certain times and places, but they are +not harmful, except to navigation; and at the mountains more or less +dampness at night is very common. Do not try to find a place where there +is no dampness at all, but except at the seashore or mountains reject +situations where there are mists at night, avoiding particularly the +vicinity of wet marshes and swamps, stagnant pools of fresh water, boggy +ponds, sluggish rivers and brooks, on account of the malarious vapours +which are liable to hang over them. + +Do not try to keep cool by hiding your house where the sun will not +shine upon it. The southern or south-eastern slope of a hill usually +affords a most desirable site as regards both coolness and sunlight. If +you can also find a site on the top of a little mound or knoll, so as to +secure the free drainage of the water in every direction, it will be +advantageous. + +The main points in regard to water are to have it pure and to have +plenty of it. + +In regard to pure water, and pure air also, if you are planning to build +in a little settlement or near other cottages the question of drainage +(sewerage) from the neighbouring houses becomes of the utmost +importance. A breeze from the sea, the mountains, or the pine woods is +pure in itself and to a certain degree a scavenger, but do not throw +upon it the work of purifying a naturally unhealthful situation. + +This matter of drainage you can arrange for yourself on your own land, +but the arrangements of your neighbours you will have to take as you +find them; therefore guard carefully against contamination of your +drinking water and of the air through proximity to the cesspools, +privies, or sink drains of the neighbouring cottages. Exactly how far a +well or spring should be from such sources of pollution it is impossible +to state without knowledge of the particular spot, for it depends upon +the slope of the ground, the kind of soil, the direction of the +underlying strata, and other circumstances. In some cases a distance of +twenty feet might be perfectly safe, while in others two hundred would +be highly dangerous. One hundred feet or more is near enough under +ordinary conditions. There is no greater danger than that from +defective sewerage, and the danger usually begins before the senses are +aware that there is any trouble. This subject is better understood now +than formerly, but still, until the subject forces itself upon their +attention, the majority of people pay but little regard to it. It is a +fact well established among medical men that some of the worst forms of +sickness are nothing but filth diseases, to which the dwellers in summer +cottages are sometimes even more exposed than those in town houses. +Remember that air as well as water is an active agent for spreading the +germs of disease. + +As to the position in which to place the house itself after the spot has +been chosen much will depend on circumstances. Consider the sun, the +prevailing winds, and the views in relation to the rooms, the windows, +and the piazza. An unsheltered piazza facing the west is apt to be very +hot at the time of day you are likely to use it the most, though, of +course, the wind or other considerations may make such a position +desirable. + + * * * * * + +The subject of the necessary underpinning for such simple structures as +are here shown has been already treated in the preceding chapter. In +most cases you will find posts set in the ground, as there described, an +excellent way (except, of course, upon rocky ground), but brick or stone +piers are almost always more desirable, if you can afford the cost of +the materials (which can be obtained almost anywhere), and the work of +laying piers for such a purpose is not very difficult; but whether to +use posts or piers should, of course, depend upon the character and +permanence of the building. + +Having fixed upon the position of the building, proceed to stake it out +(including the piazza if there is to be one), as shown in the chapter +immediately preceding. + +The foundation being ready, the frame is next to be considered. You have +probably noticed in the old houses built by our forefathers their +massive construction,--the great size of the timbers and the way in +which they are heavily braced and mortised and pinned together. With the +modern facilities for cutting wood into small pieces by machinery has +sprung up a style of building of which you will see examples on every +hand, and which when carried to its extreme in the cheapest houses makes +a structure so flimsy that it is literally held together by nothing but +nails. A scientific modification (adapted to modern conditions) of the +old-fashioned "braced" structure, retaining its advantages and remedying +its defects, is undoubtedly superior (_expense being no object_) to a +"balloon" frame that will only hold together by having the outside +boarding nailed on to it as fast as it is put up. If the more cheaply +built "balloon" structures of to-day had been put up in the days of our +Pilgrim or Puritan ancestors not a stick of them would now be standing. +A lighter arrangement than the old-fashioned frame and one more easily +built is, however, in our day probably better adapted for the +construction of a large class of buildings of moderate size and moderate +cost. + +This is said about braced and framed structures that you may not be led +to think that the light construction advocated here for you would be the +best for _all_ wooden structures. Your house will be so small, and the +construction of a braced and mortised frame is so difficult for +amateurs, that a lighter and easier arrangement will be best for you to +use, however ill-suited it might be for a large mansion or ware-house. +This system of construction will be perfectly satisfactory and +sufficiently durable for a little summer cottage. + +A little house well suited for summer use, or for a winter camp, is +shown in Fig. 391. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration FIG. 391.] + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Hinges_, _Painting_, in Part V., and +look up any other references. + +The main house (which contains the general living-room) can be framed as +shown in Fig. 389. The "lean-to" addition (which contains the kitchen) +can be framed as shown in Fig. 371. If both parts are built at one time, +only four sills should be used for the entire structure, and the +corner-posts and upright studding of the "lean-to" on the side next the +main house should be omitted. + +The sides of this house are battened, _i.e._, the joints of the vertical +sheathing are covered with strips nailed over them--in this case with +strips of "half-round" moulding. This is an easy and quite inexpensive +way to finish the outside, and while hardly equal to clapboarding or +shingling in some respects is a very good way for structures of this +kind. + +As you will see from the illustration, the rafters of both the house and +the ell project or overhang at the eaves. This is not really a necessity +for any structure, and you will sometimes see quite large buildings +without any overhang of the roof whatever, but, as a rule, it improves +the appearance of the house, and is a help in shedding the water farther +from the walls. It is only necessary to let the rafters project at their +lower ends, making all project equally, and to nail a board to their +ends, as shown. The overhang at the ends of the house can be arranged in +the same way, short pieces of studding being nailed in the outside angle +of the roof and ends, with strips nailed upon these. + +If the ground slopes, as in this case, lattice-work is good to cover the +space below the sills. + +The remaining details have been treated in the preceding cases. + + * * * * * + +The simple structure shown in Fig. 392 is suitable for various uses, and +can be constructed in the way already described. + + * * * * * + +The piazza is, however, a new problem, but not a very difficult one +after the processes already described. A simple way, suited for rustic +structures or rough cabins, is to set the piazza posts in the ground to +a depth of two or three feet, sawing the tops off at the height of the +piazza roof, and simply nailing a system of floor-timbers for the piazza +floor to these posts and the side of the house and flooring it with +boards, while the roof of the piazza is supported on the tops of the +posts. This is not a good way, however, for a carefully built house. + +[Illustration FIG. 392.] + +A strip of joist or plank can be spiked to the side of the house at the +proper height, and to this can be nailed a system of floor-timbers for +the piazza floor (see page 287), the outer corners and middle resting +upon stones or posts in the same way as the rest of the building. This +is then floored crossways, the whole having a slight slant outwards to +shed the water. Upon this platform are raised the piazza posts, and at +the top of these is nailed a roof system, which is covered with boards +in the same way as the floor beneath. Enough slant should be given the +roof to enable it to shed the water freely. + +The other details do not differ from those already described. + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Hinges_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look +up any other references. + + * * * * * + +An excellent form for a small structure is that shown in Fig. 393. This +has a hip-roof, which is the only essential difference between it and +the types already shown. + +[Illustration FIG. 393.] + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Hinges_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look +up any other references. + +[Illustration FIG. 393a.] + +This roof is somewhat more difficult to make well than the simple kinds, +but is not beyond the skill of the amateur. Up to the plates the +construction is the same as that already shown. In this roof, however, +the ridge-board is short and the end rafters (called hip-rafters) +incline towards it (Fig. 393a). Laying out the upper bevels of these +rafters will require careful planning. After you have succeeded in +laying them out, cutting the bevels at the ends, and fitting them in +place, the shorter jack rafters can readily be put in place. + +[Illustration FIG. 394.] + +[Illustration FIG. 395.] + +The shingling is more difficult at the corners than in the other roofs +shown, as the shingles must be cut. It is well to cover each hip with a +line of shingles, laid parallel to the hip and along each side of it. +Boards can be used to cover the hips, as shown in one of the +illustrations of "Cottage Row." + +Another form, embodying the same roof construction, but larger and +correspondingly more difficult, is shown in Fig. 394. + + * * * * * + +A small cottage for summer use (Fig. 395) is not more difficult than the +cases already shown, except in the matter of size. + +[Illustration FIG. 396. END ELEVATION.] + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Hinges_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look +up any other references. + +The process of staking out and setting the foundation has been already +described under _A Workshop_, pages 259-264. + +The frame can be built upon the same general principle as shown in Fig. +389, the dimensions of the stock depending upon the size of the house; +but the directions given in these chapters are intended only for small +structures. The sills should be 4" × 6" or 6" × 6", the corner-posts can +be 4" × 4" or 4" × 6," the floor-timbers and rafters 2" × 6", although, +if the house is quite small, 2" × 4" will do for the rafters, which can +be braced by "collar beams," or simply horizontal pieces of board +nailed across in the upper part of the roof. + +Arrange the studding according to the doors and windows. As this house +is not to be lathed and plastered, it is not essential that the studding +should be at any exact distance apart. + +The essential difference between the frame of this house and that shown +in Fig. 389 consists in the projection of the second-story floor-timbers +over the piazza, the ends resting upon an outer plate on top of the +piazza posts (Fig. 396). The arrangement of the attic floor-beams, the +rafters, and the side-plates is shown in Fig. 397. + +[Illustration FIG. 397.] + +The frame for the piazza floor can be arranged as follows: Fasten a +strip of 2" × 4" joist along the side, spiking it through into the sill. +On this fasten an arrangement of floor-timbers, such as is shown in Fig. +398, the inner cross-beam and lengthways stringers resting in gains, as +shown in Fig. 399. The details of the arrangement can be varied +according to the height you wish the piazza floor to be relatively to +the floor inside. + +For a quite small structure, or for a temporary one, it will answer to +make this piazza-floor system of 2" × 6" stock simply sawed square and +spiked together, on the principle shown in Fig. 378, but for a good +house which you wish to be permanent, it is better to put a little more +labour into the piazza. + +[Illustration FIG. 398.] + +[Illustration FIG. 399.] + +Another way is to have the main sills extend under the piazza as well as +under the house proper. This is a more thorough way as regards +stiffness, but extra pains must be taken to prevent the water working +down on the sills where the house and piazza join, as this will tend to +rot this portion of the sills. With this arrangement of sills an extra +sill, or cross-sill, should be added under the juncture of the body of +the house and the piazza. The ends of this sill can rest in gains cut in +the end-sills, and the middle can be supported by one or more posts. + +For the stairs, which can be put wherever you wish, take two pieces of +plank, 2" × 9" or 10", and of sufficient length. Having determined the +points for the top and the bottom of the stairs (by laying off on the +floor in the same way as for the rafters, page 268), lay one of the +planks on the floor in the proper position and mark the notches for the +steps and the bevels for the ends. After these "notch-boards" or string +pieces have been cut and put in place, you can easily get out and nail +on the "risers" and "treads." Examination of any common stairs will show +you how to arrange these details without difficulty. You can mark on a +stick the height from the top of the lower floor to the top of the +upper. Divide this distance, on the stick, into as many parts as you +wish to have steps, and you can use the stick as a gauge by which to +determine the points for sawing the notches for the steps.[39] It is +best to have the treads not less than 9" wide, and 10" is better, while +7-1/2" or 8" will do for the risers. A "header," or cross-piece, must be +securely fastened between the second-story floor-beams where they are +cut off to make the opening at the head of the stairs. + +The partitions inside require no directions, being simply made of +studding to which sheathing is nailed. + +The remaining details do not differ from those of the preceding cases, +and the interior fittings you can arrange without further instructions. +A regular brick chimney will, of course, be a desirable feature if you +can afford it. + + * * * * * + +By the slight modification of having the roof overhang on each side, two +piazzas will be provided and space given for larger chambers (Fig. 400). + + * * * * * + +The construction differs from that of the design just shown only in the +arrangement of the framing for the second story. + +[Illustration FIG. 400.] + +The floor-beams of the second story will overlap at each end and the +rafters be correspondingly longer, and the end-plates can be omitted and +the end-studding continued up to the rafters, except where interrupted +by the window-spaces. This house, like the others, can be clapboarded, +shingled, battened, or sheathed, as you may prefer. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[36] Obtained through the courtesy of Mr. Charles H. Bradley, +Superintendent of the admirable Farm School on Thompson's Island, in +Boston Harbour, where this little village was built. + +[37] If that is too expensive, some of those given in the preceding +pages will probably answer your purpose. + +[38] "Soils which are naturally porous, from which rain rapidly +disappears, are known to be the healthiest for the sites of houses. In +this the action of the soil oxidizes all organic impurities, the +resulting product is washed away by the rain, and the soil remains sweet +and wholesome."--LATHAM. + +[39] To find the number of steps for a given situation, find the height, +as just shown, from floor to floor, 102" for example. Assume, for trial, +a satisfactory height for each step, as 7". Divide 102 by 7, which gives +14-4/7 for the number of steps. To make the number even, call it 14, and +you have only to divide 102 by 14 to get the exact height of each step. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +A FEW SIMPLE STRUCTURES + + +=Summer-houses.=--A form which is quite easy to build, and which is +attractive when overrun with vines, is shown in front elevation (Fig. +401) and in side elevation (Fig. 402). + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any other +references. + +The construction is simple. The frame can be of 2" × 3" stock (planed), +except the sills, which had best not be smaller than 2" × 4" (on edge). +Cross floor-beams can be inserted, as in the floors of the little houses +first shown. + +The upright members can, however, rest upon posts set in the ground and +the floor be dispensed with. Where the parts of the frame cross they can +be halved (see _Halving_). The square joints can be nailed together. The +roof can be solid or made of slats several inches apart, resting upon +rafters. + +[Illustration FIG. 401.] + +The strips for the lattice-work can be about 3/8" thick, and from 7/8" +to 1-1/4" wide. These can be got out at any mill in long or short +strips, which you can cut off as you put them on. Do not lay them too +closely together. Put one strip on at the desired angle. Then cut off +one or more short pieces by which to gauge the distance for laying the +next strip, or get out a piece of light thin boarding of the width of +the space between the lattice strips and hold it beside each strip as a +guide by which to lay the next one. + +This lattice-work, although each strip is so slight, will give the frame +great stiffness and strength. + +[Illustration FIG. 402.] + +The joints of such framework as this should properly be painted before +being put together (see _Painting_), and it also is a more thorough and +neater way to lay the lattice-work strips on supports of some kind and +paint them before putting on. They will then only require touching up +with paint after the house is done. + + * * * * * + +The rustic summer-house, or arbour, made of sticks in their natural +form, shown in Fig. 403, is in some respects more difficult to build +than the preceding, because the ends of so many of the pieces have to be +cut at an oblique angle. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Hinges_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look +up any other references. + +First make a platform, as for the other floors, or the upright posts can +rest upon posts set in the ground and the floor be dispensed with. +Plates can be placed on top of the posts, and rafters extend from the +plates at the top of each post to the apex of the roof. These plates and +rafters will make a framework on which to nail the sticks which form the +roof covering. The remaining details are apparent. Much care is +required, however, to put this house together properly, not merely in +cutting the angles at the joints, but in sighting, measuring, and +testing to ensure its coming together without twisting or winding. + +[Illustration FIG. 403.] + + * * * * * + +Instead of making this house six-sided, it can, if desired, be made +rectangular like the preceding one, but keeping the same arrangement of +the details. This makes a very pretty design, and in respect to joining +the pieces is much easier to make. Another pretty plan is to build a +hexagonal, octagonal, or circular house of this sort around a tree +trunk. If the roof is fitted too snugly to the tree trunk, the growth of +the latter may split the roof apart before the rest of the house is past +its usefulness, so you should arrange this part to allow for the growth +of the tree. + + +=Bath-house.=--A plain bath-house (Fig. 404) can well be made with a +lean-to roof and put together on the same simple principles already +shown; so that additional instructions for this design are unnecessary. +A good way for such a building is to sheath it vertically as shown, but +any of the other methods can, of course, be adopted. + +[Illustration FIG. 404.] + +[Illustration FIG. 405.] + + +=Boat-houses.=--By using the same simple system of framework shown in +Fig. 389 you can make an inexpensive boat-house (Fig. 405). + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Hinges_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look +up any other references. + +The inclined slip or platform upon which you haul the boats up from the +water requires simply two or three timbers for stringers, running down +towards the water, with 2" planks nailed across, as shown. The simplest +way to square the ends of these planks is to nail them in place, +allowing a little extra length, and then saw the ends all off at once by +a line. + +[Illustration FIG. 406.] + +A house of this kind can be built to extend over the water (for boats +which are to be kept in the water) by arranging a foundation of stone or +piles in the water, or by digging a little dock into the shore under the +house. + +In these cases there must, of course, be an additional door of the +ordinary kind for entrance on the shore end of the house, and it will be +convenient, if the house is long enough, to floor over this end. A +narrow floor or platform can also be extended along one or both sides to +facilitate handling the boats and getting in or out of them. + +The sill at the water end will have to be omitted, of course, a piece of +studding being fitted in at each side of the door-space, but these +details you will have no difficulty in arranging if you have studied the +preceding examples. + + * * * * * + +A larger and more elaborate boat-house, or club-house (Fig. 406), having +a loft for storage as well as a balcony, can be constructed on the same +general principles already explained. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Hinges_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look +up any other references. + +[Illustration FIG. 407.] + +The end-plate for the end shown in the illustration cannot run across +from side to side, because of the doorway opening on the balcony, but +can be made in two parts to extend from the sides to upright studs at +each side of the doorway. A simple way of arranging the frame at the +floor of the second story is shown in Fig. 407. + +Unless this building is very small (in which case it can only be used +for the storage of oars, rigging, etc.), the sills should be of 4" × 6" +(on edge) or 6" × 6" stock, and the floor-beams of 2" × 6" stock. 4" × +4" or 4" × 6" will do for the corner-posts, and 2" × 4" for the studding +and rafters for such a small structure as is advisable for the beginner +to attempt. + +If you should, however, build anything large, the posts, the lower +floor-beams, if unsupported in the middle, the plates, and the rafters +should be heavier. If your house is to be used by many people and heavy +boats are to be hauled in and out, it is much better to err on the side +of having these timbers too heavy rather than too light. But these +designs are only intended for comparatively small structures. + +The outer floor-timbers for the balcony had best be mortised into the +posts (see _Mortising_). The top rail around the balcony can be of 2" × +4" studding, laid flatways, and with the upper angles bevelled (see +_Bevelling_). The balusters can be simply square pieces nailed into +place. The rail and balusters can, however, be obtained in a great +variety of forms at a wood-working mill, if you prefer to buy them. The +braces under the balcony can be of 2" × 4" stock. All these outside +parts should be planed by machine. + +The remaining details do not differ from those of the houses already +described. + + + + +PART IV + +_BOAT-BUILDING FOR BEGINNERS_ + + + + +CHAPTER XV + + +Boat-building, like many other kinds of work, can be done (even in its +simplest stages) more quickly, more easily, and, of course, more +cheaply, by two persons than by one, so it will be economy of money, +time, and labour to find someone to join forces with you. Do not, +however, give up your plans for lack of a fellow-workman, for nothing is +given here which cannot be done by one person with, perhaps, a little +help once in a while about holding or lifting something. + +If these boats seem rather simple compared with many which you have +seen, and you fail to find here some form you have in mind to build, it +is to be remembered that boat-building is by no means easy, and that +many an attractive design would prove too difficult for the average +beginner to finish successfully. The experience gained in building such +boats as these will help you in more difficult boat-building. These +simple models are not offered as being in themselves the best there are, +nor are the ways shown for building them in every case such as would +always be used by a regular boat-builder; but boat-building involves a +variety of difficulties, not merely in the designing, but also in the +execution. + +It takes a good workman to turn out a really successful round-bottomed +boat (except by the use of canvas), therefore a few simple types of +flat-bottomed boats are all that are treated here. When you have become +skilful enough to attempt the more advanced forms, you can easily find a +number of excellent books on boat-building from which to gain the +needed information. The intention here is to show wood-working processes +which you can use in making these simple craft, but not to go into the +details of designing or of rigging, subjects which are far too complex +to be satisfactorily treated, even for the beginner, in a hand-book on +wood-working. + +While it is practicable to make a good punt, or flat-bottomed rowboat, +entirely by rule of thumb, or "cutting and trying" as you go along, +still you should accustom yourself, even in the simplest forms, to lay +the work out on paper correctly first, as this is really essential, in +order to work to good advantage when you come to the more advanced +forms. + + +=Scows and Punts.=--A flat-bottomed boat, if made with care, may be not +merely good-looking, but light, strong, and useful, and sometimes +superior for some purposes to a round-bottomed boat. + +Boats of this class are easily and cheaply built and by no means to be +despised. They are safe, capacious, and comfortable, and the flat bottom +permits much freedom of movement by the occupants, making them good +boats for fishing and general use on ponds and rivers, as well as for +transporting loads. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any other +references. + +The process is to first get out the sides, then the ends, next to fasten +the sides and ends together as in making a box, then to nail on the +bottom, and finally to put in the seats and any other fittings. Almost +any kind of soft wood can be used for a boat of this kind. Pine is +excellent. Care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained +stock, free from knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. + +[Illustration FIG. 408.] + +For the sides, take two boards, for example, 14' long, 14" wide, and +7/8" thick, planed on both sides. Both edges should be "jointed" and the +ends squared and sawed accurately. Mark, saw, and plane the slant at +each end of these boards as shown in Fig. 408. The ends must next be got +out. In this case they can be 4' long and 4-1/4" wide. Nail together the +sides and ends just as in making a flat box. Use three nails (3" or +3-1/2" long) at each corner. It is safest to bore holes for the nails +(see _Boring_). Copper nails are best for boats, but galvanized iron +answers very well for common boats of this kind. Next place this frame, +bottom up, on horses or boxes or a flat floor and plane down the +projecting edges of the end pieces to agree with the slant of the sides. + +Pieces for the bottom are now to be sawed from boards about 6" to 8" +wide. Mark and saw one piece and use it for a pattern by which to mark +the lengths of the remaining pieces. You can take the length directly +from either end, allowing a trifle (say 1/8") to spare, for planing the +ends after they are nailed. Having sawed the required number of pieces, +which will depend on the width of the boards, nail them on carefully. +Before nailing, thoroughly paint the bottom edge to which they are to be +nailed with thick white-lead paint. See that the edges of each board are +straight, paint the edges as you lay them, and nail thoroughly with +2-1/2" nails. Do not put the nails so close to the edge as to cause +splitting. The edges of the pieces which come together at the angles of +the bottom must be fitted carefully with the plane (see _Bevelling_), to +make as tight joints as possible. The boards should be pressed closely +together as they are nailed. They will assist in keeping the sides and +ends of the boat at right angles, but it would be well to test the +angles with the large square, or by measuring the diagonals, when you +nail on the first two boards. + +A quicker way is to nail on all the boards (not sawing them accurately +to a length) and then to saw the ends all off by a line. + +A good way is to use, for the bottom, plain sheathing or matched boards, +if obtainable without the bead or moulding commonly worked on the +surface, which would be apt to cause leakage. The sheathing can be +planed down on both sides to a thickness of 5/8", which will remove the +moulding, but this is rather thin for the bottom of a boat as large as +this, though an excellent way for a narrower boat. + +When the bottom is all nailed on, turn the boat on each side and plane +off any irregularity in the ends of the bottom boards, so that they will +be flush with the sides. + +A cleat from 4" to 6" wide should be laid along the middle of the bottom +to stiffen it, as shown. The nails should be driven through the boards +and clinched. Wrought nails, or some kind that will bend over and not +break, must of course be used for this. This cleat is often nailed on +the outside instead of the inside. + +Nail a seat at each end directly on top of the sides and ends as shown. +From 12" to 18" in width will do. The seat for rowing (about 8" or 9" +wide) can rest on cleats, as shown. + +Next screw a cleat, about 2" deep, 7/8" thick, and 10" long, to the +insides of the gunwales at the places for the rowlocks (see _Screws_). +Common iron rowlocks can be bought almost anywhere, and the way to put +them on is obvious (see _Boring_). A substitute for them can be arranged +easily by simply boring two holes, 3-1/2" apart, for the insertion of +round thole pins of hard wood. Another simple way (Fig. 409) is to make +two mortises or slots, 3-1/2" apart and 1-1/2" long × 5/8" wide, to hold +thole pins (Fig. 410). The cutting can be done wholly in the cleats by +sawing and paring. + +[Illustration FIG. 409.] + +[Illustration FIG. 410.] + +Insert a ring-bolt at the end by which to fasten the boat, or a staple +can be driven in, or a hole bored at the end of the seat. + +If care has been taken to make close joints, the wood will swell on +being put in the water and in a short time the boat should be tight. +Unless made for some temporary purpose, however, a boat that is worth +making at all is worth painting. It should be painted carefully with +lead paint, both inside and out, two or three coats, being careful to +work the paint well into the wood and the cracks (see _Painting_). + +Instead of laying the bottom boards tightly together, as directed above, +they can be laid slightly apart, so that the cracks between them will be +about 1/8" wide. These can then be caulked with oakum, cotton-batting, +or wicking, or something of that nature. Roll or twist the material into +a loose cord, unless already in that form, and force it into the cracks +with a putty-knife, screw-driver, case-knife, or anything of the sort. A +regular caulking-iron is not at all necessary for a small boat. A piece +of hard wood will do. Be sure to fill the seams thoroughly and tightly +with the oakum or other caulking material. Then apply white lead +plentifully to the caulked seams. But the method first given is usually +satisfactory if you do your work with care. + +Pitch or tar can be used in making the bottom of a boat of this kind +tight. + + * * * * * + +A form which is a decided improvement on the preceding is shown in Fig. +411. The process of making this punt will be first to get out the +cross-board which goes in the middle, and next the sides and ends. These +pieces having been put together, the bottom is nailed on, and finally +the seats and other fittings are added. + +[Illustration FIG. 411.] + +The one here described is small, but large enough for two good-sized +boys. The dimensions are given merely to help illustrate the process. As +much larger boat as may be desired can, of course, be made upon the same +principles. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any other +references. + +Care should always be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, +free from knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. Pine is +excellent, but almost any good wood can be used for a boat of this sort. + +First get out carefully a board, perhaps 3' long, or the width of the +boat (at the middle), and of the shape shown in Fig. 412, removing a +small piece at each lower corner, to allow for the passage of any water +which may leak in. Get out each side of the boat, 10' 4" long, of 3/4" +stock, carefully squaring the ends. After these are cut, mark a distance +of 3' from each end towards the centre on the edge of one of the boards +and a distance of 3" on the ends, measuring from the other edge, and +mark the curves shown in Fig. 413, which should sweep easily from the +edge of the board without any abrupt turn. If you cannot draw a good +curve free-hand, take a spline or thin strip of wood, bend it on the +side of the board towards one end till you get a good curve, hold it in +position, and using it as a ruler mark the line with a pencil. You can +cut this curve and use it for a pattern by which to mark the other +curves. These curves can be band-sawed or cut with the draw-knife or +hatchet and plane (see _Paring_). Whatever method you adopt, the curves +should finally be run over with the plane to remove irregularities, and +care must be taken to keep as accurately to the line marked as possible. +The top edges must also be jointed, although it is not material that +they should be absolutely straight. Mark a line with the square across +each board at the centre. Next get out the end pieces, 2' long, 3-3/4" +wide, and of 7/8" stock (Fig. 414). Bevel the ends of these pieces at +the same angle as the centre board already sawed, from which you can +mark the angle. + +[Illustration FIG. 412.] + +[Illustration FIG. 413.] + +[Illustration FIG. 414.] + +An easy way to put this boat together will be to put the sides and ends +together, and then, by spreading the sides apart, to put the middle +board in its proper place. Bore holes for 2-1/2" screws at each end of +the sides (see _Boring_) and screw the sides and ends together loosely +(see _Screws_), not driving the screws home, but leaving their heads +sticking beyond the sides perhaps an eighth of an inch. Now lay the boat +(so far as made) bottom side up on the horses or boxes, or even with one +end on the floor and the other raised by a box, and, spreading the sides +in the middle as much as may be necessary, push the middle board up into +place, getting it exactly opposite centre lines previously marked on the +sides and so that the bottom edge of the board is just even with the +_inner_ edge of the bottom of the sides. This piece can now be nailed in +place by three nails at each end. + +Now, on looking at the ends where the sides are screwed, you will see +that spreading the sides has caused the joints (purposely left loose) to +open slightly at the inside, and that the ends require to be slightly +bevelled or trimmed to make a close joint. Unscrew one end, do the +necessary trimming with the plane, replace the piece, and screw it into +position again, driving the screws home and adding one or two nails. Do +the same with the other end and the boat will be ready for the bottom. + +But before the bottom is nailed on, the lower edges of the sides must be +bevelled with the plane, owing to the sides flaring outwards. The degree +of bevelling required can be determined by laying a board across (Fig. +415). At first it will only touch the outer angles of the edges, and the +planing must be continued until it bears flat on the entire edge. + +[Illustration FIG. 415.] + +Now get out of 7/8" stock the bottom boards, the edges of which should +be carefully jointed to fit together as tightly as possible. These +boards should be thoroughly nailed to the sides of the boat with 2-1/4" +or 2-1/2" nails, care being taken not to nail too near the edges of the +boards, lest they split. As the sides are only 3/4" thick you will have +to be careful in driving the nails or they will split the sides. Before +you finish nailing the first bottom boards, test the symmetry of the +frame by measuring the diagonals. These should be equal. If not, you can +easily make them so with your hands, and tack a couple of strips +diagonally across the gunwales to keep the frame in position until the +bottom is nailed on. Also sight across the gunwales to see that the +frame is true. If it winds, correct the error by blocking it up where +needed. + +Sheathing can well be used for the bottom of this boat, as for the one +just described, if you can get it without the moulding. The bottom can +also be caulked (see page 302), but if you cannot get the sheathing the +way first described will answer every purpose. + +After the bottom is nailed on, turn the boat on each edge and plane off +any irregularities at the ends of the bottom boards, so that they will +be flush with the sides. + +Next nail a strip, about 3" or 4" wide and 3/4" thick, lengthways on the +middle of the bottom, on the inside. Fasten this to each board with a +couple of nails driven through and clinched on the outside. This will +serve to stiffen the bottom. + +Next deck over each end with a seat 12" wide nailed directly on top of +the sides. Put in a seat, or thwart, 9" wide and 7/8" thick, next to the +middle brace, as shown. Cleats can be nailed to the sides under this +seat. This should be a fixed seat, nailed to the cross brace and to the +sides of the boat, which will assist in stiffening the sides. + +You can nail a gunwale strip, 2" wide by 7/8" or 3/4" thick, on top of +the sides and reaching from one end seat to the other, or you can put a +somewhat smaller strip around the outer edge of the gunwale, which is +quite as good a way. It is not really necessary to put any gunwale strip +on so small a boat, but if omitted a cleat must be screwed on for the +rowlocks (Fig. 409). If you put the gunwale strip on top, it will make a +more workmanlike job to first plane the edges of the gunwale so that +they will be horizontal across the boat, in the same way that you planed +the bottom edges to receive the bottom boards. + +Put the centre of the rowlocks about 12" aft of the centre of the boat, +raising them an inch or so above the gunwale by means of a cleat (Fig. +416), as shown. + +[Illustration FIG. 416.] + +At a distance of about 28" from the bow, you can, if desired, put in a +6" thwart between the gunwales or a little lower, and in the middle of +this thwart bore a hole for a small mast, putting below and slightly +forward upon the floor a block with a smaller hole. Sailing does not +amount to very much in a boat of this sort, but a small sail is often +very useful when going before the wind and adds to the fun. + +This makes a very useful and safe boat for a couple of boys for river or +pond work. + +If you wish to make a larger one you will have no difficulty after +studying the process given above. The only difference need be in the +dimensions. + +For one 12' long you could make the beam at the gunwale (outside) 3' 6" +and at the bottom 2' 10", the beam at the bottom of the ends (outside) +2' 10" (same as amidships)--the ends to flare upward at the same angle +as at the centre, the boards for the sides being 14" wide. + +For one 14' long, you could make the beam 4' at the gunwale, 3' 4" at +the bottom, the same at the ends, and the sides could be made of boards +15" wide. Stock 3/4" thick is sufficiently heavy for the sides of a boat +14' long. + +The seats for a larger boat than that described can be arranged to rest +as shown in Fig. 417, and an extra mould or cross-board not far from +each end can be used, as shown. + +[Illustration FIG. 417.] + +[Illustration FIG. 418.] + +A piece of keel or skag can be added at the stern end, if desired, as +shown in Fig. 418. This will assist in rowing straight. Fit a piece of +7/8" board to the curve of the bottom, keeping the straight edge +parallel with the top. Square off the end in line with the stern, nail +the skag firmly to the bottom, and nail a stern-post, 7/8" × 1-1/4" or +1-1/2", securely to the stern and the skag. A rudder can be hung to the +stern-post if desired. A centre-board is sometimes added to a punt, +being arranged in the way shown on page 330. A lee-board is often used +on punts and scows. It is merely a centre-board lowered outside of the +boat instead of in the centre. + +[Illustration FIG. 419.] + + +=Small Rowboat.=--A simple form of skiff, or common flat-bottomed +rowboat (Fig. 419), called by various names, is similar to the punt at +the stern, and the mode of construction is similar. The boards for the +sides are not cut away on the bottom at the bow, as in the punt, but are +left full width and drawn together to form a sharp bow. The ends are +usually, but not always, cut off with a slight slant at the bow, which +gives a rake to the stem (Fig. 420). + +[Illustration FIG. 420.] + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any other +references. + +Care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from +knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. Pine is excellent. +Any good wood can, however, be used. + +Make a middle mould (Fig. 421), as in the case of the punt just +described, and proceed with the construction in a similar manner, until +you come to the bow. + +[Illustration FIG. 421.] + +[Illustration FIG. 422.] + +Screw the sides to the stern-piece (Fig. 422) without driving the screws +completely in, but leaving a little play to the joint (see _Screws_). +Next put the middle mould in place by lines previously squared across +each side. Nail the middle mould in position. Then, letting someone draw +the bow ends of the sides together (or if you are alone, binding them +together temporarily), release the stern-piece and plane its ends to +make close joints with the side pieces, as in the case of the punt +already described. When these joints are fitted, paint them with white +lead and screw or nail the sides securely (and permanently) to the stern +board. + +Draw the fore-ends together and fit a piece of hard wood in the angle at +the bow as shown in Fig. 423. You can cut this piece approximately to +shape with a hatchet and then plane the surface down until you get an +accurate fit. When you have made it fit, paint it and also the sides +where they bear against it. Afterward screw or nail the sides firmly to +this stem-piece, letting each end of the stem project a little. Screws +are best (brass screws if for salt water), but nails can be used. Do not +drive them all in line, but add a second row farther from the edge and +alternately arranged. If a piece of hard wood is not available, a block +of soft wood can be used, but it should be somewhat larger. + +[Illustration FIG. 423.] + +Another pattern of stem-piece can be used (Fig. 424). Much pains should +be taken in making this post. The rabbets on each side should be cut +with care, trying to get the sides alike and to cut accurately to the +lines marked. When the cutting is nearly done, put the piece in place +and you can then note any changes which may be required to make tight +joints. When you finally have a good fit, paint and fasten in place as +described above. + +[Illustration FIG. 424.] + +[Illustration FIG. 425.] + +Still another form of stem-piece is shown in Fig. 425. One side of the +boat must be got out longer than the other to allow for the lapping over +at the bow, the stem-post being first fastened to the shorter side and +then trimmed if necessary, until the side which laps over fits +accurately. + +When the boat is fastened together to this extent, it will frequently be +found that the bottom has too much curvature lengthways, according to +the degree to which the sides flare outward and bend up at the ends. +This you can remedy by trimming off the sides in the middle, first +carefully marking the desired line. Measure accurately, in doing this, +to be sure that the two sides will be alike. In removing the superfluous +wood do not attack it hastily with hatchet or draw-knife, for wood often +splits in a way surprisingly different from the direction in which the +grain appears to run (see _Paring_). It is sometimes best to remove the +wood with the splitting-saw, but stop all such processes some distance +outside of the line, and rely upon the plane for the final shaping. + +The lower edges must be bevelled off accurately, ready for the bottom +boards, the same as in the case of the punt (Fig. 415). Next nail on the +bottom, using common boarding or sheathing as in the case of the punt +just described, and put in the stiffening strip of board along the +middle of the floor. + +If the middle mould comes in such a position that it will be in the way +if left in place permanently, you can simply tack it into position with +a couple of nails at each end, leaving the heads protruding enough to +draw them out easily. When you have put in the seats and any other +braces necessary to ensure the sides keeping their position, you can +draw the nails and take out the centre mould. + +Fit seats at bow and stern, putting them two or three inches below the +gunwale and resting them on cleats. + +In case you use the stem-piece shown in Fig. 423, saw or plane off the +projecting ends of the sides at the bow smoothly and screw (or nail) on +a cutwater made of some hard wood and with a sharp edge. Fasten strips +along the gunwale,--"wale strips,"--as already shown. + +A skag can be put on at the stern, if desired, as described on page 307. + +Such a boat can be sailed by adding a centre-board (see page 330) or by +bolting on a keel several inches in depth. A small sail-boat can be made +in this way by making the stern narrower, proportionately, the sides +higher, and decking over the bow and stern. The decking can extend over +all the top, if desired, except a well-hole around which can be fitted a +coaming or wash board. The keel can be of plank fitted carefully to the +shape of the bottom, its lower edge being horizontal towards the after +part, which will make it quite deep at the stern. A rudder should be +added for sailing. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration FIG. 426.] + + +=Skiff or Flat-bottomed Canoe.=--A double-ended skiff, batteau, or +flat-bottomed canoe (Fig. 426), known by various names, can be easily +made by simply carrying the process already described a little further, +and drawing the sides together at the stern as well as at the bow, thus +forming a boat sharp at both ends. This is an excellent type for the +amateur, whether in the form of a small canoe or a quite good-sized boat +for rowing, or even light sailing. Such a boat is light, easily +propelled, buoyant, does not pound the waves when meeting them so much +as the punt, and the sharp stern is good when running before a sea. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, +_Saw_, _Plane_, _Nailing_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any other +references. + +Care must be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from +knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. Pine is excellent, +but almost any good wood can be used for a boat of this sort. + +The sides can be bent into place around a mould in the middle and +brought together at _both_ ends and two end-posts fitted. In other +respects the process differs so little from the preceding that complete +description is needless. + +The two stem-pieces, which you can fit in the manner already shown, +will, theoretically, be alike. Practically, there should not be more +than a very trifling difference required in their shape. Having found +the shape for one, get the other out just like it. If it does not fit +perfectly, it can be trimmed until it does fit; but if the first one +fits right and the second fails to do so by more than a trifling degree, +you had best look the boat over and verify your work, and you may find +that you have cut something too long or too short or got something in +the wrong place. Paint the ends of these sides where they will be in +contact with the stem and stern with white lead. + +The sides and ends can be put together as follows: Take either side, +screw it securely to the stem-pieces at each end. Dip the screw points +in white-lead paint. Next screw either end of the other side to the +corresponding stem-piece, which will leave the sides separated at an +acute angle, with one end of one side not yet fastened to its +corresponding bow- or stern-post. The ends being alike it does not +matter which is called the bow or stern. To fasten this remaining joint, +it will be necessary to spring or bend the sides. If you have someone to +help you, you can easily put the midship frame into position and bend +the sides around it until the unfastened end comes into the correct +position against the stem-piece, to which it can be held and screwed +firmly. If you can get no help, you can hold the sides in position by +using a rope doubled and inserting sticks at top and bottom by which the +rope can be twisted and shortened (see _Clamps_). + +Another way is to put a box or joist, perhaps a couple of feet long, +between the sides, to prevent making too much strain on the end +fastenings, and, having secured the unfastened end, the frames can then +be laid flat, the sides drawn farther apart, and the midship frame +forced into position. The latter will be in position when it agrees with +the lines previously drawn on the sides and when the bottom is flush +with the inner corners of the lower edges of the sides. Nail the sides +to it with 1-3/4" or 2" nails, or it can finally be removed if not +needed for stiffness. + +The remaining details do not differ from those previously described. The +rowlocks can be placed wherever desired in the way already described, +but if the boat should be too narrow for this arrangement, they can be +fastened to outriggers, which the blacksmith can easily contrive. + + * * * * * + +A flat-bottomed canoe can be made on this same principle, the only +difference being to have less beam and to use a paddle or paddles +instead of oars. + + * * * * * + +A very successful small canoe, suitable for quiet waters, can be made of +quite thin wood (perhaps 3/8" to 1/2" in thickness), the outside being +covered with canvas. In case of building so light a craft as this, +however, it is best to insert regular ribs at distances of about a foot +to give the necessary stiffness, and to lay the bottom boards +lengthways. The ribs can be bought in any large town on the water, or +you can fashion them yourself. Natural bends are always preferable, but +you can make knees (on the general principle shown in Fig. 433) of +straight-grained stock, which, though clumsier and not so strong, will +serve the purpose. Care must be taken in fastening on the bottom not to +split either the bottom or the sides. But the canvas will be the main +reliance in keeping the boat tight. The canvas can be put on in three +pieces, first the sides, and then the bottom. Cover the sides down to +the bottom and let the bottom piece lap up over the sides two or three +inches and the edges be turned under. Stiffen the gunwale by a strip. + +A light, removable board, or grating of slats, should be laid inside +along the bottom, on the cross-frames. + +If well made and kept well painted so as to protect the canvas from wear +at the exposed points, a light canoe of this sort will last many years +and be a very useful boat. It must be kept out of the water and under +cover when not in use. + +[Illustration FIG. 427.] + + * * * * * + +A simple and cheap flat-bottomed canoe (Figs. 427 and 428), but not +canvas-covered, is not difficult to make by the process already +described. First make the frames and the stem- and stern-posts, then get +out the sides. These parts are put together and then the bottom is put +on, the well-hole coaming fitted, the boat decked, and finally the minor +fittings added. + +[Illustration FIG. 428.] + + * * * * * + +First make the centre frame like Fig. 429, the bottom strip being of +7/8" stock, 1-1/4" deep, and the side pieces of 3/4" board. Screw the +pieces together with two screws at each angle. Care must be taken to +make this frame symmetrical or the boat will be one-sided. You can draw +the outline of the frame carefully on a piece of stiff brown paper, +drawing a vertical centre line and measuring both ways for accuracy. Lay +this pattern on the bench top, or on a smooth floor, and place the +pieces for the frame on the drawing so that the outer edges just +coincide with the outline of the drawing. Hold them firmly in position +and screw the angles securely together. Tack a waste piece across near +the top to help keep the frame in shape until in position. Next get out +two frames like Fig. 430, taking the dimensions from your plan, two more +like Fig. 431, and two like Fig. 432. To make the stem- and stern-posts, +take two pieces of joist, about 2" × 4" and of sufficient length, and +with the chisel and saw cut a rabbet on each side of each piece, on the +principle shown in Fig. 424. Give these rabbets a good coat of +white-lead paint. + +[Illustration FIG. 429.] + +[Illustration FIG. 430.] + +[Illustration FIG. 431.] + +[Illustration FIG. 432.] + +The sides are got out in the way already shown. On them mark the +position for the centre mould. Insert and nail into place the two next +largest frames, at the proper places, and so on until all are in +position. All, except the centre one, will require to have their edges +slightly bevelled with the plane to fit the sides. You can do this best +as you put them in place. Paint the edges of the frames with white lead +before nailing them in position. Next fit pieces of 1/2" board to form +the coaming around the well-hole, and fasten them to the three middle +frames. The details of this you can easily arrange for yourself. The +general idea is expressed in Figs. 427 and 434. + +Before proceeding further with the deck, thoroughly paint the whole of +the inside of the boat with white lead, working it well into all the +joints and cracks. After giving it a few days to dry, look the inside +over carefully for any holes or defects to be stopped. After filling any +there may be, give the entire inside another coat, working it well into +all crevices as before. Do not neglect this part of the work, as it will +not be easy to get at the inside (except in the middle) after the deck +is put on. + +On the middle of the deck stretch strips of 1/2" wood about 4" wide from +the coaming of the well to the stem- and stern-posts, tapering the +pieces as they approach the ends and resting them on the tops of the +frames, to which they should be firmly nailed. + +If you wish to sail, a stiff brace or thwart can be put in for the mast, +with a block for a step. + +One or more strips, 1" × 1/2", can now be placed longitudinally on each +side of the deck and nailed to the frames. + +Additional deck-beams, running from gunwale to gunwale, and having the +requisite arch or convexity, can be put in if needed. A few brackets can +also be put under the deck, reaching from the sides to the coaming, if +needed. + +A keel about one inch square, or deeper at the centre, if desired, can +be fitted along the entire length of the bottom. It had best be fastened +on with screws. If your boat is to be used in deep water only, you can +make the keel 3" or 4" deep in the middle, rockering it up towards the +ends, and the boat can be sailed without a centre-board. + +Cover the deck with canvas, fastened with small tacks to the coaming and +to the sides. The edges of the canvas can be drawn down over the gunwale +for about half an inch, the edge being finally covered by a gunwale +strip screwed from stem- to stern-post. A piece of half-round 7/8" +moulding is good, although any small strip will do. Dampen the canvas +and then give it at least two coats of paint. A wooden deck can be put +on if preferred. + + * * * * * + +=Canvas-covered Canoes.=--To make a really good canoe wholly of wood +requires a degree of skill much greater than can be expected of the +beginner, or than is attained by the average amateur. Any boy or amateur +can, however, with the help of canvas and with a very few tools and at +slight expense, make some simple varieties which will serve the purpose +satisfactorily. The canoe is sharp at both ends, requires only a paddle, +and is light enough to be easily handled ashore. If carefully made, a +canvas canoe will be strong, durable, and not difficult to mend, though +repairs are seldom necessary if proper care is taken. If canvas of good +quality is used, it will not be easily punctured or torn as one might +think, but will stand an amount of banging around, running into snags, +dragging over obstacles, and abuse generally, that would badly injure +any but the best of wooden canoes. + +The variety of designs for canoes which has developed or been evolved +from the more primitive forms is in these days almost endless, and the +number of types from which to choose is confusing. The purpose for which +the canoe is to be used will help you somewhat in selecting the +type--whether for paddling only, or sailing, or for cruising and general +use, and whether for a river or small pond, or for the deep and rough +water of a lake or bay. All these matters must be considered in +determining the beam, depth, shape of the midship section, the draught, +degree of sheer, whether to have keel, centre-board, or neither, and +other points. This is too complex a subject to be treated in a hand-book +on wood-working, and you can easily obtain the desired information, as +well as detailed instructions for drawing the plans, from some good book +on the subject. + +A caution against making the framework too light and without sufficient +stiffness may not be out of place. One frequently sees canoes, made by +young boys, of such flimsy pieces and covered with such weak cloth that +one is surprised that they can live in the quietest mill-pond, which is +really testimony to the tenacious strength of a canvas-covered boat when +properly made. A certain degree of flexibility is one of the desirable +features of these boats, but they should always have sufficient +stiffness to maintain their general shape in all weathers and in all +waters to which a canoe is suited; therefore be sure to make a frame +which will keep its shape of itself without relying upon the canvas to +hold it together. + +It is quite common to see these boats which (otherwise well built) lack +stiffness lengthways--that is, in the longitudinal vertical section. +Such boats after a little use become bent up in the middle, or +"hog-backed." This is entirely unnecessary. Be sure, before putting on +the canvas, that your frame is stiff enough lengthways to keep its shape +permanently. If by any fault in your planning you find that it is not +so, be sure to add extra stiffening braces inside before putting on the +canvas, or your boat will probably be a failure.[40] + +Canvas-covered boats should always be kept out of the water and under +cover when not in use, as long-continued exposure to the water will be +injurious. + +An easily constructed paddling canoe, 14' or 15' long, and with beam +about 30", will first be described. + +It should be understood by the novice that this first form of +construction here given is not that adopted by the professional +boat-builder. It is given simply as a process by which one untrained in +the more regular methods of construction can turn out a cheap and +serviceable canoe, and at the same time acquire experience which will be +of use if he should later attempt the more scientific, but also more +difficult, details of construction used by regular boat-builders. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any other +references. + + * * * * * + +Care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from +knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. + +[Illustration FIG. 433.] + +Having made your working drawings for a canoe of the size and +proportions which you may think best to adopt, begin the actual work by +getting out moulds (Fig. 433) upon exactly the same principle as in the +case of the flat-bottomed canoe just described, except that they will be +of curved outline, as this is to be a round-bottomed boat. Get out also +a bottom strip or keelson with stem- and stern-pieces, which can be +alike. + +[Illustration FIG. 434.] + +[Illustration FIG. 435.] + +The arrangement and method of fitting these parts is evident from the +illustrations. The keelson can be laid along the edge of a plank or some +flat surface and blocked up towards the ends to give the desired degree +of curvature or rocker. First fit in place the centre mould and then the +two at the ends of the well-hole (Fig. 434), with the stem- and +stern-posts (Fig. 435). These can be temporarily tacked or stayed in +place until you are sure the positions are right. The coaming frame or +wash board around the well-hole can now be put on, which will hold the +three middle frames securely, and the two deck-strips running lengthways +from the well-coaming to the tops of the stem- and stern-posts can be +attached (Fig. 435). Next fit the two gunwale-strips, putting in also +the remaining moulds or frames. After this the lengthways ribbands are +to be fitted around the moulds from bow to stern (Figs. 435 and 435a, +showing section at end of well). This will complete the shape of the +boat. + +Great care must be taken with all this adjusting of the framework, +measuring, sighting, and testing in every way you can think of, to see +that all the curves are "fair," without sharp or irregular turns, and +also to see that both sides of the boat are alike. This is very +important. The pieces may be all of the correct lengths, but still the +boat may be one-sided, or twisted, or have a list. + +[Illustration FIG. 435a.] + +[Illustration FIG. 436.] + +A glance at Fig. 436 will show (as an exaggerated example) that pieces +of the right dimensions can easily be put together in such a way that +the boat may be ill-shaped,--an unfortunate result which is sometimes +seen in home-made boats, due to lack of care in testing the angles and +curves when putting the work together. + +The ends of these strips will be more securely fastened to the stem- and +stern-posts if depressions or "gains" are cut in the posts to receive +them (Fig. 437), but this is not absolutely necessary if the ends are +properly bevelled and carefully screwed to the stem- and stern-posts. + +[Illustration FIG. 437.] + +For additional stiffness, insert a series of ribs (Fig. 435), from 3" to +6" apart, according to their size and stiffness, from bow to stern. +Barrel-hooping can be used and if sound is excellent, or strips of ash, +oak, or elm, about 7/8" × 1/4", can be used. It will not be necessary to +bend these around a form. Those near the middle can be at once bent into +place. As the ends of the boat are approached, the ribs will require to +be rendered more pliable before being put in place (see _Bending Wood_). +The ribs can be nailed or screwed to the keel and finally be fastened to +the ribbands, at their intersection, with copper nails clinched or +riveted. Cheaper fastenings can be used, however, but copper is the +best. + +To hold such pieces in place temporarily, clamps can be easily made +which will be sufficiently strong for the purpose (see Fig. 548). + +When all these parts are fastened together, the frame will be complete. + +To make a first-class job, the entire frame should be thoroughly +painted, or at least given a soaking coat of oil, or it can be +varnished. + +For the canvas, get firm, closely-woven duck or sail-cloth of good +quality and of sufficient width to reach from gunwale to gunwale. It is +not necessary or advantageous to get the heaviest-weight grade, but +beware of covering your boat with light drilling or the like, which, +although you can make it water-tight, will not be sufficiently durable +for anything but a boat for temporary use. + +Find the middle of the canvas, lengthways, and stretch it on this line +directly along the keel, the frame of the boat being placed bottom up. +Tack at each end, and then, starting at the middle, strain the canvas +around the boat, working along a little way at a time towards each end +alternately and tacking to the top or inside of the gunwale as you +proceed. Do not try to cover the top with the same piece as the bottom. +If you can get a large needle and some stout cord, you can pull the +canvas into place by lacing the edges across the top or deck of the +boat, working from the middle towards the ends. In lieu of a needle use +an awl or a nail. By lacing in this way and by manipulating the canvas +with the hands you can, if you are careful, stretch it to fit the frame +so that it will be smooth to a point considerably above the water-line. +At the upper part, as you approach the deck line or gunwale, you may be +unable to prevent some fulness, which you can dispose of by pleating if +necessary. At the ends some little folding under may also be required, +but you need have no great difficulty in adjusting the canvas neatly and +so as to make tight joints. It is a good plan to cut a shallow rabbet on +each side of the stem- and stern-posts, just deep enough so that when +the edge of the canvas is folded under and tacked, the surface of the +canvas will be flush with the side of the post (Fig. 437). Small tacks +should be used--not large carpet-tacks. Copper are best, but galvanized +ones can be used. In all parts where leakage could occur, the tacks +should be driven closely together, so that their heads touch, seeing +that a good coat of lead is laid on the wood underneath. After the +bottom of the canoe has been covered, the deck can be treated in the +same way. + +When the canvas is all on, dampen it slightly and paint thoroughly, +painting, also, the coaming around the well-hole and the exposed parts +of the stem- and stern-posts (see _Painting_). The dampening is supposed +to cause the first coat of paint to penetrate the canvas more thoroughly +than if the canvas is quite dry. Oil is sometimes applied before +painting. After it has dried thoroughly, apply another coat. Do not +spare the paint, for though the canvas absorbs a great deal, which adds +to the weight of the boat as well as to the cost, it is really essential +in making a good canvas-covered boat that it be well painted. + +A light removable flooring, or grating of slats, should be placed on the +bottom of the well, resting on the frames. + + * * * * * + +To make a canvas canoe with a keel, you have only to make the keel of a +piece of 1-1/4" or 1-1/2" stock (with a depth of, perhaps, 1-1/4" or +1-1/2"), thinning it somewhat towards the ends so that it will join +smoothly with the stem- and stern-posts. It can be fitted to these posts +as shown in Fig. 438, and screwed directly to the keelson. + +[Illustration Fig. 438.] + +Particular care must be taken that the keel be got out straight and that +it be fitted exactly on the centre line. In this case the canvas may be +put on in two parts, being nailed to the keelson on each side of the +keel; or the canoe can be made as previously described and the keel +simply screwed on outside of the canvas, the latter being first +thoroughly painted. Oak is excellent for a keel, but is rather heavy for +a light canoe. Ash will do. Pine can be used. The keel will wear better +if got out so that the concentric rings (annual rings) of the wood will +be horizontal or parallel with the bottom of the boat and at right +angles to the screws with which the keel is fastened on. If these layers +incline slightly upward at the bow the keel will wear better. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration FIG. 439.] + +A more advanced form of construction, and one more in line with the +methods of a regular boat-builder, is shown in Fig. 439, the essential +difference between this and the form previously described being that +regular bent ribs are substituted for the frames made of board, and the +latter, after serving as moulds around which to build the boat, are +taken out, the bent ribs being sufficiently stout to ensure strength and +stiffness. + +If you attempt this method the ribs must be carefully bent (see _Bending +Wood_). Oak, ash, or elm is suitable for ribs. If a cooper's shop is +within reach you can get the material there. It must, of course, be of +good grain and free from flaws. + + * * * * * + +The process of construction is similar to that already shown. A +suggestion for the arrangement of deck timbers (which can be of oak, +ash, spruce, or any strong wood) is shown in Figs. 439 and 440, and for +putting in a curved wash board or coaming in Fig. 440. For the latter a +thin piece of straight-grained oak, elm, or ash can be used. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration FIG. 440.] + +[Illustration FIG. 441.] + +An excellent way to make a canvas-covered canoe is shown in Fig. 441. +The essential principle of this consists in having a stiff gunwale, +stiff keelson (inside the ribs), and ribs stout and numerous enough to +ensure a permanently strong and stiff framework without the assistance +of the lengthways ribbands. The outside is then sheathed with very thin +strips of basswood, pine, or any reasonably strong and light wood +(perhaps 3/16" thick and 2" or 3" wide), fitting them carefully to the +shape, but without any attempt to make water-tight joints. If this boat, +which is complete in all respects except that of being water-tight, is +then covered with canvas as already described, the result will be a +strong, smooth boat, without the irregularities of surface which are a +necessary feature of the unsheathed form. + +This method is adopted in making canvas-covered canoes after the model +of the birch-bark canoe, and the result is an admirable boat, which, +while perhaps hardly equal to a genuine "birch" of Indian manufacture, +is certainly the next thing to it for an open paddling canoe. Of course, +if you can work up your design after the model of a real birch, you will +have accomplished as much as you could wish in this line--but to design +and construct a good canoe upon the birch model is not an easy thing for +the beginner to do, and had best not be attempted until after +considerable experience in simpler and less graceful forms. This mode of +construction can well be applied, however, to a canoe of almost any +type. The sheathing can be painted and the canvas laid on the fresh +paint. + +Another form of construction is to omit the keelson and fasten the +frames and ribs directly to the top of the keel, having previously cut a +rabbet for the canvas (as in case of the stem- and stern-posts) on each +side of the keel at the top; the canvas by this arrangement being put on +in two parts, one on each side of the keel. + +It is, of course, possible to construct a canoe with nothing but two +gunwale-strips, stem- and stern-posts, a strip for a keelson, and a +number of barrel-hoops for ribs; and such affairs are quite often put +together by boys, but they are apt to be of light and flimsy +construction and to lack sufficient stiffness to keep their shape after +being used for a while. A certain degree of flexibility and lack of +rigidity is desirable in a canvas-covered boat, and, in fact, it is to +this quality that it owes much of its merit; but it should have enough +stiffness to hold its general shape permanently. + +An extremely simple method is to omit the stem-pieces and simply bend +the keelson up at each end to meet the gunwales at bow and stern, where +all the lengthways pieces can be fastened to a block, canvas being +stretched over the whole as already described. A canoe which turns up so +excessively on the bottom at bow and stern has some disadvantages, but +still a useful and cheap boat can readily be made in this way. It should +have a quite flat cross-section in the middle. + +Most canoes can be sailed on the wind, often very successfully, by +having a deep keel--which can be rockered or increased in depth towards +the middle--or by adding a centre-board. But the latter is quite a nice +operation, particularly so in case of making your first boat (see page +330). + + * * * * * + +The holes and the steps for the masts should be arranged before the +canvas is put on, fitting extra thwarts across if needed, and it is a +good plan to fit tubes for the masts. In case of sailing, the steering +can be done with the paddle, or a rudder can be used (in which case a +straight stern-post should be put in, for which a knee is good) and +lines be led forward to the well-hole from a yoke at the top of the +rudder. Many arrangements have been devised for steering sailing-canoes, +but these details, as well as those for the rigging, can be found in any +good book on the subject. If you are a novice, begin with a simple +leg-of-mutton sail (Fig. 448). + + * * * * * + +It is better to buy oars than to try to make them. You may, however, +have occasion to make a paddle. A good shape is shown in Fig. 442, but +you can choose from a variety of forms. + +[Illustration FIG. 442.] + + * * * * * + +The length can readily be determined from some paddle which suits you or +you can experiment with a strip of wood. Five inches is a good width, +and 5' to 5-1/2' a good length, but these are matters of individual +preference. Spruce is a good wood for your first attempt at +paddle-making. It makes a good paddle and is easier to work than birch, +beech, or maple, or any of the harder woods. Pine can be used. Use a +centre line in making your pattern. After the pattern is marked on the +wood have the outline sawed at a mill or do it yourself with the +turning-saw, or make a series of saw-kerfs to the line with the hand-saw +and remove the superfluous wood with the draw-knife, spoke-shave, or +chisel (see _Paring_). Having the outline correct, mark a line along the +middle of the edge of the blade, and gradually and carefully shave the +surfaces down towards this middle line, also tapering the thickness +towards the ends. The draw-knife, spoke-shave, plane, rasp, file, +scraper, and sandpaper can be used (see all of these tools in Part V. +and also _Paring_ and _Rounding Sticks_). Great care is needed to trim a +paddle nicely to shape. A little hasty cutting may ruin the work. + +[Illustration FIG. 443.] + +The double-bladed paddle can be made of a single piece, or two pieces +can be joined by a ferrule (Fig. 443). The double-bladed paddle can be +from about 7' to 8' or 9' long and the blades are made broader and +shorter than that of the single paddle. A couple of round rubber rings +on each end of the handle will stop some of the dripping of water from +the blades as they are raised. + + +=Small Sail-boat.=--The boat shown in Fig. 444 is a good form for the +amateur to attempt, and makes a serviceable craft for sheltered waters. +From twelve to sixteen feet is a good length, and the beam should be +wide, as shown. The depth can be from twelve to sixteen inches. + + * * * * * + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, _Nailing_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +Care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from +knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. Pine is excellent. + +[Illustration FIG. 444.] + +The general principle of construction does not differ from that of the +flat-bottomed boats already described, and detailed directions are +therefore omitted. The sides should each be of one 3/4" or 7/8" board. +The arrangement of the details is obvious. Knees can be used to good +advantage. The deck should be of wood, the boards (1/2") resting on +cross-beams or carlins, reaching from gunwale to gunwale (as already +shown) and slightly arched. Around the well-hole, brackets can be used +(Fig. 445). The deck can be covered with canvas. + +[Illustration FIG. 445.] + +This boat, as shown in the illustration, is planked across the bottom +like the other flat-bottomed boats already described, but the bottom +boards can run lengthways instead, if preferred. In this case knees +should be inserted, or cross-frames of some kind, to reach across the +bottom and to which the bottom boards can be nailed. The bottom boards +should be not less than 3/4" thick and the edges must be carefully +jointed (see _Jointing_). They can be laid slightly apart and the seams +caulked (see page 302). Strips of flannel laid in thick white-lead paint +can be placed between the edges of the sides and stern and the bottom +boards, or the edges can simply be painted. + +[Illustration FIG. 446.] + +[Illustration FIG. 447.] + +The construction of the case or trunk for the centre-board can be +understood from Figs. 446 and 447. By either method of construction the +trunk consists of two upright posts, or "headledges," cut with shoulders +at the lower end, and sides of board screwed to these posts. A slot is +sawed through the bottom of the boat of sufficient width and length to +give the centre-board free passage--that is, of the dimensions of the +opening at the bottom of the trunk. To cut this slot several holes can +be bored close together until an opening is made sufficiently large to +start the saw. By the arrangement shown in Fig. 446, a plank is taken +and a slot is cut in it enough longer than that in the bottom of the +boat to include the lower ends of the headledges, which should fit +snugly. The sides of the trunk are screwed to this plank from +underneath, and the plank is in turn screwed to the bottom of the boat. +The headledges can be additionally fastened from the edge of the plank, +horizontally. Unless the bottom of the boat is straight, the plank must +be accurately fitted to the curve on the under side,--not an easy task +(see _Scribing_ and _Paring_). All the joints should be laid in thick +white-lead paint, and at the bottom flannel can be laid in the seam, +with lead, or caulking can be resorted to. + +By the method shown in Fig. 447, the headledges and sides are fitted to +a board on the bottom, or to the keelson, and, after being put in place, +strips of plank are fitted lengthways on each side at the bottom and +bolted or screwed to the bottom and to the sides of the trunk. The lower +edges of these strips must be fitted to the curve of the bottom and the +whole made tight, as just shown. Much care must be taken with this work +to make tight joints. The inside of the trunk should be painted before +putting together, and holes be bored carefully for all the screws (see +_Boring_ and _Screws_). + +The centre-board itself can be of wood or of galvanized plate iron and +is pivoted at the forward lower corner, and can be raised and lowered by +a rod attached to the after corner. + +Remember to paint the inside of the boat carefully with at least two +coats before putting on the deck, and also that copper nails and brass +fittings are better than those of galvanized iron (particularly for salt +water) if you can afford them. + +The coaming or wash board can be of 1/2" oak, ash, or elm. The deck can +first be laid, lapping slightly over the space to be left open. The line +for the coaming can then be marked on the deck, and the projecting wood +sawed or trimmed to the line, when the coaming can be bent into place +and fastened. + +The gunwale-strip, like the stern-post, the rudder, and the tiller, +should be of hard wood, as oak. Hackmatack is good for the stem. + +The mast should be of spruce. A strong thwart, with a hole in it, can be +fitted across between the sides, just under the deck, and a block with +another hole fastened to the bottom. The place at which to step the mast +must depend upon the style of rig you adopt. + +One who is used to sailing a boat will not seek for information on this +subject in a manual on wood-working, but for the novice it may be well +to state that a leg-of-mutton sail (Fig. 448) is undoubtedly the +simplest, easiest, and safest rig for the beginner, and it will be wise +to learn to manage this rig first. The spritsail (Fig. 449), with or +without the boom, is an easily managed sail, which works well with this +boat. Either of these rigs can be unshipped in a moment, the mast, sail +and all being lifted out when desired. For other styles of rigging you +should consult someone used to sailing or some book on the subject. + +[Illustration FIG. 448.] + +[Illustration FIG. 449.] + +For the painting, see _Painting_, in Part V. + + +=Small Ice-Boat.=--The main framework of even the most elaborate +ice-boat consists merely of a lengthways centre timber or "backbone" and +a cross-piece or "runner-board" (Fig. 450), the whole resting on three +runners, one of which acts as a rudder. + +Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + +[Illustration FIG. 450.] + +[Illustration FIG. 451.] + +A small boat can be made as shown in Fig. 451. The dimensions can easily +be altered. The particular rig given is merely for illustration, for +this is not a book on sailing, and you can find all the facts you need +about rigging in any good book on the subject. If you are a novice you +had best be content with a simple leg-of-mutton sail (Fig. 448), which +is, for the beginner, the safest and most easily managed. A spritsail +(Fig. 449) or some other simple form can be used if desired. If you know +how to sail a boat, you can adopt such rig as you think best. + +[Illustration FIG. 452.] + +[Illustration FIG. 453.] + +First get out the backbone. Get a piece of clear spruce, or pine, +perhaps 12' × 3" × 4". A round spar may be used. Be careful to select +good lumber, as great strain is put upon it. A piece which has naturally +sprung lengthways should be placed with the convex edge upwards. Next +get out the runner-board, perhaps 6-1/2' × 2" × 9", of spruce. Pine is +also good, or any strong wood will do. Choose a clear, sound plank. If +naturally sprung in a bow-like curve, put the convex side upwards. +Smooth the pieces sufficiently to avoid splinters and roughness. Thin +the runner-plank on top each way from the centre down to about an inch +in thickness at each end, if you can have it sawed at the mill. It is +hardly worth while to do this by hand. Fasten the runner-board, at +exactly the middle of its length, across the backbone, at a point +perhaps 6-1/2' from the stern end, with a strap-hanger (Fig. 452) +screwed up with nuts and broad washers on the under side. If you cannot +afford this, put a bolt through both pieces (see _Boring_), tightening +underneath with nut and washer, and putting cleats on the runner-board +(Fig. 453). Be sure that one edge of the runner-board is straight and at +right angles to the backbone. Nail a piece of board, 18" long and 3" +wide, across the stern end of the centre timber. Add the two side pieces +_a b_ and _c d_ (Fig. 450), of 2" spruce joist, nailing them firmly in +place, thus forming the sides of an irregular box (see _Nailing_). Turn +the frame over and nail a bottom on this box, laying the boards +crosswise and nailing to the backbone as well as to the sides and end. + +Next, to make the runners, get out six pieces of oak, or other hard, +strong wood, 9" × 3" × 4". Mark with the square from the straightened +edge of the runner-board the positions for the inner blocks, equally +distant from the backbone, screwing them in place (Fig. 454), with one +screw in each. Measure across with a stick from one to the other at +each end to see that they are just parallel, and also test their being +at right angles to the runner-plank, which in turn must be at right +angles to the backbone, in order that the runners may be parallel and +not slewed sideways. Having tightly screwed these inner blocks, brace +them with angle blocks, as shown. The outer blocks can next be fitted, +leaving just space enough for the runners to play freely, but not +loosely, between the blocks. The holes for the pins for the runners can +be bored in the outer pieces before they are screwed on. Then, using +these holes as a guide, those in the inner blocks can be bored in line. +The runners themselves should be carefully made and fitted, for they are +a very vital part of the boat. On the large boats they have usually been +made of oak, with a shoe of cast iron at the bottom attached by bolts, +but this is quite a piece of work for a small boat and you can get the +blacksmith to work out the whole runner, with a hole bored for the +pin-bolt. Make a pattern about 18" or 20" long, rocking _very_ slightly +in the middle and more quickly near the ends. The hole for the pin +should be back of the middle, so that more of the shoe will be in front +of than behind the pin. This is to lessen the shock when the runner +strikes an obstruction. The cutting edge may have an angle of about 45° +for trial (Fig. 455). If too blunt or too sharp you can alter it. It +will take considerable filing to get the edge true, straight, and +uniform (see _Filing_). Finish with an oil-stone. + +[Illustration FIG. 454.] + +[Illustration FIG. 455.] + +The rudder-runner can be a little shorter. Screw a piece of 2" oak plank +on top of the rudder-blocks and on top of this fasten a plate or socket +to which is attached a piece of gas-pipe about a foot long, for a +rudder-post. At the top of the rudder-post screw an elbow and a short +piece of pipe for a tiller (Fig. 456). If suitable gas-pipe cannot be +found, the blacksmith can fix an arrangement that will answer, but it +must be strongly fastened to the rudder-blocks, and there should be some +kind of metal bearing between the wooden top of the rudder and the under +side of the backbone, if nothing more than a washer. The two surfaces of +wood should not rub against each other. Wind the handle of the tiller +with cord, cloth, or bicycle tape. + +[Illustration FIG. 456.] + +[Illustration FIG. 457.] + +Stay the bowsprit (or forward end of the backbone) by stout wires to the +runner-plank. These can best be of wire rope passed through eye-bolts or +attached to iron straps and tightened with turnbuckles, but to save that +expense strong wire can be used. Notches can be cut at the edges of the +runner-plank and the backbone, and wire be wound around to hold rings to +which the wire guys can be fastened, but it is hard to make such an +arrangement taut and to keep it so. Next fasten a mast step with square +hole to the backbone (Fig. 457), forward of the front edge of the +runner-plank. Put in eye-bolts at ends of the runner-plank and at the +bow for shrouds and a few inches from the stern of the backbone for the +main sheet. Wire rope is best for the shrouds, but common wire or rope +can be used. For the mast and spars use natural sticks of spruce. The +sides of the box can be built up higher at the stern with boards, if you +wish, to prevent being thrown off by the sudden movements of the boat. A +rubber washer under the backbone where the rudder-post passes through is +sometimes used to lessen the jar when passing over obstructions. A +curved piece of wood fastened on the under side of the backbone just in +front of the rudder will act as a fender for the rudder, in case of +slight obstructions. + +The whole boat can be oiled, painted, or varnished if desired (see +_Finishing_ and _Painting_). + +If you use a cat-rig, spritsail, or other rig without any head-sail +before the mast, it would be well to place the runner-plank further +forward. + +[Illustration FIG. 458.] + +The latest and best way to brace the frame of an ice-boat is to strain +guys of wire rope (Fig. 458), tightened with turnbuckles, omitting the +side pieces, and fastening a car or box to the backbone, but this +arrangement, though lighter and more elastic, is more expensive and not +so easy to make for a small boat as the one just described. + +A somewhat simpler way to arrange the framework is shown in Figs. 459, +460, and 461. In place of the runners already described a cheaper +arrangement can be made by the blacksmith of 5/8" bar iron, steeled, and +bent up at the ends, as shown in Fig. 461. + +A much smaller affair can be made by simply arranging two pieces of +joist or plank in the form of a cross (bracing them so far as may be +necessary), putting cleats under each end of the shorter cross-piece or +runner-board and fastening common skates to the cleats, using another +pivoted skate at the stern for a rudder. The runners of the skates +should be ground, or filed, as shown above. + +[Illustration FIG. 459.] + +[Illustration FIG. 460.] + +[Illustration FIG. 461.] + +The details of such a small ice-boat you can work out for yourself by +modifying and simplifying according to your ingenuity the suggestions +for a larger boat given above. The hardest part to fix is the +rudder-post and tiller. Some iron arrangement is best, but something can +be contrived in the following manner, which is not, however, recommended +as very satisfactory. Fasten the rudder skate upon a piece of board in +which is cut a mortise. Into this mortise a short piece of hard wood, +like a large broomstick with squared end, is fitted for a rudder-post. +The upper end of the rudder-post, squared just like the lower end, is +fitted into a mortise cut in the tiller piece. A washer should be placed +between the skate-block and the backbone, and the rudder-post should +turn freely in the hole in the backbone, but not loosely enough to +wobble around. Cut the mortise in the tiller and fit to the post before +cutting off and shaping the tiller, to avoid danger of splitting. An +extra block may have to be put under the backbone at the rudder to level +the boat so that the skates will bear properly on the ice, for if the +stern is much lower, so that they drag by the heels, the boat will not +sail properly. Wooden arrangements of this sort are, however, only +justifiable as makeshifts, and require good workmanship to be strong and +effective. + + +[Illustration] + +=House-Boat.=--A house-boat consists of two parts, one of which (the +boat) is essentially like the scow or flat boat already described, and +the other (the house) is usually much the same as some of the little +structures described in Part III. (_House-building for Beginners_), +however expensively and elaborately it may be arranged and fitted up. +The advantages of the house-boat for camping, shooting, fishing, and for +some kinds of excursions are too well known to require explanation. It +is an excellent thing for two or more to build together. It may not be +out of place to suggest that, in the desire to have the house +sufficiently large and convenient, you should not be misled into making +plans which will necessitate building a large boat. Dimensions (on +paper) for such things are quite deceptive, and to build a large boat, +even of such a simple type as the scow or flatboat, is quite a serious +undertaking for the beginner--as regards both labour and expense. + + * * * * * + +If you can find a scow or flatboat already built, of suitable dimensions +and which is sufficiently tight, or can be made so by caulking, you have +only to proceed to build the house upon it. If, however, the boat as +well as the house is to be built, you can proceed to build the boat in +the way already described (page 299). Additional suggestions may be +found in Figs. 462 and 463. + +Before beginning read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, +_Plane_, _Nailing_, in Part V., and look up any other references. + + +[Illustration FIG. 462.] + +Two-inch plank should be used for these boats, which are intended to be +from 14' to 20' long. After putting together the sides, ends, and +bottom, as already described, 2" × 4" joists can be laid lengthways on +the bottom, as shown, which will afford an underpinning for the house, +will distribute the weight over the bottom, keep the floor raised above +the water which may leak in or collect from the rain, and also stiffen +the structure of the boat. Before laying these joists, notches should be +cut on the under edges with the saw or hatchet, in several places, to +allow the water to pass through, as in the case of the boats already +described. + +[Illustration FIG. 463.] + +The illustrations show a general system of construction for the house, +which can be followed, or you can make such alterations as you think +desirable. In addition to the suggestions in the accompanying +illustrations, further details and suggestions will be found in Part +III. (_House-building for Beginners_). Most of the details are matters +of personal preference, and can readily be arranged without more +detailed description. The roof had best be covered with canvas, put on +as one piece (being sewed previously if necessary). If laid in paint and +then given two or three coats of paint, much as in the case of the +canvas-sheathed canoes already described, a tight and durable roof will +be the result. After the edges of the canvas are tacked under the edge +of the roof, strips of moulding can be nailed around under the edge. + +An even simpler way to make the roof is to have it flat, but slanting +slightly towards either bow or stern. An inclination of 3" is enough, +with tight canvas roof, to shed the water. + +The remaining details of the construction of the house have already been +treated. The interior arrangements you can contrive as desired. + +Either, or both, of the ends can be decked over, or the whole can first +be decked over and the house built on the deck. In this case, access to +the hull, for stowage, can be had by hatches, or trap-doors inside the +house. If both the ends are to be decked, the hull can very well have +one or two lengthways divisions of plank, for stiffness and +strength,--that is, insert between the ends one or two pieces of the +size and shape of the sides, in which case the lengthways joist already +spoken of will be omitted. This is a good way. In case of decking, nail +a strip of moulding on the outside along the juncture of the house and +the deck, so as to make a tight joint, which should be well painted. + +If one or both ends are undecked, a removable grating of slats (a part +of which is shown in Fig. 462) will be useful. + +It is well to have at least one window at the bow end of the house, for +the boat will of course lie with bow towards the wind and it will be a +good thing when housed in a storm to be able to see to windward, as you +cannot well keep the door at that end open, while the after door will +usually be sufficiently sheltered to be left open. Many modifications of +these simple plans can be made. The roof can be extended over either +end, which is easily done without altering the system of construction. +This is very convenient under some circumstances, and will add but +little to the expense. The frame can even be covered with canvas, but +this will be inferior to wood, except in point of lightness. A solid +roof is best, however, in any case. + +Sweeps must, of course, be provided for rowing, sculling, or steering, +and a mast can easily be added, on which sufficient sail can be hoisted +to be quite a help in going before the wind. If a mast is used, the door +at the bow end of the house can be at one side of the end so that the +mast can be close to the house, to which it can be fastened. A rudder +can be added, if desired, with a skag. + +The whole craft should be thoroughly painted (see _Painting_). + +Houses are sometimes built on rafts. This will do very well if the raft +is a good one, like a float. A float can be easily made, if you have the +materials, by laying a thick flooring on logs or heavy timbers and +providing greater buoyancy than such a platform naturally has by +fastening under it, between the timbers, as many empty and sealed +barrels or casks (oil-barrels are good) as may be necessary. When the +float is stationary and under ordinary circumstances, there is, of +course, no need to fasten the casks in any way except to fence them +around so that they cannot roll or slide out, as their buoyancy will +prevent their escaping, but it is easy to fasten them by chains or +otherwise if needed. This makes an excellent foundation on which to +build a house, and has some advantages over a boat for a stationary +arrangement, but is obviously not as well suited for moving around as a +scow or flatboat. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[40] Unless too heavily loaded, a canvas-covered canoe will float in +case of a capsize, but some form of air-chambers is desirable and a safe +precaution in any small boat. It is hardly safe to rely upon your +ability to build water-tight compartments in the ends of canvas (or +wooden) boats, as is sometimes recommended--that is, as a part of the +regular construction of the boat. It is not easy for an amateur to do +this. It is better to have the air-tight compartments made separately +and independent of the boat itself. Copper boxes or air-tanks fitted to +the space at the ends are the best and the only really reliable +expedient, but they are expensive. Light wooden boxes covered with +canvas and thoroughly painted can be used, as well as galvanised boxes +or even varnish cans sealed and painted. Any such contrivance can be +made tight at first, but is always liable to become leaky (except by the +use of copper tanks), particularly as it is usually concealed from +examination. + + + + +PART V + +_COMMON TOOLS AND THEIR USE, WITH SOME EVERY-DAY OPERATIONS_ + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + + +=Anvil.=--An anvil is often useful and is sometimes combined with a +vise. It should have a flat steel surface and also a tapering, rounded +(conical) point. An old flat-iron does quite well. + + +=Auger-Bit.=--See _Bits_. + + +[Illustration FIG. 464.] + +=Awl.=--The _Brad-awl_ is the simplest boring tool you will use. Unlike +gimlets and bits, it does not take out any wood, but merely presses it +aside out of the way, which is good for nail and screw holes, because +the elasticity of the woody fibres tends to make them spring back and +close around the nail or screw, thus helping to keep it in place. The +awl should always be a trifle smaller than the nail. Bore with the +cutting edge across the grain of the wood, on the same principle as in +driving nails (Fig. 464), lest the wedge shape of the tool cause the +wood to split (see _Nailing_). Press the awl straight down in this +position until the point is well into the wood, when you can twist it a +little, at the same time pushing it further into the wood. There is +always risk of splitting thin wood near an edge, unless you use great +care. The brad-awl can be sharpened easily. See _Sharpening_ and also +_Boring_. + +Do not buy combination awls with "tool-chest handles," filled with an +assortment of awls and little chisels, gouges, screw-drivers, saws, etc. +Such affairs are sometimes useful, but the loose tools are apt to become +lost or broken, and the money can be used to better advantage in other +ways. + +It is well to have a variety of sizes of awls, fitted into _hardwood_ +handles. An awl handle into which awls of various sizes can be fitted, +somewhat as a brace holds bits, answers very well, if you have to carry +your tools from place to place, but for shop-work it is more convenient +to have each awl in a separate handle. + +The _Marking-awl_ or _Scratch-awl_ is simply an awl with a round, sharp +point used for marking in carpentry, but for very close work a knife or +chisel is better. See _Marking_. + + +=Axe.=--This is such a common tool that it needs no description, and is, +moreover, seldom required for amateur work. + + +=Back-Saw.=--See _Saw_. + + +[Illustration FIG. 465.] + +[Illustration FIG. 466.] + +=Beading.=--A tool for scraping beading, reeds, and the like, can be +made by filing the reverse of the shape required on the edge of a piece +of saw-blade steel, taken from a broken saw or scraper, and inserting +this blade in a kerf sawed in the end of a piece of wood (Fig. 465). To +change the position of the blade, one or both of the screws can be +loosened and then tightened after the blade has been adjusted. This tool +is pushed forward with both hands, much like a scraper, the shoulder of +the block bearing against the edge of the board as in using the gauge +(Fig. 466). Tools for this purpose can be bought. + +It usually produces the best effect not to carry this beading to the +extreme ends of an edge, but to stop a short distance from the ends and +with a chisel cut the beads to a square and abrupt end (Fig. 305). See +_Plane_. + + +=Bending Wood.=--To bend a piece (without steaming or boiling) which is +to be fastened so that but one side will show, make a series of +saw-cuts of equal depth (Fig. 467) across the piece, and partly through +it, on the back side (the side which will not show), first running a +gauge line along the edge (see _Gauge_), that the cuts may be of equal +depth. This will practically, so far as bending is concerned, make the +piece thinner, and it can readily be bent and fastened in position. The +nearer together and the deeper the cuts are the more the piece can be +bent--that is, up to the breaking-point. Hot water can be used on the +face side. Such curves can sometimes be strengthened by driving wedges, +with glue, into the saw-kerfs after the piece is bent to the desired +curve (Fig. 468). + +[Illustration FIG. 467.] + +[Illustration FIG. 468.] + +To make a small piece of wood pliable, so that it will bend to any +reasonable extent (which, however, depends much upon the kind of wood), +soak it for some time in boiling water, when it can usually be bent into +the desired shape. It must be securely held in position until the +moisture has entirely left it, or it will spring back to (or towards) +its original shape. This drying will take from several hours to several +days, according to the size of the piece and the condition of the +atmosphere. There is almost always a tendency to spring back a little +towards the original shape, so it is well to bend a piece a little more +than you wish it to remain, except where it is to be fastened so that it +cannot spring back. + +Wood which naturally bends easily (particularly thin pieces) can often +be made pliable enough by simply soaking in cold water, but hot water is +usually more effective. Anything which you cannot manage with the hot +water you can take to a mill or a ship-yard and have steamed in a +regular steam-chest, which is really nothing, in principle, but a big +wooden or iron box, with a steam-pipe running into it, in which the +pieces are kept until the steam has made them pliable. Wood is now bent +for many purposes by "end pressure," but this is impracticable for the +amateur. + +To bend the ends of pieces like skis, hockies, etc., a big kettle or +common wash-boiler full of boiling water can be used. An apparatus for +long sticks, as ribs for a canoe, can be made with a piece of iron pipe +of suitable size. Plug one end tightly and stick it firmly in the +ground, so that the pipe is fixed in a slanting direction. Put water in +the pipe, build a fire underneath, put the sticks in the pipe, stuff a +rag loosely in the upper end and the apparatus will be in working order +(Fig. 469). + +[Illustration FIG. 469.] + +You must often have some sort of form or mould for bending the piece and +for holding it while drying. For some kinds of bending, where there is +no occasion to be accurate, you can often bend a piece around some +corner or common object, as a barrel, log, etc., and tie it in place +until dry, or fasten it with cleats, but for nice work you should make a +form or mould. If you wish to bend ribs, for instance, which should be +accurate in shape, you can cut a piece of board or plank to fit the +concave side of the desired curve. Fasten this piece upon any flat +surface, as an old plank, and bore holes for wooden pins around the +curve at such a distance from the pattern piece or mould that the piece +to be bent can be firmly wedged against it, as shown in Fig. 470; or you +can attach blocks instead of pins--any arrangement by which the bent +piece can be wedged in place. A strap of hoop iron or other metal or +even a thin piece of wood can be placed outside of the stick to be bent, +to prevent the wood splitting or splintering on the outside, as it is +liable to do if bent much, unless of good quality and straight grain, +but there is no need of doing this in many cases. + +[Illustration FIG. 470.] + +[Illustration FIG. 471.] + +Another way is to have the mould or form in two parts, as the two parts +of a board or plank through which the curve has been sawed (Fig. 471). +The piece to be bent is put between the two forms, which are then +pressed together by clamps, wedges, or a lever. This is a good way for +short pieces which cannot easily be bent, or which do not readily cling +to the required curve. + +Another form of bending-mould is shown (an inverted view) in Fig. 472. +In this case the pieces to be bent are held in place by easily made +clamps. + +[Illustration FIG. 472.] + +[Illustration FIG. 473.] + +A simple way to make a form for bending strips is to cut the curve out +of a piece of plank, or boards nailed together (Fig. 473). The end of +the strip is then caught against the cleat and the piece bent around the +curve. If it tends to spring off the curve, you must contrive some way +to clamp, wedge, or even tie it in place. As a piece must be left on the +form until dry and set, if you have a number to bend, it may be better +to make a form wide enough to bend them all at once. Take any boards, +or build a curved addition on the end of a box, and contrive a wider +form on the same principle (Fig. 474). + +For ribs, and the like, the stock should be got out so that the annual +layers will be at right angles to the direction of the nails with which +the pieces are to be fastened, or parallel with the curved sides of the +pieces. + +[Illustration FIG. 474.] + + +=Bevel.=--This is similar to the square, but with a movable blade which +can be set at any angle. When permanently fixed at an angle of 45°, it +is called a _mitre-square_. The bevel is useful, not merely to mark any +desired angle, but to repeat some angle already formed, to which you +apply it, moving the blade until it fits the angle, when the tool can be +applied to another piece and the angle repeated. The directions about +holding the head of the square close to the edge apply also to the use +of the bevel (see _Square_). + +[Illustration FIG. 475.] + +To obtain an angle of 45° with the bevel, place it against the inside +edge of the large steel square (Fig. 475), setting the blade at such an +angle that it will intercept equal distances on both arms of the square. + +On this same principle, for other angles, observe the figures +intercepted by the blade, as shown in Fig. 476. Note that for this angle +the figures are 2 and 4, and you can get the angle again at any time by +setting the bevel at those figures. You can also set the bevel by laying +off the required angle with compasses on a straight-edged board, to +which the bevel can be applied. The angle should be so laid out on the +board that it will not be necessary to try to set the point of the +compasses exactly at the edge, which is of course impossible. See +_Bevelling_. + +[Illustration FIG. 476.] + + +=Bevelling.=--To bevel the edge of a piece with the chisel, draw-knife, +spoke-shave, plane, or even knife, first mark parallel lines to work to +with a pencil-gauge (see _Gauge_) rather than a spur-gauge, so as not to +leave a scratch to disfigure the work after the bevel or chamfer is cut +(Figs. 477 and 485). Then pare the edge down gradually to these lines, +or prepare the way by first scoring the wood with cuts (Fig. 615), being +sure to trim off in the direction of the grain; but in bevelling both +end and side, as in Fig. 478, first cut the end, because of possible +chipping at the corner, and in cutting the end you can work from each +corner towards the centre. In paring a bevel across the grain, push the +chisel as shown in Fig. 479, as it is the easiest and cleanest way to +cut, and prevents splintering. + +[Illustration FIG. 477.] + +[Illustration FIG. 478.] + +[Illustration RIGHT. WRONG. FIG. 479.] + +A simple bevel (Figs. 477 and 478) is usually best made with the plane, +whenever there is room to use it. Plane bevels in end wood from both +edges and you can often slant the plane to good advantage like the +chisel in Fig. 479. See also _Chamfering_. + + +=Bit-Brace or Bit-Stock.=--This tool requires no description. The +_ratchet_ brace is useful for boring in awkward places where it is +difficult to use a common bit-stock. There is also a contrivance for +extending the bit-brace to bore in places which cannot be reached by the +common brace alone, but this you will seldom require. An angular +bit-stock, with a "universal angle" adjustment, is useful. By this the +bit can be pointed in different directions, while the bit-stock is +turned continuously in the ordinary way, thus enabling a hole to be +conveniently bored in an out-of-the-way corner. See _Boring_. + + +=Bits.=--The _auger-bit_ (the sizes of which are arranged by sixteenths +of an inch) so commonly used with the bit-brace, consists, at the +cutting end, of a spur, two scoring-nibs, and two cutting-lips. You will +see from Fig. 480 that the spur _a_, acting like a gimlet point or a +screw (which it is), starts the bit by drawing it into the wood so that +the scoring-nibs _b_ make a circular cut around the circumference. As +this cut deepens, the cutting-lips _c_ slice away the wood to be removed +in the form of shavings, which are brought to the surface as the boring +proceeds. + +This bit can be sharpened with a file, the scoring-nibs being sharpened +from the inside, lest they be made to score a circle too small for the +rest of the bit, while the cutting-lips are filed from the under side. + +[Illustration FIG. 480.] + +[Illustration FIG. 481.] + +The _centre-bit_ is a useful tool, particularly for very thin stock. The +spear-like point _a_ (Fig. 481), acting as a centre, the point _b_ cuts +a deep ring, and the edge _c_, which is bent so as to form a flat +chisel, scoops out the pieces of wood, and so a round and smooth hole is +made. This bit does not cut very well with the grain. It can be +sharpened with a small oil-stone. It is well to bore a trial hole with +this bit in a piece of waste wood when exactness is required, because +the spur is not exactly in the centre, so that the hole cut is a trifle +wider than the diameter of the bit. + +The _expansion-bit_ has an adjustable contrivance that enables it to +bore holes of various sizes, but such tools are hardly necessary for +beginners, though very convenient and often used by carpenters. + +The _gimlet-bit_ is a common form, but is easily dulled and bent and is +likely to split delicate work. The _quill-bit_ is excellent, except for +end grain. _Shell-bit_, _gouge-bit_, _pod-bit_, _spoon-bit_, +_duck's-bill-bit_, etc., are names applied to simple tools good for +boring small holes. They are easily sharpened with a stone, work quickly +and leave a smooth hole, but do not cut so well in end grain. They are +not as much in use as formerly, the twist-drill taking their place for +many purposes. + +_Reamers_, or tapering bits (half-round, square, octagonal, conical), +are useful to enlarge holes and occasionally to make them conical. +Reamers for metal are also useful. + +For other forms of boring implements, see _Awls_ and _Twist-drill_. See +also _Boring_ and _Countersink_. + + +=Block-Plane.=--See _Plane_. + + +=Boards or Planks, Laying Exposed.=--In laying boards or planks to be +exposed to the weather, place them (unless they are from the middle of +the tree) so as to have the outer side exposed--that is, the side +farthest from the heart should be put outside or uppermost. If put the +other way the action of the atmosphere, water, etc., will tend to +separate and loosen the layers and fibres (Fig. 482). + +[Illustration FIG. 482.] + + +=Boring.=--In boring with the bit-brace, after the bit has gone a short +distance into the wood, stop and, keeping the brace in position, test +carefully from in front and from one side to see whether the bit is at +right angles to the surface. Repeat this test and alter the position of +the brace as many times as may be necessary until you are sure that the +bit is going through at the right angle. A common way to do this is to +stand squarely in front of the work and judge by the eye whether the bit +is at right angles with the work, and then to stand at either side at +right angles to the first position and judge of the angle again. The +direction of the bit can be tested more accurately by applying the +square. Few people can bore accurately without some such test. + +[Illustration FIG. 483.] + +Some workmen rest the chin on the left hand on top of the handle of the +brace, to steady it (Fig. 483), and to increase the pressure, and +sometimes the shoulder is applied. + +To remove a bit from the wood, give the brace a turn or two backward, +which will loosen the spur, and then either pull the bit straight out, +if it can be done easily without turning the brace, or, as you pull it +out, keep turning the brace as if boring, thus bringing out the chips, +which, if you remove the bit by turning the brace backward, will be left +in the hole. + +In boring through a board or timber, watch to see when the spur of the +bit begins to come through on the other side; when it does, turn the +piece over and bore in from that side, or clamp a piece of waste wood on +the other side and bore right through into it. Either way will prevent +splintering or a ragged or "burred" edge, where the bit leaves the wood. + +In boring a hole of any depth with the grain, _i.e._, in the end of a +piece of wood, withdraw the bit, after it has entered the wood a short +distance, to clear the chips from the hole, reinsert, bore, and withdraw +again, and continue in this way until you reach the required depth. This +will save injuring the bit, and will make the boring easier. + +In boring with small bits, particularly when there is danger of +splitting, as with the gimlet-bit, draw out the bit and chips once in a +while. + +When the position of a hole must be exact on both sides of the wood it +is well to mark the position accurately on each side and bore from each +side until the holes meet. + +Frequently holes must not be bored through a piece, but must stop at a +certain depth. Suppose you have to make a dozen holes 2" deep. Take a +wooden tube if you have one, or bore a hole through a block of wood of +such length that when pressed against the jaws of the brace two inches +of the end of the bit will project beyond the tube or block (Fig. 484). +Then bore until the end of the tube touches the surface of the wood, +when the hole will, of course, be 2" deep. Metal attachments can be +bought for this purpose. See _Awl_, _Bits_, _Twist-drill_. + +[Illustration FIG. 484.] + +To cut a hole larger than any bit you have, bore a series of smaller +holes just within the circumference of the desired circle, and trim to +the line with the gouge or finish with keyhole or compass-saw. + + +=Bow-Saw.=--See _Saw_. + + +=Brad-awl.=--See _Awl_. + + +=Bruises, To Take Out.=--Small bruises in wood can be taken out by +wetting the place with warm water, or even with cold water, and rubbing +down the grain with sandpaper if necessary. If that is not sufficient, a +hot iron, as a flat-iron, held near the bruise, the latter being covered +with wet blotting paper or several thicknesses of brown paper, will +often remove a quite large dent. The operation can be repeated until it +has no further effect. + + +=Brushes.=--It is well to have a brush of some sort for cleaning off +work, the bench, etc. A sash brush is good. + +For most of your painting, shellacing, etc., you will usually get along +better with small flat brushes than with large round ones, except for +very coarse work. Those with flattened handles are convenient. From one +to two inches in diameter will usually be large enough, unless for such +work as painting the outside of a house, when something larger will save +time. For painting small or narrow surfaces, the brushes used for +"drawing" sashes are good, and for drawing lines "pencil" brushes will +be required. A good brush for glue can be made by soaking one end of a +piece of rattan in hot water and then pounding the softened part, when +the fibres will separate, making a stiff brush. + + +=Bull-Nosed Plane=--See _Plane_. + + +=Calipers.=--Calipers, which are "inside" or "outside," according to +whether they are to find the diameter of a hole or the outside diameter +of an object, are very important in some work, as turning, but, though +very useful at times, are not nearly as important for the work of the +beginner as compasses. + + +=Carving-Chisel.=--See _Carving Tools_. + + +=Carving Tools.=--A few carving tools are often very useful for general +wood-work. It is convenient to have these carving tools fitted in +handles of a different pattern from your other tools. An octagonal shape +is good. A _carving-chisel_ is very useful in working on odd-shaped +pieces, because the cutting edge is bevelled on both sides. A carver's +_skew_ chisel will be, perhaps, more generally useful for your work than +one ground squarely across. A _parting-tool_, sometimes called a "V +tool," is occasionally convenient, though hardly a necessity for most +plain work. A small _veining-tool_ (like a very small gouge) is often +useful. + + +=Centre-Bit.=--See _Bits_. + + +=Chalk-Line.=--See _Marking_. + + +=Chamfering.=--A chamfer is the surface formed by cutting away the angle +made by two faces of a piece of wood. + +[Illustration FIG. 485.] + +In cutting the _ends_ of a stop-chamfer (Fig. 485), take care not to cut +quite down to the line at first, as you will be very apt to cut a little +too deep and leave a tool mark which cannot be removed. In the case of +long stop-chamfers, use the plane whenever you can, so far as it can be +used without hitting the wood at the ends. The draw-knife can often be +used to remove the wood, being followed by the plane. The plane can be +used slantingly, so as to cut nearer the ends, and a bull-nosed plane +will cut nearer still, but the extreme ends will have to be trimmed to +shape with the chisel or other tool. See also _Bevelling_ and _Paring_. + + +=Chisel.=--The _firmer-chisel_ is meant for light hand-work, for paring +off wood and trimming to shape, and can be used for light mortising, +though the mortise-chisel is intended for that purpose. It is often an +advantage to have the long edges of such a chisel bevelled on the same +side as the cutting basil, as it can be used more conveniently in some +places. Taking off the corner of the basil when grinding, often answers +the purpose. + +The _framing-chisel_ is stouter than the firmer, has a stronger handle +to stand heavy blows of the mallet, and is meant, as the name indicates, +for framing, mortising, and other heavy work.[41] See _Mortising_. + +[Illustration FIG. 486.] + +[Illustration FIG. 487.] + +The _straight-bent chisel_ is shaped as shown in Fig. 487, and is very +useful for cleaning out corners, grooves, and other places where the +common firmer-chisel cannot be used to advantage. + +A _skew-chisel_ is simply ground slanting, instead of squarely across, +and is useful for corners and odd work. See _Carving Tools_. + +There are other forms, seldom needed by the amateur, as the +_corner-chisel_, which is used for cutting or paring angles and corners. + +Those chisels and gouges which have the handles fitted into sockets at +the upper end of the iron, instead of the iron being stuck into the +handle, and with ferrules at the upper end where they are struck by the +mallet are, of course, the strongest for heavy work, although the +lighter handles are just as good for light work. + +Do not let your left hand get in front of the edge of the chisel while +working, for the tool may slip and give you a bad cut, and in most cases +the left hand should be kept on the lower part of the chisel to help +control it, which is not easily done with one hand. In some cases, as in +paring the edge of a piece directly downward towards the bench, it may +be proper to hold the work with the left hand and use the chisel with +the right; but as a rule, particularly for beginners, first see that the +work is securely fastened or held from slipping by vise, clamp, or other +expedient, and then keep the left hand on the chisel, which will steady +and guide the tool, and, incidentally, prevent the hand from being cut. +See _Paring_ and _Sharpening_. + + +=Circular-plane.=--See _Plane_. + + +=Clamps.=--Long clamps (cabinet-clamps), shown in the accompanying +illustrations, are extremely useful in making glued joints and in +various clamping operations. Many, of different lengths, are to be found +in wood-working shops. Although much work can be accomplished without +them, if you can afford a pair or more of medium length, or longer, they +will be very useful. Wooden clamps will answer every purpose, although +steel ones are better, but more expensive. + +[Illustration FIG. 488.] + +To clamp two or more flat pieces together, as in making a "glue-joint," +or in clamping framework, as a door or picture-frame, lay the work +across the horses, which should be so placed that their tops will be as +nearly level, or in the same plane, as possible, and apply the clamps as +shown in Fig. 488, always putting pieces of waste wood between the edges +of the work and the clamps. Place the clamps so that either the flat +side of the bar or the corner, as shown, will lie against the surface of +the work, thus keeping it from bending towards the bar when the screw is +tightened. The number of clamps to be used must depend on the size of +the work, but there is not usually much danger of an amateur's work +being clamped too securely.[42] + +If you have to glue a flexible strip, put a stiff piece outside between +it and the clamp to distribute the pressure. + +You will often find by sighting across the surface of the work as you +tighten the clamps, particularly in the case of door-frames, +picture-frames, and the like, that the surface is winding. When this +happens, move one or more corners of the work up or down, as the case +may be, in the clamps, and thus take out the winding. A little +experimenting will show how to do this. In the case of framed work, such +as doors or picture-frames, test the angles with the square as soon as +the joints are brought to a bearing. If the angles are not right, as +will often be the case, move one end of either one or both of the clamps +to the right or left, as the case may be, and you can easily change the +angle until the square shows it to be right, when the screws can be +tightened and the joints should close accurately. In clamping nearly all +kinds of "case" work, such as bookcases, cabinets, boxes, and the like, +these directions about moving the clamps until the angles are correct +and the work free from winding are applicable. + +In such cases as that shown in Fig. 488, waste no time in trying to get +the surfaces _exactly_ flush with each other at the joint before +partially tightening the clamps, lest the glue become set. Any slight +alteration can best then be made by tapping with the hammer near the +joint, whenever either piece needs to be raised or lowered, putting a +block under the hammer if the dent will not be removed by planing (see +_Gluing_). The clamps can then be screwed tighter. + +[Illustration FIG. 489.] + +[Illustration FIG. 490.] + +In such cases as gluing the joints of a box, put stout blocks or cleats +over the joints before tightening the clamps (Fig. 489), to distribute +the pressure. This applies to all cases of clamping where the pieces to +be glued are not heavy enough to resist the change of shape from the +pressure of the clamps, and pieces of waste wood are almost always +required in any case to prevent bruising of the work. + +You can contrive home-made clamps out of any strong pieces of wood of +suitable length, by nailing or screwing a block at each end (Fig. 490), +when the work can be tightly wedged to a close bearing by driving home +the double wedge shown, using, if necessary, one or more blocks, B, when +you use the clamp for smaller work than that for which it was made. By +keeping such clamps for future use, you will soon have enough to answer +very well until you can afford to buy the regular cabinet-clamps. + +On the same principle, a simple clamp, derived from the Orient, can be +made by boring a series of holes in two stout strips--just as the holes +are bored in the sides of a ladder, but nearer together. The work to be +glued is laid on one of these strips in the same way as shown in Fig. +490. The other strip is then placed directly above and stout pins put +through corresponding holes outside of the work, which can then be +wedged against the pins in the way just shown. + +Another way, which can be applied to many cases, is to put a stout +cord, doubled, around the work, and inserting a stick between the two +parts of the string, turn it around until, the doubled cord thus +becoming shortened, the parts of the work are drawn together. This can +only be done where there is room to swing the stick around, as, for +example, to tighten the rounds of a chair by drawing the legs together +(Fig. 491). + +[Illustration FIG. 491.] + +[Illustration FIG. 492.] + +You can often apply pressure, when no more convenient means are at hand, +by making use of the elasticity of a board or pole. Suppose, for +example, you need to press two blocks tightly together, as shown in Fig. +492. Place them on the bench or floor and spring in a board or pole +between the top of the upper block and a beam of the floor above, as +shown. Of course this board must be a little longer than merely to reach +between the two points, as it must be sprung into place bent, when in +the effort to straighten itself out again it will cause pressure on the +blocks. Pieces should be placed outside the blocks when scarring of the +surface is to be avoided. The pressure can be applied in any direction, +always supposing that you have something firm to press against. + +Pressure can often be obtained by a lever, and many applications of the +wedge will suggest themselves in your work. Even if you have a shopful +of clamps and hand-screws and vises, these applications of the simple +mechanical powers often come into play (see Fig. 390). See also page 71. + +Adjustable wood-carver's clamps can be bought for holding pieces in +position on the bench, and are useful, but by no means necessary, as +common clamps, or various devices, can be used. + +The small iron clamps which can be used in place of hand-screws are very +useful. + +For other suggestions about clamping, see _Hand-screws_. + + +[Illustration FIG. 493.] + +[Illustration FIG. 494.] + +=Cleating.=--A simple way to join two or more pieces of board or plank +to make a wider piece is to cleat them. If short, they can be cleated +across the ends. This can also be done to keep a single board from +warping (Fig. 493). Such a cleat should not be glued unless the width is +very slight, on account of the expansion and contraction across the +board being so much greater than that lengthways of the cleat (see pages +50-53). Screws (which are best), nails, or dowels should be used, as +they will give some play to the pieces. A groove can also be made in the +cleat, into which a tongue on the end of the board is fitted. Grooves +can be cut in both cleat and board and a tongue or spline inserted (Fig. +494). These are operations best done by machinery. This end-cleating +does very well on small work and where the tendency to warp is not too +great. For heavier work, as doors, cleats on the side are better, but +they are sometimes in the way, and not always desirable on the ground of +looks. This is a strong way. Side cleats should be fastened with screws +(see _Screws_) or clinched nails (see _Nailing_), but not with glue, for +the same reason as in the case of end cleats. If the cleat is wide +enough, do not put the screws in a straight line, but "alternate" them +(Fig. 368). See _Jointing_ and _Doors and Panels_. + + +=Clinching-Nails.=--See _Nailing_. + + +=Compasses.=--Wing compasses, or those with arc and set-screw, are easy +to adjust accurately and will not slip, but, whatever kind you get, be +sure that the points stay where you put them and do not spring away or +wobble around. + +The chief uses of this tool are to strike circles, to lay off angles and +arcs, to take off measurements from a rule or some object, to lay off +measurements, and to "scribe" in places where a gauge can not be used +(see _Scribing_). In using compasses, particularly those which are not +set by a screw, hold them and swing them around by the top at the hinged +joint, rather than grasp them near the points, which may cause them to +move or slip. + +[Illustration FIG. 495.] + +Circles or circular arcs can be struck roughly, as you doubtless know, +with a string and a nail at the centre, the string being loose around +the nail. This method is not very accurate, for obvious reasons, and is +only suitable for rough work. A more accurate way is to drive two nails +through a strip of wood at a distance apart just equal to the radius of +the required circle, one nail being driven into the wood to act as the +centre, the other doing the marking (Fig. 495). Instead of the marking +nail a hole can be bored for a pencil. You can use a stick of this sort +repeatedly by changing the position of the centre nail, or of the +marking point. The same can be done with a brad or stout pin and a +pencil, using stiff paper, card-board, or zinc instead of a stick. By +such expedients you can do a great deal of work without buying +compasses. + + +=Compass-Saw.=--See _Saw_. + + +[Illustration FIG. 496.] + +=Corner-Blocks.=--These are merely small pieces of pine, or other wood +which holds glue well, with two adjacent surfaces at right angles. Hot +glue is applied to them and they are rubbed into interior angles of +cabinet-work, to strengthen and stiffen the work (Fig. 496), and are +very useful for this purpose. They are got out in short pieces, +lengthways of the grain, and can be freely used in places where they +will not show, as inside of the base-board in Fig. 304. The shape can be +varied according to the conditions of the joint. Apply hot glue +plentifully, place the block where it is to go, and rub it back and +forth several times, when it can be left for the glue to dry. + + +=Corner-Chisel.=--See _Chisel_. + + +=Countersink.=--This tool, to be used with the bit-brace, for enlarging +the outer part of a hole, thus forming a cavity or depression for +receiving the head of a screw (Fig. 497), is quite important, as being +much more convenient than to use gouge, chisel, or knife for the +purpose. See page 205. + +[Illustration FIG. 497.] + +The rose form of countersink is common and good. The Clark double-cut +countersink (for wood only) cuts smoothly and is easily sharpened. A +countersink for metal is useful. + + +=Cracks, To Stop.=--See _Holes_, _To Stop_. + + +=Cross-Cut Saw.=--See _Saw_. + + +=Cutting-Pliers.=--A pair of these will often be useful in connection +with wood-working operations. + + +=Dents, To Take Out.=--See _Bruises_. + + +=Dividers.=--See _Compasses_. + + +=Doors and Panels.=--It is important to have some understanding of the +theory of framing panels, doors, and the like. The simplest form of door +is, of course, a piece of board. This will do for some cases, but it is +liable to warp or wind,--if a large door, sometimes to such a degree as +to be useless. It is also, if large, liable to swell or shrink so as to +be either too loose or too tight, and to break. Cleating can be resorted +to (see _Cleating_), but will not prevent the swelling and shrinking, +nor is a cleated door especially ornamental. Besides, there are limits +to the width of ordinary boards. Several boards can, however, be joined, +edge to edge, and cleated on one side, in which way a large door can be +made (Fig. 405), and, if the boards are not fitted too closely together, +there may be no trouble caused by the swelling and shrinking. Another +way to make a very _strong_ door is to make it of two thicknesses, or +layers, one running up and down and the other crossways, or diagonally, +the two thicknesses being firmly nailed or screwed together. + +[Illustration FIG. 498.] + +[Illustration FIG. 499.] + +[Illustration FIG. 500.] + +[Illustration FIG. 501.] + +[Illustration FIG. 502.] + +[Illustration FIG. 503.] + +All such arrangements are, however, suited for the rougher class of +work. When we come to nicer work we must have something more scientific, +that will swell and shrink as little as possible and that will look +better. So, instead of using a broad flat surface with the boards all +running one way, we try to overcome the faults of the flat door by +framing the pieces together. Suppose, for a theoretical case, that you +make a door like Fig. 498. It will not warp or curl because of the +cleats at the top and bottom, but it will swell and shrink in width +because there is such a wide surface of board to be affected by the +atmosphere, etc., and it may become winding. To lessen these objections +the middle part of the board can be removed--all but a strip at each +edge (Fig. 499). It will not now swell and shrink much in width because +most of the board has been removed. This frame will hold its shape quite +well, but it is only a frame, not a door. How can you fill up this open +frame to make a door, so as to avoid the trouble about warping, winding, +swelling, and shrinking? First, however, as this frame is considerably +taller than it is wide, you will readily see that it will be a better +arrangement to make it as shown in Fig. 500, with the cross-pieces +between the uprights, according to the usual custom in such cases. +Suppose, now, that you fill up the open space with a _thin_ board, +fastened on one side (Fig. 501), instead of the thick wood which +occupied the space at first. The thin board will tend to warp and twist, +but, being thin, it will not exert force enough to change the shape of +the thick frame. That will prevent the warping and winding from doing +much harm. If the screw-holes in this thin piece are reasonably loose, +they will allow play enough for the board to expand and contract without +putting any strain on the frame. This arrangement does not, however, +look very nice on the side to which the board is screwed, though it can +be used in some situations. Suppose, finally, that you cut a groove +around the inside edge of the frame of the door (Fig. 502) into which +this thin board can be fitted loosely, making the groove deep enough to +give the board room to shrink and swell in width without dropping out or +pushing against the frame. You now have a complete door (Fig. 503), and +the warping, winding, swelling, and shrinking will do as little harm as +possible. That is all there is to the theory of framing doors, panels, +and the like. + +[Illustration RIGHT. WRONG. FIG. 504.] + +The panel should fit closely into the groove, but at the same time be +loose enough to slide in and out as it expands and contracts, and should +not be wide enough to reach to the bottom of the grooves, but room be +left for all possible change in width, as shown in Fig. 504, which shows +sections on the line AB. All this is important and has many applications +to other things than doors. It is not very uncommon for amateurs, +ignorant of these simple principles, to make a door-frame properly, but +in fitting the panel to make it the full width of the space from the +bottom of one groove to the bottom of the opposite, and also to make it +such a snug fit in the groove as to be stuck tight, all with the idea of +making such a good fit as to prevent any of the gaping cracks so often +seen, but really taking the very course to ruin the work. So important +is it that the panel should have play, that it is quite common in nice +work to rub wax or tallow around the edge of the panel, lest some of the +glue from the joints of the frame should cause it to stick when the +frame is glued up. If the panel is badly fitted or stuck, it may buckle +or split, or the frame be split or forced apart at the joints. + +There are many more elaborate ways of arranging the details of +door-framing and panelling (too numerous to be described here, as they +will not often be required by the beginner); but if you understand the +general principles upon which this simple door is put together, you will +understand the principles upon which all panelling is based; and, though +you may never do much of it, it is quite important to have a clear +understanding of the theory, which is really quite simple--for it has +many applications which may save you much trouble, labour, and expense. + +The best way to fasten the frame of a door together is by mortise and +tenon (see _Mortising_). This method is almost invariably adopted for +house doors. Dowelling is often used for smaller doors, but is inferior +to the mortise and tenon. + +A common way nowadays to make light doors, and such as are not to be +subjected to much strain, is to run the grooves in the stiles through to +the ends and cut tongues or short tenons on the ends of the rails to fit +these grooves, as shown in Figs. 508 and 509. The whole door, panel and +all, can thus be quickly got out and fitted accurately with a circular +saw at any wood-working mill, without any hand-work being required, +except the smoothing of the pieces and the putting together. In this way +you can have a door made for a small sum, smoothing and putting it +together yourself. Such a door is not fitted, however, to stand great +strain. A house door made in that way would last but a short time. Any +heavy door, or one to have much strain, or liable to be slammed, should +be framed with mortise and tenon. You can have grooving for a door-frame +done at the mill very cheaply and do the mortising yourself, or you can +have the mortising done by machine at slight expense. Sometimes the +grooving and mortising are combined,--an excellent way (Fig. 592). + +In using any of these methods mark distinctly one side of each piece for +the "face" and lay out all the work from that side only. If the job is +to be taken to a mill, see that the work is all gauged from the face +side. + +[Illustration FIG. 505.] + +[Illustration FIG. 506.] + +In laying out such work never cut off the stiles (Fig. 505) to length at +first. Leave them too long (Fig. 507). The projecting ends will be +useful when you knock the frame apart for gluing, after first putting it +together to see if everything fits. Besides, the extra length makes the +ends stronger for the mortising and less likely to split out. The rails +in door-framing and panelling are usually wider than the stiles. + +In laying out a door or panelled frame, place the stiles together, with +the inside edges uppermost, and square lines across the edges to mark +the positions for the rails (Fig. 506). Carry these lines across the +faces of the stiles, and mark the rails and stiles with some symbols to +indicate the way they are to be fitted together (Fig. 507). + +[Illustration FIG. 507.] + +The whole should be put together once to see that everything is right +before beginning to glue. Before putting together permanently, the panel +and the inside edges of the frame (the edges which come next the panel) +must first be planed and smoothed, as this cannot well be done +afterwards. + +Then fit the panel in the grooves of the rails (Fig. 508), glue the +tenons of one end of the rails and the grooves or mortises of the +corresponding stile (see _Gluing_), taking care not to put any glue +where it may cause the panel to stick, and fit these parts into place +(Fig. 509). Drive the rails home. Then glue and fit the other side of +the frame in the same way (Fig. 510)--all being done as quickly as +possible. Finally clamp the frame securely (see _Clamps_). The tongued +and grooved joint represented in the accompanying illustrations is not +as good as a mortise and tenon, as already stated, but is shown as a +simple way for making a light door. Leave the work to dry, and when dry +remove the clamps. Saw off the ends of the stiles, and dress off the +surface of the frame with the plane (see _Plane_), after which you can +smooth with scraper (see _Scraper_) and sandpaper (see _Sandpaper_), and +the door or panel will be done. When there is objection to the end of a +tenon showing on the outside edge of the stile, and a blind mortise is +not desired (see _Mortising_), the end of the tenon can be cut a little +short and the mortise-hole on the edge plugged with a piece of wood, +with the grain running the same way as that of the stile. Fit the piece +with a very trifling bevel on the edges, glue, drive tightly into place, +and when dry smooth off (Fig. 511). + +[Illustration FIG. 508.] + +[Illustration FIG. 509.] + +[Illustration FIG. 510.] + +[Illustration FIG. 511.] + +It is hardly worth while to work out the grooving or grooved and tongued +joints by hand in these days when it can be so cheaply done by +machinery. If obliged to do it by hand, you should have the proper plane +for the purpose, as it will be very difficult and slow work otherwise. + +A panel is sometimes made flush with either side of the frame, by having +a deep rabbet on that side, as in the case of a desk lid, for instance, +but this is a form which can well be avoided by the beginner. + + +=Dovetailing.=--This is an operation requiring considerable skill to do +well and, with the exception of an occasional single dovetail, is not +frequently required in the work of the beginner. It is, however, a +valuable, workmanlike accomplishment and a thoroughly scientific method, +of which the amateur should have some understanding, even if he should +never use it. + +[Illustration FIG. 512.] + +[Illustration FIG. 513.] + +The _common_ form, such as is used in joining the sides of a box (Fig. +512), can be done as follows: Mark the lines _ab_ (Fig. 513) completely +around each piece, at a distance from the end equal to the thickness of +the stock. Lay off the lines _cd_ on the end of the piece A. Lay off the +oblique lines _ec_ on both sides of the piece. With the back-saw cut by +these oblique lines (_ec_) to the lines _ab_. Fasten the piece in the +vise, end upward, for the sawing. With the chisel, cut out the parts to +be removed (marked _m_), as in cutting a mortise (see _Mortising_), +undercutting very slightly at the end (Fig. 302). When this cutting has +been cleanly done, lay the piece A on the end of the piece B in the way +it is finally to go, so that the pins just cut will rest exactly in +position across the end of the piece B. Mark around the pins, forming +the oblique lines _fg_, from the ends of which square the lines _gh_ on +both sides of the piece. Remove the wood as before, taking care not to +cut on the wrong sides of the lines which mark the pins, or the +dovetailing may come together too loosely. When exactly fitted, apply +glue, fit together, and when dry smooth off with plane, scraper, and +sandpaper, as may be required. + +[Illustration FIG. 514.] + +_Lap_ or _drawer_ dovetailing (Fig. 514) is similar to the preceding +form, but the ends of the pins or dovetails on the piece forming the +side of the drawer are shortened, and the recesses in the front piece +which are to receive them are not cut through. First the side piece A +(Fig. 515) is marked and cut on the principle just shown, the pins being +shorter; then the piece B is marked and cut to fit. + +Practised workmen in dovetailing usually (unless symmetry of the pins is +required) determine the bevels for the pins of the first piece by eye, +but the beginner would best not attempt to lay off angles or saw by eye. + +[Illustration FIG. 515.] + +_Mitre_ dovetailing (_blind_ or _secret_ dovetailing) is used in cases +where it is desired to conceal the dovetails, the result looking like an +ordinary mitred joint, but this is difficult work for the beginner. + + +=Dovetail Saw.=--See _Saw_ (_Back-Saw_). + + +=Dowelling.=--Dowels are merely round sticks of different diameters and +usually of hard wood. They can be bought ready made and can be used +instead of nails or screws, or instead of mortising, dovetailing, etc. +They can be used simply as pins or in many cases can be split and +wedged, though the holes must be tapered with a gouge if wedges of much +thickness are to be used (Fig. 516). + +[Illustration FIG. 516.] + +A common use of dowels is to fasten the frames of tables, chairs, +bedsteads, and various domestic articles. + +The use of dowels for such purposes is not to be recommended, however, +although very common in cheap work and in much work which is not cheap +in price. The mortise and tenon is usually much to be preferred. +Dowelling, to be really good, has to be skilfully done, while it is a +very common way to stick the work together in any manner that will look +right on the outside. A dowelled joint is not, as a rule, as scientific +a form of construction as a well-planned mortise and tenon,--a statement +which you can easily prove for yourself by comparing some article of +your grandmother's or great-grandmother's time, and which is still +strong, with some modern dowelled chair, which is in so many cases all +to pieces and thrown on the woodpile after a short term of service. The +gaping joints and dropping apart of modern dowelled work can be seen on +every hand. There are some cases, however, where the use of dowels is +scientific and just what is required. For example, split dowels, wedged +dovetail fashion like wedged tenons, are often very useful (see +_Mortising_). + +[Illustration FIG. 517.] + +[Illustration FIG. 518.] + +To find the centres for boring, so that the holes bored in the two +pieces shall be in line, you can cut off the heads of some small wire +brads so that they will be pointed at both ends. Stick the brads into +one piece where the centres of the holes should be. Then press this +piece against the other in the position it is to take when the work is +done and the brads will of course prick holes in the second piece +exactly corresponding to those in the first piece (Fig. 517). Instead of +brads, small shot can be used in a similar manner. It is well to take a +round-pointed awl, or some such tool, and carefully prick a small hole +with it at each of the points marked. This is to start the spur of the +bit exactly at the point, as the spur sometimes has a way of working off +to one side, so that the hole may not be in exactly the right place. The +hardest part, however, is to bore the holes exactly at right angles to +the surface, as a slight deviation in either or both may make a bad +angle where the two holes meet. You can sometimes lay the pieces flat on +the bench and arrange boards or blocks so as to guide the bit straight. +The dowels must be thoroughly dry. It is better to have them a trifle +too large, rather than too small, for you can easily trim them down to a +snug fit. Scratch them lengthways with the toothed-plane, or with the +edge of a file. Countersink a little hollow around the opening of each +hole (see _Countersink_), to catch the surplus glue which would +otherwise form a rim around the dowel (Fig. 517). Before gluing you +should fit the work together once, as it is very awkward to make changes +after the gluing is begun. When the parts fit accurately, take the joint +apart for gluing. Brush a little glue around the inside of one of the +holes, dip one end of a dowel in the glue and drive into place. Wipe off +the superfluous glue and repeat the process with each of the dowels in +that half of the joint. Leave this to dry a day, or more if you can. +Then clean any hardened glue from the dowels and glue them, as before, +into the other piece, this time putting glue on the flat surfaces which +are to come together. The whole should be firmly clamped and left to dry +(see _Gluing_ and _Clamps_). Dowels are sometimes used in joining the +edges of pieces, as in Fig. 518, and in many other joints too numerous +to be specified (see _Joints_ and _Jointing_). + +Dowelling looks very easy, but it is usually hard for the beginner to +bore the holes straight and to make the pieces fit accurately. + + +=Dowel-Plate.=--A steel plate with various holes of such sizes that pins +made by driving blocks of wood through them will drive snugly into the +holes made by the corresponding bits. This is useful in fitting dowels. + + +=Drawers.=--The making of well-fitting and smoothly running drawers is +an operation requiring much skill--more skill than can be expected of +the beginner, or, in fact, than is attained by the average workman. The +beginner should, however, have some understanding of the work, even if +he does not attain a high degree of skill in its execution. + +Bear in mind that it is much easier to make a drawer which is narrow and +long (from front to back) run smoothly than one which is wide across the +front, but shallow from front to back. + +The more accurately the case which holds the drawers is made, the easier +it is to make smoothly running drawers. In good work having more than +one drawer, a horizontal frame is fitted beneath each drawer for it to +run on. These frames, as well as the whole case, should be free from +winding, and it is also important that the stock for the drawers should +be true. The front and sides of a drawer should be got out to fit very +snugly in their places. The piece for the back is narrower than the +front piece, to allow for the bottom (Fig. 521), and is often cut off at +the top also. The front, sides, and back can be put together with any +suitable form of joint. Dovetailing is by far the best way, but it is +difficult for the beginner (see _Dovetailing_). The joints shown in Fig. +519 can very well be used for ordinary work. These can be quickly made +by machinery (see _Joints_). See also _Gluing_ and _Clamps_. + +[Illustration FIG. 519.] + +A groove for the bottom must be cut on the inside of the front and of +the sides (Fig. 520). The insides of the pieces must be smoothed before +putting the drawer together. When these parts are fitted, slip the +bottom (previously fitted) into place. It should be got out with the +grain running across the drawer, or parallel with the front (Fig. 521), +and should be glued at the front edge _only_, the rest being free to +swell and shrink, which saves the drawer from injury. + +[Illustration FIG. 520.] + +[Illustration FIG. 521.] + +Be sure that the drawer is rectangular (putting in the bottom will +assist in this) and free from winding. When put together and dry, +carefully smooth the front and the sides. A little trimming with the +plane may be required to make the drawer run freely, but care should be +taken not to plane away too much. A drawer which is a trifle larger at +the back than at the front will run better than if larger in front, as +it will be less likely to bind or catch. Small slides, between which the +drawer runs, are fastened at each side outside the drawer, at the +bottom, and must be adjusted carefully. + +Thin blocks or "stops" can be fastened on the cross-frame so that the +inside of the drawer front will strike against them when the drawer has +been pushed in as far as it should go, or the drawer can be stopped at +the back. + +A simple way to attach a drawer under a shelf, bench, or table is shown +in Fig. 143. The contrivance shown in Figs. 141 and 142 can sometimes be +used in place of small drawers. + +Bayberry tallow is excellent to rub on the sides of drawers. + + +[Illustration FIG. 522.] + +[Illustration FIG. 523.] + +=Draw-Knife= or =Draw-Shave=.--The draw-knife or draw-shave is very +useful for slicing off large pieces and for trimming wood into odd +shapes. It can be obtained with folding handles, adjustable at different +angles, for use in places which can not be reached by the blade of the +old-fashioned draw-knife; but the latter is good enough for all ordinary +purposes. Choose a medium-sized or large one. It is in principle simply +a knife or very wide and short-bladed chisel with a handle at each end, +and can be used with the flat side or the bevel against the wood as the +character of the work may require. Having but a short bearing surface to +guide its course, it is very prone to follow the grain and cut deeper +than you wish, so you must take special pains to cut with the grain, +stopping and cutting the other way, whenever necessary. Attachments can +be bought for guiding the draw-knife in chamfering and such cases. + +The draw-knife can often be best used with an oblique stroke--either +drawing it sideways across the work at the same time that you pull it +towards you (Fig. 522), or holding it obliquely across the work and +pulling it straight towards you (Fig. 523). + +It is one of the most dangerous tools if carelessly left lying around, +and should be kept hung up out of reach of all small children. See +_Paring_, _Bevelling_, and _Chamfering_. + + +=Draw-Shave.=--See _Draw-knife_. + + +=Drill.=--Drills for metal only are often useful to the wood-worker, but +the one most important for the amateur is the twist-drill. See +_Twist-drill_. + + +=Drill-Stock.=--There are various patterns of drill-stocks, some of them +automatic, for holding drills of different sizes for small holes. _Hand +drills_ with revolving handle, like an egg-beater, can be used for small +drills. See _Bit-brace_. + + +=Duck's-bill-Bit.=--See _Bits_. + + +=Expansion-Bit.=--See _Bits_. + + +=File.=--The file is a piece of hard steel with rows of ridges or teeth +cut obliquely on the surface. When cut in one direction only it is +called _single_-cut, but when there are two oblique rows of teeth +crossing each other it is called _double_-cut. These ridges incline +towards the end or point of the tool, so that the file, like the saw, +plane, and scraper, cuts when pushed forward. Files for wood have wider +teeth than those for metal, so do not use a wood file on metal or a +metal file for wood. The slab-sided shape (Fig. 524) is perhaps the most +useful, if you can have but one file. A round "rat-tailed" file is also +useful, and various other shapes if you can have a variety. For metal, +the triangular, flat, the half-round, shown in Fig. 525, and the +rat-tail are best. Files are very important for smoothing or rounding +edges and curving surfaces. + +[Illustration FIG. 524.] + +[Illustration FIG. 525.] + +Before beginning to file, be sure that the wood is firmly secured so +that it will not slip and so that you can use the file with both hands. +Hold the tool with the right hand, thumb uppermost, and steady the end +with the left hand, thumb uppermost (Fig. 526), or with the fingers or +palm. To file squarely across, push the tool steadily and evenly +straight forward, without rocking up and down, and pressing only on the +forward stroke. + +[Illustration FIG. 526.] + +In filing rounded surfaces, a rocking motion is often helpful and the +way and direction in which to file in such cases must depend upon the +shape of the work and the grain of the wood, as you will quickly learn. +See _Rounding-sticks_. + +Press lightly the first time you use a new file, until the fine edges of +the teeth have been worn a little, as a violent filing on the first +strokes may damage the cutting edges of the teeth. + +When a file becomes clogged with wood-dust or other substances, soak it +in hot water a little while and then brush with a stiff brush. A +_file-card_ is useful. A piece of dog-fish skin, if you can obtain it, +cuts somewhat like a file or coarse sandpaper, and is useful for curved +surfaces where you wish to use the tools after smoothing. + + +=Filing.=--See _File_. + + +=Filing (of Saws).=--See _Sharpening_. + + +=Finishing.=--To acquire a high degree of proficiency in finishing +indoor wood-work requires long training and practice, but the simpler +processes can be undertaken to good advantage by the beginner. + +There are a number of ways from which to choose. Simply rubbing +thoroughly with linseed oil gives a good, soft, permanent finish, which +some prefer to anything else, but you should be sure that all +superfluous oil is rubbed off. Do not hang a recently oiled book-shelf +or cabinet against the wall-paper of the room, for fear of defacing it. +An oil finish, unless rubbed a good deal, has the disadvantage of +getting soiled and collecting dust and dirt, but it is easily +sandpapered and renewed and is certainly in better taste than a coarse, +shiny, cheap varnish. + +An old-fashioned way is simply to apply a mixture of turpentine and +beeswax, rubbing it as long as your strength and patience will allow. +Melt some beeswax in a can or saucepan and, when melted and taken from +the stove, pour in enough turpentine to make it the consistency of +paste. Then apply with a brush or cloth and rub in and clean off the +excess with a stiff brush or cloth, scrubbing the work as you would a +stove. This makes a beautiful finish, soft and lustrous. It shows spots, +however, and, though it is so easily applied, it requires continual +renewing and rubbing to be kept in good condition. + +To make a hard and durable coating on the surface of the wood some kind +of varnish is required. There is nothing better than shellac for the +purpose of the amateur. It is not very hard to use, and there is +certainly nothing which gives a finish of nicer quality. The surface +dries quickly and the coat hardens more rapidly than most kinds of +varnish. For some cases, as a boat, it is well to shellac first and +finish with good varnish.[43] Shellac is cut (dissolved) in alcohol, and +can be bought prepared, but it is better to cut it yourself, to +diminish the chance of adulteration with cheaper substances. Orange +shellac will do for most of your work. Into an open-mouthed bottle put +some of the shellac (which comes in flakes and looks somewhat like glue) +and pour over it enough grain alcohol (95 per cent. grade) to somewhat +more than cover the shellac. Cork the bottle and leave in a warm place +until the shellac is cut. Shaking will hasten the process. Wood alcohol +can be used and is cheaper, but work done with it is not so good. It is +a deadly poison taken internally and on account of the fumes it is best +not to use it for a long time in a close room. If the tawny tint of the +orange shellac is objectionable, white (bleached) shellac can be used, +but this it is well to buy already prepared. It is a little harder to +use than the coloured kind. + +Use a flat bristle-brush and not a soft camel's-hair brush, unless for +the last coat. One from one inch to two inches wide will be probably +suitable for most of your work. For large surfaces, however, a larger +brush is better. After using, always clean the brush thoroughly with +alcohol. + +Always shellac in a warm, dry place, free from dust--never where it is +cold and damp; but on the other hand do not leave the work close to a +hot stove or it may blister. + +The shellac should be quite thin. It should flow very freely from the +brush. Of the two extremes, it is better to have it too thin rather than +too thick. Three or four thin coats give a much better result than two +coats of thick, gummy shellac. Never try to thin it with anything but +alcohol. Keep the bottle corked to prevent evaporation of the alcohol +and to keep out the dust. + +Before beginning to shellac, see that the work is free from dust. Pour a +small quantity of the shellac into a small dish of glass or earthenware, +not of tin. Before applying to the wood, wipe the surplus shellac from +the brush on the edge of the dish, so that it will not drip, and then +lay on the coat as evenly and smoothly as possible, working from the top +or from one end or side, and with the grain, so far as possible.[44] Do +not apply the brush at first exactly at the edge of the surface, lest +the shellac collect too thickly at the edge, but apply the brush first a +little way on the surface and _then_ work from the edge. Work quickly +and lightly. Begin and end the strokes of the brush gradually--lighten +them at the end--so as to avoid a "lap" when the strokes begin again. +Do not work over the coat after it has begun to set or try to patch up +spots. Simply lay it on as well as you can and let it go at that. If it +is not right you will know how to do better next time. + +Give each coat plenty of time to harden before applying +another--twenty-four hours is none too long. Do not put on five or six +coats in a day as is sometimes done. The outer coat hinders the drying +of the shellac underneath, by keeping the air from it,--just as with +paints,--and the way to do durable work is not to put on a fresh coat +until the previous one is thoroughly dry and hard. Shellac dries very +quickly so that you can touch it, but does not get really hard +throughout for some time, so do not be in haste to put on a second +coat.[45] + +If there are holes, cracks, or defects of any kind to be filled up, this +is the time to do it--after the first coat is hard. One way to do this +is to hold a hot iron close to a piece of shellac directly over the +hole, which will be filled with the melted shellac. The surplus can be +carefully pared off after it is hard. Another way is to use wax coloured +to match the wood. The wax can easily be coloured by melting and adding +a small quantity of whatever dry colour--burnt umber, for instance--may +be required. Do not use putty in such cases. + +When the first coat is hard, skim over the surface with very fine +sandpaper (00), to remove any roughnesses, and apply the second coat. +This is sometimes sufficient. If not, sandpaper and shellac again, and a +fourth time if necessary. When you have a sufficient "body" of shellac +on the wood, you can much improve the quality of the surface by rubbing +it down with powdered pumice-stone and oil, which will remove the +"shiny" effect and leave a softer and finer surface. To do this, take a +bit of felt or haircloth, and wet it with thin oil (kerosene will do, +or petroleum, or linseed oil thinned with turpentine or benzine, but +the latter is dangerous to have around), take up a little of the pumice, +and carefully and evenly rub over the surface, with the grain, renewing +the oil and pumice as may be needed, or they can be sprinkled on the +work. But be careful to rub evenly and not too long on any one spot, for +it will be hard to repair the damage if you should rub through to the +wood. Wipe the whole off thoroughly with soft cloth. This process will +be sufficient for most amateur work. For some work simply rubbing down +with the finest sandpaper wet with oil is enough. In using sandpaper for +rubbing down nice work, split it--that is, remove the outer layer of +paper, which will leave the sanded layer thin and pliable and less +likely to scratch or rub through the finish. A handful of tightly +squeezed curled hair can be used. + +If varnish is to be used over the shellac as in case of a boat, simply +sandpaper the shellac and do not rub with pumice and oil. + +With fine-grained wood, such as cherry, the process given above is all +that will be required, but with coarse, open-grained wood, like oak, a +good many coats will be needed to fill the pores and give a smooth +surface. Therefore a "filler" is often used to fill the pores of the +grain. This is cheap and can be bought in the form of paste (either +light or dark), which you can apply according to the directions on the +can. Rub it into the wood thoroughly, let it stand until it begins to +set, or stiffen, then rub it off with a bit of burlap or any coarse +material, _across the grain_ (lest you wipe it out of the pores). After +it has become hard enough, sandpaper, and clean off any that may remain +on the surface. Then shellac as described. The filler can have the +shade of the wood, or sometimes, as in oak, the figure of the grain can +be brought out finely by using a filler somewhat darker than the hue of +the wood. Be sure to clean off the filler thoroughly, using a tool to +clean out the angles and corners, or the finished surface will have a +cloudy or muddy appearance. + +The general directions given for shellacing apply also to the use of +varnish, but varnishing is in some respects harder for the amateur to do +well. Consult the dealer about the kind of varnish and the brush best +suited to the particular piece of work you have in hand. The final coat +of varnish can be rubbed down with pumice or tripoli and water. +Rotten-stone used with oil (petroleum is good) is excellent for giving a +soft polish. + +French polishing is often attempted by the amateur, but it should be +learned by taking a lesson from a practical polisher, and not from a +book. The general idea of the process is as follows: A wad or pad of +wool is made and on this is poured thin shellac, adding whatever alcohol +may be necessary. This wet pad is then covered with a piece of clean +linen, a drop of oil put on the outside to prevent the shellac from +sticking, and the pad is then quickly passed over the surface with a +circular motion, or with longer strokes in the form of the figure 8, or +in some cases simply back and forth. After doing this for a while a very +thin coat will have been deposited. This is allowed to dry for a short +time, when the process is repeated, again and again, until a sufficient +body of the polished finish has been formed. The details of the process +vary with different finishers. It is quite easy to polish a small flat +surface or such an object as the arm of a chair, but it is much harder +for an amateur to successfully polish a large flat surface, like a +table-top, except after much practice. A first coating of shellac +applied with the brush and skimmed over with sandpaper will save labour +in the polishing process. + +Before refinishing old work it should, if the surface is in bad +condition, be scraped down to the wood, using the scraper and finishing +with sandpaper. A chisel (used like the scraper) is sometimes convenient +to remove a thick body of old varnish. If the surface does not need +scraping, it should be cleaned, either by washing with soapsuds or it +can be scrubbed clean with the finest sandpaper, split, using oil or +water as the case may be, but seeing that the work is wiped off +perfectly dry before applying a new coat. Pumice can be used, as already +described, and a stiff brush, like a nail-or tooth-brush, is excellent +for cleaning out corners and carved work. + +For simply brightening and cleaning furniture, a mixture of equal parts +of linseed oil and turpentine with a minute quantity of japan is +excellent. It should be well rubbed and carefully cleaned off. This will +make scratches and bruises less conspicuous, and will make the article +look fresher for a time, but it is only a cleaner and not a substitute +for refinishing. + + +=Firmer-Chisel.=--See _Chisel_. + + +=Fore-Plane.=--See _Plane_. + + +=Framing-Chisel.=--See _Chisel_. + + +=Gauge.=--There are many kinds of gauges in the market, but they all +depend on the same principle, having a block, head, stock, or fence, to +slide along against the edge of the wood, and a bar, beam, or stem, +which slides through the block, can be set to project from it at any +required distance, and which has near its end a spur or marking point +(Fig. 533). The stem has the divisions of a rule marked upon it, so that +the spur can be readily set at the required distance. In some gauges the +spur or marking point is sharpened to an edge parallel with the head, +rather than to a point, as it is more certain to make a clear, sharp +line, and is best when slightly convex on the side toward the head (Fig. +527). This gives the spur a tendency to run the line _away_ from and not +toward the edge where the head is, thus helping to keep the head close +up to the edge. Sometimes a round point is used, and occasionally a +knife point or blade for cutting thin stock into strips; and sometimes a +wheel with sharpened edge. A form of gauge adapted for gauging from +curved as well as straight edges is also made. Do not trust the accuracy +of the scale marked on a common gauge, for if the spur is at all out of +place, as is sometimes the case, you cannot rely upon the scale. Test by +measuring from the head to the spur with the rule. + +[Illustration FIG. 527.] + +The _mortise-gauge_ has two spurs, one of which is movable and can be +set at any required distance from the other, so that two lines can be +marked at once, as for a mortise. This is a time-saving tool, and very +convenient, but not a necessity for amateur work. + +There are gauges with long beams or stems and with long heads for +gauging across wide spaces, but when you need anything of the sort you +can easily make it and use with it either pencil, awl, or knife, as may +best suit the case in hand. + +If you wish to draw a line two inches from the edge of a board, for +example, you can mark off two or more points at the required distance +and with a rule and pencil draw the line through these points. If you +were to make the points so near together as to touch, you would have the +line without needing the ruler. This is what the gauge does. It makes a +continuous measurement and a continuous mark, which is of course the +line required. + +The only gauge you need for rough work is a rule (or even a stick) and a +pencil. To draw a line, for example, two inches from the edge of a +board, take the rule in one hand, and lay the end flat on the surface of +the board so that it laps over two inches from the edge (Fig. 528). +Place the forefinger underneath, against the edge, so that the end of +the rule will remain two inches from the edge, and simply slide rule and +finger along the edge, holding a pencil at the end of the rule with the +other hand to make the mark. The finger must be kept evenly pressed +against the edge. This is only suited for rough work, or for getting +out stock approximately to shape, and of course cannot be depended upon +for accurate measurement. + +[Illustration FIG. 528.] + +[Illustration FIG. 529.] + +[Illustration FIG. 530.] + +Something more accurate, with which you cannot get splinters in your +finger, can easily be made, when needed, in this way. To run a line two +inches from an edge, for example, and parallel to it, simply take any +short stick and cut a piece out of it at one end so that the distance +from the shoulder to the end will be just two inches, as shown in Fig. +529. Apply this to the edge of the piece and slide it along on the same +principle as the rule and finger, being careful to keep the shoulder +pressed up to the edge and the pencil or knife held firmly against the +end. Instead of cutting out a piece you can nail one piece on another +(Fig. 530). The latter is better for straight work because the head or +fence is longer and so can be more securely pressed against the edge. An +objection to this gauge is the need of making a new one for every +measurement, but where there is occasion to keep repeating a measurement +it is particularly convenient and quickly made. + +[Illustration FIG. 531.] + +[Illustration FIG. 532.] + +For another home-made gauge (Fig. 531) cut a recess in one side of a +block just wide enough to hold the rule and just deep enough so that +the flat side of the rule will project a trifle above the surface of the +block. On this side of the block fasten a small strip, with a screw, so +that when the two pieces are seized in the hand the rule will be held +fast at the point to which it is adjusted. This is more accurate than to +use the hand alone. You can readily contrive such arrangements, which +will be quite accurate if carefully used, but it is not worth while to +spend much time over such makeshifts (except in case of necessity), for +a fairly good gauge can be bought for a small sum. + +[Illustration FIG. 533.] + +The gauge is usually an awkward tool for the beginner to use. He finds +it hard to keep the stock firmly against the edge while sliding it +along, and lets the spur dig or plough deeply into the wood--the spur +tends to follow the grain of the wood and when the grain runs toward the +edge the result is often as shown in Fig. 532, the stock being pushed +from the edge. The stock is then pushed back and the wobbly process +continued. To avoid these errors, the gauge, held well in front of you +in one hand, should be tipped or inclined from you so that the spur will +be drawn along the surface (Fig. 533) and will make but a slight +scratch. Then, keeping the stock or head _firmly pressed_ against the +edge, push the gauge steadily from you, watching carefully to see (1st) +that the spur does not begin to dig into the wood instead of lightly +scratching it, and (2d) that the head does not slip away from the edge. +This will prevent the point catching or jumping and will insure a good +mark, which can easily be deepened by going over the line a second time +if necessary. + +It is easier to mark a line when the spur is near the head of the gauge +than when it is run out to some distance. The guiding power of the fence +or head is greater over a point near to it than over a point at a +distance, from which you can readily see that, conversely, the longer +the head or fence, the easier the gauging becomes--that is, for +_straight_ lines, which is much the most common use of the gauge. In +gauging from a curved edge, a long fence, unless curved, would be +impracticable. + +Where it will injure the work to have the gauge marks show (as when the +work is to be finished with shellac or varnish), be careful not to carry +them farther than necessary, as very slight scratches show plainly after +finishing. Otherwise, in cases where the marks will not show or do no +harm, as in rough framing, it is as well to run them past the required +points, as it is quicker to do so and the juncture of lines which cross +is more distinct. + +Gauge from the same side of the wood in laying out mortises or any lines +intended to be in the middle of a piece of wood, or at a fixed distance +from one edge, else if the edges are not exactly parallel (as is often +the case) the markings will differ. See also _Scribing_. + + +=Gimlet.=--The gimlet is useful, cheap, and good for boring where the +hole does not come near the edge, but near the edge or in thin wood +great care must be taken to prevent splitting. If necessary to use it in +such a case, keep turning it backwards for every turn ahead and do not +try to force it through the wood. It is better, however, to use some +other tool if you can (see _Bits_ and _Twist-drill_), for the tapering +form of the gimlet gives it a wedge-like, prying action upon the woody +fibres. + + +=Gimlet-Bit.=--See _Bits_. + + +=Glazing.=--An old chisel can be used to clean off old putty before +setting glass. On new work, see that the rabbet or shoulder where the +putty is to go is primed with lead paint before putting on the putty +(see _Painting_). You can buy glazier's points, to hold the glass in +position under the putty, for a trifle, or very small brads can be used. +No special directions are necessary for using the putty. + +To set common glass in furniture, as in bookcase doors, it is better to +fasten it in place with small strips, not pressed too tightly against +it. Strips of plain moulding are good. To set plate glass in furniture, +the same means can be used for small pieces, but large plates, as for a +mirror, should be held in place by little strips of soft pine, one or +two inches long, bevelled on one side. The other side being glued, these +strips can be lightly pressed into the crack around the glass. These +short pieces, glued to the frame on one side and with the bevelled side +wedging the glass into place, hold the latter securely, but, owing to +the softness of the wood, not too rigidly. + + +=Glue.=--See _Gluing_. + + +=Gluing.=--Glue is made from refuse animal matter, and also from parts +of fishes, the latter being known as fish glue. It comes in sheets or +cakes or flakes, to be dissolved and used hot, or already prepared in +liquid form. + +The majority of practical mechanics prefer the former (_i.e._, "hot" +glue) for nice work, although the use of liquid glue has increased much +of late years. Hot glue is probably preferable if all the conditions are +just as they should be, but if not so, liquid or "cold" glue may be +better. + +Buy the best grade. It is the cheapest for good work, and you will not +use enough to make the price much of an obstacle. The only _sure_ test +by which to buy glue is to get a little and see how it holds. A good way +to prove the quality of your glue is to soak it over night, or as long +as may be necessary, in whatever quantity of water you think it will +absorb. The more it will swell without dissolving, the better the +quality. _Poor_ glue will dissolve. + +You cannot positively tell good glue by the colour, for there are many +kinds (and for more than one purpose) and many makers, but whatever the +colour, the glue should be clear looking and not cloudy or muddy. Do not +use glue that has a mouldy or otherwise disagreeable or offensive smell +or a bad taste. + +To prepare hot glue, break the glue into small pieces, and soak it in +all the cold water it will absorb for perhaps twelve hours, when it will +have become swollen and softened and will look and feel somewhat like +jelly. Then put it in the inner glue-pot (see _Glue-pot)_ and cause the +water in the outer vessel to boil for several hours. It is quicker to +dissolve the glue at once without soaking, but the result does not seem +to be quite as good as by the former method. The glue to be right for +use must be thin enough to drip from the brush in a thread or stream, +without collecting in drops like water, and you can tell something about +its being in condition to use by testing it between your fingers. Do not +weaken its strength, however, by diluting with more water than is +necessary. + +It is important to keep the glue and the glue-pot clean, and if the +odour from your glue becomes offensive at any time clean out the +glue-pot and make fresh. + +Glue loses strength by repeated meltings, so do not dissolve too much at +a time, and after heating it over two or three times throw away any that +is left in the glue-pot, cleaning the latter thoroughly. On work which +you are very particular about mix fresh glue each time.[46] + +You can make a good glue-brush of a stick of rattan. Soften the end in +hot water and pound it with the hammer until the fibres separate. For +corners, cracks, holes, and the like use sticks, which you can whittle +to any required shape. + +Although apparently too simple an operation to need much explanation, +and often ignored in books on wood-work, as if anyone could of course +glue two pieces together, the operation, to be really successful, calls +for more knowledge of the principles involved than beginners or amateurs +usually possess. Do not daub a thick layer of lukewarm glue on the +pieces, and then slap them together as you would make a sandwich, after +the usual domestic fashion. Done in this way the pieces often stick for +a while, but there is nothing certain about it. + +We have seen that wood is full of little holes (pores, as they are +commonly called), or spaces between the fibres (see Fig. 6). The glue +becomes worked into these little pores and that is what gives it such a +firm hold on the wood, somewhat as plastering is forced (purposely) into +the cracks between the laths. + +So you must have the glue thin, that it may fill these little cavities +and get a "grip" on the wood; you must have it hot, that it may the more +easily penetrate these open spaces before it becomes chilled; you must +have the wood warm, that the glue may not be chilled and begin to set +before it has a chance to penetrate the interstices of the wood; and you +must press the pieces together so hard as to expel the body of glue from +between them, forcing it into the pores and squeezing outside what will +not go in, to be wiped or scraped off afterward. For what you want is +not to have the two pieces held together by a layer of glue between +them, lightly sticking to each surface and separating the two in +proportion to the thickness of the layer; but to have the two surfaces +as close together as possible, held so by the tenacity of the glue +reaching from the cavities of one surface to those of the other. The +closer the surfaces are forced together the better, as the glue will be +less exposed to the atmosphere. + +You will see from all this that gluing should be done in a warm room of +an even temperature. + +While with hot glue it will not do to change the relative positions of +the pieces after putting together, you can have considerable time to get +them in position if the liquid or cold glue is used. Where several +places in the same piece of work have to be glued together at the same +time, it is frequently very hard to get around with the hot glue before +that first applied has begun to set, unless you have help. In such +cases, cold glue is a great convenience. If your shop is not warm or if +you cannot have your glue hot, you had better use the liquid glue. It +takes much longer to set than the other. In cold weather it should be +slightly warmed. It can be thinned with vinegar or acetic acid, or what +you wish to use at once may be thinned with water. Do not pour water +into the can of glue, as it will not keep so well. + +You will also readily see that it is much easier to make good glued +joints in soft wood than in hard, for the former is more readily +squeezed to a fit by the clamping, while with the latter it is quite +essential that the pieces should fit with extreme accuracy before +clamping (see note under _Clamps_). + +Before beginning to glue have everything laid out, fit the pieces +together, clamp them up just as if you had put on the glue, and see that +everything comes together right--_i.e._, rehearse the gluing process +before using the glue itself. This is a very important point, +particularly when there are several pieces to be glued, for you will +have no time to waste after you have begun to use the glue. + +Do not spread the glue on too thick. Take the dirt off both pieces, +then, while putting the glue on one, have the other warming slightly at +the fire. The moment the glue on the brush leaves the glue-pot it begins +to cool. If it fairly begins to set before you get the two pieces +together, your joint will not be good. You will have to take it apart, +scrape off all the old glue, and begin over again. So you will see there +is no time to be lost when once you begin and it will be too late then +to correct any mistakes in the fitting of the wood-work. Good workmen +always put the work together and take it apart again before gluing. + +Do not wipe off the glue which squeezes out from a glued joint (unless +for some special reason) nor wash it off with water. Let it harden, and +clean it off after the joint has set. It helps protect the joint. + +Do not be in haste to unclamp your work. When to release it depends on +the kind of wood, the kind of work, and the circumstances under which +the gluing is done, and no exact time can be set. If for some temporary +and unimportant purpose and in soft pine, for instance, you can unclamp +in a few hours or even less, but for important work, which is to hold +permanently, twelve hours is scarcely time enough even for soft wood and +hot glue, and twenty-four hours is none too long, for though the glue +dries quickly to the touch, it takes considerable time to get thoroughly +hard. It is safer to allow more time for hard wood. The thickness of the +stock makes a difference also. Large junks and blocks and boards glued +flatways require more time than 1/4" stock, thin strips, or little +splinters. You can tell something by the condition of the glue that is +squeezed from the joint. Liquid glue sets much more slowly, and +twenty-four hours is soon enough to release the work under average +conditions. The warmth and dryness of the air make a good deal of +difference. Under unfavourable conditions more than forty-eight hours +may be required. + +If for any reason you cannot clamp a joint, after applying the glue rub +one piece back and forth upon the other a few times. + +Rub wax, soap, or tallow on any part which must not be stuck by surplus +glue which may exude from a joint, as in the case of a panel which may +become stuck by the glue used in fastening the frame (see _Doors and +Panels_). + +To glue two pieces where the surface is to be planed or trimmed at the +joint, do not glue them together after they are planed or trimmed, but +glue them first, and plane or trim them afterwards, taking care to have +the grain of the pieces run in the same direction (see _Jointing_). + +To glue pieces end to end, or as in a mitre,--that is, "end +wood,"--first size with thin glue to stop the pores, else the glue will +be quickly soaked up. Then, after allowing this coat to stand, glue in +the ordinary way. But glued joints in end wood are seldom good and are +to be avoided. + +A great deal of glued work comes apart, and a great many mistakes in +putting work together are caused by not understanding, or not bearing in +mind, the way wood expands and contracts and warps and winds from heat +and cold, dryness and moisture. This is an important matter if you wish +to do good gluing. Do not think that all that is necessary is to have +your wood dry and that then you can glue the pieces together in any +relative positions. Veneers or thin pieces are sometimes successfully +glued with the grain of the pieces running at right angles, as seen in +chair seats, but as a rule avoid gluing wide pieces together with the +grain running at right angles. See _Laying out the Work_, in Chapter +IV.; also _Jointing_. + + +=Glue-Pot.=--This can be bought of copper, iron, or tin. A medium-sized +one is more useful than a very small one. Have a cover to keep out dust +and loose particles. + +If obliged to make shift without a proper glue-pot, always use two +dishes like a regular glue-pot, with water in the outer one, on the +principle of the double boiler used for cooking, else the glue will be +sure to burn and be spoiled. Two cans, such as are used for tomatoes or +other vegetables, can be used on a pinch, one being larger than the +other and fastened in place with wire or in some way to keep the smaller +can from moving around too much; but a regular glue-pot is much better. +See _Gluing_. + + +=Gouge.=--This tool is similar to the chisel, except for the curvature +across the blade. The common gouge has the bevel on the convex or outer +side and is known as an "outside" gouge. This is the more useful for +ordinary work. The "inside" gouge has the bevel on the inner or concave +side. Although very useful for many purposes, it is less important for +general work and is harder to sharpen. Gouges are of various degrees of +curvature, Fig. 534 showing a "flat" and a "quick" curve. Those of +moderate depth and curvature will be more useful for your work than very +deep or very flat ones. + +[Illustration FIG. 534.] + +[Illustration FIG. 535.] + +In using the common or "outside" gouge, light, short strokes should +usually be made, for only the bevel of the tool bears on the wood, which +makes this gouge quite hard to control. + +You can often apply the principle of the sliding or sideways cut in +using the gouge, as with the chisel, to good advantage. You can roll the +gouge around with your hand from side to side so as to make it cut +slantingly. This is particularly useful to give a clean cut when gouging +across the grain (Fig. 535). In some cases, in working out a moulding, +for instance, you can hold the tool at an angle with the work and get a +better result than to push it straight forward lengthways (Fig. 536). + +[Illustration FIG. 536.] + +Be careful not to scoop out little hollows below the required depth of +the cut, and keep the direction of the grain in mind the same as with +the chisel. The little inequalities left by the gouge can be reduced +easily by the file, curved scraper, or glass and sandpaper. See +_Sharpening_. + + +=Gouge-Bit.=--See _Bits_. + + +=Grindstone.=--When you get to the point of having a grindstone, get one +which is somewhat soft and fine, for if too coarse it will produce a +rougher edge than is desirable for your tools. + +Do not allow your grindstone to become softened in spots by being left +partially immersed in a trough of water, as it will wear away +irregularly. With the best of care a stone will, however, become untrue +after continued use, not merely in its circular outline, but the face +will become hollowed and uneven. It must then be trued, either by some +one of the contrivances now made for the purpose, or by simply turning +the stone into the correct shape by holding the _end_ of a piece of soft +iron, as a piece of pipe, against the surface, without water, moving the +iron as occasion requires, until the stone becomes true. + + +=Grooving.=--Grooves of different dimensions are often required for +various purposes in wood-working. By far the best way, as a practical +matter, is to take the work to a mill and have the grooving done by +machine, which is not expensive. It can be done by hand with the planes +devised for the purpose (as the plough), but though these are valuable +tools, they are largely superseded, or becoming so, by machine-work, and +it is usually fully as well for the amateur to take such work to the +mill as to buy the tools. + +In some cases the sides of the groove can be sawed by the hand-saws and +the material removed by the chisel, but this is not easy if the groove +is long. Pieces are sometimes clamped beside the line to guide the saw +and sometimes even attached to the saw itself, or to a piece of +saw-blade. The lines for the groove can be scored with the knife or +chisel and the wood between removed by the chisel, much as in cutting a +mortise. + +In nice work, as fitting a shelf in a bookcase, it makes a better joint +not to fit the entire end of the shelf into a groove, but to cut a +tongue or wide tenon on the end of the shelf, with a shoulder at each +side and the front edge, to fit into a corresponding groove, as shown in +Fig. 284. + + +=Half-Round File.=--See _File_. + + +[Illustration FIG. 537.] + +[Illustration FIG. 538.] + +[Illustration FIG. 539.] + +[Illustration FIG. 540.] + +[Illustration FIG. 541.] + +[Illustration FIG. 542.] + +=Halving.=--This joint shown in Fig. 537 is a common, simple, and good +way of joining two sticks when they cross at right angles or obliquely. +Place the sticks in position and mark the width of each upon the surface +of the other, using a knife or chisel for scribing. With small sticks +the wood can be removed with the knife, first cutting a notch at each +side and then paring off the wood between (Fig. 538). With large pieces +the lines should be marked by the square, the depth (one-half the +thickness of either piece) by the gauge. The lines at the outside of the +space can then be sawed down to the gauge line, taking care to keep just +on the inside edge of the line. The wood between can be pared out with +the chisel down to the gauge lines. When the halving is at the ends of +the pieces or at the end of one piece (Fig. 539), the process is the +same, except that the wood can be entirely removed by the saw. Other +forms involving bevelling and dovetailing are shown in Figs. 540, 541, +and 542. This principle of the lap joint is often carried a little +further and we have the open mortise and tenon (Fig. 543), which can +successfully be applied to a mitred joint and can also be dovetailed, +and boxes are now made by machine with the corners entirely made up of a +continuous series of these joints (Fig. 544). See _Joints_. + +[Illustration FIG. 543.] + +[Illustration FIG. 544.] + + +=Hammer.=--The hammer is made in many forms, but the common kind used by +carpenters will usually answer your purpose, and is too familiar to +require description. For general use select one of medium size and +weight. Remember that the face of the hammer-head, although harder than +the nails it is meant to drive, is not intended to pound every piece of +hardened steel you may run across, nor to break up boulders when you are +after minerals. For the use of the hammer see _Nailing_. + + +=Hand-Screws.=--Hand-screws are of great use in clamping work that has +been glued and for holding pieces in any required position. Wooden +hand-screws are probably the most generally useful, but a couple (or +more) of the simple iron clamps will be of great service at times, as +they can be used more advantageously than the wooden ones in some kinds +of work. Get medium-sized hand-screws rather than small ones if you can, +as they will be generally more serviceable. + +[Illustration FIG. 545.] + +[Illustration FIG. 546.] + +[Illustration FIG. 547.] + +To open or close a hand-screw, hold it at arm's-length in front of you +with a handle in each hand, and with a twirling motion revolve it toward +or from you, as may be required, to increase or decrease the opening +between the jaws. The screws should be greased or rubbed over with +black-lead, soap, or bayberry tallow. + +To hold two pieces together with uniform pressure is of course necessary +for gluing and various other operations, but a little practice will show +you how to adjust the hand-screws so that the jaws will bear on the wood +evenly. The main point to remember is to keep the jaws parallel. The +final tightening is given entirely by the outer screw, so, in adjusting +the screws, leave the jaws open a little at the tip as in Fig. 545, that +when the final pressure is put upon the outer screw the jaws will bear +on the wood with an even pressure (Fig. 546). If the jaws were adjusted +to bear evenly before tightening the outer screw, the final result would +be as shown in Fig. 547. + +[Illustration FIG. 548.] + +In clamping together finished work or pieces which could be injured by +the pressure, always put pieces of waste wood between the work and the +hand-screws. In case of delicate work, like carving or mouldings, a +piece of _soft pine_ placed between the surface and the hand-screws or +clamps will enable considerable pressure to be applied without injury to +the work. + +A simple home-made clamp, suitable for such work as temporarily holding +in place parts of the frame of a boat, for instance, is shown in Fig. +548. See _Clamps_ and also Figs. 66 and 647. + + +=Hatchet.=--The hatchet is too familiar to need description. A common, +medium-sized hatchet, that can easily be swung with one hand, is all +that the beginner will ordinarily require, although there is quite a +variety of hatchets and axes for various purposes. + +The main thing in the use of the hatchet, besides keeping your fingers +out of the way, is to look sharply after the direction of the grain of +the wood, as it is not easy to stop a blow in the wrong place, for the +hatchet is not so easily controlled as some other tools. Experience is +the best teacher in the use of a hatchet. For removing superfluous wood +with the hatchet, see _Paring_. + + +=Hinges.=--There are many varieties of hinges for various purposes. The +common kind, like that shown in Fig. 135, had best, for neatness' sake, +on moderately heavy work, be narrower than the thickness of the stock, +so as not to extend across the edge. The hinge should be sunk in the +wood of one or both of the parts to be hinged--in the case of many +boxes, for instance, one half of the hinge when shut is usually sunk in +each part, but in some kinds of work the whole thickness may be sunk in +one part. The hinge can be held in position on the edge (in the case of +the box) so that the centre of the pin on which it turns is in line with +the back of the box, or sometimes a little outside. Marks can be made +with the knife or chisel at the ends of the hinge, and the recess in +which it is to fit marked with the square and gauge. This wood should be +removed with the chisel, first making cross cuts to break up the grain, +as in Fig. 614. Fit the other hinge or hinges in the same way. Next lay +the lid exactly in position on top of the hinges and mark by them and +cut the recesses in the top in the same way. Hold the hinges in place +with two or three screws each and see whether the cover opens and shuts +as it should. Make any needed alterations, and finally screw the hinges +firmly in place. Another way is to place the lid exactly in position +(shut) and mark directly from the hinges, on both box and cover at the +same time, the points from which to lay out the recesses. It will be +well to look at a properly fitted hinge for a similar purpose before +beginning your work, since one rule cannot be laid down for all cases. + +For strap-hinges, T-hinges, and the like, see page 247. + + +=Holes and Cracks, To Fill.=--The simplest way to stop holes, cracks, +checks, and the like, in painted work, is with putty, always applying it +_after_ the first coat of paint and never before (see _Painting_), but +this method should not be used for other than painted work, and the +nicer the work, the less desirable the use of putty becomes. + +For nice work, as furniture, which has not been finished, small holes or +cracks are often stopped by putting a daub of hot glue on the smooth end +of a piece of wood of the same kind as the article, and with a sharp +chisel, held nearly at right angles with the surface, scraping off fine +wood-dust, which, mixing with the glue, forms a paste with which the +crack can be more than filled. When hard, the surplus can be pared and +scraped off. + +Plaster of Paris (calcined plaster), mixed with very thin hot glue, is +excellent for stopping cracks and holes of considerable size. It can be +mixed with water only, but this is not as good. + +[Illustration FIG. 549.] + +Fitting in a plug of wood is a good way when the hole is of such shape +that you can do so, making the grain of the plug run the same way as +that of the piece to be plugged. Taper the plug slightly, so that when +driven in it will fit tightly and not be flush with the surface, but +project above it (Fig. 549). Dip in hot glue, and drive well in. When +dry smooth off. If the hole is irregular, trim to some shape to which +you can fit a plug. In nice work take pains to have the plug a good +match for the rest of the wood. + +Slight cracks at the end of a piece can often be plugged and at the same +time secured against further splitting by sawing directly down the +crack, so as to remove it and substitute a straight saw-kerf. In this +kerf a slip of wood can be fitted and glued. + +Wax, and also melted shellac, can be used to stop holes and cracks in +finished work. For this, see under _Finishing_. + + +=Jack-Plane.=--See _Plane_. + + +=Jointer.=--See _Plane_. + + +[Illustration FIG. 550.] + +=Jointing.=--This term is applied to the act of straightening and making +true the edges of two boards or planks which are to be joined to make a +tight joint, with glue or otherwise. It is, also, popularly applied to +straightening the edge of one piece only, as to "joint" the edge of a +board. This you will often have to do, and for jointing two edges which +are to be glued particular care will be required. Assuming that the +edges have been got out nearly straight, the only plane you will require +is the fore-plane,--or better, the jointer, or even the "long" jointer +if the piece is long and you are fortunate enough to have these +tools,--and it should be set fine, although if the edge is very crooked +and you have to work off much superfluous stock, the iron can be set to +make a coarse shaving at first. + +In shooting or jointing edges it is customary to hold the finger under +the sole of the plane as a guide (Fig. 550). This helps in regard to the +common fault of tipping the plane sideways so as to plane off more on +one side than on the other (Fig. 551). This trouble may be aggravated by +a wrong position of the left hand on the fore part of the plane in case +you use a wooden plane (see Fig. 624 for correct position). Keep testing +across the edge with the square (Fig. 640). The shooting-board can be +used to advantage for short pieces (see _Shooting-board_), and +attachable guides can also be obtained. + +[Illustration FIG. 551.] + +The jointing should be done with long, deliberate, steady strokes. Any +hasty, hit-or-miss slashing away with the plane will be sure to result +in a bad joint, and you can easily get the edge into such shape by three +or four careless strokes that it will take you a good while to get it +straight. Try also to avoid planing the edge rounding, from end to end +(see _Plane_, Figs. 635-637). Sight along the edge. Also test with +straight-edge, looking toward the light. If any shines through, the edge +is not yet accurate and the process must be resumed. + +If you are jointing two edges, as for a "glue-joint," first examine the +pieces to see which edges will best go together, according to the +purpose for which they are intended. Look at the end grain so as to +arrange it in different ways if you are building up a piece of selected +parts (Fig. 559). If merely joining two or more boards to make a wider +one, notice the way the grain runs lengthways, and the way it crops up +to the surface, for you will have, for everything but the roughest work, +to plane the surface over after the joint is glued, and if the grain +runs in two or three different ways it will be harder to make the +surface smooth. There are cases, however, in handsomely figured wood, as +quartered oak or mahogany, where you will arrange the grain in the way +that will look the best, but in such cases you expect to go through +extra labour for the sake of having the article as handsome as possible. +With soft, straight-grained white pine or whitewood, these matters are +of less importance. When you have the pieces laid together in the best +way, mark on the surface right across the joints (Fig. 552) so that you +will know how to put the pieces together, for you will forget how they +were arranged after you have moved them around a few times. + +[Illustration FIG. 552.] + +[Illustration WRONG. RIGHT. FIG. 553.] + +Joint each edge separately. For nice work it is well to joint the edges +of the successive pieces alternately from opposite sides,--that is, if +in planing the edge of the first piece the marked (or face) side of the +board is _towards_ you, plane the edge of the next piece with the face +side of the board against the bench, or _away_ from you. This helps to +counteract the result of any tendency to tip the plane to one side or +any inaccuracy in setting the plane-iron. See _Shooting-board_. + +Then, putting one piece in the vice with the jointed edge upwards, lay +the other edge upon it in the proper position and see if the two edges +touch throughout. If not, one or both must be planed with thin, careful +strokes until they do fit, for the joint will not be good unless the +edges coincide. Remember, however, that it takes more than merely +touching to make a good joint. The _surfaces_ of the boards must be in +line (in the same plane). Of course this really depends upon the edges +being square. Test by holding a straight-edge, the square, the edge of +the plane, or anything straight, against the surface of the boards (Fig. +553).[47] + +Do not be misled by the directions you may see in "amateur" books and +magazine articles which tell you, for cases like this,--when you wish to +glue up the lid of a desk, for instance,--to plane and sandpaper your +boards carefully on the sides and then fit the edges together, after +which you "have only to glue the edges and the job is done." That is not +the right way to make a glued joint, as you will find out for yourself +after you have planed a few dozen boards the second time. The skilled +workman seldom attempts to do this except in repairing or some case +where the surface of the pieces must be preserved. The practical +work-man's way (which is the way for you), is to glue first and plane +afterwards. The best way, practically, is to glue up the rough boards +before they have been planed at all, and then have the whole planed down +as one piece by machine to the required thickness. Of course you should +get the surfaces as nearly in line as you can, to avoid needless planing +afterwards, but give your special attention to making the joint hold +(see note under _Clamps_). + +Sometimes the edges of boards to be glued are purposely planed, +hollowing lengthways, so that the two pieces touch at the ends, but do +not quite come together in the middle, the idea being that a clamp at +the middle will force the joint together for its whole length and will +give a stronger result than to attempt to make both edges exactly +straight. If there is to be any open place in the joint before gluing, +it is better to have it at the middle than at the ends, but there is a +difference of opinion as to whether there is any advantage in springing +boards to fit in this way. + +Before gluing hardwood edges, it is well to tooth them over with the +toothed-plane, if you have one. (See _Plane_.) + +See _Plane_, _Gluing_, _Joints_, _Cleating_, _Dowelling_, etc. + +=Joints and Splices.=--There are many kinds of splices and joints used +in the different branches of wood-work, a few of which are here given. + +[Illustration FIG. 554.] + +The common square butt-joint (Fig. 554) is the simplest way to join two +pieces at right angles, as in making a box or frame, and is used for all +common work. Glue is of but little use with this joint. Rely wholly on +nails or screws. + +[Illustration FIG. 555.] + +To make a better joint, cut a rabbet at the end of one piece and you +have a joint (Fig. 555) which shows less end wood, and can be helped a +good deal by gluing, on account of the shoulder. + +[Illustration FIG. 556.] + +Another way is shown in Fig. 556. Some strength and stiffness is gained +by the tongue and groove, but a groove near the end introduces an +element of weakness. + +[Illustration FIG. 557.] + +A much stronger way and a tighter joint (Fig. 557) is often used for +cisterns, water-tanks, and horse troughs, but the projecting ends are +objectionable for most purposes. See _Halving_, _Mitring_, +_Dovetailing_, and also _Box-making_, page 219. + +In nailing any such joints as those just shown, remember to always bore +holes for the nails wherever there is danger of splitting. See _Awl_, +_Bits_, _Boring_, _Nailing_. + +There are many ways, besides those just mentioned, for joining sticks +and timbers at right angles, which is something you will often have to +do, whether for a kite or some small framework or for the timbers of a +building. + +To join two or more boards or planks to make a wider surface, several +methods can be used. Cleating, though strong and suitable for all such +work as drawing-boards, rough doors, and the like, is often undesirable, +both on account of the looks and because the cleats may be in the way +(see _Cleating_). The simplest way, without cleats, is to glue the +jointed edges (see _Jointing_ and _Gluing_). Dowels can be used with +this joint (see _Dowelling_), or grooves can be cut and a strip or +spline or tongue inserted (Fig. 558). This last way can be done at the +mill quicker and better than by hand. The edges can also be halved, or a +rabbet cut in each edge from opposite sides. The boards can also be +"matched" (see page 46), in which case it is not usual to glue them. All +of these joints can best be made by machine. + +[Illustration FIG. 558.] + +[Illustration FIG. 559.] + +To avoid the warping and change of shape to which wide pieces are +subject, particularly when they are not middle boards (see Chapter III), +they are often built up of selected narrower pieces (Fig. 559). This is +done for many things,--the frames of machines, the tops of +sewing-tables, drawing-boards, chopping-blocks, etc. Masts, bows, +fishing-rods, and the like are sometimes built up of selected pieces, +the idea being that a better result can be obtained by combining +selected smaller pieces, that flaws and defects (which are apt to occur +in larger pieces) can be avoided, and that sometimes the grain can be +arranged to better advantage. This is doubtless true, but there is +always the objection that glued joints may give way. If you can get a +piece which is practically perfect, it is probably in most cases better +than a glued-up combination, for it is not easy to improve on Nature +when you can get her best specimens; but unless you can get +_first-class_ stock of the dimensions required, it is better to "build +up" with smaller pieces of selected stock. + +Where the ends of two pieces come together and you wish to make a close +joint, you will, of course, saw the pieces off as squarely as possible, +using the square or perhaps the mitre-box. If you mark and saw them with +exactness, and if everything about their arrangement is straight and +square and true, the ends will come together exactly and make a close +joint, but as a practical matter this frequently will not happen, +however careful you may be. For nice work, the workmanlike way in such +cases is to plane or pare the ends until they fit, but for rougher work +the expedient of sawing the ends to fit can be resorted to. To do this, +put the ends together as they are to go (Fig. 560), keep them from +moving, and saw straight down through the joint. As the saw will leave a +kerf of uniform thickness, the pieces can now be pushed together and the +ends will fit, unless the joint was very much open, in which case you +have only to saw again, and if necessary repeat the operation until the +ends fit. This is a very useful expedient in case of need, but should +not be relied on as a regular way to make joints, lest it engender a +careless and inaccurate method of work. This applies also to joints +which meet at any angle. + +[Illustration FIG. 560.] + +[Illustration FIG. 561.] + +In some cases, where only one side of each piece shows, as in laying +floor-boards, it is usual to undercut the ends slightly--that is, to +make the joint a little open at the bottom, which gives a tight and neat +joint on the side which shows (Fig. 561, which is exaggerated). + +Another way to make an end joint is by bevelled scarfing or splaying +(Fig. 562). You will see the ends of the clapboards on old houses joined +in this way, and it doubtless makes a better joint in many cases than +the common square or butt-joint, but it is more work. Strips of moulding +are often cut in this way. + +[Illustration FIG. 562.] + +[Illustration FIG. 563.] + +[Illustration FIG. 564.] + +There are many ways of splicing two or more pieces so as to get greater +length, many of them, such as are used in bridge-building and +roof-framing, being quite complicated. You will rarely, however, in +such work as you will do at first, have occasion to do more than nail +strips (fish-plates) on the sides of the pieces or make a halved splice +or scarfed joint (Fig. 563). The latter is often made longer than that +shown and fastened in various ways. A joint for a brace is shown in Fig. +564. + +See _Cleats_, _Doors_, _Dovetailing_, _Dowelling_, _Gluing_, _Halving_, +_Mitring_, _Mortising_, _Nailing_, etc. + + +=Keyhole Saw.=--See _Saw_. + + +=Knife.=--An excellent knife for shop work is a sloyd knife. A good +shoe-knife will do very well. This is better for shop work than a +jack-knife. It will not close on your fingers for one thing. For general +purposes, however, a pocket-knife is the best thing, as you cannot carry +a sloyd knife around with you. In buying it get a good plain knife with +not more than two or three blades and of the best steel you can afford. +Do not waste money in trying to get your whole kit of tools into the +compass of one jack-knife handle. In selecting a knife, open the blades +and sight along the back to see that each blade is accurately in line +with the handle, as they are sometimes fastened at a slight angle, which +weakens the knife. + +An immense variety of work can be done with a common pocket- or +jack-knife, which is the best _emergency_ tool for either the beginner +or the skilled workman. One great thing about whittling is that you +cannot rely on squares, rules, or compasses to get your work right, but +must be independent, think quickly, look sharply, and rely on your own +faculties. A knife is so easy to sharpen that there is not much excuse +for using a dull one. See _Sharpening_. + +In cutting, always keep your left hand _behind_ the blade, and as a +general rule cut _from_ you, for the tool may slip and cut you instead +of the wood. There are cases where you have to cut towards you, but +there is never any need of getting your left hand in front of the +cutting-edge. + + +=Level.=--A spirit-level is important for some work, but not often +necessary for the beginner, as a substitute can easily be made. A +horizontal or level line being at right angles with a vertical line, a +home-made level can be made by using the principle of the plumb-line, as +shown on page 96. When the plumb-line hangs freely on the line _ab_, +which is at right angles to _cd_, the latter line (_cd_) must of course +be level. The frame should be several feet long for levelling large +work, as it can be adjusted more accurately than if small. + + +=Linseed Oil.=--See _Finishing_ and _Painting_. + + +=Locks.=--Use locks of good quality or none at all. Never put very cheap +locks on good work. There are many varieties of locks, some to be +screwed on the outside of the wood, others to be sunk in recesses cut in +the side of the wood, others still to be let into mortises--chest-locks, +door-locks, cupboard-locks, drawer-locks, etc. + +To fit a chest- or box-lock (not a mortise-lock), place the lock in the +right position, mark around the part required to be sunk in the wood, +which can be cut away with gouge and chisel, the keyhole having been +bored quite through the wood and trimmed to a neat outline which will +conform to the shape of the key. When the lock has been screwed in its +recess, put the "hasp," or part which is to be on the lid, into its +place in the lock, just where it will be when the chest is locked. Then +close the lid, and by slightly pressing you can make a mark on it to +show where to put the hasp. Sometimes you can mark the place with a +pencil, or by putting transfer-paper between the hasp and the wood, or +by rubbing blackened grease on the plate of the hasp. The plate of the +hasp should be sunk in the lid to be flush with the surface, and may +then be screwed on, bearing in mind the thickness of the lid when +selecting the screws. A mortise-lock is fitted in a similar way, but let +into a mortise (see _Mortising_). + +To fit a common drawer-lock, determine the place for the keyhole and +place the lock in position on the inside as before. With a pencil mark +the outline of the box-part of the lock, which bears against the wood. +Cut away the wood within this line, making a recess slightly deeper than +the thickness of the box-part of the lock. The hole must be bored for +the key, as before. Put the lock into place and mark the outline of the +outer plate, not merely on the inside of the drawer front but also on +the top edge. Cut away the wood with the chisel to let the plate sink +flush with the wood. When the keyhole is shaped, try the lock and if it +works, screw it on. Close the drawer and turn the key hard to raise the +bolts (the tops of which have been previously rubbed with blackened +grease, such as can be scraped from an oil-stone, or using transfer +paper), which, pressing against the wood, will mark the places for the +mortises into which they are to slide. Cut these mortises and the drawer +can be locked. + +The variety of locks and their arrangement in regard to fitting is so +great that it will be best for you to examine a well-fitted lock for the +same purpose that the lock you have to fit is intended, for one rule +cannot be given for all cases. + + +=Mallet.=--The mallet, which is merely a hammer with a wooden head, is +made in various forms and sizes, from the big beetle of the wood-chopper +to the ladies' carving mallet. It is used to strike the wooden +tool-handles. + +For heavy work a mallet with the handle put through the head from the +outside, like the handle of a pickaxe, is good because the head cannot +come off. A rounded head with the handle on the end (like a +potato-masher) saves having to notice how you hold it, as it is equally +effective in any position. A mallet of this type can be turned all in +one piece. Hickory or lignum-vitæ or any dense, hard wood is good for a +mallet. + +You do not gain force by using the mallet instead of the hammer, but the +softer and more yielding blow of the mallet saves the tool-handle. + + +=Marking.=--For all rough work the ordinary carpenter's pencil, +sharpened flatways, like a screw-driver, is the most convenient and +durable instrument. For nicer work, where you need more accurate lines, +the common round pencil (medium hard or rather soft) is all you need, +but for nice, close work (such as marking accurate joints), a knife, the +corner of a chisel, a marking-awl, or a scriber of some sort is +necessary. There is no need to buy any tool for this, although they are +to be had--nothing is better than a common pocket-knife or a chisel. +Keep your pencils sharp by rubbing them on a piece of fine sandpaper, or +an old file. + +[Illustration Fig. 565.] + +In scribing with the chisel, the edge is drawn along with one corner +slightly raised and the flat side next the straight-edge, holding the +tool either like a pencil or for deeper scoring as in Fig. 565. + +In all marking and scribing, whether with pencil, awl, knife, chisel, or +other tool, be sure that the marking edge is kept close up to the rule, +straight-edge, or square, as it will often tend to follow the grain of +the wood and run off the line, and will sometimes force the +straight-edge or square out of position if the latter is not held +firmly. + +Do not try to stop lines which meet at a given point, but let them cross +one another when they will not show in the finished work, as it is +quicker to do so and the crossing of two lines marks a point more +accurately than a dot. For work to be finished, however, scoring the +surface with lines should be avoided wherever they will show, as they +will become conspicuous after the work is finished. + +[Illustration THIN RULE--FINE WORK. FIG. 566.] + +[Illustration THICK RULE--ROUGH WORK. FIG. 567.] + +In marking lines with a _straight-edge_ or ruler you must be careful +that it does not slip. If it is long you can put weights on it. To mark +a line _accurately_ through given points, the ruler should not quite +touch the points, but be pushed almost up to them and equally distant +from each (Fig. 566). This will give you a clear view of both points so +that you can be sure that the pencil or whatever you mark with will go +as nearly as possible through the centre of each. Bearing the pencil +against the edge of the ruler, you can slant it a trifle till the +pencil-point will just coincide with the given point on the wood, and, +keeping the same inclination, move the pencil along the ruler, and it +should also go through the second given point. This applies to a regular +ruler with a comparatively thin edge, and to fine work only. In marking +by a thick edge, or where extreme nicety is not required, you will of +course put the straight-edge right up to the points and run the +pencil-point along in the angle (Fig. 567). + +Besides marking lines, the straight-edge (in some form), is used to +determine whether a surface is true. See _Straight-edge_. + +For rough, off-hand marking, particularly on undressed stock, chalk is +often best. Sticks, shaped like school-crayons, of graphite or some +black composition, are good for rough marking. + +The _chalk-line_ is used for distances too great to be covered +conveniently by a straight-edge and in places where the latter could not +so well be used. The chalk-line is a chalked cord drawn taut between the +two points to be connected. It is better to use a small cord than a +large one, and blue chalk is often preferred to white. Fasten one end of +the cord with a loop around an awl or nail at one end of the desired +line, and from this point chalk the cord, holding it between the thumb +and the chalk so that the cord will bear on the flat side of the chalk +in such a way as to wear it away evenly without cutting it in two. Then +draw the chalked cord tight to the other end of the desired line and, +holding the end down with one hand, lift the cord from as near the +middle as practicable with the thumb and forefinger of the other hand +and let it snap back on to the surface. The cord should be raised +squarely from the work and not pulled slantingly to one side or the line +will not be straight. + + +=Marking-Awl.=--See _Awl_. + + +=Marking-Gauge.=--See _Gauge_. + + +=Matching-Plane.=--See _Plane_. + + +=Measurements and Measuring.=--For various suggestions, see _Rule_, and +also pages 47, 48, 50, 167 (footnote), 244, and 261. + + +=Mirror-Plates.=--A good way to fasten such articles as mirrors, +cabinets, etc., to the wall is by mirror-plates, which you can buy or +make yourself of brass. These should be sunk in the wood so as to be +flush with the back side of the shelves. After being fitted, they should +be taken off during the process of finishing the work. + + +=Mitre.=--See _Mitring_. + + +=Mitre-Board.=--See _Mitring_ and also page 92. + + +=Mitre-Box.=--If you can afford it, an iron mitre-box which will cut at +various angles will be very useful. You can make one yourself of wood. +You can get a carpenter to make you one for a small sum, but the iron +ones are better. See page 90. + + +=Mitre Shooting-Board.=--See page 94. + + +=Mitring.=--A common joint is the mitre (Fig. 568). Its only advantage +is that it shows nothing but a line at the angle and the "end wood" is +entirely concealed. It is a weak joint at best, even when made by a +skilled workman, and is particularly hard for an amateur to make well. +The slightest variation in one of the corners of a frame or box throws +the whole structure out of shape and in attempting to correct the error +the other joints are apt to be opened, and if the whole is finally got +together in a fashion it is often after bother enough to have +accomplished much good work in some other way. + +[Illustration FIG. 568.] + +[Illustration FIG. 569.] + +[Illustration FIG. 570.] + +The mitre is particularly unscientific for wide pieces used flatways +(Fig. 569), as the inevitable expansion and contraction of the pieces is +very apt to cause an open joint. If the wood is not quite dry, so that +it shrinks, the joint may open permanently toward the inside corner, for +when the wood shrinks in width the pieces will become narrower and so +separate at the joint, leaving a crack, tapering from the inner to the +outer corner. Even if the wood is thoroughly seasoned it will expand and +contract more or less. When it expands, the joint will tend to open at +the outer corner (Fig. 570). When it contracts it will tend to open, as +just shown (Fig. 571), at the inner corner. + +[Illustration FIG. 571.] + +[Illustration FIG. 572.] + +[Illustration FIG. 573.] + +Of course there are some cases, as in making a picture frame of prepared +"mouldings," when mitring is the only way in which the frame can be put +together, and there are some other cases in which it is the most proper +and suitable joint, but as a general rule, for amateur work, +particularly in framing where strength is a consideration, avoid the +mitre. Other and better forms for anything like a box are shown in Figs. +554, 555, 556, 557. + +The mitre is sometimes strengthened for box work and the like by fitting +a spline or tongue with the grain running across and not lengthways of +the joint (Fig. 572.) This, properly glued under pressure, makes a good +joint and one much superior to the plain mitre. But, though easy to do +with machinery, it is a slow and careful job to make such a joint by +hand, and if a case arises where you wish it done you had best take the +work to a factory, where a circular saw is all that is needed. + +The principle of halving shown in Figs. 539 and 543, can also be applied +to a mitred joint. + +Saw-kerfs are often made (Figs. 573 and 574) into which small strips are +tightly fitted and glued. This is a good way and easily done, once +having got the mitre properly put together. A combination of the mitre +with the joint shown in Fig. 555 is shown in Fig. 575. See also +_Dovetailing_ and _Joints_. + +[Illustration FIG. 574.] + +[Illustration FIG. 575.] + +[Illustration FIG. 576.] + +To lay off a mitre, or the lines by which to cut the intersection of any +two pieces at any angle, a simple way is that shown in Fig. 576. The +pieces are laid one above the other at the desired angle. Then the +points of intersection are marked on each edge. Lines connecting these +points will give the desired angles for sawing. The square can be used +to help in determining the points accurately and to project them to the +upper side of the top piece. + + +=Mortise and Tenon.=--See _Mortising_. + + +=Mortise-Chisel.=--See _Chisel_. + + +=Mortise-Gauge.=--See _Gauge_. + + +=Mortising (Mortise and Tenon).=--If you can get out two pieces and fit +them together accurately with a mortise-and-tenon joint, and do the work +well, you will be competent to handle a great many of the difficulties +of ordinary wood-work. + +You will often have occasion to use this joint. The mortise is the hole +in one of the two pieces to be joined. The tenon is the pin or +projection in the other piece, shaped to fit the mortise. + +[Illustration FIG. 577.] + +[Illustration FIG. 578.] + +[Illustration FIG. 579.] + +To lay out a mortise and tenon (Fig. 577), select and mark the working +faces for each piece. First take the piece in which the mortise is to be +cut (Fig. 578). Square two lines, _ab_ and _cd_, across the face and the +same distance apart as the width of the piece on which the tenon is to +be cut. Carry these lines across the side X (_ae_ and _cf_) and also +across the side opposite to X (that is, the side where the tenon will +come through). + +Next take the tenon-piece (Fig. 579) and measure from the end a distance +a little greater than the width of the face of the mortise-piece, and at +this point square a line, _gh_, across the face of the tenon-piece. +Continue this line, _gi_, around the piece, with the square. + +Now take the gauge and, setting it at the distance from the face settled +upon for the mortise, scribe the line _jk_ on the side X and also on the +side opposite X. Also from the face of the tenon-piece, without changing +the gauge, mark the line _lm_ on the side X, on the opposite side, and +on the end. Set the gauge to measure from the face to the other side of +the mortise,--that is, add the width of the mortise to the figure at +which the gauge was set,--and scribe another set of lines, _op_ and +_rs_, in the same manner as before, remembering to gauge all the time +from the same face. + +In the coarser kinds of work, where marks on the surface do no harm, the +gauge marks can be run across the other lines, as being easier and more +distinct, but in fine work, especially that which is to be finished, +care should be taken not to make scratches that will be seen when the +work is finished. The parts to be cut away are indicated by cross marks +(Fig. 580) and it will be seen at once that the tenon and mortise are +laid out correctly. + +[Illustration FIG. 580.] + +To cut, take first the mortise-piece and fasten it securely by vise or +clamp in a convenient position. The simplest way to remove the wood is +to bore a series of holes with a bit of a diameter as nearly the width +of the mortise as you have (Fig. 580), but a trifle smaller. This +removes a large part of the wood with but slight danger of splitting. +The rest can easily be trimmed away to the lines with the chisel, taking +care not to jam the chisel down lengthways of the mortise when the +latter is blocked with chips or firm wood, or the wood may split off at +the side of the mortise. + +To cut out the wood with the chisel only (or to trim the ends of the +mortise after using the bit), bear in mind the way the chisel acts when +you drive it into the wood. If both sides of the chisel were bevelled +(as is the case with carving chisels), it would tend to go straight down +into the wood, and if held vertically would make a vertical cut (Fig. +581), but the chisels you use for mortising are flat on one side and +bevelled on the other. Being one-sided in this way, the edge of the tool +is forced by the inclined bevel to slide off, so to speak, more or less, +in the direction of the side which is flat. You can prove this easily by +holding a chisel across the grain of a board and driving it in. If you +hold the tool lightly, you will see that as you drive it in it will +incline to cut under, always on the side which is flat (Fig. 581). + +[Illustration FIG. 581.] + +[Illustration FIG. 582.] + +This shows how to go to work to cut a mortise so as to keep the sides +square and true. If you put the chisel at the end, flat side outward, +the cut will tend to run under and make the hole too large below the +surface. If you turn the tool the other way, it tends to slip in towards +the middle of the mortise. So, to cut out the wood, take a chisel just a +trifle less in width than the mortise, and, beginning near the middle of +the mortise, hold the chisel as in Fig. 582 and make successive cuts, +working toward the end, first in one direction and then in the other, +giving the chisel handle a slight pull toward the centre of the mortise +each time you move it, to loosen the chips (Fig. 583). You can thus work +safely toward the ends, which will be left slanting (Fig. 584). + +[Illustration FIG. 583.] + +[Illustration FIG. 584.] + +[Illustration FIG. 585.] + +After cutting about half through the piece in this way, turn it over and +repeat the process from the other side, the result being a hole like +that shown in Fig. 585. Now turn the chisel around with the flat side +toward either end of the hole, and you can pare down the ends to the +line without danger of undercutting (Fig. 585). + +Care must be taken not to jam the chisel down lengthways of the grain +until the hole is practically cleared of wood, or the side of the +mortise may be split off. Use the chisel lengthways of the grain only at +the end of the process, to pare the sides of the mortise evenly, with +light strokes, down to the line. + +In all the use of the chisel, take pains to hold it vertically as +regards the _sides_ of the mortise--that is, do not tip it over +sideways, or the mortise will be slanting or too wide at the bottom. + +The common firmer- or paring-chisel can be used for all light mortising, +but for heavy work the regular mortising-chisel should be used (see +_Chisel_). + +To cut the tenon, simply saw carefully on the line _gh_ and its opposite +(Fig. 579) and then on the lines _lm_ and _rs_. Be careful not to cut +beyond the line, so as to make the tenon too small. It is easy to trim +it a little with the chisel if it is too large. Cut a little bevel +around the end of the tenon, so that it will drive through smoothly +without catching and tearing the sides or ends of the mortise. When it +goes through properly and the tenon and shoulder fit snugly, the +projecting end of the tenon can be sawed off after the whole job is +done. + +The tenon should be just large enough to drive through with a slight +pressure and fit snugly without any wobbling around. It should not be so +tight as to require much force to drive it home, or there will be danger +of splitting out the sides of the mortise. + +[Illustration FIG. 586.] + +[Illustration FIG. 587.] + +[Illustration FIG. 588.] + +There is no absolute rule as to how wide to make the mortise and tenon +in proportion to the width of the pieces. It depends on the kind of +work, the kinds of wood, the kind of strain to be put on the joint, and +various circumstances too complex to be gone into here. If the tenon is +very thin it will be weaker than the sides of the mortise (Fig. 586). If +very thick, the sides of the mortise will be too thin and will be weaker +than the tenon (Fig. 587). One third of the width is as thin as a tenon +is often made. It will then sometimes be weaker than the sides of the +mortise, as you can see from Fig. 588. But it all depends on what the +joint is for. If it is to stand violent wrenching, the tenon in this +case might break before the mortise-cheeks, and had best be made a +little thicker, with the sides of the mortise a little thinner; but, on +the other hand, if the joint is merely to hold the tenon-piece in +position, as in case of a post resting on a sill, one third is plenty +wide enough for the tenon, as it will be best not to weaken the sill by +cutting any larger mortise than is necessary. Sometimes the tenon-piece +is simply let in to the other piece for its full width. This is called +housing (Fig. 589). Two thirds of the width of the piece is thicker than +you will be likely to have occasion to make a tenon, as this leaves the +cheeks of the mortise very thin. It is wholly a matter of judgment +(between, say, one third and two thirds of the width), according to the +conditions of each job. + +[Illustration FIG. 589.] + + +The length to which a mortise can safely be cut is also a matter of +judgment according to circumstances. If the tenon is thin, the mortise +can be longer than if the tenon is thick, as the cheeks will be thicker +and stronger, but, as a rule, avoid trying to make very long mortises, +unless the tenon is very thin and the wood very strong, as there will +not be strength enough left in the cheeks of the mortise (Fig. 590). Six +times as long as it is wide is about as long as it is well to make a +mortise under ordinary circumstances, though, as just said, it all +depends on the conditions of the particular piece of work. + +[Illustration FIG. 590.] + +[Illustration FIG. 591.] + +When a wide piece is to be mortised into another piece, two or more +tenons are sometimes cut, thus avoiding too long a mortise, but this +will not do for very wide pieces, unless some of the tenons are fitted +loosely, for the expansion and contraction of the wide piece may cause +it to buckle or split if all the mortises fit snugly (Fig. 591). + +In such cases as a door-frame or when the end of a board is to be fitted +into the side of a post, a tongue and groove is often used in addition +to the tenon, and this (known as "relishing") is a good way to do (Fig. +592). + +[Illustration FIG. 592.] + +[Illustration FIG. 593.] + +The mortise and tenon given above is a very simple form. Sometimes the +tenon is short and does not go through (Fig. 593). This is a common +form, and is used a great deal in the best work. It is sometimes called +blind mortising, the tenon being known as a "stub" tenon. + +Mortise and tenon joints are sometimes merely fitted together, but can +also be glued (see _Gluing_), pinned, wedged, or dovetailed and fastened +with a key. + +To pin a mortise and tenon, simply mark a point with square and gauge +upon each side of the piece containing the mortise (Fig. 593), fit the +tenon in place, and bore in from each side (or in rough work bore right +through from one side until the spur appears on the opposite surface) +(see _Boring_). Then drive through a snugly fitting pin and trim off the +projecting ends. The pin should be slightly pointed before driving, on +the same principle that the end of the tenon is bevelled. It is not +necessary to round the pin. An eight-sided one is just as good. + +Do not use too large pins. In ship-building, bridge-building, and +old-fashioned house-framing pins and treenails from 1" to 1-3/4" or more +in diameter, are used. Dowels of various sizes will usually answer for +such framing as you may have to do (though a rift-pin is stronger). For +such work as pinning a joint in a chair, you will not need anything +larger than a 1/4" hardwood pin. + +You must use judgment as to how near the edge to place the pin. If you +put it too far from the edge, its hold on the tenon will be weak and the +end of the tenon may break out (shear). If you put it too near the edge, +the sides of the mortise may tear or split out. + +[Illustration FIG. 594.] + +[Illustration FIG. 595.] + +Sometimes, particularly in timber work, to insure a snug fit at the +joint, "draw-boring" is resorted to (Fig. 594). The hole for the pin is +not bored through the tenon as just shown, but is bored a trifle nearer +the shoulder of the tenon than the other holes (in the mortise-piece). +The result is that when the pin is driven through it draws the +tenon-piece down to a snug fit at the shoulder. But this has to be done +with judgment. If the hole in the tenon is too much out of line, driving +the pin through tends to split (strictly speaking to _shear_) the end of +the tenon, and too much strain is put on the pin. + +In the mortising just shown, there are only two shoulders where the +tenon begins--that is, the tenon is made by only four cuts. This is good +for all common or rough work. In nice work a shoulder is also cut at +each edge of the tenon (Fig. 595). This makes a neater-looking joint, as +these shoulders cover the ends of the mortise completely. When the joint +comes at the end of the mortise-piece, the tenon can extend to the edge +on the outside and the mortise be cut clear out to the end, forming an +open mortise-and-tenon joint (Fig. 543), or a wide shoulder can be left +on the outside of the tenon--the tenon itself being made narrower (Fig. +596). This course is adopted in doors and frames of various kinds (see +Fig. 334). + +[Illustration FIG. 596.] + +[Illustration FIG. 597.] + +[Illustration FIG. 598.] + +[Illustration FIG. 599.] + +[Illustration FIG. 600.] + +A good way to fasten tenons is to wedge them. This can be done whether +the tenon goes through the mortise-piece or only part way, as in a blind +joint. The wedges can be driven between the tenon and the ends of the +mortise (Fig. 597), or, as is often better, driven into cuts made in the +tenon itself, thus spreading the tenon toward the end, dovetail fashion, +making it extremely difficult, or impossible, to pull it out of the +mortise. Before wedging, the mortise should be cut under or enlarged +toward the side on which the tenon comes through (Fig. 598). The wedges +can then be dipped in glue and driven as in Fig. 599. To spread the +tenons themselves, one or two or even three saw-cuts should be made in +the tenon, lengthways and farther than the wedges will extend (Fig. +600). The tenon and mortise having been properly glued, the tenon is +fitted in place, and the wedges, previously prepared of some strong wood +and tapering quite gradually, are dipped in the glue and driven down +into the saw-cuts, thus spreading the end of the tenon into a dovetail +until it fills the mortise (Fig. 601). It is often best to drive the +outer wedges nearer the edge of the tenon than is shown in Fig. 600, +lest the tenon-piece be split. + +[Illustration FIG. 601.] + +[Illustration FIG. 602.] + +The process is much the same when the tenon does not go through the +mortise-piece (Fig. 602). The mortise is undercut as before, and +saw-cuts are made in the end of the tenon. The wedges are carefully +planned and cut so that, when the tenon is finally in place, they will +be of the right size to spread it so as to fit the mortise. The wedges +must not be too long, so as to interfere with the tenon being driven +home or to break off. When you are sure the whole will go into place and +fit snugly, glue everything, start the wedges in the cracks, and drive +the tenon quickly to place. This will of course drive in the wedges, +which will spread the tenon at the end and fix it firmly. In fact, if +well done, you cannot get it out again. + +There are other forms of mortise and tenon, but they will be seldom +required by the amateur. See _Joints_. + + +=Nailing.=--To drive nails, hold the hammer near the end of the handle. +Do not, as is often done by boys and amateurs, grasp it close to the +head. The nearer the end of the handle you take hold, the harder blow +you can strike, just as the longer the handle, the harder the blow. Use +light strokes--mere taps--in starting the nail. After you are sure it is +going straight you can then use more force to drive it home. Do not try +to sink the nail-head quite flush with the wood. Leave that for the +nail-set. You may think that any slight depression you may make if the +hammer strikes the wood will be too slight to be seen, but that is not +so, as the slightest dent or depression will probably show in finished +work. + +The head of the hammer should be swung back and forth through an arc of +a circle of which the wrist is the centre. Do this carefully and +steadily and you will send the nail in quicker and straighter than when +you flourish the hammer wildly around in the air and bring it down with +a ferocious bang somewhere in the vicinity of the nail, as boys of all +ages have been known to do. + +Now, remembering that the hammer-head will (and should) swing around in +an arc of which your wrist is the centre, you must see that your wrist +is in such a position that the hammer-head can strike the nail +squarely--that is, the hammer-handle, when the head rests squarely on +the nail-head, must be in a line parallel with the flat surface of the +top of the nail (Fig. 603). If the wrist is much above or below this +line, the nail will be struck slantingly, and either be driven crooked +or bent (Fig. 604). + +[Illustration FIG. 603.] + +[Illustration FIG. 604.] + +First place the hammer in the correct driving position, and then swing +it back and forth as nearly in the same curve as you can. Practise this +motion a little on a soft piece of board to see how squarely you can +dent the board and how nearly you can hit the same dent with successive +strokes. + +Frequently a nail does not drive straight, but becomes bent and goes in +the wrong direction. If you withdraw it do not, as a rule, try to drive +another in the same hole, but start it in another place. Sometimes a +nail will be bent because the face of the hammer-head has glue or grease +on it. In such a case rub it on a piece of fine sandpaper or in the +ashes or the ground. + +Holes should always be bored when there is any chance of splitting, or +when _slender_ nails are driven into _hard_ wood (lest they bend), but +remember that the hole, particularly in the inner piece, should not be +quite as large as the nail. With nails having large heads it does not +matter in hard wood if the holes in the outer piece are about as large +as the nails, provided the latter drive tightly into the inner piece. + +[Illustration RIGHT. WRONG. FIG. 605.] + +The hole made by a brad-awl is better, when it does not split the wood, +than one made by a bit or drill, because it does not remove the wood but +merely presses it aside, so that when the nail is driven the fibres tend +to spring back to their original position and close in around the nail, +helping to hold it in place. + +In driving the old-fashioned nails, which have two sides parallel, while +the other two incline toward the point or taper, they should be used on +the same principle on which you use the brad-awl. If placed the other +way, the wedge shape of the nail will tend to separate the fibres and +split the wood (Fig. 605). With nails having two sides smooth and two +rough, as you pick them up you can tell by the fingers which way to hold +them, the rough sides going across the grain and the smooth sides with +it. + +Nails will drive into hard wood easier if you touch the points to +grease, tallow, lard, or soap. + +[Illustration FIG. 606.] + +[Illustration FIG. 607.] + +[Illustration FIG. 608.] + +_"Toe" Nailing._--If you wish nails to hold as much as possible, toe +them--that is, slant them (Fig. 606). You can see at a glance that the +board will be held much tighter than if the nails were driven straight +up and down. Of course you cannot always drive nails this way, and there +are many cases in which you would gain nothing, but it takes only a +moment longer to toe nails, and it is often very useful where you wish +to be sure that the work will hold together. There are many cases where +you cannot nail any other way, as when you fasten a stud to the top of a +sill (Fig. 607), and you can see at once that it is advantageous. Of +course this is not a good method for work which you may wish to take +apart again. + +Slanting the nails helps to draw one piece tightly up to another, as is +often desirable for a tight box or a floor (Fig. 608). You can increase +this effect, after you have driven the nail part way in, by drawing the +hammer towards you as you strike, or in the direction towards which the +nail points, thus bending the upper part of it toward the other piece, +which tends to make a tight joint. + +_Clinching Nails._--The way to clinch nails is simply to drive them +through against a heavy hammer, or any solid metal object, held on the +other side. As the point comes through it is gradually turned over or +hooked around into the wood and when the head is driven home the point +will be firmly embedded in the wood. Another way is to simply strike the +projecting ends with light, slanting blows. This will gradually bend or +curl the point over to one side, and as it bends over you can pound more +directly downward until the hooked end of the nail is buried in the +wood. Clinching is very useful for many purposes, as in nailing cleats +on a shed door. It is usually best to bend the nails over in the +direction of the grain, rather than across it. + +Whether to clinch or toe the nails must depend on the work. Clinching is +better for anything that is to be slammed or subjected to violent +treatment, while in many cases toeing is better, and frequently you +cannot reach the points of the nails to clinch them. + +_Blind nailing_ is resorted to in order to have a clear, smooth surface, +as in floors laid with matched-boards. Each board is nailed just above +the tongue, with the nails slanting through the solid part of the board +(Fig. 609). This holds the board down and tends to force it closer to +the adjoining board. The grooved edge of the next board entirely +conceals the nailing and leaves an unbroken surface. + +[Illustration FIG. 609.] + +[Illustration FIG. 610.] + +Another form of concealed nailing, known as "_sliver_" nailing, is +sometimes practised in inside work (sometimes in putting up "inside +finish"). A little shaving is raised with the gouge (an _inside_ gouge +is best) or a narrow chisel, where the nail is to go, and curled away +sufficiently to drive and set the nail (Fig. 610). Hot glue is then +dabbed into the groove, the shaving (which is only raised at one end and +not detached from the wood) is pressed back into place, and the spot +rubbed with sandpaper drawn around a flat block until the shaving is +firmly glued where it belongs. This takes but a moment or two, and when +the work is finally smoothed and finished the place cannot be detected, +if the operation has been properly done. This is convenient to know in +case you have to drive a nail where there is objection to its being +seen. + +See _Withdrawing Nails_. + + +=Nails.=--There are many kinds of nails, many more than is worth while +to specify here, as you will probably use those of wire for most of your +work. When another kind would be preferable (as is the case for some +purposes) it will be specified. The nails in common use before the +introduction of those of wire were known as "cut," being stamped from a +sheet of metal, and "wrought," the latter kind being much older and +originally forged by hand into shape, one by one (hence the name), but +now commonly made by machine. The expressions three-penny, eight-penny, +ten-penny, etc., indicate the length, and come from an old custom of so +designating the lengths, but you need only to call for them by the +length, as 2 inch or 2-3/4 inch, in order to get what you want, and you +can easily select whatever degree of stoutness you need. Copper or +galvanised nails and tacks will be needed for your boat-building, copper +being preferable, particularly for salt water. + +[Illustration FIG. 611.] + + +=Nail-Set, or Punch.=--The nail-set, for sinking nail-heads below the +surface, is quite important, and it is well to have a large one and a +fine one. The end of the set or punch must not be allowed to become +rounding or it will be all the time slipping off the nail-head and +punching holes in the surrounding wood. A slight conical depression in +the end of the set is good. Do not use a file for a nail-set, for the +end is too hard and will dent the face of the hammer-head. + +When setting nails, hold the nail-set firmly against the little finger, +placing the latter on the wood close to the head of the nail, as shown +in Fig. 611. This will keep the set from slipping off the nail-head and +damaging the work. + + +=Nippers.=--A pair of these will often be of use in wood-working +operations. + + +=Odd-Jobs.=--A very simple combined tool known as "Odd-jobs" can be used +as a marking-gauge, mortise-gauge, scratch-awl, try-square, T-square, +depth-gauge, mitre-square, spirit-level and plumb, inside-square, and +beam-compass. It is well suited to much amateur work, and is cheap. + + +=Oil.=--Sperm oil is good to use with your oil-stones. Kerosene is good. +Lard oil can be used. All thick and gummy oils should be avoided. Never +use linseed oil or any similar vegetable oil, as it is not a good +lubricator, and gums the stone. Glycerine thinned with turpentine or +alcohol is sometimes used, and even turpentine alone. For oil for +finishing and painting, see _Finishing_ and _Painting_. + + +=Oil-stone.=--It is very essential to have a good oil-stone. They can be +found of many degrees of fineness. Those of very fine and hard grain, +which give a keen edge but cut very slowly, will not be found so well +adapted to your use as those of moderate coarseness and softness, which +cut faster. The stone known as Red Washita is good to use for +wood-working tools, as it cuts rapidly. It should be free from hard +spots. The Arkansas stone produces a very fine edge, but is of so fine +texture that it is not so well adapted for your tools as a coarser +stone, unless you happen to find a quick-cutting one. The Turkey stone +will produce a keen edge, but is not so good for your use. + +Some stones (and excellent ones) cut best with water. When first trying +a new stone use water, and if the surface does not become at all glazed +or polished it will not be necessary for you to use oil. + +The stone should always be kept covered when not in use, to protect it +from the dust and dirt. Set it in a block with a cover or make a box for +it. Always wipe it clean after using, to remove the paste of ground +stone, steel, and oil left on the surface. + +When an oil-stone becomes unevenly worn, it can be trued by rubbing it +around on a sheet of sandpaper fastened on a flat surface, like the side +of a board. Water can be used in this operation. + +In addition to the ordinary flat oil-stone, slips of stone of various +shapes are useful, a common and useful form being that shown in Fig. +612, wedge-shaped on one edge and convex on the other. If you have +V-tools, carving gouges, or other tools sharpened on the inside, you +must have slips of stone of various shapes with which to sharpen them. +See _Oil_ and _Sharpening_. + +[Illustration FIG. 612.] + + +=Painting.=--You can paint your work very satisfactorily--perhaps not +quite as well or quickly as a skilled painter by trade, but well enough +for all practical purposes if you observe carefully a few simple +principles. If you disregard them and think, like many amateurs, that +anyone can paint right off the first time without any knowledge or +thought, your painting will be botch-work. + +Keep your work well painted. It is cheaper in the end to paint +frequently and keep the work protected from the decay and damage due to +exposure--not to speak of the better appearance. + +Do not use cheap paint, unless, of course, for some cheap or temporary +purpose, and it is most important that the first or "priming" coat +should be of good quality. If you are obliged to use inferior paint at +all, use the best for the first coat and the poorer quality outside +rather than the reverse, but it is economy of money and time to use good +paint throughout. + +Prepared liquid paints are the simplest, handiest, and cleanest for +amateur work, and (if you do not try to economise on the quality) the +best for you to use for many purposes, but for outside work (work +exposed to the weather) you can probably do no better than to use the +best quality of white lead and oil,[48] coloured if desired, which costs +less, is more durable, and which you can easily mix yourself, or buy +already mixed of a painter. If you need but a little, you can get a pot +of paint with suitable brush at a paint shop, returning what you do not +use and paying by weight. But if you have much painting to do, it is +better and cheaper to have your own brushes and paint. The prepared +paints of any colour you can also buy in the form of paste, to be +thinned when used, which is usually cheaper than the prepared paint in +liquid form. + +The white lead you can buy by the pound, ground and already thinned with +oil, or, what is perhaps more reliable, ground in the form of paste +ready to be thinned with oil or, if for inside work, with turpentine. +White lead, which is also the basis or an ingredient of the prepared +paints, is a poisonous and unhealthful substance. There is, however, but +slight danger (practically none) from such painting as you will do. But +it is well to wear old clothes when you paint, and carefully wash the +hands and face as soon as the work is done, and in case of continued +indoor painting to see that the room is well ventilated. The mere odour +from a can of paint is enough to make some people feel ill, as you may +know, while it can be used for a long time by others apparently without +harm. + +In regard to coloured paints, the simplest way is to buy your colours +ready mixed in oil, to be thinned for use, or in liquid form of any +desired colour, prepared to use upon opening the can. You can, however, +colour or tint your paint yourself with various dry colours, which you +can buy in the form of powder at the paint shops for a few cents. It +takes but very little of most colours. Do not stir these dry colours +directly into your paint, but first mix them with oil or turpentine. + +It requires considerable knowledge of colours and their combinations to +know how to mix different colours or shades to produce some particular +shade, or to match some tint, but when the exact shade makes no +difference you will have no great difficulty in producing the colour you +wish. Test the shade of your paint on a piece of wood. The way it looks +in the paint-pot is often very deceptive. In making a shade darker, +especially when tinting white paint, be careful to add but a very +little of the darker pigment at first and be sure that it is thoroughly +mixed, or you will be likely to find after you have begun to paint that +you have a much darker shade than you intended. It is surprising how +small a quantity is sometimes needed to tint a whole canful of white +paint--the merest dab of chrome yellow will tint a quart of white paint +to a good cream shade. Remember that it is much easier to add a little +more colour if the result is not dark enough than to lighten the shade +if too dark. + +Linseed oil (either raw or boiled) is required with which to mix the +lead and thin it to the proper consistency. Raw oil is best for outside +work that is exposed to the weather, as it is more penetrating and more +adhesive, although slower in drying than boiled oil. Boiled oil does +very well for inside work where it is not exposed to the weather. There +is some difference of opinion, however, in regard to the use of the two +kinds. + +Turpentine is also used for thinning paint. It makes the paint flow +easily and is freely used for that reason, but it probably detracts from +the durability of all paint if used lavishly and should never be used +for outside work. It is commonly used for inside work and causes the +paint to work more freely and smoothly from the brush and to dry more +quickly. It gives the paint that dull, soft, or "dead" appearance often +desired in inside work, instead of the shiny surface which is produced +when mixed with linseed oil alone. + +It is usual to add to the paint something else, known as a "dryer," to +cause it to dry more quickly. Japan is one of the best of these +preparations, but be careful to use very little of any form of dryer, as +it is undoubtedly injurious to the durability of the paint and liable to +cause cracking and checking. Avoid all kinds of "chain-lightning" +dryers. Do not add a dryer to the colour until just before you use the +paint and only to the amount you are to use at one time. + +Another ingredient, which is not injurious to use, is zinc, but zinc +paints are considered inferior. Red lead is commonly used to paint iron +and is considered very durable for that purpose. Black japan varnish is +often used. Iron must always be dry and it will be better to have it +warm also. + +Be sure that your work is thoroughly dry before beginning to paint, else +the wood will be liable to decay, or the paint to peel, or both. Do not +paint wood before it is thoroughly seasoned. Look the work over +carefully and see that it is ready in all respects, before applying the +paint. See that the surface is free from dust. + +Look over the work for any knots or streaks of resinous or pitchy matter +and wash them with a coat or two of shellac, to "kill" the turpentine +and prevent its oozing through and spoiling the paint. + +Try to mix enough, and only enough, paint for the coat you are about to +put on, but do not mix a great quantity in advance with the idea of +keeping it on hand. + +The first coat should be thin rather than thick--with plenty of oil to +saturate the wood. The oil will be quickly drawn into the wood, and you +can readily see that the first coat should be thin to properly soak into +the surface. If thick, the paint will not be sufficiently absorbed, but +the oil will soak in quickly, leaving too much residue of the pigment on +the outside. Work this first coat well into the wood. Take up but little +paint, and draw the brush carefully over the edge of the pail,[49] or +over a wire stretched across the top, to remove any superfluity of +paint, and begin the painting at the highest part of the work, or the +part farthest from you, to prevent spattering or dripping paint over the +freshly covered surface. Begin, also, at one end or side of the surface, +working toward the other end or side, drawing the brush back and forth +both ways to distribute the paint as evenly and smoothly as possible, +and try not to leave any part of a surface untouched until another time, +or it will be likely to show a "lap" where you end and begin--that is, +if you cannot cover the work entirely at one time, leave off where there +is some natural line or break in the work. Finish the side or the end +and do not leave off right in the middle of a flat surface. This does +not matter quite so much in the priming, but will show plainly in the +later coats. + +After this coat has had time to dry thoroughly, carefully putty the +holes and cracks. Remember never to use the putty until after at least +one coat of paint has been applied and dried. The reason for this is +that the fresh wood will quickly absorb the oil from the putty, leaving +it dry and crumbly, while if a coat of paint has been put on first and +dried, the wood will be already charged, so to speak; the pores will be +more or less choked up and the bulk of the oil will remain in the putty. + +Paint with the grain of the wood, or the long way of the work, using a +large brush for large surfaces and finishing all corners, mouldings, and +edges with a small brush. In doors or panel-work first paint the panels, +then the rails, then the styles (see Fig. 505). You will thus follow the +construction of the work and the grain of the wood, and where you daub +the paint beyond the part you are painting (as you will have to do), the +daub will be wiped out neatly when you paint the next part. + +Paint joints in outside work, tenons and mortises, shoulders, etc., +before putting together, with good white lead. It is not always +customary to paint the hidden parts of joints before putting together, +particularly in cheap work, but it is well to do so in all work which +you wish to have endure, in all framework exposed to water and the +weather, and in boat-building. Exposed work quickly decays at the joints +and seams because the water and dampness collect in such places and do +not run off or evaporate as readily as from a smooth surface, so the +more you can protect these hidden parts with paint, the better, and the +labour is but slight. + +When you have paint left in the paint-pot which you wish to keep for use +another time, pour just enough raw linseed oil over the top to cover it +completely. This thin layer of oil will exclude the air and keep the +paint from hardening. When you wish to use it again, pour off the oil or +stir it into the paint, according to whether the latter requires more +oil or not. When you get through painting, if you are going to do more +in a short time, it will do to leave the brush in the paint, but do not +leave it standing or resting on the bottom of the can, as that tends to +bend the ends of the bristles and get the brush out of shape. Rig a wire +hook on the handle and hang the brush so that the bristles will be +covered by the paint, but without touching the bottom. If you are not +going to use the brush again for some time, it should be cleaned and put +away. Turpentine is often used, but kerosene answers every purpose. Be +careful to wash out all the paint, however, as a very little left +between the bristles will stick them together so as sometimes to ruin +the brush. Another way to keep brushes which are in use is to hang them +from the handles in a can partially filled with oil, the whole being +kept covered. Water can be used instead of oil. Arrange it so that the +hairs will be just covered. + +The first coat especially should be given plenty of time to dry, for it +is the _foundation_ and _basis_ of the whole operation and the firmness +and durability of the painting depends much upon it. + +Each succeeding coat should have plenty of time to dry before applying +another, bearing in mind that applying a second coat, before the first +is fully hard, excludes the air from the under layer of paint and causes +it to dry much more slowly than if left exposed as it should be. In such +cases, the outside surface may often seem to be dry and hard while the +paint underneath remains comparatively soft. When the first layer +finally does dry, the tendency is to crack the surface of the outside, +which has dried first. You can find an extreme illustration of this +point in some old paint and varnish shop where some convenient place on +the wall has been taken against which to slap and work brushes. You can +find daubs of old paint and varnish, sometimes an inch thick, made up in +this way of hundreds of layers slapped on before the previous ones were +dry, the inside remaining soft in some cases after twenty years. + +Paint dries, as a rule, more quickly in a warm temperature than where it +is cold, and more quickly where it is dry than where it is damp. So, if +you are obliged to paint where it is cold or damp, you will be justified +in using more dryer than where it is warm and dry. + +Sandpaper _nice_ inside work after the first coat and between each two +successive coats. Pumice can be used for old inside work to be +repainted. Steel wool can also be used. + +Keep a rag with you, when painting, to wipe off the spattering which you +will be sure to make. It is not easy to get daubs of paint off after +they are hard. + +Turpentine will take the paint from your hands, but common kerosene will +clean them satisfactorily when the paint is fresh, and is probably +better for the hands. + + +=Panels.=--See _Doors_ and _Panels_. + + +=Panel-Saw.=--See _Saw_. + + +=Paring.=--In paring or trimming a piece of wood to a line, if there is +much surplus wood to be removed, you can sometimes chop pretty boldly +with the hatchet until you get near the line, provided you watch the +direction of the grain carefully to see that the split cannot run up to +the line; sometimes you can chop safely in one direction but not in the +opposite (Fig. 613), but as a rule keep well away from the line for the +first cut. Even wood that appears to be quite straight-grained will +often split differently from the way you expect. + +[Illustration FIG. 613.] + +[Illustration FIG. 614.] + +[Illustration FIG. 615.] + +To trim a piece of wood, like the edge of a board, down to a line, with +a hatchet, for instance, you can first score the piece with a series of +short cuts, stopping short of the line, to break up the grain of the +wood, and then trim these loosened chips off down to the line with the +plane, chisel, draw-knife, or whatever tool may be suitable. The main +point is to cut in such a direction that the grain will not cause the +cuts to extend farther than the line or to run into the main piece of +wood (Fig. 614). The same principle can be applied often in trimming and +removing superfluous wood with a chisel, a draw-knife, or a knife. The +cuts can often be made with the saw to better advantage (Fig. 614). It +takes a little more time to make these cross-cuts with hatchet, knife, +chisel, or saw than to whack away furiously lengthways, as if you were +chopping kindling, but after you have spoiled a few pieces by splitting +beyond the line you will conclude that the former is the more +workmanlike and reliable way. + +This same principle is applicable to making chamfers or bevels with a +chisel or knife (Fig. 615). You will find frequent occasion to apply +this principle of breaking the grain into small pieces before making the +final cuts in many kinds of work. It is in constant use in "roughing +out" carving. + +[Illustration FIG. 616.] + +To trim to a curve as shown in Fig. 616, begin at the edge just +_outside_ of the end of the curve and work _with_ the grain from _a_ to +_b_. It is often a help in such cases to first remove part of the wood +with the saw, as on the lines _bc_ and then _ef._ Finally trim the +curve smoothly close to the line. Frequently this can be done to better +advantage with the work held in the vise instead of lying horizontally +on the bench. + +[Illustration FIG. 617. RIGHT. WRONG.] + +Paring off superfluous wood down to a given line or trimming off an +irregular edge with the chisel is very easily done provided the grain of +the wood is straight, or runs in the same direction, even if slanting, +as in Fig. 617, because you can then cut with the grain. It is often +better, however, to cut across the grain, or diagonally, with the +chisel, as the wood is less likely to be split by the tool. + +When the grain runs in several directions, and keeps cropping up to the +surface and dipping down again as shown in Fig. 701, it becomes more +difficult to pare the surface smoothly with the chisel. In such a case +remember the sliding or drawing stroke and traverse the surface with a +diagonal crossways motion (Fig. 619) that will trim off the fibres with +a slanting stroke without causing them to be torn up. Slant the cut so +that if the wood should tend to split, it will be in the direction of +the part cut away and not towards the piece to be kept--_i.e._, so that +the chips will split and not the body of the wood. Reverse the chisel +and cut in the opposite direction when a change in the direction of the +grain requires it. Some pieces are, however, so extremely irregular that +you cannot do this, but must slice away the best that you can and leave +the rest to other tools. In cutting off a corner or rounding or +bevelling an edge you can use the slanting cut (Fig. 620). + +[Illustration FIG. 619.] + +[Illustration FIG. 620.] + +In using the chisel for paring, let the left hand, which is nearer the +cutting-edge than the right, act as a brake or countercheck or drag to +check the progress of the tool. It is largely by the varying balance of +these two forces--the pushing forward of the tool with the right hand +and the checking and controlling with the left--that correct and +effective control of the tool is gained. The left hand should in many +cases rest upon or grasp the wood as well as the blade. See _Chisel_. + + +=Paring-Chisel.=--See _Chisel_. + + +=Parting-Tool.=--See _Carving Tools_. + + +=Pencil.=--See _Marking_. + + +=Pincers.=--There are various kinds of _pincers_, _pliers_, and +_nippers_. A pair of common pliers and also cutting nippers will be very +useful. + + +=Plane.=--A plane is in principle (roughly speaking), as you will +readily see, nothing but a chisel stuck through a block of wood or iron. +Small or narrow surfaces may be smoothed to a certain degree by the +chisel, the knife, or even the hatchet, but for large surfaces something +is needed which can be more exactly controlled than the knife, ax, or +chisel, held in the hands. So, to hold the chisel firmly in one position +and to apply force to it more advantageously, it is firmly fixed in a +block of convenient size and shape and becomes a plane. + +A very short block will prevent the chisel cutting deeper at one point +than another, but the tool will follow the irregularities of the surface +and, though it may make the surface smooth, it will not make it level, +or flat; so the block is made longer, that it may not go down into all +the little hollows, but plane off only the higher parts. + +The two essential parts of a plane are the _iron_ and the _stock_. The +bottom surface of the stock is called the _sole_ or _face_ (_ab_ in Fig. +621), the wedge-shaped hole where the iron goes is called the _throat_ +(_c_), and the slot at the bottom through which the edge of the iron +projects is called the _mouth_ (_d_). + +[Illustration FIG. 621.] + +Bear in mind that the shape of the cut made by the plane will be a +reversed copy of the shape of the cutting-edge. If the edge is rounding, +the cut will be hollowing. If the edge is hollowing, the cut will be +rounding. If the edge is straight, the cut will be straight. If the edge +is nicked, ridges will be left on the wood. + +If buying new, you will do best, as a rule, to get iron planes, though +very good ones can be had with wooden stocks, but with the convenient +appliances of the iron planes. Some workmen still prefer the old wooden +planes, but it is better to buy iron ones. + +[Illustration FIG. 622.] + +[Illustration FIG. 623.] + +The _jack-plane_ is used for coarse work and to rough off the surface +with large shavings, ready for the other planes. Fourteen or fifteen +inches is a good length. The edge of the iron is not ground squarely +across, like the chisel, but is rounded slightly so as to cut deeper in +the middle (Fig. 622). Heavy shavings can be cut and the rough outside +of a piece of wood taken off quicker and easier than with a more +squarely ground iron, but it does not leave the surface smooth, as the +strokes of the jack-plane form a series of hollows and ridges (Fig. 623, +exaggerated). After taking off the rough surface with the iron +projecting considerably, you can of course set the iron finer, and by +going over the work several times you can take off the worst of the +ridges, but without a great deal of labour you can never get a really +smooth surface with a plane that cuts hollows. A common use of the +jack-plane is for "traversing," or planing across the grain, which is +often the quickest and easiest way to reduce a surface to the desired +shape, and for cleaning off where pieces have been glued together. If +you should use a jack-plane to do the work of a fore-plane, have it +ground more squarely across like the fore-plane. + +If you use an old-fashioned wooden plane, take the handle in your right +hand, laying your left over the top and side, just a little in front of +the iron, with the thumb towards you and the fingers on the farther +side, as shown in Fig. 624. This position allows you to bear weight on +the fore part of the plane when necessary and to control the tool to the +best advantage. This applies to the old-fashioned wooden planes. If your +plane is iron, there is a handle or knob for the left hand which you +simply grasp in a natural way. + +Push the jack-plane forward steadily an arm's-length. Then stop and +start afresh for another arm's-length stroke. When drawing the plane +back tip it on the farther edge. The cap or break-iron can be set quite +far back from the edge for rough work, about one eighth inch, but much +nearer for finer work. + +[Illustration FIG. 624.] + +In these days when almost everything is planed by machinery with greater +or less smoothness, you will probably not have much use for a jack-plane +unless you find you have a good deal of rough planing to do yourself. + +[Illustration FIG. 625.] + +The _fore-plane_ or _trying-plane_ is longer and larger than the +jack-plane. Eighteen to twenty-two inches is a good length. It is used +to straighten and level the surface after the worst roughness has been +taken off. The surface having been roughed off by the jack-plane, the +fore-plane is not required to take off such heavy shavings and the iron +is therefore ground squarely across like a chisel, but very slightly +rounded at the corners (Fig. 625). It is held in the same way as the +jack-plane, but the stroke should be long and steady, for the +fore-plane, which is long, will straighten the surface, and smooth it +also. The iron can project more for soft and loose-grained woods than +for hard, and the cap or break-iron should be nearer the edge for hard +woods. + +The _jointer_ (22" to 30" in length) or _long jointer_ (from 24" to +30"), is still longer than the fore-plane and correspondingly more +accurate for making a surface level and true, or for shooting the edges +of boards. Twenty-four inches is a good length. It is very useful for +making joints to be glued, and is used in the same way as the +fore-plane, the stroke being continued steadily the whole length of the +piece if possible. + +The _smoothing-plane_ is used, as its name indicates, for the final +smoothing of the surface, so far as it can be done with a plane. It is +from five to ten inches long. + +It is an invaluable plane to the amateur, and the beginner can get along +very well for a great deal of work with no other, for stock can be +bought ready planed and can easily be trued and jointed, when necessary, +at any wood-working mill or shop at slight expense. + +[Illustration FIG. 626.] + +A plane with a short stock, as the smoothing-plane, will make your work +smooth, but it is hard to make it straight and level or true with such a +tool, because, being short, it will follow the larger irregularities of +the surface and will only plane off the smaller inequalities. It will go +up and down over the hills and valleys of the wood, so to speak, while a +longer plane cannot do this, but will cut off the tops of the hills +until the surface is made level, as shown in Fig. 626. The +smoothing-plane is therefore merely to _smooth_ the surface after it has +been straightened by a longer plane, or in cases where smoothness only +is essential and it is not required that the surface should be true. +Small pieces can, of course, be straightened and trued by the +smoothing-plane alone. + +A wooden smoothing-plane can be held as shown in Fig. 627. An iron plane +can be used by laying the hand naturally over the knob for the purpose. + +[Illustration FIG. 627.] + +The _block-plane_ is small and is meant chiefly for planing across the +ends of pieces (for planing "end-grain"), but it is also frequently +useful in other directions. The iron is usually set at a more acute +angle with the face of the stock than in the other planes and with the +bevel upwards, and the width of the mouth is often adjustable, which is +a convenience. A block-plane is made which can, by means of a detachable +side, be used as a rabbet-plane. The block-plane makes a quite good +substitute for a smoothing-plane for amateur work and is a very useful +little tool. + +The _toothed-plane_ is about the size of the smoothing-plane, but the +iron is corrugated or scored with grooves lengthwise, so that one side +of the cutting-edge of the iron, instead of being smooth, is notched +into little teeth somewhat like a fine saw or the edge of a file, and +the iron is inserted in the body of the plane almost vertically. This +plane makes scratches all along its course instead of taking off +shavings. It is used in veneering and in gluing other surfaces. It can +frequently be used to good advantage to break up the grain where two +edges or surfaces are to be glued together, so that the glue may hold +the two rough surfaces together more strongly, upon somewhat the same +principle that the plastering on a lathed wall holds its place tightly +through the hold it gets on the cracks between the laths, intentionally +left for the purpose. The toothed-plane is used for this purpose in +veneering. The idea upon which this tool is based originated with the +Orientals, who have for ages scratched or toothed the joints of their +wood-work. + +It can also be used to subdue a refractory piece of crooked grain which +you wish to get smooth, but which may crop to the surface in such a way +that you cannot plane it without chipping the grain. By scratching the +surface thoroughly in all directions with the toothed-plane set very +fine, the obstinate fibres can be broken so that the surface can be +smoothed with the scraper, not using the smoothing-plane. As a matter +of fact, however, if you cannot smooth a piece of wood, the trouble is +_usually_ with the edge of the plane-iron or its adjustment, or with +your manner of planing, for a _very keen_ edge is supposed to be able to +cut the most obstinate grain, unless, of course, the wood is +extraordinarily hard. + +The _bull-nosed-plane_ has the iron close to the fore end of the stock, +to work into corners and awkward places which cannot be reached by the +smoothing- or block-planes. The iron is reversed. A very small plane +(perhaps four inches long) of this kind is useful. + +The _circular-plane_ is used for planing curved surfaces, the sole being +now made of a thin, flexible metal plate and adjustable so that either +concave or convex surfaces can be smoothed. It is very useful at times, +but is not essential for an amateur. + +The _rabbet-plane_, which is used to cut rabbets, as the name indicates, +is a useful tool, but in most cases you can dispense with it by having +rabbets cut at a mill. + +A _router_, for cleaning out and smoothing the bottoms of grooves and +depressions, is very useful at times. + +There is a variety of other planes for special purposes, as the +_plough_, _matching-planes_, _hollow_ and _round planes_, +_beading-planes_, etc., as well as various _combination_ and +"_universal_" _planes_. Many of these are excellent, but, as a rule, are +not important for the amateur in these days, as the work they do can be +so easily and cheaply done at a mill. You will seldom feel the need of +buying any of them, unless you live where you cannot reach a factory. + +[Illustration FIG. 628.] + +[Illustration FIG. 629.] + +You will find it important to bear in mind the purpose of the cap or +dull iron screwed upon one side of the cutting-iron, in what are called +"double-ironed" planes. A plane with a single iron, like a chisel, will +cut satisfactorily and easily for straight-grained, soft wood, and for +hard wood when planing with the grain, but many pieces of stock are +difficult to plane, because the grain does not run in the same way, but +turns and twists, cropping up to the surface and dipping down again in +all sorts of curious and perplexing ways. In planing them the wood is +likely to be continually chipping or tearing and breaking off below the +surface, instead of planing smoothly like a piece of straight-grained +pine, leaving dents and rough hollows over the surface. The natural +tendency of the plane-iron is to split the wood in front of the iron in +such cases (Fig. 628). To remedy this the plane has a double iron. An +iron or cap with a dull edge is screwed on to the face of the +cutting-iron (Fig. 629) so as to help bend and break off the shavings +before the split gets fairly started (Fig. 630), when the iron can cut +it smoothly off. The thickness of the shavings is greatly exaggerated in +the cuts for the sake of illustration. + +[Illustration FIG. 630.] + +The cutting edge is said to have "lead" in proportion to the distance it +is in advance of the cap-iron. The cap can be set some little distance +from the edge for the jack-plane, as far as an eighth of an inch, but +with the fore-plane and smoothing-plane it must be set quite close to +the edge, the distance varying according to the character of the wood. +The more crooked or cross-grained the wood, the nearer the dull iron is +brought down towards the edge of the sharp one. The nearer the edge, the +smoother the result, but the harder to work the plane. + +[Illustration FIG. 631.] + +Something more than the break-iron is required, however, to insure +breaking the shavings. There must be an angle, against which they can be +broken, close in front of the cutting edge and above the shaving. This +angle is the forward edge of the mouth or slot in the sole through which +the iron projects (Fig. 631). Thus the width of the mouth makes a +difference in the smoothness of the surface, for a narrow mouth is +necessary to ensure the shaving being readily broken by the cap. With a +wide mouth, the shaving will not be broken by the cap in time, because +there is no corner against which to break it. + +With straight-grained wood this does not make so much difference, but +with crooked and broken grain narrowness of mouth is quite essential to +a smooth surface, provided that the opening is wide enough to allow the +shaving to pass through freely. Rough and knotty wood requires the mouth +very narrow and the iron set very fine (_i.e._, projecting but very +little from the sole) and the cap quite near the edge. + +The modern iron planes have simple appliances for setting or adjusting +the projection of the iron from the sole and thus regulating the +thickness of the shaving. If, however, you are obliged to use the +old-fashioned wooden planes, you raise the iron in the same way that you +loosen it for removal, by lightly tapping on the top of the fore end of +the stock, keeping hold of the plane with the left hand so as to prevent +the iron falling through if loosened too much. When the iron is raised +enough, fix it in place by tapping on top of the "chip" (Fig. 621, _e_) +or wedge which holds it in place. To lower the cutting edge, loosen as +before and, checking the edge with the finger, let it project the +required distance, which you can tell about by looking along the sole +(Fig. 632), and fix in place by tapping the "chip" as before. This is +the process used in removing the iron for sharpening and replacing it, +the chip being removed as well as the iron. Any carpenter will show you +the operation. Always hold the plane in the left hand in all these +adjusting operations. Do not strike or tap any part of it while it rests +on the bench or on anything solid. + +To smooth a rough piece of wood, use first the jack-plane, to remove the +rough surface and superfluous wood, and then the fore-plane, to +straighten and smooth the surface. If there is no need to have the +surface true, but only smooth, you can omit using the fore-plane and +follow the jack-plane at once by the smoothing-plane. With ordinary +machine-planed stock you do not usually need the jack-plane, though it +is sometimes useful in reducing a piece of wood to a given shape. + +Before beginning to plane, see that all dirt or grit which might dull +the tool is brushed from the surface. + +Turn the plane over and sight along the sole (Fig. 632), not merely to +see that the iron projects to the required degree, but also to see that +it projects equally, lest one side or corner of the iron should cut more +deeply than the other, and thus make a groove or scratch on the wood +(Fig. 633). The latest iron planes have appliances to adjust any +inequality of this sort, but if your plane is not so arranged a little +tapping on one side of the upper end of the iron will correct the +trouble. Try the plane on a waste piece before beginning on nice work. + +[Illustration FIG. 632.] + +Plane with the grain, as a rule, and the fibres will be cut off cleanly +where they crop up to the surface and your work will be left smooth. If +you plane against the grain, some of the fibres will tend to splinter or +chip off just below the surface before they are cut off (Fig. 634). + +Stand behind the work with the plane before you. Plane with the arms +(and from the shoulder), not with the whole body. Try to shove the plane +straight ahead, also to plane as equally and evenly as possible over the +surface; for while it is comparatively easy to get a surface smooth it +is quite another thing to keep it true or to make it true if warped or +winding. + +[Illustration FIG. 633.] + +The natural tendency, and a common fault, is to begin and end the stroke +as shown in Fig. 635. Rolling the body back and forth, instead of +pushing steadily with the arms from the shoulder, aggravates this +trouble. The result of this way (which is unconscious at first) is that +the surface after planing is apt to be as shown in Fig. 636. To prevent +this, press down with the _left_ hand on the _forward_ part of the +plane during the _first_ part of the stroke, and with the _right_ hand +on the _rear_ part of the plane during the _last_ part of the stroke +(Fig. 637). + +[Illustration RIGHT. WRONG. FIG. 634.] + +In planing wood which is dirty or rough, it is best to lift the plane +from the work when drawing it back for a fresh stroke, or to draw it +back so that only the point touches the board, or to draw it back on +edge, but in planing small surfaces of clean wood it is not usually +worth while to take this precaution. + +[Illustration FIG. 635.] + +[Illustration FIG. 636.] + +[Illustration FIG. 637.] + +In planing pieces with crooked grain, turn the piece when practicable, +so as to plane as much of it with the grain as you can. But many pieces +are so crooked in grain that you cannot do this. So at times it is well +to turn your plane sideways to get a slicing cut and cross the grain at +an angle (Fig. 638); but as a rule the plane should be pushed straight +forward. + +A few drops of oil rubbed over the face of the plane will make it run +more smoothly, particularly on hard wood. + +[Illustration FIG. 638.] + +Test the accuracy of your planing of broad surfaces with a +straight-edge, the blade of a square, or the edge of the plane itself +(if straight). By applying such a straight-edge across the surface or +lengthways or diagonally you can tell whether your work is straight and +true (Fig. 639). Also "sight" with your eye. If the surface is large or +long, winding-sticks can be used (see _Winding-sticks_). In planing +edges test lengthways with the eye and straight-edge of some sort, and +crossways by applying the try-square (Fig. 640). (See _Jointing_.) + +[Illustration FIG. 639.] + +It is, of course, harder to plane a broad surface, as the side of a +board, than a narrow one, as the edge. When planing a flat surface, as a +board, be careful not to plane off more at the edges than elsewhere +(Fig. 641), as you will be quite likely to do if you allow the plane to +tip sideways over the edge instead of keeping the sole parallel with the +flat surface. + +[Illustration FIG. 640.] + +When planing across end-grain with the block-plane or smoothing-plane, +either secure a waste piece of wood at the side where the planing ends, +to prevent the edge chipping off, as shown in Fig. 642, or plane from +both edges toward the middle (Fig. 643). + +The use of the straight-edge will give the necessary clue to the process +of making warped surfaces true. (See _Truing Surfaces_.) + +[Illustration FIG. 641.] + +[Illustration FIG. 642.] + +Whenever you make nice articles from wood planed by an ordinary cylinder +planer, the wood will seem quite smooth just as it is, but do not +neglect to smooth it carefully so as to take out all the "planer-marks" +or those little corrugations across the grain left by the machine will +often show clear across the room as soon as the work is finished. See +pages 44, 45, and 46, and also _Sharpening_. + +[Illustration FIG. 643.] + + +=Planing.=--See _Plane_, _Jointing_, _Truing Surfaces_. + + +=Plank, Laying.=--See _Boards_, _Laying_. + + +=Plough.=--See _Plane_. + + +=Plumb.=--You can make a plumb-line by merely hanging any weight at the +end of a cord, when the cord will of course be vertical as soon as it +stops swinging (Fig. 644). For convenience in using hang the cord on a +board as shown in Fig. 130. When the cord hangs exactly on the line or +at the apex of the notch the edge of the board will be vertical. + +A long board will give a more accurate test than a short one in most +cases, just as a long plane will make a straighter edge than a short +plane, for the long board will bridge over the irregularities of the +surface to be plumbed. For example, to take an exaggerated case, the +post plumbed as at _a_ (Fig. 645) is vertical, taken as a whole; while +the same post plumbed as at _b_ leans over, because the short board +happens to be placed where the surface of the post is not straight. + +[Illustration FIG. 644.] + +[Illustration FIG. 645.] + +[Illustration FIG. 646.] + +When the plumb-line is used to determine a point exactly over or under +another point, as in surveying, the bob is shaped with a point like a +top (Fig. 646). For making the plumb, see page 96. (See also _Level_.) + + +=Pod-Bit.=--See _Bits_. + + +=Punch= (=for Nails=).--See _Nail-set_. + + +=Putty.=--Common putty is (or should be) a mixture of linseed oil and +whiting of about the consistency of dough. A mixture of white lead +worked in with the whiting is, however, superior for some purposes, and +is better when but one coat of paint is to be put on after the puttying. +To colour putty, stir the colouring matter in a little oil and then work +and knead it into the putty until the whole is coloured. Keep putty +under water. Do not leave it wrapped in the paper in which you may take +it from the painter's, for the oil will be absorbed by the paper and the +putty will quickly become dry and hard. Use a square-bladed putty-knife +for flat surfaces, and do not use your fingers. See also _Holes, To +Stop_. + + +=Putty-Knife.=--An old case-knife can be used (better if reshaped +squarely across or to an obtuse angle), or, in fact, any knife, but a +regular putty-knife is best. + + +=Quill-Bit.=--See _Bits_. + + +=Rabbet.=--A rabbet is a recess or rectangular groove cut lengthways in +the edge of a piece of board, plank, or other timber (Fig. 284). It is +usually better for the amateur to get such work done at a mill, when +practicable, rather than to do it by hand. The rabbet-plane is, however, +a very useful tool to have. In some cases, as at the end of a piece, the +saw can be used, the lines for the rabbet having been carefully marked +with a knife or chisel. The chisel can also be used to make a rabbet, +much as in cutting a mortise, taking pains when driving the chisel down +next the line not to cut under or jam the wood beyond the line. In the +final trimming to the line, the chisel should be held with the flat side +toward the line. In removing the wood with the chisel, it is often best +to pare across the grain rather than with it (see _Paring_). + +A strip of wood can be clamped across the piece exactly on the line as a +guide for the saw and the sawing be done with the heel or rear corner of +the saw, keeping the latter close up to the gauge stick, and pieces are +sometimes even clamped to the saw itself to guide it, but such +arrangements, though useful expedients under some circumstances, are +hardly the most workmanlike methods. + + +=Rabbet-Plane.=--See _Plane_. + + +=Rasp.=--The rasp--only used for wood--is a sort of coarse file, but +instead of ridge-like teeth it is studded with projecting points, which +tear off the wood more quickly, but also more roughly, than the file. It +is extremely useful to remove surplus wood and to get curved objects +roughly into shape. One good-sized half-round (or "slab-sided") rasp +will be a great help. See _File_. + + +=Rasping.=--See _Filing_. + + +=Reamers.=--See _Bits_. + + +=Repairing Furniture.=--To repair thoroughly--to make things as strong +as when new and to leave no sign of the mending--often requires more +skill and ingenuity and more general knowledge of wood-working than to +make new articles. Skill in repairing comes not merely from general +knowledge of wood-working, but from experience and ingenuity in applying +your knowledge to new problems. You will rarely have two jobs of +repairing just alike, even if of the same kind, and the variety is +almost endless. It is, therefore, impossible to give rules to cover all +the different cases. In fact, to attempt to give complete directions for +repairing would be to describe the majority of operations used in +wood-working, and the reader is referred to other parts of the book for +whatever information it may contain. Suggestions on one or two points +may, however, be of use. + +Suppose the arm of a chair comes off, after having been stuck on with +glue perhaps a dozen times. How is it usually mended each time it comes +off? The family glue-pot, containing the dregs of all the glue used +since it was bought, is put on the stove, a little water poured in, and +as soon as the glue gets warmed into a thick paste a lot of it is daubed +on to the joints, on top of the thick coating they already have, and the +arm pushed as nearly into place as it will go. It is then usually left +for a few hours and sometimes even tied on with a string while the glue +dries. Of course it sticks for a while and then the usual result +follows. + +Now how should you go to work to do this properly? First clean off all +the old glue. This is important. You want to put the fresh glue on the +wood, not on top of the old glue; but do not scrape away the wood in +getting off the glue so that the parts will no longer fit. Next, see +whether the pieces will fit together as they should. If they will, then +contrive some way to clamp them in place while the glue is drying. +Sometimes hand-screws will do this, sometimes clamps, sometimes a rope +twisted, and often it will take all your ingenuity to contrive any +arrangement, but clamped they must be if you wish to be sure of a good +job. + +[Illustration FIG. 647.] + +The pieces often make an angle with one another, or are curved, so that +the clamps or hand-screws will not hold, but slip as fast as you tighten +them. In such a case the method shown in Fig. 647 can often be used. +Screw a hand-screw firmly on each side of the joint, rubbing chalk on +the insides of the jaws to help prevent slipping, and putting on the +hand-screws so that the jaws will be parallel. Then, by using two other +hand-screws, those first put on can be drawn towards one another and the +joint firmly closed. Then proceed to glue the parts as with new work. +For the way to do this see _Gluing_. + +In patching old work with new wood, pains should be taken to have the +wood match as well as possible, and, as a rule, pare or trim the new +pieces after they are glued in place rather than before. Staining to +match the older parts is often required (see _Staining_). See also +_Holes, To Stop_. + +The repaired joint may never be quite as strong as a new one, therefore +it is well to reinforce it with a block glued and screwed on the under +or inner side, in cases where this can be done without injuring the +appearance, as inside of the frame under a chair, sofa, or table. + +It is not uncommon, particularly in work which has come apart several +times, for the tenons to be too small. If you can glue on thin pieces to +make the tenon larger, trimming them afterwards to fit, it will be the +best way; but if the conditions do not admit of this, a little muslin, +laid in glue, can sometimes be wrapped around the tenon as the latter is +fitted to place. The same can sometimes be done with round pins or +dowels. The expedient of splitting and wedging tenons and dowels can +often be applied in repairing (see _Mortising_ and _Dowels_). + +Sometimes you may find it necessary to use screws in places where the +heads will show. In such cases first make, when possible, a neat round +or square hole with bit or chisel of sufficient diameter to admit the +head of the screw and deep enough to allow a shallow plug to be inserted +after the screw has been set (see _Holes, To Stop_). The hardest part in +finished work is to make the patch match the rest of the work. + +See also _Gluing_, _Clamps_, and whatever other operations may be +required. + + +=Ripping-Saw.=--See _Saw_. + + +=Rivets.=--In heading rivets hold another hammer or piece of metal, or +have someone else do so, against the head of the rivet while upsetting +the other end. + + +=Rounding Sticks.=--It is often required to round sticks for poles, +masts, spars, arrows, and a great many other purposes. First plane the +piece until it is as nearly _square_, in section, as you can make it. +Then use the form shown on page 95, which will hold the squared stick +firmly while you plane off the corners, making it _eight-sided_. Be +careful not to plane the corners off too much, for the eight sides of +the stick should be as nearly alike as possible. Next, if the stick is +large enough, plane off each of the eight corners so that it will be +_sixteen-sided_. This is about as far as you can go in this way, unless +the stick is very large. Set the plane quite fine for taking off these +corners or you may plane off too much before you know it. The rest of +the rounding you must do with light, fine strokes, testing by eye and by +passing your hand over the work (for you can judge a great deal by the +sense of touch). The rasp and file can often be used to good advantage. +The spoke-shave is good for the final smoothing, followed by the scraper +or glass (both of which can be curved) and sandpaper. The latter can be +used crosswise as well as lengthwise. Cut it in strips and pull it back +and forth around the stick, much as bootblacks put the final polish on +shoes with a strip of cloth (Fig. 648). + +[Illustration FIG. 648.] + +To hold large sticks for this final shaping and smoothing you can put +them in the vise, but if there are several, and large, it is better to +contrive some way to hold them after the fashion of the centres of a +lathe. For one centre, drive a nail or screw through a block or stick of +wood and screw the block in the vise (Fig. 649). Make the other centre +in the same way and fasten it at such a distance from the first centre +that the stick will just fit in between the two. Just how to fasten this +second centre will depend on the length of the stick to be rounded and +the arrangements of your shop, but you can easily contrive some way to +hold it. The stick held between these centres will be clear of +everything and can be turned around without trouble. The middle can be +supported, if necessary, by a piece of board or a strip lightly nailed +to the bench-top. + +Masts and spars should be "natural sticks," if possible, and the final +shaping and smoothing will be all they will require, for which some such +apparatus as that just described will save time and trouble. + +[Illustration FIG. 649.] + +To round small sticks, as spars for model boats, arrows, etc., the same +process should be followed so far as the small size of the sticks will +allow, as you can of course shave more accurately with the plane, on +account of the long guiding sole, for the same degree of effort, than +with any "free-hand" tool like the knife. But when the stick is quite +small it is hard to hold it firmly, and it is also too much covered by +the plane. In such cases turn Japanese. Fasten the plane bottom-up in +the vise (or even hold it in your lap if you have no vise) and pull the +stick along the sole of the plane instead of pushing the plane over the +stick. But _look out for your fingers_ when you do this, for a +plane-iron in this position has a great appetite for finger-tips. + +In filing a short, round stick, one end can often be rested on the bench +and the stick turned around towards you as you file. + +A good way to finish the shaping of such small sticks is to hold your +knife with the edge downward close against the side of your leg just +above the knee. Then pull the stick up steadily between your leg and the +knife. The leg acts as a sort of gauge to steady both the stick and the +knife and with care you can cut a very even shaving in this way. + +One very important thing to bear in mind in _all_ these rounding +operations is that you will rarely find wood with absolutely straight +grain, except in "rift" stock or natural sticks (and in these there are +often seemingly unaccountable twists and crooked streaks); so you need +to _keep constant watch_ of the direction of the grain, for even a +slight turn of the stick will often bring the grain wrong with relation +to your tool, and one false cut running in too deep, or even across the +stick, will spoil the work. + + +=Router.=--See _Plane_. + + +=Rule.=--A rule with which to lay out your work and measure your stock +is one of the first tools of which you can make use. A two-foot rule, +folding once, is the most convenient for shop-work, but the more common +kind, folding to six inches in length, is more convenient to carry +around away from the shop. One brass-bound (with brass edges) is more +durable, but hardly as convenient to use as the common cheap kind, which +will answer every purpose until it breaks. + +[Illustration FIG. 650.] + +To mark distances with the rule for accurate work, lay the rule on edge +so that the divisions marked on it will touch the wood and not be an +eighth of an inch above it, as they are when the rule lies flat (Fig. +650). You can thus mark the points more accurately. + + +=Sandpaper.=--The fineness of sandpaper is indicated by numbers--00 (the +finest), 0, 1/2, 1, 1-1/2, 2, 2-1/2 and 3 (the coarsest). You will use +the fine and medium numbers more than the very coarse ones, and will +seldom require coarser than 1-1/2. Test sandpaper, when buying, by +rubbing the sand a little with your hand to see if it is securely stuck +on, and tear the paper a little to see if it is strong. + +Never use sandpaper until all the cutting with the tools is done. +Sandpaper _with_ the grain, except for work which is to be painted. + +The proper use of sandpaper, as a rule, for such work as you will do, is +merely to give a little extra smoothness, to take out little scratches, +to round edges, and the like, but _not_ to cut away the wood and scrub +it into the shape you wish. To use it much, except to skim over your +work, is apt to get you into a slovenly style of working, and the +result will lack the sharp accuracy of good work. Do not rely on the +sandpaper to remove the defects in your work. Do the work right and you +will need but little sandpaper, except in a few operations which will be +specified when there is occasion. + +[Illustration FIG. 651.] + +For flat surfaces it is well to fold the sandpaper over a flat block of +cork or wood (Fig. 651), the edges of which have been slightly rounded. +If the surface is curved, the block should be curved correspondingly. A +piece of thick rubber or leather which can be bent to fit the surface is +excellent. Care should be taken not to round the corners and edges of +the work when sandpapering. + +In sandpapering any very delicate piece of work, when the edge might get +rounded or the surface scratched by the stiffness of even the finest +sandpaper, as in rubbing down finished work, split the paper, which you +can easily do by removing the outer layer of paper from the back, when +the remaining part to which the sand adheres will be much softer and +more flexible. + + +=Saw.=--Saws are used for cutting across the grain and with the grain +and there are various kinds for special purposes. + +The _cross-cutting saw_ is used, as the name indicates, for cutting +across the grain of wood and for ordinary work. The blade is usually +thicker at the teeth than at the back, to stiffen it and to enable it to +pass through the wood more freely. From 18" to 24" is a good length for +a cross-cutting saw (or more commonly called _panel_-saw) for your work, +with about eight to ten teeth to the inch. + +Examine the teeth (Fig. 652) and you will see that they are pointed and +sharp, somewhat like the point of your knife, and that they cut across +the fibres much the same as your knife does when you hold it upright and +draw it across a board. + +[Illustration FIG. 652.] + + +[Illustration FIG. 653.] + +You will notice, also, that the teeth are alternately bent +outwards,--one tooth being bent out to one side, the next to the other +side,--this spreading of the teeth (which is called the "set") making +the saw wider at the points of the teeth than elsewhere. You will also +notice that the sharp cutting edge of each tooth is on the outside. This +set, and the way the teeth are sharpened, makes the cut wider than the +thickness of the blade, thus giving the saw "clearance" and enabling it +to slip back and forth easily and without "binding" (Fig. 653). As a +practical matter of fact, however, it is nothing uncommon for a saw to +bind in the cut, either from not sawing straight or from the wood +closing on the saw (see Fig. 695). The teeth not only cut or break off +the fibres in parallel lines at the points of the teeth, but also tear +off and remove the bits of wood (_i.e._, the sawdust) between these +parallel cuts. + +The degree to which the teeth are set and the number of teeth to the +inch depend upon the use to which the saw is to be put and the kind of +wood to be used. Of course the finer the teeth the smoother the cut. +Cross-cut saws are usually sharpened differently for soft and for hard +wood, but little set being required for the latter, while the former +needs a wider set to give the blade clearance, because the fibres of the +looser-textured soft wood are bent aside by the tearing action of the +saw teeth and are not so cleanly cut off as in the hard wood. + +We have examined the teeth of the cross-cut saw and have seen that they +cut across the grain of the wood very much as the point and edge of a +knife, and that the fibres, being cut or broken or torn off in fine +pieces, are removed from the kerf by the teeth. Now to saw in the +direction of the grain, instead of across it, we use a saw based on a +different principle. As we used little knives to cut across the grain, +so we use little chisels to cut with the grain. Look at the teeth of the +_ripping-saw_ and you will see that they are little chisels sharp only +at the end (Fig. 654), though not as acute as chisels for obvious +reasons. These sharp ends, which are square (Fig. 655, showing set) or +may be oblique, cut or tear off the fibres, and the front edges of the +teeth push the pieces out of the cut. The teeth of the cross-cut saw +are filed so that the front cutting-edge is _drawn_ across the wood in +the most effective way, much as you would draw the knife-point across, +while the teeth of the ripping-saw are pointed forward at a more acute +angle so that the cutting-edge is _pushed_ through the wood, somewhat as +you push a chisel. + +[Illustration FIG. 654.] + +[Illustration FIG. 655.] + +[Illustration FIG. 656.] + +The ripping-saw cuts only on the down stroke. It is not suitable for use +directly across the grain, as it tears the fibres when pushed across +them much more than the cross-cut saw. The ripping-saw usually has +larger teeth than the cross-cut saw. From 5-1/2 to 8 points to the inch +will do for your work. The ripping-saw usually cuts best when held +slanting rather than at right angles with the board (Fig. 656), as you +can easily understand when you think how a chisel works best in paring +at the end of a board. + +If the cut closes up after the saw so as to "bind" it, drive a wedge (or +even a screw-driver or chisel) into the crack so as to open it enough +for the saw to work freely. Binding of the saw from this cause is very +common in making long cuts. When you come to a hard knot in splitting +you can sometimes gain by taking the cross-cut saw to cut through it. + +You will probably get most of your splitting done at a mill and will not +have to depend on hand ripping-saws so much as your grandfathers did. + +The _back-saw_ should have, for your use, from 10 to 16 teeth to the +inch and be perhaps 12 inches long. The blade is very thin to insure a +finer and more accurate cut than can be made with the common saw, and +therefore requires care in using. It has a back (whence the name) made +of a thin piece of brass or iron put on so as to give the blade the +necessary firmness. + +This is an exceedingly useful tool, with which and a common panel saw +you can do a great deal of work without any other. The back-saw must be +used with care, for the blade is so thin that a little wrenching will +spring it out of shape in spite of the strengthening back. + +In the _compass-saw_ the blade is very narrow, being about one inch at +the broadest part and diminishing gradually to about a quarter of an +inch at the other end. It is about fifteen inches long and is employed +in cutting curved forms. As the blade is narrow and tapers towards the +back and the teeth have a wide set it will cut a small circle. Notice +that the teeth of the compass-saw are a sort of a compromise between +those of the ripping and cross-cut saws, which enables them to cut +freely either way of the grain, as is of course necessary in sawing +curves. + +The _turning-_ or _bow-saw_ is much better for any work with which the +bow will not interfere, and is a very useful tool at times. Get one with +handles which turn so that the blade can be turned to saw at an angle +with the frame. You will need a few extra blades of different widths. +The main thing to be borne in mind is to make the cut square with the +surface. It is easier to follow the line than to secure a cut at right +angles to the surface. + +The _keyhole-saw_, which is even smaller than the compass-saw, is used +for cutting quicker curves, as for a keyhole. It has a handle like that +of a chisel, with a slot cut through from end to end. There is a screw +on one side, so that the blade may be fixed at any length, according to +the size of the hole to be cut. A good kind, which can be used for both +compass- and keyhole-saws, has a handle into which various blades can be +fitted. + +[Illustration FIG. 657.] + +Compass- and keyhole-saws are difficult for beginners to use without +bending, twisting, or breaking their thin and narrow blades. Most of +your curved sawing can be done better with a turning-saw or at a mill by +a band- or jig-saw. If done at the mill, have a piece of waste wood put +on the under side to prevent the burr, or ragged edge, left by the +sawing. + +A common way to test saws, when buying, is to take the handle in one +hand and bend the point of the saw around in a curve sideways and then +let the blade spring back, which it should do without being permanently +bent or sprung. + +[Illustration FIG. 658.] + +Do not saw from one side of the line. Have your eyes above the line so +that you can look on both sides of the saw (Fig. 657). This will help +you to keep the saw-blade at right angles with the surface of the wood. + +Hold the saw firmly with the forefinger pressed against the side of the +handle to help guide and steady it (Fig. 657). + +Having placed the saw just at the outside edge of the line and on the +farther side of the piece, seize the wood with the left hand and hold +the thumb against the blade (_above_ the teeth) to help start the cut in +the right place (Fig. 658). Aside from the danger of the saw jumping and +damaging the wood unless guided by the thumb, it is liable to cut your +left hand. + +You can make a little notch with the knife or chisel on the outside of +the line, to help start the saw, in the case of nice work, if you wish. +Cut straight in just on the line and then make a sloping cut to meet +this from outside the line (Fig. 659). First draw the saw gently +backwards, guiding it by the thumb, with as little pressure on the wood +as possible until you see that the cut is started right, then push it +gently forward, and after a few easy strokes in this way to get the cut +started right, keep on with long, steady strokes, but not long enough so +that the end of the saw enters the kerf, lest it catch and the saw +buckle. The saw should cut most on the downward motion, not on the up +stroke. + +[Illustration FIG. 659.] + +With a sharp saw, there is nothing gained by bearing down heavily on the +teeth, which may spring the saw and make crooked work. Rather let the +saw run of itself with an easy, _light_ stroke, guiding it carefully, +and not letting it press on the wood on the up stroke. The more hastily +and furiously you saw the poorer the result will probably be. + +When you _begin_ to run off the line, as you will be pretty sure to do, +twist the saw a little with the wrist as you go on, which will bring it +back to the line, because of the kerf being wider than the thickness of +the saw-blade. + +[Illustration FIG. 660.] + +Beginners are apt to bend the saw over to one side. You can tell whether +it is cutting at right angles with the face of the board by testing with +the try-square as shown in Fig. 660. Such a test as this is, however, +too inconvenient for ordinary practical work and you should learn as +quickly as you can to hold the saw-blade correctly. + +At the end of the cut, as at the beginning, saw gently with quick, light +strokes, and hold the piece which is being cut off with the left hand, +lest it break off and splinter one of the two pieces. + +If the saw "binds" or does not work easily, you can for your _rougher_ +work put a little tallow, butter, lard, or lubricating oil on the blade, +but beware of doing this for your _nice_ work, or it will deface it +when done. If the binding is caused by the springing together of the +wood (Fig. 695) the crack should be wedged open. + +Do not get into the habit of sawing a little way outside of the line and +then trimming off the superfluous wood with your knife or a chisel. That +is not a good way to learn to saw by a line. Try your best to make the +cut where it should be (even if you do make mistakes for a good while) +and thus get into the habit of doing it right without having to rely on +any other tool than the saw. + +Many pieces of wood can better be screwed in the vise for sawing instead +of being laid on the horses, and this position is often preferable. In +this case you grasp the wood with the left hand and use the saw as +already described. (See _Sharpening_). + + +=Saw-Filing.=--See _Sharpening_. + + +=Sawing.=--See _Saw_. + + +=Saw-Set.=--Various contrivances can be bought for setting saw teeth. +When you get to the point of needing one you can easily find a variety +from which to select. + + +=Scraper.=--The scraper is made of saw-blade steel (frequently from an +old saw) and may be of any shape or size to suit the work required of +it. A common form for scraping flat surfaces is rectangular like a +postal-card, and a good size is from 2" × 4" to 3" × 5". + +A piece of glass makes a good scraper for almost every purpose except +where a flat, true surface is required. It is good to smooth the handle +of a paddle, for instance, but not good for scraping the top of a nice +table. For many rounded surfaces glass is fully as good as a steel +scraper, but for general use the latter is much better. The following +directions may be of use when you wish to break glass to use for a +scraper: "Take the back of a knife, or the smooth, straight edge of any +piece of iron fixed with tolerable firmness for a moment, then, taking +the piece of glass in both hands, rest its edge midway between them on +the edge of the iron; let the upper edge of the glass lean from you, +and push it gently along the iron, so as slightly to indent the edge of +the glass; then, reversing its position so as to make it lean towards +you, draw it smartly along the iron, and you will find it separated by a +clean fracture directly across, forming a line more or less curved, and +leaving one edge of the glass much sharper than the other. By a little +practice, and by pressing a little more with one hand than the other, +almost any curvature that the work to be done may require may be +achieved" (Lord and Baines, _Shifts and Expedients of Camp Life_). + +The edge of the scraper is turned over so as to form a sort of hooked +edge or angle (Fig. 661), which when pushed over the surface scrapes off +thin shavings. To smooth a flat surface the scraper can be held with +both hands, between the fingers and thumb (Fig. 662), and pushed along +in the direction towards which it is inclined. Sometimes one end of the +scraper is held between the thumb and fingers of the left hand and the +palm of the right hand applied below to push the tool along. As a rule +scrape with the grain, and it is often advantageous to hold the scraper +obliquely to the grain when pushing it forward. In case of some crooked +and twisted grain you will find it best to scrape in any and in all +directions. + +[Illustration FIG. 661.] + +[Illustration FIG. 662.] + +You can make scrapers yourself by filing and grinding pieces of old +saw-blades. It is very convenient to have a number of them with edges of +various degrees of curvature (both convex and concave), but these you +can make as you need them. A scraper is sometimes set in a stock and +guided by handles like those of a spoke-shave, and sometimes set in a +stock like a plane and used in the same manner. A scraper of the latter +sort is often useful to assist in keeping the surface true when +scraping, as its flat sole prevents its following all the undulations of +the surface as readily as the hand-scraper, with which one is apt to +make depressions by scraping too much in some particular spot. But so +far as smoothing the surface goes there is nothing better than the +common hand-scraper or so easily taken care of. For sharpening the +scraper, see _Sharpening_. + +In many large places you can get your wood for nice work scraped to a +satin-like finish by a machine made for the purpose, but this is hardly +worth while for ordinary work. You can also have it smoothed very nicely +by sandpapering machines, but this is not advisable if there is to be +any cutting of the wood afterwards, as the grit left in the pores of the +wood will quickly take the keen edge from your tools. + +The best test for smoothness alone is to run the fingers over the +surface with a light touch. Great acuteness of touch can be acquired in +this way. Any experienced wood-worker can at once detect inequalities +with his fingers that he could not possibly see. Irregularities in +curves can be detected in the same way. + +_Bead cutters_ or _scrapers_ and _reed scrapers_ and _fluters_ can be +bought of various patterns. You will hardly need to buy anything of the +sort for some time, as you can make one when required. See _Beading_. + + +=Scratch-Awl.=--See _Awl_. + + +=Screw-Driver.=--The screw-driver is too familiar to need description, +but in buying one see that the end is shaped like either of those shown +in Fig. 663 and not as shown in Fig. 664. Cheap screw-drivers are often +made in the latter way. If ground with a short bevel (Fig. 664) it will +bear only on the top of the slot in the screw and will be all the time +slipping out, on the principle of the inclined plane, while if the sides +are parallel or concaved slightly the end will remain at the bottom of +the nick of the screw. This is also a help in extracting screws, as it +saves the need of pressing against the screw so hard to keep the +screw-driver from slipping out of the slot. It is well to have +screw-drivers of different sizes, as it is difficult and often +impossible to use a screw-driver with an edge much too large or too +small. + +[Illustration FIG. 663.] + +[Illustration FIG. 664.] + +Remember that a long screw-driver is always preferable to a short one, +except where lack of space makes a short one necessary. The reason for +this is in the fact that in using the screw-driver you do not, as a +practical matter, keep it exactly in the line of the screw, but keep +wobbling it round more or less, which gives a leverage in the form of a +crank-like action as you turn the handle. The longer the screw-driver +the larger the circle or wobbling curve you describe with your hand and +the greater the leverage (Fig. 665). + +[Illustration FIG. 665.] + +A screw-driver to be turned by the bit-brace is very useful for driving +screws rapidly and with force, on account of the greater leverage gained +by using the brace instead of the common handle. This is particularly +useful where they need to be driven in very hard or when tight screws +have to be loosened. It also saves much time when many screws are to be +used. It is not advisable to buy automatic screw-drivers. They work +satisfactorily for light work, but are not suitable for such wrenching +and straining as your screw-drivers are liable to be subjected to. You +want screw-drivers to which you can apply all your strength. See +_Screws_. + + +=Screws.=--There are many kinds of screws. You will use the common +wood-screws for most of your work. These are either flat-headed or +round-headed, and of steel (either bright or blue or bronzed or nickled) +or of brass. When others are required they will be mentioned. It is +doubtful economy to buy second-hand or waste screws, but a pound or two +of "mixed" screws, which you can get at any hardware store, will be +very useful when you want some odd screw for some special purpose. Many +of the screws in the "mixed" lots, which are sold very cheap, are +defective, but you can often find among them just the peculiar screw you +need, and so save time and money. + +Nails are often used where it would be better to use screws, which will, +as a rule, hold the pieces more securely. When work becomes loose, +screws can be tightened, while nails usually have to be redriven. + +To make a screw drive easily, rub the point on a piece of common soap. +Oil is objectionable for nice work on account of the spot made by it. If +screws are to be used in places where they may rust, it is a good plan +to warm them slightly and then dip them in melted tallow or lard. They +can also be inserted and removed more easily for this treatment. Try to +keep the screw-driver from slipping from the slot of the screw (see +_Screw-driver_). + +[Illustration FIG. 666.] + +In boring holes for screws, considerable discretion must be used. The +hole in the outer piece (the one nearer the head of the screw) should be +large enough to allow the screw to slip through freely--that is, you +should not screw it into both pieces, but only the inner one, the screw +acting somewhat in the nature of a clamp to bind the outer piece to the +inner by pinching it tight between the screw-head and the inner piece +(Fig. 666). How much of a hole to bore in the piece into which the point +of the screw enters depends on circumstances. The stouter the screw the +less hole required. The softer and larger the piece and the farther from +the edge the less hole required. If the piece is small or liable to +split, the hole must be carefully made--the more carefully in proportion +to the slenderness of the screw, as a slim screw is liable to twist off +in hard wood unless a sufficient hole is provided. Brass screws are very +apt to do this, and much care must be used, particularly with slender +ones in hard wood. If the hole is a bit too large, they will not hold. +If a trifle too small, they will twist off, which is very annoying, +especially in such cases as hinge-screws, for instance, where the place +for the screws cannot well be changed. The hole should be somewhat +smaller than the diameter of the screw. In good-sized pieces of soft +wood there is frequently no need of any hole. + +In rough work, especially in soft wood, the screws may be pounded part +way with the hammer, driving them home with the screw-driver. Some +theoretical workman will be quite sure to tell you never to do such a +thing as that, so be sure to understand what is meant. Theoretically +there may be some loss of holding power by that process, but practically +the screws will hold just as well for the cases in which you are advised +to do that way. Judgment must be used about all such things and theories +are only of value when used by the light of common-sense. For example, +if you are screwing the top on a mahogany table or framing a nice boat +_never_ think of using a hammer to start your screws, but if you are +putting cleats on an old shed door or screwing up a packing-case do not +spend an hour and a lot of strength driving screws all the way with a +screw-driver when you can do the work in half an hour by driving the +screws three quarters of the way in with the hammer. Good practical +workmen are just as certain to use the hammer in such cases as they are +careful _not_ to use it for nice work or where the full holding power of +the screw is needed. + +Flat-headed screws almost always should be countersunk (see +_Countersink_), for neatness if for no other reason, and in hard wood +you should cut the depression for the head of the screw with the regular +countersink made for the purpose. This should be done for nice work in +soft wood where a good surface is required, but for _common_ work in +soft wood there is no need, as a rule, for the head of the screw will +sink itself easily until flush with the surface. + +If a screw hole requires to be moved a little, but not far enough so +that a new hole can be bored without the bit slipping into the old hole, +plug the old hole with a wooden pin dipped in glue, and when dry bore +the new hole where required. + +See _Screw-driver_. + + +=Scribing.=--Compasses are often used for scribing a line parallel to +another line or surface, whether regular or irregular, in places where +the gauge cannot be used. Suppose, for instance, you wish to cut the +edge of a board to fit the undulating surface shown in Fig. 667. Run +the compasses along with one point on the surface and the other making a +mark on the board, and the line on the board will be parallel with the +surface. + +[Illustration FIG. 667.] + +[Illustration FIG. 668.] + +[Illustration FIG. 669.] + +Another example is that of making a table, bench, chair, horse, or any +four-legged object stand evenly. If it stands on three legs, which is a +common fault and likely to occur in your first attempts, do not hastily +saw one leg shorter by guess, and, making it too short, saw another and +so on until it stands firmly, when the top will probably be all out of +level. If there is any true surface on which you can stand the article +(right side up), you can level the top by wedging under the legs until +the corners of the top are equally distant from the surface on which the +object stands. Then setting the compasses at a distance equal to that at +which the end of the shortest leg is raised (Fig. 668), scribe around +the other legs, which can then be cut off.[50] + +See also _Winding-Sticks_ and _Marking_. + + +=Setting Saws.=--See _Sharpening_. + + +=Sharpening.=--Before attempting to sharpen your tools yourself it would +be well to read the advice given on page 22 under _Care of Tools_. + +The general process of sharpening edged tools is first to grind them to +as keen an edge as possible on the grindstone, or the emery-wheel, then +to smooth down the coarse edge left by the grindstone by rubbing on a +fine stone with oil or water, and finally stropping on leather. The +grindstone must be kept wet while grinding or the heat caused by the +friction of the tool on the dry stone will ruin the temper of the steel. +Besides, the water carries off the waste particles of stone and steel. +Stand on the side towards which the top of the stone turns. The tool can +be ground with the stone turning from you, and, in fact, this usually +seems the natural way to a novice, but it is usually more difficult to +grind uniformly in that way and too thin an edge (a "wire-edge," ragged +but not sharp) is apt to be produced, the removal of which is difficult +without further damaging the edge and delaying the final sharpening. + +To grind the point of a knife, it can be moved back and forth lengthways +with a curving motion, while resting flat on the grindstone, and to +grind the straight part of the blade, it can be allowed to bear very +slightly harder near the edge of the stone than elsewhere, as it is +passed back and forth. + +To grind a chisel, grasp the handle with the right hand, hold the blade +in the left hand with the fingers uppermost and near the cutting-edge. +The arms and wrists should be kept as rigid as possible, the former at +the sides of the body, so that the tool may be held firmly against the +motion of the stone. Lay the chisel with slight pressure quite flatly on +the stone and then raise the handle until the bevel touches the stone. +As you grind keep moving the tool slowly back and forth across the +stone, which helps keep the edge of the tool straight and prevents the +stone being worn away too much in one place. Use plenty of water. + +The common way of holding the tool on the stone is the one just +described, but it can also be held at right angles to this position, so +that, in the case of a chisel, for instance, the grinding action of the +stone instead of being from the edge toward the handle is from side to +side of the blade. The tool is ground quicker and easier by this means, +and it is a good way to reduce the edge to shape, finishing the grinding +by the regular method. + +You will see that the curvature of the stone will tend to give the bevel +a slight curve, in whatever position the tool is held, which is +advantageous in the common way of grinding. When held so that the stone +grinds from side to side of the blade the tool must be continually +turned a little in the hand so that each part of the edge will bear in +turn on the stone, as, the tool edge being flat, and the surface of the +stone rounding, the tool would otherwise be ground hollowing. It is +harder to hold the tool in this way, however, without its slipping or +making nicks or grooves in the stone, and you had best learn to grind in +the ordinary manner. + +Try to grind squarely across the chisel--that is, to have the +cutting-edge at right angles to the lengthways edge of the tool. Apply +the square at intervals to test the accuracy of the grinding. + +The angle for grinding the bevel of such tools as the chisel is about +twenty-five degrees, but when used for very hard wood the angle should +be slightly greater, or the edge may be broken. + +Do all the grinding on the bevel. Do not apply the flat side of the tool +to the grindstone. Any slight burr or turning over of the edge on the +flat side should be taken off by the oil-stone. + +If the edge is badly nicked or broken, you can first straighten or grind +it down roughly on the side of the stone or by holding it nearly at +right angles to the stone--but with the latter turning the other +way--before grinding in the regular way. + +To tell when the tool is ground sufficiently, hold the edge in front of +you toward the light. If the edge can be seen as a bright shining line +it is a sign that the tool is dull. It will not be sharp until this +bright line has been removed, and the edge has become invisible, for a +really keen edge cannot be seen by the naked eye. Bear this in mind, as +it is the final test and the simplest way to tell when to stop grinding. + +In grinding on a grindstone and in rubbing on an oil-stone, the great +difficulty is to keep the same angle between the tool and the stone, as +the natural tendency in moving the tool is to rock it back and forth and +thus alter the angle between the blade and the stone. An arrangement can +be bought which preserves the desired angle without effort on the part +of the grinder. A little ingenuity will enable you to rig up a guide or +gauge with a piece of board which will enable you to replace the tool on +the grindstone at the same angle. + +The plane-iron is sharpened in the same way as the chisel, only, being +wider than most of the chisels you are likely to use, it requires more +care to sharpen. The plane-irons can be ground to a somewhat more acute +angle than the chisels, although the jack-plane, which is used for rough +work, may require more strength at the edge. + +In rubbing the edge upon the _oil-stone_, do not attempt to smooth down +the whole bevel made by the grindstone, but first lay the tool lightly +on the stone as shown in Fig. 670_a_, then raise the handle until the +upper part of the bevel is very slightly raised,--barely enough to clear +the stone (Fig. 670_b_),--and then proceed with the whetting, thus +making a second or little bevel at the edge (Fig. 671). + +The tool must be moved back and forth very steadily or instead of a +second bevel the whole edge will be rounded (Fig. 672) and will not have +the requisite keenness. The angle of this second bevel is usually about +ten degrees greater than the long bevel, or thirty-five degrees, +although the angles of sharpening should be varied slightly according to +the hardness of the wood and the kind of work to be done; but where you +have only few tools and must use them for all kinds of work you cannot +always, as a practical matter, pay much regard to such variations, as of +course you cannot keep regrinding your tools every time you begin on a +new piece of wood. Just how acute to make the edge you must learn by +experience, according to the conditions of your work. An edge suitable +for delicate work in white-pine would be immediately ruined if used upon +lignum-vitæ. + +[Illustration FIG. 670.] + +[Illustration FIG. 671.] + +[Illustration FIG. 672.] + +Any little wire edge which is produced on the flat side by the process +of rubbing on the oil-stone can be removed by drawing the flat side of +the iron over the stone once, but be sure that you do not raise the +handle at all, as the slightest bevel on the flat side of the edge will +spoil it. After the tool has been sharpened a good many times on the +oil-stone this smaller bevel (the oil-stone bevel, so to speak) will +become so wide that it is a waste of time and strength to rub it down. +The chisel must then be reground and a new bevel made on the oil-stone. + +It is a good plan to have a separate stone or "slip" for the outside +bevel of gouges, because it is so hard to avoid rubbing hollows in the +stone, which injures it for the other tools. Care must be taken also +with very narrow or pointed tools lest the stone be grooved or nicked. +Gouges can be rubbed at right angles with the stone, rolling the tool +with the left hand, or by the use of a slip they can be rubbed as +described below. For rubbing gouges on the inside, _i.e._, on the +concave surface, rounded pieces of stone, called "slips," are used. +These can be bought of various sizes and shapes to fit the various +curves. Do not think, however, that you must try to find a slip that +will fit each gouge as exactly as if it had been shaped by the gouge +itself. The curve of the slip may be a little "quicker" or sharper than +that of the tool, but must not be flatter or of course it cannot be made +to bear on all parts of the curve. + +In rubbing with the slip, hold the tool upright in the hand and rub the +slip up and down, moving the slip and not the tool. If you rest the +tool against the bench, it will steady it and also avoid any probability +of your finger slipping on to the edge. The more common "outside" gouges +are not rubbed on the inside, except the merest touch of the slip to +remove any wire edge or burr. The draw-knife is also rubbed with a flat +slip, in the same manner, resting it on the bench. + +In rubbing the knife on the oil-stone give it a circular motion rather +than simply back and forth, particularly for the point. The straight +part can be allowed to bear a little more heavily near the edge of the +stone as it is passed back and forth. + +It is much the best way to sharpen tools frequently, as soon as they +begin to get dull, when they will require but little rubbing on the +stone, rather than to let them get into such condition that it is a long +and hard job to whet them; and of course the more careful you are to +_keep_ them sharp, the better work you will do. + +To test the sharpness of your tools, cut across the grain of a piece of +soft pine wood. If the cut is clean and smooth, the tools are sharp, but +if the cut is rough or the wood torn, further sharpening is needed. The +reason for using soft wood, which at first thought might not seem to +require as keen an edge as hard wood, is because the fibrous structure +of the soft wood, being more yielding, offers less resistance to the +tool and so is torn or crushed apart except by a very keen edge, while +the firmer structure of the hard wood can be cut smoothly by a tool +which would tear the soft wood. The difference is somewhat like that +between cutting a fresh loaf of bread or cake and a stale one. + +The edge left by the oil-stone can be improved by _stropping_ on a piece +of leather on which a little paste of lard and emery or some similar +composition has been spread. This is better than to strop knives and +other tools on your boots. Any piece of leather such as barbers use, or +even a piece from an old boot, will answer. For flat edges see that the +strop rests on a flat surface, so as not to tend to round the edge, as +it may do if held carelessly in the hand. See _Oil-stone_ and _Strop_. + +_Saw Filing_ is particularly hard for boys and amateurs to do +satisfactorily and you are advised not to undertake it until you have +become quite familiar with the use of tools, for it does not need to be +done very often, costs but little, and there are very few places where +you cannot get it done. + +It is not difficult to understand the _theory_ of setting and filing saw +teeth, but to fix a saw in really good shape is hard for an +amateur,--and for that matter you will find but a small proportion of +good workmen who are experts in saw filing. Even in very small villages +there is almost always some mechanic who has the knack of putting saws +in order better than anyone else and who therefore makes quite a +business of such work and people bring their saws to him from all the +country round, even though they may be able to fix them tolerably well +themselves, so great is the advantage in the quality of the work and the +saving of time in having a saw in perfect condition. You had best do the +same, and have your saws fixed whenever they get dull. The expense is +but slight, and there is nothing that will conduce more to good work, +and to your own success and satisfaction, than to have your tools in +first-rate working order. + +When you get to the point of filing and setting your saws you are +advised to take a lesson from a good saw-filer. There are few persons so +situated that they cannot do this, or at least watch someone go through +the process, and thus learn much more readily than by reading about the +process in a book. In fact, it is one of those things that it is so hard +to learn from a book that merely a few remarks on the subject are given +here. + +The saw is firmly fastened in a saw-clamp, expressly for the purpose, so +that it will not shake or rattle. The teeth are "jointed," or reduced to +the same level, by lightly passing the flat side of a file over their +points, lengthways of the saw. The saw can also be jointed along the +sides after filing, but this is frequently omitted. + +For a cross-cutting saw the file (a triangular saw-file) is held at an +angle with the blade depending upon the particular form of tooth +adopted, as you will see by examination. The handle being grasped in the +right hand, the point of the file should be held between the thumb and +forefinger of the left hand (Fig. 526). The file must be pushed across +with an even, straight stroke, without any rocking or up and down +motion, pressure being applied only on the forward or pushing stroke, +the tool being drawn back very lightly or lifted entirely on the back +stroke. The filing is begun at one end of the saw, filing only the teeth +which bend away from you (_i.e._, every alternate tooth), carefully +keeping the file at the proper angle, pressing only on the tooth you are +filing, but keeping the tool lightly touching the adjacent tooth, and +making allowance for the fact that when you file the alternate set the +passing file will take off a little from the teeth first filed. The saw +is then turned around and the process repeated with the other teeth. If +you look lengthways along the edge of a panel-saw that has been properly +filed and set, an angular trough or groove will be seen along the whole +length, so that you can slide a needle along in it from one end of the +saw to the other. + +The ripping-saw is usually filed squarely across the saw (at +right-angles to the blade), as you will see at once on examination of +the teeth (Figs. 654 and 655), but sometimes at a more acute angle. + +The teeth are set by bending every other tooth outward, first setting +those on one side and then those on the other. You should do this with +some one of the various adjustable tooth-setting contrivances sold for +the purpose, as it requires a skilled workman to set teeth in any other +way, and any attempt on your part to do so without some instrument +adjusted to the purpose will probably result in damaging the saw. + +For soft and loose-fibred wood more set is needed than for hard wood, +because the fibres, which are quite cleanly cut or broken in the hard +wood, in the more yielding soft wood are bent aside by the teeth to +close in upon the blade with considerable binding force; and less set is +required by fine work than for coarse. The angles and points of saw +teeth can be more acute for soft than for hard wood. + +To sharpen the scraper you must have a sharpener or burnisher. The edge +of a chisel or any piece of very hard steel can be used after a fashion, +but it is better to have a regular tool for the purpose, which can be +made easily from an old three-cornered file, such as is used for filing +saws, by grinding off the teeth and slightly rounding the angles on the +grindstone until the whole tool is smooth. Two opposite edges of the +scraper are ground or filed and the edge then turned over by the +burnisher. Some workmen grind the edges with an obtuse bevel and use +only one angle of each edge. Others grind the edges square and use both +angles of each edge. The bevel gives a slightly keener scraping edge +than to grind the steel square, but it requires more frequent sharpening +and the squared edge turned over on both sides is likely to be more +satisfactory. + +[Illustration FIG. 673.] + +First grind or file the two opposite edges squarely across and slightly +round each corner to prevent scratching the wood. If there is a burr at +the edge it can be removed by rubbing the scraper lightly on the +oil-stone, but this is advisable only for final scraping of very fine +work. Having thus got the edge at right angles and smooth, lay the +scraper flat on its side near the edge of the bench and rub the +burnisher back and forth a few times in the position shown in Fig. 673, +which is almost flat on the scraper. This rubbing bends a little of the +steel over the edge. Do this on each opposite edge of the two sides, +giving four edges thus curled over. Next, holding the scraper as shown +in Fig. 674, draw the burnisher with a firm, even stroke, once or twice, +lengthways of the edge, as shown. The scraper can be laid flat on the +bench, if preferred, slightly projecting over the edge. Notice that the +tool should be drawn with a slightly end to end motion, as shown, which +helps turn the edge. This turns a fine scraping edge, which will take +off shavings. All four edges are treated in the same way. After one edge +gets dull, use another. When all four are dull, resharpen with the +burnisher as before, without grinding or filing the edge. This can be +done a few times, but soon the edges will get worn off and rounded, and +the scraper then needs refiling. + +[Illustration FIG. 674.] + + +=Shellac.=--See _Finishing_. + + +=Shell-Bit=.--See _Bits_. + + +=Shelves.=--Examples of shelves fitted permanently into place are given +in Chapter X. (on Furniture). Removable shelves can most easily be +fitted to rest on cleats screwed to the sides of the space, but this +arrangement does not always look very well and the position of the +shelves cannot be changed so readily as by using screw-eyes driven into +the sides under the shelves (Fig. 675), recesses of the right shape +being cut on the under side of the shelves so that the screw-eyes will +be sunk and not be conspicuous. The position of the shelves can quickly +be changed by screwing the supports higher or lower as may be required. +Pins and other contrivances to fit in a series of holes can be bought +for this purpose. A common way to adjust shelves is shown in Fig. 676. +The construction is obvious. The vertical strips can be laid on edge +side by side, clamped together, and the notches laid out and cut as if +there were but one piece. Where a circular saw is available the notches +are cut on the side of a narrow piece of board which is then sawed into +the desired strips or "ratchets." + +[Illustration FIG. 675.] + +[Illustration FIG. 676.] + + +=Shooting-Board.=--The shooting-board is very useful for jointing edges, +particularly for short, thin stock. The carpenter or cabinet-maker will +make you one for a moderate price, or you can make one yourself as soon +as you become a good enough workman (see page 93). + +[Illustration FIG. 677.] + +To use it, the board to be jointed is laid flat on the raised part of +the shooting-board, where it is firmly held with the left hand, with the +end of the board pressing against the stop of the shooting-board, and +the edge to be jointed lapping over the edge of the raised part. The +planing is done with the plane lying on its side on the lower part of +the shooting-board (Fig. 677). The cutting-edge of the plane thus being +at right angles with the surface of the board, the edge will be planed +squarely across. The shooting-board should be fastened on the bench in +some way, to prevent it from slipping around. + +Attachments to keep the sole of the plane at right angles to the surface +of the piece can be had at any hardware store, and serve the same +purpose as a shooting-board for thick stock, but not equally well for +thin pieces. + +You can reverse the sides of two pieces to be jointed for gluing, as +described on page 406, giving a joint like that shown in Fig. 678 (which +is exaggerated). The iron of the plane is sometimes purposely set to +project unevenly beyond the sole. + +[Illustration FIG. 678.] + +If you have many joints to make, you can have the edges jointed at +slight expense at any wood-working mill on a planer made for the +purpose. See _Jointing_. + + +=Smoothing-Plane.=--See _Plane_. + + +=Smoothing Surfaces.=--See _Plane_, _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_. + + +=Splices.=--See _Joints and Splices_. + + +=Spline.=--A flexible strip, used as a ruler, for drawing curves. See +_Marking_. + + +=Splitting-Saw.=--See _Saw_. + + +=Splitting Wood.=--We have seen how a log in drying cracks along the +radial lines (page 31), thus showing the natural lines of cleavage or +separation in the direction of the medullary rays, that is, radiating +from the centre. From this we see that the wood will, of course, split +most easily and smoothly on the radial lines. Like all wood-choppers you +can often make practical use of this fact in splitting wood with a knife +or chisel, or in splitting fuel with an axe. The next easiest way to +split wood is as nearly as may be on the line of the annual rings, or +tangential to the line of the medullary rays, in the same direction as +when the layers separate in forming "cup shakes" (see Appendix). This +way is sometimes easier than to rive a stout log through the centre. + + +=Spokeshave.=--The spoke-shave is very useful for smoothing small curved +and irregular surfaces. Metal spoke-shaves of various patterns can be +bought with various adjustments for different curves, etc. Also a +"universal" spoke-shave can be had, with movable handles and detachable +bottoms which can be adapted for curved or straight work, and a width +gauge by means of which it can be used for rabbeting. + +The spoke-shave is a very useful tool and works upon the same general +principle as the plane, but lacking the long flat sole of the plane is +used only for irregular surfaces, which its short and sometimes curved +face enables it to smooth with great ease. It also acts on the same +principle as a draw-knife with the addition of a guiding stock. It bears +somewhat the same relation to the draw-knife that the plane does to the +chisel. + +[Illustration FIG. 679.] + +Grasp the tool firmly, bearing downward with both hands and pressing +forward with the thumbs, pushing the tool from you so as to cut like a +plane (Fig. 679). Of course it can also be drawn towards you when the +circumstances of the work render it advisable. See _Paring_ and +_Sharpening_. + + +=Spoon-Bit.=--See _Bits_. + + +=Square.=--This tool is one of the most useful in the list, for the +importance of having your work "square" can hardly be over-estimated. + +The _try-square_ should have a metal strip on the inside edge of the +wooden arm, head, or beam, or the handle can be wholly of metal. Get a +medium-sized try-square (9- or 10-inch blade is good) rather than a very +small one, as it is much more useful; and a graduated scale, like a +rule, on the blade is sometimes serviceable. + +[Illustration FIG. 680.] + +The primary use of this tool is to test or "try" the accuracy of +right-angled work--hence the name. The one special point to bear in mind +in using it for this purpose is to be sure that the head or beam is +pressed _firmly_ against the edge or side to which it is applied, +determining the accuracy of the angle by the position of the blade (Fig. +680). + +You will also use the try-square continually for marking straight lines +across boards or timbers at right angles to one side or one edge (Fig. +681). In using it for this purpose be sure not merely to press the head +of the square firmly against the edge of the board, but to _keep_ it +securely in the same position. When the blade is placed correctly on the +given point do the marking as by any straight-edge. Another way is to +place the point of the pencil or knife directly on the given point and +slide the square along until it bears on the pencil or knife. Then, +keeping the head of the square firmly against the edge, the line can be +drawn along the blade. + +[Illustration FIG. 681.] + +[Illustration FIG. 682.] + +The try-square sometimes is made with the end of the head or beam next +the blade cut on a bevel. By placing this bevel against the edge a +try-square of this construction can also be used as a mitre-square (Fig. +682). + +If you buy a second-hand square, or if a square has been wrenched, you +can test its accuracy by marking a line with it across a surface from a +straight edge, then turning the square over and repeating the operation; +the two lines should coincide. But the edge from which you rule must be +perfectly straight, or the test will be of no value. If, however, you +buy new squares made by the best makers they will be as accurate as any +test you can apply to them. + +Beginners, particularly young beginners, are very apt to be so engrossed +in making the line along the blade that they forget to keep the head in +position, or let it slip, when the blade will of course cease to be at +right angles with the edge or side (Fig. 683). + +[Illustration FIG. 683.] + +The _framing-square_, "_steel-square_," or large two-foot carpenter's +square, is a very useful and important tool; not merely for framing and +large, heavy work but also for small work, and it is of great value in +many mechanical operations. Even an iron square is very useful, but a +nickel-plated steel-square is the best, as the figures are more distinct +and it is less likely to rust. The long arm makes a good straight-edge. +See also page 181. + +=Staining.=--When you stain wood, do it for the sake of the colour, +preserving the beauty of the grain, and not to try to imitate a more +expensive wood. It is better, as a rule, to use good wood of a handsome +colour and leave it as it is to mellow with age than to stain or colour +it, but there are times when you will wish to stain wood. + +The main point to bear in mind for successful staining is to colour the +wood itself, not to put on a superficial coat of coloured varnish. For +instance, the fumes of ammonia (or the liquid itself) will give oak in a +very short time the same dark colour which the ammonia in the air will +produce after years of exposure. This is a natural process--merely +anticipating the change caused by time. + +There are a number of ways of staining dependent upon such chemical +processes carried on in the wood itself. These ways are the best, as you +can readily see. Having got the right colour, the wood can be oiled, +shellacked, varnished, or waxed in the usual way. By this method the +natural grain of the wood is not obscured. In fact, the figure of the +grain is sometimes made more conspicuous. + +Another way is to wash the wood with some thin stain of the desired +colour, after which you can finish in the usual way. This is a good +method, for the wood itself is coloured to some distance below the +surface, and after it is finished it will take considerable bruising to +expose its original colour. This method also sometimes enhances the +beauty of the grain. + +The poorest way to stain, but a very common one with amateurs and in +cheap work, is, instead of staining the wood itself, to cover the +surface with coloured varnish or shellac. This is often the cheapest and +quickest way of getting a desired colour, but it is decidedly the +poorest way. Of course, no coating of colour put on outside can be as +durable as colour imbedded in the substance of the wood itself, and +scarring or injury to the coating exposes the original colour beneath. +Besides this, the grain and character of the wood are necessarily +obscured by a coloured coating. Wood finished in this way almost always +has a cheap, artificial look, and you can usually detect the fraud at a +glance. There are many cheap "varnish stains" or coloured varnishes, but +you will do well to avoid them, unless for the cheapest and poorest +work. + +There are two things you will wish to do in staining. One is simply to +darken or enrich the natural colour of the wood, so as to give it at +once the rich, deep, mellow tone produced by age. This is always the +best way to do when it will give the colour you want. But if you want to +change the colour entirely--to make pine wood red or green, or cherry +black, you must use some chemical process that will develop a new colour +in the wood, or must apply a regular stain. + +Raw linseed oil alone, well rubbed in and allowed to stand before +applying shellac or varnish, will deepen and bring out the natural +colouring in time as well as anything else, but it takes a good while. +Repeated applications, each thoroughly rubbed in and the excess rubbed +off, and after standing some days or weeks, given a light rubbing down +with fine sandpaper, then another oiling, and so on, will in time give a +surface of beautiful colour, as well as a soft and attractive lustre. +But to carry out this process may take months, so that you will not be +very likely to practise it; but you see the result sometimes on old +wooden tool-handles and plane-stocks which have been so treated. If you +do not care about deepening the colour greatly, one or two applications, +allowed to stand a week or two before finishing, will often be +sufficient and will make a great difference in the looks of your work, +and take off that raw, fresh look peculiar to recently cut wood. + +If your work is such that you can defer the shellacing for a year or so, +as in the case of some pretty piece of furniture to remain in the house, +there is no way you can develop the richness of the wood better than to +oil it and let it stand to mellow, with occasional applications of oil +and rubbing down. Then finally rub down with fine sandpaper and shellac +in the usual way. + +To hasten the process we must apply something stronger than oil. If the +work is of oak, shut it up in a box or _tight_ closet, with a dish of +_strong_ ammonia on the floor. Do not stay in the box or closet +yourself, as it is dangerous. A simpler way is to wash the work with the +ammonia, more than once if necessary. Have the room well ventilated when +you do this, and do not inhale more of the fumes than necessary. Wetting +the wood is sometimes a disadvantage, however, in glued-up work, and it +"raises the grain," which must be rubbed down with fine sandpaper before +finishing. + +To deepen the colour of mahogany or cherry, simply wash it with +lime-water (a simple solution of common lime in water) as many times as +may be necessary, which is cheap and effective. After this process, +thoroughly clean out all cracks and corners before sandpapering, for +particles of the lime which may be deposited will spoil the appearance +of the work when finished. This process preserves the natural appearance +of the wood. The only drawback is the necessity of getting the work so +wet. Some days should be allowed for the water to evaporate before +shellacking. To get a darker shade, apply in the same way a solution of +bichromate of potash in water. + +Whitewood takes stains finely--much better than pine. Oak will stain +almost any colour, but the individuality of the wood--the character of +its grain and structure--is so strongly marked that it is poor taste to +attempt to stain it to imitate other woods. If you stain it, stain it +just as you would paint it, simply for the colour. + +A good way for indoor work, such as a piece of furniture or anything of +the sort you may wish to colour, is to mix dry pigments with japan and +then thin the mixture with turpentine, or turpentine alone can be used. +After the work is coloured in this way put on a couple of coats of +varnish. For outside work you can use oil. This is a cheap way and wears +well. It applies only to the cheaper woods which you do not care to +leave of the natural colour. For black inside work you can use +ivory-black, ground in japan and thinned with turpentine. Ivory-black or +bone-black are superior to lampblack, but the latter will do very well +for most purposes. Dragon's blood in alcohol is used to give a colour +similar to mahogany. Alkanet root in raw linseed oil will give a warm +and mellow hue to mahogany or cherry. + +There is an almost endless number of recipes for staining, but such +others as you need you can learn from some finisher or painter, for the +limits of this book do not allow fuller treatment of so extensive a +subject. + + +=Steel-Square.=--See _Square_. + + +=Steel-Wool.=--Long, fine steel shavings done up in bundles can be used +instead of sandpaper for some purposes. There are various degrees of +fineness. This is good for cleaning off paint and for smoothing curved +surfaces, but should not be used until all work with the edge-tools is +done, because of the particles of the metal. It can be used for "rubbing +down" in finishing. + + +=Straight-Bent Chisel.=--See _Chisel_. + + +=Straight-Edge.=--There are no definite dimensions for a straight-edge. +Any piece of wood that is straight and convenient to use can be so +called; the size and the length depending on the work for which it is +to be used, from a common ruler to a long board. The edge of a large +carpenter's square is handy for short work. Clear white pine or +straight-grained mahogany is good for straight-edges, but a +straight-edge is not the easiest thing for a beginner to make, and you +will do well to find something straight to use for a while until you +acquire the skill to make one--or get the carpenter to make you one, +which he will do for a very small sum or for nothing. + +[Illustration FIG. 684.] + +To test a straight-edge, mark a line by it, then turn the straight-edge +over and see if it still coincides with the line, or mark another line +and see if it coincides with the first one. Try your straight-edges by +this test once in a while, as they are liable to become crooked. In +turning the edge over, however, do not reverse the ends, as in case of +an undulating curvature the curves may agree and give you the impression +that the edge is straight when it is not. In the first case shown in +Fig. 684 (exaggerated) this would not happen, but in the second case +(also exaggerated) it might. See _Marking_. + + +=Strop.=--A piece of hard, smooth leather on which to strop your tools +you can easily procure. It can be fastened on a piece of wood (see page +85). Spread on it a paste of sweet oil and emery, lard oil and crocus +powder, or some similar preparation. A pine board on which "air-dust" +has accumulated can even be used. See remarks under _Sharpening_. + + +=Tacks.=--Tacks are sold as one-ounce, two-ounce, and so on according +to size. + +Do not use tacks for fastening wood to wood, but only for fastening +leather or cloth or the like to wood. The pointed wedge-shape of the +tack tends to split thin wood, and is not at all suitable to fasten two +pieces of wood together, particularly in thin wood or near the edge. +Possibly you may have seen some disastrous results from the attempt to +tack pieces of wood together. + + +=Tape-Measure.=--This article (preferably of steel) is often useful, +though not nearly as important for an amateur to buy as many other +things. + + +=Tenon.=--See _Mortising_. + + +=Tenon-Saw.=--See _Saw_ (_Back-Saw_). + + +=Tool-Racks.=--See page 83. + + +=Toothed-Plane.=--See _Plane_. + + +[Illustration FIG. 685.] + +[Illustration FIG. 686.] + +=Truing Surfaces.=--To true a curved or warped surface, as of a board, +lay it on the bench with the rounded side down and wedge it firmly +underneath to make it as nearly level as possible. Then scribe a line +with the compasses across each end of the board at the height of the +lowest point of the surface (Fig. 685). Cut a depression or kind of +rabbet at each end down to this line (Fig. 686). Next, by the use of +winding-sticks placed on each of these rabbets you can easily see +whether they are in line (see _Winding-sticks_). Alter the rabbets if +necessary to get them in line. Draw lines on each edge connecting the +bottoms of the rabbets, and plane away the superfluous wood down to +these lines. When this is done the top of the board will be true or in +the same plane. Test it by placing the straight-edges in different +positions on the surface and sighting as before, correcting any errors. +One side of the board being made true in this way, the other can be made +parallel by gauging a line all around the edge, measuring by the +thinnest point of the board, and planing off the superfluous wood in the +same manner as the first side. + +You can sometimes facilitate the process of planing off the superfluous +wood by making cuts with the saw and removing part of it with the +chisel, or by planing across the grain (the jack-plane is good for this +purpose), or paring across the grain with the chisel, or any such +method, always being careful not to cut quite as deep as the intended +surface, so that all the marks and cuts can be removed by the final +planing. See _Plane_, and also page 179. + + +=Try-Square.=--See _Square_. + + +=Turning-Saw.=--See _Saw_. + + +=Turpentine.=--See _Finishing_ and _Painting_. + + +=Twist-Drill.=--The twist-drill is much better than the gimlet-bit. It +makes a good hole, bores easily, is not easily dulled, can be used upon +metal, and one kind in common use can be easily kept in order by simply +sharpening the ends. There are various patterns. A little care is +necessary, however, particularly in hard wood, as they are liable to be +snapped by bending. See _Bits_. + + +=Varnish.=--See _Finishing_. + + +=Veining-Tool.=--See _Carving-Tools_. + + +=Vise.=--See page 65. For vise for metal-work, see page 70. + + +=Warping, To Remove.=--Of course the simplest way to straighten a warped +board is to put a weight on it, but the difficulty here is that it +usually will stay straight only while the weight is on it, unless you +leave it longer than the patience of the average amateur lasts. To do +this (or to warp a straight board either) with some chance of success, +(1) heat one side, or (2) wet one side, or (3) wet one side and heat the +other, or (4) wet both sides and expose one to the fire (Fig. 687). But +do not be too sure that the result will be lasting. Sometimes it will +and sometimes not. Another way is to thoroughly soak the board, press it +into shape between clamps or under a weight, and leave it until dry; a +week or more is none too long, and boiling water is better than cold. +Simply laying a board down on a flat surface will often cause it to +warp, because the two sides of the board will be unequally exposed to +the action of the atmosphere. Planing off one side only, or planing one +side more than the other, often produces the same effect. See pages +50-53 and Appendix. + +[Illustration FIG. 687.] + + +=Wedges.=--Wedges are in constant use for lifting or separating heavy +bodies, as doubtless you know, and the principle of the wedge comes in +in using the axe, hatchet, chisel, knife, and the other edge-tools (see +page 25). Besides this use of the wedge you will often find it valuable +to tighten or clamp objects of various kinds, or to hold them firmly in +place. + +If you wish to split objects or tear them apart, use a _single_ wedge, +for the increasing thickness of the wedge applied at one point tears or +splits the wood apart. But if you merely wish to squeeze, or press, or +hold firmly, or move, _without damaging the shape of the wood_, use +_double_ wedges,--that is, two wedges having the same inclination or +taper and pointing opposite ways. You will see that the sides of the +double wedge (that is, the outsides of the wedges) will be parallel no +matter how hard you drive the separate wedges, so that the pressure will +be exerted without injuring or jamming the surfaces against which the +wedge bears (see Fig. 333). Short, flaring wedges do the work more +quickly, but require harder blows to drive, and are more liable to slip. +Long, tapering wedges work more slowly, more easily, and are not liable +to slip. You will also use wedging to secure tenons and dowels (see +_Mortising_, etc.). + + +=Whittling.=--See _Knife_. + + +=Winding-Sticks.=--Two straight-edges, each of equal width throughout, +can be laid on edge, one across each end of the surface to be tested. +Stand back a little and look across the top edge of one to the top edge +of the other, and if these edges agree you may know at once that there +is no winding where you have placed the straight-edges (Fig. 688). By +putting them in different positions you can finally determine whether +the whole surface is true or not. + +[Illustration FIG. 688.] + +[Illustration FIG. 689.] + +It is more accurate to use winding-sticks considerably longer than the +width of the piece to be tested, as then any warping or winding will be +exaggerated and more easily seen (Fig. 689). If the upper edges of the +sticks are thin, or "feather-edged," it is easier to tell exactly when +they are in line, but this does not ordinarily matter, except in work +requiring extreme accuracy. + +To find, for example, when the legs of a table, chair, or the like are +cut so that the article will stand evenly, turn it over with the legs +sticking up, put straight-edges on the ends of the legs, sight across +these (Fig. 690), and trim one or two legs until the edges are in line. +See _Scribing_ for other methods. + +[Illustration FIG. 690.] + +Warping or winding of short pieces can be detected by simply laying one +straight-edge diagonally from corner to corner (Fig. 691). This will +show at once which parts require to be planed to make the surface true. + +[Illustration FIG. 691.] + + +=Withdrawing Nails.=--When withdrawing nails place a block under the +hammer-head as shown (Fig. 692), using more blocks, if necessary, as the +nail is withdrawn. + +To draw the nails from boxes, pry up a board, together with the nails, a +short distance--perhaps 1/4"--and then with a _sharp_, _quick_ blow of +the hammer pound the board back into place, not striking the nails but +the board between them. This will usually leave the nail-heads +projecting a little above the surface, so that you can draw them as +shown in Fig. 692, and thus save splitting or defacing the boards and +bending the nails, as usually results from smashing or wrenching boxes +apart. The quick blow drives the board back before the motion has time +to communicate itself to the nails, on somewhat the same principle that +a bullet makes a round hole in a window pane without smashing the glass. + +[Illustration FIG. 692.] + + +=Wood-Filler.=--See _Finishing_. + + +=Wrench.=--A strong wrench is often very serviceable in wood-working +operations. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[41] _Mortise-chisels_ with great thickness of blade (Fig. 486) are not +likely to break, and the width of the sides bearing against the sides of +the mortise tends to make the cutting more accurate. + +[42] You may be told that perfect joints do not require much clamping, +but a perfect joint is impossible, and as a practical matter, only the +skilled workman or the most accurate machinery can make even a _good_ +joint of much length, so great is the difficulty of avoiding little +inaccuracies. Besides this, there is always the liability to more or +less springing or change of shape on the part of the pieces. The joint +which was good when you stopped planing may not be as good by the time +the glue has set, particularly if the gluing does not immediately follow +the jointing. In addition to this, the pressure from clamping at only +one or two points, or at points too far apart, may force the joint to +open elsewhere. Do not infer from this that even the beginner should be +content with a poor joint, with the idea that it can be squeezed and +jammed to a sufficiently good fit by applying muscle to the clamps. Of +course this jamming or mashing of the fibres to fit occurs, to a +microscopic degree, in even the best joint, and it can sometimes be done +to a perceptible extent with soft wood, but to do this intentionally is +very unworkmanlike, and the greatest care should be taken to make as +good a joint as possible before gluing and applying the clamps. Do not, +however, flatter yourself that you can make so accurate a joint that you +can afford to neglect proper clamping, unless, in such cases as that +shown in Fig. 488, you adopt the old-fashioned way of rubbing the two +edges together and then leaving the rest to the glue, but this is not so +good a process for the beginner, except with small pieces, such as +corner-blocks (see _Corner-blocks_). See _Jointing_. + +[43] Shellac is, strictly speaking, a kind of varnish, but it is so +different from many kinds of varnish in common use that it is quite +commonly spoken of as shellac, in contradistinction from what is +popularly known as varnish, and the term is so used here. + +[44] In shellacing doors or panel work, first shellac the panels, then +the rails, and finally the styles (see Fig. 505), because daubs or runs +can be wiped off and covered better when you thus follow the +construction of the work. + +[45] As an extreme illustration, it may be interesting to note the way +the best lacquer work (which is so durable) is made by the Japanese, an +article being given, as Professor Morse tells us, one coat a year, the +finest work having twenty-one coats and the artist rowing out to sea for +miles each time to make sure that all dust is avoided. + +[46] Two pieces properly glued are often stronger than one solid +piece--that is, the glued joint is stronger than the wood itself, as +you will probably discover some day when you have occasion to break +apart a piece of good gluing; but after a long time the glue is apt to +deteriorate in adhesive or cohesive force, particularly if the joint +has not been protected by paint or varnish, so do the best work you can +if you wish it to last. Nevertheless, in important work it is usually +safest to take a whole piece when you can, rather than glue up two or +more pieces, except in cases, perhaps, where the matter of warping, +etc., is concerned, when it may be better to build up the desired shape +of pieces selected for the purpose. + +[47] It may be useful to know, although not suitable work for the +beginner, that there is no better way to joint edges (to make glued +joints, as in Fig. 552) than with a first-class circular saw, run by one +who knows how to use it. The minute roughnesses left by the saw assist +the glue to hold, and as inconspicuous and strong joints as possible can +be quickly produced in this way by a good workman with a first-class +saw, but do not expect a satisfactory result except under these +conditions. + +[48] This seems to be the common opinion among experienced men. There +are, however, many painters of experience who prefer the prepared liquid +paint for outside work, and it certainly saves trouble. + +[49] It is not a good plan to wipe brushes on the sharp edge of a tin +can, as it injures the bristles. + +[50] Another method of doing this is to find a true surface to stand the +legs on and measure the distance the free leg rises from the surface--1" +for example. Do nothing to that leg, of course, or to the one +_diagonally_ opposite, but saw 1/2" from each of the two other legs. +Suppose, for example, the legs _a_, _b_, and _c_ touch (Fig. 669), and +_d_ rises 3/4" from the floor. Make _a_ and _c_ each 3/8" shorter. Of +course you cannot hit it exactly by this method, but a few strokes of a +tool will finish the work. + + + + +APPENDIX + + +=Collection of Specimens of Wood.=--Waste pieces of all the common woods +can easily be obtained at the wood working shops. Have some system about +the size and shape of the specimens. Some kinds you may be able to get +only in pieces of such shape as you can find among the odds and ends of +the shops, and many rare foreign and tropical woods you can obtain only +in quite small pieces, but even these will show the character of the +wood and add value to the collection. Waste scraps of veneers of rare +woods can be glued on blocks of pine. + +The specimens will be most valuable if you can get them out so as to +show a longitudinal section along the medullary rays (or through the +heart), a longitudinal section at right angles to the medullary rays (or +tangential to the annual rings), and a cross section (Fig. 693). It will +be an advantage also to show not only the heartwood but the sapwood and +bark. If you cannot get such large pieces of even the common woods, a +collection of small flat blocks will be well worth making. + +[Illustration FIG. 693.] + +The specimens will show to best advantage if polished (one half of each +side can be polished) or finished with a dull lustre, and they will be +good objects on which to practise finishing (see _Finishing_ in Part +V.). + +All the information you can pick up about the strength, durability, +toughness, elasticity, and uses of the various woods will be sure to +come in play sooner or later. The gradations of hardness, density, +weight, toughness, elasticity, etc., are almost endless. + +Notice, therefore, the weight, colour, hardness, density, and +characteristic odour of the specimens; the proportion of heart to +sapwood, and the colour of each; the size and condition of the pith; the +character of the grain, whether coarse or fine, close or open and +porous; the number, arrangement, size, and colour of the medullary rays +(when visible); the width and character of the annual rings (when +visible), whether wide or narrow, with many or few ducts or resin +canals. You will find many things to notice in some woods. Use a +magnifying-glass if you can. + +Notice also about the bark. Hunt up all the woody stems you can, compare +the bark of the different specimens, noting its colour, taste, odour, +surface, thickness, and the different ways it cracks and is cast off; +and notice how easily you can learn to tell the common trees by the bark +alone. Sections of small stems or branches will often show the character +of the wood well. + +Note what you can about the character and habits of the trees +themselves; the height, diameter, age, and the shape and peculiarities +of the leaves. In this connection, a collection of leaves will also be +interesting to make. You can soon learn to tell the common trees by +their leaves. + +Notice how, in some trees, as the pines, spruces, firs, the stem grows +right straight up to the top, forming a spire-shaped tree. This is +called an _excurrent_ trunk (Lat., _excurrere_, to run out). Notice how, +in other trees, like the elm, oak, etc., the stem branches again and +again until it is lost in the branches. This is called a _deliquescent_ +stem (Lat., _deliquescere_, to melt away). + +Study the shape and arrangement of the different kinds of trees as shown +in outline against the sky; best, perhaps, when the leaves are off. You +can learn to tell the common trees by their outline. Do they look stout, +firm, strong, and rugged, or delicate, yielding, and graceful? To a +certain extent you can thus form an idea of the character of the wood, +as in comparing the pine, with its comparatively light top and slender +leaves, with the heavy growth which the trunk of the oak has to sustain +in wind and snow. + + +=Preservation of Forests.=--Forests are of great value from their effect +upon the climate, making it more equable. They tend to cause abundant +and needed rainfall and to preserve the moisture when fallen, releasing +it to the rivers gradually, and thus preventing abnormal freshets and +extreme droughts. By absorbing and parting with heat slowly they cause +the changes of temperature to be less sudden than in the open country. +They temper the heat, and they serve as a protection, or "wind-break," +to adjacent land. Trees, with other vegetation, are essential to the +purification of the air. All this is in addition to the obvious uses of +supplying fuel and wood for an almost endless variety of purposes, not +to speak of the value of trees for shade and as features of the +landscape. + +The reckless rate at which the forests of the United States are being +destroyed is becoming a serious matter, not merely because of depriving +wood-workers of the materials with which to work, but because of the +influence of the forests upon the climate, the soil, etc., upon which so +much of the welfare of mankind depends. At the present rate of +destruction many generations cannot pass before the supply of wood will +be practically exhausted. It is every year becoming more difficult to +obtain native lumber of the best quality and large size. + +One of the most serious aspects of the matter, however, is in regard to +the washing away of the soil, which owes not merely its origin but its +preservation to the forest and other vegetable growths. Professor Shaler +tells us that "it is in this action of the rain upon the bared surface +of the ground that we find the principal danger which menaces man in his +use of the earth." + +The individual wood-worker may not have control of any forest or +wood-lot, but he can at least use his influence indirectly, when +opportunity offers, toward needed legislation to restrict, or at least +regulate, the improvident waste now going on, and he can in many cases +take advantage of Arbor Day to plant at least one tree toward preserving +the balance required by nature. + + +=Common Woods and Some of their Characteristics.=--There are many things +to be considered by the beginner when choosing his wood. Many of these +points have been treated in Chapter III. (to which the reader is +referred), but a few additional remarks about the various kinds may be +of use. + +One important thing, however, to be borne in mind before beginning, is +to select straight-grained, plain, rather soft, and easily worked stock. +With this and with _sharp_ tools you will have every chance of success, +while with hard, crooked-grained wood and with _dull_ tools you will be +well started on the road to discouragement and failure. + +It may be remarked, incidentally, that beginning with soft woods, such +as white pine, calls for even keener-edged tools than can be got along +with for harder woods, like oak. This, however, though it may seem a +disadvantage, is really a good thing, for it _compels_ one to keep his +tools sharp. You will soon find that it is impossible to do even +passable work in the softer woods without sharp tools, while with harder +wood you may succeed by brute force in mauling the work into tolerable +shape without being sufficiently impressed by the fact that your tools +are dull and require sharpening. + +Besides the familiar fact that the heartwood is usually better than the +sapwood,[51] it may be useful to remember that, as a rule, the wood from +a young tree is tougher than that from an old one; the best, hardest, +and strongest in the young tree usually being nearest the heart, while +in an old tree the heart, having begun to deteriorate, is softer and not +as good as the more recently formed growths nearer the sapwood. If the +tree is in its prime the wood is more uniformly hard throughout. The +sapwood, as a rule, is tougher than the heartwood, though usually +inferior in other respects; and timber light in weight is sometimes +tougher than heavy wood, though the latter is often stronger and more +durable and preferable for some purposes. The application of these +statements varies much according to the kind of wood and different +circumstances, for the growth and structure of trees is a very complex +matter, and the diversities almost infinite. + +It may be well to bear in mind, considering the great variety of +purposes for which the amateur uses wood, the distinction between the +_elasticity_ needed for such purposes as a bow or horizontal bar, and +the _toughness_ required for the ribs of a canoe, or the wattles of a +basket. In the former case the material must not merely bend without +breaking, but must spring back (or nearly so) to its former shape when +released, as with lancewood or white ash; while in the latter case it +must bend without breaking, but is not required to spring back to its +original form when released, as with many green sticks which can be +easily bent, but have not much resilience. These two qualities are found +combined in endlessly varying degrees in all woods. Elastic wood must +necessarily have toughness up to the breaking-point, but tough wood may +have but little elasticity. + +Earliest of all trees, historically, come the pines--the conifers--and +then the broad-leaved trees. The conifers, or needle-leaved trees, +include the pines, firs, spruces, cypresses, larches, and cedars. As a +rule they contain turpentine, have a comparatively straight and regular +fibre and simple structure, are usually light, flexible, and elastic, +and the wood is more easily split or torn apart than that from the +broad-leaved trees, and is easily worked. The wood of the broad-leaved +trees is more complex in structure than that of the conifers and, as a +rule, harder, and for many purposes stronger and more durable. + +Besides the woods in general use there are many which have merely a +local value where they grow, and a long list could be made of the woods +which have but very limited uses, as well as of those which, from their +scarcity, hardness, small size, or other peculiarities are practically +out of the question for the beginner or the amateur, except on rare +occasions. + +The following list makes no claim to completeness, but may be of some +use to the beginner. + +=Apple.=--This wood is used for turning, such as handles, etc., and for +other small work. It is handsome, fine-grained, and somewhat hard. + +=Ash.=--This is a valuable wood, of which there are a number of +varieties. It is used for agricultural implements, carriage-building, +floors, interior finish, cabinet-work, etc. Ash is flexible, tough, and +elastic. It is good to stand a quick and violent strain, as that put on +a horizontal bar in the gymnasium, although in time it becomes brittle. +_White ash_ is the variety best suited for such purposes. It is good for +oars and the like. Ash is of a rather coarse and usually +straight-grained texture, and most varieties are not difficult to work. + +=Basswood.=--The wood of the American linden, or basswood, is soft and +light in substance, white or light brown in colour, is easily bent but +not easily split, free from knots but prone to warp, and is used for +cabinet-work, carriage-work, and for various minor articles. It can be +obtained in boards of considerable width. + +=Beech.=--This close-grained wood, hard, firm, strong, and taking a good +polish, is extensively used for machine-frames, handles, plane-stocks, +some kinds of furniture, and a variety of minor articles, but will not +often be needed by the amateur. The medullary rays are noticeable. + +=Birch.=--The birch, of which there are many species, is widely +distributed in North America, and furnishes an important wood, which is +used for a great variety of purposes,--for furniture, floors, interior +finish, turning, and a long list of minor articles. It is close-grained, +and most varieties are hard and strong, but not difficult to work, and +are susceptible of being given a smooth satiny surface and a fine +finish. The uses of the bark of the canoe birch are familiar to all. +This tree is good not merely for canoes, but its wood is used for +paddles, skis, and the like. + +The _black birch_ is especially esteemed for furniture and interior +work. It is of a beautiful reddish- or yellowish-brown colour, and much +of it is beautifully figured with wavy and curly grain. It is frequently +stained in imitation of mahogany, a deception much assisted by the +resemblance in grain, and not easily detected if skilfully done. + +=Black Walnut.=--Large black-walnut trees are practically almost as +thoroughly exterminated in America as the bisons of the Western +prairies. The wood can be obtained, however, though it is not abundant +in very wide boards. It is durable, usually straight-grained, moderately +strong and hard, not difficult to work, holds glue well, and can be +given a fine finish. It holds its shape well, and is an excellent wood +for many purposes in interior finishing, cabinet-work, and for various +minor articles. It has been very extensively used for gun-stocks. Its +sombre colour is not always admired, but it is an excellent wood for +amateur work. When mottled or in the form of burl it is, of course, +harder to smooth. The English and Italian varieties of walnut have long +been used. + +=Boxwood.=--This wood is distinguished for its extremely compact and +even grain. It is hard and heavy, is used in turning, wood-engraving, +and the like, but is not likely to be required by the amateur. + +=Butternut.=--This wood, found in North America, has a rather coarsely +marked grain, is soft, light, of a yellowish-brown colour, and when +finished makes a handsome wood for furniture and interior work. + +It is easily worked, but is not the easiest material for the amateur to +smooth satisfactorily, because of the peculiar texture of the wood, +which tends to "rough up" unless the tools are very keen. + +=Buttonwood.=--See _Sycamore_. + +=Cedar.=--This tree, found quite abundantly in the United States, +furnishes a wood which is exceedingly durable, particularly where +exposed to the alternations of moisture and dryness, as when inserted in +the ground or in situations near the ground, and is very valuable for +fence-posts, foundation-posts for buildings, railroad ties, shingles, +pails, and the like. Some varieties of cedar are used for building +purposes and interior fittings. + +The varieties of _white cedar_ are light, of good grain and easy to +work, soft, and not particularly strong, but durable and admirably +adapted to such purposes as boat-building, for which it is largely used. +_Red cedar_, which is in many respects similar to the other varieties, +is distinguished by its colour and by its strong fragrance, which, being +obnoxious to insects, makes it excellent for chests and closets. It is +used for pencils. + +=Cherry.=--This is a valuable wood for the amateur. It is found +extensively in the United States. It is fine-grained, of moderate +hardness, not difficult to work, and of a beautiful reddish-brown or +yellowish-brown colour. It has a satin-like surface when smoothed, and +can be given a beautiful finish. The _black cherry_ is especially +esteemed. It can be obtained, so far as it has not been exterminated, in +quite wide boards. Cherry mellows and grows richer in colour with age. +The varieties having a wavy texture are especially beautiful. It is much +used for cabinet-work, interior finish, and for many purposes. The +beginner should select only the softer and straight-grained varieties, +as some of the harder and denser kinds are exceedingly hard to smooth. + +=Chestnut.=--The value of this wood to the amateur lies chiefly in its +durability. It lasts well in or near the ground or exposed to the +weather. It can be used for framing, for posts for a fence or to support +a building, and for similar purposes. It is soft, coarse-grained, not +very strong, but is not difficult to work. + +=Cottonwood.=--This is a soft, light, close-grained wood, used for +woodenware, boxes, pulp, etc. + +=Cypress.=--This wood is found in North America, Mexico, parts of Asia +and Europe. It is a valuable material, yellowish or yellowish-brown in +colour, very durable when exposed to the weather or in contact with the +soil, light, soft, easily worked, and is used for general lumber +purposes for which pine is used, but to which it is superior for +withstanding exposure. It is used for interior finish, doors, +clapboards, shingles, cabinet-work, boat-building, posts, and a great +variety of purposes. It takes a fine finish. The cypress of the Southern +United States is of large size, and the wood is of beautiful figure and +colouring. Valuable varieties are found upon the Pacific coast. + +=Deal.=--See _Pine_ and _Spruce_. + +=Ebony.=--The excessive hardness of ebony renders it unsuited for +amateur work. It is also expensive. It is very hard and solid, with +black heartwood and white sapwood, and is used for furniture, turning, +and small articles. + +=Elm.=--This useful wood, strong, tough, and durable, usually flexible, +heavy and hard, is extensively used in some of its varieties for +boat-building, the frames of agricultural implements, yokes, wheel-hubs, +chairs, cooperage, and many other purposes. Some species are very good +for continued exposure to wet. The _rock elm_ is a valuable variety, +esteemed for flexibility and toughness as well as durability and +strength. + +=Fir.=--See _Pine_ and _Spruce_. + +=Hemlock.=--This wood, valuable for its bark, is cheap, coarse-grained +and subject to shakes, brittle and easily split, and somewhat soft, but +not easy to work. It is unfit for nice work, but can be used for rough +framing and rough boarding, for which its holding nails well renders it +suitable. + +=Hickory.=--This wood, found in the eastern parts of North America, is +highly esteemed for its strength and great elasticity. It is hard, +tough, heavy, and close-grained. It is largely used for carriage-work, +agricultural implements, hoops, axe-helves, and the like. It is hard to +work. The _shagbark_ is especially valued for timber. + +=Holly.=--This wood is quite hard, close-grained, and very white, though +it does not retain the purity of its colour. It is used for small +articles of cabinet-work and for turning. + +=Lancewood.=--The use of this wood for bows, fishing-rods, and such +purposes has been extensive. It is distinguished for its elasticity. + +=Lignum Vitæ.=--The extreme hardness, solidity, and durability of lignum +vitæ make it of great value for pulley-sheaves, balls for bowling, +mallets, small handles, and turned objects. It is too excessively hard +for the beginner to use. + +=Locust.=--The wood of the locust of North America is hard, strong, +heavy, exceedingly durable, and of yellowish or brownish colour. It is a +valuable wood, and is used extensively for posts for fences and for the +support of buildings, for ship-building, and for other work to be +subjected to exposure or to contact with the ground. It is used in +turning, but not extensively for interior work. + +=Mahogany.=--This highly valuable wood, which did not come into general +use until the eighteenth century, is found in the West Indies, Mexico, +Central America, and some other regions. It is very durable. The colour +is found in a great variety of shades from golden-brown to deep +reddish-brown. Some varieties are light and quite soft, even spongy, +while others (the best) are very hard and heavy, close-grained, and +strong. In some kinds the grain is quite straight, in others curved and +twisted into an endless variety of crooked shapes, the latter being the +most beautiful for ornamental work, but more liable to change of shape +than the straight-grained varieties. + +The straight-grained varieties change their shape but little,--less than +most woods,--and are therefore excellently suited for the framework or +structural parts of cabinet-work, for pattern-making, and the like. The +so-called _baywood_ holds its shape well and is easily worked, but is +not especially beautiful. The better grades of mahogany grow darker and +richer in colour with age, but some varieties become bleached and +lustreless with exposure. + +It is of the greatest value for interior finishing, for furniture, and +for cabinet-work generally, and is also used for many other purposes. + +The term mahogany is used in commerce in a rather comprehensive way. +Mahogany from San Domingo has long been highly esteemed, but is now +difficult or impossible to obtain. The light-coloured variety known as +_white mahogany_ is much valued for its beauty. + +Mahogany is excellent for holding glue. It can be obtained in wide +pieces, thus often saving the necessity of gluing. It can be given a +beautiful dull finish or a high polish, as may be desired. + +The beginner should only attempt the plain, softer, straight-grained +kinds of mahogany at first. The other varieties require much skill to +smooth and, in case of the harder pieces, even to work at all; and +these, however beautiful they may be, should be deferred until +considerable proficiency has been attained. + +=Maple.=--The maple grows freely in the United States, and is much used +for a great variety of purposes, the _sugar_ or _rock maple_ being +especially esteemed. It is close-grained, hard, strong, heavy, and of a +light yellowish-, reddish-, or brownish-white colour (sometimes almost +white, though found in varying shades), and can be smoothed to a +satin-like surface and be given a good finish. It can be stained +satisfactorily. The curly or wavy varieties furnish wood of much beauty, +the peculiar contortion of the grain known as "bird's-eye" being much +admired. Maple is extensively used for cabinet-work and interior +finishing, floors, machine-frames, work-benches, turning, and a great +variety of miscellaneous articles. + +There are a number of varieties of the maple. The beginner should +confine himself at first to the softer and straight-grained specimens, +as the other kinds are hard to work and to smooth. + +=Oak.=--Of all the broad-leaved trees the oak is probably the most +valuable, and has for ages stood as a type of strength. It is widely +scattered in various parts of the world, and nearly three hundred +varieties have been noted. + +Oak is distinguished for its combination of useful qualities. It is +hard, tough, elastic, heavy, durable, stiff (except after steaming, when +it readily bends), and durable when exposed to the weather or to the +soil. Oak is more or less subject to checking. It is strongly +impregnated with tannic acid, which tends to destroy iron fastenings. + +_American white oak._ This important variety is found in North America, +and from it is obtained most excellent timber. It is used for a variety +of purposes too great to be specified, from the construction of +buildings and ships to furniture and agricultural implements, carriages, +etc. It is an invaluable wood. + +_British oak_ has long been held in the highest regard for its +combination of valuable qualities, and has been used for more purposes +than can be here mentioned. + +The _live oak_, found in southern parts of North America, may be +mentioned as a valuable wood, very strong, tough, and durable, which, +before the introduction of iron and steel in ship-building, was +extensively used in that business; but it is excessively hard and +unsuited to amateur work. + +Varieties of _red oak_ are extensively used, but, though valuable, are +of inferior quality to the white oak. Other varieties largely used in +England and on the Continent are seldom marketed in the United States. + +=Pear.=--The wood of the pear tree is somewhat like that of the apple +tree. It can be readily carved. + +=Pine.=--First and foremost among the needle-leaved trees comes the +pine, of which about seventy species are known. The _white pine_, known +in England as yellow pine and also as Weymouth pine, is widely +distributed in America, and is, or has been, our most valuable timber +tree, but seems to be doomed to rapid extinction, at least so far as the +wide, clear boards and planks of old-growth timber are concerned, which +are now exceedingly hard to obtain. + +There is no better wood for the beginner than clear white pine for all +purposes to which it is suited. + +It is light, stiff, straight-grained and of close fibre, easily worked, +can be easily nailed, and takes a good finish. When allowed to grow it +has reached a large size (as in the so-called "pumpkin" pine), +furnishing very wide, clear boards, of beautiful texture and with a +fine, satiny surface. It is of a light yellowish-brown colour, growing +darker with time. It is soft, resinous, and of moderate strength. Pine +is cut into lumber of many forms, and is used for inside finishing of +houses, for many purposes of carpentry and cabinet-making, for masts and +spars, for clapboards, shingles, and laths, doors, sashes, blinds, +patterns for castings, and a long list of different purposes. It holds +glue exceedingly well and takes paint well. + +Other varieties, as the _sugar pine_, the _Canadian red pine_, the +_yellow pine_, etc., grow in America. White pine is also found in +Europe. The _Scotch pine_ or _Norway pine_, known also as _red_, +_Scotch_, or _yellow fir_, and as _yellow deal_ and _red deal_,[52] is +the common pine of the North of Europe, hence its name, _Pinus +sylvestris_, pine of the forest. It is hard, strong, not very resinous, +and is extensively used. + +_Southern or Hard Pine._ This very important timber is found on the +Southern Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States. It is very hard, +heavy, and resinous, with coarse and strongly marked grain. It is +durable, strong, and not easily worked by the beginner, and is hard to +nail after seasoning. It is extensively used for girders, floor-timbers, +joists, and many kinds of heavy timber work, including trestles, +bridges, and roofs, for masts and spars, for general carpentry, floors, +decks, and interior finish, railway cars, railway ties, and many other +purposes, and, in addition, for the manufacture of turpentine. + +Other varieties of hard pine are sold and used successfully for the same +purposes, all under the common name of hard pine, Southern pine, Georgia +pine, yellow hard pine, etc. Another variety of hard "pitch" pine +(_Pinus rigida_), often confused with the Southern pine, is heavy, +resinous, and durable, but not suited for the better class of work. + +=Plum.=--This is a fine-grained, hard wood, used for turning, engraving, +etc. + +=Redwood.=--The two varieties of the giant _Sequoia_ of the Pacific +coast are the _Sequoia sempervirens_ and the _Sequoia gigantea_ or +_Wellingtonia_. The former, the most important tree of the Pacific +coast, is of immense size (supposed to reach a height of even four +hundred feet), red in colour, rather soft, light, and moderately strong, +easily worked and finished, and very durable when exposed to the soil. +It is used for general lumber purposes, carpentry, interior finish, +posts, tanks, shingles, and a great variety of uses. + +The _S. gigantea_ or _Wellingtonia_, which has the largest trunk in the +world, is also red in colour, coarse-grained, rather weak, soft and +light in texture, and of great durability when exposed to the soil. It +is used for lumber and general building purposes, posts, shingles, etc. +These are the "Big Trees," thought in some instances to be even five +thousand years old, and of which the familiar stories are told about a +stage-coach having been driven through a hollow tree, and about +twenty-five people having danced at one time upon a stump. + +=Rosewood.=--This wood, of handsome grain and colouring, has been much +admired and extensively used for veneering. It is hard and heavy and of +a peculiar texture, which seems oily to the touch. It is not well suited +to amateur work, and is expensive. + +=Satinwood.=--This handsome yellowish-brown wood is hardly to be +considered by the amateur except for the occasional use of a small +piece. + +=Spruce.=--The wood of the spruce, of which there are a number of +varieties, is quite abundant, is light and straight-grained, and +comparatively free from large knots. It is largely used for many of the +same purposes as white pine, to which it is inferior for interior finish +and fine work, but superior in strength, hardness, and toughness. Both +white and black spruce are extensively used for carpentry, interior +finish, flooring, fencing, and inferior wood-work generally. It has the +great disadvantage of curling and twisting and springing badly, and is +not as nice to work as white pine. Spruce of good quality makes good +paddles, spars, and the like, and is valuable for such work. The wood of +the Norway spruce is known in England as _white deal_. + +=Sycamore.=--This handsome wood, found in various parts of the world, +and of a light yellowish or reddish-brown colour, is esteemed for +interior work. The medullary rays are noticeable. It is rather hard, but +not very difficult to work. It is not durable for outside work exposed +to the weather. Known also as _Buttonwood_. + +=Walnut.=--See _Black Walnut_. + +=Whitewood.=--Like white pine, whitewood is an excellent wood for the +early attempts of the beginner. + +Whitewood, which is by no means white, but greenish- or brownish-yellow, +is the name applied to the wood of the tulip tree. This tree attains a +large size, thus furnishing wide boards, which are of such straight and +even grain and so free from knots as to be of great use for many +purposes. It is brittle and soft, but light and very easily worked. It +is not, for most purposes, as reliable a wood as white pine, but is +extensively used in the wood-working arts. It is more liable to warp and +twist than pine. It takes a stain exceedingly well. + +=Willow.=--An important use of this wood is for baskets. It will not +often be required by the beginner, except for whistles. + +=Yew.=--This wood, like lancewood, is distinguished for its elasticity, +and is highly esteemed for bows and the like. + + * * * * * + + +Many other woods can be alluded to, as catalpa (for posts and the like), +elder (for various small articles), dogwood (for turning and the like), +gum (for various common articles), hornbeam or ironwood (for mallets, +handles, wheel-cogs, etc.), poplar (for pulp), sassafras (for posts, +hoops, etc.), teak (from the East, strong and valuable), tupelo (hubs of +wheels, etc.), and a great variety of others which cannot be specified, +as they are but seldom required by the amateur and never needed by the +beginner. + + +=Felling and Seasoning.=--A tree should usually be cut for timber at or +near its maturity, as a young tree has too much sapwood and will not be +as strong and dense or durable, while an old one is likely to get +brittle and inelastic and the centre of the heartwood is liable to +decay, being the oldest portion. A young tree, though softer and not so +durable, furnishes a tougher and more elastic wood, and sometimes has a +finer grain. + +Trees differ so much, and the uses to which the wood is to be put are so +various, that no exact ages can be set for cutting--probably from fifty +to one hundred years for good timber, to make a rough statement. Some +trees furnish excellent timber at a much greater age than one hundred +years. Pine is thought to be ripe for cutting at about seventy-five or +one hundred years of age, oak at from sixty to one hundred years or +more, and the various other woods mature at different ages. + +Midwinter, or the dry season in tropical regions, is usually preferred +for felling, because the sap is quiet. Decay sets in more rapidly in the +sapwood and between the wood and the bark during the period of active +growth, because of the perishable nature of the substances involved in +the growth. Midsummer is considered equally good by some. + +The various methods of cutting the log into the lumber of commerce have +been treated in Chapter III., to which the reader is referred. In this +connection it will be noticed that, although boards cut through or near +the middle are, as a rule, the best, when they contain the pith they are +sometimes valueless in the centre, as well as when, in the case of an +old tree, decay has begun at that point. + +As the water evaporates gradually from green wood exposed to the air but +protected from the weather, one might infer that in time it would +evaporate entirely, leaving the wood absolutely dry, just as the water +will entirely disappear from a tumbler or a tea-kettle. This is not so, +however. The drying goes on until there is only about ten to twenty per +cent. of moisture left, but no amount of open-air seasoning will +entirely remove this small per cent. of moisture, the amount varying +with the temperature and the humidity of the atmosphere. It can be got +rid of only by applying heat, kiln-drying, baking, currents of hot air, +vacuum process, or some artificial method of seasoning. After having +completely dried the wood by any of these methods, if it is again +exposed to the atmosphere, it absorbs moisture quite rapidly until it +has taken up perhaps fifteen per cent., more or less, of its own weight. +So you see that, though you may by artificial means make wood entirely +dry, it will not stay in this unnatural condition unless in some way +entirely protected from the atmosphere _at once_, but will reabsorb the +moisture it has lost until it reaches a condition in harmony with the +atmosphere. Recent investigations show that the very fibre or substance +of the wood itself imbibes and holds moisture tenaciously, this being +additional to the water popularly understood to be contained in the +pores or cavities of the wood. + +There are various other methods besides kiln-drying (referred to in +Chapter III.) of seasoning and of hastening the drying process. Wood is +sometimes soaked in water before being seasoned. This assists in +removing the soluble elements of the sap, but it is doubtful whether the +process improves the quality of the wood. Smoking and steaming are also +resorted to. Small pieces can readily be smoked, which hardens the wood +and adds to its durability,--a method which has been known for +centuries,--but care must be taken not to burn, scorch, or crack the +wood. + + +=Decay and Preservation.=--Timber decays fastest when alternately wet +and dry, as in the piles of a wharf, fence-posts, and the like, or when +subjected to a hot, moist, close atmosphere, as the sills and +floor-timbers situated over some damp and unventilated cellar. Fig. 694 +shows the decay caused by alternate wetness and dryness, while the +parts above and below are still sound. + +[Illustration FIG. 694.] + +Wood lasts the best when kept dry and well ventilated. When kept +constantly wet it is somewhat softened, and will not resist so much, but +it does not decay. Recently, upon cutting a slab from the outside of a +large log taken from the bed of a river, where it had lain for one +hundred years or more, the interior proved as sound and clear as could +be found in any lumber-yard. Undoubtedly, however, such long submersion +lessens the elastic strength of timber after it is dried. That is not, +however, an extreme example of durability. Wood has been taken from bogs +and ancient lake-dwellings after being preserved for ages. Piles were +taken from the Old London Bridge after about 650 years of service. Piles +placed in the Rhine about 2000 years ago have been found quite sound +during the present century; and piles are now regularly used, as you +doubtless know, for the support of the most massive stone buildings and +piers, but only where they are driven deep in the ground or below the +low-water line. Many examples of the durability of wood kept dry are +found in European structures. Timbers put into the roof of Westminster +Abbey in the reign of Richard II. are still in place, and the +roof-timbers of some of the older Italian churches remain in good +condition. + +Thorough seasoning, protection from the sun and rain, and the free +circulation of air are the essentials to the preservation of timber. + +Many preparations and chemical processes have been tried for the +_preservation of wood_. + +Creosote is one of the best preservatives known. Insects and fungi are +repelled by its odour. The modern so-called "creosote stains" are +excellent, not very expensive, and easily applied. They are only +suitable for outside work, however, on account of the odour. + +Coal-tar and wood-tar or pitch, applied hot in thin coats, are also good +and cheap preservatives for exposed wood-work. + +Charring the ends of fence-posts by holding them for a short time over a +fire and forming a protecting coating of charcoal is another method +which has been extensively used. + +Oil paint will protect wood from moisture from without, and is the +method most commonly in use. + +In the case of any external coating, however, which interferes with the +process of evaporation, as tar or paint, the wood must be _thoroughly +dry_ when it is applied, or the moisture within will be unable to +escape, and will cause decay. + +Lumber as well as the living tree has enemies in the form of insects and +worms, but the conditions best for the preservation of the wood, as +referred to above, are also the least favourable for the attacks of +animal life and of fungi. + +As soon as the tree has been felled and dies, decomposition begins, as +in all organic bodies, and sooner or later will totally destroy the +wood. The woody fibre itself will last for ages, but some of the +substances involved in the growth soon decay. The sap is liable to +fermentation, shown by a bluish tint, and decay sets in. Fungi are +liable to fasten upon the wood. Worms and insects also attack it, +preferring that which is richest in sap. Thus we see that the danger of +decay originates chiefly in the decomposition of the sap (although in +living trees past their prime decay begins in the heartwood while the +sapwood is sound), so the more the sap can be got rid of the better. +There are, however, some substances found in various trees, aside from +those elements especially required for their growth, which render the +wood more durable, like tannic acid, which abounds in oak and a number +of trees, particularly in the bark. There is no advantage in getting rid +of the turpentine and other volatile oils and the resinous deposits +found in needle-leaved trees, particularly in the case of those woods in +which they abound. Care should be taken, however, not to use a piece of +pine badly streaked or spotted with resinous deposits in a place where +it will be exposed, as the turpentine or resinous matter will be apt to +ooze out and blister the paint. + +_Wet rot_ is a decay of the unseasoned wood, which may also be caused in +seasoned wood by moisture with a temperate degree of warmth. It occurs +in wood alternately exposed to dryness and moisture. _Dry rot_, which is +due to fungi, does not attack _dry_ wood, but is found where there is +dampness and lack of free circulation of air, as in warm, damp, and +unventilated situations, like cellars and the more confined parts of +ships, and in time results in the entire crumbling away of the wood. +There are several forms of dry rot. One of the most common and worst of +dry-rot fungi attacks pine and fir. Fungi also attack oak. Creosote is +used as a preventive, to the extent to which it saturates the wood. + + +=Effects of Expansion and Contraction.=--Cracks, curling, warping, +winding, or twisting are due to nothing but irregular and uneven +swelling and shrinking. Some kinds of wood shrink much in drying, others +but little. Some, after seasoning, swell or shrink and curl and warp to +a marked degree with every change in temperature and dryness. Others, +once thoroughly air-seasoned, alter much less in shape or size under +ordinary circumstances. + +We have already seen that the heart side of a board tends to become +convex in seasoning, owing to the shrinkage of the other side, and that +if one part swells much more than another the wood becomes out of +shape,--warped, curled, or twisted. If one part shrinks much faster than +another, cracks usually result in the quicker shrinking portion. If you +stick one end of a green board into the hot oven of the kitchen stove, +the heated end will crack and split before the rest of the board has +fairly begun to dry. We have seen illustrations of this in the seasoning +process, as shown in Chapter III. + +Exposure of one side of a seasoned piece to either dampness or heat will +thus cause the piece to curl. The dampness swells the side affected or +the heat shrinks it so that the convexity will be on the dampened side, +or the concavity on the heated side, as the case may be. + +If lumber were of perfectly uniform texture, hung up where it would be +entirely unconfined and free to swell or shrink in all directions, and +equally exposed all over the surface to exactly the same degrees and +changes of heat and cold, dryness and moisture, it would simply grow +larger or smaller without changing its form or shape. There would then +be no curling, warping or winding. As a matter of fact, however, wood is +not uniform in texture, but exceedingly varied, some pieces being +extremely complex in structure; neither is it always free to expand and +contract in every direction, nor equally exposed on all sides to the +alternations of heat and cold, moisture and dryness. + +To come to the practical application of these facts, we have seen (in +Chapter III.) that boards for nice work should be planed down equally, +as nearly as may be, from both sides; that the mere dressing off of the +surface by hand will sometimes cause a board to warp badly; and that it +is better to buy stock of as nearly the required thickness as possible, +than to plane it down or split it. It should also be noted that when a +board is being sawed in two or split lengthwise with a saw it sometimes +springs together behind the saw with so much force that the crack has to +be wedged open in order to continue sawing (Fig. 695). Sometimes the +crack opens wider instead of closing (Fig. 696). You see from this that +you cannot always be sure when you split a board that the parts will +retain the shape they had in the original board. In working up large +pieces into smaller ones, unexpected twists and crooks will often be +found in the smaller pieces which did not exist in the original stock. +Sometimes mahogany, for instance, will act in this way very markedly. +Strips sawed off from a board, for example, will sometimes immediately +spring into very crooked forms, as shown in Fig. 697 (which would not +be exaggerated if the pieces were drawn of greater proportionate +length). + +[Illustration FIG. 695.] + +[Illustration FIG. 696.] + +[Illustration FIG. 697.] + +[Illustration FIG. 698.] + +In splitting stock flatwise, _i.e._, making two thinner boards out of a +thick board or plank, a similar result often follows. The latent power +set free, so to speak, by suddenly exposing the middle of a board, +plank, or other timber to the atmosphere sometimes causes curious +developments. It being necessary one day to split for a picture frame a +large mahogany board, 1" thick by 2' square, with a circular hole +already sawed from the centre, the pieces warped and twisted as the +sawing went on (Fig. 698), until, just as they were nearly separated, +the whole thing "went off" with a report like a toy pistol, breaking +into a dozen pieces and scattering them around the shop. + +In very crooked-grained wood you will frequently find uneven and +undulating forms of warping and twisting that you do not find in +straight-grained pieces, but such wood is often of the most beautiful +figure for indoor work. Where the grain is crooked, cropping up to the +surface as in Fig. 701, the cut-off ends of the fibrous structure, so to +speak, are exposed in places to the atmosphere. These open ends, "end +wood," thus brought to the surface are more susceptible to moisture and +dryness than the sides of the bundles of fibrous tissue, which tends to +produce unequal swelling, shrinking, and warping. + +You will see if you look at the ends of logs and stumps that the heart +is frequently not in the centre, in some cases taking such a devious +course throughout the stem as to make the grain so crooked that no +method of sawing will remove the tendency to warp or twist, just shown. +Such trees may show a beautiful grain. Even in straight trees the pith +is not usually quite straight, and is apt to take a somewhat zigzag +course, due to the crooked way the tree grew when young (Fig. 699). + +[Illustration FIG. 699.] + +Imagine, for an exaggerated illustration, that you could see with X-rays +the pith as crooked as Fig. 699. that shown in Fig. 700. Imagine that +from this tree you could saw out the board indicated, keeping with it +the whole pith or heart as if it were a wire rope woven in and out of +the board, so that the appearance would be somewhat like that shown in +Fig. 701. Bear in mind that the annual rings are layers of wood, so to +speak, which may vary in thickness, growing around the heart. You will +see that these layers, or rings, as they dip below or rise above the +surface of the board, will cause the grain to form various patterns, +perhaps somewhat as shown in Fig. 701, which makes no claim to +accurately showing the grain in this case. In fact, all such variations +of grain in lumber are due to the surface of the piece being at an angle +with the layers. + +[Illustration FIG. 700.] + +[Illustration FIG. 701.] + +In addition, the knots caused by branches, the twisting of the stems +screw-fashion (as is seen in cedar), wounds, and other causes, often +produce very crooked and tangled grain, and the wood of many +broad-leaved trees is sometimes extremely complicated in texture, +especially when all these irregularities occur in the same piece. It is +the nature of some kinds of mahogany, from whatever cause, to have the +fibres strangely interlaced or running in very different directions in +layers which are quite near each other. + +The warping, twisting, and cracking is obviated in many cases where it +is objectionable (as in the wooden frames of machines, the tops of +benches) by building up with a number of smaller pieces, of which you +will often see illustrations. To do this to the best advantage, the +pieces should be selected and put together so that, though the grain +will run in the same direction lengthways, the annual rings at the ends +will not run together as in a whole beam, but will be reversed or +arranged in various combinations, so that the tendencies of the +different parts to warp or twist will counteract each other. Instead of +a single board, which would naturally become warped in one large curve, +a number of strips can be glued up with the grain of the strips arranged +in alternate fashion (Fig. 559), so that in place of one large curve the +warping will merely result in a slightly wavy line. + +Where but one side of a board is seen or used and where the full +strength is not needed, warping and twisting can be largely prevented by +lengthways saw-cuts on the back or under surface, as in a drawing-board, +the crossways strength required being secured by the cleats. Doors and +most forms of panelled work also illustrate these matters of swelling +and shrinking (see _Doors and Panels_). + +_Shakes._--_Heart-shakes_ are cracks radiating from the centre in the +line of the medullary rays, widest at the pith and narrowing toward the +outside, and supposed to be chiefly caused by the shrinkage of the older +wood due to the beginning of decay while the tree is standing (Fig. +702). Slight heart-shakes are common, but if large and numerous or +twisting in the length of the log, they injure the timber seriously for +cutting up. + +[Illustration FIG. 702.] + +_Star-shakes_ are also radiating cracks, but, unlike the heart-shakes, +the cracks are widest at the outside, narrowing toward the centre (Fig. +703), and are often caused by the shrinkage of the outer part due to the +outside of the tree drying faster than the inside, as it naturally does +from being more exposed after being felled; but they are sometimes owing +to the beginning of decay and other causes. + +[Illustration FIG. 703.] + +_Cup-shakes_ are cracks between some of the annual rings, separating the +layers more or less (Fig. 704), sometimes reaching entirely around, +separating the centre from the outer portion, and are supposed to be +caused by the swaying of the tree in the wind (hence sometimes known as +_wind-shakes_), or to some shock or extreme changes of temperature, or +other causes. + +[Illustration FIG. 704.] + +Combinations of the various shakes may be found in the same log. + + +=A Few Suggestions about Working-Drawings.=--Drawing is far too +extensive a subject to be even briefly treated in a manual on +wood-working, but a few general remarks on matters connected with +working-drawings may be of help to some. + +While an ordinary picture gives a correct idea of how an object looks, +we cannot take accurate measurements from it. When we need dimensions, +as in practical work, we must have some drawings which will show us at +once the exact shapes, sizes, and positions of the various parts. In +addition to the picture to give us the general idea, we have for working +purposes what are called _elevations_, _plans_, _sections_, etc. + +In such a case as that of the little house shown on page 242, the +picture (Fig. 363) shows us the appearance of the building, but for +purposes of construction, working-drawings should also be made. The view +of what you would see if you stood directly in front of this house, with +only the front visible, is shown in Fig. 364, and is called the _front +elevation_. Stand opposite either side or end, and the view seen is +represented in Fig. 364 as the _side elevation_. In the same manner +the _rear elevation_ is given. Next imagine yourself in the air directly +above the house. This view is called the _plan_.[53] In this case, as +the view of the interior is desired, the view is shown as if the roof +were removed. If the sides or ends are not alike, as is sometimes the +case, two side or end views may be needed. In the case illustrated, +inside elevations are also given, to show the construction. + +Elevations, whether one or several, must always be taken at right angles +to the plan. Although commonly, in simple work, confined to +representations of each side or end, they can be taken from any point of +view that may be at right angles to the plan. They may be taken from the +corners or at any angles that may best show any complicated details of +the object. If the object is quite simple, one elevation and the plan, +or two elevations without the plan, may be quite sufficient, as the +elevation or plan omitted can in such cases be understood at once. + +Always make your drawings full-sized when the object to be made is not +too large. You are much less likely to make mistakes in taking your +dimensions and measurements from a drawing the actual size of the object +than where you have to take them from a smaller drawing, and you also +can get a better idea from a full-sized drawing just how the object will +look. It is a safe-guard, with a drawing which is symmetrical, to lay it +out from a centre line, measuring to the right and left. + +If you make a drawing of which each line is one half the length of the +same line in the real object, it is called a "half-size" drawing, and +is said to be drawn on a scale of 6" to the foot. If "one fourth size," +the scale is 3" to the foot. The scale is often expressed as an +equation, viz.: 2 in. = 1 ft., or 1/4" = 1'. + +If the drawing is not made with accuracy, it is necessary to put the +dimensions upon it, and this is often done for convenience and quickness +of execution in the case of drawings which are accurate. + +Details inside of an object, that is, such parts as cannot be seen or +properly shown in the elevations or plan, are often shown by dotted +lines, as in Fig. 597. Sometimes dotted lines are used in the same way +to show the back of an object, to save making extra drawings. Too many +dotted lines, however, are confusing, so if the parts that do not show +on the surface are not quite simple and cannot be clearly shown by +dotted lines on the plan and elevations, it is usual to make another +kind of drawing especially to show such details. This is called a +"section" (Lat., _sectio_, from _secare_, to cut), and represents what +would be shown if the object were cut apart or sawed through at the +place where the view of the details is wanted. The surface supposed to +be cut is usually indicated by parallel lines crossing the surface, +independent parts, as those of different pieces, frequently being shown +by changing the direction of the parallel lines, as in Fig. 504. + +When both sides of an object are alike, labour and space are often saved +by making a drawing of one side or one half only, from a centre line. +The same way is sometimes adopted in making sections, and an elevation +and section can sometimes be combined in this way in one drawing. + +As soon as you become used to plans and elevations, you can by combining +the plan and elevations in your mind quickly imagine the form of the +object represented, and often, unless it is complicated, get fully as +good a conception of it as from a picture, and a more accurate knowledge +of its proportions and details, so that in many cases there is no need +of having a picture at all in order to construct the object. It is often +a convenience to have a picture, however, and frequently an assistance +in forming a correct idea of something you have never seen. Where the +appearance of the object is of consequence, as in the case of a house or +bookcase, for instance, the picture is of the first consequence, for you +must have a correct representation of the general appearance of the +object before you begin to make the working-drawings. You will soon find +that merely having an idea in your mind is not always sufficient from +which to make working-drawings, although the first step in the process. +You will often find that when the idea in your mind is put into the form +of a picture, it does not look at all as you thought it would, and that +if you had started at once on the working-drawings without first making +a sketch or picture, the result would have been unsatisfactory and +sometimes entirely impracticable. + +Even making a sketch or picture that just expresses your idea will not +always result in the completed object being just what you wish. Strange +though it may seem, it is a fact, practically, that the completed object +often looks quite different from what the sketch leads you to expect. +That result, however, is something which cannot be helped, so you need +not give it any attention, only do not be surprised if once in a while +you find that what you have made is not just what you thought it would +be. First make the best design you can, then accurate working-drawings, +then work carefully by the drawings, and if the result is not always +exactly what you expected, you can console yourself with the thought +that your experience is only that of architects, designers, carpenters, +and workmen in all lines, and that no one can foresee _all_ the +conditions by which a piece of projected work will be affected. + +Oblique or parallel projections are often used, from which measurements +can be made. Such projections are not true representations of the +objects as they appear to the eye, but they are often used because +readily understood and easily drawn. They often answer every purpose +from a practical point of view. Figs. 120 and 344 are examples. + +Another way of representing objects for practical purposes is that shown +in Figs. 121 and 407, and known as "isometric[54] projection" or +"isometric perspective." This method is incorrect so far as giving an +accurate picture is concerned, for the object is always represented as +being too large in the farther parts, because the inclined lines are +drawn parallel instead of converging; but it is often very useful from a +practical point of view, because by it all that is required can +frequently be expressed in one drawing. + +Isometric perspective will not readily give the correct dimensions +except in the lines which are vertical or which slant either way at an +angle of 30° with the horizontal,--_i.e._, you cannot take the other +dimensions right off with a rule as from a plan, and therefore, so far +as obtaining correct dimensions is concerned, it is practically not +useful for other than rectangular objects; but so far as merely showing +the general shape or conveying the idea of the form it can often be +advantageously used in representing many objects containing curved +lines. Isometric projection has the advantage of being easy of +execution, and of being so pictorial that it is almost always easy to +see what is meant. + + +=A First-Class Bench.=--The construction of the bench shown on page 101 +is not difficult to understand, but considerable skill is required to +make a really good one. The arrangement of the vise is shown in Fig. +705, which is an inverted view (as if looking up from underneath). The +vise is kept parallel by the stout bars of hard wood, parallel to the +screw, which slide through mortises cut in the front of the bench-top, +and are further guided by the cleats screwed to the under side of the +top, where it is thinner than at the front edge. In case of using such a +vise where the bench-top is not so thick in front, the thickness can +easily be made sufficient by screwing a stout cleat on the under side +where the vise comes. In this cleat can be cut the mortises for the +slide-bars. The end-vise or "tail-screw" shown in Fig. 143 involves +rather more work, but slides upon a similar principle. Perhaps the best +way for the amateur is to make the end-vise in the same way as the main +vise, adding the movable stop. + +[Illustration FIG. 705.] + +There is no better way to make the front of this bench-top than to build +it up of narrow boards on edge, planed true, and thoroughly glued and +bolted together. The planing and truing can best be done by machine, +however. If well put together, such a bench-top will defy changes of +weather and will stand a great deal of hard usage. The back part of the +top can be thinner, but can very well be built up if desired. An +excellent way to fasten the frame of such a bench together is with +bolts, by which the parts can be drawn to a firm bearing. + +It is impossible to make such a bench too rigid. If so stiffly framed +that it cannot change its shape, and if the top is carefully trued, you +will have something which will be a great help to good work. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[51] In elm, ash, and hickory the sapwood is sometimes considered better +than the heart. + +[52] The term deal, though often loosely applied to the wood of the pine +and fir, properly refers to planks of these woods cut more than 7" wide +and 6' long--usually 3" thick and 9" wide. The term is common in Great +Britain but not in the United States. + +[53] This definition of elevations and plan as being representations of +what you would see if you stood opposite the sides or above the top of +the object, is merely a rough explanation of the general meaning of the +terms. As a matter of scientific accuracy the elevation is, strictly +speaking, not the way the side would appear if you looked at it from one +position, but the way it would appear if you could look at it from +directly opposite every point of it--as if you could have an infinite +number of eyes, one being opposite every point of the object. The +elevation shows the front or side or end as it really is, not as it +looks, either in the form of an exact copy if the object is small, or of +a small copy made in the same proportion if the object is too large to +be represented full size. + +[54] Gr., equal measure. + + + + + INDEX + + + Adze, Indian, 11 + + -- Japanese, 15 + + Air-chambers, 318, 319 (footnote) + + -- dried stock, 164. See _Seasoning_. + + -- drying, 36-40, 522-524 + + -- pure, 277-279 + + -- tanks, 318, 319 (footnote) + + Alkanet root, 498 + + Ammonia (for staining), 495, 497 + + Angle-blocks. See _Corner-blocks_, 365 + + Angles, determining, with bevel, 350 + + Angular bit-brace, 352 + + Animals, houses for, 126-140 + + Annual rings, 29 + + Anvil, 77, 344 + + Apparatus, athletic and gymnastic. + See _Gymnastic Apparatus_ and _Implements for Outdoor Sports_. + + Apple (wood), 512 + + Apron, 56 + + Arbours, 291-293 + + Arcs, describing circular, 364, 365 + + Arkansas stone, 434 + + Ash, 512 + + -- sapwood, 42, 510 + + Auger-bit, 352 + + Awl, Japanese, 15 + + Awls, 344, 345 + + Axe, 345 + + + Backbone, ice-boat, 334 + + Back-saw, 469 + + Backs for case work, 194 + + Balcony, 295, 297 + + Ball and block, 219 + + Balloon frame, 280 + + Bar, horizontal, 166-168, 173 + + Bars, parallel, 164-166 + + Bassoolah, 11, 12 + + Basswood, 512 + + Bath-house, 293, 294 + + Batteau, 299-314 + + Battening, 282 + + Bayberry tallow, 378 + + Baywood. See _Mahogany_. + + Beading, 198, 345, 346 + + -- -planes, 451 + + Bead-scraper, 345, 346 + + Beams. See _Collar-beams_, _beams_, etc. + + Beech, 512 + + Bench, filing-, 75-77 + + -- finishing-, 77 + + -- hook, 86-88 + + -- stop, 71-75 + + -- top, 62, 63, 74, 536 + + -- vise, 65-71, 74, 101, 536 + + -- work-, 57-65, 101, 536, 537 + + Bending wood, 40, 346-349 + + Bevel, 349, 350 + + Bevelling, 350, 351, 357 + -- edges of sides of boat, 305 + + Big trees, 520 + + Birch, 512, 513 + -- model (canoe), 325, 326 + + Bird-houses. See _Houses for animals_. + + Bird's-eye maple, 517 + + Bit-brace, 351, 352 + + -- angular, 352 + + -- maker, 22 + + -- use of, 353-356 (_Boring_) + + -- where to keep, 83 + + Bits, 352, 353 + + -- arrangement, 83 + + -- maker, 22 + + Bit-stock. See _Bit-brace_. + + Black birch, 512, 513 + + -- bone-, 498 + + -- cherry, 514 + + -- ivory-, 498 + + Black, lamp-, 498 + + -- walnut, 513 + + Blind dovetailing, 373 + + -- nailing, 432 + + Block-form, 176, 240 + + -- -plane, 449 + + Board, sprung, for pressure, 362 + + -- -measure, 47, 48 + + Boarding, outside, 269 + + Boards, definition of, 46 + + -- matched-, 46, 47 + + -- or planks, laying exposed, 353 + + -- splitting, 527-529 + + Boat-building, 298-343 + + -- house-, 339-343 + + -- -houses, 294-297 + + -- ice-, 332-339 + + Boats, toy, hulls of, 227-237 + + -- (windmill), 114, 115 + + Bob-sled, 156-163 + + Body plan, 229, 230 (footnote) + + Boiled oil, 437 (_Painting_) + + Bone-black, 498 + + Bookcase and lounge, 211 + + -- dwarf, 196 + + -- low, 196 + + -- pinned ("knock-down"), 195 + + -- wall, or hanging, 186, 187 + + -- with cupboard, 197 + + -- with desk, 198-200 + + Bookcases, 193-200 + + Book-rack, 183, 184 + + -- -shelf, hanging, 185 + + Booths, play, 241-249 + + Boring, 353-356 + + -- Japanese, 15 + + Bow-gun, 154 + + -- -saw, 469, 470 + + Boxes, 219, 227 + + Box-making, 219-227 + + Boxwood, 513 + + Brace for bits. See _Bit-brace_. + + -- -joint, 411 + + Braced frame, 280 + + Braces, corner, for house frames, 266 + + Brad-awl, 344, 345 + + -- holes made by, 430 + + Brake for sleds, 160-163 + + British oak, 518 + + Broad-leaved trees, 511 + + Bruises and cuts, 86 + + Bruises in wood, to take out, 356 + + Brushes, 356 + + -- care of, 440 + + Buck. See _Vaulting-horse_. + + "Built-up" stock, 409, 410, 530, 531 + + Bull-nosed-plane, 450 + + Burnisher for scraper, 487 + + Butternut, 513 + + Butt-joint, 408 + + Buttonwood. See _Sycamore_. + + Buying lumber, suggestions about, 36-45. See also _Seasoning_. + + -- tools, suggestions about, 15-22 + + + Cabinet-clamps. See _Clamps_. + + -- corner-, 190, 191 + + -- for guns, fishing-rods, etc., 215, 216 + + -- for tools and supplies, 96-101 + + -- medicine, 191, 193 + + -- music, 200, 201 + + -- wall, or hanging, 186, 189, 190 + + -- -work. See _Furniture_. + + Cabins, 241-259 + + Cages for animals, 126-140 + + Calcined plaster, 403 + + Calipers, 356 + + Camping-houses. See _House-building for Beginners_. + + Canoe, "birch" model, 325, 326 + + -- canvas-covered, 317-328 + + -- flat-bottomed, 311-317 + + -- " " (canvas-covered), 313, 314 + + Canvas-covered canoe (flat-bottomed), 313, 314 + + -- canoes, 317-328 + + Canvas, covering canoe with, 322, 323 + + -- deck, 317 + + -- painting, 323 + + Cap (plane-iron), 451, 452 + + Care of stock, 44 + + -- of tools, 22, 23 + + Carlins, 325, 329 + + Carpentry, Japanese, 12-15 + + Carving-tools, 20, 357 + + -- makers of, 22 + + Case, centre-board, 330, 331 + + -- music, 200, 201 + + Casing for doors, 269 + + -- for doors and windows, 272 + + Catalpa, 522 + + Caulking, 302, 303, 330 + + Cedar, 513, 514 + + Centre-bit, 352 + + -- -board, 330, 331 + + -- -board trunk, 330, 331 + + -- -table, 206, 207 + + Chain, wooden, 218, 219 + + Chair, outdoor, 210 + + -- -table, 212-214 + + Chalk, 416 + + -- -line, 416 + + Chamfering, 350, 351, 357 + + Charring wood, 263, 264, 525 + + Checking of lumber, 31, 42, 526 + + Cherry, 514 + + Chestnut, 514 + + Chests, 219-227 + + Chimney. See _Smoke-pipe_. + + Chip (of plane), 453 + + Chisels, 357-359 + + -- arrangement of, 83 + + -- makers of, 22 + + -- sharpening. See _Sharpening_. + + -- use of, 358, 359, 421-423, 442-444 + + Chopping-block, 86 + + -- wood. See _Splitting Wood_. + + Circles and arcs, describing, 364, 365 + + Circular-plane, 450 + + Clamping, 71, 359-363 (_Clamps_), 395, 461 + + Clamps, 71, 359-363, 395, 461. See also _Hand-screws_. + + Clapboarding, 273, 274 + + Clapboards, 48, 274 + + Cleaner for furniture, etc., 386 + + Cleating, 53, 363, 364 + + Cleats. See _Cleating_. + + -- for rowlocks, 301, 302, 306 + + Clinching nails, 431 + + Club-house, 296, 297 + + Coal-tar, 525 + + Coaming, 316, 320, 325, 331 + + Collar-beams, 287 + + Collection of specimens of wood, 44, 507, 508 + + Colour of lumber, 40 + + "Combination" articles (furniture), 198-200, 211-214 + + "Combination" planes, 451 + + Compartments (pigeon-holes), 200 + + -- water-tight, 318, 319 (footnote) + + Compasses, 364, 365. See also _Scribing_. + + Compass-plane. See _Circular-plane_. + + -- -saw, 469, 470 + + Concealed nailing. See _Blind-_ and _Sliver-nailing_, 432 + + Conifers, 511 + + Coop, 129 + + Cord, twisted, for pressure, 362 + + Corner-blocks, 365 + + -- book-shelves and seat, 212 + + -- -braces for house frame, 266 + + -- -chisel, 358 + + -- -posts, 265, 266 + + -- -seat and shelves, 212 + + -- -shelves or cabinets, 190, 191 + + "Cottage Row," 271-276 + + Cottages, simple summer, 271-290 + + Cottonwood, 514 + + Couch with bookcase, etc., 211 + + Countersink, 365, 478 + + Cracking of lumber, 31, 42, 526 + + Cracks and holes, to fill, 384, 403, 404 + + -- flashing, 273 + + Creosote, 525 + + -- -stains, 270, 525 + + Cricket, or footstool, 210 + + Crooked grain, 529, 530 + + Crossbow, 154 + + Cross-cutting-saw, 466, 467 + + -- -grained stock, 40, 41, 529, 530 + + Cupboard. See _Cabinet_. + + Cup-shakes, 531 + + Curling of lumber, 32-34, 409, 410, 502, 526-531 + + Curves, sawing, 180 + + -- trimming or paring, 443 + + Cut-nails, 433 + + -- best for shingling, 270 + + Cuts and bruises, 86 + + Cutting the log, 31-35 + + -- the tree. See _Felling_. + + Cutting-edges, 25-28. See also _Sharpening_. + + -- -pliers, 366 + + Cutwater, 309-311 + + Cypress, 514, 515 + + + Daggers, wooden, 106, 107 + + Deal, 519, 521 + + Decay and preservation, 41, 524-526 + + Deck, 329 + + -- canvas, 317 + + -- for toy boats, 236 + + -- timbers, 325, 329 + + Deliquescent stem, 508 + + Designing, 175-177, 239-241, 276, 534, 535 + + Desk and bookcase, 198-200 + + -- -rack, 184, 185 + + Dimension stock, 45 + + Dividers. See _Compasses_. + + Dog-fish skin, 381 + + Dog-houses, 133-136 + + Dogwood, 522 + + Dolls' house, 121-125 + + Door, 247 + + -- and window frames, space for, 266 + + -- -casings, 269, 272 + + Doors and panels, 366-372 + + -- and windows, sizes of, 276 + + -- sliding, 132, 133 + + Double-bladed paddle, 328 + + -- -ironed planes, 451 + + -- -runner, 156-163 + + Dovetailing, 372, 373 + + Dowelling, 374-376 + + Dowel-plate, 376 + + Dowels, 374 + + Dragon's blood, 498 + + Drainage, 278, 279 + + Drawboring, 426 + + Drawer, or lap, dovetailing, 373 + + Drawers, 101, 376-378 + + Drawing nails, 504, 505 + + Drawings, working, 49, 50, 532-536 + + Draw-knife or draw-shave, 378, 379 + + -- use of, 442-444 + + Draw-stroke, 26-28, 351, 378, 379, 443, 444, 456 + + Drill, primitive, 10 + + -- -stock, 379 + + Drills, 379 + + Driving nails. See _Nailing_. + + Dry rot, 526 + + -- situation, 277 + + Dryer, 438 (_Painting_) + + Drying lumber, methods of, 36-40, 523, 524 + + Duck's-bill-bit, 353 + + Dwarf bookcase, 196 + + + Ebony, 48, 515 + + Edges, cutting, 25-28. See also _Sharpening_. + + Elasticity, 40, 511 + + -- loss of, 37, 524 + + Elder, 522 + + Elevations, 532-534 + + Elm, 515 + + -- sapwood, 42, 510 + + End-grain, 529 + + -- planing, 457 + + Essentials to successful work, 102 + + Estimating, 54, 55 + + Excurrent trunk, 508 + + Expansion and contraction, 30-33, 50-53, 225, 526-531 + + -- bit, 352 + + + Face (of plane), 445 + + -- (of stock), 54 + + Facing edges of case work, 198 + + Farm school, 271 + + Felling and seasoning, 522-524. See also _Seasoning_. + + Figured stock. See _Grain of Wood_. + + File-card, 381 + + Files, 379-381 + + -- maker of, 22 + + Filing, 379-381 + + -- -bench, 75-77 + + -- saw-, 485-487 (_Sharpening_) + + Filler, wood, 385 (_Finishing_) + + Finishing, 182, 183, 381-386 + + -- -bench, 77 + + Fin-keel type, 229-236 + + Fir. See _Pine_ and _Spruce_. + + Firmer-chisel, 357, 359 + + Fishing-lodges. See _House-building for Beginners_. + + Fish-plates, 411 + + Flashing, 257, 258, 272, 273 + + Flatboat, 299-308 + + Flat-bottomed boats, 299-317 + + Floor-beams, 254, 255, 266, 267, 287, 288, 296 + + Flooring for canoe, 323 + + -- rift-, 36 + + Floors, 254, 255, 266-268, 287, 288, 296 + + Flower-pot stands, 201, 202, 207 + + Footstool or cricket, 210 + + Fore-plane, 447, 448 + + Forests, preservation of, 509 + + Forms for bending. See _Moulds_. + + Foundation, 259, 260, 262-264, 279 + + Frame for buildings, 249, 250, 254, 265-269, 272, 279, 280, 286, + 287, 296. See also _Houses for Animals_. + + -- balloon, 280 + + -- braced and mortised, 280 + + -- for boat. See _Moulds_ and _Boat-building for Beginners_. + + Frames, door and window, sizes of, 276; + spaces for, 266 + + -- picture-, 216, 217 + + Framing-chisels, 358 + + Framing (doors and panels). See _Doors and Panels_. + + -- (house). See _Frame for Buildings_. + + -- -square, 495 + + French polishing, 385, 386 + + Frogs, turtles, lizards, etc., tank for, 139, 140 + + Front elevation, 532 + + Fungi, 41, 43, and _Decay and Preservation_, 524-526 + + Furniture, 175-217 + + -- repairing, 460-462 + + + Gain, 288 (Fig. 399) + + Gauge, 386-390 + + -- for bevels and chamfers, 351 + + -- makers, 22 + + Gauging. See _Gauge_. + + Georgia pine, 520 + + Giant swing, 172, 173 + + Gimlet, 390 + + -- -bit, 353 + + Glass for scraper, 473, 474 + + -- setting, 391 + + Glazing, 391 + + Glue. See _Gluing_. + + Glued-joints, 360 (footnote), 392, 393 (footnote). + See also _Gluing_, _Clamps_, _Hand-screws_, and + _Repairing Furniture_. + + -- clamping, 359-363 + + -- rubbing, 365 (_Corner-blocks_) + + Glue-pot, 396 + + Gluing, 391-396. + See also _Clamps_, _Hand-screws_, and _Repairing Furniture_. + + -- old work. See _Repairing Furniture_. + + Glycerine, 434 + + Gouge, 396-398 + + -- -bit, 353 + + Gouges, arrangement of, 83 + + -- makers of, 22 + + Grain of wood, 30, 33-36, 40 + + -- crooked or cross-grained, 35, 36, 40, 529, 530 + + Grinding. See _Sharpening_. + + Grindstone, 398 + + -- use of, 480-482 + + Grooving, 185, 187, 398 + + Gum (wood), 522 + + Gun-cabinet, etc., 215, 216 + + Guns and pistols (wooden), 152-154 + + Gunwale strip, 306, 317, 320 + + Gymnastic apparatus, 163-174 + + + Half-breadth plan, 229, 230 + + Half-round file, 380 + + Halving (halved-joints), 399, 400 + + Hammer, 400 + + -- use of. See _Nailing_, 428-430, and also 504, 505 + + Handles, etc., oiling, 23 + + Hand-screws, 400-402 + + -- use of, 71, 400-402, 461 + + Hanging bookcase, 186, 187 + + -- book-shelf, 185 + + "Happy Jack," 112-114 + + Hard pine, 519, 520 + + -- wood, 45 + + Hatchet, 402 + + -- use of, 441, 442 + + Headledges, 330, 331 + + Heart, crooked, 529, 530 + + -- shakes, 531 + + -- wood, 29, 42, 43, 510 + + Hemlock, 515 + + Hen-houses. + See _Houses for Animals_ and _House-building for Beginners_. + + Hickory, 515 + + -- sapwood, 510 + + Hinges, 247, 402, 403 + + Hip-rafters, 284 + + Hip-roof, 284-286 + + Holes and cracks, to fill, 384, 403, 404 + + Hollow and round planes, 451 + + Holly, 516 + + Horizontal bar, 166-168, 173 + + Hornbeam, 522 + + Horse, vaulting-, 170-172 + + Horses, or trestles, 88-90 + + House, bath-, 293, 294 + + -- -boats, 339-343 + + -- -building for beginners, 238-297 + + -- designing, 239-241 + + -- situation, 239. See also _Houses_. + + Housed joint, 424 and Fig. 557 + + Houses, boat-, 294-297 + + -- club-, 296, 297 + + -- dolls', 121-125 + + -- for animals, 126-140 + + -- play-, 241-259 + + -- portable, 247, 248 + + -- summer-, 291-293. See also _House_. + + Housing (housed joint). 424 and Fig. 557 + + Hunting-lodges. See _House-building for Beginners_. + + Hutch, rabbit, 132, 133 + + + Ice-boat, small, 332-339 + + Indian turning, 10, 11 + + Inside calipers, 356 + + Iron (of plane), 445 + + -- painting, 438 + + Ironwood, 522 + + Isometric projection or perspective, 535 + + Ivory black, 498 + + + Jack-knife. See _Knife_, 411, 412 + + -- -plane, 446, 447 + + -- -rafter, 284 + + Japan, 438 (_Painting_) + + -- varnish, 438 + + Japanese carpenter's vise, 13 + + -- carpentry, 12-15 + + -- lacquer, 383 (footnote) + + -- tools, 14, 15 + + Jointer, 448 + + Jointing, 360 (footnote), 404-408, 491 (_Shooting-board_) + + Joints, 221, 222 + + Joints and splices, 408-411 + + -- for gluing, 360, 392, 393 (footnote). See _Glued-joints_. + + -- housed, 424 and Fig. 557 + + -- in exposed work, painting, 439, 440 + + -- mitred. See _Mitring_. + + -- relished, 425 + + Joists, definition, 47 + + + Keel, 316, 323, 324, 327 + + -- built up, 237 + + -- (skag), 307 + + Keelson, 320 + + Kennel, 133-136 + + Kerfing. See _Bending Wood_, 346 + + Keyhole-saw, 470 + + Kiln-drying, 37-40. See _Seasoning_. + + King-bolt, 158 + + Knees, 314 + + Knife, 411, 412 + + -- makers, 22 + + -- putty, 459 + + -- sharpening, 480, 484 + + -- use of, 442-444 + + Knives, wooden, 106, 107 + + "Knock-down" construction, 195 + + + Lacquer, Japanese, 383 (footnote) + + Ladders (gymnastic), 173 + + Lampblack, 498 + + Lancewood, 516 + + Lap or drawer dovetailing, 373 + + Lard oil, 434 + + Lathe, primitive Indian, 10, 11 + + Laths, 48 + + Lattice-work, 282, 291, 292 + + Laying out the work, 50-54 + + Lead (of plane-iron), 452 + + -- over door- and window-casings, 272, 273 + + -- red, 438 (_Painting_) + + -- white. See _Painting_. + + Lean-to, 241-250 + + -- addition, 281, 282 + + -- roof, frame for, 250 + + Ledger-board, 296 + + Leg-of-mutton sail, 332 + + Leopard wood, 48 + + Level, 96, 412 + + -- makers, 22 + + Levelling tables, horses, chairs, etc., 479, 480, 504 + + Lighthouse, 120 + + Lignum-vitæ, 516 + + Lime-water, 497, 498 + + Linden. See _Basswood_. + + Linseed oil. See _Finishing_, _Painting_ (437), and _Staining_. + + Lizards, frogs, turtles, etc., tank for, 139, 140 + + Live oak, 518 + + Load water-line, 230 (footnote) + + Location of house, 277-279 + + Locks, 412, 413 + + Locust, 516 + + Log, cutting the, 31-35 + + Long jointer, 448 + + Lounge with bookcase, etc., 211 + + Lumber, characteristics. See Chapter III. (_Wood_), and 510-522 + + -- charring, 263, 264, 525 + + -- checking and cracking, 31, 42, 526 + + -- colour of, 40 + + -- cross-grained, 40, 41, 529, 530 + + -- curling and warping, 32-34, 41, 409, 502, 526-531 + + -- definition, 45 + + -- dressed, 45, 46 + + -- rift, 35, 36 + + -- sawing, 31-35. See also _Expansion and Contraction_. + + -- seasoning, 36-40, 42, 164, 177, 178, 522-524 + + -- selection of, 33-45 + + -- stacking, 39 + + -- swelling and shrinking, 30-35, 50-53, 225, 526-531 + + -- undressed, 45 + + -- wany, 40 + + -- warped, 41. See _Warping_. + + -- winding, 41. See _Winding_. + + + M, 47 + + Mahogany, 516 + + -- cracks in, 42 + + Mallet, 414 + + Maple, 517 + + Marking, 414-416 + + -- -awl. See _Awl_ and _Marking_. + + -- distances. See _Rule_, 465 + + -- -gauge. See _Gauge_. + + Mason's square, 261 + + Masts, 331 + + Matched-boards, 46, 47 + + -- striking, 245 + + Matching-planes, 21, 47, 451 + + Maxims, 102 + + Measurements. See _Rule_, and also + 47, 48, 50, 59, 167(footnote), 244, 261 + + Measuring. See _Measurements_. + + Measuring-rod, 53 + + Medicine-cabinet, 191, 193 + + Medullary rays, 29, 30 + + Middle-boards, 34, 35, 523 + + Mirror-plates, 416 + + Mirrors, setting, 391 + + Mitre. See _Mitring_. + + -- -board, 92, 93 + + -- -box, 90-92 + + -- dovetailing, 373 + + -- shooting-board, 94 + + -- -square, 349 + + Mitring, 221, 417-419 + + Models, 240 + + Mortise and tenon. See _Mortising_. + + Mortise-chisels, 358 + + -- -gauge, 387 + + -- open, 400 + + Mortised frame, 280 + + Mortising, 419-428 + + Mouldings, 48, 197, 198 (footnote) + + Moulds (for bending), 348, 349 + + -- (for boat), 304, 307, 309, 310, 315, 316, 319, 320 + + Mouth (of plane), 445, 452, 453 + + Music-case, 200, 201 + + + Nailing, 428-433 + + Nails, 433 + + -- copper and galvanised, 300 + + -- for shingling, 270 + + -- how to keep, 85 + + -- use of, 430-433 (_Nailing_) + + -- withdrawing, 504, 505 + + Nail-set, 433, 434 + + Needle-leaved trees, 511 + + Nippers, 434, 445 + + Norway pine, 519 + + -- spruce, 521 + + Notch-boards, 289 + + + Oak, 517, 518 + + Oak, quartered, 34 + + Oblique projections, 535 + + Odd-jobs, 434 + + Oil, 434 + + -- -finish, 381 + + -- linseed, See _Finishing_, _Painting_, and _Staining_. + + Oiling handles, etc., 23 + + Oil-stone, 434, 435 + + -- box for, 85 + + -- use of, See _Sharpening_. + + Open mortise and tenon, 400 + + Operations, some every-day, 344-505 + + Outdoor seat, 210 + + Outside calipers, 356 + + Overshot water-wheels, 117, 118 + + + Packing-cases, 225 + + Paddles, 327, 328 + + Paint, See _Painting_. + + Painting, 435-441 + + -- canvas, 323 + + -- shingles, 270 + + Panels, 366-372 (_Doors and Panels_) + + Panel-saw, 466 + + Parallel bars, 164-166 + + -- projection, 535 + + Paring, 441-444 + + -- -chisel, See _Chisel_ 357, 358 + + Parting tool, See _Carving Tools_. + + Patterns for bending, See _Moulds_. + + Pear (wood), 518 + + Pencil, See _Marking_, 414 + + Perspective, isometric, 535 + + Piazza, 283, 287-289 + + Picture-frames, 216, 217 + + Pigeon-holes, 200 + + -- -houses. See _Houses for Animals_. + + Piers, 259, 260, 279 + + Piles, 524 + + Pincers, 445 + + Pine, 518-520 + + Pinning mortise and tenon, 425 + + Pins for mortise and tenon, 426 + + Pipe-rack, 188, 189 + + Pistols and guns (wooden), 152-154 + + Pitch, 525 + + -- pine, 520 + + Pith, crooked, 529, 530 + + Plan, 532-534 + + -- (boat), 229, 230 + + Plane, 445-458 + + -- how to hold, 446, 447 + + -- -iron, adjusting, 453, 454 + + -- sharpening, See _Sharpening_. + + -- wooden jack- or fore-, holding, 446 See _Planes_. + + Planer-marks, 458 + + Planes, Japanese, 13, 14 + + -- makers, 22 + + -- where to keep, 82 + + -- wooden, oiling, 23. See _Plane_. + + Planing down stock, 44 + + Planks, definition, 47 + + -- laying, See _Boards, laying_. + + -- splitting, See _Boards, splitting_. + + Plans, See _Working Drawings_. + + Plant-stands, 201, 202, 207 + + Plaster of Paris, 403 + + Plates, 266 + + Play-houses, -booths, or -stores, 241-259 + + -- "Cottage Row," 271, 276 + + -- -village, 118-121, 271, 276 + + Pliers, 445 + + -- cutting-, 366 + + Plough, 21, 451. See _Plane_. + + Plum (wood), 520 + + Plumb, 96, 458 + + Pod-bit, 353 + + Pole, sprung, for pressure, 362 + + -- for skis, 148 + + Poles (for gymnastics), 173 + + Polishing, 385, 386 + + Poplar, 522 + + Posts, corner-, 265, 266 + + -- foundation, 262-264 + + -- setting, 262, 263 + + Potash, bichromate of, 498 + + Poultry-houses, + See _House-building for Beginners_ and _Houses for Animals_. + + Preservation of wood, decay and, 524-526 + + -- of forests, 509 + + Pressure, means of applying, See _Clamps_ and _Hand-screws_. + + Projections, oblique or parallel, and isometric, 535 + + Proportions of structures, 176, 240 + + Punch (for nails), See _Nail-set_, 433, 434 + + Punts and scows, 299-308 + + Purlins, 268 + + Putty, 459 + + -- -knife, 459 + + -- use of, 403, 439 + + + Quartered oak, 34, 179 + + Queen-bolts, 159 + + Quill-bit, 353 + + + Rabbet, 185, 187, 459 + + -- -hutch, 132, 133 + + -- -plane. See _Plane_ 450, 451 + + Rack, for books, 183, 184 + + -- for pipes, 188, 189 + + -- for table or desk, 184, 185 + + -- for tools, 83, 84 + + Rafters, 282 + + -- arrangement of, 287 + + -- hip-, 284 + + -- jack-, 284 + + -- laying out, 268 + + Rails (of door or panel work), 370 + + -- (of table), 204 + + Rasp, 460 + + Rasping. See _Filing_. + + Ratchet-brace, 351 + + Ratchets (for shelves), 489 + + Rat-tailed file, 380 + + Raw oil. See _Painting_, 437 + + Rays, medullary, 29, 30 + + Reamers, 353 + + Rear elevation, 532 + + Red cedar, 514 + + -- deal, 519 + + -- fir, 519 + + -- lead, 438 (_Painting_) + + -- oak, 518 + + -- pine, Canadian, 519 + + Redwood, 520 + + Relishing (relished joint), 425 + + Repairing furniture, 460-462 + + Ribbands, 320 + + Ribs, 314, 321, 324, 325 + + -- bending. See _Bending Wood_. + + Ridge-board, 268 + + Rift-flooring, 36 + + -- stock, 35, 36 + + Rings, annual, 29 + + -- swinging (gymnastic), 173 + + Ripping-saw, 468, 469 (_Saw_) + + Risers, 289 + + Rivets, 462 + + Rock elm, 515 + + -- maple, 517 + + Rod, measuring, 53 + + Roof-boards, 268 + + -- -timbers, 268 + + -- durability of, 525 + + Roofing-paper, 246, 258 + + Roofs, 128, 268-270 + + -- for house-boat, 341, 342 + + -- hip-, 284-286 + + -- lean-to, shed, or single-pitched, 241, 250 + + -- overhang of, 282 + + Rope twisted for pressure, 362 + + Rosewood, 520 + + Rot, wet and dry, 526 + + Rounding sticks, 462-465 + + -- form for, 95, 96 + + Router, See _Plane_, 451 + + Rowboat, small, 308-311 + + Rowboats, 299-317 + + Rowlocks, 302, 306, 313 + + Rubbing down, 384 + + Rule, 465 + + -- makers, 22 + + Ruler, marking by, 415 + + Runner-board, ice-boat, 334 + + Runners, ice-boat, 335-338 + + Running foot, 48, 244 + + Runway for animals, 128, 276 + + Rust, preventing, 23 + + Rustic summer houses and arbours, 292, 293 + + + Saddle-boards, 269 + + Sail-boat, small, 311, 328-332 + + Sail, leg-of-mutton, 332 + + -- sprit-, 332 + + San Domingo mahogany, 517 + + Sandpaper, 465, 466 + + -- block, 466 + + Sandpapering. See _Sandpaper_. + + Sanitary precautions, 277-279 + + Sap, 30 + + Sapwood, 29, 42, 43, 510 + + Sassafras, 522 + + Satinwood, 521 + + Saw, 466-473 + + -- -filing, 485-487 (_Sharpening_) + + Saw-set, 473 + + Sawing. See _Saw_. + + -- curves, 180 + + -- joints to fit, 410 + + -- log, ways of, 30-35 + + -- lumber, 31-35 + + Saws, Japanese, 14, 15 + + -- makers, 22 + + -- where to keep, 82 + + Scale (for drawings), 533 + + Scarfing, bevelled, or splaying, 410, 411 + + Schedule of materials, 55 + + Scoring with cuts. See _Paring_. + + Scotch fir, 519 + + -- pine, 519 + + Scows and punts, 299-308 + + Scrap-boxes, 85 + + Scraper, 473, 474 + + -- for beading, 345, 346 + + -- Japanese, 13, 14 + + -- sharpening, 487, 488 (_Sharpening_) + + -- where to keep, 85 + + Scraping. See _Scraper_. + + Scratch-awl, 345 (_Awl_) + + Screw-drivers, 475, 476 + + -- for bit-brace, 476 + + -- long and short, 476 + + Screws, and their use, 476-479 + + -- how to keep, 85 + + Scriber. See _Marking_, 414 + + Scribing. See _Marking_, 414-416 and 479, 480 + + Seams of boat. See _Caulking_. + + Seasoned stock, 164, 177, 178 + + -- tests for, 39, 40. See _Seasoning lumber_. + + Seasoning lumber, 36-40, 42, 164, 177, 178, 522-524 + + Seat for corner, with shelves, 212 + + -- outdoor, 210 + + Second story, framing at, 296, 297 + + Secret dovetailing, 373 + + -- nailing. See _Blind-_ and _Sliver-nailing_, 432 + + Section, 533, 534 + + See-saw, tilt or, 142-145 + + _Sequoia_, 520 + + Set (for nails), 433, 434 + + -- (of saw), 467 + + Setting glass, 391 + + Setting mirrors, 391 + + -- nails, 433, 434 + + -- posts, 262, 263 + + -- saws. See _Sharpening_. + + Settle, corner, with shelves, 212 + + -- with table, 212-214 + + Sewerage, 278, 279 + + Shacks, 241-259 + + Shagbark (hickory), 515 + + Shakes, 531 + + Sharpening tools, 16, 22, 23, 25, 480-488 + + Sharpie (sail-boat), 328-332 + + Shave. See _Draw-knife_ and _Spokeshave_. + + Sheathing, 46, 47, 245, 269 + + -- for canvas canoe, 325, 326 + + -- outside of house with paper, 273 + + -- -paper, 246 + + -- striking, 245 + + Shed-roof. See _Lean-to_. + + Sheer plan, 229, 230 + + Shelf for books, hanging, 185 + + Shellac. See _Finishing_. + + Shell-bit, 353 (_Bits_) + + Shelves, corner, 190, 191 + + -- ends of, 195 + + -- for pipes, etc., 188, 189 + + -- for wall, 187-189 + + -- movable, 489 + + -- or pigeon-holes, 200 + + Shingles, 48, 269 + + Shingling, 269, 270 + + -- hips, 285, 286 + + Shooting-board, 93, 94 + + -- use of, 490, 491 + + Shrinkage, 30-35 + + -- effects of swelling and shrinking, 526-531. + See _Expansion and Contraction_. + + Shutter, 247, 258 + + Side elevation, 532 + + -- -plates, 287 + + Sills, 265 + + Silver-grain or rays. See _Medullary rays_ and _Quartered oak_. + + Single-pitched roof. See _Lean-to_. + + Site, selection of, 277-279 + + Sizing of floor-beams, 267 + + Skag, 307 + + Skew-chisel, 357, 358 + + Skiffs, 308-314 + + Skis, 145-148 + + Slab-sided file, 380 + + Sleds, 155-163 + + Slips, 435, 484 + + Sliver nailing, 432 + + Sloid knife. See _Knife_, 411, 412 + + -- work-bench, 57 + + Smoke-pipe, 257-259 + + Smoking wood, 524 + + Smoothing, 179, 180, 450, 453, 457, 458. + See _Plane_, _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_. + + -- -plane, 448, 449 + + Snake, wooden, 108, 109 + + Sofa with bookcase, etc., 211 + + Soft wood, 45 + + Sole (of plane), 445 + + Southern pine, 519, 520 + + Specimens of wood, 44, 507, 508 + + Sperm oil, 434 + + Splaying (splice), 410, 411 + + Splices. See _Joints and Splices_. + + Spline, 491 + + Split stock. See _Rift_. + + Splitting stock, 44, 527-529 + + -- wood, 28, 491 + + Spokeshave, 491, 492 + + -- makers, 22 + + Spoon-bit, 353 + + Sporting-cabinet, 215, 216 + + Spring-board, 170 + + Spritsail, 332 + + Spruce, 521 + + Square, 492-495 + + -- -foot, 47, 244 (note) + + -- makers, 22 + + -- mitre, 349 + + -- where to keep, 84, 85, and _Frontispiece_ + + Squaring work, 181 + + -- with clamps, 360, 361 + + Squirrel-house, 136-139 + + Stacking lumber, 39, 44 + + -- result of careless, 42 + + Staining, 495-498 + + -- shingles, 270 + + Stains, creosote-, 270, 525 + + Stairs, 289 + + -- (for little houses), 123 + + Staking out, 260-262 + + Stands, for plants, 201, 202, 207 + + Stands, small, 202, 207-209 + + Star-shakes, 531 + + Steam-chest, 347 + + Steaming wood, 347 (_Bending_) + + Steel square, 495 + + -- -wool, 498, 499 + + Steering (sleds), 159, 160, 163 + + Stem-posts, 309, 310, 320-323 + + Steps, 289 + + Stern-post, 327. See _Stem-posts_. + + "Sticking" lumber. See _Stacking_. + + Stile (of door or panel work), 370 + + Stilts, 141 + + Stock (of plane), 445 + + -- "built up," 409, 410, 530, 531 + + -- care of, 44 + + -- cross- or crooked-grained, 40, 41, 529, 530 + + -- planing down, 44 + + -- splitting, 527-529 + + -- rift or split, 35, 36. See _Lumber_. + + Stop, bench-, 71-75 + + -- -chamfer, 357 + + -- for drawers, 378 + + Stove-pipe. See _Smoke-pipe_. + + Stores or houses, play-, 241-259 + + Straight-bent chisel, 358 + + Straight-edge, 86, 499 + + -- marking by, 415 + + -- to detect warping or winding. See _Winding-sticks_. + + Striking circles and arcs, 364, 365 + + Stringers or strings (stairs), 289 + + Strop, 85, 499, 500 + + Stropping, 485 + + Studding, 266, 287 + + -- second-story, 296 + + Sugar maple, 517 + + -- pine, 519 + + Summer cottages, simple, 271-290 + + -- -houses, 291-293 + + Sunlight, 277, 278 + + Swelling and shrinking, 30-35, 50-53, 225, 526-531 + + Swing, giant, 172, 173 + + Swords, wooden, 106, 107 + + Sycamore, 521 + + + Table, and settle, or chair, 212-214 + + -- -top, putting on, 203, 205, 206, 209 + + Tables, 203-209 + + Tacks, 500 + + -- for canvas canoes, 323 + + Tallow, bayberry, 378 + + Tamping, 263 + + Tank, water-, for frogs, etc., 139, 140 + + Tannic acid, 526 + + Tape, 500 + + Tar, coal- and wood-, 525 + + Teak, 522 + + Templates, 231 + + Tennis rackets, 104 + + Tenon. See _Mortising_. + + -- -saw. See _Saw_ (_Back-saw_). + + Tenons (in repairing), 462 + + Thole-pins, 302 + + Thompson's Island, 271 + + Three-cornered file. See _File_. + + Throat (of plane), 445 + + Tilt, or see-saw, 142-145 + + Timber, definition, 45 + + -- durability of. See _Lumber_. + + Toboggan, 148-152 + + Toe-nailing, 431, 432 + + Toggle-joint, application of, 267 + + Tool-cabinets, 96-101 + + -- -chest, 96, 97, 223, 224 + + -- -handles, oiling, 23 + + -- -rack, 83, 84 + + Tools, 9-28 + + -- and supplies, arrangement, 80-86, 96 + + -- cabinet for, 96-101 + + -- care of, 22, 23 + + -- common, and their use, 344-505 + + -- edge-, 25-28 + + -- Japanese, 14, 15 + + -- lists of, 18-20 + + -- makers, 22 + + -- primitive, 9-15 + + -- sharpening, 16, 22, 23, 25, 480-488 + + -- "universal," 18 + + -- use of, 23-25 + + Toothed-plane, 449, 450 + + Toothing, 449, 450 + + Totlet Town, 118-121 + + Toughness, 40, 511 + + Toy boats, hulls of, 227-237 + + -- village, 118-121 + + Toys, 106-125 + + Trapeze, 173 + + Travelling-cage, 140 + + Traverse (sled), 156-163 + + Traversing, 446 + + Treads, 289 + + Trees. See _Felling and Seasoning_ and _Preservation of Forests_. + + -- big, 520 + + -- broad-leaved, 511 + + -- conifers or needle-leaved, 511 + + Trestles, 88-90 + + Triangular file, 380 + + Trigger, 153 + + Trimming. See _Paring_. + + Truing, grindstone, 398 + + -- oil-stone, 435 + + -- stock (surfaces), 179, 500, 501 + + Trunk for centre-board, 330, 331 + + Trying-plane, 447, 448 (_Plane_) + + Try-square. See _Square_ (492). + + Tulip wood, 48 + + Tupelo, 522 + + Turning, Indian, 10, 11 + + -- -saw, 469, 470 + + Turpentine. See _Finishing_ and _Painting_, 437, 438, 498, 526 + + Turtles, frogs, lizards, etc., tank for, 139, 140 + + Twist-drill, 501 + + "Twister" (rope), 362 + + Twisting. See _Winding_. + + Two-foot square, 495 + + + Undercutting, 195, 410 + + Underpinning, 259, 260, 262-264, 279 + + Undershot water-wheel, 116, 117 + + "Universal" planes, 451 + + -- tools, 18 + + + Varnish. See _Finishing_. + + -- Japan, 438 + + -- -stains, 496 + + Vaulting apparatus, 169 + + -- board, 170 + + -- -horse, 170, 172 + + Veining-tool. See _Carving-tools_. + + Village, play, "Cottage Row," 271-276 + + -- Totlet Town, 118-121 + + Vise, bench-, 65-71, 536 + + -- for metal, 75, 76 + + Vise, Japanese carpenter's, 13 + + -- parallelism of jaws, 67, 68 + + V tool, 357 + + + Wale-strips. See _Gunwale strips_. + + Wall-cabinet, 186, 189, 190 + + -- -shelves, 187-189 + + Walnut. See _Black Walnut_, 513 + + Warping of lumber, 32-34, 409, 410, 502, 526-531 + + Washboard. See _Coaming_. + + Washita stone, 434 + + Water-line, 230 (footnote) + + -- pure, 277-279 + + -- -table, 273 + + -- -tank for frogs, turtles, etc., 139, 140 + + -- -tight compartments, 318, 319 (footnote) + + -- -wheels, 116-118 + + Wax finish, 381 + + Weather-drying, 36, 40. See _Seasoning_. + + Weather-vane (steamboat), 115. See _Windmills_. + + Wedge for splitting, 28 + + Wedges, 502, 503 + + Wedging. See _Wedges_. + + -- tenons, 427, 428 + + Wet rot, 526 + + Weymouth pine. See _Pine_. + + Wheel, steering- (for sled), 160 + + Whetstone. See _Oil-stone_. + + Whetting. See _Sharpening_. + + White ash, 512 + + -- cedar, 514 + + -- deal, 521 + + -- lead. See _Painting_. + + -- mahogany, 517 + + -- oak, 518 + + -- pine, 518, 519 + + Whitewood, 521 + + Whittling, 4, 218, 219. See _Knife_. + + Willow, 522 + + Winding, 41, 360, 526-531 + + -- -sticks, 503, 504 + + Windmills, 109-116 + + Window-casings, 272 + + -- -shutter, 258 + + -- sliding, 248 + + Windows and doors, sizes of, 276 + + Wind-shakes, 531 + + Wing compasses, 364 + + Wire-edge, 480 + + Withdrawing nails, 504, 505 + + Wood, 29-48 (Chapter III.), 510-522. See _lumber_. + + -- charring, 263, 264, 525 + + -- checking and cracking, 31, 42, 526 + + -- collection of specimens, 44, 507, 508 + + -- colour of, 40 + + -- cross-grained, 40, 41, 529, 530 + + -- curling and warping, 32-34, 409, 410, 502, 526-531 + + -- durability of. See _Decay and Preservation_. + + -- -filler, 385 + + -- hard, 45 + + -- methods of drying, 36-40, 522-524 + + -- quality of, 33-35, 510, 511, 522 + + -- seasoning of, 36-40, 42, 164, 177, 178, 522-524 + + -- selection of, 33-45, 510, 511, 522 + + -- shrinkage and swelling, 30-35, 50-53, 225, 526-531 + + -- soft, 45 + + -- -tar, 525 + + -- warped, 41. See _Warping_. + + -- winding, 41. See _Winding_. + + Wooden chain, 218, 219 + + -- guns and pistols, 152-154 + + Woods and some of their characteristics, 510-522 + + Work-bench, 57-65 + + -- first-class, 101, 536, 537 + + -- makeshifts, 77-80 + + -- position and care of, 74, 75 + + -- sloid, 57 + + -- top, 74, 536 + + Working drawings, 49, 50, 532-536 + + -- edge or surface, 54 + + Workshop, 56-101, 259-270 + + Wrench, 505 + + Wrought nails, 433 + + + Yellow deal, 519 (_Pine_) + + -- fir, 519 + + -- pine, 519 + + Yew, 522 + + + Zinc, 438 (_Painting_) + + + + +The Boy with an Idea Series. + + +=I. The Young Mechanic.= Practical Carpentry. Containing directions for +the use of all kinds of tools, and for the construction of steam-engines +and mechanical models, including the art of turning in wood and metal. +By the author of "The Lathe and its Uses," etc. Authorized reprint from +English edition, with corrections, etc. Illustrated, small 4to, cloth +extra + + $1 75 + + "A valuable book, eminently useful to beginners, and suggestive + even to the experienced and skilful."--_Albany Journal._ + +=II. Amongst Machines.= By the author of "The Young Mechanic." Embracing +descriptions of the various mechanical appliances used in the +manufacture of wood, metal, and other substances. Profusely illustrated. +8vo, cloth + + $1 75 + + "A book of wondrous fascination, written in a clear, bright, + pointed style. A volume to be commended above a dozen + stories."--_Boston Traveler._ + +=III. The Boy Engineers.= What they did and how they did it. By the +author of "The Young Mechanic." 8vo, with 30 plates, cloth extra + + $1 75 + + "An eminently useful and timely book. We heartily commend this + volume."--_National Journal of Education._ + + "A book of a class that can only be praised; the style is simple + and easy, but manly and thoughtful."--_Literary World._ + +=IV. The Boy with an Idea.= By Mrs. EILOART. A vivid narration of the +feats and freaks of a boy of an active turn of mind, who "wanted to +know," and not content with knowing, wanted always to do. 8vo, cloth +extra, illustrated + + $1 50 + + "An exceptionally attractive and wholesome book, that will + fascinate all the bright boys, and stir up the dull ones."--_Boston + Journal._ + +=V. Learning to Draw=; or, The Story of a Young Designer. By VIOLLET LE +DUC. Translated by VIRGINIA CHAMPLIN. 8vo, with 130 illustrations + + $2 00 + + A work full of practical suggestions, not only for the student of + art or of decorative designing, but for students and teachers in + other departments. The author's theories of the art of teaching are + both original and practical. + + G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, PUBLISHERS, NEW YORK. + + + + +Books for the Country + + +=OUR INSECT FRIENDS AND FOES.= How to Collect, Preserve and Study Them. +By BELLE S. CRAGIN. With over 250 illustrations. 8^o, $1.75 + +Miss Cragin sets forth the pleasure to be derived from a systematic +study of the habits of insects, and gives many points which will be of +practical value to the beginner. She gives comprehensive descriptions of +all the more important species to be found in the United States, +together with illustrations of the same. + +=AMONG THE MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES.= By JULIA P. BALLARD. Illustrated. +8^o, $1.50. + + "The book, which is handsomely illustrated, is designed for young + readers, relating some of the most curious facts of natural history + in a singularly pleasant and instructive manner."--_N. Y. Tribune_ + +=BIRD STUDIES.= An account of the Land Birds of Eastern North America. +By WILLIAM E. D. SCOTT. With 166 illustrations from original +photographs. Quarto, leather back, gilt top, in a box, _net_, $5.00. + + "A book of first class importance.... Mr. Scott has been a field + naturalist for upwards of thirty years, and few persons have a more + intimate acquaintance than he with bird life. His work will take + high rank for scientific accuracy and we trust it may prove + successful."--_London Speaker._ + +=WILD FLOWERS OF THE NORTHEASTERN STATES.= Drawn and carefully described +from life, without undue use of scientific nomenclature, by ELLEN MILLER +and MARGARET C. WHITING. With 308 illustrations the size of life. 8^o, +_net_, $3.00. + + "Anybody who can read English can use the work and make his + identifications, and, in the case of some of the flowers, the + drawings alone furnish all that is necessary.... The descriptions + are as good of their kind as the drawings are of theirs."--_N. Y. + Times._ + +=THE SHRUBS OF NORTHEASTERN AMERICA.= By CHARLES S. NEWHALL. Fully +illustrated. 8^o, $1.75. + + "This volume is beautifully printed on beautiful paper, and has a + list of 116 illustrations calculated to explain the text. It has a + mine of precious information, such as is seldom gathered within the + covers of such a volume."--_Baltimore Farmer._ + + +=THE VINES OF NORTHEASTERN AMERICA.= By CHARLES S. NEWHALL. Fully +illustrated. 8^o, $1.75. + + "The work is that of the true scientist, artistically presented in + a popular form to an appreciative class of readers."--_The + Churchman._ + + +=THE TREES OF NORTHEASTERN AMERICA.= By CHARLES S. NEWHALL. With +illustrations made from tracings of the leaves of the various trees. +8^o, $1.75. + + "We believe this is the most complete and handsome volume of its + kind, and on account of its completeness and the readiness with + which it imparts information that everybody needs and few possess, + it is invaluable."--_Binghamton Republican._ + + +G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, 27 & 29 West 23d St., New York + + + * * * * * + + + Transcriber's Notes + + Obvious punctuation and spelling errors and inconsistent hyphenation + have been corrected. In ambiguous cases, the text has been left as it + appears in the original. + + In this text version, italic text is denoted by _underscores_, bold + text by =equal signs=, and spaced (gesperrt) text by +plus signs+. + Superscripts are represented with the caret character, e.g. 8^o. The + word "bassoolah" is written without the diacritical marks used in the + original. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Woodworking for Beginners, by +Charles Gardner Wheeler + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43604 *** |