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diff --git a/43604.txt b/43604.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 435ddb2..0000000 --- a/43604.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,19752 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Woodworking for Beginners, by Charles Gardner Wheeler - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Woodworking for Beginners - A Manual for Amateurs - -Author: Charles Gardner Wheeler - -Release Date: August 30, 2013 [EBook #43604] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOODWORKING FOR BEGINNERS *** - - - - -Produced by Albert Laszlo, Mark Young, P. G. Mate and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - WOOD-WORKING FOR - BEGINNERS - - A Manual for Amateurs - - BY - - CHARLES G. WHEELER, B.S. - - "Know what thou canst work at and work at it like a Hercules." - - CARLYLE. - - WITH OVER 700 ILLUSTRATIONS - - G.P. Putnam's Sons - New York and London - The Knickerbocker Press - 1900 - - - COPYRIGHT, 1899 - BY - - CHARLES G. WHEELER - - The Knickerbocker Press, New York - - - - - TO THE - YOUTHFUL FOUNDERS - OF - "TOTLET TOWN" - - WITHOUT WHOSE INSPIRATION THIS BOOK WOULD NOT - HAVE BEEN UNDERTAKEN - - - - -PREFACE - - -The aim of this book is to suggest to amateurs of all ages many things -which they can profitably make of wood, and to start them in the way to -work successfully. It is hoped that, in the case of boys, it may show -them pleasant and useful ways to work off some of their surplus energy, -and at the same time contribute toward their harmonious all-round -development. - -It is not an attempt to teach the arts of architecture, carpentry, -cabinet-making, or boat-building. Although not intended primarily to -impart skill in the use of tools (something which can only be acquired -from experience and observation and cannot be taught by any book), still -no one can go through the processes indicated without gaining at least -some slight degree of manual skill as well as a fund of practical -information and experience. - -Many books which give directions for mechanical work (particularly those -addressed to boys) have several serious faults, and can be grouped in -three classes. Some seem to be written by practical workmen, who, -however well fitted to do the work themselves, lack the pedagogical -training or the psychological insight necessary to lay out such work -with due regard to the mental and physical capacity, experience, and -development of youth, or to the amateur's lack of experience in the -rudiments of the subject. Others are written by teachers or amateurs who -lack the trained mechanic's practical and varied knowledge and -experience in serious work. Others (and this last class is, perhaps, the -worst of the three) seem to be made by compilers who have apparently -been satisfied to sweep together, without requisite knowledge or -sufficient moral purpose, whatever they may have found that would be -interesting or attractive, without due regard to its real value. All -these writers are constantly falling into errors and making omissions -harmful alike to the moral and the manual progress of the readers.[1] - -Effort has been made in the preparation of this book to avoid these -evils, to keep in line with the advanced educational ideas of the time, -and to look at the subject from the standpoints of the _teacher_, the -_mechanic_, the _boy_, and the _amateur workman_. The treatment is -neither general nor superficial, but _elementary_, and no claim is made -that it will carry anyone very far in the various subjects; but it aims -to be thorough and specific as far as it goes and to teach nothing which -will have to be unlearned. - -Great care (based upon an extended experience with boys and amateurs) -has been taken to include only what can be profitably done by an -intelligent boy of from ten to eighteen or by the average untrained -worker of more mature years. It is hoped that from the variety of -subjects treated he may find much of the information for which he may -seek--if not in the exact form desired, perhaps in some typical form or -something sufficiently similar to suggest to him what he needs to know. - -It is hoped and confidently believed that a work so comprehensive in -scope and giving such a variety of designs, with detailed and practical -directions for their execution, will be not merely novel, but may serve -as a _vade-mecum_ and ready-reference book for the amateur of -constructive tastes. - - CHARLES G. WHEELER. - - BOSTON, June, 1899. - - -FOOTNOTE: - -[1] These criticisms are meant to apply to the class of manuals, -compendiums, and so-called "Boys' Books" and "Amateurs' Books," in the -_popular_ sense of the word, and not to the many admirable works on -sloyd, manual training, and the various special branches of -wood-working. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - _PART I--A WORKSHOP FOR AMATEURS_ - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I--INTRODUCTORY 1 - - II--TOOLS 9 - - III--WOOD 29 - - IV--WORKING DRAWINGS, LAYING OUT THE WORK, - AND ESTIMATING 49 - - V--THE WORKSHOP 56 - - - _PART II--ARTICLES TO BE MADE IN THE WORKSHOP_ - - VI--INTRODUCTORY 103 - - VII--A FEW TOYS 106 - - VIII--HOUSES FOR ANIMALS 126 - - IX--IMPLEMENTS FOR OUTDOOR SPORTS AND ATHLETICS 41 - - X--FURNITURE 175 - - XI--A FEW MISCELLANEOUS OPERATIONS 218 - - - _PART III--HOUSE-BUILDING FOR BEGINNERS_ - - XII--SOME ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES 238 - - XIII--SIMPLE SUMMER COTTAGES 271 - - XIV--A FEW SIMPLE STRUCTURES 291 - - - _PART IV--BOAT-BUILDING FOR BEGINNERS_ - - XV--A FEW SIMPLE BOATS 298 - - - _PART V--TOOLS AND OPERATIONS_ - - XVI--THE COMMON HAND-TOOLS, AND SOME EVERY-DAY - OPERATIONS, ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED FOR - READY REFERENCE 344 - - APPENDIX--MATTERS RELATING TO WOOD, SUGGESTIONS - ABOUT WORKING DRAWINGS, ETC. 507 - - INDEX 539 - - - - -INTRODUCTORY NOTE - - -It has seemed best to address parts of this book particularly to boys, -because the majority of beginners are boys, because boys need more -suggestions than men, and because a man can easily pick what he needs -from a talk to boys (and perhaps be interested also), while it is -usually unprofitable to expect a boy to take hold of a technical subject -in the right spirit if it is treated in a style much in advance of his -degree of maturity. It is hoped, however, that the older reader also -will find enough of those fundamental principles of successful work -(many of which do not readily occur to the untrained amateur except as -the result of much costly experience) to be a material help to him. - - - - - "It is not strength, but art obtains the prize, - And to be swift is less than to be wise; - 'Tis more by art, than force of numerous strokes." - - HOMER, _Iliad_. - - - - -WOOD-WORKING FOR BEGINNERS - - - - -PART I - -_A WORKSHOP FOR AMATEURS_ - - - - -CHAPTER I - -INTRODUCTORY - - -When one has made up his mind to make something, he usually wants to -begin work at once; so, as I wish you to read this chapter, I will make -it quite short. There is a great deal in getting started right, and -there are some things to bear in mind if you wish to do good work, as of -course you do. - -One thing is not to be in too much of a hurry to begin the actual sawing -and pounding. The old Latin phrase, "_Festina lente_" (make haste -slowly), is a capital motto for the beginner. Do not wait until your -enthusiasm has oozed away, of course, but do stop long enough to think -how you are going to make a thing before you begin to saw. - -The workman who thinks first and acts afterwards is the one who usually -turns out good work, while the one who begins to work without any -reflection (as boys, and even men, have been known to do) is apt to -spend much of his time in undoing his work, and usually does not get -through till after the one who laid it out properly in the first -place.[2] - -If Homer, in the quotation at the head of this chapter, had been writing -about the way boys' work is sometimes done, he might, perhaps, have -reversed the positions of some of the words and made "swiftness" and -"numerous strokes" the subjects of his emphasis. He has expressed well -enough, however, the way that your work should be done, and it is one -aim of this book to give you useful hints to that end. - -Do not spend your time in working out a lot of set exercises, like -joints and odd pieces that do not belong to anything in particular, -merely for practice. You will be much more apt to put the right spirit -into your work when you make complete and useful articles, and you will -get the same practice and experience in the end. There is no need, -however, to go through a deal of toilsome experience just to learn a -number of simple little things that you might just as well be told in -the first place. Begin the process of learning by experience after you -have learned what you can from the experience of others. Begin, so far -as you can, where others have left off. - -Before you begin work it may be interesting to look for a moment at the -way boys did their work from fifty to one hundred years ago. Have you -read the books by Elijah Kellogg? The reason for speaking of these -old-fashioned books is because of the picture they give of the time, not -so very long ago, when boys and their elders made all sorts of things -which they buy to-day, and also because of the good idea they give of -how boys got along generally when they had to shift more for themselves -than they do nowadays. - -The majority of the boys of that time, not merely on Casco Bay, where -Mr. Kellogg places the scenes of his stories, but in hundreds of other -places, had to make many things themselves or go without. Of course -there was a smaller number in the cities and larger towns who had no -good opportunity to make things and were obliged to buy what they could -afford (out of what we should call a quite limited variety), or to get -the carpenter or other mechanic to make what they needed. But the -majority of the boys of that time made things well and had a good time -making them. The life they led made them capital "all-round" boys. They -could turn their hands, and their heads too, to almost any kind of work, -and do it pretty well. - -Boys did a good deal of whittling then. This habit, as you doubtless -know, still clung to them after they grew up, and opening a jack-knife -and beginning to whittle was a common diversion whenever the men rested, -whether at the country-store or in the barn or dooryard or at their own -firesides. You can see the same habit to-day in some places. The boys -whittled splint-brooms of birch in Colonial days in almost every -household.[3] Among some of the minor articles made by boys and young -men were axe-helves and handles of all sorts, wooden rakes, wooden -troughs for bread and for pigs, trays, trenchers, flails, rounds for -ladders, bobbins, reels, cheese-boxes, butter-spats or -paddles, wooden -traps, and dozens of other articles, not to speak of their handiwork in -other materials than wood. - -For that matter much of the same life can be found to-day in the remoter -regions, and I have known young men brought up to this kind of life, who -(within my recollection) have, as a matter of course, done all the farm -work of good-sized cultivated farms with live stock, cut and hauled wood -from their wood-lots, done a good deal of sea-fishing and salting down -and drying of fish, tended and mended their fish-nets, weirs, and -lobster-traps, and sailed or rowed twenty-five miles to market with -their produce and back again with their supplies. They also built their -sheds, barns, and houses, and part of their furniture, their dories, big -scows, and capital sailboats; made their own oars and rigged their -boats; made many of their farm tools and implements; built their waggons -and "ironed" them, their ox-sleds and small sleds, and shod them; made -some of their tools; did their own blacksmithing, mason-work, -brick-laying, and painting; made their own shoes, and did I do not know -how many other odd jobs--all with but a limited supply of common -hand-tools. This work did not interfere with their going to school -through the winter months until they were twenty-one years old, and they -still found time for the usual recreations of the period. - -Now a young man must have been pretty well developed after going through -all that, even if he did not know much about Greek or calculus or was -lacking in superficial polish. And it is only the truth to say that -quite a number used to tackle the higher branches of study too, with -success made all the more assured by their development in other ways, -and many, in addition to all this, paid their way through college by -teaching or other work. How did they do so much? Partly, I suppose, -because their life was so much simpler and less complex than ours. They -did not have so many wants and there were not so many interests to -distract their minds. Partly because when they wanted something they -knew they must make it or go without. They did not draw so much as we do -now, but they did a great deal of observing. They examined things like -what they were to make and asked questions, and, knowing that where they -had so much to do they could not afford to keep trying things again and -again, they learned from their relatives and neighbours what was -considered the best way to do their work, and having thought it out -carefully they went at it with great energy. - -To-day we have only to go to a large factory to see a man standing -before some machine and doing some simple piece of work, requiring but -little thought--the same thing over and over again, hour after hour, day -after day, year after year, until he seems to become almost a part of -the machine itself, and is not fitted for doing much else. That is the -other extreme. Of course we get things cheaper (even if they do not last -so long) because of the factory; but how about the workman? Which of -these two types is the better-developed man? First you want to be -well-developed all-round boys, so that you will not become machines or -badly one-sided men. After that--each to his special bent, of course. - -Now because we no longer cut down trees ourselves, haul them to the mill -to be sawed, or rive or saw or hew them ourselves, leave the wood to -season, and then laboriously work it up into whatever we have to -make--because we no longer do that, but go instead to a lumber-yard and -a mill and have a large part of the work done for us--it is a good thing -for us to pause a moment before we begin our work to take in the fact -that _all_ the advantage is not with us now, and to think what a capital -gymnasium that former life was for strengthening a boy's muscle and -mind, not to speak of his morals. - -You could not go back to those days now if you wished to, of course -(except, perhaps, when you go to some of the remoter regions in -vacation), and you are doubtless better off for all the advantages you -have now and for all our time-saving contrivances, but the advantage -depends partly on _how you use_ the time saved from their laborious -tasks, does it not? You can, however, get inspiration from the example -of those older boys and from some of their methods, and can put their -self-reliant, manly zeal, grit, and perseverance into your work, and -have a capital time making the things and more sport and satisfaction -afterwards for having made them. - -This book does not try to show you a royal road or a short cut to -proficiency in architecture, carpentry, cabinet-making, boat-building, -toy-making, or any other art or science. It does not aim to cram you -with facts, but merely to start you in the right way. It is for those of -you who want to take off your coats, roll up your sleeves, and really -make things, rather than sit down in the house and be amused and perhaps -deluded by reading enthusiastic accounts of all the wonders you can -easily do--or which somebody thinks you would like to be told that you -can do. It is for those of you who do not wish to have your ardour -dampened by finding that things will not come out as the book said they -would, or that the very things you do not know and cannot be expected to -know are left out. - -It does not aim to stir up your enthusiasm at first and then perhaps -leave you in the lurch at the most important points. I take it for -granted that if you have any mechanical bent or interest in making -things, as most boys have, and are any kind of a real live boy, you have -the enthusiasm to start with without stirring up. In fact, I have even -known boys, and possibly you may have, who, strange as it may seem, have -had so much enthusiasm to make something or other that they have -actually had to be held back lest they should spoil all the lumber -within reach in the effort to get started! - -What you want is to be told how to go to work in the right way--how to -make things successfully and like a workman--is it not? Then, if you -mean business, as I feel sure you do, and really want to make things, -read the whole book through carefully, even if it is not bristling with -interesting yarns and paragraphs of no practical application to your -work. You will not find everything in it, but you cannot help learning -something, and I hope you will find that it attends strictly to the -business in hand and will give you a start in the right -direction,--which is half the battle. - - - "Man is a Tool-using Animal.... He can use Tools, can devise Tools; - with these the granite mountain melts into light dust before him; - he kneads glowing iron as if it were soft paste; seas are his - smooth highway, winds and fire his unwearying steeds. Nowhere do - you find him without Tools; without Tools he is nothing--with Tools - he is all."--CARLYLE, _Sartor Resartus_. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[2] An old gentleman whose help, on account of his accurate -workmanship, I once frequently obtained when "rushed," was an extreme -example of this systematic way of doing work. I would give him perhaps -three hours' work, which he would agree to have done at the end of that -time. Looking in after an hour or so I would find the work apparently -untouched, which was a little provoking, of course, as the average -workman would have had it perhaps one third done. But instead, this old -gentleman would be apparently only "puttering around," touching up his -saws, fixing his planes, whetting his chisels, looking over the wood, -and not getting ahead a bit. Going off in disgust (until I got -acquainted with his ways, I mean), I would return at the end of the -three hours, to find that the work had been ready some time and done to -perfection. While he was at first apparently accomplishing nothing he -was really getting everything in perfect shape to do the work and laying -out in his mind every detail of the whole process, so that when he began -the actual work it almost did itself, and he forged right ahead of the -average workman, who would either have been behind time or slighted the -work in order to get it done, and in most cases have made some mistake -to be corrected in some part of the process. I never knew that man to -make a mistake. Why? Not because his ability was extraordinary, but -because he concentrated his mind on the work and thought it out clear -through before he began. Now I know the average boy too well to expect -him to have the patience to do just as this workman did. It would be -unreasonable. But it is the true way to do good work, so try to think it -all out as far as you can and to get ready before you begin. The work -will go ever so much more quickly and easily. - -[3] "It has been said that the snow-shoe and canoe as made by the -Indians could never be improved. To these might be added the split birch -broom, or splinter broom, also the invention of the Indians, but made in -every country household in New England in Colonial days. The branch of a -large birch tree was cut eight feet long. An inch-wide band of the bark -was left about eighteen inches from one end, and the shorter and lower -end was cut in fine pliable slivers up to the restraining bark band. A -row of slivers was cut from the upper end downward, turned down over the -band, and tied firmly down. Then the remainder of the stick was smoothed -into a handle. These brooms were pliable, cleanly, and enduring, and as -broom-corn was not grown here until the latter part of the past century, -they were, in fact, the only brooms of those days. They were made by -boys on New England farms for six cents apiece, and bought by the -country storekeepers in large numbers for the cities' use."--_The -Chautauquan._ - - - - -CHAPTER II - -TOOLS - - -You can do a great deal with very few tools. The bearing of this -observation lies in "the application on it," as Jack Bunsby would say. - -Look at the complicated and ingenious curiosities whittled with a -jack-knife by sailors, prisoners, and other people who have time to kill -in that way! Have you ever seen the Chinese artisans turning out their -wonderful work with only a few of the most primitive tools? But of -course we cannot spend time so lavishly on our work as they do, even if -we had their machine-like patience and deftness acquired through so many -generations. - -We cannot hold work with our feet and draw saws towards us or do turning -out on the lawn with a few sticks and a bit of rope for a lathe; carve a -set of wonderful open-work hollow spheres, each within the other, out of -one solid ball of ivory; and the rest of the queer things the Orientals -do: but it is merely a matter of national individuality--the training of -hundreds of generations. We could learn to do such things after a long -time doubtless, but with no such wonderful adaptability as the Japanese, -for instance, are showing, in learning our ways in one generation. - -Examine some of the exquisite work which the Orientals sell so cheaply -and think whether you know anyone with skill enough to do it if he had a -whole hardware-shop full of tools, and then see with what few simple and -rude tools (like those shown in the following illustrations, or the -simple drill, Fig. 1, still in use) the work has been done. Mr. -Holtzapffel describes the primitive apparatus in use among the natives -of India as follows[4]: - -[Illustration FIG. 1.] - - - "When any portion of household furniture has to be turned, the - wood-turner is sent for; he comes with all his outfit and - establishes himself for the occasion at the very door of his - employer. He commences by digging two holes in the ground at a - distance suitable to the length of the work, and in these he fixes - two short wooden posts, securing them as strongly as he can by - ramming the earth and driving in wedges and stones around them. The - centres, scarcely more than round nails or spikes, are driven - through the posts at about eight inches from the ground, and a - wooden rod, for the support of the tools, is either nailed to the - posts or tied to them by a piece of coir or cocoanut rope. The bar, - if long, is additionally supported, as represented, by being tied - to one or two vertical sticks driven into the ground. During most - of his mechanical operations the Indian workman is seated on the - ground, hence the small elevation of the axes of his lathe. The boy - who gives motion to the work sits or kneels on the other side of - it, holding the ends of the cord wrapped around it in his hands, - pulling them alternately; the cutting being restricted to one half - of the motion, that of the work towards the tool. The turning tools - of the Indian are almost confined to the chisel and gouge, and - their handles are long enough to suit his distant position, while - he guides their cutting edges by his toes. He grasps the bar or - tool-rest with the smaller toes and places the tool between the - large toe and its neighbour, generally out of contact with the bar. - The Indian and all other turners using the Eastern method attain a - high degree of prehensile power with the toes, and when seated at - their work not only always use them to guide the tool, but will - select indifferently the hand or the foot, whichever may happen to - be the nearer, to pick up or replace any small tool or other - object. The limited supply of tools the Indian uses for working in - wood is also remarkable; they are of the most simple kind and - hardly exceed those represented in Fig. 2; the most essential in - constructing and setting up his lathe being the small, - single-handed adze, the bassoolah. With this he shapes his - posts and digs the holes; it serves on all occasions as a hammer - and also as an anvil when the edge is for a time fixed in a block - of wood. The outer side of the cutting edge is perfectly flat, and - with it the workman will square or face a beam or board with almost - as much precision as if it had been planed; in using the - bassoolah for this latter purpose the work is generally - placed in the forked stem of a tree, driven into the ground as - shown in the illustration." - -[Illustration FIG. 2.] - -If we are inclined to feel proud of the kind of wood-work turned out by -the average wood-worker of this country or England with his great -variety of tools and appliances and facilities, we might compare his -work with that done by the Orientals without our appliances. Read what -Professor Morse tells us of the Japanese carpenter[5]: - - "His trade, as well as other trades, has been perpetuated through - generations of families. The little children have been brought - up amidst the odour of fragrant shavings,--have with childish - hands performed the duties of an adjustable vise or clamp; and - with the same tools which when children they have handed to - their fathers, they have in later days earned their daily rice. - When I see one of our carpenters' ponderous tool-chests, made - of polished woods, inlaid with brass decorations, and filled to - repletion with several hundred dollars' worth of highly polished - and elaborate machine-made implements, and contemplate the work - often done with them,--with everything binding that should go - loose, and everything rattling that should be tight, and much work - that has to be done twice over, with an indication everywhere of - a poverty of ideas,--and then recall the Japanese carpenter with - his ridiculously light and flimsy tool-box containing a meagre - assortment of rude and primitive tools,--considering the carpentry - of the two people, I am forced to the conviction that civilisation - and modern appliances count as nothing unless accompanied with a - moiety of brains and some little taste and wit.... After having - seen the good and serviceable carpentry, the perfect joints - and complex mortises, done by good Japanese workmen, one is - astonished to find that they do their work without the aid of - certain appliances considered indispensable by similar craftsmen - in our country. They have no bench, no vise, no spirit-level, - and no bit-stock; and as for labour-saving machinery, they have - absolutely nothing. With many places which could be utilised for - water-power, the old country sawmill has not occurred to them. - Their tools appear to be roughly made and of primitive design, - though evidently of the best-tempered steel. The only substitute - for the carpenter's bench is a plank on the floor, or on two - horses; a square, firm, upright post is the nearest approach to - a bench and vise, for to this beam a block of wood to be sawed - into pieces is firmly held (Fig. 3). A big wooden wedge is bound - firmly to the post with a stout rope, and this driven down with - vigorous blows till it pinches the block which is to be cut into - the desired proportions. - -[Illustration FIG.3.--A JAPANESE CARPENTER'S VISE. From Morse's -_Japanese Homes_.] - -[Illustration FIG. 4.--CARPENTERS' TOOLS IN COMMON USE. From Morse's -_Japanese Homes_.] - - "In using many of the tools, the Japanese carpenter handles them - quite differently from our workman; for instance, he draws the - plane towards him instead of pushing it from him. The planes are - very rude-looking implements. Their bodies, instead of being - thick blocks of wood, are quite wide and thin (Fig. 4, D, E), and - the blades are inclined at a greater angle than the blade in our - plane. In some planes, however, the blade stands vertical; this - is used in lieu of the steel scrapers in giving wood a smooth - finish, and might be used with advantage by our carpenters as a - substitute for the piece of glass or thin plate of steel with - which they usually scrape the surface of the wood. A huge plane - is often seen, five or six feet long. This plane, however, is - fixed in an inclined position, upside down; that is, with the - blade uppermost. The board, or piece to be planed, is moved back - and forth upon it. Draw-shaves are in common use. The saws are of - various kinds, with teeth much longer than those of our saws, and - cut in different ways.... Some saws have teeth on the back as well - as on the front, one edge being used as a cross-cut saw (Fig. 4, - B, C). The hand-saw, instead of having the curious loop-shaped - handle made to accommodate only one hand, as with us, has a - simple straight cylindrical handle as long as the saw itself, and - sometimes longer. Our carpenters engage one hand in holding the - stick to be sawed while driving the saw with the other hand; the - Japanese carpenter, on the contrary, holds the piece with his - foot, and stooping over, with his two hands drives the saw by - quick and rapid cuts through the wood. This style of working and - doing many other things could never be adopted in this country - without an importation of Japanese backs.... The adze is provided - with a rough handle bending considerably at the lower end, not - unlike a hockey-stick (Fig. 4, A).... For drilling holes a very - long-handled awl is used. The carpenter seizing the handle at the - end, between the palms of his hands, and moving his hands rapidly - back and forth, pushing down at the same time, the awl is made - rapidly to rotate back and forth; as his hands gradually slip - down on the handle he quickly seizes it at the upper end again, - continuing the motion as before. One is astonished to see how - rapidly holes are drilled in this simple yet effective way. For - large holes, augers similar to ours are used." - -When you are obliged to work some day with few and insufficient tools -(as most workmen are at times), you will quickly realise how much you -can do with very few in case of necessity, and will more fully -appreciate the skill of those Eastern people who do so much with so -little. We do not need so many hand-tools for wood-work as our -grandfathers and our great-grandfathers, although we make a greater -variety of things, because machinery now does so much of the work for -us. Wood-workers of fifty years ago had, for instance, dozens of planes -for cutting all sorts of grooves, mouldings, and the like, which are now -worked by machine at the nearest mill. - - -=Suggestions about Buying.=--Do not start in by buying a chest of tools, -certainly not one of the small cheap sets. They are not necessarily -poor, but are very apt to be. Get a few tools at a time as you need -them. In that way you will get all you need in the most satisfactory -way. - -Besides the fact that you _can_ do good work with few tools there are -various reasons which make it _better_ to begin with but few. You will -probably take better care of a few than of many. If you have thirty -chisels on the rack before you and you make a nick in the end of the one -you are using, there is a strong chance that instead of stopping to -sharpen it you will lay it aside and take one of the remaining -twenty-nine that will answer your purpose, and before you realise it -have a whole rack full of dull tools. If you have but few chisels, you -will be _compelled_ to sharpen them, and so get into the habit of taking -proper care of them--not to speak of the time which is often wasted in -putting away one tool and selecting another unnecessarily. - -The longer you work the more you will get to _rely_ on a small number of -tools only, however many you may have at hand for occasional use. After -you have worked for some time you will be very likely to have your -favourite tools, and find that certain tools do better work in your -hands than certain others which perhaps someone else would use for the -purpose, and you will naturally favour the use of those particular -implements, which is another less important reason for not starting in -with too great a variety. I do not mean that you will imagine you can do -better with one tool than another, but that you really can do so. That -is where individuality comes in--the "personal equation." - -Watch a skilful carver at a piece of ordinary work. See how few tools he -spreads before him, and how much he does with the one in his hand before -he lays it down for another. You would think it would take twenty-five -tools, perhaps, to cut such a design, but the carver may have only about -half a dozen before him. He gets right into the _spirit_ of what he is -doing, and somehow or other he does ever so many things with the tool in -his hand in less time and carries out his idea better than if he kept -breaking off to select others. - -This shows that confidence in the use of a tool goes a long way toward -the execution of good work, which is one reason for learning to use a -few tools well and making them serve for all the uses to which they can -advantageously be put. In short, if you have but few tools at first you -get the most you can out of each tool and in the way best for yourself. - -Now I do not mean by all this that it is not a good thing to have a -large kit of tools, or that you should not have the proper tools for the -various operations, and use them. I mean that you should get your tools -gradually as you find that you need them to do your work as it should be -done, and not get a lot in advance of needing them just because they -seem to be fine things to have, or because some carpenter has them in -his chest. - -Do not place too much reliance on the lists of tools which you find in -books and magazines--the "tools necessary for beginners," "a list of -tools for boys," etc. Such lists are necessarily arbitrary. To make a -short list that would be thoroughly satisfactory for such varied work as -a boy or amateur may turn his hand to is about as impracticable as the -attempts you sometimes see to name the twenty-five greatest or best men -or the one hundred best books. When you can find half a dozen -independent lists which agree it will be time enough to begin to pin -your faith to them. The most experienced or learned people cannot agree -exactly in such matters. It depends somewhat, for one thing, on what -kind of work you begin with, and, of course, somewhat upon yourself -also. - -Now while, as we have seen, most wonderful work can be done with the -most primitive tools, the fact remains that you are neither Chinese nor -Japanese, but Americans and English, and you cannot work to the best -advantage without certain tools. "Well, what are they? Why don't you -give us a list to begin with? That's what we are looking for." Simply -because a quite varied experience has taught me to think it better to -give you suggestions to help you make the selection for yourselves. - -Just as the great majority of boys would agree upon _Robinson Crusoe_, -for instance, as belonging in the front rank of boys' books, but would -make very different selections of second-rate or third-rate books, so -there are a few "universal" tools, upon the importance of which all -agree, such as the saw, hammer, hatchet or axe, and a few others; but -beyond these few you can have as many "lists" as you can find people to -make them, up to the point of including all you are likely to want. So -let your list make itself as you go along, according to your own needs. - -It is safe to say, however, that if your work is to be at all varied, -such as is given in this book, for instance, you cannot get along to -good advantage for any length of time without a _rule_, a _try-square_, -a _straight-edge_, a _knife_, two or three _chisels_, a _hatchet_, a -_gouge_, a _smoothing-plane_, a _spoke-shave_, a _panel-saw_, a _hammer_ -and _nail-set_, a _bit-brace_ and three or four _bits_ (_twist-drills_ -are good for the smaller sizes), a _countersink_, a few _bradawls_ and -_gimlets_, a _screw-driver_, a _rasp_ and _half-round file_ for wood, a -_three-cornered file_ for metal, an _oil-stone_, a _glue-pot_. An -excellent and cheap combination tool for such work as you will do can be -bought almost anywhere under the name of "_odd jobs_." Of course you -will need nails, screws, sandpaper, glue, oil, and such supplies, which -you can buy as you need them. A section (18 inches or 20 inches high) -from the trunk of a tree is very useful for a chopping-block, or any big -junk of timber can be used. - -You will, however, quickly feel the need of a few more tools to do your -work to better advantage, and according to the kind of work you are -doing you will add some of the following: a _fore-plane_, a -_splitting-saw_, a _mallet_, a _back-saw_, _compasses_, one or more -_firmer chisels_, one or more _framing-chisels_, a _block-plane_, -_pincers_, a _gauge_ or two, one or more _gouges_, a _steel square_, a -_draw-knife_, a large _screw-driver_, a _scraper_, a few _hand-screws_ -(or _iron clamps_), a few more _bits_, _gimlets_, _bradawls_, or -_drills_, _cutting-pliers_ or _nippers_, a _bevel_, a _jointer_ (plane), -a _wrench_. An iron _mitre-box_ is useful but rather expensive, and you -can get along with the wooden one described further on. A _grindstone_ -is, of course, essential when you get to the point of sharpening your -tools yourself, but you can have your tools ground or get the use of a -stone without having to buy one for a long time. - -The following list makes a fair outfit for nearly and sometimes all the -work the average amateur is likely to do, excepting the bench appliances -and such contrivances as you will make yourselves and the occasional -addition of a bit or chisel or gouge or file, etc., of some other size -or shape when needed. This is not a list to start with, of course, -unless you can afford it, for you can get along for a good while with -only a part, nor is it a complete list, but merely one with which a -great amount of useful work can be done to good advantage. You can -always add to it for special purposes. - -For further remarks about these tools and others and their uses, see -Part V., where they will be found alphabetically arranged. - - 1 two-foot rule. - 1 try-square (metal-bound). - 1 pair of wing compasses. - 1 marking-gauge. - 1 mortise-gauge. - 1 steel square (carpenter's framing-square). - 1 bevel. - 1 "odd jobs." - 1 chalk-line and chalk. - 1 knife. - 5 firmer chisels (1/8", 1/4", 1/2", 7/8", 1-1/4"). - 2 framing-or mortising-chisels (1", 1-1/2"). - 3 gouges (1/4", 1/2", 1"). - 1 iron spoke-shave (adjustable). - 1 draw-knife. - 1 hatchet. - 1 block-plane. - 1 smoothing-plane. - 1 long fore-plane (or a jointer). - 1 jack-plane. - 1 rabbet-plane (3/4" or 7/8" square). - 1 cutting-off saw (panel-saw, 24"). - 1 splitting-saw (26"). - 1 back-saw (12"). - 1 turning-saw (14"). - 1 compass and keyhole saw (combined). - 1 bit-brace. - 3 auger-bits (1/2", 3/4", 1"). - 3 twist-drills (1/8", 3/16", 1/4"). - A few bradawls and gimlets. - 1 screw-driver for bit-brace. - 1 countersink. - 1 hammer and 2 nail-sets. - 2 screw-drivers (different sizes). - Files of several kinds (flat, - three-cornered, and round - for metal, and half-round - and round for wood). - 1 large half-round rasp. - 1 cabinet scraper and burnisher. - 1 mallet. - 1 pair cutting-pliers. - 1 pair of pincers. - 1 wrench. - 1 oil-stone and oiler. - 2 or 3 oil-stone slips (different - shapes). - 1 glue-pot. - 2 or more iron clamps. - 2 or more wooden hand-screws. - 2 or more cabinet clamps (2' to - 4'). - - An adjustable iron mitre-box will be a valuable addition to this - list, and a grindstone is of use even when you get most of your - grinding done. - - A few carver's tools are also convenient at times if you can afford - them, as a skew-chisel (1/2"), a parting-tool (1/4"), and a small - veining-tool. - - General supplies, such as nails, screws, glue, etc., specified in - Part V., will of course be required. - - * * * * * - -There are still more tools than those given above, as you doubtless -know, but by the time you have become workman enough to need more you -will know what you need. Ploughs, matching-planes, and all such -implements are omitted, because it is better and usually as cheap to get -such work as they do done by machine at a mill. I also assume that all -your heavy sawing and planing will be done at some mill. It is not worth -while for the amateur to undertake the sawing and planing of large -pieces, the hewing and splitting of the rougher branches of wood-work, -for such work can be done almost anywhere by machine at very slight -expense, and stock can be bought already got out and planed for but a -trifle more than the cost of the wood alone.[6] - -Be sure to get good tools. There is a saying that a good workman is -known by his tools, and another that a poor workman is always -complaining of his tools, that is, excusing his own incompetence by -throwing the blame upon his tools. There is also another saying to the -effect that a good workman can work with poor tools; but it is simply -because he is a skilled and ingenious workman that he can if necessary -often do good work _in spite_ of inferior tools, and of course he could -do the same work more easily and quickly, if not better, with good ones. - -So do not think that because you sometimes see a skilled workman making -shift with poor tools that you are justified in beginning in that way, -for a beginner should use only good tools and in good condition or he -may never become a good workman at all, so make your tools and their -care a matter of pride. If your tools are of good quality, and proper -care is taken of them, they will last a lifetime and longer; so good -tools prove the cheapest in the end.[7] - -There are some cases, however, in which it is as well not to buy the -most expensive tools at first, as a cheap rule will do as well as an -expensive one, considering how likely you are to break or lose it, and a -cheap gauge will answer quite well for a good while; but this does not -affect the truth of the general statement that you should get only the -best tools. There are also quite a number of tools, appliances, and -makeshifts which you can make for yourselves, some of which will be -described. I advise you not to pick up tools at second-hand shops, -auctions, or junk shops, except with the assistance of some competent -workman. - - -=Care of Tools.=--Keep your tools in good order. You cannot do nice, -fine, clean work with a dull tool. A sharp tool will make a clean cut, -but a dull edge will tear or crush the fibres and not leave a clean-cut -surface. You can work so much more easily and quickly as well as -satisfactorily with sharp tools that the time it takes to keep them in -order is much less than you lose in working with dull ones, not to speak -of the waste of strength and temper. - -I assume that you will not attempt to sharpen your tools yourselves -until you have had considerable experience in using them; for sharpening -tools (particularly saws and planes) is very hard for boys and amateurs, -and not easy to learn from a book. So, until then, be sure to have them -sharpened whenever they become dull. The expense is but slight, and it -is much better to have fewer tools kept sharp than to spend the money -for more tools and have them dull. When you get to the point of -sharpening your tools, one lesson from a practical workman or even a -little time spent in watching the operations (which you can do easily) -will help you more than reading many pages from any book. So I advise -you to get instruction in sharpening from some practical workman,--not -at first, but after you have got quite handy with the tools. You can -easily do this at little or no expense. For further points, see -_Sharpening_, in Part V. - -It is a good plan to soak tool handles, mallets, and wooden planes, when -new, for a week or so in raw linseed oil and then rub them with a soft -rag every day or two for a while. If you use wooden planes give them a -good soaking. They will absorb much oil and work more freely and -smoothly. You can save tool handles from being split by pounding, by -sawing the ends off square and fastening on two round disks of -sole-leather in the way adopted by shoe-makers. If there is any tendency -to dampness in your shop the steel and iron parts of the tools should be -greased with a little fat,--tallow, lard, wax, vaseline,--or some -anti-rust preparation. - - -=Use of Tools.=--It is very important to get started right in using -tools. If your first idea of what the tool is for and how it should be -used is correct you will get along nicely afterwards, but if you start -with a wrong impression you will have to unlearn, which is always hard, -and start afresh. - -If you can go to a good wood-working school you will of course learn -much, and if you know a good-natured carpenter or cabinet-maker or any -wood-worker of the _old-fashioned_ kind, cultivate his acquaintance. If -he is willing to let you watch his work and to answer your questions you -can add much to your knowledge of the uses of the different tools. In -fact, so far as instruction goes that is about all the teaching the -average apprentice gets. He learns by observing and by practice. Do not -be afraid or ashamed to ask questions. Very few men will refuse to -answer an amateur's questions unless they are unreasonably frequent. -There will be problems enough to exercise all the ingenuity you have -after you have learned what you can from others. - -But the day for the all-round workman seems to be rapidly passing away -and the tendency nowadays is for each workman, instead of spending years -in learning the various branches and details of his trade, to be expert -in only one very limited branch--or, as sometimes happens, a general -botch in all the branches; so unless you find a real mechanic for a -friend (such as an old or middle-aged village carpenter, or -cabinet-maker, or wheelwright, or boat-builder, or carver), be a little -guarded about believing all he tells or shows you; and beware of relying -implicitly on the teachings of the man who "knows it all" and whom a -season's work at nailing up studding and boarding has turned into a -full-fledged "carpenter." - -If you can learn to use your tools with either hand you will often find -it a decided advantage, as in getting out crooked work, or particularly -in carving, where you have such an endless variety of cuts to be made in -almost every possible direction, but "that is another story." A bad -habit and one to guard against is that of carrying with you the tool you -may be using whenever you leave your work temporarily, instead of laying -it down where you are working. Edge-tools are dangerous things to carry -around in the hand and there is also much chance of their being mislaid. - -For directions for using the different tools see Part V. - - -=Edge-Tools.=--Bear in mind that all cutting tools work more or less on -the principle of the wedge. So far as the mere cutting is concerned a -keen edge is all that is required and your knife or other cutting tool -might be as thin as a sheet of paper. But of course such a tool would -break, so it must be made thicker for strength and wedge-shaped so that -it may be pushed through the wood as easily as possible. - -You know that you can safely use a very thin knife to cut butter because -the butter yields so easily that there is not much strain on the blade, -but that when you cut wood the blade must be thicker to stand the strain -of being pushed through. Soft wood cuts more easily than hard, because -it is more easily pushed aside or compressed by the wedge-shaped tool, -and it does not matter how keen the edge may be if the resistance of the -wood is so great that you cannot force the thicker part of the tool -through it. - -You will understand from all this that the more acute the angle of the -cutting edge the more easily it will do its work, provided always that -the angle is obtuse or blunt enough to give the proper strength to the -end of the tool; and also that as the end of the tool encounters more -resistance in hard than soft wood, the angle should be more obtuse or -blunter for the former than for the latter. Theoretically, therefore, -the angle of the cutting edge, to obtain the greatest possible -advantage, would need to be changed with every piece of wood and every -kind of cut, but practically all that can be done is to have a longer -bevel on the tools for soft wood than for hard. Experience and -observation will teach these angles. See _Sharpening_ in Part V. - -When you cut off a stout stick, as the branch of a tree, you do not try -to force your knife straight across with one cut. You cut a small notch -and then widen and deepen it by cutting first on one side and then on -the other (Fig. 5). The wood yields easily to the wedge on the side -towards the notch, so that the edge can easily cut deeper, and thus the -notch is gradually cut through the stick. The same principle is seen in -cutting down a tree with an axe. You have only to look at the structure -of a piece of wood when magnified, as roughly indicated in Fig. 6, to -see why it is easier to cut with the grain than across it. - -[Illustration FIG. 5.] - -[Illustration FIG. 6.] - -[Illustration FIG. 7.] - -You can often cut better with a _draw-stroke_, _i.e._, not merely -pushing the tool straight ahead, but drawing it across sideways at the -same time (Fig. 7). You can press the sharp edge of a knife or razor -against your hand without cutting, but draw the edge across and you will -be cut at once. Even a blade of grass will cut if you draw the edge -quickly through your hand, as you doubtless know. - -If you try to push a saw down into a piece of wood, as you push a knife -down through a lump of butter, or as in chopping with a hatchet, that -is, without pushing and pulling the saw back and forth, it will not -enter the wood to any extent, but when you begin to work it back and -forth it cuts (or tears) its way into the wood at once. You know how -much better you can cut a slice of fresh bread when you saw the knife -back and forth than when you merely push it straight down through the -loaf. You may have noticed (and you may not) how much better your knife -will cut, and that the cut will be cleaner, in doing some kinds of -whittling, when you _draw it through the wood from handle to point_ -(Fig. 7), instead of pushing it straight through in the common way, and -you will discover, if you try cutting various substances, that as a -general rule the softer the material the greater the advantage in the -draw-stroke. - -Now put the sharpest edge-tool you can find under a powerful microscope, -and you will see that the edge, instead of being so very smooth, is -really quite ragged,--a sort of saw-like edge. Then look at the -structure of a piece of wood as roughly indicated in Fig. 6, and you -will understand at once just what we do when we cut wood with an -edge-tool. You see the microscopically small sticks or tubes or bundles -of woody fibre of which the big stick is composed, and you also see the -microscopically fine saw to cut them. Now if the edge of the tool is -fine you can often do the work satisfactorily by simply pushing the tool -straight through the wood, but do you not see that if you can draw or -slide the tool either back or forth the edge, being saw-like, will do -its work better? - -This stroke cannot be used of course in chopping with the axe or -hatchet, splitting kindling-wood, or splitting a stick _with_ the grain -with a knife or chisel. In these operations the main principle is that -of the wedge, pure and simple, driven through by force, the keen edge -merely starting the cut, after which the wedge does the rest of the work -by bearing so hard against the wood at the sides of the cut that it -forces it to split _in advance_ of the cutting edge, as in riving a log -by the use first of an axe, then of an iron wedge, and finally a large -wooden wedge (Fig. 8). - -[Illustration FIG. 8.] - -Practical directions and suggestions about the different _Tools and -their Uses_ and the various _Operations_ will be found alphabetically -arranged in Part V. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[4] Quoted, by kind permission, from _Turning and Mechanical -Manipulation_. - -[5] Quoted, by kind permission, from the valuable and entertaining work -on _Japanese Homes and their Surroundings_ (copyright. 1885), by Edward -S. Morse. - -[6] If you are so situated, as possibly a few of you may be, that you -cannot get the benefit of modern methods, but must do all the rough -work that your grandfathers did, you will require a few additional -tools, but these you can readily select from the descriptions given -farther on. - -[7] There are many reliable makers of tools. Among them the following -can be named, and their tools can be obtained almost anywhere: -Saws--Henry Disston. Chisels and gouges--Moulson Bros.; Buck Bros. -Planes--Stanley; Moulson Bros. (plane-irons); Wm. Butcher (do.); Buck -Bros. (do.) Files--P. S. Stubs. Rules and squares, levels, gauges, -spoke-shaves, etc.--Stanley Rule & Level Co. Braces--Barber. -Bits--Jennings. Knives (sloid)--Taylor. Carving tools--Addis; Buck; -Taylor. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -WOOD - - -Before you can make anything successfully, you must have not merely -wood, but the _right kind_ of wood for the purpose. There are, also, -"choice cuts" in lumber, as the butcher says of meat, and judicious -selection of the stock often makes all the difference between a good job -and a poor one; so let us examine a log and follow it through the -sawmill. - -You have, of course, seen the rings, or circular lines, on the ends of -pieces of wood (Fig. 9). These are called the _annual rings_,[8] and -each ring marks a new layer of wood added to the tree, for, as perhaps -you may have learned, the trees we use for wood-working grow by adding -new layers of wood on the outside. Examine the ends of pieces of wood of -various kinds. In some pieces these rings will be very plain. In others -they will be quite indistinct. - -[Illustration FIG. 9.] - -Notice that the wood nearest the bark, known as the _sapwood_, usually -looks different from the inner wood, which is called the _heart_ (Fig. -9). - -In some trees you will see rays, or lines, radiating from the centre, -and known as the _medullary rays_ (Figs. 9 and 10), because they spring -from the pith (Latin _medulla_). Sometimes these lines are too fine to -be noticed. - -You will see from Fig. 10 that the layers of wood are also shown in the -lines of what we call the "grain" on the surface of a piece of wood cut -lengthways, and that the lines of the grain are continuations of the -annual rings. You will also notice at the ends of timber, after the -seasoning has begun, cracks radiating from the centre, showing the -natural lines of cleavage or separation. - -[Illustration FIG. 10.] - -[Illustration FIG. 11.] - -The way the log is sawed is important, though you might naturally think -that the only thing is to saw it any way that will give pieces of the -required size and shape. - -Why is green wood heavier and softer than dry wood, and the sapwood of -green timber softer than the heart? Because of the sap or water -contained. The amount of water is sometimes even as much as fifty per -cent. of the weight of the wood, but the quantity depends upon the kind -of tree, the season, etc. Now the more water the green log contains, the -more it will shrink. It begins to dry and shrink as soon as the tree has -been cut down. The sapwood shrinks more than the heart because it -contains more water, and faster because, being on the outside, it is -more exposed. The log shrinks most in the line of the annual rings, that -is, _around_ the tree. It shrinks much less in the line of the medullary -rays, that is, _across_ the tree. Shrinkage lengthways is too slight to -be considered[9] (Fig. 11). - -The result of all this unequal shrinking is that the log tends to split, -or crack open, at the circumference (Fig. 12), the cracks running in -toward the centre, in the line of the medullary rays. If the log is -halved or quartered, so that the inner parts are exposed, the drying -goes on more uniformly throughout, the cracking is not so bad, and the -parts of the log will shrink somewhat as shown in Figs. 13 and 14. - -[Illustration FIG. 12.] - -[Illustration FIG. 13.] - -The beams, joists, planks, or boards cut from a log have the same -tendency to shrink unevenly that is found in the log itself. This causes -them to be irregular in shape and to curl or warp more or less, -according to the part of the log from which they are taken. A piece cut -from the centre of a log will thus hold its shape better than if cut -from one side (Fig. 15). - -[Illustration FIG. 14.] - -[Illustration FIG. 15.] - -[Illustration FIG. 16.] - -When a log is sawed into boards or planks (Fig. 16) the middle board -shrinks but little in width and in thickness at the centre, but becomes -thinner towards the edges. It does not curl, because it is cut through -the centre of the log and has no more tendency to curl one way than the -other. The outside board shrinks least in thickness and most in width, -and all, except the middle one, shrink differently on one side from the -other. They become convex toward the pith, or heart, and concave toward -the outside. Different kinds of wood shrink and warp to different -degrees. You can learn something about these matters by examining the -stock in any lumber-yard. - -Now to come to the practical application of our brief study of the log -and the sawing process: if you merely wish to get the most that you can -from a log in the form of boards or plank, have the pieces sliced off in -the simple way just shown (Fig. 17). This is the usual way of sawing -for ordinary purposes. Boarding for the outside of a house, for -instance, cut in this way answers every purpose. By this process the -central boards will be good and the outer ones inferior,[10] as just -shown (Fig. 16), but for common work all can generally be used. - -[Illustration FIG. 17.] - -[Illustration FIG. 18.] - -[Illustration FIG. 19.] - - -If you wish the highly figured grain[11] often seen in oak, ash, -chestnut, etc., you can get it by sawing the log as just shown in Fig. -17. The figure of the grain will be most marked in the outer boards -(Fig. 18), because the annual rings are cut more obliquely in them than -in the boards at or near the centre. These boards (Fig. 17) will tend to -change their shape, as just shown (Fig. 19), but if they are to be -firmly fastened in some way, or confined (as in a panel), handsome grain -effects can be obtained. - -[Illustration FIG. 20.] - -[Illustration FIG. 21.] - -[Illustration FIG. 22.] - -If you wish the beautiful figure formed when the medullary rays show on -the surface of the board, as in "quartered" oak, the log should be cut -in the direction of the radii, that is, along the lines of the medullary -rays (Fig. 20). The more exactly the side of a board is cut on the -radial line the more richly the figure of the medullary rays will be -shown, as in Fig. 21. This method of sawing is more expensive than the -first way, of course, as it requires more labour and wastes more of the -wood. The wide board shown in Fig. 21 and either of those in Fig. 22 are -examples. - -If you wish boards that will shrink the least in width and remain as -true as possible, then the log should be sawed on the radial lines as -just shown, so that all the boards will be from the middle of the log. -Wood shrinks but little in the direction of the radii, as just shown, -and middle boards will be alike on both sides as regards heart- and -sapwood, etc., and, therefore, have the least tendency to change of -shape. The middle board by the method of Fig. 17 will be a good board in -these respects. - -[Illustration FIG. 23.] - -[Illustration FIG. 24.] - -[Illustration FIG. 25.] - -Various methods of radial sawing, or in which part of the boards are so -cut, are shown in Figs. 20 and 26, Figs. 23, 24, 25, and 26 showing the -log quartered and various ways of sawing into boards. Thus we see that -the middle boards, those passing through or near the centre, are the -best for most purposes. - -[Illustration FIG. 26.] - -[Illustration FIG. 27.] - -Split or rift stock is stronger than sawed. If you wish a piece -especially tough and durable, as for an axe handle or a stout pin, it -should be split out rather than sawed, unless the wood is very -straight-grained, because the splitting is sure to be in the line of the -fibres, thus avoiding "cross-grain," which cannot well be entirely -prevented in sawing. If the grain is straight, there may be no practical -difference in the result between sawing and splitting, as in the -so-called rift flooring, which is really sawed, but with crooked-grained -pieces the difference is marked in such cases as the block shown in Fig. -27, from which four pins can be sawed, while but one can be split out. -That one will be straight-grained, however, and stronger than the sawed -ones, which will be cross-grained. - -Try your best to get well-seasoned wood for your nice work. If it is not -dry before you use it, it must of course dry afterwards, which is likely -to cause cracks, warping, opened joints, and often the entire ruin of -the article you have made. You will have to trust the dealer, or some -friend, until you have had enough experience to judge for yourself, for -it is no easy matter for an amateur to decide, except in case of very -green stock, which is of course wet and soggy. - -There are two ways of drying wood in common use. One is the -old-fashioned way (commonly known as _seasoning_, _weather-drying_, or -_air-drying_) in which the wood is gradually seasoned by the natural -process of exposure to the air (but protected from the weather), that -is, letting it dry of itself. - - * * * * * - -Do not believe the statements so common in books that it "takes lumber" -some definite time, as one year or two years, "to season." It all -depends on the kind of wood, its shape and size, the condition of the -atmosphere, and various circumstances. For some rough work (a pig-pen, -for instance) there is no advantage in seasoning at all, because the -stock can just as well dry after the work is done as before. For many -kinds of common work one or two years is sufficient for some kinds and -sizes of wood; for a nicer grade of work two or three years is none too -much, while for very nice indoor work four years or more is not too long -for the stock to season. There is very little danger of its being kept -too long. It never will get perfectly dry (see Appendix). Whether it is -dry _enough_ or not depends on what you want it for. - - * * * * * - -To save time and money the artificial way (known as _kiln-drying_) of -shutting it up in a room and drying it quickly by steam or other heat -is now used, and, so far as drying the wood is concerned, this process -can do the work well and much more quickly than the old way--sometimes -too quickly. It is no exaggeration to say that in factories where cheap -furniture and other common articles are made nowadays, a standing tree -is felled on Monday, the log rolled into one end of the factory, and -before Saturday night the finished articles made from it, all varnished -and complete, are sent out from the other end of the shop--and some -articles are turned out even quicker. - -In the natural process of air-drying the moisture gradually and slowly -works out to the surface and evaporates, until the wood is _seasoned_, -though never absolutely dry, and the stock is firmer, more elastic, and -less affected by heat and cold, moisture and dryness, than if -kiln-dried. The latter process tends to dry the outside and ends of the -lumber too fast for the inside. It certainly lessens the elasticity of -the wood and weakens it. Making it so unnaturally dry (as if baked), as -is often done, only makes it more susceptible to the atmosphere when -taken from the kiln, and, unless it is at once protected from the air in -some way, it will reabsorb moisture until it gets into a more natural -condition; but that will not fully restore the loss of elasticity (see -Appendix). The deterioration in the quality of the wood can be plainly -seen by any wood-worker, and is often a subject of remark in regard to -oak. - -The kiln-drying "takes the life out of the wood," as workmen express it, -but just why this is so is not easy to explain, for the structure and -properties of wood are very complex. I have seen too many illustrations -in my own experience and that of others to have any doubt of the fact, -however, and lumber left for years to season naturally, "stands," as the -expression is, better than if kiln-dried--a fact which is, I think, -generally conceded by wood-workers who have had experience with both -kinds. - -The gain by kiln-drying, in time and money, is, therefore, more or less -offset by impairment of the quality of the wood, so if you can find -stock that you know has been seasoning for years by the natural process, -buy it by all means for your nice work, even if you have to pay more, -regardless of what the dealers in kiln-dried stock or the makers of -articles for sale may tell you about the advantages of kiln-dried wood. - -On the other hand, if a dealer brags of his new patent "chain-lightning" -dryer that will make green wood "dry as a bone" in two or three days, go -elsewhere to buy your stock, for wood dried in a few days is not the -kind to use for good work. You will probably have to use kiln-dried -stock for most, or, perhaps, all of your work, but get it from a -slow-drying kiln and keep it for further seasoning as long as you can. - -Even if wood has been well seasoned, it is best, before putting it into -nice work, to cut it up and dress it approximately to shape and leave it -in a dry place for some time for a final seasoning, particularly in the -case of thick stock. Do this with kiln-dried stock fresh from the -dry-house. Let it have a little time to get into harmony with the -atmosphere. Whenever wood has been exposed to damp air, as in a wet shed -or cellar, let it stand in the warm shop a while before using it for -nice work. - -The stock is arranged for seasoning so as to allow the air to circulate -around and between the pieces. A common way is simply to arrange them in -piles, each piece being separated from those above and below by strips -or sticks laid across (Fig. 28). These sticks should be placed directly -over one another, and so that the lumber will lie straight, else the -weight of the pile, which should tend to make the pieces dry straight, -will have the opposite effect and make them permanently crooked. There -are other ways of arranging wood for drying, but this method is common -and illustrates the most important principles. Stock is sometimes -stacked upright, and small pieces are occasionally hung up for such nice -work as billiard cues and bows. - -[Illustration FIG. 28.] - -Seasoned wood is lighter in weight than green, dryer to the touch, -usually has a different odour, cuts differently when you whittle it (and -the piece you whittle off breaks differently), and it shows a difference -when you saw it. It is impossible to define these differences and you -will have to learn them by actual work. It is not always easy even for -an experienced person to tell with certainty about some pieces until he -has "worked" them, so much do the characteristics of different pieces -vary. One test is to rap the boards sharply with a hammer. A green board -and a dry one of the same kind will "rap" differently,--that is, will -have a different vibration and give out a different sound. Of course -this cannot be described, but you can judge quite well in this way. It -is one of the many things you can learn only by experience. You can -ascertain much about the character and condition of lumber by sawing or -planing or whittling a piece. This is a good test for dryness, -toughness, and elasticity (which you can tell about by breaking the -shavings). - -Weather-dried timber is usually somewhat darkened from exposure, but -kiln-drying lightens the colour of some woods. - -Stock with a bright lustrous appearance and of dark hue is generally -superior to that of a lighter colour and duller appearance, but such -characteristics depend much upon the kind of wood. Green wood is tougher -than seasoned wood, but the latter is more elastic. To subject seasoned -wood to moisture and heat brings it back, to a certain extent, to its -original condition, and renders it for the time being tougher, hence the -process of bending wood by the application of steam or hot water (see -_Bending_ in Part V.). - -Reject "wany" lumber, or that of which the edges or corners have not -been squared (Fig. 18), and also boards and planks which have not been -sawed to a uniform thickness. It is not uncommon for a board to be -considerably thinner than it should be in some part of its length, due -to irregularity in sawing. - -For plain work avoid "cross-grained" stock, as well as that having knots -(which are sometimes "tight" and sometimes "loose"), as it is harder to -work and to smooth, is not as strong, and does not hold its shape as -well, as a rule. Sometimes it is desirable, however, on account of the -beautiful figure of the grain shown in many crooked-grained pieces, as -in mahogany for furniture (see Appendix). Bear in mind that when -especial strength is required rift stock is best. - -Reject wood which smells musty, or has rusty-looking spots, which are -signs of decay, or of the attack of fungi, which may spread and under -favourable conditions attack other pieces which are sound (see -Appendix). - -[Illustration FIG. 29.] - -[Illustration FIG. 30.] - -Reject crooked stock. The worst form is _winding_ or twisting. Of course -no one would take such an extreme case as Fig. 29, unless for some very -rough work, but even a _very slight_ winding may make much trouble in -your nice work. So look particularly for this defect, which you can -often detect at once by the eye, but if your eye is not well trained use -winding-sticks (see Part V.). _Warped_ or curled stock, with the surface -rounded or hollowed (Fig. 19), is also bad, but you will need no -instructions to detect this defect by the eye or any straight stick. -When boards are rounding on one side and hollowing on the other, it is -due either to the way the log was sawed, as we have seen, or to one side -having been more exposed and so having dried faster and shrunk faster -than the other, causing that side to be concave, while the other became -convex. Stock is sometimes crooked lengthways,--either a simple bending -in a curve or at an angle, or wavy (Fig. 30), or both,--often due to -careless "sticking" (Fig. 28) while the wood was green. Sighting -lengthways will of course show these defects. - -Reject stock badly checked at the ends, or cracked. There is apt to be -more or less of this in most lumber. In seasoning, the pieces dry faster -on the outside than in the middle, which causes checks or cracks, -usually worse at the ends of the pieces, where the drying takes place -most rapidly. The ends of valuable boards and planks are sometimes -painted or cleated, which in a measure prevents this result. -Occasionally, when the cleat is removed a crack will suddenly extend -and even split the board. - -Do not take a cracked or partly split board, thinking that you can use -the sound end from the point where the crack _appears_ to stop. Possibly -you can, but oftentimes and in some kinds of wood it is impossible to -tell before the stock is cut where the cracks end. In mahogany, for -example, they sometimes are found to extend, or develop, several feet -beyond where they appear to stop. Sometimes you can buy wood with such -defects at a discount. Unless you are _sure_, however, that there is -enough sound, clear wood outside of the cracks or knots, and unless the -discount is pretty large, it will usually be better to buy clear, sound -stock for nice work, as the waste is very apt to offset the saving, not -to speak of the extra time and labour it takes to work up such material. -(See _Shakes_ in Appendix.) - -Reject sapwood as far as possible, because it is usually inferior to the -heartwood. - - * * * * * - -In the case of elm and young ash the sapwood is, however, superior to -the heart. The heartwood is usually harder and more durable than the -sapwood, heavier, of better texture, and commonly of better colour. - -"The sapwood is, as a rule, darker in the whitewood class than the -heartwood, whether seasoned or unseasoned, but is paler in colour in -most hardwood trees which have had time to season. In some of the white, -or softer woods, when fresh cut, the difference is scarcely perceptible; -but exposure to the air quickly gives to the outer layers a greenish -tinge, due to a species of mould fungi which attack them."--LASLETT and -WARD. (See also Appendix.) - - * * * * * - -When buying, do not take boards just as they happen to come from the -pile. Select them yourself. Most good-natured dealers will let you do -this if you do not expect them to unstack a whole pile just for one or -two boards. It is better to do this for nice work even if a slight -charge should be made for the privilege. When you come to pick out -boards you will see the application of what has been said about the ways -of cutting the log, and you can tell by the annual rings at the ends of -the boards, by the sapwood (when visible), the grain, etc., from what -part of the log the pieces were sawed. - -Use good, clear stock for everything but rough work. Of course in rough -or temporary work you can save expense by using wood from packing-cases, -boxes, old fence-rails, or anything that will serve the purpose, but as -a rule avoid trying to make nice, new things of wood taken from old work -or boxes. The quality of the wood used for boxes nowadays is apt to be -poor and hard to work. The wood taken from old cabinet-work is, however, -often better than you are likely to buy, but you need to be very -cautious about working over old material, for the dirt which has been -ground into it is apt to dull your tools, and, moreover, the presence of -concealed nails, etc. (which it is sometimes almost impossible to -detect), will often injure your tools so much as to more than offset -what you save in expense. - -Do not buy thick stock with the idea of sawing it into thinner pieces -(unless necessary). Of course it can be sawed into thinner or smaller -pieces, but you cannot always be sure that these will be as true as the -original stock. Suddenly exposing the middle of a piece of wood to the -air in this way sometimes plays queer pranks with the shape of the -pieces (see Appendix). If you want to use boards for good work buy those -which have seasoned as boards, instead of splitting up thicker lumber; -and always try to treat both sides of a board alike so far as you can. - -Bear this in mind: If you take an inch board to the mill to be planed -down to three eighths of an inch, for instance, have it planed equally, -as nearly as may be, from both sides. Ignorant hands often simply smooth -off, or "surface," one side, and then plane the board down on the other -side, when it will sometimes warp badly at once and be useless, perhaps, -for the purpose intended. - -If you carefully pile and "stick" the stock you have bought (Fig. 28), -it will tend to keep the pieces straight and true. Never lay good boards -down flat directly upon one another unless they are _thoroughly_ -seasoned. It is the best of all ways, however, to _keep_ a pile of -thoroughly seasoned stock, but not the way to season it. The top board -will warp. Never lay a single board of nice stock flat on its side. Keep -short pieces of nice stock standing on end where they will be equally -exposed on both sides to heat and cold, moisture and dryness. - -The best way to learn about any kind of wood is from the wood itself. It -is a capital idea to make a collection of specimens of as many kinds as -you can.[12] You will be surprised to see how varied, interesting, and -handsome a collection you can make at little or no expense. (See -Appendix.) - -The kinds of wood which you are likely to use are commonly known as -either _hard_ or _soft_, the former class from trees with broad leaves, -as the oak, the latter from the coniferous or needle-leaved trees, as -the white pine. This distinction between hard and soft wood you may find -somewhat puzzling at first, for the common whitewood of the hardwood -class you will find softer and easier to work than hard pine of the -softwood class, but the distinction is based on botanical reasons. The -hard woods are usually more durable as well as stronger than the soft. -For various woods see Appendix. - - * * * * * - -_Timber._--The word timber is applied in a general way to the log and to -the material itself, and to the standing trees. It is also applied more -specifically to the larger squared pieces, or "dimension" stock, such as -sills, beams, etc. - -_Lumber._--As the term is used in the United States, lumber consists, -according to Webster, of "timber sawed or split for use, as beams, -joists, boards, planks, staves, hoops, and the like." - - * * * * * - -Lumber may be either _undressed_ or _dressed_, that is, rough (as it -comes from the saw) or planed. It is usually sawed in regular -thicknesses, and for stock which is in steady demand, such as joists, -floor timbers, etc., in regular widths, as 2" x 4", 4" x 6", etc. It is -commonly sold in lengths varying from 10 feet to 20 feet. Twelve feet is -a common length for boards. Planing (by machine) rough or undressed -boards on both sides will usually reduce the thickness of an inch board -to about seven eighths of an inch. Other thicknesses will of course be -reduced correspondingly. Bear this in mind. The terms 1" board, 2" -plank, etc., apply, as a rule, to the stock in the rough state as it -comes from the saw. When you buy planed or dressed lumber it will be -thinner--that is, the "inch board" that you wish to get for a shelf will -not be one inch thick (unless you get it unplaned), but seven eighths of -an inch. - - * * * * * - -You must make allowance for this when you figure on _dressed_ lumber. If -for example the board must be one inch thick when planed, you will have -to get a thin plank and have it planed down, or pull over the pile -until you find a board which happens to be sawed as thick as one inch -and one eighth. You can sometimes find boards planed one inch thick, but -as a rule you will find the thickness seven eighths of an inch. A -similar statement will apply to the various thicknesses of planks also. -The sawing is often very irregular, however, and frequently some boards -or planks will run thick enough in sawing to give the required thickness -when planed, so it is well to look for such when you need pieces a -little thicker than planed stock usually runs. - -[Illustration FIG. 31.] - - * * * * * - -For such work as you are likely to do you will chiefly need boards, -planks, and joists. Other forms will be referred to farther on. - - * * * * * - -_Boards._--These are one inch thick or less. - -_Matched-boards_, or "sheathing," have a groove on one edge and a -corresponding tongue on the other (Fig. 31.) Any number of boards can -thus be joined to make a wide surface. The edges of these boards were -formerly tongued and grooved by hand with "matching-planes," but now -this is done by machine, usually with some form of bead or moulding at -one edge (and sometimes in the middle) to render the joint less -noticeable. - -_Planks._--These are _thick_ boards,--more than one inch in thickness. -Both planks and boards can be of any width or length, the distinction -being merely in thickness. - -_Joists._--These are the same as narrow planks, but of some fixed width, -as 2" by 3", which is the same as a 3" strip sawed from the edge of a 2" -plank. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration FIG. 32.] - -[Illustration FIG. 33.] - -Most of the lumber you will require is sold by the square foot, at so -much an M (1000 feet), or so much a foot. The square foot has an area of -144 square inches and is one inch thick, or contains 144 cubic inches, -regardless of the shape or size of the piece. That is, Figs. 32, 33, and -34 each equal one square foot by board measure. - -[Illustration FIG. 34.] - - * * * * * - - Thus a board 12' long, 12" wide, and 1" thick, contains 12 feet, - board measure. A board 12' long, 6" wide, and 1" thick, contains 6 - feet. A plank 12' long, 12" wide, and 2" thick, contains 24 feet. A - plank 12' long, 6" wide, and 2" thick, contains 12 feet, or the - same as the board first mentioned. You can bear in mind that in - case of boards 12' long the contents in feet is indicated by the - width in inches, as you will see from the examples just given. A - board 12' long and 7" wide contains 7 square feet. So all you have - to do to measure 12' stock is to find the width in inches. If the - board tapers in width, measure at the middle. The same is true of - planks, only the width in inches must be multiplied by the - thickness of the plank. A plank 12' long, 7" wide, and 3" thick, - contains 21 square feet. Of course this principle can be quickly - applied to pieces whose length is any convenient multiple or - fraction of twelve. Thus a board 18' long, 8" wide, and 1" thick, - contains 1-1/2 times as many square feet as one 12' long, or 12 - feet. A plank 9' long, 6" wide, and 2" thick, contains 3/4 as many - square feet as if 12' long, or 9 square feet. - - * * * * * - -Boards less than one inch thick are usually sold by the square foot of -surface, regardless of thickness--the price varying according to the -thickness, except in cases where an inch board is planed down, when, of -course, inch thickness is charged for. There is no distinction made in -_measuring_ between a rough board 1" thick and a planed board 7/8" as, -of course, they represent the same amount of lumber. The cost by the -foot of the planed board is greater because of the expense of planing. -In cities, and sometimes in the larger towns, you can find thin boards -(1/2", 3/8", 3/16", 1/8" thick) already planed, and even scraped, for -nice work. - - * * * * * - -Some of the rarer and less commonly used woods are often sold by the -pound, as ebony, leopard wood, tulip wood, etc. Pieces turned out in -quantities for special uses, as strips, mouldings, etc., are often sold -by the "running foot," meaning simply the length, the price varying -according to the amount of lumber and labour required. Certain regular -sizes and shapes of lumber are sold by the hundred or by the piece. -Shingles, clapboards, laths, and the like, are sold in bunches or -bundles. - - * * * * * - -For other matters relating to wood, see Appendix. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[8] So called because in the common trees of temperate climes one layer -is added each year. - -[9] Although the shrinkage lengthways is not usually noticeable as -affecting the length of a board, it shows slightly by its effect in -causing the pieces to spring, or become bowed lengthwise, as you will -see in many boards which have been left free to spring while seasoning. - -[10] In addition to the curling, the outer boards will be poorer -because they contain a greater proportion of sapwood, which is usually -inferior to the heartwood. - -[11] By this is not meant the figure or flashes shown by the medullary -rays, or "silver grain," seen in _quartered_ oak and some other woods, -but the figure of the grain without the medullary rays, as seen in -_plain_ oak, etc. - -[12] The forests of North America, exclusive of Mexico, are now -believed, according to Sargent, to contain four hundred and twenty-two -species of plants, besides numerous varieties, which can fairly be -considered trees. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -WORKING DRAWINGS, LAYING OUT THE WORK, AND ESTIMATING - - -=Working Drawings.=--A simple drawing will often give you a better idea -of an object than you can get from any description in words, for drawing -is not only a very ancient form of language but one readily understood -by people of all countries and all times. It is one of the chief tools -of a workman in these days, so of course the quicker you become familiar -with it the better, for the day for "rule-of-thumb" work and feeling -one's way along step by step is fast giving way to the guidance of the -working drawing, which shows one not only exactly what is to be made but -exactly how to make it. - -When you wish to make some particular thing, you should begin by making -rough sketches to express your idea, and from them an accurate working -drawing in which every detail and measurement is clearly given. Make all -your working drawings carefully to scale (see Appendix), and whenever -you can, make them _full size_. Do not guess at the height, width, and -length, but measure, and measure very carefully. Never mind if it takes -time. Learn first to do it right, and practice will soon teach you to do -it more quickly. - -The time to make changes in your plans is when you are making the -drawings--particularly the rough preparatory sketches. Making the -drawings will, if you make them complete and accurate, show you what you -know and what you do not know about the subject. _The working drawing -should be complete and final._ - -Begin the making of sketches and detailed drawings with the first -article you make, no matter how simple it may be. You can go about the -work with confidence, which goes a long way toward success, when you -know that you have thought it out to the end and have it all done on -paper. For practical suggestions about working drawings, see Appendix. - -=Laying out the Work.=--Try to get the measurements and lines exact, and -do not be satisfied with coming within an eighth of an inch. You cannot -do good work unless it is laid out right, and cutting exactly to a line -will do no good if the line is in the wrong place. It makes no -difference how accurately you saw off a board if you have marked it half -an inch too short, nor how nicely you make the two parts of a joint if -you have laid them out so that they can not fit together. The work is -spoiled in either case. - -Go over all your measurements a second time. It is a good plan to check -them by measuring back in the opposite direction, just as you prove your -addition of a column of figures downward by adding again upward. Nothing -is easier than to make mistakes in measuring. No amount of experience -will prevent the chance of it. It takes but little time to measure -twice, much less time than to correct mistakes--as you will discover -when you cut off a mahogany board five inches too short and have to go -half a mile to the mill and pay a dollar or two for a new piece. - -In getting out stock for nice work it is best to make plenty of -allowance for the pranks which expansion and contraction may play with -the pieces (see Appendix). How to arrange the various parts of your work -with regard to this swelling and shrinking, warping and winding, is a -matter of practical importance, for a piece of wood can no more keep -still than an active boy can, and, although its movements do not cause -so widespread havoc as the motions of some boys, you will have to keep a -careful eye on its actions if you wish to turn out good work. - -This applies not merely to the way green wood shrinks, as we have -already seen, but particularly to the way _seasoned_ wood acts. Many -people think it is only green wood that causes trouble with wood-work, -but there is much difficulty with dry wood--that is, what we _call_ dry -wood. It never is really absolutely dry, except when it is baked, and -kept baked (see Appendix). The moment you take it out of the kiln or -oven, it begins to take up some of the moisture from the air, as we -have seen, and swells. If the air becomes more damp, the wood sucks in -more moisture and swells more. If the air becomes dryer, it sucks some -moisture from the wood, and the wood becomes dryer and shrinks. It is -thus continually swelling and shrinking, except in situations where the -amount of moisture in the air does not change, or when the wood is -completely water-logged. - -"What does such a little thing as that swelling and shrinking amount to? -Use more nails or screws or glue and hold it so tight it cannot move." -Well, it amounts to a good deal sometimes when you cannot open the -drawer where your ball is, or a door or a window, without breaking -something. - - * * * * * - -In the days of high-backed church pews with tall doors to every pew, -each pew door would swell in damp weather, of course, and in continued -dampness the doors of a certain church fitted quite snugly. There was -usually no special trouble, however, for, many of the doors being open, -the pew frames would give way a little so that the closed doors would -open with a slight pull; but if all the doors were shut the whole line -would be so tightly pressed together that it would take the utmost -strength of a man to start a door. Some boys one day catching on to this -idea (though they were not studying wood-work), got into the church one -Sunday morning before service and by using their combined strength -succeeded in closing every door. They then climbed over the top into -their own pew, where they awaited developments, as one after another -sedate churchgoer, after a protracted struggle, finally burst open his -pew door with a ripping squeak or a bang. You will understand that those -boys always remembered the expanding power of wood. I feel sure that I -am not putting any boys up to improper mischief in telling this story, -because pews are not so often made in that way now, and there is slight -danger of their having any chance to try it. - - * * * * * - -Did you ever see stone-workers split big rocks by drilling a row of -holes and driving dry wedges into them and then wetting the wedges, when -the stone will split?[13] Do you think nails or screws or glue will stop -a force which will do that? You cannot prevent the swelling and the -shrinking any more than you can repress a boy's animal spirits. You may -be able to crush the wood, but so long as it remains a sound, natural -board it must swell and shrink. - -What shall you do then? Why just the same as with the boy; give it a -reasonable amount of play, and a proper amount of guidance, and there -will be no trouble. You must put your work together so as to allow for -the expansion and contraction which you cannot prevent. You will find -abundant examples, in almost every house, of work which has split or -come apart or warped because proper allowance was not made for this -swelling and shrinking. So try to avoid these errors so common even -among workmen who should know better. - -[Illustration Fig. 35.] - -For instance, if you were to put cleats on one side of a drawing-board -three feet wide, and were to firmly glue the cleats for their whole -length (Fig. 35),--you sometimes see such things done,--you would -probably not have to wait many weeks before you would hear a report -like a toy pistol, and the cleats would be loosened for at least part of -their length, because of the expansion or contraction of the board. -Similar cases are continually occurring. In such cases the cleats should -be screwed, the screws having play enough in their holes to allow for -the changes in the board (see Appendix). - -You must also make plenty of allowance for planing down edges and -surfaces and for the wood wasted by sawing. No rule can be set for these -allowances. If you do not leave enough spare wood, the pieces will -finally come out too small. If you leave too much you will increase the -amount of planing or shaping to be done, but of the two extremes it is -better to err on the side of allowing too much. - -A rod (any straight stick), say six feet long, and another ten or twelve -feet long, with feet and inches marked, are very handy to have when -laying out work roughly, or for measuring outdoor work approximately. - -Lay out your work from only one edge or one surface of a piece of lumber -unless you are _sure_ the edges or surfaces are exactly parallel. Having -selected the best edge for a "working edge" and the best surface for the -"face," mark them with an X or other mark to avoid mistakes (Fig. 36). -This is quite important in laying out a number of pieces, as before the -stock is accurately worked into shape you cannot usually rely on the -edges being parallel. One mark like a V as shown in Fig. 36 will -indicate both the working edge and the face. - -[Illustration FIG. 36.] - -=Estimating.=--You must, of course, learn to make your estimates -yourself, often a very important preliminary. Prices vary, and you -cannot always rely on other people's estimates for your own work. It is -a matter of simple arithmetic and of making correct allowance for waste -and incidentals. - -You can always get the prices easily. Figure the amount of wood -required, the number of square feet (see page 47) of each kind, or -running feet, as the case may be, and multiply by the price a foot; but -after this comes the allowance for waste, etc., which cannot usually be -figured exactly, but must be estimated. - - * * * * * - -For instance, if you wish to make a double-runner, with a seat ten feet -long, the board from which to make it will very likely be twelve feet -long, in which case you must, of course, buy the whole board. Perhaps -you can use the two feet left over somewhere else on the sled, perhaps -part may be checked or injured. - -There is almost always some defective wood (worthless, except for fuel); -some pieces are too short or small to be of use; and very often some -quite good-sized pieces are left over, which, so far as the particular -job is concerned, are waste,--that is, you must buy them in order to get -enough. Such pieces can be used on other work, and are not really wasted -in the end. - -Just how much to add to the number of feet to cover waste varies, of -course, with every job. Some people add a fixed per cent. to their -measurements or calculations, which, although not exactly correct for -any one job, strikes an average for a good many. It would not be easy to -state any such per cent. for the varied work you will do, but the main -thing to bear in mind is that you must make a liberal allowance. Just so -with the other materials. Remember to allow for waste and for unforeseen -extras. Even with experienced people things are very apt to cost more -than the estimate. - -Make a neat schedule to take to the lumber-yard or mill, specifying the -kinds and dimensions of the stock required. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[13] The peculiarity of the wood is that the water is not simply drawn -in to fill up what we call the pores, as in chalk or any ordinary porous -inorganic substance, but enters into the very fibre of the body, forcing -apart the minute solid particles with an extraordinary force which does -not seem to be fully understood. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE WORKSHOP - - -If you have a place where you can build a workshop you will find one -described in Part III. If not, try to find a well-lighted shop, both on -account of your eyes and your work; one that is dry, or your tools will -rust and your work be injured; and one that can be heated, for there -will be no time you will wish to use it more than on cold, stormy days. - -As a rule, an outbuilding is better than a basement or attic, other -things being equal, because a basement is liable to be damp and dark, -and an attic is bad about carrying materials and finished work up- and -down-stairs. Noise in the top story of a house is usually more -disturbing to the occupants than noise in the basement; but all these -conditions vary in different places. - -Have a lock on the door of your workshop, partly to keep small children -from getting cut if they should come in without leave, and partly to -prevent your work being interfered with in your absence and the -edge-tools used for various domestic purposes by your feminine -relatives, who might, in their innocence, mistake your best gouge for a -tack-puller or the quarter-inch chisel for a screw-driver. - -Of course you will have overalls and jumper or a work-man's apron made -of denim, ticking, or some strong cloth. If you use an apron, have a -pocket in it. A small slip of a pocket on the outside seam of your -overalls above the right knee is also useful for holding a rule. When -you have a long job of dirty work before you, a good way is to change -your clothes for any "old duds" that you may have. This saves your -clothes, and in warm weather is more comfortable and healthful than to -wear overalls. - -[Illustration FIG. 37.] - -Your shop can be all fitted up for you by a carpenter, but it will be -better, and better fun, to do it yourself. After the workshop itself is -ready the first important thing is the work-bench. - - -=The Work-Bench.=--A very simple one (Fig. 37) will answer your purpose -for a long time. When you become a pretty good workman and feel the need -of something better (for a first-class bench with the best attachments -is really a great help toward doing good work), you will still find this -first simple affair very useful in some part of your shop.[14] There is -no need of a bench being made of stock of exactly the dimensions given, -so if you have a pile of boards and joists to draw from without buying, -you can, of course, substitute other-sized pieces, provided you use -stock heavy enough to make a firm bench. Heavier legs and top (front -board) would be better, and in fact _there is little danger of making a -bench too solid_. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning to work read carefully _Marking_, _Square_, _Rule_, -_Saw_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -The design is for a small bench, 5' 10" long, 2' wide, and 2' 6" high. A -larger one can be made on the same principle.[15] - -You will require for stock: - - 1 piece of 3" X 4" joist 10' long. - 1 board, 7/8" thick, planed, 12" wide, 12' long. - 1 " " " " 10" " 12' " - 1 " " " " 10" " 6' " - 1 plank, 1-1/2" or 2" thick, planed, 5" or 6" wide, 2' 9" long. - 1 strip, 1/2" to 7/8" thick, 3" or 4" wide, 15" long. - -Pine is good, and almost any cheap wood can be used. Hemlock is not very -suitable, unless for the legs. Spruce is cheaper than pine or whitewood, -and can be used for economy, but is prone to warp and twist and should -be thoroughly nailed. - -First make the legs and fasten them together. To do this, take the joist -and lay it on two boxes or old chairs (Fig. 38), which you can use -temporarily for horses, until you make a pair. See whether either end is -cut off squarely. If neither is, mark a line by the square a short -distance (perhaps half an inch, according to the condition of the end of -the joist) from one end, on one side of the joist. Carry this line -around the joist by applying the square to each side successively, and -saw off the waste end with the cross-cutting saw. Having one end square, -measure from that end 2' 5" and mark a line around the joist as before. -Saw this piece off, and using it as a measure (but not as a square), -mark and saw off three more pieces. These are for the legs. - -[Illustration FIG. 38.] - -[Illustration FIG. 39.] - -Next, from the short 10" board, mark and cut off two pieces 1' 10-1/4" -long in the same manner (Fig. 39), seeing first that the end from which -you begin to measure is square. You do not need to mark the under side -of the boards, but only the top and the edges. Now square a line 1" from -each end of each of these short boards, and start three nails on each of -the lines by driving them nearly through the board (Fig. 40). (See -_Nailing_.) Next, place the end of one of these boards on the narrow -side of one of the legs, and, holding it firmly in position, nail it -securely to the leg. You must take pains to keep the leg and the -cross-piece "square." Nail only one nail first and then adjust, testing -with the try-square before driving the other nails (Fig. 41). Then nail -the other end to another leg, and repeat the process with the other -board and the remaining legs. This will give two frames like Fig. 42. - -[Illustration FIG. 40.] - -[Illustration FIG. 41.] - -[Illustration FIG. 42.] - -[Illustration FIG. 43.] - -[Illustration FIG. 44.] - -[Illustration FIG. 45.] - -Next, fasten the sides to the legs. Take the 10" board and mark and -saw off two pieces 5' 10" long in the same way as before (Fig. 43). At -distances of 7" and 12" from each end of each board, mark lines across -the side with the square and start nails between these lines (Fig. 44). -Then, fitting these lines at the outside edges of the legs, nail the -sides securely to the legs, as shown in Fig. 45. But drive only one -nail through into each leg at first, until you are sure that the frame -is coming together square and true throughout. Test the angles with the -square. Stand the frame on as level a surface as you can find and sight -across the top endways and crossways to see if either corner sticks up -or down. If the top is not true, twist the frame enough to make it so, -which you can easily do if you have but one nail in each corner. When -the top is true and the legs at right angles, drive in the rest of the -nails (Fig. 45). Be sure to test the top for winding, as just said (see -Part V.), rather than to trust to the way the legs stand on the floor. -Floors are often uneven, and the legs may not be cut exactly the same -length. Make the top true and the legs can easily be made to fit the -floor afterwards. The piece of 10" board left over you can fit to slip -in between the sides, as in Fig. 45. If you nail through the sides and -top into this piece, it will stiffen the bench. In making a long bench -after this pattern, it is well to insert a few pieces of plank or joist -between the sides in this manner. - -[Illustration FIG. 46.] - -[Illustration FIG. 47.] - -[Illustration FIG. 48.] - -Next, put on the top. Cut two lengths of 5' 10" from the 12" board. Lay -them in position, square lines across as guides for the nails (as -before), and nail them down to the legs and cross-boards. Also drive -carefully a few nails at the edge down into the sides of the bench. Sink -all the nail-heads well below the surface (as much as 1/8") with the -nail-set (see _Nail-Set_). - - * * * * * - -A better bench can be made by using a plank (say a 2" plank, planed) for -the front of the top (Figs. 46, 47, 48). This bench with plank front is -much better than the common carpenter's bench just described, and the -difference in expense is but slight. It is easier to do good work on, as -it is stiffer, steadier, and much better to pound on. - - * * * * * - -Of course a thicker plank can be used if available. Hard wood is best. -Maple is excellent for a bench-top. Take particular care to select a -good sound plank, from the centre of the tree if you can (see Chapter -III.), as straight and free from winding as possible, and have it planed -so as to be straight and true. This can easily be done at any properly -equipped planing-mill. - -To make this bench with a plank in front, you can proceed exactly as -with the bench just described, except that the front legs should be as -much shorter than those at the back as the plank you have is thicker -than the 7/8" board used for the top of the bench just described. That -is, if your plank is 1-7/8" thick the front legs should be 1" shorter -than the back ones. Pieces must be cut out of the cross-boards in order -that the top may be even (Fig. 46). - -The simplest way, however, is to make the bench just like the preceding -one until you come to the top. Then, after putting on the front plank, -raise the back top-board to be flush with the plank, instead of lowering -the plank to be flush with the board. You can do this by putting small -pieces of board of the required thickness under the back part of the top -(Fig. 47). - -Some workmen prefer having the back board of the bench top lower than -the front by an inch or so, with a strip fastened on the back, and -sometimes at each end, so as to be level with the top of the front -plank, thus forming a sort of tray (Fig. 48) where tools, nails, small -bits of work, etc., can remain when in use, keeping the front plank -clear for the actual operations. The work, if large, can be rested on -the back strip as well as the front part, both being on a level. - -The bench can be all filled up underneath with shelves, drawers, -cupboards, compartments, or in any way that you wish, but at first, and -for a simple bench like this, it is as well to have only one shelf, as -shown in the frontispiece. You can easily put this shelf in after the -bench is put together. You can tell better whether you want drawers and -compartments after you have worked for some time and wish to make a more -complete bench. - - * * * * * - -A nice bench should, of course, be built independently of the -shop,--that is, be complete in itself, so that it can be readily moved. -But a common bench can sometimes be best built against the wall, using -the side of the building to support the back. Sometimes one or both of -the ends of the bench can be advantageously carried to the walls of the -room, thus requiring legs only in the middle or at one end. But such -arrangements are not to be advised if you are likely to wish to move the -bench before you have used it enough to pay for making it. - -[Illustration FIG. 49.] - - * * * * * - -Figure 49 is merely suggestive. The process of construction is the same -as already shown, except that you omit some of the legs and the back -side-board, a saving sufficient to allow you to use a plank for the -front of the top. As the floor is likely to be uneven, you can first saw -the posts a little too long, stand them in line, stretch a cord or a -chalk-line (see _Chalk-Line_) along the line of the front edge of the -bench at the proper height for the tops of the posts, cut the posts off -where this line crosses them, nail on one end of the cross-boards at -right angles, and then fasten the other end to the wall-studding, -sighting and testing to have the top straight and true, as in the case -of the bench already described. If instead of vertical studding the -joists of the wall run horizontally (as is often the case), you can -easily nail cleats on the wall if there is no horizontal timber at the -right height to nail to. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration FIG. 50.] - - -=Bench-Vise.=--The kinds shown in Figs. 50, 56, 57, though not as good -as some more improved forms, are in common use by carpenters, and will -answer your purpose very well for ordinary work--until you get to the -point of building a first-class bench. - - * * * * * - -At a distance of about 14" from the end of the bench and in the middle -of the side board mark the point _a_ (Fig. 45). Bore a hole at this -point (see _Boring_) if you have a bit a trifle larger than the screw of -the vise. If not, using this point as a centre, describe a circle (see -_Compasses_) with a diameter a trifle greater than that of the vise -screw, and remove the wood within the circle (see _Boring_ and -_Paring_.) Now take the piece of 1-1/2" or 2" plank which is to make the -movable jaw of the vise, and mark a line lengthways along the centre of -each side (Fig. 51). At a distance of about 8" from one end mark a point -upon this centre line and make a hole for the vise screw as before. The -nut for the screw must now be fastened in position on the inner side of -the bench, the vise screw passed through the movable jaw and the side -board, and the handle plate fastened upon the face of the jaw. - -[Illustration FIG. 51.] - -[Illustration FIG. 52.] - -You can now open and close the vise by the screw, but the movable jaw -needs to be made steady and the end projects above the top of the bench. -Screw the vise tight together and slide the movable jaw around until it -is in the position shown in Fig. 52, when the centre line on the back -side of the jaw will cross the edge of the leg a few inches from the -floor, according to the width of the jaw and the degree of slant given -it. When the jaw is in this position, mark from the back side the lines -indicated in Fig. 52, and saw off the projecting ends of the jaw by -these lines, which will give the shape shown in Figs. 37 and 50. - -Next take the small strip, and marking points upon its side as shown in -Fig. 53, bore holes with a 3/8" or 1/2" bit. Screw the end of the strip -to the edge of the movable jaw (being careful to get it at right angles -with the vertical edge of the jaw), as shown in Figs. 50 and 53 (see -_Screws_). Just above and below where this strip crosses the post of the -bench nail small blocks (a trifle thicker than the strip) so that it -will pass easily between them. Cover these with a longer piece, making a -slot, as shown in Fig. 53, through which the strip can slide freely. If -the two blocks are no thicker than the strip, you can put pieces of -paste-board between them and the post to make the slot wide enough to -let the strip slide through freely. Fit a pin or piece of dowel to the -holes in the strip. The use of these holes and the pin is to keep the -face of the jaw approximately parallel to the side of the bench. -Contrivances for this purpose can be bought. After the jaw is all -fitted, bevel or round the edge on the face side at the top (see -_Bevelling_), and you can also bevel or round all the front edges if you -wish. The vise is now in working order.[16] - -[Illustration FIG. 53.] - -[Illustration FIG. 54. RIGHT.] - -[Illustration FIG. 55. WRONG.] - -[Illustration FIG. 56.] - -The important point with this vise (and in fact with any vise) is to -have the inside surface of the jaw parallel with the surface of the side -of the bench, so that the wood will be pressed equally at all points, -else it will slip just when you wish it to be securely held. Be sure -that the vise is not open more at the top than at the bottom (see Figs. -54 and 55). - -[Illustration FIG. 57.] - -[Illustration FIG. 58.] - -[Illustration FIG. 59.] - -The holes bored in the side of the bench are to support the end of a -long board (Fig. 50). - -If you cannot afford to buy a vise, or have to work where there is none, -there are a number of makeshifts with which you can get along quite -well, though not as rapidly or conveniently. - -Carpenters often nail a piece on the side of the bench (Fig. 60), which -holds boards for planing fairly well, for common work, but tends to -bruise the ends of the boards a little against the cleat, and requires a -knife, or something, driven in at the other end of the boards to hold -them with any degree of security. Another cheap substitute is shown in -Fig. 61. This holds boards of regular sizes quite well. Thin pieces can -be held tighter by wedging, as shown. - -[Illustration FIG. 60.] - -[Illustration FIG. 61.] - -[Illustration FIG. 62.] - -[Illustration FIG. 63.] - -Another simple contrivance, and more of a vise, is easily made by boring -a couple of holes in a board, say 6" wide and 12" long, and screwing it -loosely to the side of the bench (Fig. 62), making the holes in the -board larger than the diameter of the screws so that it will be free to -play. By inserting the piece to be held in the end and double wedging -the opposite end (Fig. 63) the piece will be held fairly well (see -_Wedges_). For thin boards, blocks can be inserted to make the jaw -parallel with the side of the bench. An upright vise made on this -principle is often used to hold saws for filing. - -If you can find an old wooden hand-screw, you can use one jaw (sawing -off the ends if necessary) for the nut to go inside of the bench, -leaving the other for the movable jaw, using one screw to tighten or -loosen the vise and the other to keep the jaw parallel with the side of -the bench. You will require no description to contrive something of -this sort. Vises on somewhat this principle can be bought, attachable -and detachable at will. - -[Illustration FIG. 64.] - -[Illustration FIG. 65.] - -The jaw in Fig. 64 can be hinged upon the strip at the bottom and the -latter fastened to the side of the bench. The jaw can then be tightened -or loosened by the screw. This gives a square grip only when the jaw is -vertical (Fig. 65). You can put in blocks, however. The longer the jaw -the less objectionable the slanting grip becomes, of course. - -Always try to devise some such expedients, which you can think up for -yourself, when you are without the regular appliances, for even a poor -vise is better than to hold pieces in the hand or to push them against -chairs or tables or the wall. - - * * * * * - -For nice work by far the _best vise of moderate cost_ is that shown in -Fig. 143, which has been in use for a long time by wood-workers of the -better class. - - * * * * * - -There are a number of excellent iron vises (some with jaws of wood, and -also with an "instantaneous grip"). Some of them are admirable, but -quite costly compared with the common screw. - -You can work quite well with a good-sized common iron vise by fitting -wooden blocks or leather or rubber to the inside of the jaws, to save -marring your wood-work, though a regular vise for wood is much to be -preferred. - - * * * * * - -Bear in mind when doing work that requires to be held at unusual angles, -or in fashioning odd-shaped pieces, that you can usually get the angle -or position required by a combination of hand-screws or clamps with the -bench-vise as suggested in Figs. 66 and 67. - -[Illustration FIG. 66.] - -[Illustration FIG. 67.] - -[Illustration FIG. 68.] - -[Illustration FIG. 69.] - -[Illustration FIG. 70.] - - -=Bench-Stop.=--You must have something on the forward end of the -bench-top to push your work against for planing and other operations. A -simple and good way is to use one or two stout screws (Fig. 68). These -can be screwed in so as to project about a quarter of an inch, which -will answer for the greater part of your work, and the height can be -changed when necessary with the screw-driver. The heads of the screws -will be sharp enough to hold the work, and a stop of this kind will -answer your purpose very well for common work. The wooden stop (Fig. 69) -has the advantage of not making any nicks in the end of the wood, which -is important in nice work, such as furniture, but for common work screws -are just as good, except that, as they are left permanently sticking -from the bench, you may dull your tools against them or scar your work. -This applies to a common bench. Of course for a really nice bench with a -tail-screw the regular stops should be used (Fig. 143). - - * * * * * - -Carpenters sometimes nail a small piece of board, with a V-shaped notch -at one end, to the top of the bench to hold boards or joist for planing -on the edge (Fig. 70). Simply nailing a strip across the end of the -bench (Fig. 71), and setting the nails well in, will do to push boards -against for planing for common work. - -[Illustration FIG. 71.] - -[Illustration FIG. 72.] - -[Illustration FIG. 73.] - -Iron contrivances (which can be raised or lowered) can be bought for a -small sum and are convenient for common work, especially for thin -pieces. Sink them deeply enough in the bench-top so that when lowered -nothing will project to injure the tools or the work. - -The old-fashioned bench-stop shown in Fig. 69 consists merely of a -square stick of hard wood, one or two inches square, fitted quite -tightly to a hole in the top of the bench, so that it will slide up or -down by a blow from the mallet or hammer. This stop will not damage the -work or the tools. To make the mortise for this bench-stop, see -_Mortising_. Take care to keep within the lines, so as not to make the -hole too big. You can easily make it larger if too small. - -The stop should fit tightly and should be set with a very slight slant -toward the work (Fig. 72),--that is, the mortise should be cut slightly -slanting. The stop should be of hard wood, such as maple. If the top of -the bench is only of board thickness, screw cleats of hard wood on the -under side to give more bearing surface (Fig. 73), or the continued -pushing against the stop will be liable to get the hole out of shape so -that the stop will slant the wrong way, when the work will be apt to -slip or, in case of a thin board, jump over the stop (Fig. 74). If the -stop wears loose in the hole, a saw kerf is sometimes made lengthways in -one side and a bent piece of springy wire inserted, or a flat spring -fastened on the side (Fig. 75). A loose stop can easily be wedged -(preferably from underneath), and it is sometimes made loose on -purpose, the wedging tightening the stop and at the same time giving the -required slant (Fig. 72). An iron plate with teeth can be screwed on top -of a wooden stop (Fig. 76), or a screw can be inserted (Fig. 77). - -[Illustration FIG. 74.] - -[Illustration FIG. 75.] - -[Illustration FIG. 76.] - -[Illustration FIG. 77.] - -Two strips, like Fig. 78, can be nailed or screwed on the top of the -bench so as to separate V-fashion (Fig. 79). Two wedges, like Fig. 80, -can then be made of such a taper that when fitted between the strips -their inner faces will be parallel. By tapping in the wedges on each -side of the work to be held (Fig. 79), it will be securely fastened -without injury. If the inside edges of the strips and the outside edges -of the wedges are slightly bevelled, which you can do with a plane or a -knife, the wedges cannot jump out of place. The best way to fit this -contrivance is to make the wedges first, place them in position on the -bench with the square sides inside (facing each other), and then fasten -the fixed strips outside of them. Pushing the work tends to tighten this -vise. This is much better for permanent use than the notched board shown -in Fig. 70. If you have a good vise you will not often have occasion to -use such contrivances, but they are sometimes useful as makeshifts. - -[Illustration FIG. 78.] - -[Illustration FIG. 79.] - - * * * * * - -The top of a good bench should be as true and as smooth as possible (see -_Plane_ and _Scraper_). Rub it with linseed oil, wipe it off with a rag, -and after a few days give it a couple of coats of shellac (see -_Finishing_). - -[Illustration FIG. 80.] - -You should place your bench so that when you stand at it you will face -the light and not have it come from behind you. If it can come from the -forward end of the bench and also from behind the bench, as shown in the -frontispiece, it will be best, for a cross-light is often very useful, -not merely that you may have light enough, but also that when testing -your work with the try-square, straight-edge, and the like, any -inaccuracy may be detected by the light passing through the crack -between the testing tool and the work, and also when sighting by the eye -alone. Fasten the bench firmly to the floor (and wall if you can) with -screws, cleats, or L irons.[17] - -Avoid chopping on the bench top or whittling it or boring holes or -marring it by saw-cuts or chisel-marks. Do not use paint, varnish, or -glue at the bench if you can help it. If necessary to do so, clean the -bench-top carefully when you get through. Lumps of hardened glue will -hinder you and deface your work. - -[Illustration FIG. 81.] - - -=Filing-Bench.=--You cannot do much of such varied wood-work as you will -undertake without having to do a good deal of metal work. It is a poor -plan to do such work at the vise you use for your wood-work, or even at -the same bench. It scars and defaces the wooden vise and the bench, and -the particles of metal are bad for your wood-work and for the tools. It -is much better to have another bench--if nothing more than a wide shelf -or a box--for such work (Fig. 81). You will find suggestions in the -illustrations. - -An _iron_ vise is the proper thing for holding metal. There are many -different kinds at various prices, but one of the simple patterns will -probably answer every purpose. If you have room for only one bench this -vise can be put at the back part of one end. - -[Illustration FIG. 82.] - -[Illustration FIG. 83.] - -[Illustration FIG. 84.] - -A small vise can be made of a hand-screw, the hand-screw itself being -held in any desired position in the large bench-vise, but metal jaws are -better for working on metal. You can make a rough sort of vise for -metal-work with a piece of stout board or plank (Fig. 82). Find a couple -of pieces of iron with screw holes, as you can probably do in a pile of -waste iron junk, and screw them on the board and the bench to form metal -jaws. The vise can be tightened or loosened by means of a big screw or -bolt; or the board can be loosely fastened in the middle and tightened -by wedging below (Fig. 83). A screw with a handle to turn it by and a -nut for the thread is better, of course. Another form, such as you will -find in use by leather-workers, can be easily made (Fig. 84), and works -with the foot, the connection between the jaw and the treadle being made -by a strap or rope. You can make a vise in some of these ways that will -answer quite well for most of the metal-work you will have to do for -some time, although such contrivances are less reliable and less -convenient than a regular iron vise. - -An _anvil_ is often useful and is sometimes combined with a vise. It -should have a flat steel surface and also a tapering rounded (conical) -point. An old flat-iron does quite well. You can easily find some way to -keep it in position on the filing-bench. You should have some sort of -anvil, even if nothing better than a junk of old iron (which you can of -course find somewhere), for you will be continually wanting to -straighten nails, bend wire, and pound pieces of metal. Try to find a -flat plate of thick sheet iron--1/4" thick if you can--to fasten on the -top of the filing-bench (Fig. 81). It is very handy for many anvil -uses, straightening metal and nails, and for much pounding. - - -=Finishing-Bench.=--Have also a finishing-bench (Fig. 91) if -possible,--if nothing more than a shelf or box,--to keep the regular -work-bench neat and clean for its proper uses, for even a skilful -workman can hardly avoid making a mess when it comes to using paint and -varnish. - - * * * * * - -Now, while there are many of you who can afford either singly or by two -or three clubbing together to fix up a shop in first-rate style, there -are also many who cannot afford even so cheap a bench as that just -described. What can you do in such a case? Only one thing--patch up a -bench out of whatever old stuff you can find. Patched-up makeshifts are -not to be recommended, except in case of necessity, but when it comes to -the pinch, and a matter of having a bench made of whatever old materials -you can find or having no bench at all, by all means make one of boxes -and anything that can be worked in. For of course the boats, skis, -squirrel-houses, and so on, _must_ be made! - -But, whatever you patch up, make it solid and strong. Do not try to work -at a rickety, shackly apology for a bench that shakes and jumps and -sidles all over the room every time you saw or pound or plane. You can -probably get all you need in the way of boxes, packing-cases, and such -material, at very little or no expense. The illustrations (Figs. 85 and -86) are merely suggestions, for you must use your own ingenuity, -according to the materials you can find. Most experienced workmen have -often been obliged to work at much worse benches than these, frequently -with no bench at all. - -[Illustration FIG. 85.] - -[Illustration FIG. 86.] - - * * * * * - -Those of the boxes which you do not use whole you should take apart -carefully (see _Withdrawing Nails_). This will add to your supply of -nails. Use nails freely in fastening the boxes and boards together and -to the wall or floor wherever allowable. A few screws will add much -strength. - -The bench shown in Fig. 86 calls for one good board for the front of the -top. - - * * * * * - -Some of you live in the crowded parts of the city, in flats or small -houses where there is no possible chance for a shop of any kind. -Whatever wood-work you can do must be carried on in the kitchen, or some -other living-room, where even a small bench may be out of the question. -Still you would like to make such small work--model boats, for -instance--as can be carried on in such limited quarters. If you are -forced to use the kitchen table for a bench, try, for the first thing, -to brace or block or screw it to make it steady, for unsteadiness is the -greatest hindrance to doing good work at such a bench. - -[Illustration FIG. 87.] - -[Illustration FIG. 88.] - - * * * * * - -You can fit a good board to the table-top with cleats, and a stop to -hold the work (Fig. 87). If you can now get a common iron vise, you can -get along quite well for small work, and the board and attachments can -be quickly taken off and put away when the table is needed for domestic -purposes. You can easily contrive some way to attach wooden pieces or -leather or rubber to the inside of the jaws of the vise, to save marring -your wood-work. A fairly good bench can often be made from an old table -(as a kitchen table) by screwing a plank on top and a board on the front -side, and bracing the legs (Fig. 88). The plank should be screwed on -from underneath. - -If you can get hold of an old bureau or chest of drawers you can arrange -a serviceable and compact little "parlour shop" for small work. If you -cannot fasten permanent attachments to the bureau, you can fit a -removable board (Fig. 87), and you will be equipped for such work as can -be suitably done under such circumstances--and that includes quite a -long list of small things. The drawers can be fitted with compartments -and trays, according to what you have to keep in them and your own -ingenuity, but make the arrangement _simple_. Figs. 89 and 90 are merely -suggestions. - -[Illustration FIG. 89.] - -[Illustration FIG. 90.] - - * * * * * - -The best way to arrange your tools and supplies depends somewhat upon -the circumstances, but the main point is to have the _most convenient_ -place for each thing and always to _keep_ it in that place when not in -use. The first part of this proposition is almost as important as the -last. It is nearly as bad as being disorderly to keep the glue-pot in -one corner of the shop, the glue in another corner, the glue-brush in -the third corner, and the water in the fourth,--which is no exaggeration -of the way some very orderly people stow away things, and is about equal -to the arrangement of the person, of whom you may have heard, who always -kept everything in its place and that place the floor! The workshop -interior shown in the frontispiece and in Figs. 91 and 92, and the -various other illustrations, furnish suggestions which may help you in -the arrangement of your shop. - -[Illustration FIG. 91.] - -Have everything where you can lay your hand on it in the least possible -time, the tools used the most the nearest to you, tools that go -together, as bit-brace and bits, kept near together. Have all the common -tools right within reach, and not put away in chests and out-of-the-way -drawers, just because you have seen somebody pack away his tools in a -highly polished chest, inlaid with forty kinds of wood, and containing -ninety-three separate compartments and trays and seven secret drawers, -the whole cornered and strapped and decorated with shining nickel plate! -Do not be dazzled by that sort of thing, which is not an evidence of -true system and orderliness, but merely shows poor taste and a great -lack of appreciation of the value and importance of time. Time may not -be exactly money in your case, but it may be even more valuable, and -can be spent much better than in running around after tools and -supplies, and making ingenious tool-chests. To be practical, five -minutes a day saved by having things convenient and in place means about -_twenty-five hours_ in a year--which means a boat, a sled, or a lot of -Christmas presents. So study out the best arrangement for your -particular shop and then keep things in order. When working keep only -the tools in actual use lying around on the bench. As soon as you are -done with a tool for the operations actually in hand, put it back in -place, and so avoid the confused litter seen in so many shops. - -[Illustration FIG. 92.] - -Hang _saws_ against the wall on pegs, or nails, or at the end of the -bench. Hang all tools which you put on the wall well above the bench, to -be out of the way. - -Lay _planes_ on their sides or ends, for obvious reasons, or arrange a -little block to raise one end of the plane slightly from the surface of -the bench or shelf. The last way is usually more convenient than to lay -the plane on its side or end. Keep planes either at the back of the -bench or against the wall, or on a shelf under the front of the bench. - -Such tools as _squares_, _bit-braces_, and the like are usually most -accessible on the wall, in some such arrangement as shown in the -frontispiece. A convenient way to arrange such tools as _chisels_, -_gouges_, and the like, is to keep them in racks either against the wall -or fastened to the back edge of the bench, according to circumstances. -Keep each tool in a particular place in the rack and you will soon learn -to reach for it instinctively without any waste of time. - -[Illustration FIG. 93.] - -_Bits_ can be kept in a drawer or box, care being taken to arrange them -in racks or between partitions, or they can be stuck on end in the racks -at the back of the bench. A good way is to stick each bit point -downwards in a hole bored by itself. Various forms of _tool-racks_, -which you can easily arrange for yourself, are suggested in Fig. 93. - -[Illustration FIG. 94.] - - * * * * * - -Fig. 94 shows a rack to fit on the back of the bench, an excellent way, -in common use with movable benches. Get a board, say 3" or 4" wide and -the length of the bench, a strip from 1/4" to 1/2" thick, perhaps 1" -wide, and the length of the bench, and a strip 1/2" thick, perhaps 1" -wide, and perhaps two thirds of the length of the bench. Saw from this -last strip a number of blocks from 1" to 2" long. Arrange these along -the top edge of the board, according to the kinds and sizes of the -tools, as shown in Fig. 95. Then lay the long strip on them (Fig. 96) -and nail it through each block with wire nails long enough to reach -perhaps two thirds through the large strip. You can put this rack -together by first nailing at each end. Then all the intermediate blocks -can easily be fitted in place and nailed one at a time. The whole can -then be screwed to the back of the bench so that the tools will be at -the back (Fig. 94). You can make part of this rack solid and bore small -holes of various sizes for bits, gimlets, nail-sets, and such tools, -which would drop through the larger spaces. Good metal tool-racks and -holders can be bought, but the home-made ones answer every purpose. - -[Illustration FIG. 95.] - -[Illustration FIG. 96.] - -[Illustration FIG. 97.] - -[Illustration FIG. 98.] - - * * * * * - -The large _steel square_ can be hung very well with nails or small -blocks of wood bevelled toward the wall (Fig. 97). For the _try-square_ -nail a rectangular block against the wall (Fig. 98). A smaller block -nailed in front will hold another smaller square. Slanting saw-kerfs in -another block will hold _scrapers_ (Fig. 99). Always keep your -_oil-stones_ in shallow boxes for protection from dirt. You can easily -make one, or cut a depression in a block to fit the stone, with another -for a cover. Fasten one end of your _strop_ to a strip of thin board -(Fig. 100) with a hole by which to hang it. You can then use the strop -lying flat on the board or loose in your hand for curved edges. - -[Illustration FIG. 99.] - -[Illustration FIG. 100.] - -Do not keep _nails_ and _screws_ after the usual domestic fashion,--all -sizes, shapes, and kinds mixed up promiscuously with a lot of metal -rubbish and carpet tacks in some old box or pail. You will waste twice -as much time trying to find what you want as it takes to keep them in -separate boxes, or trays with divisions. A good way is to use either -small open boxes or flat open boxes with divisions, so that they can be -reached as conveniently as possible. Tin boxes or canisters or pails (of -various sizes), such as cocoa, coffee, lard, and such substances come -in, are good. Put labels on them and arrange them neatly in some -accessible place, as on a shelf over or at the end of your bench, or in -a cupboard or a drawer. - -Keep scrap boxes for old pieces of metal (iron, brass, etc., in separate -boxes), so that you will know just where to look for what you want. Keep -a brush for cleaning off the bench and the work, a broom for the floor, -and a box for shavings, sawdust, and chips. - -Any workman is liable to cut or pound his fingers, so have a small box -in a handy place with some neatly rolled bandages of cloth, some -surgeon's plaster, and a bottle of witch-hazel (_hamamelis_) or some -other preparation for cuts or bruises. In case of a bruise, or if you -pound your nail, put your finger at once in as hot water as you can -bear. Do not, as is often done, put glue on a cut, because of danger of -infection, for the glue is made, as you know, from animal refuse and is -not always in a pure state. - -Do not leave oily rags lying around in your shop to get wadded into a -pile in some corner and catch fire by spontaneous combustion. Either put -them in the stove at once, or, if you want to keep a few, put them in a -stone jar or covered tin box. Matches should always be kept in a -covered metal box in a wood-working shop. - -Lay in a supply of strips, waste junks, and odd pieces of wood, which -you can usually get at any shop at little or no expense. They will be -very useful until you accumulate a stock from your own work. - -=Chopping-Block.=--A good solid chopping-block is a great convenience, -so watch for a chance to get a section of a tree, which you can often do -when one is felled. - -=Straight-Edge.=--You should have at least one; two are very useful--one -two or three feet long and another five or six feet long. Making them is -simply a matter of skill in planing. When you can plane well enough make -some yourself of well seasoned, straight-grained white pine or mahogany, -or other wood which holds its shape well. Until you can do it -_accurately_, however, get some good workman to make one, for a -straight-edge that cannot be relied on is really worse than none at all. -(See _Straight-edge._) - -=Bench-Hook.=--The bench-hook (Fig. 101) is very useful to hold work -firmly for sawing, planing, etc., and also saves some marring of the -bench-top. Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, -_Square_, _Saw_, and _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other -references. - -[Illustration FIG. 101.] - -[Illustration FIG. 102.] - -[Illustration FIG. 103.] - -Take a board, say 15" long x 6" wide, of some good wood like white pine, -making both ends square. The surface should be planed true (see _Truing -Surfaces_). With the square mark the line _a b_ (Fig. 102) accurately, -say 2" (or the width of any blocks you may already have for the end -cleats) from each end, but on opposite sides. The cleats _c_ (Fig. 101) -must be true and the edges square. Bore the holes in the cleats with a -bit a little _larger_ than the screws (see _Boring_). Hold the cleats -exactly in place at the cross-line _a b_ and start holes in the board -with a gimlet or bit a little _smaller_ than the screws. Countersink the -holes (see _Countersink_). Use screws long enough to get a good hold on -the board but not long enough to go through it. If board and cleat are -each 7/8" thick, 1-1/2" screws will be suitable. Screw _one_ of the -middle screws in each cleat firmly to a bearing (see _Screws_), keeping -the cleat as nearly on the line as possible. Adjust each cleat exactly -in place, in case it has slipped, hold it firmly, and drive the -remaining screws. Before screwing on one of the cleats mark a line -around it in the middle with the square, as shown in Fig. 103, marking -first across the edge _o_ (against which the work is to be pressed), -from that line squaring across the top, and then across the outer edge. -After this cleat is screwed on, carefully saw it in two exactly on the -line. By letting the saw run in the kerf thus made, you can cut pieces -off square. Sometimes one cleat is made shorter, so that you can saw -clear through a piece without damage to the bench (Fig. 104). See -_Mitre-board_, page 92. Two bench-hooks are useful for long work. - -[Illustration FIG. 104.] - - * * * * * - -=Horses or Trestles.=--These are to lay stock on for marking and -sawing, to put large work together on, and are convenient for various -uses (Fig. 105). - -[Illustration FIG. 105.] - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, and -_Saw_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -The proper height for your horses, as for the bench, depends somewhat on -your own height, and may be anywhere from 18" to 2' 3". Experiment with -boxes to find the most convenient height. If too low, you will have to -stoop over too much. If too high, it will be awkward to rest your knee -on a board, to saw, and to fit work together. - -[Illustration FIG. 106.] - -If you have a piece of fairly good joist, from 1-1/2" x 3" to 3" x 6", -you can use it for the tops of your horses. Saw off two pieces from 2' -to 3' long. Mark the best sides for the top. Mark each end like Fig. 106 -(showing top and bottom) with the pencil, measuring carefully so that -the bevel or slant will be the same for both legs (see _Bevel_). Holding -the work in the vise, with saw alone or saw and chisel remove the pieces -marked, so that the end will have the shape shown in Fig. 107. If you -use the chisel, look out for the direction of the grain at each corner -and cut well outside of the line, until you find which way to push the -tool in each case (see _Paring_, etc.). Trim these cuts as accurately to -the lines as you can. Get out eight pieces for legs, of such a length -that the horses will be of the height decided on. First make them all of -a width, then saw one piece off the right length and mark the others by -it--not each new piece by the one last marked. Nail or screw these legs -in place with 2" nails or 1-3/4" screws, keeping the inner edges of the -tops of the legs even with the tops of the horses (Fig. 108). See -_Nailing_ and _Screws_, and look out for splitting. Get out the -cross-braces of board and saw the ends at a bevel to correspond with the -slant intended for the legs. See that the ends of these cross-braces are -cut at the same bevel. Use the bevel if you have one. If not, first -square each end with the square and pencil, and then measure carefully -equal distances on one edge before drawing the slanting lines (Fig. -109). Nail or screw these on (Fig. 110), adjusting the legs to the -bevels just cut. Saw or plane off the projecting ends of the legs on -top. If you plane, do so both ways to avoid splintering (see _Plane_). - -[Illustration FIG. 107.] - -[Illustration FIG. 108.] - -[Illustration FIG. 109.] - -[Illustration FIG. 110.] - -[Illustration FIG. 111.] - -Now stand the horses on their legs (Fig. 111). If they _should_ happen -to stand firmly and evenly, see first if it is not due to unevenness of -the floor. If the floor is true, and they stand steadily in different -positions, you can throw up your caps, for you will have beaten the -average workman. To make them stand evenly, see _Scribing_, -_Winding-sticks_, etc., in Part V. Make the tops of the horses as smooth -as you can. Scrape them and _keep_ them scraped (see _Scraper_), for you -will be continually dropping glue or varnish on them, to harden and -deface your nice, smooth work. Wipe them off as carefully as the -bench-top. These easily made horses will answer your purpose for a long -time.[18] - -[Illustration FIG. 112.] - -[Illustration FIG. 113.] - -[Illustration FIG. 114.] - -[Illustration FIG. 115.] - - * * * * * - -=Mitre-Box.=--Great care is necessary to make an accurate wooden -mitre-box (Fig. 116), although the process is simple. Do not make it of -spruce or any wood liable to warp or twist. Pine or mahogany is good. -Use stock from a middle board if you can (see Chapter III.). A mitre-box -can be of any desired size. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -and _Plane_, and look up any other references. - -A good size is from 1' to 2' long and from 3" to 6" square (inside), -according to the work for which it is to be used, and of stock 7/8" -thick. The pieces must be prepared with care, so that the edges shall be -square and the surfaces true, particularly on the inside, for when the -box is put together the sides must be parallel and square throughout -with the bottom, on the _inside_. Test each piece with the square. Use -care in screwing the sides to the bottom to keep them exactly in place -(see _Screws_). Nails can be used, but screws are better. Lay out the -lines for the sawing from the _inside_, with the steel square if you -have one, or with the end of the tongue of the try-square. Mark the line -_a_ on the inside of the side _x_ (Fig. 117), squaring from the bottom. -Mark the point _b_ at a distance from _a_ just equal to the distance -between the sides. Square a line at this point from the bottom, on the -inside as before. Carry this line across to the side _y_, squaring from -the inner surface of the side _x_, and mark the point _c_ on the inner -side of the side _y_. Also from the point _c_ draw a vertical line on -the inside of _y_ corresponding to the line _a_. Carefully mark the line -_g h_, which will give the mitre. The lines should be laid out from the -inside, because it is against the inside surfaces that the pieces to be -cut in the mitre-box will bear. - -[Illustration FIG. 116.] - -[Illustration FIG. 117.] - -[Illustration FIG. 118.] - -Another way is to square a line _m n_ (Fig. 118) across the top side of -the bottom piece, before putting together, and to lay off from one end -of this line a point _o_ on the edge, at a distance equal to the width -of the bottom, thus fixing the points _m_, _n_, and _o_. Next fasten on -the sides, square upright lines on the inside of one side from the point -_m_ and on the inside of the other side from the point _o_. The diagonal -line _pq_ (Fig. 119) will represent the mitre. - -[Illustration FIG. 119.] - -[Illustration FIG. 120.] - -The cuts for the saw to run in should be made with a back-saw or a -panel-saw. In a similar manner square on the inside two upright lines -opposite each other, draw a line across the tops of the sides to meet -these lines (squaring from the inside as before), and make a saw-cut, as -shown by the middle line in Fig. 116. This will be very useful to saw -strips squarely across. You can put buttons on the outside near the -lower edge to catch against the front edge of the bench-top if you wish, -or use the mitre-box on the bench-hooks when necessary to hold it -firmly. - -[Illustration FIG. 121.] - -A very useful _mitre-board_ for sawing strips, mouldings, and the like, -can be made with two short boards, one wider than the other, being sure -that the surfaces and edges are true and square (Fig. 120). This can be -of any size. A good size is from 1' to 2' long, 6" wide (in all), and of -stock 7/8" thick, but it is better to make the narrow piece thicker, -perhaps 1-1/4" or 1-3/4". Mark the lines first on the bottom of the -narrow piece, then on the edges, and lastly on the top, as with the -mitre-box just shown, to ensure the lines being at the correct angles -with the surfaces against which the wood to be sawed will rest. An -excellent plan is to make saw-kerfs for mitres in the cleat of a -bench-hook (Fig. 121), in the way just shown. - -[Illustration FIG. 122.] - -[Illustration FIG. 123.] - - * * * * * - -=Shooting-Board.=--This is useful for squaring edges and small surfaces -and ends with the plane, and for jointing edges, the plane being pushed -forward on its side (see _Shooting-board_, in Part V.). It can be of any -wood which holds its shape well. Clear white pine or mahogany is good. -If carelessly made it will be of but little use. The stock must be -planed free from winding. Several forms are shown in Figs. 122, 123, and -124. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. The construction -is plain (Fig. 122). Approximate dimensions are given, Fig. 122 being -made of 7/8" stock, Fig. 123 of 1/2" and 1/4" stock, and Fig. 124 of -7/8" stock. Screw the pieces together from the under side (see -_Screws_). See that the stop or cleat _a_ is put on at right angles to -the edge _b_. Mark the lines for this accurately with knife or chisel. A -groove is sometimes cut for this stop, but this is a refinement that is -not at all necessary if you do your work well. This board must have a -rabbet or groove cut out of the upper piece, as shown, to give room for -shavings. In Fig. 123 the top board overlaps the ends of the cleats a -trifle, which (with the spaces between the cleats) allows the escape of -the shavings. Arrange some way to hold the board firmly on the bench. -Care is necessary in using the shooting-board not to plane slices from -your left hand. Guides, to attach to the plane to ensure square edges, -can be bought and used instead of the shooting-board. Some of them are -serviceable, particularly those adjustable at various angles. - -[Illustration FIG. 124.] - -[Illustration FIG. 125.] - -A _mitre shooting-board_ (Fig. 125) is also useful. It requires to be -made with even more care than the board just given, but on the same -principle. The angular stop or stops must be fitted to make the angles -exactly 45 deg.. A sawed mitre holds glue better than a planed mitre, but -sawed mitres often require trimming with the plane to get a perfect fit. - -=Form for Rounding Sticks.=--You will be continually wanting to make -sticks eight-sided or round. A form to hold the pieces for planing is a -great convenience. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Gauge_, _Plane_, and -_Nailing_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -[Illustration FIG. 126.] - -[Illustration FIG. 127.] - -[Illustration FIG. 128.] - -[Illustration FIG. 129.] - -Take two strips and plane off (or even chisel or whittle) one corner of -each, first gauging lines equidistant from the corner for a guide. Then -nail the two strips together, with the bevels facing each other, to make -a trough as shown in Fig. 126. Put a screw in one end to push the work -against, push the form against the bench-stop or screw it in the vise, -put the piece to be "cornered" or rounded in the V-shaped trough, and it -will be firmly held with the angle upward. Two or three of these for -larger and smaller pieces will be very useful. They are quickly made of -waste strips. If you think 2' the right length for one of these forms, -for instance, make it a foot or so longer, and after it is made saw off -the extra length in one or two pieces, which will serve as an extension -for holding a long stick (Fig. 127). If your bench has wooden -bench-stops you can make some stops with notches in the top (Fig. 128) -for this purpose. - -For making pieces tapering, as well as eight-sided or rounding, you have -only to modify this idea by planing off the corners in a tapering way -(Fig. 129). See _Rounding Sticks_. - -=Level and Plumb.=--Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, -_Rule_, _Square_, _Gauge_, _Saw_, and _Plane_, in Part V. - -To make a plumb like Fig. 130, take a piece of straight wood from 3" to -5" wide and 4' or 5' long with the edges straight and parallel. Gauge a -line down the middle of the side, exactly parallel to the edges, and cut -the notch shown at the bottom. Make a saw-kerf at the upper end of the -line and another beside it in which to catch the end of the line, or -fasten the line around a nail. (See _Plumb_.) - -[Illustration FIG. 130.] - -[Illustration FIG. 131.] - -To make the level shown in Fig. 131, it is essential that the bottom -board _c d_ be straight on the lower edge. The two braces _a c_ and _a -d_ should be of the same length. The strut _a b_ should be nailed across -at the middle of _c d_ and at right angles to it. The essential thing is -to have the line _a b_ exactly at right angles to _c d_, the object of -the braces _a c_ and _a d_ being to stiffen the board _c d_, and to keep -the lines _a b_ and _c d_ at right angles to each other. The plumb-line -is hung and used as in the case just given, the board _c d_ being used -for horizontal work. (See _Level_.) - -=Cabinets, etc., for Tools and Supplies.=--A tool-chest, though a very -convenient (and in fact necessary) thing for a workman who is moving -around from place to place or who needs a safe receptacle in which to -lock his tools in a factory, is not at all necessary in a private shop, -nor half as convenient as to have the tools where they can be more -readily reached. It is quite a piece of work to make a good one, and it -will be better to defer such a job until you feel the need. - -An old case of drawers, or bureau, or cupboard, or some such receptacle, -if you can find one, will be useful in your shop. A bureau, in fact, -makes a good tool-cabinet or substitute for a tool-chest, but if you -keep tools in drawers make compartments, trays, or divisions, else the -edge-tools may be damaged, not to speak of the inevitable confusion. - -You do not need a tool-cabinet for half a dozen tools, but when they -begin to accumulate it is a good thing to have and a good thing to make, -if there is occasion to keep your tools locked up or if you have limited -room. Otherwise it is just as well to keep the common tools as already -shown. A cabinet is fully as useful for miscellaneous articles like -brads, hinges, etc., as for tools. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, _Nailing_, and _Screws_, and look up any other references. - -[Illustration FIG. 132.] - -Perhaps you can find a good box, wide and shallow, all made, or if deep -you can saw off part to make it shallow (Fig. 132). This will answer -perfectly for a shop. For the house you would of course make a cupboard -of new wood. The size must depend on circumstances. Get two boards for -doors that will just cover the open side of the box, unless the box -cover will do, which is unlikely. If the edges are not good you must -allow extra width for jointing. Lay these boards in position and mark -the lengths (on the side next the box) by the box itself, not with the -square, for the box may not be square. From the lines just made mark the -edges with the square, and, with the straight-edge, connect these edge -marks by lines on the face sides. Saw off by these lines. Mark the box -and each door in some way (Fig. 133), as "top," and "R" (for right) and -"L" (for left), or by marks, as X, O, #, etc., to prevent finally -putting them on wrong side out or wrong end up, as is very likely to -happen if you neglect to mark them. - -[Illustration FIG. 133.] - -[Illustration FIG. 134.] - -[Illustration FIG. 135.] - -[Illustration FIG. 136.] - -Now for hinges. The best thing, on account of the weight to be hung on -the doors and the poor quality of the wood generally used for boxes, -will be iron strap-hinges made for work of this sort, screwed on the -outside (Fig. 134). Two will do for each door. Next to this come the -common iron hinges. If the sides of the box are thick and firm, three of -the common long and narrow kind (Fig. 135) will do for each door. If the -sides are thin and flimsy, nail or screw a strip inside of each edge and -use wider and shorter hinges (Fig. 136). To fit the hinges, see -_Hinges_. The doors being hung, take them off while fitting up the case. -Gauge a pencil line around the outer edge and each end of the inside -surface of each door, where it fits against the edge of the box, as a -limit beyond which racks or tools must not project or the door will not -shut (Fig. 137). - -[Illustration FIG. 137.] - -The fitting up of the cupboard must depend on its size and what and how -many tools or supplies are to be kept in it. Shelves you can simply make -of the right size and nail into place from the outside, using the rule -and square to get them in the right positions. The illustrations are -merely suggestions which you can alter or improve upon to suit your -particular case. Fig. 138 shows another form, and Fig. 139 a small -cabinet with one door, with suggestions for the arrangement of the -tools, but the matter of fitting up you must, of course, contrive for -yourselves, according to the circumstances. Do not attempt to put -full-width drawers into these wide, shallow cabinets, as is often done. -It takes an expert to fit drawers that are wide and short (from front to -back) and they are not always satisfactory even then. If you wish -drawers, either put in a row of narrow ones, or use the simple device -described below (Figs. 141 and 142), and shown in Fig. 139. (See -_Drawers_ in Part V.) - -[Illustration FIG. 138.] - -[Illustration FIG. 139.] - -To fasten the doors you can hook one on the inside and put a button -(which you can whittle out) on the outside to hold the other. If you -wish to lock, hook one door inside and lock the other to it (see -_Locks_). A padlock with staples and iron strap is easier to put on. To -make a cupboard of boards instead of using a box, you simply make a box -yourself (see _Box-making_ in Part II.) and then proceed as above. - -[Illustration FIG. 140.] - -Fig. 140 shows a good form of cabinet. Make a tight box, perhaps 2' x 3' -x 6" to 9", the sides and ends of 7/8" stock, and the top and bottom -(_i.e._, the front and back of the cabinet) of 1/2" stock. Saw it open -carefully on the line _a b c_ about 2" or 3" from the top or face, -according to the thickness of the box, first marking the ends or the -sides so that you can finally put them together again in the same -positions. When nailing the box together omit all nails which could -interfere with the sawing. They can easily be put in afterwards. (See -_Box-making_, in Part II.) Carefully smooth the edges after the saw. -Reckless and hasty planing will spoil the joint. Fit two strap-hinges, -or three of the common kind. Fit up inside as you wish, and fasten with -hasp, padlock, or a lock working on the principle of a chest lock. - -All these cabinets must be firmly fastened to the wall, for they will be -very heavy when filled. Do not trust to a couple of nails or screws, the -way amateurs so often put up shelves and cabinets in the house. A ledge -of some sort below is a great help (Fig. 140) to relieve the screws or -nails of the weight. If the back is not very strong, do not trust wholly -to it, but add cleats outside or inside. If in the house, stout -screw-eyes of heavy wire in the sides of the cabinet, through which you -can screw to the wall, are good (Fig. 140). - -Good shelves can be made by arranging empty boxes one on top of another, -or by taking a wide, thin (flat) box and fitting shelves across it, like -a bookcase, and then fastening the whole to the wall. - -A small drawer can be fixed under a shelf, anywhere in your shop, on the -principle often used in sewing-machine tables and the like, by taking a -small box of suitable shape, strengthening one corner if necessary (Fig. -141), and pivoting it with a screw at that corner (Fig. 142). - -[Illustration FIG. 141.] - -[Illustration FIG. 142.] - - * * * * * - -=First-class Bench.=--You can do all the work you will be equal to for a -long time on such a bench as has been shown, but some day you will want -a first-class bench, such as Fig. 143. Do not attempt anything of the -sort at first, however, though if you can afford it, such a bench is -good to begin with. A few details are given in the Appendix. - -[Illustration FIG. 143.] - -=Other Appliances.=--A number of other appliances and contrivances will -be found, under their respective headings, in Part V. - - - A FEW ESSENTIALS TO SUCCESSFUL WORK - - _Do one thing at a time. Finish one job before you start two or - three others._ - - _First learn to work well, then ability to work quickly will come of - itself._ - - _Plan your work to the end before beginning to use your tools._ - - _Make drawings carefully to scale before beginning any but the - simplest work._ - - _Lay out the work carefully on the wood with sharp, accurate lines, - according to the drawings, measuring everything with exactness at - least twice._ - - _Cut the work accurately with sharp tools to the lines you have laid - out._ - - _Keep testing the accuracy of the work with the square, - straight-edge, rule, level, or plumb._ - - _Keep your tools sharp and in good order._ - - _Have the most convenient place for each tool and always keep it in - that place when not in use._ - - _Do your work thoroughly and strongly. Do not half make it. Do not - half fasten it together. The only time you will regret thorough work - is when you have to take it apart again._ - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[14] If you can afford to buy one ready made, you cannot do better than -to begin with such as are sold for sloyd or manual-training schools, but -do not get a very small one unless you are only going to do very small -work. Get one as large as you can afford. A second-hand bench can often -be bought for a small sum, but be sure that it is firm and steady. - -[15] The reason for making this bench 5' 10" long, instead of cutting a -12' board into two lengths of 6' each, is that it is hard to get boards -sound and square at the ends, and so it is best to allow a few inches -for waste. Of course your bench can be of any desired length. Six or -eight feet is suitable for ordinary work, but there is no objection to -making it as much longer as your space and material will admit. The -height should bear a proper relation to the height of the workman. No -definite height can be given. Try moving a plane back and forth. If -your right elbow, when holding the plane, is slightly bent and your back -about straight, the height will be not far from right. Do a little -simple work at a table, trying different heights, and you can soon tell -what will be satisfactory. If the bench is too low, you cannot manage -your work well and your back will get tired from bending over, not to -speak of becoming round-shouldered. If the bench is too high, it will be -hard to manage your work, you cannot plane well, and your arms will be -tired from holding them up unnaturally high. A bench for heavy work like -carpentry is usually rather lower than one for cabinet- or -pattern-making, while a carver's bench is usually higher. - -[16] This vise is fitted slanting, so that the slide at the bottom -comes on the outside of the leg and at the same time in the centre -line of the movable jaw in line with the screw. A common form has the -movable jaw upright, the sliding bar being mortised into it and sliding -through a mortise cut in the leg, as shown in Figs. 56 and 57. If you -wish to make this kind, study _Mortising_, in Part V., and lay out -and cut the mortise in the leg before nailing the cross-board to it -(Figs. 41 and 42). This is the most difficult part of the bench to make -nicely, and you can spend a good deal of pains upon it. If you have -not yet the proper tools to make this mortise you can mark it out and -have it cut for a very small sum at a wood-working mill or shop. When -nailing the cross-board upon the legs, bear in mind to put this leg in -the right place. Fig. 58 shows a simple arrangement with an additional -post, or two posts can be put together and one half the notching done -in each (Fig. 59). - -[17] In case your bench is in the house and you wish to deaden the sound -and vibration from your work you can put rubber cushions under the legs. - -[18] Fig. 112 shows a nicer pair of horses. Take two pieces of pine, or -any wood not likely to warp, 2" x 3" (or 4") x 2-1/2' or 3', mark with -rule, square, and gauge (see _Gauge_), and cut with saw and chisel the -shallow gains (Fig. 113) for the legs. Make them the same depth at the -top as at the bottom (Fig. 114), and clean them out as accurately to the -lines as you can. Get out eight legs, and regulate their length as -before. Saw the upper ends on a bevel (Fig. 114) corresponding to the -slant they are to have. Nail or screw them in place. You can glue the -joints for additional strength. Fit on cross-pieces and finish the work -as described above. If you ever need horses for very heavy work you can -make the legs of plank or joist with the tops cut like Fig. 115. - - - - -"The labor is small, the pastime is great."--GOETHE. - - - - -PART II - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -ARTICLES TO BE MADE IN THE WORKSHOP - - -Even if you are able to use tools quite well, you may still not know how -to go to work to make some particular thing, so it is quite important to -know how to lay out, put together, and finish different kinds of work. - -The number of things you _can_ make is legion. The number it is _worth -while_ for you to make is much smaller. Amateurs often say that the work -they do themselves costs more (even counting their own labour as -nothing) than to hire the work done, and it is one aim of this book to -prevent that undesirable result, in some cases at least. - -The number of things which you can make more cheaply than you can buy -grows smaller every year. Many things can now be bought ready-made for -less than you would have to pay for the materials. It is foolish to take -the time and money to make many of the games and toys, for instance, -sold so cheaply nowadays. A wheelbarrow is in itself a good thing to -make, but it can be bought so cheaply that it is hardly worth while to -make one. It is true that some of these things you can make _better_, -although not cheaper, than you can easily buy (a sled perhaps); but, as -a rule, your time can be better spent than upon this class of objects, -and you will find but few such given here. - -Things like whistles, pea-shooters, and clappers, which are so familiar -to every boy and require no more instruction to make than is handed down -and around from boy to boy, are not given here, as a rule. A few other -things which you might perhaps look for, such as tennis rackets and -snow-shoes, are omitted, because they require more special knowledge and -skill than most beginners can be expected to have. It is easy enough to -see how to make a tennis racket, for instance, so far as the general -idea is concerned; but simply bending a loop, fastening it to a stick, -and lacing the loop, does not make a tennis racket. The holes for the -stringing must be made in a particular way, the stringing must be done -properly, and the whole affair must balance or "hang" right, or be of -little use. It is better to buy such things. - -You boys, and many of your elders, like to try all the new-fangled ideas -as fast as they come out, and it is well that you do, but you (as a -class) accept them "for keeps" only after they have stood the test of -many trials. A large book could be filled with descriptions of the -novelties which have appeared within my remembrance, but out of this -number I can count on my fingers all that have come to stay. You will -find all the novelties you can attend to (and more) in the magazines, -etc., so I have been rather conservative in my selection, knowing that -you will permanently accept but the best of the new ideas and come back -in the end, year after year, to the same old things, with only such -additions as have stood the test of actual use. - -The objects included embrace a sufficient variety of types to form a -basis of experience and practice, in different kinds of work and in -various details, from which you can launch out into any of these new -plans, or any experiments of your own which you may wish to try, and -thus supply for yourselves the information lacking in many of the -popular descriptions. - -Before you make anything bulky measure your shop door or window to see -that you can get it out after you have made it. This may seem a -superfluous caution, but there have been many cases where people have -spent much time in making things which could not be taken from the room -in which they were made without tearing out the door or window casing. -Even Robinson Crusoe, you know, built a boat so far from the water that -he could not launch her. - -Do not be deceived by all the complicated, new-fangled variations of -familiar things which abound in the popular publications. Try to make -everything as _simple_ as you can. Look askance on contrivances that are -all tangled up with springs, and levers, and complicated mechanism, and -study them well before you begin to make them. - -First figure the cost of the object you intend to make. This book is not -to do your work for you, but to put you on the right track to do it -yourselves, so read _Estimating_, page 54, and the whole of Part I had -best be read before you begin to make the things described hereafter. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -A FEW TOYS - - -[Illustration FIG. 144.] - -=Wooden Swords, Knives, and Daggers.=--Before beginning work, read -_Marking_, _Knife_, _Whittling_, _Paring_, _Rounding Sticks_, _Rasp_, -_File_, and _Sandpaper_, and look upany other references. The -construction of those shown in Fig. 144 is too obvious to require -special description. First cut the general outline as shown, then round -or pare or shave to the thickness required. If you have a bow-saw or -scroll-saw, it will save much time in shaping the outlines, or you can -have them sawed at the mill. If you stain these weapons with various -colours, as red, black, yellow, etc., and in various patterns, and -shellac them neatly (see _Finishing_), you can turn out quite a -formidable array of awe-inspiring weapons. They should be made of some -straight-grained and easily whittled wood. Nothing is better than white -pine. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration FIG. 145.] - -To make a sword like that shown in Fig. 145, first select a piece of -straight-grained wood (ash or any strong wood) about 2-1/2' in length, -3/16" thick, and 1" wide. About 4" from one end make a mark. From this -mark taper the edges to the other end. Do not taper the stick too -gradually. Then draw a line along the centre of each side and taper from -this centre line to the edges, leaving the edges about 1/16" thick. Next -get out two pieces of wood 1/8" thick and 4" long (some dark-coloured -wood can be used for contrast). Nail one of these pieces with brads on -each side of the 4" space left for the handle. Next get a piece 4" -long, 1/4" thick, and 3/4" wide (see Fig. 145). Mark it as shown, making -the marks for the holes (3/16") so the outside edge of one will be just -1" from the outside edge of the other. Then bore these holes carefully -(see _Boring_) and cut out the wood between them with a knife or chisel -(being careful about splitting) and shape the outside as marked. Slip -the blade through the hole in the guard you have just made up to the -handle and nail the guard to the blade. - - * * * * * - -=Wooden Snake.=--This imitation reptile (Fig. 146) if well made will -(when grasped at the middle) by a slight movement of the hand undulate -and writhe in a very lifelike manner, as you may know, so do not be -eager to terrify your feminine relatives, or those of other boys, too -much. - -[Illustration FIG. 146.] - - * * * * * - -[Illustration FIG. 147.] - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Knife_, _Saw_, -and _Rounding Sticks_. The snake can be of any size--say from 2' to 6' -long and from 1" to 2" in diam. Select a piece of straight-grained -wood,--white pine or any wood easy to work. First see that the stick is -square, then make it hexagonal (six-sided), then taper it to the general -shape of the snake, and finally round and smooth it (Fig. 147). Remember -not to use sandpaper in the smoothing, as the grit will dull the tools -yet to be used. The head you must whittle or carve according to your -ingenuity and skill. The mouth can be cut with a fine saw. - -The snake having been shaped, mark pencil lines lengthways along the -middle of the top and bottom (except at the head), and cut with a knife -a little slit or groove merely wide enough to hold a fine cord (like -fish-line). This can be done with a fine saw (as a back-saw), using the -teeth only at one end of the saw blade, but much care is required and -the stick must be firmly clamped or held in the vise. You will probably -do it more easily with the knife. Mark equal spaces (Fig. 148) of 1/2" -to 2", according to the diameter of the snake, from the neck to within a -short distance of the end of the tail. If you make these marks as near -together as 3/4", the snake will look more natural, as the notches will -not have to be so wide, but you will have to cut more of them. Number -these sections so that you can finally put them together again in the -right order. With the knife or chisel notch in to the centre from each -side at each of the marks, or use the saw and knife or chisel, until the -body of the snake is cut into sections (Fig. 148). Put the sections -together again by sinking a fine strong cord in the longitudinal grooves -in the top and bottom. Set the cord in place with glue (see _Gluing_), -and fasten with little staples (which you can make of bent pins), or -something of the sort, at the end of each section. - -[Illustration FIG. 148.] - -Set beads in the head for eyes. Sandpaper the whole with fine sandpaper -(see _Sandpaper_). Paint in imitation of whatever kind of snake you -prefer (see _Painting_), using red for the inside of the mouth. - - * * * * * - -=Windmills.=--These are made in a great variety of forms. A few patterns -which can be readily constructed of wood are given below. Bear in mind -to make them strong, as they are under very great strain in a violent -wind, and, also, that the larger they are the stronger they must be; for -little models, you know, are much stronger in proportion than large -structures made after the same designs. Dimensions are given merely to -help illustrate the principles of construction. The windmills will work -just as well if made larger or smaller, within any reasonable limits. -They should be made of _straight-grained_ white pine, whitewood, or some -wood easy to work.[19] - - * * * * * - -[Illustration FIG. 149.] - -[Illustration FIG. 150.] - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Knife_, and _Paring_, and look up any other references. In case of -using heavy stock, see also _Draw-knife_, _Spokeshave_, and _Plane_. To -make a very simple form (Fig. 149), take two sticks, say 8" x 1" x 1", -and halve or notch (see _Halving_) each piece at the centre (Fig. 150), -so that when put together they will form a cross with arms of equal -length. Bore a hole through both pieces at the centre to loosely fit the -pin upon which the vanes are to turn (see _Boring_). Upon the ends of -each stick mark diagonal lines (Fig. 150) slanting in opposite -directions, or so that, if you revolve the cross edgeways and look in -turn upon each of the four ends, the lines will all slant the same way. -This is essential, for the next operation is to shave each of the sticks -down towards these lines until perhaps 1/8" thick (Fig. 150), and you -can readily see that if these vanes are not turned the same way the -windmill will not revolve. When this shaping is done fasten the sticks -together with brads (see _Nailing_). The remaining part is very simple -(Fig. 151), perhaps 1' long and 1/2" thick, with the broad vane made -thin, as the only object of this is to act as a weather-vane to keep the -windmill headed toward the wind, and if made thick and heavy the whole -affair will not balance well. - -[Illustration FIG. 151.] - -The revolving cross you can now fasten with a nail or screw upon the end -of the part last made (Fig. 151) so that it will revolve freely. Find -the point at which the whole windmill will balance over your finger or a -stick, and bore a vertical hole through the horizontal stick at this -point. Through this hole loosely screw or nail the windmill on the end -of a stick, slightly rounded to prevent friction (Fig. 151). Sandpaper -the whole with rather fine sandpaper (see _Sandpaper_). - -You can paint in one or more colours, if you wish (see _Painting_). The -vanes can be painted in light and dark bands crossways, causing an -appearance, when revolving, of concentric rings (like a target). By -having two axles or spindles (Fig. 152) two sets of vanes can revolve at -once, and, by slanting the vanes of the two sets in opposite ways, the -two will revolve in contrary directions. - -[Illustration FIG. 152.] - -[Illustration FIG. 153.] - -The weather-vane can be made of two pieces (Fig. 153). - -A more elaborate affair (Fig. 154) is made on similar principles, but -requires more care. The construction is obvious. Before beginning work -read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, _Knife_, -_Spokeshave_, _Drawshave_, _Rounding Sticks_, and look up any other -references. The general dimensions of the one illustrated are: length of -main frame (in which spindle turns) 9", height of one end 4-1/2", height -of the other end 2-1/2"; length of weather-vane (from main frame) 10", -width at end 4-1/2"; length of revolving fans 1', width at ends 2". The -spindle is held in the main frame on a slant (Fig. 155) to lessen any -tendency to slip out, so the hole through which it passes should have a -corresponding slant (see _Boring_). The revolving fans or vanes are -reduced to round pins at the small ends and fitted tightly into holes -bored in the head of the spindle, all the vanes being turned to have the -same slant. Care will be required to bore these holes so that the vanes -will be equidistant and revolve in the same line. - -[Illustration FIG. 154.] - -[Illustration FIG. 155.] - -The weather-vane is set in a slanting groove cut in the bottom of the -main frame (Fig. 155), and fastened with a couple of nails or screws. -You can cut this groove by making two saw-kerfs and paring out the wood -between with a chisel. The bent nail or wire shown on the top of the -spindle in Fig. 154 is to keep the latter from jumping out of the frame -from a sudden change of wind. The vanes should all be shaved down until -they are quite thin at the ends. - -Set up and finish this windmill like the one just described. - -[Illustration FIG. 156.] - -A form which is good practice in whittling, and upon which you can also -exercise your artistic faculties, is the "Happy Jack" shown in Fig. 156. -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Knife_, _Rasp_, and _File_, and look up any other references. Fourteen -inches is a good height for the figure itself. The outline of body and -head can be sawed from a 3/4" board and the edges trimmed and rounded -and the details cut with a knife, or rasp and file can be used for the -edges. The arms are made of separate pieces. Bore holes in the outer -ends of the arms to hold the paddles (see _Boring_). Also bore holes -lengthways into the arms, from the ends next the body, and into these -holes tightly drive the ends of a stiff metal rod long enough to also -pass through the body at the shoulders (Fig. 156). Before actually -driving this rod into both arms you must bore the hole through the body. -The holes in the arms should be smaller than the rod, so that it may -drive in tightly without danger of getting loose, but the hole in the -body must be larger than the rod, that the latter may revolve easily in -it. Bore in from the centre of each shoulder as carefully as you can, -until the holes meet, rather than attempt to bore clear through from one -side. Put in the rod and drive on the arms, but not quite up to the -shoulders. In driving on the arms be sure to keep the holes for the -paddles in the right positions, so that the paddles will be in line as -shown--that is, so that when one points directly upwards the other will -point directly downwards. Also bore a hole upwards between the legs for -the rod upon which the figure turns, and screw or nail a piece of metal -(Fig. 157), with a hole for this rod, on the bottom of the legs (Fig. -156). Fig. 158 shows a way to put on the hat. The paddles can be made -from a shingle, which will save the labour of tapering the thickness -towards the ends. The paddles must be set obliquely, or turned part way -around, as in the case of any windmill. When set at the proper angles -the man will spin around while the paddles are revolving. Sandpaper the -whole (see _Sandpaper_), and paint in various colours (see _Painting_). - -[Illustration FIG. 157.] - -[Illustration FIG. 158.] - -A set of boats to sail around in a circle is not hard to make (Fig. -159). Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, -_Saw_, and look up any other references. - -Take two sticks from 2' to 4' in length, and from 3/4" to 1-1/4" square, -of any fairly strong wood. Halve these sticks at the middle (see -_Halving_) and fasten them together in the form of a cross, -strengthening the joint (weakened by the halving) by nailing or screwing -on a piece of board above or below, as shown in Fig. 159. - -[Illustration FIG. 159.] - -The boats can be whittled from a piece of board on edge and fastened to -the ends of the sticks by halving (Fig. 160), as well as nails or -screws, or they can simply be flat pieces of board shaped as in Fig. 161 -and screwed or nailed on top of the sticks. In the first case the -halving had best be done before the sticks are fastened together. One -mast with a simple leg-of-mutton sail will answer for each boat. A -little experimenting will show you how much to haul in the sheet. Each -boat must, of course, "come about" and "jibe" once in every rotation of -the apparatus. Sandpaper with rather fine sandpaper (see _Sandpaper_), -and paint as you wish (see _Painting_). The whole affair is balanced and -pivoted on top of a pole in the same manner as the windmills just -described, which see. - -[Illustration FIG. 160.] - -[Illustration FIG. 161.] - -[Illustration FIG. 162.] - -[Illustration FIG. 163.] - -[Illustration FIG. 164.] - -A steamer with screw propeller can be made from a piece of board on -edge, shaped as shown in Fig. 162, a small windmill with short and -broad fans (Fig. 163), serving for the screw. Before beginning work read -carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Knife_, _Spokeshave_, and -look up any other references. This boat must be made of a board so as to -give a thin section (Fig. 164), in order that the screw may not be -shielded from the wind, for this vessel must always head to windward or -the screw will not revolve. To ensure this the fore and aft sail must -always be kept set and the sheet close-hauled. This sail answers the -purpose of the weather-vanes of the windmills just described. It can be -made of tin or any sheet metal, or even of thin wood. The rest of the -rigging and the smokestack you can arrange as you wish. The bottom of -the rudder can be supported by a little strip extending aft from the -keel. For the other details of the work, see the windmills already -described. - - * * * * * - -=Water-wheels.=--An undershot wheel, turned by the water passing beneath -(Fig. 165), can be easily made. It can be of any desired size, and of -any wood readily worked. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -and look up any other references. - -[Illustration FIG. 165.] - -[Illustration FIG. 166.] - -[Illustration FIG. 167.] - -One like Fig. 166 can be made by simply nailing a set of small boards or -paddles in a radial arrangement between two disks of wood. A dowel or -broomstick will do for the shaft and should be fitted tightly in the -hole bored through the wheel (see _Boring_), but should turn freely in -the bearings at the side. It will make a rather neater job to shape the -paddles as in Fig. 167, so that when put together the wheel will look -like Fig. 166, but this is not at all necessary, and it will work just -as well to make plain rectangular paddles and simply nail the disks on -the outside edges (see _Nailing_). If you have no saw with which to get -out the disks you can have them sawed at the mill, or you can work them -out by describing the required circles and sawing a hexagon outside of -the line with a common saw, when the circle can be finished with shave, -hatchet, chisel, or knife (see _Paring_). Divide the circumference of -each disk into as many parts as there are paddles and draw lines on the -side to the centre, by which to nail the paddles in the right position. -Start the nails on these lines and drive them nearly through before -placing the paddles in position. Then nail one disk to the paddles, turn -the wheel over and nail on the other disk. It is essential to a neat job -that the paddles should all be of the same width. First make one edge -straight. From this edge gauge the desired width on all the pieces (see -_Gauge_) and saw or plane or trim, with knife, chisel, or shave, exactly -to the line. If you make the paddles as shown in the cut, first square -lines across at equal distances from one end (Fig. 167), and with a -gauge set at a point equal to the thickness of the disks make lines -parallel to each edge, and with the saw or saw and chisel, or even a -knife, remove the pieces marked (see _Paring_). - -[Illustration FIG. 168.] - -[Illustration FIG. 169.] - - * * * * * - -The overshot wheel (Fig. 168) is harder to make, but is a livelier -wheel. It is put together upon the same principle as the wheel just -shown, except that the paddles, which do not project beyond the -circumference of the disks, are not placed radially, but so that, with -the addition of another set inserted to connect them, they form buckets. - - * * * * * - -To lay off the lines for the buckets, divide the circumference of each -disk as before, and from the centre describe a small circle, as shown in -Fig. 169. From the points on the circumference draw lines tangent to the -small circle. These lines will give the positions for the bottoms of the -buckets. To complete the buckets mark from the circumference equal -distances on these lines, and from these last points draw lines as _ab_ -to the next points on the circumference. First, nail together with only -the bottoms of the buckets (on the lines _ca_). Then fit in the other -pieces, to complete the buckets, on the lines _ab_. The ends of these -last pieces should properly be bevelled (see _Bevelling_) to make a -fairly tight joint. The rest of the work is the same as for the -undershot wheel. A larger form (but harder to make) is suggested in Fig. -170. See note under _Windmills_, above. - -[Illustration FIG. 170.] - - * * * * * - -[Illustration TOTLET TOWN.] - -=Play Village.=--It is capital fun for several young people to design -and build a miniature village, and it is certainly an instructive and -quite inexpensive pastime. Such a village, planned and made recently by -a family group of half a dozen youngsters, and facetiously named "Totlet -Town," was constructed entirely of old boxes and packing-cases of all -sizes up to three feet long, waste pieces of board, shingles, etc.; but -when painted and arranged in a corner of the lawn, with dirt roads, and -paths, small evergreen shade trees and hedges, well-sweeps, miniature -fences, and other accessories, it made so pretty a picture as to be the -admiration of all who saw it. If you have as good a time in making such -a village as these young people did, the experiment will be a success. -You can easily think up many additions to the suggestions here given. - -[Illustration FIG. 171.] - -The buildings were made by selecting boxes of the desired proportions, -sawing out spaces for the doors, adding the roofs and any other -alterations. The chimneys were made of blocks painted red. The doors -were made of pieces of board and hinged with leather. Bay-windows and -the like were made of blocks of the required shape nailed to the boxes. -The windows and blinds were represented by painting. Some of the roofs -were shingled with pieces of shingles. A suggestion for a light-house is -shown in Fig. 171. - -Considerable care in the use of the tools is called for to make these -buildings neatly. Much of the effect depends, also, upon the care with -which the painting is done (see _Painting_), and the taste used in the -selection of the colours. Brighter colours are suitable for a little -village of this sort than would be in good taste for real houses. White -with green blinds is good, of course; or yellow can be used. The roofs -should be painted. Red roofs are very effective. - -Before beginning work, read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, -_Saw_, _Plane_, _Nailing_, _Withdrawing Nails_, etc. - -[Illustration FIG. 172.] - -=Dolls' House.=--The house shown in Fig. 172 is quite easily made, and a -shallow affair like this has the advantage of being more convenient than -a deep one about arranging the contents. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, and look up any other references. - -Pine and whitewood are suitable, or any wood can be used that is not -hard to work. - -It can be made of any desired size. Three or four feet wide and a little -higher in the middle will probably be suitable for ordinary cases, and -twelve or fifteen inches will be a good depth (from front to back). - -The construction is plain. The roof and sides are to be cut from dressed -stock of uniform width, and from 1/2" to 7/8" in thickness. - -Carefully true one edge, if it is not already true, and get out the -bottom board, then the upright sides, and then the roof. The bevels at -the highest point of the roof and where the roof joins the sides you -must mark with the bevel (taking the slant from your drawing), or you -can find it by arranging two strips to cross at the desired angle and -marking the bevel by them (see _Bevelling_). To saw these bevels -requires much care. Draw lines by the square on both sides, as well as -the angle on the edge, and putting each board in the vise saw carefully -and steadily. - -The three floors should be narrower than the outside of the house by -just the thickness of the stock to be used for the back, and rectangular -openings must be sawed from one of the back corners at the head of the -stairs to allow the dolls to pass from one story to another. If the -sides of the house are 14" wide, make these floors 13-1/2" wide, and use -1/2" or 3/8" stock for the back. Also mark and saw out the windows. To -do this, first bore a series of holes inside of the line (see _Boring_) -and cut out whatever wood may be necessary until you make a slot in -which to start the saw. Any roughness left from the holes can be trimmed -with knife, chisel, or file (see _Paring_). Nail these parts together, -just as in making a box, carefully sighting across the face to see that -the front and back do not wind, or use _winding-sticks_ (_q. v._). Also -test with the square to see that the sides are at right angles with the -bottom. Get out stock for the back carefully (with the boards running up -and down) so that the boards will be square at the bottom, and when -these pieces are fitted in place to form the back they will ensure the -house being square. The slant by which to cut the top of the back can be -laid off by measurement from your working drawing or the back can be put -in place and the lines marked directly from the under side of the roof. -When fitted, nail the back securely in place, first cutting the windows -as before. Then fit in the upright partitions, first cutting the -doorways. The staircase can be made easily if you have, or can saw from -the corner of a larger piece, a triangular strip which can be cut in -short sections to use for the steps. Nail these to a thin strip of board -(from the under side) and fasten the whole in position (Fig. 173). The -chimney can be made of a block with a notch sawed to fit the roof, or it -can be made of four pieces, box-fashion. Glass for the windows can be -held in place by gluing strips of cloth or paper around the edges, or -thin strips can be nailed around with fine brads. Thin strips can be -nailed around the window openings on the outside, if you wish. - -[Illustration FIG. 173.] - -All the pieces should be neatly planed and scraped before putting -together, and, when entirely put together, the whole should be carefully -sandpapered with fine sandpaper. The parts coming on the inside had best -be sandpapered before putting together, however, but be sure not to do -this until all cutting with the tools has been done. Set all the nails -carefully (see _Nail-set_). The whole can be painted in one or more -colours (see _Painting_), and portieres, window drapery, etc., can be -added according to your taste and the materials at command. The inside -can be papered, if preferred. - -A more thoroughly workmanlike way is to groove the bottom into the -sides, the upright partitions into the floor boards, and to cut rabbets -around on the back edge of the sides, roof, and bottom, into which to -set the backboards. This involves a good deal more work and care in -laying out the work (see _Grooving_). If you have the pieces got out at -a mill it can be easily done, however. - -[Illustration FIG. 174.] - -It may be a convenience to screw castors on the bottom. A door (with a -door-bell or knocker) can be added to the front of the hall, if thought -best. - -A house which can be closed is shown in Fig. 174. The construction is -quite similar to the preceding. A strip must be fastened above and below -the large doors, as shown, that they may open without striking either -the roof or the floor on which the house stands. The little door, -representing the entrance to the house when closed and shown in the -closed half, can be made to open independently and can have a bell or -knocker. - -If this house is made quite deep (from front to back) it can easily be -divided lengthways by a partition and made into a double house, the back -side being made to open in the same way as the side here shown. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[19] You can attach your windmill to a building or set it up on a pole, -or you can easily make a small trestle-work tower, built of small -sticks, on the top of which you can place the windmill, with a small keg -(to represent a hogshead or tank), and thus have a very good imitation -of the large mills used for pumping water. Small windmills, if you wish -to go further into the subject than comes within the scope of this book, -can be used to do any light or "play" work by having them turn a bent -shaft (or any eccentric movement), connecting with a piston-rod or -revolving drum; or various other attachments can be applied, according -to your ingenuity. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -HOUSES FOR ANIMALS - - -The sizes and shapes of these houses and cages will depend upon the -animals for which they are built and the places you have to put them. -Frequently they can be built to advantage against the side of a -building, or a fence, or in a corner, and boxes can be utilised in -various ways. - -Make the houses, cages, and runways as large as you can afford, for -there is much more danger of the pets being cramped and crowded than of -their having too much room. - -Wire netting or wire cloth (held in place by staples) should be freely -used, as ventilation is very important for the health and comfort of the -animals. Special openings should always be made for cleaning the houses -or cages in case all parts cannot be conveniently reached from the -doors, for cleanliness is of the utmost importance in all such -structures. The floors of the larger houses should always slant or have -holes provided for drainage. Covering the floors with sheets of zinc -will promote cleanliness. In the smaller cages removable pans or trays -can often be used (Fig. 190). Houses and cages with wooden floors should -always be raised from the ground on posts, blocks, or stones, to avoid -dampness. Clean sand scattered over the floor and frequently renewed -will contribute much to the cleanliness of the cages. The bedding should -also be changed frequently. - -In the case of those animals which use their teeth for gnawing, the -corners and angles can be protected by tacking on strips of wire cloth, -tin, or zinc, but there is no need to do this over the flat surfaces. In -the case of cages or houses (and the runways) which have the ground for -the floor and are to be inhabited by animals that will burrow or dig -their way out, the wire netting should be continued underground to a -considerable depth, or it can be carried down a little way and then bent -to lie horizontally, forming a sort of wire floor, over which the dirt -can be replaced, and the animals will be unable to tunnel their way out; -but in all such cases care must be taken to proportion the mesh of the -netting and the size of the wire to the strength and escaping powers of -the animals. - -Houses for animals often look pretty when made in imitation of real -houses, but when you do this choose simple types of good proportions, -and do not try to copy all the little details of the large houses. Avoid -"gingerbread" work, and do not cover your houses with meaningless -jig-sawed scroll work and rows of towers and pinnacles, and do not use -all the colours of the rainbow in painting them. - -For houses, hutches, boxes, cages, etc., which are to be kept out of -doors or in some outbuilding, ordinary machine-planed stock of fair -quality is sufficiently good, and planing and smoothing by hand is -usually a waste of labour; but if you wish to make a small cage or box -to be kept in the house, and to be nicely finished or painted, good -clear stock should be used, and the final smoothing done by hand. - -In case you wish to make several cages or boxes of the same pattern, as, -for example, like Fig. 178, it is much less work to go through the -process with two or more at a time than to make each separately. - -A house for pets should not be built, as is sometimes done, on a -platform or base projecting beyond the base of the house, as this tends -to collect and retain moisture and dampness, but should be clear of any -platform, like an ordinary dwelling-house, so that the rain will be shed -directly upon the ground. - -When two or more boards are required for each side of the roof it is -usually better to lay them up and down, as in Fig. 187, rather than -horizontally or lengthways, because a roof laid in this way is better -about shedding the water, which tends to collect in the cracks if the -boards are laid horizontally. For the rougher structures the hinges can -be screwed flat upon the outside (as shown in Fig. 179), but for nice -work they should be fitted in the usual way. (See _Hinges_.) - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work upon these cages and houses, read carefully -_Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, _Nailing_, and look up any -other references. - -[Illustration FIG. 175.] - -[Illustration FIG. 176.] - -Cheap and serviceable cages and houses can be built by simply driving -posts or stakes into the ground and fastening wire cloth or netting to -them, much as you would build a fence. This wire-fenced enclosure can be -covered with a wooden roof if desired. A runway and playground can -easily be made in this way. - -A more portable arrangement can be made by putting together wooden -frames covered with wire. Very simple forms are shown in Fig. 175. By -putting together four or more of such frames a cage can readily be made -which can be covered with a wooden roof or with wire (Fig. 176). If -these frames are fastened with screws or screw-eyes and hooks, the whole -can quickly be taken apart if desired. - -A very simple cage can be easily made, on the principle of the common -chicken coop, with a few boards or slats and a little wire netting (Fig. -177), but a house of this sort is not especially desirable except for -economy of materials and labour. The construction is too simple to -require description. - -[Illustration FIG. 177.] - -[Illustration FIG. 178.] - -[Illustration FIG. 179.] - -A much better form is that with upright sides, or with one slanting -side. Figs. 178 and 179 show an excellent arrangement, easily made. It -can be made any desired size or proportions and is suitable for quite a -variety of animals. If small, 1/2" stock will be thick enough, but if -large, 7/8" stock should be used. The construction is similar to that -of a common box (see _Box-making_, page 219). One corner of each end -should be sawed off slantingly (Fig. 178), and a rectangular piece cut -from the opposite corner, as shown, before the box is nailed together. -The bevelling of the edges of the top and front boards can be done after -the box is put together (see _Bevelling_). For making the door, see -_Doors_, in Part V. The hinged board at the bottom gives access for -cleaning. If for indoors, and to be finished or painted, clear stock -should be selected and the outside carefully smoothed. (See _Plane_, -_Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, _Finishing_, and _Painting_.) - -[Illustration FIG. 180.] - -For something more like a house, the design shown in Fig. 180 is good -and of simple construction. This can be made of any size from that of a -small box to a small house. For the latter, see _Part III. -(House-building for Beginners)_. - -To make a little house of this pattern first get out the bottom of the -required dimensions, and then the ends, which are alike and to be nailed -to the ends of the bottom. Take pains to be accurate in getting out the -pieces, or the house will be askew when put together. The construction -of the sides is plain. The door can be made as in Fig. 180 (see -_Doors_), or the sides can be entirely of wire and the door placed at -the end (Fig. 181). The roof is simply nailed down in place, one side -being got out as much wider than the other as the thickness of the -stock, so that one will lap over the edge of the other at the ridge. If -the angle formed at the top is not a right angle, however, the edge of -the narrower roof-board must be bevelled according to the angle (see -_Bevelling_). - -[Illustration FIG. 181.] - -A house of this sort can be made with one end closed, while the other -remains open (Fig. 182). This is a good arrangement for many animals. -First get out the floor, then the pieces for the closed end, cutting out -the doorway and a window, if one is desired. These openings can be cut -as shown on page 122. Next get out the framework for the open end and -fasten it in position. A door can be fitted wherever desired and the -roof put on, as just shown. - -[Illustration FIG. 182.] - -[Illustration FIG. 183.] - -A house or cage, chiefly open-work, with two sleeping-boxes or nests -(Fig. 183) is similar in general construction. This is suitable for -indoors (as in an outbuilding). If to be left exposed to the weather, a -solid roof can be added, or it can be covered with canvas or something -of the sort when necessary. The construction is similar to that of those -already described. This cage can be used for pigeons and other pets, and -can be made of any size, according to circumstances. For the door, see -_Doors_ and _Hinges_, in Part V. The box attachments can best be made at -the same time, just alike (see _Box-making_, page 219), and fastened to -the sides of the house, the doorways having been cut in the sides before -the house was put together. If these boxes or nests cannot be readily -reached for cleaning, they should be hinged to the main house, or have -special openings with lids or doors, so that they can be kept clean. The -ridge-pole is simply a strip of board placed horizontally between the -upper ends of the rafters. - - * * * * * - -=Rabbit Hutch.=--A simple rabbit-house, or hutch, can be made by putting -together a good-sized box, partitioning off one end, to be closed by a -door, and leaving the rest open, except for the necessary wire sides -(Fig. 184). - -[Illustration FIG. 184.] - - * * * * * - -This is made just like a box (see _Box-making_, page 219), the other -details being similar to those already shown. A sliding-door (Fig. 185) -can be inserted, if desired, to cover the hole between the closed and -open parts. The hutch should be raised from the ground to avoid -dampness, and proper arrangements for cleanliness made, as referred to -above. - -[Illustration FIG. 185.] - - * * * * * - -A more elaborate hutch (Fig. 186) can be constructed in a similar manner -to the houses already shown. Access to the open part can be had by means -of the doors or lids on top. For the doors, see _Doors_ and _Hinges_. -The slides for the door at the end can be made by cutting a rabbet at -the edge of a square stick, as shown, or the rabbet can be formed by -using strips of different widths, letting the wider lap over the -narrower so as to form the rabbet. Both doors can be made to swing in -the usual way, of course, if preferred. Where the two sides of the roof -meet at the top, the edges must be bevelled (see _Bevelling_). - -[Illustration FIG. 186.] - - * * * * * - -=Kennel.=--There are many kinds of dog-houses, and the style and size -must, of course, depend upon the dog and the situation. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration FIG. 187.] - -A good kennel (Fig. 187) for a small dog can be made very much as you -would make a box (see _Box-making_, page 219). If for a very small dog -the ends, sides, floor, and sides of the roof can each be made of one -piece, but ordinarily these parts will each be made of two or more -pieces. Matched boards are suitable. First get out the bottom, then the -sides and ends. If you use boards with square edges you must of course -use pieces of different widths, so that the cracks between them will not -meet at the corners, or put posts at the corners. This is the best way -to do with matched boards, if the house is at all large. Nail these -parts together. It will be easiest to cut the slant at the top of each -end--the gable--so that the sides of the roof will meet in a right -angle. This looks well and saves the need of bevelling the edges of the -roof-boards. An opening for the doorway should be cut in one of the ends -before the roof is nailed on. If you do not use matched boards, a strip -should be nailed on the inside at each side of the doorway, to keep the -boards together. The roof-boards for one side should be as much longer -than those for the other as the thickness of the stock. The same applies -to the width of the saddle-boards which cover the extreme top. If the -roof is not made of matched boards, battens should be nailed over the -cracks as shown in Part III. - - * * * * * - -For a large dog a kennel should be built more like a real +house+ and -not so much like a box. A structure with a frame (Fig. 188) can be -built of any size suitable for a kennel, and will be more durable than -the preceding form. - -[Illustration FIG. 188.] - - * * * * * - -For the frame, small joists, or strips of plank of any size from 1-1/2" -x 2" to 2" x 3" can be used. First get out the sills or bottom pieces of -the framework, nailing them together at the corners to form a -rectangular frame, as shown in Fig. 189. - -Then get out the corner posts and fasten them in place, and on top of -them fasten the plates (a second horizontal frame like that at the -bottom); and see that all this framework is rectangular and free from -winding. The sills and plates can be halved at the corners (see -_Halving_), but this is not really necessary in so small a house, as the -boarding adds strength to the joints. The frame can be temporarily held -in place until the boarding is put on by nailing on as many diagonal -strips (Fig. 189) as may be required. Two rafters at each end should -next be put in place, their ends having been cut at an angle of 45 deg. (see -_Mitreing_) and the upper ends being nailed to a strip of board which -serves for a ridge-pole. An intermediate rafter on each side will add -stiffness to the roof. The floor should next be laid, as it will be -inconvenient in so small a house to do this after the sides are put on. -The sides and ends should be boarded with sheathing or matched boards -laid vertically, cutting out the doorway and a small window in the back -gable for ventilation. The roof can next be laid with the boards running -horizontally, or lengthwise, as this house is to be shingled. The -shingles can be dipped in creosote stain or paint to good advantage -before laying. After the roof has been shingled the saddle-boards can be -put on and the house will be ready for painting (see _Painting_). -Another form of doorway is shown in Fig. 189_a_. For the various details -of a framed structure of this sort, see _Part III. (House-building for -Beginners)_. - -[Illustration FIG. 189.] - -[Illustration Fig. 189_a_.] - - * * * * * - -The author of _House and Pet Dogs_ gives the following suggestion: - - "The best device is an ordinary single kennel forty-eight inches by - thirty-three inches, with an A roof, but with a detached bottom of - the same size as the outside ground measurement of the kennel. This - bottom is hinged by two stout strap-iron hinges to the side of the - kennel, and is provided with two wooden axles, to which are fitted - four wooden wheels, say four inches in diameter. When closed it - looks like any other kennel on wheels. It can be easily moved by one - person from damp spots, etc.; and by turning the kennel back upon - its hinges the bedding can be daily sunned and aired and the kennel - washed and purified without trouble. The wheels also serve to keep - the bottom clear of the ground, and allow of a free circulation of - air beneath." - -=Squirrel House.=--The small squirrel house, or cage, shown in Fig. 190, -is made like a box (see _Box-making_, page 219), with the exception of -the roof. The construction is similar to that of the houses already -described. - -[Illustration FIG. 190.] - - * * * * * - -It can be made of 7/8" or 3/4" stock. The dimensions of the bottom can -be made to agree with those of any baking-pan you may have, as shown. -The slide in the roof can be made of zinc or tin. That in the side can -be of either zinc or wood. After the wire cloth has been nailed on a -strip of wood can be nailed around the front edge as a moulding. The -little sleeping-box in the upper corner can be readily reached from the -slide in the roof and connects with the floor of the house by a little -door and a flight of steps (Fig. 191). The latter can be made as shown -in Fig. 173. The most difficult part of this house to make nicely is the -joining of the roof-boards. These must be bevelled at the ridge and the -tops of the ends must also be bevelled where they join the roof (see -_Bevelling_). For other details, see the houses already described. - -[Illustration FIG. 191.] - - * * * * * - -A more +elaborate+ affair, shown below, can be made quite large and will -give room for a whole family of squirrels. This house is, however, -considerably more difficult to make than the others shown in this -chapter, and if you have not already acquired some skill as a workman -you had best be content with a simpler design. - - * * * * * - -Four or five feet by about three feet will not be too large for the -ground dimensions of the main part of the house. Regular sills can first -be nailed together for the bottom of the main house and ell in the way -shown in Fig. 189. These sills can be from 1-1/2" x 2" to 2" x 3". -Perhaps an easier way is that shown in Fig. 192, in which three cross -cleats or sills are laid and the floor nailed directly to these. When -the lengthways boards shown in Fig. 192 are nailed to the floor boards -and the sills the bottom will be sufficiently stiff for a squirrel -house. The sides and ends of the ell can be made of boards nailed -together like a box, the openings for the doors, windows, etc., being -first cut out; but the main part of the house should have posts at the -corners to which the boarding at the ends is to be nailed. Rafters -should also be put in at each gable. Plain sheathing will look better -for the outside of this house than that with beads. After the outside -has been boarded and the upper floors put in, the roofs and the cupola -can be added. If the cupola is too difficult it can be omitted, as it is -a luxury to which the average squirrel is unaccustomed. - -[Illustration FIG. 192.] - -The stairs, the openings in the floors, the doorways, the sleeping-box, -the revolving wire cage, the tree, and the swing in the cupola, are -shown in Fig. 192. The stairs can be made as shown in Fig. 192; strips -nailed vertically at the outside corners of the house, as in a real -house, will give a more finished appearance. The window casings can be -made by nailing strips on the outside. The glass can be held in place by -strips, or small rabbets can be cut as in a window sash. For the -shingling of the roof, see _Part III_. (_House-building for Beginners_). -Each door can be made of a single piece of board, cleated (see _Doors_). -For any other details, see the houses just described and also _Part -III_. (_House-building for Beginners_), and _Painting_. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration FIG. 193.] - -Several cages of various sizes can readily be built together, as shown -in Fig. 193, which is merely a suggestion, for, of course, the shape, -size, arrangement, and number of compartments must depend on the number -and kinds of animals and the situation. Various combinations will -suggest themselves as occasion calls for them. - -If you have such creatures as frogs, turtles, lizards, etc., a -water-tank should be provided. This can easily be made by taking a -tightly made flat box and caulking the cracks, or pouring hot tar or -pitch into them and also tarring or painting the whole surface of the -outside. A board can be fitted slantingly from the bottom to the edge, -at one or both ends, to form an incline by which the users of this -miniature pond can crawl in and out of the water. The box must, of -course, be sunk in the ground inside of the cage. - -For larger houses, as for hens, etc., see, also, the principles of -construction of somewhat larger structures in Part III. (_House-building -for Beginners_). - - * * * * * - -=Travelling Cage.=--A small box (Fig. 194) in which to carry a kitten, a -squirrel, a bird, or any small animal, when travelling, is often very -useful and much better than the bags and baskets so often used for the -purpose. - -[Illustration FIG. 194.] - - * * * * * - -All that is necessary is to make a small box of 1/2" stock (see -_Box-making_, page 219), with one side open (to be covered with wire -cloth or netting), and the opposite side made in two parts, the upper of -which is hinged to serve as a door or lid. Strips of moulding can be -nailed on with brads along the edges where the wire is fastened, the -door can be fastened with hook and screw-eye or catch, and a handle -fastened upon the top. It is a good plan to round the edges of a box -which is to be carried around. If this box is neatly got out and put -together and carefully smoothed and finished it will look well and serve -for many years. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -IMPLEMENTS FOR OUTDOOR SPORTS AND ATHLETICS - - -=Stilts.=--There is very little to say about the manufacture of stilts. -The construction is obvious (Figs. 195 and 196), the size and -arrangement depending on your own size and skill. The handles can either -be long, or reach up as high as the hand, or short and strapped to the -legs. - -[Illustration FIG. 195.] - -[Illustration FIG. 196.] - -=Tilt or See-Saw.=--One of small size is shown in Fig. 197. The exact -proportions given are not necessary, provided you make it strong and so -that it will not tip over. - -[Illustration FIG. 197.] - -[Illustration FIG. 198.] - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Nailing_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -[Illustration FIG. 199.] - -[Illustration FIG. 200.] - -First make the standard (Fig. 198) of any sound plank 1-1/4" to 2" thick -and 12" or more in width. Get out the pieces to the dimensions before -beginning to put together, the ends of the braces H being cut at a mitre -(see _Mitring_). Square the line EF across the plank B at the middle -(Fig. 199). Drive three or four stout wire nails (3" to 4" long, -according to the thickness of the plank) nearly through the plank on -this line. Stand the piece A on end under these nails and drive them -through firmly into it (Fig. 200), keeping the two boards at right -angles. Bore holes with a 1/4" bit (see _Boring_) in each end of the -pieces H, as shown, taking pains not to get them too near the edge. -Screw these braces in place with screws from 2-1/4" to 3-1/4" long -(according to the thickness of the plank), keeping the piece A at right -angles with the plank B (see _Screws_). Screw this frame on the -cross-pieces C and D, as shown. Nails can be used throughout, but screws -are better. With plane, draw-knife, or spoke-shave (see _Part V._ for -these tools), round the top edge of A. - -[Illustration FIG. 201.] - -The tilting-plank should be of spruce, ash, hard pine, or any strong -wood, and had best be from 1-1/2" to 2" thick, according to the length, -which can be 12' or 14'. It should of course be planed. Next get out a -few cleats 7/8" square, or thicker, and screw them on the under side of -the tilting-plank at the middle (Fig. 201, which shows the under side of -the plank), so that the spaces between them will be a little wider than -the thickness of the upright piece A--just enough to allow the plank to -tilt freely. Nail strips on the edge, to keep the plank from slipping -off sideways, shaving a little from the edges of A at the top if -necessary. Finally run over the edges with a plane (see _Plane_), and -sandpaper the plank to prevent slivers. - -Simply paint or oil and varnish (see _Painting_ or _Finishing_). - -A larger and more elaborate affair, adjustable to different heights, is -shown in Fig. 202. - -[Illustration FIG. 202.] - - * * * * * - -First get out the main pieces to the dimensions (Figs. 203, 204, 205). -The upright pieces should be mortised into the planks on which they rest -(Fig. 206) (see _Mortising_). Gauge a line lengthways along the centre -of each side of the uprights (see _Gauge_) and mark points (say 6" -apart) on these lines for holes for the iron rod on which the -tilting-plank rests, taking pains to place them alike on the two -uprights. Then bore 3/4" or 1/2" holes (see _Boring_), according to the -size of rod you can get. Next fit the cross bar at the top. This can -simply be nailed down or fitted between the uprights (Fig. 207), or made -with a shoulder (Fig. 208), which will add to the stiffness of the -frame. The rest of the construction of the standard is plain, and -similar to that just described. - -[Illustration FIG. 203.] - -[Illustration FIG. 204.] - -[Illustration FIG. 205.] - -[Illustration FIG. 206.] - -[Illustration FIG. 207.] - -[Illustration FIG. 208.] - -Iron rods can be used for braces, if you wish (Fig. 209). - -The tilting-plank should be 16' or 18' long, and of 2" plank. A thread -with nut on one end of the iron rod on which the plank rests will keep -the rod from slipping out of place. The plank can be fastened to the rod -by iron straps or even staples, or a box-like bearing can be quickly -made (Fig. 210). Washers can be placed between the plank and the -uprights if necessary. Smooth the edges with a plane (see _Plane_) and -sandpaper the plank. Simply paint or oil and varnish (see _Painting_ and -_Finishing_). - -[Illustration FIG. 209.] - -[Illustration FIG. 210.] - - * * * * * - -=Skis.=--To make as perfect skis as possible they should be of rift -stock, that is, split out instead of sawed; but this may seldom be -practicable for you and is not really necessary. Good straight-grained -sawed stock will answer, but be sure that you get clear, strong -stock--_air-dried_ if possible. Always avoid kiln-dried stock for -anything which is to be put to sudden and violent strain, if you can get -that which has been naturally seasoned (see Chapter III.). - -Ash is very good (white ash the best); spruce, light and strong; oak, -strong but heavy. Any strong and elastic wood will do, if not too heavy. -If you can get stock which is naturally sprung in a good curve upward -and is satisfactory in other respects, take it, for a convex curve -upward underneath the foot gives spring and elasticity and helps prevent -the skis from becoming hollowed too much by the weight of the body. This -curve is not necessary, but the better ones are purposely so made. Skis -are sometimes used in very rude forms--as two strips of wood with the -front ends shaved down and bent up at an angle. Small ones can even be -made of staves from barrels, but these are very unsatisfactory. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, -_Draw-knife_, _Plane_, _Spokeshave_, in Part V., and look up any other -references. - -[Illustration FIG. 211.] - -[Illustration FIG. 212.] - -[Illustration FIG. 213.] - -[Illustration FIG. 214.] - -First get out the pieces of the required size. The length for a man is -usually about 8' and the width about 4", though they are used even as -long as 12' or 13'. From 5' to 8' long and from 3-1/2" to 4" wide will -probably be right for you, but the dimensions depend on your size, of -course. Next taper the forward ends, as shown in Fig. 211. You can mark -both edges alike by drawing the curve free-hand or with a spline (see -_Spline_) on a piece of stiff paper, from which you can cut out a -pattern for drawing the curve on the wood. Next make the pieces thinner -towards the ends (Fig. 212), noticing that the forward end is thinner -than the after end and is shaved down more quickly so that the stock may -be thin where the toe bends up. This requires great care unless the -grain is very straight, for a little hasty slashing will make too deep a -cut (see _Paring_, etc.). Good forms are shown in Figs. 213 and 214, the -former showing sections at the middle and the latter nearer the ends, -but as the toe is approached the top should become flat for ease in -bending. This shaping can best be done by the draw-knife, spoke-shave, -or plane. - -[Illustration FIG. 215.] - -[Illustration FIG. 216.] - -[Illustration FIG. 217.] - -Bend the points of the toes upwards about 6" above the horizontal line -to ensure their riding clear of obstructions, but there is no gain in -curling them up a foot. For the process of bending, see _Bending Wood_. -Then turning the skis over, gauge (see _Gauge_) parallel lines for the -grooves on the bottom. Work the grooves out with the gouge or with the -saw and chisel (see _Gouge_ and _Grooving_) unless you chance to have -the plane designed for this purpose.[20] Make these grooves shallower as -they approach the toe, leaving no groove where the toe bends up. - -[Illustration FIG. 218.] - -[Illustration FIG. 219.] - -[Illustration FIG. 220.] - -[Illustration FIG. 221.] - -Balance the skis lengthways on a stick or your finger and put stout -leather straps just forward of the balancing point. These can be riveted -or even screwed to the edges of the skis (Fig. 215), but a better way is -to put them through slots cut in the wood (Fig. 216). Gauge accurately -for the slots, marking on both edges, and bore in from both sides (see -_Boring_). The slots must then be cleaned out with chisel and file (see -_Mortising_). An easier way and fully as strong is to cut grooves (Fig. -217) with saw and chisel and cover them with thin strips securely -screwed on (Fig. 218). Some use a second lighter strap to go above the -heel. This can be screwed to the edges if you use it. Strips screwed -across under the instep (Figs. 219 and 220), or behind the heel (Fig. -221), to prevent the foot sliding back are sometimes used.[21] For -racing the Norwegian skis are turned up at the rear end also. - -[Illustration FIG. 222.] - -The pole, like the skis, must be of light, strong stuff, and can be -round or eight-sided (see _Rounding Sticks_). To shape the tapering end -make the stick uniformly eight-sided for the whole length first and then -plane each side down at the end to get the taper. The hole in the disk -must not be quite so large as the diameter of the pole, so that it -cannot slip up farther than the tapering part (Fig. 222). Many dispense -with the disk. - -Finally smooth skis and pole with scraper (see _Scraper_) or glass, and -sandpaper (see _Sandpaper_), and finish with plenty of raw linseed oil -or with oil, shellac, and varnish, in successive coats (see -_Finishing_). If open-grained wood is used it can be filled to good -advantage with a coat of good wood-filler well rubbed in (see -_Finishing_), and the bottoms can also be rubbed with wax or tallow, if -you wish. - - * * * * * - -=Toboggan.=--This is now commonly made of narrow strips, in principle -much like several skis placed side by side--an easier form to make than -the older pattern, formed of one or two wide pieces, as originally made -by the Indians. - -White oak and hickory are probably the best woods. Ash, maple, birch, -basswood, or any hard wood which can be bent and has elasticity can be -used. As in the case of the ski, to make the best possible the pieces -should be rift, or split out, rather than sawed, to ensure straight -grain; but, as this may be out of the question for you, be sure to -select the straightest-grained clear stock you can find, for, besides -the bending of the ends, there is great strain put upon it in coasting. -For the same reason use air-dried stock and avoid kiln-dried if -possible. - -Probably the best and most scientific way to fasten the parts of a -toboggan together is the old way adopted by the Indians of binding or -lashing with thongs. This gives great elasticity and allows the toboggan -to adjust itself to the inequalities of the surface to a greater degree -than is possible with the tightly fastened joints now in use. You can -try this way instead of that given below, if you prefer, but be sure to -cut little grooves in the bottom for the thongs or cords to fit in, or -they will be quickly worn through. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -[Illustration FIG. 223.] - -The size can vary from 3' long by 1' wide to 10' or 12' long by 20" to -22" wide; 4' long by 15" or 16" wide is good for a single toboggan; 8' -long by 18" is a good size for three or more persons. You will probably -find the stock most readily in the form of 12' boards. One-half inch in -the rough will be thick enough, though you may have to take inch (rough) -or 7/8" (planed) boards. Let us make an 8' toboggan (Fig. 223). Have the -stock planed and sawed in strips about 10' long, 2-1/2" wide, and not -less than 1/4" nor more than 3/8" in thickness. If they are tapered a -little in thickness for 12" or 15" at the forward end they can be bent -more easily, but do not shave them down too much (see _Plane_ and -_Drawshave_). Smooth the bottom surfaces of the strips with plane and -scraper (see _Scraper_). It is hardly necessary to plane the upper -surfaces by hand, as the planer will leave them fairly smooth, though -they will look a little nicer smoothed by hand. Plane the edges. Next -get out eight cross-bars or cleats 18" long x 3/8" thick and from 1-1/2" -to 3" wide. If wide they can be tapered at the edges, and if narrow, the -edges should be rounded (Fig. 224). Get out also two or three cleats 18" -long, 1/4" thick, and 1-1/4" wide, and one piece 18" long and about 3/4" -x 7/8" (half of a hardwood broomstick will do). - -[Illustration FIG. 224.] - -The long strips must now be bent at the forward end (see _Bending -Wood_). After they are bent take the eight cleats and, laying one across -the strips as it is to go, mark points for three holes at each strip -(Fig. 224). Bore 3/16" or 1/4" holes in the cross strips and countersink -them very carefully (see _Boring_ and _Countersink_), so that the heads -of the screws will be very slightly lower than the surface--sunk barely -enough to prevent any corners or edges from sticking above the surface. -Take great care not to countersink too deeply, for the long strips are -so thin that the screws may come through on the under side. Mark and -bore the other seven cleats by this first one. - -Now take one cleat, to be put on at the rear end 8' from the beginning -of the curve. Screw one end of this cleat in place (see _Screws_), test -with the square, and screw the other end. Then put in the intermediate -screws, driving them all firmly home, and saw off the ends of the long -strips just beyond this cleat. Square lines across every foot to the -curve at the front, and screw on the other cleats. The length of the -screws (which can be quite stout) should be such that they will almost, -but not quite, go through to the under side of the toboggan. Be careful -about this or the points will have to be filed off. Then screw the -smaller cleats on the inside of the curve. Screw the remaining (stouter) -cleat on the outside of the curve at the place where the curve is to -end, and then saw off the projecting ends of the strips by this cleat. -By thongs, belt-lacing, or strong cord at the ends of the cleat last put -on fasten the curve (which will naturally tend to straighten somewhat) -in the required position to the cleat beneath (Fig. 225). - -[Illustration FIG. 225.] - -Side hand-rails can be fastened at each side on top of the cross-cleats -(Fig. 223). A common way is to make every other cross-cleat thicker (say -7/8") and fasten the side bars to these with large and stout screw-eyes, -or notches can be cut on the under side of these thicker cleats before -they are screwed on, and by passing thongs or cord through these notches -the side-bars can be lashed in place. The side bars you can plane round -or eight-sided (see _Rounding Sticks_) out of strips of any strong wood. - -Sandpaper the bottom and finish with plenty of raw linseed oil, or with -oil, shellac, and varnish, in successive coats (see _Finishing_). If -open-grained wood is used it can be filled to good advantage with a coat -of good wood-filler well rubbed in (see _Finishing_), and the bottom can -be waxed or rubbed with tallow, if you wish. - -[Illustration FIG. 226.] - -If you are willing to put in the labour you can bevel or slope off one -side of each of the long strips (except the two outer ones) so as to -leave the strip thickest in the middle (Fig. 226). Unless you are -willing to take pains enough to do it nicely (which will take some -time), it will be best not to attempt it at all, or to have it done at a -mill. If you have a good hill you can go well enough with the flat -strips and it is not important to round them unless you are scoring -fractions of a second against time. Another way is to curve the -cross-cleats slightly (Fig. 226), leaving the long strips flat. - -Some toboggans are made with low runners about an inch high. - -[Illustration FIG. 227.] - -You can, as you may know, patch up a sort of toboggan of barrel-staves, -with which, though not a very workmanlike arrangement, you can have a -lot of fun at no expense. You can get a high speed with this simple -contrivance (Fig. 227) on a _steep_ hill. It is not good, however, -unless the pitch is steep. You can even get a good deal of sport from -this apparatus in the summer on a _very steep_ grassy knoll. - - -=Wooden Guns and Pistols.=--A gun on the principle of that shown in Fig. -228, the projectile power being furnished by elastic (rubber) cord, is -easily made. - -[Illustration FIG. 228.] - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square,_, _Saw_, -_Spokeshave_, _Knife_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -First saw the outline of the gun from a straight-grained pine or -whitewood board. This can be quickly and cheaply done at any -wood-working mill. The gun can then be finally shaped with the -spoke-shave and knife. The rasp and file can be used (see _Rasp_ and -_File_.). Much of the shaping can be done with the draw-knife (see -_Draw-knife_), and, in fact, the whole can be whittled out with a knife -if other tools are wanting. - -[Illustration FIG. 229.] - -[Illustration FIG. 230.] - -The most difficult parts of the work are the groove for the arrow and -the arrangement of the trigger. Much care is needed to cut an accurate -groove with a gouge (see _Gouge_), and, unless you are skilled, you can -get a truer result by having this done by a carpenter or at a mill. A -mortise (see _Mortising_) must be cut for the trigger long enough to -allow it sufficient play (Fig. 229). The arrangement of the trigger is -shown in Fig. 229. The elastic underneath the barrel (at the lower end -of the trigger) must be sufficiently powerful (combined with its -additional leverage) to balance the elastic which propels the arrow, so -that the trigger will remain in position and hold the upper elastic -drawn, until the pressure of the finger on the trigger releases it. - -[Illustration FIG. 231.] - -[Illustration FIG. 232.] - -[Illustration FIG. 233.] - -The barrel of the gun is sometimes built of three pieces (Fig. 230, -showing section) of thinner stock, which obviates the grooving but makes -more work otherwise. The groove can be left open on top (Fig. 230) or -covered with a thin strip (Figs. 231 and 232). In the latter case a -depression must be made in the barrel, so that when the strip is put on -there will be a long slot in which the string can play back and forth -(Fig. 232). With this arrangement you can make a notch (Fig. 233) to -hold the cord when drawn. The trigger can be of wood or wire, pivoted on -a screw or nail, so that when pulled the string will be pushed up and -released (Fig. 233). - -A tube is sometimes fastened to the barrel, as in a real gun, and a -plunger is sometimes fitted to the tube to start the arrows, or bullets -in case they are used (Fig. 234). - -[Illustration FIG. 234.] - -[Illustration FIG. 235.] - -[Illustration FIG. 236.] - -The ends of the elastic cord can be fastened to screw-eyes at the -muzzle. A piece of leather thong or cord inserted at the middle of the -upper elastic cord will wear better than the rubber at that point. - -Another form of trigger is shown in Fig. 235, which can also be made of -stiff wire (Fig. 236). - -[Illustration FIG. 237.] - -To finish the gun nicely, it should be scraped (see _Scraper_) and -sandpapered with fine sandpaper (see _Sandpaper_). It can then be -finished with oil and shellac or varnish (see _Shellac_, _Varnish_, -_Finishing_). - -These same methods of construction can, of course, be applied to a -pistol. - -[Illustration FIG. 238.] - -A bow-gun or crossbow (Fig. 237) can be made on the same principle, -using a bow instead of the elastic, and inserting it in a hole made -through an enlargement of the under side of the barrel (Fig. 238). - - -=Sleds.=--Common sleds can be bought so cheaply that it is hardly worth -while, as a rule, to make them. Many are so poorly made, however, and -will stand so little rough usage, that a few suggestions may be of value -if you should wish to make a really serviceable one yourself. - -Take the dimensions from any sled which suits you. Avoid making your -sled too high, however, as one ten or twelve inches high will coast no -better than a low sled, and requires much more bracing to be strong. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -in Part V., and look up any other references. - -[Illustration FIG. 239.] - -The runners and cross-pieces should be of straight-grained oak, maple, -ash, or other strong wood; 7/8" stock will do. Mark the runners -carefully on the wood, according to your working-drawing (Fig. 239), and -before sawing them out bore the holes for the rope (see _Boring_). Saw -out the runners, or have them sawed by machine, and see that the curves -are the same on each. - -[Illustration FIG. 240.] - -Get out three cross-pieces (Fig. 240) about 2" wide, and from 7/8" to -1-1/4" thick, with a shoulder at each end as shown. Mark and cut the -mortises (see _Mortising_) in the runners (Fig. 239). - -Put these parts together, forming the frame of the sled (Fig. 241), -driving a pin through each mortise and tenon and adding the L irons -shown in Figs. 241 and 242. - -The seat may be thinner than the runners, and is to be fitted between -them and to be screwed to the cross-pieces (see _Screws_). The thickness -of the stock for the seat must be borne in mind when laying out the -mortises in the runners. - -[Illustration FIG. 241.] - -[Illustration FIG. 242.] - -Machine-planed stock is, of course, as smooth as is necessary for a -sled, but smoothing by hand (see _Plane_, _Scraper_, and _Sandpaper_) -will give a nicer surface. The runners can be shod at the blacksmith's -with half-round irons, or round steel can be used with iron at the ends. -In case of steel spring irons the runners can be slightly grooved on the -edge, so far as may be necessary to keep the irons in place. The irons -can be 1/2" to 5/8" in diameter. - -Finish with paint (see _Painting_) or with oil, shellac, and varnish -(see _Finishing_). - - * * * * * - -A "double-runner," "bob," or "traverse" sled can be built to good -advantage. The sleds can be made as just described, or ready-made ones -can be used. See that they are well put together, of the same width, and -securely braced, as the strain upon them is great. The length of the -double-runner is a matter of choice, of course. As to the height and -width, however, if the coasting is straight, smooth, and comparatively -safe there is no objection to a high seat, with a comfortable foot-board -on each side for the passengers' feet, if you wish. But if you are going -to coast on long, rough hills, with sudden curves and pitches to be -taken in uncertainty and at whirlwind speed--the kind of coasting for -real fun and exhilaration--avoid the luxurious top-heavy double-runners -frequently seen. Make the sleds rather broad (18" is not too wide for -the "track" of a 16' sled; which is a very long sled, however), and keep -the height of the top-board down to about 10" or less. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -in Part V., and look up any other references. - -[Illustration FIG. 243.] - -The seat-board can be from 8' to 16' long, and about 12" to 14" wide. -Board thickness is sufficient for a short seat, but if long a 1-1/4" -plank should be used. If you have in mind to make a very long sled you -should consider, before beginning, that you must either use a quite -thick plank to get the necessary stiffness, which will add to the weight -of the double-runner, or the plank must be stiffened or "trussed" with -rods beneath like a bridge, which will add to the expense and labour. It -should be of strong, elastic, straight-grained wood, free from bad knots -or defects, as the strain upon it is great. It should not be too -yielding and springy, however, or it may sag inconveniently. Clear hard -Southern pine or ash is good. A plank of stiff spruce of good quality -will do. The rear end can be rounded, as shown (Fig. 243). - -Machine-planing is sufficient for the sides of the seat-plank, but the -edges should be planed carefully (see _Plane_), and the angles slightly -rounded off with the plane, spoke-shave, or rasp and file (see -_Spokeshave_, _Rasp_, and _File_) to prevent splinters. - -[Illustration FIG. 244.] - -[Illustration FIG. 245.] - -To enable the front sled to turn properly, get out two pieces of 2" -plank, as shown in Fig. 244, about 3" wide and as long as the width of -the sled, one being tapered toward the ends on the under side. The -tapering is important, as it diminishes the friction when the front sled -is turned. Screw one of these pieces firmly across the top of the front -sled and the other across the lower side of the seat-board (see -_Screws_), a hole being bored through the centre of each cross-piece (as -well as through the seat-board and the top of the front sled) for the -king-bolt upon which the front sled turns. Find these centres accurately -and bore carefully with a bit 1/16" larger than the king-bolt (see -_Boring_). The front sled should turn very freely and easily, and have -plenty of play, but the bolt should not fit loosely enough to make the -double-runner rickety. - -A washer can be inserted between the cross-pieces. Sometimes a thick -rubber washer is used to lessen the shock (Fig. 245). - -[Illustration FIG. 246.] - -To give the ends of the rear sled freedom to play up and down (without -turning sideways) in passing over the inequities of the surface the -arrangement shown in Fig. 243 (and enlarged in Fig. 246) is good. Do not -make this of 7/8" stock. Pieces of plank should be used, the dimensions -being so arranged that the seat-board will be equally raised from the -front and rear sleds. The pins at the ends of the cross-piece should be -not less than 1" in diameter (1-1/4" is better) and should be carefully -cut (see _Paring_ and _Rounding Sticks_). The best way is to have them -turned to fit the holes in the rocker-shaped pieces. The latter should -be long enough (about 1') to prevent danger of the wood breaking apart -near the hole and to allow for screwing firmly to the seat-board. - -[Illustration FIG. 247.] - -Another way, sometimes adopted, is to use two cross-cleats with two -bolts (queen-bolts) and thick rubber washers (Fig. 247), the bolts being -loose enough in the holes to allow the necessary amount of play. Ropes -or chain can be fastened from the rear sled to the seat-board, to -prevent too much dropping of the former. - -[Illustration FIG. 248.] - -Many arrangements for steering have been invented. A cleat at the -forward end of the seat-board to brace the feet against, the sled being -guided by the ropes held in the hand (Fig. 248), is a simple way, though -requiring more strength and steadiness of arm, when the coast is rough -or dangerous, than is possessed by many steersmen. The brace for the -feet should be bolted to the seat-board or strongly screwed from above -and beneath. Another equally simple way is to screw the brace for the -feet upon the forward sled (Fig. 243), cutting a shallow gain in the -tops of the runners to hold it more securely. In this way of steering -the arms can reinforce the legs, or the steering can be done by the legs -alone. It is a very effective method, which gives a high degree of -control of the forward sled without cumbersome tackle and leaves the -seat-board free of obstructions.[22] - -[Illustration FIG. 252.] - -[Illustration FIG. 253.] - -In case of a high double-runner, running foot-boards along each side can -be added. A simple way to fasten these is by means of pieces of -strap-iron bent as shown in Fig. 252 and screwed to the under side of -the seat-board, with the foot-boards fastened to the projecting arms -(Fig. 253). The dimensions to which the irons should be bent depend upon -the height and size of the double-runner, but you should take pains that -the space between the edge of the seat-board and the foot-board is such -that the feet cannot become caught. - -The problem of contriving a perfectly successful brake for a -double-runner has not yet been solved. Like all other apparatus for -emergencies it should be as simple as possible. Unless it is _sure_ to -work it will be worse than not to have one, as you will come to rely on -it. The steersman is usually the one who first realises the need of -braking, and when practicable he is the one upon whom it naturally -devolves. If he steers with the hands he can brake with the foot against -a lever as shown below, but if he steers with the feet it is pretty -risky business trying to brake also with the foot and, unless you can -contrive some way by which he can safely and quickly brake by hand (not -an easy thing to do), the brake had best be worked by the rider at the -rear. This has some obvious disadvantages. A few ideas are given below, -but are not recommended as thoroughly satisfactory. - -[Illustration FIG. 254.] - -[Illustration FIG. 255.] - -The simple and primitive way, so often used in the country by drivers of -heavily loaded sleds, of dropping a chain under the runner is an -effective method of braking, provided you have some sure method of -dropping the chain under the runners. Fig. 254 shows a method which can -be worked from either the forward or rear end of the double-runner. In -the plan, or top view (Fig. 254), the details of the arrangement (being -beneath the seat) would ordinarily be represented by dotted lines, but -in this case, on account of the small size of the drawing, they are -shown by full lines, as they would look if the seat-board were -transparent. A way of holding up the middle of the chain is shown in -Fig. 255. A small block _a_, perhaps 3" long, is screwed to the under -side of the seat and the chain is held against it by the pivoted bar _b_ -(which is pivoted to the seat-board by a bolt and is kept in position by -the spring), and on the under side of which a piece of metal is screwed -at one end, which prevents the chain from dropping. The end of the bar -_b_ is connected by a wire with the lever in front. When the lever is -pushed by the steersman's foot the bar _b_ is pulled away from the block -_a_ and the chain falls by its own weight under the runners of the rear -sled, which quickly brings the double-runner to a standstill. Fig. 256 -shows the bar held in position by the spring. Fig. 257 shows the -position of the bar after the lever has been pressed, with the open -space which allows the chain to drop. The same apparatus can be worked -from the rear end of the double-runner by simply having the wire to be -pulled led back (Fig. 258), where it can be worked directly by the hand -or you can contrive a lever to be raised. - -[Illustration FIG. 256.] - -[Illustration FIG. 257.] - -[Illustration FIG. 258.] - -A method of braking sometimes used is by means of a crooked lever formed -from an iron rod, one end of which is pulled up by the hand while the -lower part has one or more prongs which dig into the surface and stop -the sled. Fig. 259 shows a form sometimes used, and Fig. 260 a top view -showing position of the handle and prongs when not in use. Any -blacksmith can arrange this apparatus, which is attached to the rear -sled. A similar arrangement can be contrived to work by the steersman's -foot if desired. One prong, attached to the under side of the -seat-board, can be arranged as suggested (side view) in Fig. 260a. - -[Illustration FIG. 259.] - -[Illustration FIG. 260.] - -The double-runner should be thoroughly oiled, and a coat of shellac, -followed after a day or two by a coat of varnish, will add much to its -durability as well as to its appearance. Lubricate the working parts -with soap or tallow. - -If you have a gong, it should be worked by someone other than the -steersman. - -The rear sled is sometimes arranged to swivel like the front sled and to -be steered by a second steersman, somewhat after the fashion of a long -hook-and-ladder truck. This gives good command of the double-runner on -curves. - -[Illustration FIG. 260a.] - - * * * * * - -=Gymnastic Apparatus.=--It will, in most cases, be out of the question -for you to attempt to put up any building roomy enough for a "gym," but -sometimes a number of you can club together and get the use of some -vacant room in which satisfactory apparatus can be fitted at moderate -expense. Some of it may be rather primitive compared with the mechanism -of a modern college gymnasium, but will answer the purpose so far as -getting up muscle is concerned. Most of you can find a place for one or -more pieces of apparatus, either indoors or out. Much outdoor apparatus -can be supported on posts driven into the ground, or even by fastening -to trees. The outdoor apparatus is usually easier and cheaper to make, -but has the obvious disadvantages of not being usable in bad weather or -winter, to any great extent, and will not last so long on account of -exposure to the weather. If, however, you fix things the right way and -take the movable parts indoors during the bad weather, such a "gym" will -last until it is outgrown, or until the next generation grows up to -build a new one. If indoors have the room well ventilated. Often the -second story of a barn makes a capital gymnasium. The few simple pieces -of apparatus given here will be treated independently, as it is of -course impossible to tell how you will be obliged to arrange them. You -can vary the designs or proportions to suit the circumstances. - -White ash, hickory, oak, hard pine, and for some purposes fir, spruce, -and white pine, are suitable for gymnastic apparatus. For everything -which is to stand violent strain or wrenching, as the horizontal bars, -vaulting poles, and such things, use _air_-dried stock, if possible, -avoiding kiln-dried, as the latter is more brittle and inelastic, and -often utterly unfit for such uses (see Chapter III.). Of course for such -parts only the toughest woods should be used, as white ash, hickory, -oak, spruce. - - * * * * * - -=Parallel Bars.=--A useful form (and not beyond the skill of an amateur) -is shown in Fig. 261. The height must, of course, depend upon the -gymnast, and can range from 3' 6" to 5' 6", the width inside (between -the bars) from 14" to 19", and the length from 6' to 8'. - -[Illustration FIG. 261.] - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -The base of the apparatus can be simply made of 2" x 6" planks, as shown -in Fig. 261, and fastened by screws (see _Screws_), or, as shown in Fig. -262, the pieces can be halved at their intersections (see _Halving_), in -which case thicker stock may be used. For a small pair of bars the -planks for the base can be somewhat lighter. - -[Illustration FIG. 262.] - -The upright posts should be of strong wood not less than 2" x 4" (unless -for a very small pair of bars) and should be mortised at top and bottom, -as shown in Figs. 263 and 264 (see _Mortising_). These joints should be -pinned. - -The bars themselves should be of the best white ash (hickory, oak, hard -pine can be used), not less than 2" x 3" (unless for a small pair of -bars). The arrangement and object of the iron braces is plain. - -[Illustration FIG. 263.] - -[Illustration FIG. 264.] - -After the apparatus is all fitted together, take off the bars and -carefully round the top edges for the entire length (see _Rounding -Sticks_). The ends which project beyond the posts can also be rounded on -the under side (_i.e._, made elliptical in section, as shown), if -desired. - -Machine-planing is sufficient for this apparatus, except for the bars -themselves, which should be carefully smoothed by hand (see _Plane_, -_Scraper_, _Sandpaper_), although, of course, the whole will appear more -nicely finished if smoothed by hand. The square edges should be "broken" -(_i.e._, slightly bevelled or rounded) so as not to be too sharp in case -of contact with them. - -The whole apparatus can be simply oiled thoroughly, or can be given in -addition one or more coats of shellac or varnish (see _Finishing_), but -a coat of oil is sufficient for the bars themselves, as they will be -polished by use. - -This arrangement has the advantage of being portable, but of course the -base can be omitted, if desired, and the posts fastened directly to the -floor. If mortises cannot be cut in the floor, blocks can be screwed to -the floor around the base of each post so as to form a socket into which -the post will fit. - -Parallel bars can be readily made for outdoor use by simply setting four -upright posts (not less than 3" x 4") firmly in the ground, at the same -distances apart as specified for the movable bars described above, and -fastening the bars to the tops of the posts by mortise and tenon, as -already shown (Fig. 263). The posts should reach 3' or more below -ground, both on account of the frost and to give increased steadiness, -and the earth should be thoroughly tamped down around them with a -sharp-pointed bar or stick. This apparatus should be thoroughly oiled -and can be varnished (see _Finishing_). The posts should be of good -thickness at the ground, but can be tapered toward the top, on the -outside, to the thickness of the bars. - - * * * * * - -=Horizontal Bar.=--A design suitable for the =amateur= wood-worker is -shown in Fig. 265. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -First make the upright posts or guides. These are somewhat like a trough -in shape, side boards about 6" wide being screwed (see _Screws_) on the -sides of a 2" x 3" joist. Fig. 266 shows sections in the middle and at -each end, blocks being inserted at the ends for strength. The joist can -be of any strong wood. The side boards, which serve as guides for the -bar, had best be of hard wood. Hard pine, oak, maple, ash, or any strong -wood can be used. You will require two of the joists and four side -boards, all sawed squarely off the exact height of the room.[23] - -The usual way would be to get out the pieces a little too long and, -after they are fastened together, to saw off the ends so as to give the -required length. Gauge lines on each side of the upright pieces (see -_Gauge_) and intersect these lines at regular distances by others -squared across and around three sides of the uprights, thus determining -the places for the holes for the pins which hold the bar in position. -These can be bored from each side with a 3/8" bit (see _Boring_). - -[Illustration FIG. 265.] - -[Illustration FIG. 266.] - -Another way sometimes adopted when you have one or two stout timbers on -hand or already in position for the posts is to screw two upright cleats -of plank to the inner side of each timber, thus forming the groove for -the bar, as shown in section in Fig. 267. - -[Illustration FIG. 267.] - -The uprights can now be fastened in place, taking care to have them -exactly vertical and in line with each other. The distance apart will -depend on the length of the bar. The uprights can of course be mortised -into the floor, or the wood-work above, if the conditions admit, but it -will usually answer every purpose to hold each end in place by four -cleats firmly screwed to the floor or ceiling. It is usually simpler to -have these uprights extend to the ceiling, but this is not necessary, -and in some cases it may be advisable to brace them to the floor only, -by wooden or iron braces, in some of the ways already shown, or they can -be guyed with wire rope and turnbuckles. - -The bar you had best have made or buy already made, in which case you -can arrange the dimensions and position of the uprights to fit the bar. -It can be from 5' in length to perhaps 6' 9" (6' is a good length), and -should be not less than 1-3/4" in diameter, +nor over+ 2". -It should be of the best clear, straight-grained white ash or hickory -(air-dried, not kiln-dried). One having a steel rod for a core is the -best. The ends can be left square and bound with a square ferrule or -band of iron of the right size to slip easily up and down in the grooves -of the upright guides (Fig. 268). Any blacksmith can arrange this, as -well as the pins to hold the bar. This apparatus can be finished in the -same way as the parallel bars just described. - -[Illustration FIG. 268.] - -[Illustration FIG. 269.] - -A suggestion for a post for outdoor apparatus is given in Fig. 269. The -post should be set in the ground at least 3' and the earth well tamped -down around it with a pointed bar or stick. The lower ends of the braces -can themselves be set in the ground or abut against heavier posts set in -the ground. This apparatus should be protected from the weather as in -the cases described above. - -=Vaulting Apparatus.=--You can buy iron standards or bases, and of -course the whole apparatus, for high jumping and pole vaulting, but it -is a simple matter to make a pair of uprights that will answer the -purpose satisfactorily (Fig. 270). - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -Take two straight sticks 10' or 12' long and about 2-1/2" square. Taper -each piece with the plane until about 1-1/2" square at one end. Make -each base of two pieces of board about 4" wide and perhaps 3' long, as -shown in Fig. 270, or halve two pieces of plank (see _Halving_). Mortise -the larger ends of the posts into these bases as shown in Fig. 271 (see -_Mortising_). - -[Illustration FIG. 270.] - -[Illustration FIG. 271.] - -Before fastening the posts to the standards, mark a line along the -middle of one side of each post. On this line lay off feet and inches -from the bottom and carefully bore a quarter-inch hole through the posts -at each of these points (except, of course, those near the ground) for -the pins which are to support the cross-bar or cord (see _Boring_). Then -fit the posts in the mortises and brace them by three braces each. The -ends of the braces can be cut at a mitre and screwed in place, or the -blacksmith will make iron braces for a small sum (Fig. 271). Finish like -the other apparatus already described. - -Vaulting poles should be round, very straight-grained, from air-dried -(not kiln-dried) stock of light, strong wood, as spruce, free from knots -or any cross-grained, weak spots. The thickness should of course depend -on the length, but should not be less than 1-1/4" for an 8' pole (which -is quite short), and the pole should taper toward each end (see -_Rounding Sticks_). - - * * * * * - -=Spring-Board.=--A form not difficult to make is shown in Fig. 272. The -framework can be made of any strong wood, but the spring-board itself -should be of the best quality of clear, straight-grained white ash. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -First make the base or framework. Get out two pieces of 2" x 3" plank -for the outside pieces (to stand on edge) and +screw blocks+ of -the same plank at each end to raise the pieces from the ground as shown. -Place these pieces so that they spread apart slightly at the forward -end (Fig. 272), being about 22" apart at the rear end. Fit a cross-tie -to connect these stringers at about 2' from the forward end. - -[Illustration FIG. 272.] - -Another cross-bar, resting on the stringers, is placed nearer the rear -end, and about 1' from the rear end a piece of 3" x 4" joist is fitted -between the stringers and held in place by a bolt passed through it and -the stringers. This should be loose enough to allow the block to turn. - -The spring-board can be made of five strips of 7/8" stock, 4" wide and -6' long, screwed to a cleat at the forward end, and securely bolted to -the block at the rear end. - -This apparatus can be finished as in the cases described above. - - * * * * * - -=Vaulting-Horse.=--A simple affair (Fig. 273) can be easily arranged by -making a box, perhaps 5' long and 8" or 10" square, which can be -supported by flaring legs of joist as shown in the illustrations. - -[Illustration FIG. 273.] - -[Illustration FIG. 274.] - -First make the box (see _Box-making_, in Part II.). The corners and -edges should be rounded (Fig. 274), and the whole padded and covered -with such materials as you may have at hand or can afford for the -purpose. Laying out and sawing the bevels for the tops of the legs is -the hardest part of the job. Transfer the bevels carefully from your -working drawing to the wood, and saw as exactly to the lines as you can. -See also _Scribing_. Unless you have had much experience some paring -will probably be required to make all the legs fit. To make the horse -stand evenly see _Scribing_, _Winding-sticks_, etc. The other general -directions given for the apparatus described above will suffice for this -horse. - -[Illustration FIG. 275.] - -A horse for outdoors (Fig. 275) can be simply made of a log, perhaps 1' -in diameter, smoothed and with the ends rounded, and mounted (by -mortising) upon posts set in the ground (see _Mortising_). The top can -be covered with rubber, as indicated in the illustration. - -The posts should be set at least 3' in the ground, and the earth well -tamped around them with a pointed bar or stick. - -The apparatus can be finished as in the cases given above. - - * * * * * - -=Giant Swing.=--This piece of apparatus is excellent for outdoors, and -affords considerable sport (Fig. 276). - -[Illustration FIG. 276.] - -[Illustration FIG. 277.] - -[Illustration FIG. 278.] - -You must have a pole or mast from 15' to 25' long and from 6" to 10" in -diameter at the lower end. At the smaller end there should be an iron -ring or ferrule. This can be heated and driven on, when it will shrink -so as to fit tightly and save the end from splitting. The upper end of -the pole should first be squarely sawed off (see _Saw_). The swing -ropes, of which you can have two or four (as you wish), can be fastened -by hooks to a pivot set into the top of the post (see _Boring_), the -latter being firmly set up in the ground. The blacksmith can quickly fix -a pivot with hooks or pins and with a washer, to which you can fasten -the ropes (Fig. 277). The lower ends of the ropes can be fastened at the -proper height to sticks for handles. Loops can also be made in which to -rest one leg if you wish. Of course you must have plenty of room for -swinging around. In setting up the pole dig a hole 3' or 4' deep and -after placing the pole tamp the earth compactly down around it with a -pointed bar or stick. - -A cheaper way, but hardly as good, is to drive a 1" or 3/4" rod in the -top of the pole, and get out a stout piece of hard wood, 3" or 4" square -and 1-1/2' or 2' long, with a hole in the middle to fit the rod, and -smaller holes near each end for fastening the ropes by a knot (Fig. -278). A washer can be put under the wooden bar, or the top of the pole -may be slightly rounded. - - * * * * * - -=Other Apparatus.=--There are, of course, other useful forms of -apparatus involving more or less wood-work, such as hanging poles, fixed -upright and slanting poles or bars, and various contrivances which you -can readily arrange without more special instruction than has been -given. - - * * * * * - -Ladders are of course good, but it is usually as well for the amateur to -buy these. A suggestion for a framework for hanging rings, trapeze, -poles, rope ladders, and the like, with fixed ladders and horizontal -bar, is given in Fig. 279. - -[Illustration FIG. 279.] - -Do not make such framework too light. Fasten the joints with bolts -rather than screws or nails, and suspend the hanging apparatus from -eye-bolts passing through the timber and with washers under the nuts. -The dimensions for such framework must depend upon the circumstances. -The suggestions about the construction of the other pieces of apparatus -given above will assist you in designing and constructing something to -suit the circumstances. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[20] All of this work can be done cheaply at any mill, leaving the -rounding or bevelling of the edges and the bending of the ends for you -to do yourself, and for that matter the rounding or bevelling can be -done by machine. - -[21] Mrs. Alec Tweedie says of the way skis are worn in Norway: - -"The toes are fastened by a leather strap. Another strap goes round the -heel in a sort of loop fashion, securing the foot, but at the same time -giving the heel full play. A special ski boot is worn over enormously -thick horsehair stockings. This boot has no hard sole at all, and, -instead of being sewn at the sides, the large piece of thick leather -which goes under the foot is brought well over the top and secured to -what might ordinarily be called a leather tongue. At the back of the -boot is a small strap, which is used to fasten the ski securely to the -boot. Once fixed on the ski, the boot is so secure no fall can loosen -it, and the only way to extricate the foot is to undo the three straps." - -[22] Various contrivances for steering with a wheel or cross-bar are -sometimes used. These work well if properly attached, and for reasonably -safe coasting can be recommended, but where a "spill" is likely to -occur, it may be well to consider the chance of being injured by these -obstructions in front of the steersman. - -[Illustration FIG. 249.] - -[Illustration FIG. 250.] - -[Illustration FIG. 251.] - -Fig. 249 shows the king-post squared at the lower end (and tapering) to -be fitted to a tapering mortise in the cross-cleat of the forward sled -and held down by the screw and nut at the extreme end. A wheel is -attached to the upper end. Any blacksmith can make an arrangement like -this, or the bottom of the king-post can be split (Fig. 250) and screwed -to the front sled, and the top can be made with a bar instead of a wheel -(Fig. 251). - -[23] You can get this height by taking two sticks whose combined length -is somewhat greater than the height of the room. By letting the ends lap -over one another in the middle, the sticks can be slipped along on each -other until they just reach from floor to ceiling. Hold them tightly -together (or fasten them with a clamp) when in this position and you -will have the exact length required. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -FURNITURE - - -Some article of furniture is frequently one of the first objects upon -which the beginner (particularly the amateur of mature years) tries his -hand; and boys, as well as their elders, sometimes confidently undertake -pieces of cabinet-work which would tax to the utmost the skill of an -experienced cabinet-maker, only to be discouraged by the unsatisfactory -result. - -Do not be beguiled by the captivating sketches and descriptions in the -popular magazines and papers which tell you how someone, at an expense -of perhaps only $2.98, easily made a roomful of desirable furniture out -of packing-cases, old bedsteads, barrels, soap-boxes, broomsticks, and -the like, with only the household hammer, saw, and screw-driver, and a -liberal supply of putty, coloured varnish, and the occasional help of -the "village carpenter." - -That sort of work does very well for your feminine relatives if they -wish to amuse themselves in such ways or to contrive makeshifts to save -the expense of furniture made in the usual way. You can very well help -them in such work, or do it for them, and some very neat, cheap, and -serviceable things can be made of such materials (particularly with the -use of cloth)--but that is not the way for _you_ to begin your -cabinet-making. Learn to do good, plain, simple, useful work in the -simplest, most straightforward, practical, _workmanlike_ way. When you -can do that, if you wish to exercise your ingenuity in patching up -useful articles from discarded ones you will know how to do it properly. - -Be sure to begin with simple articles, avoiding attempts at elaborate -decoration. Do not spend your time in making a useless object merely -because you think it is pretty. Think first whether your design is -suited for the purpose intended. If you start to make a case for your -books, select or make your design accordingly, and do not be misled, by -the multitude of overelaborated articles with which the market is -flooded, into making a parlour bric-a-brac cabinet, all built up of -turning, and jig-sawing, and machine-made carvings, too complicated and -fragile for practical use, with the result that the books continue to be -stored on a closet shelf or on the floor. - -Next look to the block-form or general proportions of the object. The -importance of this is often wholly overlooked by the average -amateur,--sometimes because he is too engrossed in trying to make the -details pretty,--but it is essential in making a handsome piece of -furniture. No amount of exquisite carving, inlaying, or decoration of -any kind (however beautiful in itself) will make an ill-shaped, badly -proportioned article a thing of beauty; while a well-shaped and -well-proportioned object will be pleasing to the eye even if free from -decoration of any kind. - -Of course, no rule can be given for designing a handsome piece of -furniture any more than for painting a beautiful picture, but when you -have sketched out the general shape and proportions and think you have -done as well as you can, there is one thing it is well to bear in -mind--that the average amateur is much more likely to spoil the -appearance of his work by adding too much so-called ornamentation than -by leaving the work too plain. When you become proficient enough to add -carving, or other form of decoration, to your work, by all means use any -skill you may have in such ways, but even then remember not to use such -ornamentation too freely. Avoid "gingerbread" work, meaningless -jig-sawed decorations, and machine-made carvings, turned out by the -gross. - -Look at some of your great-grandmother's furniture (if you are fortunate -enough to be able to do so) and think how long it has lasted, and -compare it with the cheap modern furniture after the latter has been in -use for a few years. How much of the latter would be in existence now if -it had been made when the ancestral articles were? The durability of the -old things is partly due to the quality of the wood and its seasoning. -The use of whole pieces (instead of scraps of all kinds of stuff glued -up with cheap glue), the way the articles were put together, and the -generally honest work put into them had much to do with it. - -Bear in mind in undertaking a piece of cabinet-work that you must hold -yourself to a higher standard in the matter of accuracy of detail, in -order to produce a really satisfactory result, than is necessary for -much of the other work often done by amateurs. Many slight inaccuracies, -which are of little consequence in the rougher kinds of work, become -such gaping and conspicuous defects in cabinet-work as to detract much -from the satisfaction that should be taken in home-made articles. -Remember, then, that while it is easy to make your furniture strong, it -is by no means easy to produce close, accurate joints, smooth, true -surfaces, square, clean-cut edges, and a good, smooth finish. Choose, -therefore, simple forms, easily put together, for your early attempts; -for it is much better to make a modest and unpretentious article well -than to make an elaborate one badly. - -First and foremost, when you come to the actual work, use thoroughly -seasoned wood. This is essential to making permanently satisfactory -furniture, as you will learn after you have spent much time in making an -article out of half-seasoned stock, only to see the ruin of your -carefully executed work begin as soon as the finish is dry, or even -before. - -Although it is very easy to tell you to use nothing but properly -seasoned stock, you will doubtless sometimes be deceived, however, as it -is by no means an easy matter for the beginner to determine; but you can -at least try your best to get wood in suitable condition, for it will be -time well spent. (Read the remarks on seasoning in Chapter III.) - -Be content with the more easily worked woods in your early attempts. Do -not buy highly figured, heavy, and hard San Domingo mahogany (no matter -how beautiful) for your first table or bookcase--nor even quartered oak, -nor mottled walnut burl, nor wavy maple--but begin with plain, -straight-grained material, easy to work. - -White pine is often considered rather cheap and common in appearance, -but it is suitable for many things in the way of furniture. It is one of -the best woods to "stand," or hold its shape, and if not desired of the -natural colour (which, is, however, suitable and attractive for some -objects) it can be painted. It can also be stained, but is not to be -compared with whitewood in this respect. - -Whitewood is, like pine, easy to work, durable, can be obtained in wide -boards, can be painted, and takes a stain exceedingly well. - -Black walnut is good to work and is well suited for furniture, though -its sombre hue is not always desirable. - -Cherry, when soft and straight-grained, is easy to work and is often -(when highly figured or wavy) one of the most beautiful woods. It is -easy to finish. - -Mahogany is a wood of great beauty and durability, and holds its shape -exceedingly well, but the beginner should confine himself at first to -the lighter, softer, straight-grained varieties, which can be easily -obtained. You can then try the more highly figured and harder kinds, -which will tax your skill in smoothing them. - -Oak in its softer, straight-grained forms is well suited to the work of -the beginner. It is durable, and an article made of oak will stand more -abuse without serious defacement than most of the other woods used for -furniture. When quarter-sawed it is more difficult to smooth than plain, -straight-grained oak, but as you acquire skill you will find quartered -oak one of the most satisfactory woods. Oak can be stained if desired. - -Many other kinds of wood are sometimes used, as sycamore, ash, birch, -beech, maple, rosewood, butternut, ebony, etc., but these woods you can -try for yourself, if you wish, as you progress in skill, and thus learn -their peculiar characteristics. - -An important point, not always realised by the amateur, is that the -stock for good furniture should be planed true, that is, free from -winding. Buy stock that is as true as you can find (see Chapter III.) -and have it planed to be as true as possible. Have as much of this -truing done by machine as you can afford, for it is not worth while to -spend an hour in working down a surface by hand (see _Truing Surfaces_, -in Part V.) when a machine will do it in five minutes. There are, of -course, cases in which this accuracy is not essential,--and judgment -must be used, as in all intelligent work,--but, as a rule, it is highly -important that the surfaces should be reasonably true if you wish to do -your work as it should be done. The pieces, when fitted, should come -together easily and naturally, and not require to be sprung or twisted -or bent in order to be able to put the article together. - -Your furniture should always be hand-planed and scraped, for, though the -slight hollows and ridges left by the planing-machine may not be -noticeable while the wood is in its natural state, as soon as the -surface is finished and begins to have a lustre these inequalities -become conspicuous. This applies to any small irregularities of the -surface. You cannot get the surface too smooth. You will be surprised at -first to see how noticeable slight defects in the surface become in the -finished work. - -Curved edges occur often in furniture. Many of these curves can be cut -with a turning-saw or a keyhole- and compass-saw, but the easiest way -(and the most accurate, until you have acquired considerable skill with -the saw) is to have them cut at a mill by a jig-saw or band-saw at but -slight expense. Have a piece of waste wood put on the under side to -prevent the burr, or ragged edge, left by the sawing. These curves can -be smoothed with the spoke-shave alone, or spoke-shave and file, or file -alone, according to the conditions, as you will soon learn by -experience, the final finishing of the surface being given with fine -sandpaper. - -Put the different parts of your article of furniture completely together -once (without glue or nails) to see that everything fits right, that the -joints close properly, and that the whole job is as it should be, before -putting together permanently. - -This often seems to the amateur a needless precaution (and it -occasionally is), but, although it takes some time, it is the practice -with skilled workmen and therefore a precaution which should not be -neglected by the beginner. You will discover the importance of this when -you carelessly assume that all the parts of a writing-desk, for -instance, will come together properly, or that you can easily correct -errors as you go along, only to find, when you have the work nearly put -together that something is wrong. In the effort to mend the trouble you -will be apt to loosen the parts already fastened, or will have to take -the whole apart, which, when glue or nails are used, is particularly -discouraging, and apt to damage the quality of the work. - -Be particular to clamp the parts of your work together thoroughly when -using glue and to allow time enough before removing the clamps (see -_Clamps_ and _Gluing_). - -Care should be taken in putting your work together to get it "square," -that is, to prove the accuracy of the right angles. In some cases this -is of course essential to having the work come together at all. In -others, the appearance will be much injured if the article tips to one -side or is slanting or twisted. In all cases it is essential to the -proper closing up of the joints. It will not do to assume, as the -beginner often naturally does, that because the parts of the work seem -to be accurately made that the whole, when put together, will, -therefore, be square. It must be tested. You will be surprised to see -how much "out of square" and how winding the result of your most careful -work will sometimes be if you do not test it as you put the parts -together. In addition to the obvious way of applying the square (see -_Square_) to the angles, using the large steel square when you can: -there are many cases in which measuring diagonals is a good test, -altering the angles of the work until the two opposite diagonals are -equal, when the work will, of course, be rectangular. This is a good way -for large "case" work, using a stick, or fitting two adjustable sticks, -after the manner described on page 167, between the angles, when the -latter can be altered until the diagonals are equal. - -At the same time that you are testing for squareness you must also look -out for winding, by sighting across the front or back, using -winding-sticks, if necessary. - -When your work has a back fitted in, as in the case of a bookcase or -cabinet, this will help you much in the final adjustment. - -Do not attempt to put your case work together in an upright position, -but upon horses horizontally, or flat upon its back or face. - -It is well to use corner-blocks in the angles of your furniture, in -places where they will not show (see _Corner-blocks_, in Part V.). - -After you begin to acquire some proficiency in your work, a little -beading or chamfering can sometimes be used to good advantage, but it is -well not to be too lavish with this kind of ornamentation. - -Wall-cabinets and other articles to be hung on the wall can be neatly -attached to the wall by brass mirror-plates screwed upon the back. These -should usually be sunk into the wood so that the back will be smooth. - -Your furniture can be finished with oil or wax alone, or with shellac or -varnish, as described in Part V. In the case of articles to be hung -against wall-paper or where any delicate fabric will be exposed, it is -well to avoid finishing with oil alone unless the greatest care is used, -for a very slight surplus of oil will quickly soil the paper. For the -work of the amateur nothing is better than shellac. - -When your work is made of parts which can be readily separated, such -parts as are joined without glue or nails, it is best to take the work -apart before finishing. Unhinge doors and take off locks, escutcheons, -mirror-plates, handles, and the like. Take out removable shelves, backs, -and all detachable parts. Finish all these parts separately and then put -the work together again. You can finish the separate parts better and -more easily, but of course this can only be done with such parts as are -readily separable. - -In some cases it is desirable to stain your furniture, but as a rule you -cannot improve on the natural colouring, which deepens and mellows with -age. If you wish mahogany-coloured furniture, use mahogany, or, if you -cannot afford that, simply paint or stain some cheaper wood of the -desired colour, but do not try to imitate the grain of the mahogany. -There are two objections to these attempts at imitation. First, they are -not honest; and, in the second place, the deception is usually a -failure. - -Finally, be simple and honest in all your designing, your construction -(which above all things should be strong and durable), and your -finishing. Do not put in your room an object which appears at a distance -of ten feet to be a mahogany or black walnut centre-table, but which on -closer examination turns out to be a pine washstand in disguise. - -There are, as you know, hundreds of articles of household utility, other -than those here given, which are suitable for the amateur to make, but -it is hoped that the suggestions about those which are included in this -chapter will be of service in the construction of other objects. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration FIG. 280.] - -=Book-Rack.=--A simple rack for books (Fig. 280) can be of any length -desired, about six inches wide, and of half-inch +stock+ (or slightly -thinner), but the dimensions can be varied according to circumstances. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -Be sure that the bottoms of the ends are accurately cut. The other edges -can be rounded if you wish (see _Spokeshave_ and _File_). The hinges -should be sunk in the wood, so that they will not injure the books (see -_Hinges_). - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - - * * * * * - -=Desk-Rack.=--An easily made arrangement to put on the back of a table -or desk is shown in Fig. 281, and can be made of stock of from 1/2" to -7/8" thickness, according to the size of the rack. - -[Illustration FIG. 281.] - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -First make the two boxes (see _Box-making_, page 219), and then the -shelf above them. This can be fastened to the tops of the boxes by -screws from underneath. The edge can be slightly rounded. The rail or -guard at the back and ends of the shelf should be made independently. -The back and ends can be joined as shown in Fig. 282, and the whole then -fastened to the shelf by screws (see _Boring_ and _Screws_) from -underneath before fastening the shelf to the boxes, or it can be -dowelled on, as shown in Fig. 282a (see _Dowelling_). - -[Illustration FIG. 282.] - -[Illustration FIG. 282A.] - -Partitions can be fitted in the boxes, forming pigeon-holes or -compartments, if desired. These partitions can be nailed in place or, to -be more workmanlike, can be fitted in grooves (see _Grooving_ and -_Shelves_). - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - - * * * * * - -=Hanging Book-Shelf.=--A wall-shelf (Fig. 283) is useful and good -practice for the amateur. It should not be made too deep (from front to -back). Half-inch stock is heavy enough, if the shelf is not more than -two feet long. - -[Illustration FIG. 283.] - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -This shelf can be simply put together by nailing, setting the nails -carefully (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_). Carefully mark lines (using -the square) by which to nail the pieces in their proper places. It is -not worth while to use glue if the parts are put together in this way. A -stronger and more workmanlike way is to groove the lower shelf into the -sides and the sides into the upper shelf (see _Grooving_). In this case -glue should be used and the work tightly clamped (see _Gluing_ and -_Clamps_). It will be much stronger to fit a back between the two -shelves and the sides. This should properly be set in a rabbet cut -around the space, as shown in Fig. 284 (see _Rabbet_). - -[Illustration FIG. 284.] - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - - * * * * * - -=Wall-Cabinet.=--An open cabinet or hanging case for books, magazines, -or other small articles (Fig. 285) can be of any desired proportions, -but should not be very large. Half-inch stock is sufficiently thick. - -[Illustration FIG. 285.] - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -This case should have a back. Rabbets should be cut to receive the back, -as in the case of the wall-shelf just shown (see _Rabbet_), the top and -middle shelves being narrower than the lower shelf by the thickness of -the back. - -This case can simply be nailed together (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_), -but it will be better to groove the shelves into the sides (see -_Grooving_). - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - - * * * * * - -=Hanging Bookcase.=--A simple and useful case for the wall (Fig. 286) -can be made on much the same principle as the small case just shown. It -is well not to make such cases very large, and, unless quite small, -stock from 3/4" to 7/8" in thickness will be suitable. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -Instead of a back, strips can be screwed on vertically (Fig. 286), being -sunk so as to be flush with the back of the case (Fig. 287). - - * * * * * - -[Illustration FIG. 286.] - -[Illustration FIG. 287.] - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - - * * * * * - -=Wall-Shelves.=--An easily made arrangement is suggested in Fig. 288. -The design can easily be varied if you wish. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -The construction is extremely simple, the shelves being merely screwed -on from the back. - -[Illustration FIG. 288.] - -Get out the back and the shelves, and smooth them. Mark lines across the -face of the former at the places for the shelves, bore holes through the -back from the face for the screws (see _Boring_), and countersink the -holes on the back (see _Countersink_). Screw the shelves in place (see -_Screws_) to see that everything is right, then take apart and finish. - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - - * * * * * - -=Pipe-Rack.=--A modification of the shelf arrangement just described -makes a good rack for pipes and other articles for smoking (Fig. 289). - -[Illustration FIG. 289.] - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -This differs from the article just described only in the shape of the -shelves, which have openings in the edge for holding pipes. These -openings can be made either with a fine saw or by boring holes and -cutting in to them from the edge (Fig. 290). - -[Illustration FIG. 290.] - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - - * * * * * - -=Wall-Shelves.=--A quite simple form is shown in Fig. 291, having a -small box with lid. A combination of this form with the design for a -pipe-rack can easily be made if desired. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -The construction is plain from the cases already described. The hinges -should be sunk in the edge of the lid (see _Hinges_). - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - -[Illustration FIG. 291.] - - * * * * * - -=Wall-Cabinet.=--The cabinet shown in Fig. 292 should be rather small, -for if large it will look clumsy. It can be made of half-inch stock. - -[Illustration FIG. 292.] - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -The construction is quite similar to the preceding cases. - -If you have no board wide enough for the back, two can be joined (see -_Jointing_ and _Gluing_). - -The cupboard is simply a box without front or back (see _Box-making_, -page 219) screwed to the back from behind (see _Boring_ and _Screws_). -The shelves at the sides of the cupboard and the bracket underneath it -can be screwed from the back and from the inside of the cabinet, as in -the preceding cases. - -The door (see _Doors_) can be fitted and hung (see _Hinges_) after the -whole has been put together. - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - - * * * * * - -=Corner-Shelves or Cabinets.=--A simple form of hanging corner-shelves -is shown in Fig. 293. This can be of any size, of course, but such -articles look clumsy if made very large. Half-inch stock is heavy enough -unless the case is quite large, when 3/4" or 7/8" thickness can be used. - -[Illustration FIG. 293.] - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -[Illustration FIG. 294.] - -One of the sides can be made wider than the other by the thickness of -the stock, so as to lap over and secure a tight and strong joint at the -back. The top board (with rounding front) can simply be nailed down on -the sides (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_), or, to be more workmanlike, a -rabbet (Fig. 294) can be cut around the edge of the top on the under -side into which to fit the sides, which can be screwed in place (see -_Rabbet_, _Boring_, _Countersink_, and _Screws_). This rabbet should not -come quite to the front edge of the top. - -The shelves can be screwed in place from the back (see _Screws_), -carefully marking lines with the square, for boring the holes, before -putting the case together, and countersinking +the holes+ upon -the back. - -This case (being fastened by screws) can be taken apart for finishing. - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration FIG. 295.] - -A standing cabinet like Fig. 295 can be made in the same manner as the -hanging cabinet just shown, but can, of course, be larger. Stock from -3/4" to 7/8" in thickness can be used. The rail at the top can be made -and put on as directed for the desk-rack shown in Figs. 281 and 282. - - * * * * * - -=Medicine-Cabinet.=--Any small cabinet can be used for medicines by -simply arranging the shelves in any convenient manner. A simple way is -to have a series of horizontal grooves on the inside of each side, into -which the shelves can be slipped at any desired distance apart. A design -for an easily constructed medicine-cabinet for the wall is shown in -Figs. 296 and 297. - -[Illustration FIG. 296.] - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -A good size for a small cabinet is to have the main box-part, the -cabinet proper, about 15" wide, 20" high, and 7" deep. It can be made of -1/2" stock. The construction is like that of the other cases already -shown. The joints should properly be grooved (see _Grooving_ and -_Gluing_), but the whole case can be nailed together, although the -result will be inferior (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_). The back should -be set in a rabbet as in the cases already shown. The arrangement of the -hinges is shown in the illustration (see _Hinges_). - -The partitions can be of thin stock (1/4" or 5/16"). The doors can have -thick cleats, shaped as shown in Fig. 297 (enlarged in Fig. 297a), with -holes bored down from the top for homoeopathic phials. Care must be -taken not to bore the holes through (see _Boring_). Stop boring before -the spur comes through and clean out the bottoms of the holes with a -gouge. - -A small drawer can be fitted to one of the small compartments, as in -Fig. 297 (see _Drawers_). If the edges of the doors are made to lap -slightly where they come together, rabbets being cut on opposite sides -of the edges (Fig. 298), the joint will be tighter, but a little space -must be allowed or the doors may bind. The rest of the details are like -those of the cases already described. - -[Illustration FIG. 297.] - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part. V. - -[Illustration FIG. 297a.] - -[Illustration FIG. 298.] - - * * * * * - -=Bookcases.=--A plain case (Fig. 299) can be made of any desired size. -If quite small 3/4" stock can be used, but ordinarily 7/8" thickness -will be best. The method of construction is practically the same as in -the cases already described. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -The shelves can all be fastened in, if desired, but a good way is to -groove the top and bottom shelves into the sides and make those between -movable (see _Shelves_, in Part V.). - -[Illustration FIG. 299.] - -[Illustration FIG. 300.] - -The back can be fitted by simply cutting a rabbet on the back edge of -each side for the entire length (see _Rabbet_), and making the shelves -of such a width that they will not project beyond the rabbet. A narrow -piece can be screwed from the back lengthways, above the upper shelf, as -shown in Fig. 300. The rest of the back can then be screwed in place -(see _Boring_ and _Screws_). The back, being too wide to be made of one -board, can very well (for a plain case of this sort) be of matched -boards or sheathing.[24] Do not force the back too tightly into -place,--that is, crossways of the boards. Allow a little play for the -expansion and contraction. - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - - * * * * * - -A "knock-down" method of putting together with tenons and wooden pins -(Fig. 301) is not very difficult, but requires care and accuracy. In the -case of the bookcase just shown, the upper and lower shelves can be -pinned through the sides, which will hold the case firmly, and the other -shelves can be movable (see _Shelves_). A case fastened in this way can -be readily taken apart. This method can be applied to other designs for -bookcases and cabinets. - -[Illustration FIG. 301.] - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -The general principle is that of the mortise and tenon (see -_Mortising_). If you cut the mortises for the pins before cutting the -tenons on the ends of the shelves you will avoid the liability of -splitting the tenons. The pins should taper and the angles of the pins -and tenons be very slightly bevelled, that is, the sharp edge taken off. - -The ends of these shelves can be slightly "cut under" or bevelled -inwards (see Fig. 302, which is exaggerated), on the same principle that -the ends of floor boards and the like are sometimes slightly bevelled, -to ensure a closely fitting joint. - -[Illustration FIG. 302.] - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - - * * * * * - -A good form for an open bookcase suitable for the beginner to make is -shown in Fig. 303. This design is suitable for a low, or dwarf, bookcase -of whatever length may be desired. If of quite small size it can be made -of 7/8" stock throughout, but in most cases a thin plank (perhaps 1-1/4" -to 1-1/2" thick) had best be used for the ends. - -A curtain can be added if desired. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -The curves of the ends can be sawed by hand (see _Turning-saw_ and -_Keyhole and Compass Saw_), or better by band-saw and jig-saw at a mill, -and smoothed with spoke-shave and file (see _Spokeshave_ and _File_). -The shelves (at least the upper and lower ones) should be grooved into -the sides and glued (see _Grooving_ and _Gluing_), although, as in the -other cases already described, nails can be used, but the result will be -inferior (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_). - -The plainness of the upright edges of the ends can be relieved by a -little beading (Fig. 305), which you can do yourself or have moulded at -the mill (see _Beading_). - -[Illustration FIG. 303.] - -Little brackets, screwed under the lower shelf at each end, as shown in -Fig. 306, add to the stiffness of the case. A back can be fitted into -rabbets as described above, but in this case it had best not come above -the top shelf, a rabbet being cut on the under edge of the latter as -well as in the sides. The bottom shelf can simply be made narrower and -without a rabbet. - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - - * * * * * - -The bookcase shown in Fig. 304 can be of any desired size and -proportions. It can be of 7/8" stock, although the upright ends can well -be of thin plank. - -[Illustration FIG. 304.] - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -This case can simply be nailed together (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_), -but the more workmanlike way is to groove the sides into the top and the -bottom shelf into the sides (see _Grooving_). The second shelf from the -top can be grooved into the sides, and the upright partition forming the -cupboard can also be grooved in place. This process involves careful -laying out and accurate cutting. The other shelves can be removable. The -base-board can be bevelled or curved on the top edge (or moulded by -machine) and can be mitred at the corners. It can be fastened with fine -nails (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_). The front piece can be glued as -well as the mitred joints. A moulding can be nailed around the top as -shown, being mitred at the corners.[25] - -The other details of construction do not differ from those of the cases -just given, except in the matter of making and fitting the door, for -which see _Doors_ in Part V. - -A common way of making the sides of such cases is to make the side -itself of board thickness, and to face the front edge with a strip -(which can be glued on) from 1-1/4" to 2" wide, according to the size of -the case, in the way shown in Fig. 305 (see _Gluing_). This gives a -wider edge to the side and the shelves can fit behind the facing strip. - -Beading can be worked on this strip, as shown (see _Beading_). - -[Illustration FIG. 305.] - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - - * * * * * - -=Desk and Bookcase.=--Various combinations of book-shelves with a desk -can be arranged. A useful form for a small one is shown in Fig. 306. The -height is of course regulated by the necessary position of the desk-lid -when dropped. The general principles of the construction are the same as -those of the cases already shown. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -The wing, or attachment at the side, can be grooved into the side of the -main part. - -[Illustration FIG. 306.] - -The back should reach across from one part to the other, which will give -stiffness to the whole. - -The desk-lid, which should be set in perhaps 3/8" from the front edge of -the case, can be prevented from dropping too far by chains fastened -inside to the lid and the sides of the case. Various other arrangements -can be bought for holding a desk-lid in the proper place. - -The inside of the lid must of course be smooth. If panelled as in Fig. -306 the panel must be thick enough to be flush with the frame on the -inside (see _Doors_). There will be more or less of a crack around this -panel, but this is unavoidable. Lids of this sort are sometimes made -with a smooth surface (without frame or panelling), but this requires -some form of cleating to prevent warping (see _Cleats_). - -The small brackets under the lower shelf will help to stiffen the case. - -A few shelves can easily be arranged in the desk compartment. If you -wish a number of pigeon-holes and compartments, a good way for the -amateur to fit these is to make an independent case of pigeon-holes and -compartments, without front or back, of thin wood (perhaps 1/4"), and of -such outside dimensions that it will just slip into the desk-space. This -open box-like arrangement can be nailed together with fine brads. - -The best way to make it is by fitting all the divisions into grooves, -but to do this by hand requires more work and care than can be expected -of the ordinary amateur. The grooving can be done by machine. A -convenient arrangement is to have rows of parallel grooves into which -the division boards can at any time be slipped to form compartments of -any desired size. - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - - * * * * * - -=Music-Case.=--The construction of the form shown in Fig. 307 is like -that of the examples already shown. The sides, top, and bottom should be -of 3/4" or 7/8" stock, but the shelves can be thinner. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -This case can be simply nailed together (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_), -but the more workmanlike way is to groove the bottom shelf into the -sides and the sides into the top, as in the cases already shown (see -_Grooving_). - -A moulding at the top can be made as in the bookcase shown in Fig. 304. - -For various ways of putting in the shelves, see _Shelves_, in Part V. - -The back can be thinner (1/4") and should be fitted in a rabbet cut -around, as already shown in the illustrations. - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - -[Illustration FIG. 307.] - - * * * * * - -=Plant-Stands.=--The form shown in Fig. 308 is of quite simple -construction and is useful to hold a large flower-pot. It should be made -of 7/8" stock. The top can be from 8" to 12" square. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -[Illustration FIG. 308.] - -Simply make a box (see _Box-making_, page 219), without top and bottom, -with the grain of the four sides running up and down. Before putting -together saw the curves at the bottom. As the grain of the four pieces -all runs up and down, these sides can be glued together without nailing -(see _Gluing_). Screw four cleats around the inside of the top (Fig. -309) with holes bored in them for screws with which to fasten on the top -from underneath (see _Boring_ and _Screws_). Round the top edge as shown -(see _Spokeshave_ and _File_), and smooth the surfaces. Then, having -shaped the edge of the top as shown in Fig. 308, fasten it in place and -the stand is ready to finish. - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - -[Illustration FIG. 309.] - -The form shown in Fig. 310 is made upon a similar principle, and can be -of a larger size than would be satisfactory for the first pattern. - - * * * * * - -Much care must be taken to so lay out and cut the slanting edges of the -sides that the pieces will come together accurately. After the top has -been fastened on, a little piece of moulding can be put around beneath -the edge of the top as shown, provided you have the skill to do it -neatly. The corners must be mitred, and the moulding fastened on with -fine brads, which must be set (see _Nailing_ and _Nail-set_).[26] - -[Illustration FIG. 310.] - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - -=Tables.=--A plain table, which although not especially ornamental is -serviceable for many purposes, is shown in Fig. 311. It can be made of -any size and proportions and the details can easily be varied. - -[Illustration FIG. 311.] - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -The construction is too simple to require special description. The legs -and the cleats at the top should be of plank thickness, the rest of 7/8" -stock. The legs can be halved where they cross (see _Halving_), or for a -rough job can be simply nailed (see _Nailing_). The cleats at the top of -the legs should be nailed or screwed to the legs, and will act as cleats -to the top, which is fastened to them. The boards forming the top can be -simply laid with the edges touching, for a rough job; but where a good -surface is required the joints should be glued (see _Jointing_ and -_Gluing_) and the surface smoothed afterwards. - -Extra cleats can be put under the top if needed for stiffness, and -additional lengthways stretchers can be added to connect the upper part -of the legs. - -The whole should be planed and sandpapered and can be shellaced or -painted. The remaining details do not differ from those of the subjects -already shown. - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - - * * * * * - -A table of simple construction and neat appearance (Fig. 312) can be of -any desired size and proportions. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -[Illustration FIG. 312.] - -The legs can be from 1-1/2" to 2-1/2" square, according to the size of -the table. After being squared and cut to a length they should be -tapered toward the bottom by planing down two opposite sides and then -the other two. The tapering, however, should not extend to the tops of -the legs, but to a point a little below the bottom of the rails, or -cross-bars, which connect the legs. On the two inner sides of the legs -mortises must be cut to receive tenons on the ends of the rails which -connect the legs, as shown in Fig. 313 (see _Mortising_). These rails -can be of 7/8" stock, the curves on the lower edge being cut with the -turning-saw or compass and keyhole saw, and finished with spoke-shave -and chisel or file. The curves can be omitted, of course, if preferred. - -[Illustration FIG. 313.] - -Do not try to put this table all together permanently at one operation. -First put together two legs and the connecting piece, then the other two -legs and the connecting piece, and finally join these two sides by the -remaining rails. Glue the joints (see _Gluing_) and the parts should be -securely clamped (see _Clamps_) until dry. Corner-blocks can be put in -at the angles (see _Corner-blocks_). - -Holes must be bored in the rails by which to fasten the top. If the -rails are not too deep, vertical holes can be bored, countersinking -deeply if necessary. Deep countersinking can be done by first boring a -hole large enough to admit the head of the screw to the depth required, -when the hole can be continued with a smaller bit. If the depth of the -rail is too great for this process, the hole can be made by a species of -counterboring, making first a larger hole in the side of the rail (on -the inside), an inch or so from the top, and boring down into this hole -from the top. A slanting cut can be made from below with the gouge to -allow the screw to be slipped into the hole (Fig. 314). Another way is -to screw cleats on the inside of the rail with a vertical hole through -which the top can be screwed on (Fig. 315). - -[Illustration FIG. 314.] - -[Illustration FIG. 315.] - -The top, if too wide for one board, should be glued up before being -dressed off (see _Jointing_ and _Gluing_), and the edge shaped and -smoothed. Then, laying the top face downward on the horses or bench, -place the frame upside down upon the top. When in the exact position -mark a line around the inside of the frame, continue the holes in the -frame a little way into the top, using a bit a trifle smaller than the -screws, and then screw the frame securely to the top (see _Boring_ and -_Screws_), measuring carefully to see that you use screws which will not -protrude through the top of the table. Depend entirely on the screws to -hold the top on. Do not fasten a table-top on with glue (see _Laying out -the work_, in Chapter IV.). If the table does not stand even, see -_Scribing_ and _Winding-sticks_. The final scraping (see _Scraper_) of -the top can well be left until the table is put together, when the -whole, after being scraped, can be carefully sandpapered with fine -sandpaper (see _Sandpaper_). - -The remaining details do not differ from those of the articles already -shown. - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Finishing_, in Part V. - - * * * * * - -An excellent centre-table for the amateur to make (Fig. 316) is useful -for many purposes. About three feet square on top is a convenient size. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V. and look up any other references. - -[Illustration FIG. 316.] - -Get out four legs, from 1-1/2" to 2" in diameter, according to the size -of the table. They can be tapered slightly, as in the preceding case. -Groove one side of each leg to receive the end of the cross-partition -shown in the cut (see _Grooving_). These partitions can be 1/2" to 3/4" -thick. One of them can extend across (diagonally) from post to post. The -other can be in two parts, reaching to the centre; or the partitions can -be in four parts, meeting in the centre. This framework of legs and -cross-partitions can be bound together at the top by cleats screwed on -top (Fig. 317), holes being made in the cleats by which they can in turn -be screwed to the top of the table. The lower shelf, or shelves (being -made in four parts), can be fastened up from underneath, cleats, also, -being used if necessary. The shelves can be of 1/2" stock. The upper -shelves can be fitted after the rest is put together and can rest upon -cleats underneath, to which they can be fastened. The shape of the top -is shown in Fig. 317a. - -[Illustration FIG. 317.] - -[Illustration FIG. 317a.] - -The remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases. - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - - * * * * * - -=Small Stand.=--A simple arrangement shown in Fig. 318 involves more -difficulties than many of the other articles shown, but is not beyond -the skill of the careful amateur. A good size is about 13" or 14" across -the top and 17" or 18" high. Such a stand is useful to hold a -flower-pot. - -[Illustration FIG. 318.] - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V. and look up any other references. - -The top can be of 1/2" or 5/8" stock and the legs of 7/8" stock, the -lower part tapering in thickness to 5/8" at the bottom. The curves can -all be sawed at a mill for a small sum, and smoothed with spoke-shave -and file (see _Spokeshave_ and _File_). The underside of the top can be -bevelled at the edge (Fig. 319). This can be done with the spoke-shave. -The file can be used to good advantage in the rounding of the extreme -edge, finishing with sandpaper, but not until after the top surface has -been finally smoothed (see _Spokeshave_, _File_, and _Sandpaper_). - -[Illustration FIG. 319.] - -The curved frame under the top and connecting the legs is to be made in -four pieces, the legs being fitted between them (Fig. 320). These curved -pieces should be got out a little too long and the ends carefully sawed -to make a tight joint with the legs. Be sure that all these parts fit -accurately before you finally put them together. Screw them together, -toeing screws into the legs. Use glue at the joints of the curved frame -and the legs, but do not glue the frame to the top. - -[Illustration FIG. 320.] - -The remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases. - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - - * * * * * - -=Small Table.=--Fig. 321 shows a good form for a small stand suitable -for various purposes, which, although not as easy to make as it looks, -is not too hard for the amateur who has acquired some familiarity with -his tools. It can be made of any desired height or proportions. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -Get out the top as in the small stand last shown. The thickness can vary -from 1/2" to 7/8" according to the size of the table. The legs should -not be fastened directly to the top, but to a cleat framework to be -screwed to the top (Fig. 322). This helps prevent the top from warping. -The legs can be round or six-sided and should be tapered (see -_Rounding-sticks_). A tenon or dowel should be made at the upper end of -each leg to fit into a hole in the cleat framework. - -[Illustration FIG. 321.] - -[Illustration FIG. 322.] - -[Illustration FIG. 323.] - -The hexagonal shelf at the bottom can be of 1/2" stock and should be -notched or grooved into the legs, the extreme angles of the shelf being -cut off (Fig. 323). A fine screw toed from underneath through the shelf -into the leg (Fig. 324) will strengthen the joint, and after the whole -is fastened together, little brackets can be screwed with fine screws in -the angle between the lower shelf and the leg. All the joints should be -glued except where the cleats are fastened to the top, in which case -screws alone should be used. Much care is required to make all these -joints accurately, and to put the whole table together properly. - -[Illustration FIG. 324.] - -The remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases. - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - - * * * * * - -=Footstool or Cricket.=--A common low seat or cricket (Fig. 325) can be -made of 5/8" or 7/8" stock and of any desired size. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -[Illustration FIG. 325.] - -The hardest part of this job is to cut the bevels where the sides meet -the top and at the ends of the stretcher between the sides (see -_Bevelling_). You will probably find it easier to lay out and cut the -ends of the sides before they are tapered. The edges of the top can be -slightly rounded. - -After the parts are nailed together (see _Nailing_) set the nails (see -_Nail-set_). The remaining details do not differ from those of the cases -already described. - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - - * * * * * - -=Out-Door Seat.=--The construction of the plain chair shown in Fig. 326 -is too obvious to require special description. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -This seat can be made of thin plank. The most difficult part is the -bevelling of the joints (see _Bevelling_). - -[Illustration FIG. 326.] - -The remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases. -For the painting see _Painting_, in Part V. - -=Bookcase and Lounge.=--"Combination" articles of furniture are, as a -rule, frequently undesirable on the ground of taste, and often are not -as convenient as to have the parts made separately. But the amateur may -sometimes find it desirable to join two or more different pieces to fit -some particular spot or for some special reason. Examples are given in -the bookcase and desk (Fig. 306), in the combination for a corner (Fig. -328), and in Fig. 327. These are given as suggestive of the kind of -combinations that can be suitably undertaken by the amateur, and many -simple arrangements can readily be contrived when desired. - -[Illustration FIG. 327.] - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -The new principles involved in this design are merely in the -combination. The bookcase and the cupboard (which can be open if -desired) are similar to those already shown, and the lounge is simply a -shelf or box-like arrangement connecting the two. The back of the lounge -is merely a board fastened by screws. The appearance of the article -depends much upon the upholstering. This should not be done until after -the finishing of the wood-work. - -The remaining details are not different from those of the articles -already shown. - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - -[Illustration FIG. 328.] - -Another combination, suitable for a corner, is shown in Fig. 328. The -principles involved are the same as for the other articles already -described and the construction is obvious. - - * * * * * - -=Table and Settle, or Chair-Table.=--This is an excellent form of table -for the amateur to make and is useful for many purposes (Figs. 329 and -330). If of moderate size, it can be made of 7/8" stock, but if large, -and to be subjected to rough usage, thin plank will be more suitable for -the ends and top. Another good form of chair-table can be made on the -same principle by making a narrower seat, or a heavy chair, and -attaching a circular top by hinges to the back of the arms of the seat. - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, -_Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -The framing of the lower part is similar to that of a box. Get out the -upright ends and the front and back of the box part and fit them -together as shown in Fig. 331, a rabbet (see _Rabbet_) or groove being -cut to receive the bottom. The lid, which forms the seat, can be -arranged as shown (see _Hinges_). The top, made like any table-top and -fastened by screws to the deep cleats shown (see _Screws_), is pivoted -to either side of the upright ends by pins when a seat is desired. When -you wish to use the table and the top is lowered, it can be held in -place by inserting pins in the other two holes also. The pins should not -be less than 1/2" or 3/4" in diameter. Care must be used in laying off -the points for making these holes (see _Boring_). - -[Illustration FIG. 329.] - -[Illustration FIG. 330.] - -The remaining details are not different from those of the articles -already shown. - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - -[Illustration FIG. 331.] - -=Cabinet for Guns, Fishing-Rods, Etc.=--A convenient form is shown in -Fig. 332. The construction is similar to that of the bookcases and -cabinets already shown. The stock for the case itself can be 7/8" in -thickness, for the larger divisions 3/4", and for the small partitions -1/2". - -[Illustration FIG. 332.] - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, -_Saw_, _Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -If you make the doors with glass panels, as shown, these can be set in -rabbets cut on the inside of the door frames and held in place by strips -of "quarter-round" moulding. The doors can be fitted between the sides -or can lap over the edges of the sides, as you prefer (see _Doors_). The -drawers can be omitted if too difficult to make well (see _Drawers_), -and small boxes of various sizes stored upon the shelves can be used as -a substitute. - -The remaining details are not different from those of the articles -already shown. - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - - * * * * * - -=Picture Frames.=--These are often undertaken by the amateur, but -making them well is much more difficult than it seems to the beginner. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -If you buy the prepared mouldings so much in use, they will, in most -cases, have to be mitred at the corners, which is an operation by no -means easy for the beginner, particularly when the moulding is sprung or -twisted, as is often the case. Those joints which do not close properly -must be trimmed with the plane, for which purpose the mitre -shooting-board is useful (see page 94), and all four joints should fit -accurately before finally putting together, so that none will have to -be sprung or twisted in order to close up. At the same time you must -guard against winding by sighting across the face, and the angles must -be tested with the square. The clamping together is important in such -work. This can be done by laying the frame flat, nailing strips a short -distance outside of each of the four corners, and driving in wedges -between these strips and the frame until the joints are firmly held -(Fig. 333). This can also be done by putting blocks at the corners and -passing a doubled cord around, which, by inserting a stick, can be -twisted until the frame is held tightly. But making mitred frames of -moulding is not suitable work for the beginner and should be deferred -until you have had some experience (see _Mitring_). - -[Illustration FIG. 333.] - -For a plain frame nothing is better than a joint with mortise and tenon -(Fig. 334), the rabbet (see _Rabbet_) at the back being cut through to -the ends of the shorter pieces (those having the tenons), but being -stopped before reaching the ends of the longer pieces (those having the -mortises), as shown. The latter should be got out too long, so as to -overlap a little at the ends (Fig. 334). This enables you to take the -frame apart more readily when fitting, and with less danger of injury to -the work. The projecting ends can be sawed off after the frame has been -glued together (see _Mortising_, _Gluing_, and _Clamps_). The final -planing and smoothing of the front surface and the edges should be done -after the frame is glued together, careful attention being paid to the -direction of the grain (see _Plane_, _Scraper_, and _Sandpaper_). - -[Illustration FIG. 334.] - -After a frame of this kind is all done, an inner moulding with a row of -beads, or some other simple form, can easily be fitted to the rabbet, -if desired. - -See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, -putting together, and finishing. See also _Finishing_, in Part V. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[24] This method of putting in a back answers very well for the -beginner, and is often used in cheap work, but, unless quite small, the -really workmanlike way is to make a panelled frame, which is screwed in -place as one piece. The degree to which the panelling is carried depends -upon the size and shape of the back. When you become able to make your -work more neatly and accurately than can be expected of the beginner, -you will do well to construct the backs in this way, but it involves -much more labour and is hardly worth while for such simple work as you -will do at first. - -[25] A more workmanlike way is to work all such mouldings on the edge -of the top, making it as much thicker as may be required, thus avoiding -putting on the moulding across the grain of the piece to which it is -fastened, which is not a scientific form of construction; and for that -matter it is a more thoroughly workmanlike way to work all mouldings on -the solid wood. - -The top can be made of two thicknesses, the moulding being worked on -the edge of the under piece before the two are glued together. Various -forms of moulding can be worked on the edge by a moulding machine at -almost any wood-working mill. - -[26] See footnote on page 198. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -A FEW MISCELLANEOUS OPERATIONS - - -=Wooden Chain.=--White pine or any other easily whittled, -straight-grained wood can be used. Take a stick of any length and from -1" to 2" square. If very small the whittling is more difficult. - -[Illustration FIG. 335.] - -[Illustration FIG. 336.] - -[Illustration FIG. 337.] - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Knife_, in Part -V. - -[Illustration FIG. 338.] - -Mark as shown (Fig. 335), and remove the wood at the corners, forming -four rabbets, giving a section of the piece the shape of a Greek cross -(Fig. 336). Next lay out the links, alternating as shown in Fig. 337, -and allowing space enough so that they can have some play when cut. By -notching in from the outside and finally cutting away the wood within -the links, they can be separated. The whittling must be done carefully, -of course, and wholly by _cutting_ with a _sharp_ knife. If you try to -do it by prying or twisting with the blade, you will be likely to split -the wood. Finally, round and smooth the links (Fig. 338), doing as much -of this as you can before the links are separated. Use fine sandpaper -(see _Sandpaper_). Leave the chain in the natural wood or oil and -shellac (see _Finishing_). - - * * * * * - -=Ball and Block.=--White pine or any other easily whittled, -straight-grained wood will do for this whittling exercise (Fig. 339). - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Knife_, in Part -V. - -First get out a cubical block, each edge of which may be, perhaps, -1-1/2" or 2" long. Gauge a line around each side parallel to the edge -and about 1/4" from it (see _Gauge_). Cut straight in on these lines and -then make slanting cuts to meet those first made. Remove the wood on the -same general principle as in cutting a notch, gradually shaping the -middle part into spherical form; while the cuts which are parallel with -the sides finally meet and form four posts between the top and bottom. -The wood must be removed by cuts, not by prying. Trim the ball to be as -nearly spherical as you can. If you wish to make the ring or handle -shown on top, additional length must be allowed in getting out the -original block. The whole can be sandpapered with fine sandpaper (see -_Sandpaper_) and finished with oil or shellac (see _Finishing_). - -[Illustration FIG. 339.] - - * * * * * - -=Box-making.=--In laying out common boxes, bear in mind that the sides, -top, and bottom usually lap over the ends,--the sides over the ends, and -the top and bottom over the sides and ends (Fig. 340). Sometimes, -however, to avoid joints showing on the front, the front and back are -made to lap over the top (Fig. 341), occasionally the ends lap over the -back (Fig. 342), and other arrangements are sometimes made. Do not rely -on glue for these common square joints in box-work, but place your -dependence on nails or screws. - -[Illustration FIG. 340.] - -[Illustration FIG. 341.] - -Either lid or bottom or both can sometimes project slightly to good -advantage (Fig. 343). In nice work, however, the bottom is more often -set in so as not to show, either simply fitting in between the sides and -ends or into a rabbet (see _Rabbet_) cut in the lower edge (Fig. 344, -showing box bottom up). - -[Illustration FIG. 342.] - -[Illustration FIG. 343.] - -The lid or cover can be hinged to the top edge of the back of the box, -or a narrower lid can be used and hinged to a strip fastened at the back -of the box (Fig. 345). Plain lids of this sort, for everything but rough -or temporary work, should be cleated, either by end cleats, by framing, -or simply by cleats on the under side (see _Cleats_ and _Doors_). - -[Illustration FIG. 344.] - -[Illustration FIG. 345.] - -Remember that the joints will be held more tightly (for a permanent box) -if you "toe" the nails (see _Nailing_). - -Mitring is a common way of making box-joints. It is, however, one of the -poorest of all ways in point of strength, and unless done with much -skill,--more skill than the average amateur usually acquires,--the -joints are very liable to come apart, or at least gape open, and be -weaker and look worse than the common, squarely fitted joint first -shown. - - * * * * * - -Glue can be used and is a help. Mitred joints can, however, be -strengthened by splines or keys or pieces let into saw-kerfs (see -_Mitring_). - -A mitred box is hard for an amateur to put together, particularly when -it is to be glued. The whole process should be rehearsed before gluing. -Everything must fit exactly before you begin to finally put the box -together. If you get one corner out of place, all four will probably be -thrown out of position before you get through puttering with them, and -the glue become cold and the operation be spoiled. Only a skilful -amateur can make a box with nicely fitted mitred joints that will hold -permanently. - - * * * * * - -There are various other ways of making joints by machine (see _Joints_). -The rabbeted joint shown in Fig. 346 can be made by hand very well, but -so much quicker with a circular saw that you will save much time by -having it done at a mill. It is a good, strong, neat joint and shows -less wood at the end than the common way. When it is allowable to round -what little end wood there is (Fig. 345) it makes the joint quite -inconspicuous. Glue can also be used to advantage with this joint on -account of the shoulder. - -Dowelling the corners is a method sometimes used. It is easier than -mitring, but by no means a strong joint, unless skilfully made. The -principal advantage of dowelling is in cases where it is objectionable -to have nails show. But, as a rule, there is not much gain in trying to -_conceal_ joints. Certainly not unless you can do the work in the best -of style. - -[Illustration FIG. 346.] - -Learn first to make the common, plain joints accurately, and you can -then attempt the more difficult ones with some chance of success. The -joints can sometimes be reinforced to good advantage by triangular -corner-pieces or posts, glued and screwed in place. - -There is no better or more workmanlike way of putting boxes together -than by some form of dovetailing (see _Dovetailing_), but this process -is hardly one for the beginner to undertake, and should be postponed -until he has acquired considerable skill, for, though the principle of -laying out and cutting dovetails is easy to understand, much exactness -is required in the execution. - -Where the box does not open at the top but lower down, as in Fig. 347, -the best way is not to make the two parts separately, but simply to put -together a tight box and then saw it apart wherever you wish to have it -open. - -Be careful to gauge accurately the line by which to saw it open (see -_Gauge_), and not to drive any nails too near this line. Any which you -omit can easily be added after the sawing. Saw the box open very -carefully on the line. Smooth the edges after the saw, but take pains -not to plane away the wood too hastily, for a very little carelessness -will spoil the joint and necessitate a general truing of the edges. - -[Illustration FIG. 347.] - -[Illustration FIG. 348.] - -A good form for a plain chest is shown in Fig. 348. The construction is -the same as in the other cases. The bottom can be fitted to a groove cut -around on the inside and can be inserted when the box is put together, -or for a rougher job can be simply nailed in place. - -A simple form of tool-chest is shown in Fig. 349. This can be made of -any size desired and of any wood. It is usually as well to make a -good-sized chest, for the cost is but little more than to make a small -one. Hard wood will be much more durable than soft. Stock from 3/4" to -7/8" in thickness will be suitable. - - * * * * * - -Unless you have had considerable experience you had best be content with -the simpler joints rather than to attempt dovetailing the corners, as -shown in the cut. It is not necessary to cut a rabbet for the bottom, -because of the base-board or moulding which is to be nailed around the -bottom, and the latter can be nailed or screwed directly to the edge, -before the moulding is put around. The rest of the construction of the -chest is obvious and like the cases already shown. If the moulding -around the lid is to be arranged as shown, it will be best to fit the -lock first, as it will be easier to attach the hasp of the lock before -the moulding has been added (see _Locks_ and _Hinges_). - -[Illustration FIG. 349.] - -At about two or three inches from the top, fasten a ledge on the inside -of the front and back. This can be about 1/4" thick by 1/2" deep and is -for the sliding-tray, shown in the cut, to rest upon. This tray can be -of soft wood, from 1/4" to 3/8" in thickness, and can be divided as you -wish. It will often be advantageous to arrange the lid and the top tray -so that tools can be fastened on the inside of the lid. Saws and various -flat tools are often thus disposed of, being held in place by straps, -blocks, and buttons. You can also arrange a rack around the inside of -your chest for such tools as chisels, gouges, etc. When kept in trays, -such tools should be separated by divisions. The various details of -making such a chest do not differ from those of the articles just -described in the preceding chapter on Furniture. - - * * * * * - -In nailing together rough boxes for packing or some temporary purpose, -you do not need to devote much thought to the arrangement of the pieces -with reference to the direction of the grain, so long as you put them -together in a way that your common-sense tells you will be strong. -Examination of a few packing-cases will show you all you need to know -for such work. But when you make a better grade of box, to be glued, -regard must be paid to the direction of the grain and the matter of -expansion and contraction. In the majority of boxes and chests the -grain of the sides and ends should run in the same way--horizontally or -around the box, as shown in the illustrations. - - * * * * * - -This gives a strong edge all around at the top of the box and permits -the use of glue (with some joints) where the sides and ends meet, as the -parts glued will thus naturally tend to expand and contract alike. When -the grain goes in opposite directions (_i.e._, at right angles), such -joints, unless short, should not be glued. Where the top board is -fastened to the sides and ends of the box, as in Fig. 347, it should not -be glued, except in the case of a small box, and the grain should run -lengthways, so that there will be as little change as possible due to -the expansion and contraction (see Chapter IV. on Laying Out the Work, -and Appendix). - -When several boards are required to cover the top or bottom of a box, -if you wish to have as few cracks as possible and to avoid the swelling -and shrinking across the grain as much as you can, lay the boards -lengthways of the box, but if you merely wish for strength, lay them -crossways. - - * * * * * - -Care must be taken about testing the angles with the square, and -guarding against winding (see _Winding-sticks_), in making nice boxes, -as with all framed work. If the bottom and top are got out accurately -they will, of course, assist in the matter of getting the box square, -and for common work carefully fitting the bottom (or bottom and top) in -place will be all the "squaring" required. In nice work where the joints -are glued, waste pieces should be placed over the joints (across the -grain of the sides) before applying the clamps, not merely to prevent -the work being marred by the clamps, but also to distribute the pressure -and ensure as close a joint as possible (see _Clamps_). - -The final smoothing of the outside of a box should be done after it is -permanently put together, allowing plenty of time, if glue is used in -the joints, for it to dry before dressing off the surfaces. The inside -must, of course, be smoothed before putting together. - -The variety of forms in which boxes are made is too great for all to be -specified, but the same general principles apply to nearly all forms of -box-work. In the case of chests or large boxes, you will often see them -with the sides and ends panelled, but this is rather an elaborate form -for the beginner to attempt and had best be avoided by the inexperienced -worker. A form which is not too hard for the amateur is shown, however, -in Fig. 350, the sides and ends being fitted to grooves or rabbets cut -in posts at each corner. - -[Illustration FIG. 350.] - -The work of getting out the stock for boxes and making the joints can be -done so quickly and accurately (and usually cheaply) by a circular saw -or other machine that much time is saved, when making nice boxes, by -having the parts sawed at a mill. The remarks made at the end of the -introduction to Chapter X. (on Furniture), in regard to getting out your -work, putting together, smoothing, and finishing, apply equally to -making the better class of boxes and chests, and the general details of -the work do not differ from those of the articles shown in that chapter. -See also, _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, _Plane_, _Nailing_, -_Nail-set_, _Screws_, _Hinges_, _Locks_, _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_, and -_Finishing_, in Part V. - - -=Toy Boats.=--A few suggestions about the wood-work of the hulls of toy -boats may be useful to the beginner. The details of rigging and -discussion of the merits of the various types and designs are matters -which do not come within the scope of this book, and you can easily find -information upon these points. - -Making your boats yourself is half the fun, of course, and capital -practice with tools as well as a valuable introduction to the building -of model yachts, which you may undertake later, and to the general -subject of boat-building and sailing. Making different types and sailing -them is both interesting and instructive. - -You will quite often see little boats fitted up as exact copies in -miniature of real vessels, with all the complexity of fittings, rigging, -and minor details found in the larger boats. These models are often -interesting specimens of skill,--as pieces of handiwork,--but the time -can usually be spent to better advantage in some other way. If you wish -actually to sail your boats, leave out everything which is not essential -to successful sailing. - -Very little skill, and no instruction, is required to make the simpler -forms of toy boats familiar to the small boy who lives near the water. -Almost any scrap of shingle or piece of wood upon which a little mast -can be raised will sail, as the small boy well knows. The difficulties -begin when something more like a boat is attempted, and the first and -greatest of all difficulties is that of the design, as you will discover -later if you attempt scientific model yacht-building. But advanced model -yacht-work requires much skill--more than can be expected of a beginner. -At first, in beginning to make toy boats, copy any successful boat as -nearly as you can. - -After you get beyond making boats of shingles and scraps of board, you -may very likely make something like Fig. 351, which is too simple to -require special description; but when you begin to build regular boats -you will find enough to tax your wood-working skill to the utmost. You -had best begin with simple forms and not make your first attempts too -large. - -[Illustration FIG. 351.] - -One way of making the hull (as of course you know) is to cut it from a -solid block of wood of the required size. Another way is to build it up -of layers of board laid on one another horizontally (Fig. 352).[27] - -[Illustration FIG. 352.] - -The greatest care must be taken in the selection of the wood. It should -be free from knots, checks, and bad grain, and above all things must be -thoroughly seasoned. Nothing is better than the best quality of clear -white pine. Mahogany is excellent, but is more costly and harder to -work. - - * * * * * - -Take a simple model of the fin-keel type (Fig. 353). First you must have -the design or drawing giving the different plans or views. If the -drawing is smaller than the actual size you wish to make the boat, it -must, of course, be enlarged and a full-sized working drawing made.[28] - -[Illustration FIG. 353.] - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, _Chisel_, _Gouge_, _Spokeshave_, _Paring_, etc., and look up -any other references. - -[Illustration FIG. 354.] - -To cut the hull from a solid block, first prepare the block of the right -dimensions, and plane it, making sure that the sides are true and square -with one another. The sheer plan must now be transferred to the sides of -the block, either by copying it on the wood by the use of transfer paper -placed between the drawing and the wood, by cutting out a pattern, or by -fastening the drawing itself on one side of the wood and a reversed -duplicate on the other side. In the same way transfer the half-breadth -plan twice to the top of the block, on each side of a line drawn along -the centre, reversing the pattern for one side, of course. Also continue -the centre line down each end and along the bottom. - -If the top and side outlines can be sawed to the lines marked with a -band-saw or jig-saw, the expense will be but slight and considerable -labour will be saved. Saw down on the lines 1--1, 2--2, 3--3, etc. (Fig. -354), nearly to the sheer line shown in Fig. 355. In your first attempts -at making small boats it may be well to omit the deck sheer, leaving the -top flat (Fig. 354), as this simplifies matters in the beginning. Also, -saw off the superfluous wood shown by the shaded parts of Fig. 355. Now -clamp or wedge the block, bottom up, firmly on the bench, in case you -have no vise arrangement by which it can be properly held, and rough it -out approximately to shape with a wide chisel (see _Paring_) or the -draw-knife (see _Draw-knife_). - -[Illustration FIG. 355.] - -The operation of shaping and hollowing out is slow work and requires -much care. A little haste may spoil the work of hours. As the bottom -begins to approach the desired shape you must have something more than -the eye by which to gauge your cutting, for a very little deviation from -the true curve may spoil your boat. It is very important to get both -sides of the boat alike. On card-board or stiff paper, mark a series of -patterns of the different sections shown on the body plan. Cut out each -of these patterns so as to save the part which is the reverse of the -shape of the section of the boat, thus forming a series of templates, -which you can apply to the hull at each section to test your cutting, -until the templates just fit the wood at their respective sections, when -the shape of the hull will, of course, agree with the plan. - -The spoke-shave, and sometimes the plane, can be used to good advantage -in the final shaping (see _Spokeshave_). Especial care is required not -to slice off too much, and you will, of course, work, as a rule, from -the centre (or amidships) towards the ends. The block can be held in the -lap or between the knees for this shaping, but it is better for all -kinds of crooked work to have the material firmly held by a vise or some -other contrivance, so that not merely the hands of the worker are free, -but the whole body as well. - -[Illustration FIG. 356.] - -This form of hull is simple to make, in that the curves of the outside -are all convex. There are no concave surfaces and reversed curves. The -surface can be finally shaped by the use of the rasp, followed by a -file, and finally smoothed with scraper or glass (see _Scraper_). Do not -use sandpaper until the hull is finished. - -The inside must next be hollowed. Gauge a line around the upper side, -1/2" from the edge, except at the bow and stern, where a greater -distance should be allowed (Fig. 356). The hull must now be held firmly -in some way. If you cannot contrive to clamp it firmly without bruising -the outside, you should arrange some blocks (padding them with cloth or -leather) in such a way that it can be held securely. It is better to -spend an hour in fastening the block firmly than to attempt to steady it -with one hand and to cut with the other. In all the shaping of the boat, -both hands should be free if possible. Grasp the blade of the tool with -the left hand, or lay the hand across it, so as to exert a back-pressure -on the tool. This gives great control of the tool (see _Paring_). - -Bore one or more holes (according to the size of the boat) downward from -the top (Fig. 356), being very careful not to bore too deeply, but to -leave at least half an inch of wood below the hole (see _Boring_). Now -run a groove with the gouge around the deck, inside of the line marked, -and hollow out the inside with the gouge, cutting towards the middle. -The holes bored will help in this process. Cut down straight from the -line marked on the upper side until the thickness of the sides of the -hull is reduced to perhaps 1/4 of an inch (Fig. 357). The object of the -increased thickness at the gunwale is to stiffen the sides and give a -better bearing for nailing down the deck. Below this point make the -thickness as uniform as you can, except for a narrow space at the very -bottom where the keel is to be fastened, where it is often well to leave -a thicker ridge (Fig. 357). - -[Illustration FIG. 357.] - -[Illustration FIG. 358.] - -Extreme care is required in hollowing the inside. It is best not to -attempt to make the sides thinner than one fourth of an inch, unless you -are a pretty good workman with a fair degree of patience, for it is hard -to repair the damage if you cut too deeply. Templates can be made for -the inside. You can tell quite well whether you are making the thickness -uniform by the sense of feeling, gauging the thickness between the thumb -and finger. Do not try to cut away too much at the bow and stern, as it -will weaken the boat, but leave a sufficient body of solid wood. Smooth -the inside neatly with a flatter gouge (if you have it) than that with -which you removed the bulk of the wood. - -Next, with a thin strip or batten, mark the line for the sheer of the -deck by the saw-kerfs already made and remove the wood carefully to -this sheer line. The outside can now be thoroughly sandpapered, first -with, perhaps, No. 1-1/2, and finally with No. 00. Get the surface as -smooth as possible (see _Sandpaper_). Next paint the outside and inside -with two coats of white lead and oil (see _Painting_). It is a good plan -to apply a coat of hot oil first. - -[Illustration FIG. 359.] - -[Illustration FIG. 360.] - -[Illustration FIG. 361.] - -Now to make this same simple model by the method of layers you will -readily see that if you take a piece of board of a thickness equal to -the distance between the water lines in the sheer plan (Fig. 353), and -cut from it pieces of the shape of the water lines as shown in the -half-breadth plan (Fig. 353), and also cut out the centres of the two -upper pieces as shown in Figs. 358, 359, 360, and then fasten these -pieces one upon another as shown in Fig. 361--you will see that you have -built up the general form of the boat, and saved much of the labour of -shaping and hollowing. - -Before cutting out these layers, a centre line must be accurately marked -along both sides and at the rounded ends, so that the layers can be put -together in the correct positions. Also, for the same reason, mark the -midship lines across each side and on the edges, as shown. In drawing -the inside lines (for the part to be cut out), care must be taken to -leave sufficient thickness at the sides to allow for the final shaping. -The sawing of the layers had best be done at a mill with a band-saw and -jig- or scroll-saw, but can be done by hand, of course. - -The boards or planks must be accurately dressed so as to make as perfect -joints as possible when put together. If not convenient to make the -thickness of the boards agree with the water lines of the plan, you can -easily draw in new water lines to agree with the thickness of the board -you may have--say, 3/4" or 7/8" apart. Glue must now be applied to the -joints, and the pieces firmly clamped together between boards, or laid -flat (bottom side upwards) and weights applied. It is best not to cut -out and glue up more than two or three layers at a time, lest they -become bent or sprung. Care must be used in applying the pressure to -make it uniform and not cause the somewhat flexible sides to be sprung -or twisted out of shape (see _Gluing_ and _Clamps_). Do not delay this -building-up operation needlessly. Do not leave the pieces lying around -for a fortnight. Keep them all clamped up in the proper position, or -under pressure, if you can, until the whole form is glued together, as -such pieces spring out of shape very easily. - -After the glue is thoroughly dry, complete the shaping of the outside -and inside as in the case of the solid block, care being taken to pare -off the projecting angles on the outside gradually, so as not to cut -within the curve marked on the plan. - -The fin (when flaring at the top and not too thin) can also be made of -wood, glued and screwed on, the lead being screwed to the bottom with -brass screws.[29] Be sure that the fin is in line with the centre line -of the boat. - -Unless the boat is quite small it is best to fit in two or three deck -beams to connect the sides and support the deck (Fig. 357). These should -be of thin stuff (perhaps 3/16" thick and 1/2" wide), set on edge and -very slightly arched, the ends being fitted into gains cut in the sides, -and nailed with fine brads. They can also be glued. - -The deck should be of thin stuff (perhaps 1/8" planed). Mark carefully -on the piece the deck outline and cut it approximately to shape, but -well outside of the line. Fasten small blocks of wood to the under side -of the deck wherever any attachments for the rigging are to be fastened. -Paint the lower side, and when dry bore a row of holes with a very small -brad-awl (see _Awl_) all around the edge, 1/8" inside of the line. Smear -the top edge of the hull with thick white lead, or white lead putty, and -nail the deck in place with very fine wire brads, perhaps 1/2" in -length. Care must be used not to split the deck or drive the nails -through the sides of the hull. Fine brass screws can be used if -necessary. The overhanging edge of the deck can be trimmed down -carefully with chisel, plane, or knife. The outside of the deck can now -be painted. - -The rudder can be fixed in a brass tube, the ends of which can be set in -lead. The mast can also be stepped in a brass tube, or simply pass -through the deck to the bottom, where it can be stepped in a smaller -hole, which must be bored with care lest it go through. - -When you come to making models of less simple form--those having -hollows and reversed curves in their outside form, as the majority of -boats do--the difficulty of shaping accurately is much increased and -more care is required, but the principle of construction remains the -same. - -[Illustration FIG. 362.] - -Suppose, for example, you are ambitious enough to undertake such forms -as those which compete for the _America's_ Cup, for instance, you will -find it difficult to carry the process of building by horizontal layers -below a certain point (Fig. 362) but the keel and lower part can be -added by gluing (or gluing and screwing) a piece of board or plank on -edge (or two pieces, if necessary) to the bottom. The lead can, in turn, -be fastened to the lower edge of the keel by screws. Models of such -yachts are not always the best forms for toy boats, however desirous you -may be to reproduce in miniature these famous boats. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[27] Still another way sometimes used for model yachts is to build the -hull much in the same way that a real vessel is built--making a -framework or skeleton and covering it with little planks, but this -method (though a good one in some respects) requires more skill than can -be expected of the average amateur, and this mode of construction should -not be attempted until you become a skilful workman and accomplished in -the building of regular model yachts. - -If your boat is quite small it will probably be easier and better in -most cases to cut the hull from a solid block; but if much more than -two feet in length it is usually better to build it in layers. - -Either of these methods can be used in any case, but for a small boat -the building in layers is more difficult, while for a large one it is -hard to find a block that will be sufficiently free from defects. - -[28] In making the plans for a boat, three views are usually drawn, -known as the sheer plan, the body plan, and the half-breadth plan. These -correspond to the "front or side elevation," "end elevation," and "plan" -in ordinary drawings, and give side, end, and top views of the boat,--or -of one-half of it, which is all that is needed, as the sides are of -course alike. Several equidistant horizontal lines are drawn across the -plans. One of these represents the line of the water when the boat has -its proper load. It is called the load water-line. The other lines being -parallel to it represent other imaginary levels, at equal distances -apart--like the lines which would be made by the water if the boat sunk -deeper or floated higher. Other lines are also added to show vertical -and horizontal, longitudinal and cross-sections, at regular intervals, -and also other longitudinal sections, but these details you will find -fully described in works on yacht-(and model yacht-) building. - -[29] The fin can be cut from sheet metal (brass or sheet-iron) and -inserted in a thin saw-kerf cut exactly in the centre of the bottom, -being set in thick white lead, or it can be riveted to thin plates -screwed to the bottom of the boat, or lips can be bent over alternately -on either side of the upper edge of the fin and screwed to the bottom. - -The amount of lead required for the bulb at the bottom of the fin can be -determined by loading the hull with weights until it is sunk to the -water line. The weights will, of course, represent the weight of lead -required. This can be cast in a mould and riveted to the bottom of the -fin. - - - - -PART III - -_HOUSE-BUILDING FOR BEGINNERS_ - - - - -CHAPTER XII - - -House-building in its simple forms, and on a small scale, is very -suitable work for the beginner in wood-working. - -One of the most important things to bear in mind is not to be too -ambitious in your early attempts. Content yourself with the simplest -forms until you have attained sufficient skill to undertake more -difficult buildings. - -All the work of such structures as are here shown can, in case of -necessity, be done by one person alone; but--unless, perhaps, in the -case of the smallest and simplest houses--it is much better for two or -more persons to join forces, as much time will thereby be saved, for the -lumber can be handled much more easily and quickly by two than by one. -This will be the best way if the building is to be done by boys, in -which case by all means have some system for carrying on the work. - -You know men usually work under the direction of a head man, or foreman, -and, when there is no head man, they defer as a matter of course to the -one of their number who is the best fitted to take charge of the work. -Choose one boy master-builder, foreman, or boss, letting him assign to -each his part of the work and leaving to him the decision of questions -that arise in regard to the details. If one of you is clearly more of a -mechanic than the others, choose him foreman; otherwise it will be a -good plan to have the office filled by each in turn for perhaps one day -apiece. Let the foreman divide the work as fairly as possible. That is, -instead of having one boy saw off all the boards while another drives -all the nails, arrange regular "shifts" at short intervals, letting the -two change places and work perhaps every hour. This plan will prevent -much confusion and perhaps disagreement, which might even cause the work -to be given up--an unfortunate result which sometimes happens to boys' -undertakings. - -It is not simply starting in with an understanding that you are to take -turns when one may think he is tired of what he happens to be doing, but -it is the regular rotation of work and responsibility at fixed intervals -that will ensure harmony and a successful completion of the work. - -The situation is a very important matter which will be spoken of in -treating of the larger structures farther on, but there is one thing -which should be borne in mind for even the smallest play-house in the -back yard of a town lot, and that is not to build it in a hollow where -the water will collect to make it damp or uninhabitable. A flat roof -should also be avoided, as it is much harder to keep tight than one -which has sufficient pitch to shed the water freely. - -You can determine the kind of a house to build and its general -dimensions according to the requirements of the case, but you will, of -course, wish it to be attractive in appearance, however small it may be; -and therefore, in making the drawings, it is essential to have in view -the block-form, or general shape and proportions. If these are not -pleasing and agreeable to the eye, your house will be unattractive, for -nothing you can do in the way of ornamentation or elaborate details will -make up for poor shape and proportions. - -To design a building (however small) with a pleasing and attractive -exterior is, however, no easy task. If you can make a perspective sketch -of your proposed house with reasonable accuracy, it will be a great -help, as the regular working drawings (the plan, elevations, etc.), -however well made, often fail to give one a clear mental picture of how -the structure _as a whole_ will look. - -A little model will be of the greatest service in determining whether -the shape and proportions of your house are good. A model is easily made -of paste-board with sufficient accuracy for this purpose. It is quite -remarkable how different many objects appear when actually made, from -the way one thinks they will appear, in spite of the most careful -drawings; therefore do not despise this simple precaution of making a -model in cases where attractive appearance is an element, for it may -save you from putting up a structure which will be a continual eyesore. - -The amateur (like many professional builders) is much more liable to -make his work too elaborate and with too many attempts at ornamentation -than to make it too plain. So give your first attention to the -block-form, and then to the details. Do not cover your house with an -embroidery of jig-sawing, fanciful turning, superfluous brackets, and -the like, in the effort to make it pretty or to imitate the vulgar -details of inferior summer cottages. The amateur is also liable in the -case of very small buildings to make them too tall in proportion to -their ground dimensions. A tall, narrow house is seldom homelike or -attractive, whether it be six feet square or sixty. - -Finally, be simple and modest in your designing, avoid meaningless -"gingerbread" work, do not set your house up on stilts, as it were, but -hospitably near to the ground; have generous doors and windows, avoid -flashy and gaudy colours in painting, cultivate plants and vines to run -over the outside, and keep the surroundings neat and tidy. - -The variety of small structures from which to select for your early -attempts is almost endless. You can find many ideas for your designing -and the construction in every town and in various publications. Only -simple types will be treated here, involving merely such principles of -construction as you can readily apply to such other designs as you may -wish to carry out. As it is impracticable to repeat all the suggestions -and details under each structure treated here, the prospective builder -who should begin with any of the later examples had best read these -chapters through from the beginning before starting on the actual work. - -One of the simplest and most easily built small structures that you can -make is that with a single-pitched or shed or "lean-to" roof; that is, -with the roof slanting only one way. This style of construction, though -commonly applied to a rather humble class of buildings, is by no means -to be despised, the ease with which it can be built by boys or amateurs -being one of its marked advantages. You will find this simple form of -building capitally suited to many purposes, and a good type with which -to begin. - - -=A Play-house or Play-store.=--You know that an ordinary wooden building -has a framework of timbers,--a kind of skeleton upon which the boarding -is nailed. This will be shown in the following chapters, but a very -small house or cabin, like that shown in Fig. 363, suitable for a -play-house for boys and girls, can be built very well in a simpler way -by making the four sides separately and then nailing them together as -you would do if making a box. There is no floor (except the ground), -and the roof is to be nailed down on top of the four sides as you would -nail the cover on the box. - -[Illustration FIG. 363. - - A little house, with trees a-row, - And, like its master, very low!--_Pope._] - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Nailing_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -Fig. 365 shows one of the sides (inside view). It is made of boards -running horizontally, with an upright cleat at each edge, and another -cleat at the top. - -Fig. 366 shows the back (inside view), made in the same way as the -sides, except that each cleat is set back from the edge 1-3/4", thus -forming a rabbet in which to fit either side when the house is put -together. The third, fourth, fifth, and sixth boards from the top are -not nailed to the cleats, but are omitted, to leave space for a large -open window. - -[Illustration FIG. 364. - -ELEVATION. - -SIDE ELEVATION. - -PLAN. - -REAR ELEVATION.] - -[Illustration FIG. 365.] - -[Illustration FIG. 366.] - -Fig. 367 shows the front (inside view), four upright cleats being used -and a large opening left for the doorway. - -[Illustration FIG. 367.] - -First estimate the stock you will require (see Chapter IV.),[30] and try -to get dry wood without too many large knots. - -You can get along very well for such work as this on the floor, or even -the ground, with a couple of boxes for horses, but a bench and horses -are a great convenience. - -Make the sides first, disregarding the slant for the roof. Take a -matched-board and square off one end of it, if it is not already square. -Then measure 5' 10"[31] from that end, mark across by the square, and -saw the piece off. Use this piece (5' 10" long) as a measure to mark -the lengths of enough pieces to make the two sides. If you saw them off -as you measure them, one by one, be sure to mark all the lengths by the -first piece, and not by the one last sawed, or they will probably, vary -in length. - -When you put the boards together to form the sides, be sure that the -ends are in line. Use the edge of a straight board for a straight-edge -to get them in line, or drive them against the side of the room, if that -is straight, or temporarily nail a straight-edged board to the floor and -keep them driven up squarely against it. - -Make sure, also, by testing with the square or by measuring, that each -side of the house when made is a rectangle and not a rhomboid, or the -whole house will be askew when put together. - -When you fit the matched edges be sure to make the joints as tight as -you can, but do not pound directly on the tongued and grooved edges with -the hammer. Take a short piece of waste boarding, fit it to the tongue -or groove wherever you wish to strike, and hit this waste piece with the -hammer. - -You will see that there is no need of sawing out a square hole for the -window, as you can put in short pieces at each side of the window-space. - -Nail the upright cleats at the edges with 1-1/2" nails, driving two into -each board in the way shown in the cut, bearing in mind that the cleats -must all be on the inside of the house, and also to have the tongues of -the boards uppermost when the house is put together. Mark the front edge -of each side in some way to prevent any mistake. The reason for putting -the tongues upward and the grooves downward is because the joints will -shed the water better, as otherwise each groove would be a little trough -into which the rain could soak. Measure 5' 6" from the bottom on the -front edge of each side and 4' 6" on the back edge. Draw a straight line -on the outside between these points and it will give the slant for the -roof. Saw the boards and cleats by this line and then fit and nail the -top cleats as in Fig. 365, or nail the top cleats first and saw the -boards off by them. - -Next make the back in the same way, setting the cleats 1-3/4" away from -the edges. Leave out the boards at the window-space. - -Make the shutter, and trim off its tongued and grooved edges (see -_Paring_, etc.) before nailing the back of the house together, as you -can thus determine more easily the space to be left open. Also trim off -the tongued edge of the board coming next below the shutter. Leave the -open space a little wider than the shutter (say 1/4" wider) to allow for -possible swelling of the boards. When you nail the cleats on the -drop-shutter, be sure to use nails long enough to clinch (see -_Nailing_), or use screws (see _Screws_). - -The front is to be made in the same way, the width of the door-space -being 27-1/2", and of the boarding at each side, 21-1/4". Have the two -inner cleats project about an inch inside the edge of the doorway for -the door to hit against when shut (Fig. 367), and "toe" or clinch the -nails for these cleats, or use a few screws, so that the slamming of the -door will not loosen them. - -Now the four sides are ready to put together. Find a spot as nearly -level as you can for your house. Do not, however, put it in a hollow -where the floor will be flooded with water when it rains. Hold up the -front and one side in the right position, press them closely together at -the corner, and drive in a couple of nails to hold them until you can -get the other parts in place. Then fit on the other side and the back in -the same way. Try the four corners with the steel square, and when you -have them right nail all the corners strongly with 2-1/2" nails. If you -have no large square, measure the diagonals with a stick, altering the -angles at the corners until the diagonals are equal. Toe the nails at -the corners, and, in fact, if you can do it neatly, it will be stronger -to toe the nails throughout the work. - -Now get out boards 6' long for the roof, to run from side to side. When -you nail them on have them project 1" all around. Cover the roof with -roofing- or sheathing-paper. Lay it in strips from side to side, -beginning at the back and letting the second strip overlap the first, as -shingles are laid. Three strips will cover the roof once. Of course you -can cover it with as many layers as you wish to pay for. Fasten the -paper with roofing nails or tacks. Drive them close together, but only -where the strips lap and at the edges of the roof. You can bend the -edges of the paper down over the edge of the roof to cover the joint -underneath and nail neat strips of wood outside to cover the edges of -the paper, or you can simply nail the paper around the edge of the roof. - -In making the door (Fig. 368) clinch the nails which fasten the cleats, -or use screws, and trim off the tongued and grooved edges, as with the -drop-shutter. - -Now hang the door and drop-shutter with two strap-hinges each. Place the -door and shutter exactly in position (shut), and tack them temporarily -in place with a few nails, or wedge them. Then carefully placing each -hinge so that the pin on which it turns is just in line with the crack -between the door and the door-frame, mark points for the screws. Bore -holes for the screws and fasten the hinges in place (see _Screws_). - -Put a latch, a catch, or a hasp and padlock on the door, and a hasp or -screw-eye and hook on the inside for the shutter. Also fix a brace to -hold the shutter when lifted, or you can arrange a rope to pass up from -the outside of the shutter and around a pulley to the inside of the -house, where it can hang down and be used to hold the shutter up by -fastening it round a cleat or a couple of nails. - -[Illustration FIG. 368.] - -You can fix a shelf inside under the open window at the back (Fig. 364, -Plan), resting on cleats nailed to the sides of the house, and also put -in a seat at one or both sides, supporting the middle by a short post or -a short piece of board on edge. - -A few strips will serve to hold the lights of window-glass in place. The -house is now ready to occupy. - -Of course you can save a good deal of labour (and lose some experience) -at slight expense by having the boards sawed off squarely of the given -lengths at a mill,--often where you buy the wood. In this case, remember -to make a list of the number of boards of each length to take to the -mill. - -If you would like to be able to move your house or to take it apart and -store it during the winter, you can fasten the four sides and roof -together with screws, or hook them together on the inside with stout -screw-eyes and hooks. You will find this way in very common use by -builders and contractors in the little portable tool-houses, offices, -and shops which they take apart and move from place to place. - -[Illustration FIG. 369.] - - -=Play-store or Booth.=--A good form for a simple play-store or booth -(Fig. 369) can, if small, be constructed on the same box-like principle -as the little building just shown, and the details of construction are -so similar that special directions for this design are unnecessary. If -large, it should, however, have a frame, which you can readily pattern -after that shown in Fig. 371. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any -other references. - -By using heavier cleats, as 2" x 2" or 2" x 4", on the ends, those on -the front and back can be omitted, and the boards nailed directly to the -sides. An arrangement for one end (that with the door) is suggested in -Fig. 370, 2" x 2" or 2" x 4" joist being used. - -[Illustration FIG. 370.] - -A shelf or counter can be fitted inside the drop-window for the display -of your wares. - - * * * * * - -This general shape can often be advantageously used for a quite -good-sized building--a little cottage, for instance--and when an -addition to a larger structure is desired, it is sometimes the best form -for the purpose, for its shape renders it more easily attached than any -other form of ell (Fig. 391). - -A building of this style, however suitable as an attachment to a larger -structure, will not be an attractive object in some situations. It will -not stand alone, regardless of the surroundings, as well as some other -forms. Therefore it is well to consider, before deciding to build -anything of this kind larger than the play-houses and stores just shown, -whether your house will have a building, a fence, or a wall for a -background; or a steep bluff or ledge under which it will nestle, or -trees or shrubbery behind or around it. In such cases it will often be -attractive in appearance. If, however, it is to be put in a prominent -place where it can be viewed from all positions, it may be better to -select some other type. - - -=Frame for Larger Building with Lean-to Roof.=--While the simple -box-like arrangement described above is suitable for a very small -structure, it must be discarded for a frame of some sort when you -undertake a larger and more permanent building. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, -_Saw_, _Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up -any other references. - -This frame can be put together as shown for the framed structures -described farther on, the only difference being at the top. A simple -method of framing is shown in Fig. 371. - -Fig. 382 shows a simple way of fitting boards around the edge of the -roof where it overhangs, and other arrangements for this detail can be -found in the various illustrations. It is not necessary to have roofs -overhang, even for a large building, but it is usually desirable on the -ground of appearance and for shedding the water away from the walls. - -[Illustration FIG. 371.] - -For matters relating to the foundation, see pages 259-264. - - -=Play-house or Cabin.=--The house shown in Fig. 372 can be put together -in the way already shown. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any -other references. - -The ground dimensions can be 5' or 6' x 7' or 8'. The ends must be made -higher than the sides, as shown, to allow for the slant of the roof. -Mark lines, using a straight-edge, to give the slant for both sides of -the roof, and saw the boards off by these lines. A short cleat can be -added at the top in the middle to stiffen these top boards. - -After the sides and ends are put together, get out two boards, of the -shape shown in Fig. 373, to rest in four rectangular notches cut in the -front and back sides of the house. These pieces are to support the -roof-boards, and their upper edges are to be cut at the same angle as -the top of either end of the house. Nail these pieces firmly in place at -each end (Fig. 374). - -[Illustration FIG. 372.] - -Now get out boards for the roof, to run from end to end and about 4" -longer than the house. Begin to nail them on at the top, and have the -roof overhang the sides and ends 2" all around. - -You can easily put in the window-sash, either by hinging it so as to -swing open, or by having it slide to the right or left on strips nailed -above and below it, as shown in Fig. 369. - -[Illustration FIG. 373.] - -The roof-boards can also be laid the other way by putting in a -ridge-piece in the form of a piece of studding or joist of any size not -less than 2" x 2" (Fig. 377), or even a board on edge, to which the -upper ends of the roof-boards can be nailed. - -[Illustration FIG. 374.] - -Another form of roof, but arranged in the same way, is shown in Fig. -375. - -You will require a compass-saw for the curves, or you can have them -sawed by a band-saw, or the wood can be trimmed to the line with the -hatchet and draw-knife or chisel (see _Paring_). - -Another way to put any such little structure as this together is to have -the sheathing run up and down and the cleats horizontally. This makes a -neater structure than the way just given. The general principle of the -construction is the same, the four sides being made separately and then -fastened together. - -[Illustration FIG. 375.] - - -=Play-house, Store, or Cabin.=--The design shown in Fig. 376 can be -carried out in the manner already described. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any -other references. - -The ground dimensions can be 6' or 7' x 8' or 9'. In making the ends -where they are cut off at the top to give the slant for the roof, -inside cleats should be used. Mark lines, using a straight-edge, for the -slant for both sides of the roof, and saw the boards off by these lines. -It will be convenient and will look well to make the angle at the top a -right angle. At the top saw out a notch in which to rest the ridge-pole, -as shown in Fig. 377. - -[Illustration FIG. 376.] - -After the sides and ends are fastened together, nail the ridge-pole in -place and get out short boards for the roof. Cut these for one side of -the roof so as to be about 2" longer than the slant of the end of the -house, and make those for the other side of the roof as much longer as -the thickness of the boards, so that they will lap over at the top, as -shown in Fig. 377. Nail them on, beginning at one end, so that the roof -will overlap the ends and sides 2" all around. - -Nailing upright strips at the corners, as is commonly done on wooden -houses, and as is shown in the picture, will give the house a more -finished appearance. The other details are similar to those already -shown. - -[Illustration FIG. 377.] - -[Illustration FIG. 378.] - -[Illustration FIG. 379.] - -This house can have a floor, which can be made of 2" x 4" studding -simply nailed together and floored over (Fig. 378), forming a sort of -platform to which the sides and ends can be nailed when the house is put -together; and the best way to make the whole structure is that shown in -Fig. 377, the boards running vertically and cleats horizontally. In case -of using a platform floor with this last method of construction, the -lower cleats can be raised from the bottom so as to rest on the floor, -as shown in Fig. 378. This makes the putting together of the house quite -simple, as the fitting of the sides and ends and floor in their proper -places obviates the need of testing with square or measuring diagonals. -The lower cleats on the sides and ends are not really necessary, -however, except for convenience in putting together and taking apart, as -the vertical sheathing can be nailed directly to the floor-frame or -sills, as shown in Fig. 377. - -[Illustration FIG. 380.] - -[Illustration FIG. 381.] - -The whole can then be levelled (see _Level_ and _Plumb_), being blocked -up underneath as may be required. - -The design is also suitable for a larger structure, in which case a -frame should be made as shown in Fig. 389. - - * * * * * - -Another very, similar design is shown in Fig. 379, and can be put -together according to the principles already shown. The boarding runs -vertically and the cleats horizontally, as shown in Fig. 377. - -[Illustration FIG. 382.] - -Figs. 380 and 381 show other simple arrangements, the ground dimensions -of which can be, perhaps, 8' x 12', and which can be put together in the -same way as the preceding cases, with or without a floor, and with the -boarding running vertically or horizontally. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration FIG. 383.] - -[Illustration FIG. 384.] - -[Illustration FIG. 385.] - -If a stove is to be used, the smoke-pipe can be arranged to pass through -the side of the house, as in Figs. 382, 383, etc. If to pass through the -roof, it should be soldered or riveted to a sheet of metal, as -galvanized iron, the upper edge of the latter being slipped under the -roof covering while the lower edge laps over it (Fig. 384), on just the -same principle that shingles are laid, the idea being, of course, that -the water will run down over the metal without leaking through, just as -it runs down over the shingles. This simple principle must always be -observed whenever metal is used to prevent joints leaking. With such -small houses as these it is usually easier and safer about leakage to -have the pipe run through the side of the house. If to go through the -roof (particularly when there is no special roof covering but boards), -it is a good plan to have the pipe pass through the roof near the ridge, -so that the upper edges of the metal sheet can be slipped under one of -the saddle-boards (Fig. 385). In any case, an air space must be allowed -between the smoke-pipe and the wood, and it is always well to have a -collar an inch or two outside of the pipe. Any tinsmith or metal-worker -can arrange these details. - -Round drain-pipe set in cement is often used for a cheap pipe or -chimney, and answers the purpose very well. - -Fig. 383 also shows the way to lay sheathing- or roofing-paper in case -you wish to use it for a temporary structure. It also gives a suggestion -for a window-shutter to be raised by a cord passing through to the -inside, where it can be fastened to a cleat. - - -=A Workshop.=--A small building, like that shown in Fig. 386, from 8' to -12' wide by 12' to 18' long, will be suitable for a workshop or for -various other purposes. - -[Illustration FIG. 386.] - -While it will do for a little play-house without a floor, like those -described at first, to rest directly upon the ground, a better structure -like this should have some sort of underpinning. - - * * * * * - -It is not customary to lay a stone or brick and cement foundation for -such a structure as this, because the building is not usually worth it. -It can very well be rested upon stones at the corners and middle of the -sides or upon posts set in the ground. If the soil is sandy and large -stones abundant, it can be rested upon piers of stones. So far as -supporting the building for one season is concerned, simply resting it -upon stones laid on top of the ground is sufficient, but the action of -the frost will move the stones and heave the building more or less out -of place, which will require it to be occasionally levelled and blocked -up. A hole can be dug to a depth of about three feet, so as to be below -the action of the frost, and a pier of flat stones built up. If the -soil is of clear, well-packed sand, a pier of this sort will last for -some time before being thrown out of shape by the frost, although, of -course, if laid in cement (or if bricks laid in cement are used), it -will be much more permanent. If the soil is clayey, the foundation, of -whatever kind, should be carried to a depth of three feet or more and -cemented, and even then it will be liable to be heaved by the action of -the frost. This involves considerable labour and perhaps expense, and -for such a small building it will usually be better to rest it upon flat -stones laid on the surface, or to block it up in some way so as to be -clear of the ground, and then level it whenever necessary, which is not -difficult with so small a structure.[32] - - * * * * * - -While brick piers built upon a foundation of stone laid in cement and -carried to a depth of three feet or more is doubtless the best -underpinning you can have (next to a regular foundation wall), it is not -always advisable to incur the necessary expense and labour, and a common -and usually satisfactory way for a building of this sort is to rest it -upon posts set in the ground. But before placing the posts the exact -position of the building must be determined. - - * * * * * - -Having fixed upon the position of the building, proceed to stake it out. -First measure off with the tape, or rod, or even a string, the length -of one of the sides of the building, and drive a stake at each end of -the line. Stretch a line between these stakes and measure off the length -of the end of the building from each stake, as nearly as possible at -right angles with the first line. You can do this approximately with the -help of a "mason's square," or large triangle, which you can make -yourself of thin strips of wood nailed together in the form of a -right-angled triangle with sides 6', 8', and 10' long, or the sides can -be 3', 4', and 5' long.[33] Whatever method you use, be sure that the -figure is rectangular, and move one or two of the stakes, if necessary, -until the diagonals are of equal length. - -If the ground is uneven, keep the tape horizontal when measuring, and to -determine the points required drop a plumb-line from the end of the tape -which is raised from the ground. - -Having in this way accurately fixed upon the lines for the four sides of -the house, continue these lines a few feet (perhaps 4 or 5 feet) beyond -the corners to the points marked E (Fig. 388), and drive a stake at each -of these points. You can easily get these eight stakes in line by -sighting from the four first driven. Next drive in one of these outside -stakes (the one where the ground is the highest in case the surface is -uneven) until it sticks out of the ground a few inches, and then drive -the other seven until their tops are level with the top of the first. -This you can determine by applying the level to a line stretched taut -from the top of one post to the top of another. Drive a nail into the -top of each stake to hold the string, or cut a notch for the same -purpose. Now if strings are tightly stretched between these stakes, they -will intersect over the four stakes first driven at the corners of the -house. These four stakes you can now remove when you dig the holes for -the posts, and the exact position of each post and its height above the -surface will be determined by the intersection of the strings from the -outside stakes. The strings can be taken off while you are digging and -replaced when you are getting the posts in position. - -[Illustration FIG. 388.] - -Next dig a hole at one corner, about 18" in diameter and about 2-1/2' or -3' in depth. In this hole set a post about 6" in diameter, sawed off -squarely at the upper end, and of such a length that when pounded down -to a firm and upright bearing the top of it will reach the string -stretched between the levelling stakes. When you fill up the hole put in -only a little earth at a time, "tamping" each layer compactly around the -post with an iron bar or stick before adding more earth. Contrary to -what one might naturally think, the earth can be tamped more compactly -with a bar or stick than with a heavy joist. - -Set another post in the same way at the next corner, fixing it -accurately in position by means of the strings, as in the case of the -first post, and seeing that the distance from the outside of this post -to the outside of the first one is that required by the plan. - -Set the other corner-posts in the same way, testing all the distances -(including the diagonals) as before. You can try the height of each post -now and then as you dig, and thus avoid making too deep a hole. - -If you prefer, you can set all the posts in the right positions at -first, but without trying to level the tops, merely seeing that the tops -all stick up above the line. You can then strike a horizontal line all -around with a cord, and saw all the posts off by this line--a process -which you very likely have seen when watching the work on a pile-bridge -or wharf. Sawing off the posts squarely will be much easier, however, -before they are set in the ground. - - * * * * * - -The posts may be of locust, cedar, cypress, or chestnut. Locust is -considered very durable, but is the most expensive. Cedar is excellent, -and will be perfectly satisfactory. Chestnut will do very well for a -house of this sort, and is comparatively cheap. If you do not mind the -slight increase in cost, cedar is better. If you wish to be as -economical as possible, chestnut will answer.[34] - -The reason for selecting wood of greater natural durability for the -posts than for the rest of the house is to withstand the greater -exposure of the posts to alternate moisture and dryness. Timber will -last for centuries if placed in a sheltered position and exposed to a -free circulation of air. It will also last for a long period when -immersed in fresh water or sunk underground, so as to be beyond the -influence of atmospheric changes. But the alternate exposure to dryness -and moisture, as in the case of posts partly above and partly below -ground, or piles for a wharf or bridge, causes decay in a comparatively -short time (see Appendix). - -If your site is too rocky for posts, you will be saved some digging, but -must provide a level and stable foundation in some other way. It rarely -happens that the surface will be quite level, and you must use stone or -timbers for underpinning. If there are one or two corners that must be -raised, owing to inequality of the surface, and you cannot find large -stones that will be sure to stay in place, you can rest the raised parts -of the house upon posts securely braced. Rock is not the most desirable -foundation for a building with a regular underpinning and cellar--the -biblical parable to the contrary notwithstanding--and there is no -foundation superior to sand or gravel (only the sand or gravel must be -confined and not free to slide or move). But as your house merely rests -on the surface, and has no cellar to be dug or drained, there is no -disadvantage in putting it on a rock, provided you support it properly. -Do not rest one end of it on a pile of loose cobble-stones, five feet -high, only to have the stones slip some wet, stormy night and let the -building down. - -Having the foundation set, the next thing is the frame, which for a -small building of this kind can be made of almost any kind of wood which -you can readily obtain, provided, of course, that it is dry enough and -not weakened by large knots or other defects. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any -other references. - -[Illustration FIG. 389.] - -The sills, or the lower timbers of the frame which rest upon the -foundation, should be got out first, and can be of 4" x 4" stock, and -halved at the ends (see _Halving_) (Fig. 389). Upon these sills is to be -set up a 4" x 4" post of the desired length at each corner.[35] - -On top of these are placed the plates, which can be of 2" x 4" studding -laid flat and halved at the ends. Be sure to get out these pieces before -beginning to put them together. Toe-nail the posts to the sills and nail -the plates directly down on top of the posts, keeping the latter in a -vertical position by temporarily nailing on strips of board diagonally, -adjusting these until the posts are vertical and at right angles to the -sills (see _Plumb_ and _Square_). - -Next put in vertical studding (2" x 4") at each side of the door-space, -and at the sides of the window-spaces, allowing a little more space than -the exact widths of the door and window-frames. In the same way -horizontal studding should be fitted in above the door-space and above -and below the window-spaces, and in any places where it will be a help -in stiffening the frame or for nailing on the boarding. Another way is -to first fit in pieces of joist horizontally, either midway between the -sills and plates (except at the window and door-spaces), or running the -entire length above and below the windows. Just where and how many of -these pieces are to be put in depends upon the arrangement of the doors -and windows, and pieces of vertical studding can be fitted in at each -side of the door and window-spaces and wherever advisable. Short braces, -with their ends sawed at an angle of 45 deg., can also be fitted at the -corners, where the corner-posts meet the sills and plates, and be nailed -in place to help stiffen the frame. - -It will be a convenience in working to lay the floor next. For this you -will require a number of floor-joists. If the building is only 8' or 10' -wide, 2" x 4" studding will do; but if the width is as great as 12', 2" -x 6" will be better. These are to be placed on edge on top of the sills, -as shown. Place one at each end against the corner-posts (to which it -can be nailed), sawing off each end so that it will be flush with the -outside of the sill. Distribute these floor-joists so that they will be -about 18" apart, and hold them in position by "toeing" a nail through -them at each end into the sill beneath, or nailing them to the studding -when practicable. Before laying any of these floor-joists trim them off -on the under edge, which will rest upon the sills, if necessary to -ensure a level surface on top for the floor. Do not neglect this, as -such joists frequently vary in width. Now measure the diagonals again, -before laying the floor-boards, to be sure that the base of the house is -rectangular. If one diagonal is longer than the other, push those -corners towards each other until the diagonals are of equal length. - -Next lay the floor-boards, lengthways of the building, driving them -together tightly by pounding on a waste piece, and nailing them firmly -to each floor-joist with two nails. If your floor-boards are not long -enough to reach the entire length of the house, you will take pains, of -course, to saw them of such a length that the ends of the boards will -meet over the middle of one of the floor-joists, arranging the joints so -that they will alternate or come at different points of the floor. Saw -off neatly all projecting ends of the floor-boards. - -You will frequently wish to use more force in driving the floor-boards -to a tight joint at the edges than you can easily apply with the hammer. -You can easily apply all the pressure required by using two short boards -on the principle of the toggle-joint. Arrange these as shown in Fig. -390, one end resting against a temporary cleat or any firm object and -the other against the edge of the floor-board. By stepping upon this -toggle-joint at its apex, the floor-board will be forced into place. A -common way is to pry the board into place with a chisel driven down at -the edge. - -[Illustration FIG. 390.] - -If the building is to be used in cold weather, by all means lay double -flooring. The under floor can be of cheaper stock and laid less -carefully. Between the two lay sheathing- or roofing-paper, and you will -have accomplished much towards keeping the room warm. - -The frame is now ready for the roof-timbers. These can be of 2" x 4" -studding, except the ridge-board, which can be any common board about 6" -wide. - -To obtain the length of the rafters and the angle at which the ends are -to be cut, you can easily make a full-sized pattern on the floor by -simply laying off a right-angled triangle of the required height and -base, which will give the length of the rafters and the angle at each -end, after cutting off a little piece at the upper end to represent one -half the thickness of the ridge-board; or two pieces of the rafter stock -can simply be laid on the floor in the right relative positions for the -roof, when their points of crossing can be marked on each edge and the -bevel marked on the sides of the pieces. The bevel at the lower end can -be found in a similar manner. Take off enough at the upper end to allow -for one half the thickness of the ridge-board, and saw off one rafter as -marked. This will serve for a pattern by which to mark the others. The -end rafters and the ridge-board (which should first be sawed the length -of the house) can easily be nailed in position by two persons, one at -each end, being temporarily stayed in place by a board nailed outside -(Fig. 389). - -The roof-boards can be nailed either lengthways, or up and down. If the -former way, the rafters must be put quite near together to give -sufficient support to the boards. If the latter, purlins, or lengthways -stringers, should be added between the ridge-board and the side-plates, -as shown. If the roof is to be shingled, the boards can as well be laid -lengthways--otherwise they should be laid up and down. If not to be -covered in any way, matched-boards (or battened joints) should be used. -If well painted, such a roof will last for some time, but shingling is -much better. - -Saddle-boards should be put along the ridge, as they add much to the -tightness and durability of the roof. - -The sides require to be sheathed before covering the roof, leaving open -spaces for the door and windows. Shorter pieces can be used above and -below these spaces. The boarding can be put on vertically and battens -(narrow boards 2" or 3" wide, or strips of "half-round" moulding) nailed -over the cracks, as shown in Fig. 391, or, of course, the sides can be -clapboarded or shingled if preferred, in which case the boarding can be -put on horizontally. - -The door can be made of boards, cleated, as already shown, or one can be -bought ready-made. A casing should be nailed around the door-space, -previously putting at the bottom a threshold upon which the lower ends -of the casing can fit. This you will at once understand by examining the -arrangement of these details in almost any dwelling-house. The -arrangement of the windows (which you can buy ready-made of almost any -desired shape and size) does not differ from the cases already shown. - -The smoke-pipe can be arranged as shown on page 258. - -A few floor-beams put across on top of the plates and wholly or partly -floored over will provide a loft useful for storage. If the building is -for a shop, this will be a good place to keep lumber. - -The roof can be covered according to the methods already shown, but -shingling will be much better. If a building is worth shingling at all, -it is usually best to use a good quality of shingles. The cheapest ones -are apt to be unsatisfactory for a permanent building, but, on the other -hand, for such structures as these it is not necessary to get an extra -quality, for some knots or defects at the thin ends where they will be -covered by two or three layers may do no harm. Cedar shingles are better -than spruce. - -It is a good plan to lay roofing-paper over the roof before shingling. -Begin the shingling at the eaves and work upward. Lay a row the length -of the roof, letting the butts slightly overhang the edge. Directly on -top of this row lay another, breaking joints with those underneath; that -is, lay the first row double, taking pains that the spaces between the -shingles of the lower layer are covered by the shingles of the upper -layer. Leave a slight space (perhaps 1/8" to 3/8") between the shingles -in laying them. This gives room for swelling, and allows the water to -run off freely. If the edges are close together at the lower end, the -tendency is to dam up these water-courses and retain the moisture, which -is injurious. Some people pare off the edges to make the butt-ends -narrower, in order to obviate this; but simply laying the shingles -slightly apart answers the purpose. Fasten each shingle with two shingle -nails (one near each edge, within perhaps 1"), far enough up from the -butt to be covered by the next row of shingles. Common shingles can be -laid about 4-1/2" to the weather, that is, with that portion of the -length exposed at the butt. If shingles of extra length are used this -distance can be varied accordingly. Lay the butts of each row by a -chalk-line or against the edge of a narrow board, which can be adjusted -and temporarily held in place by two strips nailed to the board and to -the ridge of the roof. The upper ends of the top row of shingles can be -trimmed off and saddle-boards can be put on at the top, letting the edge -of one overlap the other. - -It is doubtful economy to paint shingles after they are laid. The paint -tends to clog the spaces between them. It is better to dip them in paint -before laying. A much better way is to dip them in some one of the -prepared "creosote stains," which can be had in a great variety of -colours. These are excellent, although, except to obtain some desired -colour effect, it is hardly worth while to use any preparation on the -roofs of such buildings as these. Cut nails are considered better than -wire nails for shingling, on the ground of durability. Take pains to -keep the lines of the rows straight and at equal distances apart. - -For the painting, see _Painting_, in Part V. - -If this building is for a workshop, various suggestions about the -interior arrangement will be found in Part I. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[30] To find the number of square feet in the cleats, first find the -number of "running" feet, that is, the total length of the cleats if -they were stretched out in a long line, like one of the rails of a -railroad track. Then, as the cleats are 3" wide (or one fourth of a -foot), it will take four running feet to make one square foot. Therefore -divide the number of running feet by four and the quotient will be the -number of square feet. - -[31] Boards twelve feet long will be the best to buy for this house, -because you can get two lengths from each board without waste. You could -not be sure, however, of getting two lengths of exactly six feet from -each twelve-foot board, because the ends are frequently checked or -damaged in some way; so it will be safest to make the length 5' 10", as -given above. - -[32] If you have only small stones or blocks upon which to rest it, the -building can be put together directly upon the ground, the sills being -rested temporarily upon any material at hand, and then the supports -adjusted underneath. - -[33] You can mark a point on one string 3' from one stake and a point on -the other string 4' from the same stake, and then increase or decrease -the angle made by the two strings until another string exactly 5' long -will just reach from the marked point on one string to that on the -other. This process is based on the principle of mathematics that if the -two sides of a right-angled triangle are respectively 3 units and 4 -units in length, the length of the hypothenuse will be 5 units. Another -way, if you are fond of mathematics, is to find the length of the -diagonals of the plan of the house by extracting the square root of the -sum of the squares of the two sides. (The square described on the -hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal to the sum of the -squares described on the other two sides.) You can measure the diagonal -directly from a plan if you understand mechanical drawing well enough to -make an accurate plan on a scale of perhaps 1/2" or 1" to a foot. Then -take one tape, or string, measuring the width of the building, with one -end held on the stake C (Fig. 387), and another tape measuring the -length of the diagonal, with the end held on the stake D. Drive the -stake A at the point where the two tapes meet when brought together. -Reversing the positions of the tapes will give in the same way the -fourth corner B. The distance A B should equal C D. - -[Illustration FIG. 387.] - -[34] The part of the post which is embedded in the ground is sometimes -charred or painted to preserve it from decay. This can be easily done, -but the process is advisable only with thoroughly seasoned wood. It -is highly injurious to green timber, as by closing the pores and -obstructing evaporation from the surface it prevents the seasoning of -the wood and causes fermentation and decay within (see Appendix). - -[35] These posts, and even the sills, can be built up if necessary -of 2" x 4" studding, two pieces being placed side by side and nailed -together, but this is not so desirable as regards strength, its only -advantage consisting in the readiness with which the joints can be made -by simply cutting one of the two pieces shorter than the other. - - - - - "The cottage is one of the embellishments of natural scenery which - deserves attentive consideration. It is beautiful always, and - everywhere; whether looking out of the woody dingle with its - eye-like window, and sending up the motion of azure smoke between - the silver trunks of aged trees; or grouped among the bright - cornfields of the fruitful plain; or forming grey clusters along - the slope of the mountain side, the cottage always gives the idea - of a thing to be beloved: a quiet life-giving voice, that is as - peaceful as silence itself."--RUSKIN, _The Poetry of Architecture_. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -SIMPLE SUMMER COTTAGES - - -"=Cottage Row.="--The little houses shown in the accompanying -illustrations[36] afford excellent examples of what can be done by the -beginner. These were built by boys, and form, with others, a most -interesting little village or street, known as "Cottage Row." They are -small, but have many of the details of larger houses. They are shingled -and clapboarded, have regular doors and windows, and are very -attractively fitted up inside with curtains, cupboards, shelves, tables, -chairs, lounges, bookcases, and other articles of furniture. The walls -are hung or covered with prettily figured cretonne or calico. - -These little structures are good models for boys' first attempts at -house-building, in that they are simple, modest, and unpretentious, and -have a homelike air which does not pertain to many more elaborate and -pretentious houses. The visitor is attracted by their neat, trim, -inviting appearance, and wishes to enter. - -Houses of this character can easily be made by two or more boys working -together; and by the united forces of a number of boys a very attractive -little village can be built (and much simple carpentry be learned at the -same time), in which many pleasant hours can be spent. - -Such houses as these can be framed and put together without difficulty -by the methods already shown. It will not add very much to the expense -to have the parts of the frame which show on the inside of the house -planed by machine, and this will much improve the appearance of the -interior. Shingling the roofs, putting casing around the windows and -doors and at the corners of the houses, and clapboarding or shingling -the sides, adds much to the attractiveness of such small structures, as -you can see from the illustrations. - -[Illustration] - -The windows and casings you can buy ready-made, or the latter you can -make yourself. The doors and casings you can also buy, or make. The -door-casings and window-casings should be nailed in place before the -sides are clapboarded. The tops of these casings should always be -protected by strips of sheet lead, the upper edges of which are slipped -up under the clapboarding (Fig. 390a), thus covering the crack where the -casing joins the side of the building and shedding the water--on the -same principle as shown in Figs. 384 and 385. This is important, as the -rain will drive through such cracks, even though they seem very tight. -Tonguing and grooving can be used in such cases, but flashing with lead -is a simpler process. The same precaution should always be taken where -roofs or attachments join a building in such a way as to expose a crack -through which the water can leak. Zinc, or even tin, can be used, but -are inferior to lead. The corner-boards and the water-table (the -horizontal board at the bottom of the house) should also be nailed in -place. The latter should have the top edge slightly bevelled, to shed -the water. All these pieces having been carefully nailed in place, the -clapboarding or shingling of the sides can be done. - -[Illustration 390a.] - -It will cost but little to sheath the outside with sheathing-paper, and -the house will be much tighter and dryer. This should be put on under -the casings, corner-boards, etc., so as to avoid a crack where these -boards and the clapboards or shingles meet. - - * * * * * - -Laying clapboards, unlike shingling, is begun at the top. Lay the upper -row by a line, as in shingling, keeping the clapboards in place by a few -nails in the upper part only. Then slip the clapboards for the next row -up from underneath under the first row until only the desired amount of -the clapboards is exposed. The first row can then be firmly nailed near -the lower edge with clapboard nails. This will hold the next row in -position while the third row is put in place, and so on. The thin edge -of the upper row can be finally covered with a strip of board or -moulding. The clapboarding can be continued to the very bottom of the -house. If, however, a water-table is used at the bottom, the lower edge -of the bottom row of clapboards should be slightly bevelled to fit -closely down on the slanting upper edge of the water-table. Be careful -to lay the clapboards in line and at equal distances apart, as -variations in the alignment are quite noticeable. Examine the clapboards -of any house on which they are used. In arranging them break joints at -the ends, that is, do not have the joints of one row directly under, or -very near, those of the rows above and below. Do not saw the ends by -eye. Mark them accurately with the try-square and knife and saw them -carefully with a fine saw, trying to make as close joints as possible. - -[Illustration] - -A fair quality of clapboards should be used, but a few defects near the -thin edges which are to be covered may do no serious harm for such -structures as these. - -When you begin to attempt more ambitious structures, such as modest -summer cottages for camping in vacations, for hunting- or -fishing-lodges, or for family use,--such houses as are often undertaken -by older boys or men with a taste for amateur carpentry,--there are a -number of things to be considered before beginning to do any actual -work. - -[Illustration] - -Do not begin a house you cannot pay for. If you find that the more -elaborate plans suggested will exceed your means, do not let them tempt -you to run in debt, but content yourself with the simplest plan.[37] You -will find it perfectly comfortable, and whenever you can afford the -expense you can easily add to it and improve it. That is the best -principle to go on, morally as well as financially. - -In addition to points already spoken of in the preceding pages, bear in -mind, in making your plans, to use only simple forms for your first -efforts. Avoid dormer windows and complicated roofs (especially -combinations producing "valleys") and bay-windows, and the like, at -first. Such arrangements add many difficulties for the beginner. When -you can make a plain, simple building, with everything snug and tight, -and can lay a plain roof that will not leak, you can then attempt such -variations of form with a fair chance of success, but do not be too -ambitious in your first attempts. A simple piazza can often be added to -good advantage, if desired. - -[Illustration] - -It is well to ascertain the sizes of the ready-made doors and windows -which you can buy in the place where your house is to be built, before -drawing your plans. - -If there is a choice of situations in which to place your house, a few -suggestions about the selection of a site may be of value. - - * * * * * - -If you are going to build in the mountains, or the pine woods, or on -rocky islands or promontories in the ocean,--in places where there are -almost no unsanitary conditions, where the climate is so invigourating, -the air so purifying,--there is no need to think of many precautions -important in a cleared and settled country. As much sunlight and -circulation of air as you can get, pure drinking water, and the simple -precaution of not building in a hollow or on the edge of a swamp, are -about all the sanitary points you need consider in such places. - -In selecting a site in any ordinary country or seashore region, first -make sure above all things of _dryness_, _sunlight_, _pure air_, and -_pure water_. - -Avoid building a cottage for regular occupancy in a dense thicket, not -merely on account of the mosquitoes and other insects, but because the -thicket shuts out the sun and cuts off the free circulation of air which -there should always be in summer around and through a house. Of course, -for shooting or fishing, a lodge, camp, or cabin must be built wherever -required by the circumstances. Sunshine is very important in securing -dryness and in purifying the air. - -You will naturally reject wet land. Avoid also soil that retains -moisture,[38] even though it may not be actually wet to step upon, for -land saturated with moisture may be the unsuspected source of serious -diseases. There is air in the ground, which may be the means of -spreading dampness and foul gases. - -Do not place your house in a depression or in the bottom of a valley -where dampness is likely to settle. At the seashore there will, of -course, be fogs from the ocean at certain times and places, but they are -not harmful, except to navigation; and at the mountains more or less -dampness at night is very common. Do not try to find a place where there -is no dampness at all, but except at the seashore or mountains reject -situations where there are mists at night, avoiding particularly the -vicinity of wet marshes and swamps, stagnant pools of fresh water, boggy -ponds, sluggish rivers and brooks, on account of the malarious vapours -which are liable to hang over them. - -Do not try to keep cool by hiding your house where the sun will not -shine upon it. The southern or south-eastern slope of a hill usually -affords a most desirable site as regards both coolness and sunlight. If -you can also find a site on the top of a little mound or knoll, so as to -secure the free drainage of the water in every direction, it will be -advantageous. - -The main points in regard to water are to have it pure and to have -plenty of it. - -In regard to pure water, and pure air also, if you are planning to build -in a little settlement or near other cottages the question of drainage -(sewerage) from the neighbouring houses becomes of the utmost -importance. A breeze from the sea, the mountains, or the pine woods is -pure in itself and to a certain degree a scavenger, but do not throw -upon it the work of purifying a naturally unhealthful situation. - -This matter of drainage you can arrange for yourself on your own land, -but the arrangements of your neighbours you will have to take as you -find them; therefore guard carefully against contamination of your -drinking water and of the air through proximity to the cesspools, -privies, or sink drains of the neighbouring cottages. Exactly how far a -well or spring should be from such sources of pollution it is impossible -to state without knowledge of the particular spot, for it depends upon -the slope of the ground, the kind of soil, the direction of the -underlying strata, and other circumstances. In some cases a distance of -twenty feet might be perfectly safe, while in others two hundred would -be highly dangerous. One hundred feet or more is near enough under -ordinary conditions. There is no greater danger than that from -defective sewerage, and the danger usually begins before the senses are -aware that there is any trouble. This subject is better understood now -than formerly, but still, until the subject forces itself upon their -attention, the majority of people pay but little regard to it. It is a -fact well established among medical men that some of the worst forms of -sickness are nothing but filth diseases, to which the dwellers in summer -cottages are sometimes even more exposed than those in town houses. -Remember that air as well as water is an active agent for spreading the -germs of disease. - -As to the position in which to place the house itself after the spot has -been chosen much will depend on circumstances. Consider the sun, the -prevailing winds, and the views in relation to the rooms, the windows, -and the piazza. An unsheltered piazza facing the west is apt to be very -hot at the time of day you are likely to use it the most, though, of -course, the wind or other considerations may make such a position -desirable. - - * * * * * - -The subject of the necessary underpinning for such simple structures as -are here shown has been already treated in the preceding chapter. In -most cases you will find posts set in the ground, as there described, an -excellent way (except, of course, upon rocky ground), but brick or stone -piers are almost always more desirable, if you can afford the cost of -the materials (which can be obtained almost anywhere), and the work of -laying piers for such a purpose is not very difficult; but whether to -use posts or piers should, of course, depend upon the character and -permanence of the building. - -Having fixed upon the position of the building, proceed to stake it out -(including the piazza if there is to be one), as shown in the chapter -immediately preceding. - -The foundation being ready, the frame is next to be considered. You have -probably noticed in the old houses built by our forefathers their -massive construction,--the great size of the timbers and the way in -which they are heavily braced and mortised and pinned together. With the -modern facilities for cutting wood into small pieces by machinery has -sprung up a style of building of which you will see examples on every -hand, and which when carried to its extreme in the cheapest houses makes -a structure so flimsy that it is literally held together by nothing but -nails. A scientific modification (adapted to modern conditions) of the -old-fashioned "braced" structure, retaining its advantages and remedying -its defects, is undoubtedly superior (_expense being no object_) to a -"balloon" frame that will only hold together by having the outside -boarding nailed on to it as fast as it is put up. If the more cheaply -built "balloon" structures of to-day had been put up in the days of our -Pilgrim or Puritan ancestors not a stick of them would now be standing. -A lighter arrangement than the old-fashioned frame and one more easily -built is, however, in our day probably better adapted for the -construction of a large class of buildings of moderate size and moderate -cost. - -This is said about braced and framed structures that you may not be led -to think that the light construction advocated here for you would be the -best for _all_ wooden structures. Your house will be so small, and the -construction of a braced and mortised frame is so difficult for -amateurs, that a lighter and easier arrangement will be best for you to -use, however ill-suited it might be for a large mansion or ware-house. -This system of construction will be perfectly satisfactory and -sufficiently durable for a little summer cottage. - -A little house well suited for summer use, or for a winter camp, is -shown in Fig. 391. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration FIG. 391.] - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Hinges_, _Painting_, in Part V., and -look up any other references. - -The main house (which contains the general living-room) can be framed as -shown in Fig. 389. The "lean-to" addition (which contains the kitchen) -can be framed as shown in Fig. 371. If both parts are built at one time, -only four sills should be used for the entire structure, and the -corner-posts and upright studding of the "lean-to" on the side next the -main house should be omitted. - -The sides of this house are battened, _i.e._, the joints of the vertical -sheathing are covered with strips nailed over them--in this case with -strips of "half-round" moulding. This is an easy and quite inexpensive -way to finish the outside, and while hardly equal to clapboarding or -shingling in some respects is a very good way for structures of this -kind. - -As you will see from the illustration, the rafters of both the house and -the ell project or overhang at the eaves. This is not really a necessity -for any structure, and you will sometimes see quite large buildings -without any overhang of the roof whatever, but, as a rule, it improves -the appearance of the house, and is a help in shedding the water farther -from the walls. It is only necessary to let the rafters project at their -lower ends, making all project equally, and to nail a board to their -ends, as shown. The overhang at the ends of the house can be arranged in -the same way, short pieces of studding being nailed in the outside angle -of the roof and ends, with strips nailed upon these. - -If the ground slopes, as in this case, lattice-work is good to cover the -space below the sills. - -The remaining details have been treated in the preceding cases. - - * * * * * - -The simple structure shown in Fig. 392 is suitable for various uses, and -can be constructed in the way already described. - - * * * * * - -The piazza is, however, a new problem, but not a very difficult one -after the processes already described. A simple way, suited for rustic -structures or rough cabins, is to set the piazza posts in the ground to -a depth of two or three feet, sawing the tops off at the height of the -piazza roof, and simply nailing a system of floor-timbers for the piazza -floor to these posts and the side of the house and flooring it with -boards, while the roof of the piazza is supported on the tops of the -posts. This is not a good way, however, for a carefully built house. - -[Illustration FIG. 392.] - -A strip of joist or plank can be spiked to the side of the house at the -proper height, and to this can be nailed a system of floor-timbers for -the piazza floor (see page 287), the outer corners and middle resting -upon stones or posts in the same way as the rest of the building. This -is then floored crossways, the whole having a slight slant outwards to -shed the water. Upon this platform are raised the piazza posts, and at -the top of these is nailed a roof system, which is covered with boards -in the same way as the floor beneath. Enough slant should be given the -roof to enable it to shed the water freely. - -The other details do not differ from those already described. - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Hinges_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look -up any other references. - - * * * * * - -An excellent form for a small structure is that shown in Fig. 393. This -has a hip-roof, which is the only essential difference between it and -the types already shown. - -[Illustration FIG. 393.] - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Hinges_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look -up any other references. - -[Illustration FIG. 393a.] - -This roof is somewhat more difficult to make well than the simple kinds, -but is not beyond the skill of the amateur. Up to the plates the -construction is the same as that already shown. In this roof, however, -the ridge-board is short and the end rafters (called hip-rafters) -incline towards it (Fig. 393a). Laying out the upper bevels of these -rafters will require careful planning. After you have succeeded in -laying them out, cutting the bevels at the ends, and fitting them in -place, the shorter jack rafters can readily be put in place. - -[Illustration FIG. 394.] - -[Illustration FIG. 395.] - -The shingling is more difficult at the corners than in the other roofs -shown, as the shingles must be cut. It is well to cover each hip with a -line of shingles, laid parallel to the hip and along each side of it. -Boards can be used to cover the hips, as shown in one of the -illustrations of "Cottage Row." - -Another form, embodying the same roof construction, but larger and -correspondingly more difficult, is shown in Fig. 394. - - * * * * * - -A small cottage for summer use (Fig. 395) is not more difficult than the -cases already shown, except in the matter of size. - -[Illustration FIG. 396. END ELEVATION.] - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Hinges_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look -up any other references. - -The process of staking out and setting the foundation has been already -described under _A Workshop_, pages 259-264. - -The frame can be built upon the same general principle as shown in Fig. -389, the dimensions of the stock depending upon the size of the house; -but the directions given in these chapters are intended only for small -structures. The sills should be 4" x 6" or 6" x 6", the corner-posts can -be 4" x 4" or 4" x 6," the floor-timbers and rafters 2" x 6", although, -if the house is quite small, 2" x 4" will do for the rafters, which can -be braced by "collar beams," or simply horizontal pieces of board -nailed across in the upper part of the roof. - -Arrange the studding according to the doors and windows. As this house -is not to be lathed and plastered, it is not essential that the studding -should be at any exact distance apart. - -The essential difference between the frame of this house and that shown -in Fig. 389 consists in the projection of the second-story floor-timbers -over the piazza, the ends resting upon an outer plate on top of the -piazza posts (Fig. 396). The arrangement of the attic floor-beams, the -rafters, and the side-plates is shown in Fig. 397. - -[Illustration FIG. 397.] - -The frame for the piazza floor can be arranged as follows: Fasten a -strip of 2" x 4" joist along the side, spiking it through into the sill. -On this fasten an arrangement of floor-timbers, such as is shown in Fig. -398, the inner cross-beam and lengthways stringers resting in gains, as -shown in Fig. 399. The details of the arrangement can be varied -according to the height you wish the piazza floor to be relatively to -the floor inside. - -For a quite small structure, or for a temporary one, it will answer to -make this piazza-floor system of 2" x 6" stock simply sawed square and -spiked together, on the principle shown in Fig. 378, but for a good -house which you wish to be permanent, it is better to put a little more -labour into the piazza. - -[Illustration FIG. 398.] - -[Illustration FIG. 399.] - -Another way is to have the main sills extend under the piazza as well as -under the house proper. This is a more thorough way as regards -stiffness, but extra pains must be taken to prevent the water working -down on the sills where the house and piazza join, as this will tend to -rot this portion of the sills. With this arrangement of sills an extra -sill, or cross-sill, should be added under the juncture of the body of -the house and the piazza. The ends of this sill can rest in gains cut in -the end-sills, and the middle can be supported by one or more posts. - -For the stairs, which can be put wherever you wish, take two pieces of -plank, 2" x 9" or 10", and of sufficient length. Having determined the -points for the top and the bottom of the stairs (by laying off on the -floor in the same way as for the rafters, page 268), lay one of the -planks on the floor in the proper position and mark the notches for the -steps and the bevels for the ends. After these "notch-boards" or string -pieces have been cut and put in place, you can easily get out and nail -on the "risers" and "treads." Examination of any common stairs will show -you how to arrange these details without difficulty. You can mark on a -stick the height from the top of the lower floor to the top of the -upper. Divide this distance, on the stick, into as many parts as you -wish to have steps, and you can use the stick as a gauge by which to -determine the points for sawing the notches for the steps.[39] It is -best to have the treads not less than 9" wide, and 10" is better, while -7-1/2" or 8" will do for the risers. A "header," or cross-piece, must be -securely fastened between the second-story floor-beams where they are -cut off to make the opening at the head of the stairs. - -The partitions inside require no directions, being simply made of -studding to which sheathing is nailed. - -The remaining details do not differ from those of the preceding cases, -and the interior fittings you can arrange without further instructions. -A regular brick chimney will, of course, be a desirable feature if you -can afford it. - - * * * * * - -By the slight modification of having the roof overhang on each side, two -piazzas will be provided and space given for larger chambers (Fig. 400). - - * * * * * - -The construction differs from that of the design just shown only in the -arrangement of the framing for the second story. - -[Illustration FIG. 400.] - -The floor-beams of the second story will overlap at each end and the -rafters be correspondingly longer, and the end-plates can be omitted and -the end-studding continued up to the rafters, except where interrupted -by the window-spaces. This house, like the others, can be clapboarded, -shingled, battened, or sheathed, as you may prefer. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[36] Obtained through the courtesy of Mr. Charles H. Bradley, -Superintendent of the admirable Farm School on Thompson's Island, in -Boston Harbour, where this little village was built. - -[37] If that is too expensive, some of those given in the preceding -pages will probably answer your purpose. - -[38] "Soils which are naturally porous, from which rain rapidly -disappears, are known to be the healthiest for the sites of houses. In -this the action of the soil oxidizes all organic impurities, the -resulting product is washed away by the rain, and the soil remains sweet -and wholesome."--LATHAM. - -[39] To find the number of steps for a given situation, find the height, -as just shown, from floor to floor, 102" for example. Assume, for trial, -a satisfactory height for each step, as 7". Divide 102 by 7, which gives -14-4/7 for the number of steps. To make the number even, call it 14, and -you have only to divide 102 by 14 to get the exact height of each step. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -A FEW SIMPLE STRUCTURES - - -=Summer-houses.=--A form which is quite easy to build, and which is -attractive when overrun with vines, is shown in front elevation (Fig. -401) and in side elevation (Fig. 402). - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any other -references. - -The construction is simple. The frame can be of 2" x 3" stock (planed), -except the sills, which had best not be smaller than 2" x 4" (on edge). -Cross floor-beams can be inserted, as in the floors of the little houses -first shown. - -The upright members can, however, rest upon posts set in the ground and -the floor be dispensed with. Where the parts of the frame cross they can -be halved (see _Halving_). The square joints can be nailed together. The -roof can be solid or made of slats several inches apart, resting upon -rafters. - -[Illustration FIG. 401.] - -The strips for the lattice-work can be about 3/8" thick, and from 7/8" -to 1-1/4" wide. These can be got out at any mill in long or short -strips, which you can cut off as you put them on. Do not lay them too -closely together. Put one strip on at the desired angle. Then cut off -one or more short pieces by which to gauge the distance for laying the -next strip, or get out a piece of light thin boarding of the width of -the space between the lattice strips and hold it beside each strip as a -guide by which to lay the next one. - -This lattice-work, although each strip is so slight, will give the frame -great stiffness and strength. - -[Illustration FIG. 402.] - -The joints of such framework as this should properly be painted before -being put together (see _Painting_), and it also is a more thorough and -neater way to lay the lattice-work strips on supports of some kind and -paint them before putting on. They will then only require touching up -with paint after the house is done. - - * * * * * - -The rustic summer-house, or arbour, made of sticks in their natural -form, shown in Fig. 403, is in some respects more difficult to build -than the preceding, because the ends of so many of the pieces have to be -cut at an oblique angle. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Hinges_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look -up any other references. - -First make a platform, as for the other floors, or the upright posts can -rest upon posts set in the ground and the floor be dispensed with. -Plates can be placed on top of the posts, and rafters extend from the -plates at the top of each post to the apex of the roof. These plates and -rafters will make a framework on which to nail the sticks which form the -roof covering. The remaining details are apparent. Much care is -required, however, to put this house together properly, not merely in -cutting the angles at the joints, but in sighting, measuring, and -testing to ensure its coming together without twisting or winding. - -[Illustration FIG. 403.] - - * * * * * - -Instead of making this house six-sided, it can, if desired, be made -rectangular like the preceding one, but keeping the same arrangement of -the details. This makes a very pretty design, and in respect to joining -the pieces is much easier to make. Another pretty plan is to build a -hexagonal, octagonal, or circular house of this sort around a tree -trunk. If the roof is fitted too snugly to the tree trunk, the growth of -the latter may split the roof apart before the rest of the house is past -its usefulness, so you should arrange this part to allow for the growth -of the tree. - - -=Bath-house.=--A plain bath-house (Fig. 404) can well be made with a -lean-to roof and put together on the same simple principles already -shown; so that additional instructions for this design are unnecessary. -A good way for such a building is to sheath it vertically as shown, but -any of the other methods can, of course, be adopted. - -[Illustration FIG. 404.] - -[Illustration FIG. 405.] - - -=Boat-houses.=--By using the same simple system of framework shown in -Fig. 389 you can make an inexpensive boat-house (Fig. 405). - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Hinges_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look -up any other references. - -The inclined slip or platform upon which you haul the boats up from the -water requires simply two or three timbers for stringers, running down -towards the water, with 2" planks nailed across, as shown. The simplest -way to square the ends of these planks is to nail them in place, -allowing a little extra length, and then saw the ends all off at once by -a line. - -[Illustration FIG. 406.] - -A house of this kind can be built to extend over the water (for boats -which are to be kept in the water) by arranging a foundation of stone or -piles in the water, or by digging a little dock into the shore under the -house. - -In these cases there must, of course, be an additional door of the -ordinary kind for entrance on the shore end of the house, and it will be -convenient, if the house is long enough, to floor over this end. A -narrow floor or platform can also be extended along one or both sides to -facilitate handling the boats and getting in or out of them. - -The sill at the water end will have to be omitted, of course, a piece of -studding being fitted in at each side of the door-space, but these -details you will have no difficulty in arranging if you have studied the -preceding examples. - - * * * * * - -A larger and more elaborate boat-house, or club-house (Fig. 406), having -a loft for storage as well as a balcony, can be constructed on the same -general principles already explained. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Screws_, _Hinges_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look -up any other references. - -[Illustration FIG. 407.] - -The end-plate for the end shown in the illustration cannot run across -from side to side, because of the doorway opening on the balcony, but -can be made in two parts to extend from the sides to upright studs at -each side of the doorway. A simple way of arranging the frame at the -floor of the second story is shown in Fig. 407. - -Unless this building is very small (in which case it can only be used -for the storage of oars, rigging, etc.), the sills should be of 4" x 6" -(on edge) or 6" x 6" stock, and the floor-beams of 2" x 6" stock. 4" x -4" or 4" x 6" will do for the corner-posts, and 2" x 4" for the studding -and rafters for such a small structure as is advisable for the beginner -to attempt. - -If you should, however, build anything large, the posts, the lower -floor-beams, if unsupported in the middle, the plates, and the rafters -should be heavier. If your house is to be used by many people and heavy -boats are to be hauled in and out, it is much better to err on the side -of having these timbers too heavy rather than too light. But these -designs are only intended for comparatively small structures. - -The outer floor-timbers for the balcony had best be mortised into the -posts (see _Mortising_). The top rail around the balcony can be of 2" x -4" studding, laid flatways, and with the upper angles bevelled (see -_Bevelling_). The balusters can be simply square pieces nailed into -place. The rail and balusters can, however, be obtained in a great -variety of forms at a wood-working mill, if you prefer to buy them. The -braces under the balcony can be of 2" x 4" stock. All these outside -parts should be planed by machine. - -The remaining details do not differ from those of the houses already -described. - - - - -PART IV - -_BOAT-BUILDING FOR BEGINNERS_ - - - - -CHAPTER XV - - -Boat-building, like many other kinds of work, can be done (even in its -simplest stages) more quickly, more easily, and, of course, more -cheaply, by two persons than by one, so it will be economy of money, -time, and labour to find someone to join forces with you. Do not, -however, give up your plans for lack of a fellow-workman, for nothing is -given here which cannot be done by one person with, perhaps, a little -help once in a while about holding or lifting something. - -If these boats seem rather simple compared with many which you have -seen, and you fail to find here some form you have in mind to build, it -is to be remembered that boat-building is by no means easy, and that -many an attractive design would prove too difficult for the average -beginner to finish successfully. The experience gained in building such -boats as these will help you in more difficult boat-building. These -simple models are not offered as being in themselves the best there are, -nor are the ways shown for building them in every case such as would -always be used by a regular boat-builder; but boat-building involves a -variety of difficulties, not merely in the designing, but also in the -execution. - -It takes a good workman to turn out a really successful round-bottomed -boat (except by the use of canvas), therefore a few simple types of -flat-bottomed boats are all that are treated here. When you have become -skilful enough to attempt the more advanced forms, you can easily find a -number of excellent books on boat-building from which to gain the -needed information. The intention here is to show wood-working processes -which you can use in making these simple craft, but not to go into the -details of designing or of rigging, subjects which are far too complex -to be satisfactorily treated, even for the beginner, in a hand-book on -wood-working. - -While it is practicable to make a good punt, or flat-bottomed rowboat, -entirely by rule of thumb, or "cutting and trying" as you go along, -still you should accustom yourself, even in the simplest forms, to lay -the work out on paper correctly first, as this is really essential, in -order to work to good advantage when you come to the more advanced -forms. - - -=Scows and Punts.=--A flat-bottomed boat, if made with care, may be not -merely good-looking, but light, strong, and useful, and sometimes -superior for some purposes to a round-bottomed boat. - -Boats of this class are easily and cheaply built and by no means to be -despised. They are safe, capacious, and comfortable, and the flat bottom -permits much freedom of movement by the occupants, making them good -boats for fishing and general use on ponds and rivers, as well as for -transporting loads. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any other -references. - -The process is to first get out the sides, then the ends, next to fasten -the sides and ends together as in making a box, then to nail on the -bottom, and finally to put in the seats and any other fittings. Almost -any kind of soft wood can be used for a boat of this kind. Pine is -excellent. Care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained -stock, free from knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. - -[Illustration FIG. 408.] - -For the sides, take two boards, for example, 14' long, 14" wide, and -7/8" thick, planed on both sides. Both edges should be "jointed" and the -ends squared and sawed accurately. Mark, saw, and plane the slant at -each end of these boards as shown in Fig. 408. The ends must next be got -out. In this case they can be 4' long and 4-1/4" wide. Nail together the -sides and ends just as in making a flat box. Use three nails (3" or -3-1/2" long) at each corner. It is safest to bore holes for the nails -(see _Boring_). Copper nails are best for boats, but galvanized iron -answers very well for common boats of this kind. Next place this frame, -bottom up, on horses or boxes or a flat floor and plane down the -projecting edges of the end pieces to agree with the slant of the sides. - -Pieces for the bottom are now to be sawed from boards about 6" to 8" -wide. Mark and saw one piece and use it for a pattern by which to mark -the lengths of the remaining pieces. You can take the length directly -from either end, allowing a trifle (say 1/8") to spare, for planing the -ends after they are nailed. Having sawed the required number of pieces, -which will depend on the width of the boards, nail them on carefully. -Before nailing, thoroughly paint the bottom edge to which they are to be -nailed with thick white-lead paint. See that the edges of each board are -straight, paint the edges as you lay them, and nail thoroughly with -2-1/2" nails. Do not put the nails so close to the edge as to cause -splitting. The edges of the pieces which come together at the angles of -the bottom must be fitted carefully with the plane (see _Bevelling_), to -make as tight joints as possible. The boards should be pressed closely -together as they are nailed. They will assist in keeping the sides and -ends of the boat at right angles, but it would be well to test the -angles with the large square, or by measuring the diagonals, when you -nail on the first two boards. - -A quicker way is to nail on all the boards (not sawing them accurately -to a length) and then to saw the ends all off by a line. - -A good way is to use, for the bottom, plain sheathing or matched boards, -if obtainable without the bead or moulding commonly worked on the -surface, which would be apt to cause leakage. The sheathing can be -planed down on both sides to a thickness of 5/8", which will remove the -moulding, but this is rather thin for the bottom of a boat as large as -this, though an excellent way for a narrower boat. - -When the bottom is all nailed on, turn the boat on each side and plane -off any irregularity in the ends of the bottom boards, so that they will -be flush with the sides. - -A cleat from 4" to 6" wide should be laid along the middle of the bottom -to stiffen it, as shown. The nails should be driven through the boards -and clinched. Wrought nails, or some kind that will bend over and not -break, must of course be used for this. This cleat is often nailed on -the outside instead of the inside. - -Nail a seat at each end directly on top of the sides and ends as shown. -From 12" to 18" in width will do. The seat for rowing (about 8" or 9" -wide) can rest on cleats, as shown. - -Next screw a cleat, about 2" deep, 7/8" thick, and 10" long, to the -insides of the gunwales at the places for the rowlocks (see _Screws_). -Common iron rowlocks can be bought almost anywhere, and the way to put -them on is obvious (see _Boring_). A substitute for them can be arranged -easily by simply boring two holes, 3-1/2" apart, for the insertion of -round thole pins of hard wood. Another simple way (Fig. 409) is to make -two mortises or slots, 3-1/2" apart and 1-1/2" long x 5/8" wide, to hold -thole pins (Fig. 410). The cutting can be done wholly in the cleats by -sawing and paring. - -[Illustration FIG. 409.] - -[Illustration FIG. 410.] - -Insert a ring-bolt at the end by which to fasten the boat, or a staple -can be driven in, or a hole bored at the end of the seat. - -If care has been taken to make close joints, the wood will swell on -being put in the water and in a short time the boat should be tight. -Unless made for some temporary purpose, however, a boat that is worth -making at all is worth painting. It should be painted carefully with -lead paint, both inside and out, two or three coats, being careful to -work the paint well into the wood and the cracks (see _Painting_). - -Instead of laying the bottom boards tightly together, as directed above, -they can be laid slightly apart, so that the cracks between them will be -about 1/8" wide. These can then be caulked with oakum, cotton-batting, -or wicking, or something of that nature. Roll or twist the material into -a loose cord, unless already in that form, and force it into the cracks -with a putty-knife, screw-driver, case-knife, or anything of the sort. A -regular caulking-iron is not at all necessary for a small boat. A piece -of hard wood will do. Be sure to fill the seams thoroughly and tightly -with the oakum or other caulking material. Then apply white lead -plentifully to the caulked seams. But the method first given is usually -satisfactory if you do your work with care. - -Pitch or tar can be used in making the bottom of a boat of this kind -tight. - - * * * * * - -A form which is a decided improvement on the preceding is shown in Fig. -411. The process of making this punt will be first to get out the -cross-board which goes in the middle, and next the sides and ends. These -pieces having been put together, the bottom is nailed on, and finally -the seats and other fittings are added. - -[Illustration FIG. 411.] - -The one here described is small, but large enough for two good-sized -boys. The dimensions are given merely to help illustrate the process. As -much larger boat as may be desired can, of course, be made upon the same -principles. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any other -references. - -Care should always be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, -free from knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. Pine is -excellent, but almost any good wood can be used for a boat of this sort. - -First get out carefully a board, perhaps 3' long, or the width of the -boat (at the middle), and of the shape shown in Fig. 412, removing a -small piece at each lower corner, to allow for the passage of any water -which may leak in. Get out each side of the boat, 10' 4" long, of 3/4" -stock, carefully squaring the ends. After these are cut, mark a distance -of 3' from each end towards the centre on the edge of one of the boards -and a distance of 3" on the ends, measuring from the other edge, and -mark the curves shown in Fig. 413, which should sweep easily from the -edge of the board without any abrupt turn. If you cannot draw a good -curve free-hand, take a spline or thin strip of wood, bend it on the -side of the board towards one end till you get a good curve, hold it in -position, and using it as a ruler mark the line with a pencil. You can -cut this curve and use it for a pattern by which to mark the other -curves. These curves can be band-sawed or cut with the draw-knife or -hatchet and plane (see _Paring_). Whatever method you adopt, the curves -should finally be run over with the plane to remove irregularities, and -care must be taken to keep as accurately to the line marked as possible. -The top edges must also be jointed, although it is not material that -they should be absolutely straight. Mark a line with the square across -each board at the centre. Next get out the end pieces, 2' long, 3-3/4" -wide, and of 7/8" stock (Fig. 414). Bevel the ends of these pieces at -the same angle as the centre board already sawed, from which you can -mark the angle. - -[Illustration FIG. 412.] - -[Illustration FIG. 413.] - -[Illustration FIG. 414.] - -An easy way to put this boat together will be to put the sides and ends -together, and then, by spreading the sides apart, to put the middle -board in its proper place. Bore holes for 2-1/2" screws at each end of -the sides (see _Boring_) and screw the sides and ends together loosely -(see _Screws_), not driving the screws home, but leaving their heads -sticking beyond the sides perhaps an eighth of an inch. Now lay the boat -(so far as made) bottom side up on the horses or boxes, or even with one -end on the floor and the other raised by a box, and, spreading the sides -in the middle as much as may be necessary, push the middle board up into -place, getting it exactly opposite centre lines previously marked on the -sides and so that the bottom edge of the board is just even with the -_inner_ edge of the bottom of the sides. This piece can now be nailed in -place by three nails at each end. - -Now, on looking at the ends where the sides are screwed, you will see -that spreading the sides has caused the joints (purposely left loose) to -open slightly at the inside, and that the ends require to be slightly -bevelled or trimmed to make a close joint. Unscrew one end, do the -necessary trimming with the plane, replace the piece, and screw it into -position again, driving the screws home and adding one or two nails. Do -the same with the other end and the boat will be ready for the bottom. - -But before the bottom is nailed on, the lower edges of the sides must be -bevelled with the plane, owing to the sides flaring outwards. The degree -of bevelling required can be determined by laying a board across (Fig. -415). At first it will only touch the outer angles of the edges, and the -planing must be continued until it bears flat on the entire edge. - -[Illustration FIG. 415.] - -Now get out of 7/8" stock the bottom boards, the edges of which should -be carefully jointed to fit together as tightly as possible. These -boards should be thoroughly nailed to the sides of the boat with 2-1/4" -or 2-1/2" nails, care being taken not to nail too near the edges of the -boards, lest they split. As the sides are only 3/4" thick you will have -to be careful in driving the nails or they will split the sides. Before -you finish nailing the first bottom boards, test the symmetry of the -frame by measuring the diagonals. These should be equal. If not, you can -easily make them so with your hands, and tack a couple of strips -diagonally across the gunwales to keep the frame in position until the -bottom is nailed on. Also sight across the gunwales to see that the -frame is true. If it winds, correct the error by blocking it up where -needed. - -Sheathing can well be used for the bottom of this boat, as for the one -just described, if you can get it without the moulding. The bottom can -also be caulked (see page 302), but if you cannot get the sheathing the -way first described will answer every purpose. - -After the bottom is nailed on, turn the boat on each edge and plane off -any irregularities at the ends of the bottom boards, so that they will -be flush with the sides. - -Next nail a strip, about 3" or 4" wide and 3/4" thick, lengthways on the -middle of the bottom, on the inside. Fasten this to each board with a -couple of nails driven through and clinched on the outside. This will -serve to stiffen the bottom. - -Next deck over each end with a seat 12" wide nailed directly on top of -the sides. Put in a seat, or thwart, 9" wide and 7/8" thick, next to the -middle brace, as shown. Cleats can be nailed to the sides under this -seat. This should be a fixed seat, nailed to the cross brace and to the -sides of the boat, which will assist in stiffening the sides. - -You can nail a gunwale strip, 2" wide by 7/8" or 3/4" thick, on top of -the sides and reaching from one end seat to the other, or you can put a -somewhat smaller strip around the outer edge of the gunwale, which is -quite as good a way. It is not really necessary to put any gunwale strip -on so small a boat, but if omitted a cleat must be screwed on for the -rowlocks (Fig. 409). If you put the gunwale strip on top, it will make a -more workmanlike job to first plane the edges of the gunwale so that -they will be horizontal across the boat, in the same way that you planed -the bottom edges to receive the bottom boards. - -Put the centre of the rowlocks about 12" aft of the centre of the boat, -raising them an inch or so above the gunwale by means of a cleat (Fig. -416), as shown. - -[Illustration FIG. 416.] - -At a distance of about 28" from the bow, you can, if desired, put in a -6" thwart between the gunwales or a little lower, and in the middle of -this thwart bore a hole for a small mast, putting below and slightly -forward upon the floor a block with a smaller hole. Sailing does not -amount to very much in a boat of this sort, but a small sail is often -very useful when going before the wind and adds to the fun. - -This makes a very useful and safe boat for a couple of boys for river or -pond work. - -If you wish to make a larger one you will have no difficulty after -studying the process given above. The only difference need be in the -dimensions. - -For one 12' long you could make the beam at the gunwale (outside) 3' 6" -and at the bottom 2' 10", the beam at the bottom of the ends (outside) -2' 10" (same as amidships)--the ends to flare upward at the same angle -as at the centre, the boards for the sides being 14" wide. - -For one 14' long, you could make the beam 4' at the gunwale, 3' 4" at -the bottom, the same at the ends, and the sides could be made of boards -15" wide. Stock 3/4" thick is sufficiently heavy for the sides of a boat -14' long. - -The seats for a larger boat than that described can be arranged to rest -as shown in Fig. 417, and an extra mould or cross-board not far from -each end can be used, as shown. - -[Illustration FIG. 417.] - -[Illustration FIG. 418.] - -A piece of keel or skag can be added at the stern end, if desired, as -shown in Fig. 418. This will assist in rowing straight. Fit a piece of -7/8" board to the curve of the bottom, keeping the straight edge -parallel with the top. Square off the end in line with the stern, nail -the skag firmly to the bottom, and nail a stern-post, 7/8" x 1-1/4" or -1-1/2", securely to the stern and the skag. A rudder can be hung to the -stern-post if desired. A centre-board is sometimes added to a punt, -being arranged in the way shown on page 330. A lee-board is often used -on punts and scows. It is merely a centre-board lowered outside of the -boat instead of in the centre. - -[Illustration FIG. 419.] - - -=Small Rowboat.=--A simple form of skiff, or common flat-bottomed -rowboat (Fig. 419), called by various names, is similar to the punt at -the stern, and the mode of construction is similar. The boards for the -sides are not cut away on the bottom at the bow, as in the punt, but are -left full width and drawn together to form a sharp bow. The ends are -usually, but not always, cut off with a slight slant at the bow, which -gives a rake to the stem (Fig. 420). - -[Illustration FIG. 420.] - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any other -references. - -Care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from -knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. Pine is excellent. -Any good wood can, however, be used. - -Make a middle mould (Fig. 421), as in the case of the punt just -described, and proceed with the construction in a similar manner, until -you come to the bow. - -[Illustration FIG. 421.] - -[Illustration FIG. 422.] - -Screw the sides to the stern-piece (Fig. 422) without driving the screws -completely in, but leaving a little play to the joint (see _Screws_). -Next put the middle mould in place by lines previously squared across -each side. Nail the middle mould in position. Then, letting someone draw -the bow ends of the sides together (or if you are alone, binding them -together temporarily), release the stern-piece and plane its ends to -make close joints with the side pieces, as in the case of the punt -already described. When these joints are fitted, paint them with white -lead and screw or nail the sides securely (and permanently) to the stern -board. - -Draw the fore-ends together and fit a piece of hard wood in the angle at -the bow as shown in Fig. 423. You can cut this piece approximately to -shape with a hatchet and then plane the surface down until you get an -accurate fit. When you have made it fit, paint it and also the sides -where they bear against it. Afterward screw or nail the sides firmly to -this stem-piece, letting each end of the stem project a little. Screws -are best (brass screws if for salt water), but nails can be used. Do not -drive them all in line, but add a second row farther from the edge and -alternately arranged. If a piece of hard wood is not available, a block -of soft wood can be used, but it should be somewhat larger. - -[Illustration FIG. 423.] - -Another pattern of stem-piece can be used (Fig. 424). Much pains should -be taken in making this post. The rabbets on each side should be cut -with care, trying to get the sides alike and to cut accurately to the -lines marked. When the cutting is nearly done, put the piece in place -and you can then note any changes which may be required to make tight -joints. When you finally have a good fit, paint and fasten in place as -described above. - -[Illustration FIG. 424.] - -[Illustration FIG. 425.] - -Still another form of stem-piece is shown in Fig. 425. One side of the -boat must be got out longer than the other to allow for the lapping over -at the bow, the stem-post being first fastened to the shorter side and -then trimmed if necessary, until the side which laps over fits -accurately. - -When the boat is fastened together to this extent, it will frequently be -found that the bottom has too much curvature lengthways, according to -the degree to which the sides flare outward and bend up at the ends. -This you can remedy by trimming off the sides in the middle, first -carefully marking the desired line. Measure accurately, in doing this, -to be sure that the two sides will be alike. In removing the superfluous -wood do not attack it hastily with hatchet or draw-knife, for wood often -splits in a way surprisingly different from the direction in which the -grain appears to run (see _Paring_). It is sometimes best to remove the -wood with the splitting-saw, but stop all such processes some distance -outside of the line, and rely upon the plane for the final shaping. - -The lower edges must be bevelled off accurately, ready for the bottom -boards, the same as in the case of the punt (Fig. 415). Next nail on the -bottom, using common boarding or sheathing as in the case of the punt -just described, and put in the stiffening strip of board along the -middle of the floor. - -If the middle mould comes in such a position that it will be in the way -if left in place permanently, you can simply tack it into position with -a couple of nails at each end, leaving the heads protruding enough to -draw them out easily. When you have put in the seats and any other -braces necessary to ensure the sides keeping their position, you can -draw the nails and take out the centre mould. - -Fit seats at bow and stern, putting them two or three inches below the -gunwale and resting them on cleats. - -In case you use the stem-piece shown in Fig. 423, saw or plane off the -projecting ends of the sides at the bow smoothly and screw (or nail) on -a cutwater made of some hard wood and with a sharp edge. Fasten strips -along the gunwale,--"wale strips,"--as already shown. - -A skag can be put on at the stern, if desired, as described on page 307. - -Such a boat can be sailed by adding a centre-board (see page 330) or by -bolting on a keel several inches in depth. A small sail-boat can be made -in this way by making the stern narrower, proportionately, the sides -higher, and decking over the bow and stern. The decking can extend over -all the top, if desired, except a well-hole around which can be fitted a -coaming or wash board. The keel can be of plank fitted carefully to the -shape of the bottom, its lower edge being horizontal towards the after -part, which will make it quite deep at the stern. A rudder should be -added for sailing. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration FIG. 426.] - - -=Skiff or Flat-bottomed Canoe.=--A double-ended skiff, batteau, or -flat-bottomed canoe (Fig. 426), known by various names, can be easily -made by simply carrying the process already described a little further, -and drawing the sides together at the stern as well as at the bow, thus -forming a boat sharp at both ends. This is an excellent type for the -amateur, whether in the form of a small canoe or a quite good-sized boat -for rowing, or even light sailing. Such a boat is light, easily -propelled, buoyant, does not pound the waves when meeting them so much -as the punt, and the sharp stern is good when running before a sea. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, -_Saw_, _Plane_, _Nailing_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any other -references. - -Care must be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from -knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. Pine is excellent, -but almost any good wood can be used for a boat of this sort. - -The sides can be bent into place around a mould in the middle and -brought together at _both_ ends and two end-posts fitted. In other -respects the process differs so little from the preceding that complete -description is needless. - -The two stem-pieces, which you can fit in the manner already shown, -will, theoretically, be alike. Practically, there should not be more -than a very trifling difference required in their shape. Having found -the shape for one, get the other out just like it. If it does not fit -perfectly, it can be trimmed until it does fit; but if the first one -fits right and the second fails to do so by more than a trifling degree, -you had best look the boat over and verify your work, and you may find -that you have cut something too long or too short or got something in -the wrong place. Paint the ends of these sides where they will be in -contact with the stem and stern with white lead. - -The sides and ends can be put together as follows: Take either side, -screw it securely to the stem-pieces at each end. Dip the screw points -in white-lead paint. Next screw either end of the other side to the -corresponding stem-piece, which will leave the sides separated at an -acute angle, with one end of one side not yet fastened to its -corresponding bow- or stern-post. The ends being alike it does not -matter which is called the bow or stern. To fasten this remaining joint, -it will be necessary to spring or bend the sides. If you have someone to -help you, you can easily put the midship frame into position and bend -the sides around it until the unfastened end comes into the correct -position against the stem-piece, to which it can be held and screwed -firmly. If you can get no help, you can hold the sides in position by -using a rope doubled and inserting sticks at top and bottom by which the -rope can be twisted and shortened (see _Clamps_). - -Another way is to put a box or joist, perhaps a couple of feet long, -between the sides, to prevent making too much strain on the end -fastenings, and, having secured the unfastened end, the frames can then -be laid flat, the sides drawn farther apart, and the midship frame -forced into position. The latter will be in position when it agrees with -the lines previously drawn on the sides and when the bottom is flush -with the inner corners of the lower edges of the sides. Nail the sides -to it with 1-3/4" or 2" nails, or it can finally be removed if not -needed for stiffness. - -The remaining details do not differ from those previously described. The -rowlocks can be placed wherever desired in the way already described, -but if the boat should be too narrow for this arrangement, they can be -fastened to outriggers, which the blacksmith can easily contrive. - - * * * * * - -A flat-bottomed canoe can be made on this same principle, the only -difference being to have less beam and to use a paddle or paddles -instead of oars. - - * * * * * - -A very successful small canoe, suitable for quiet waters, can be made of -quite thin wood (perhaps 3/8" to 1/2" in thickness), the outside being -covered with canvas. In case of building so light a craft as this, -however, it is best to insert regular ribs at distances of about a foot -to give the necessary stiffness, and to lay the bottom boards -lengthways. The ribs can be bought in any large town on the water, or -you can fashion them yourself. Natural bends are always preferable, but -you can make knees (on the general principle shown in Fig. 433) of -straight-grained stock, which, though clumsier and not so strong, will -serve the purpose. Care must be taken in fastening on the bottom not to -split either the bottom or the sides. But the canvas will be the main -reliance in keeping the boat tight. The canvas can be put on in three -pieces, first the sides, and then the bottom. Cover the sides down to -the bottom and let the bottom piece lap up over the sides two or three -inches and the edges be turned under. Stiffen the gunwale by a strip. - -A light, removable board, or grating of slats, should be laid inside -along the bottom, on the cross-frames. - -If well made and kept well painted so as to protect the canvas from wear -at the exposed points, a light canoe of this sort will last many years -and be a very useful boat. It must be kept out of the water and under -cover when not in use. - -[Illustration FIG. 427.] - - * * * * * - -A simple and cheap flat-bottomed canoe (Figs. 427 and 428), but not -canvas-covered, is not difficult to make by the process already -described. First make the frames and the stem- and stern-posts, then get -out the sides. These parts are put together and then the bottom is put -on, the well-hole coaming fitted, the boat decked, and finally the minor -fittings added. - -[Illustration FIG. 428.] - - * * * * * - -First make the centre frame like Fig. 429, the bottom strip being of -7/8" stock, 1-1/4" deep, and the side pieces of 3/4" board. Screw the -pieces together with two screws at each angle. Care must be taken to -make this frame symmetrical or the boat will be one-sided. You can draw -the outline of the frame carefully on a piece of stiff brown paper, -drawing a vertical centre line and measuring both ways for accuracy. Lay -this pattern on the bench top, or on a smooth floor, and place the -pieces for the frame on the drawing so that the outer edges just -coincide with the outline of the drawing. Hold them firmly in position -and screw the angles securely together. Tack a waste piece across near -the top to help keep the frame in shape until in position. Next get out -two frames like Fig. 430, taking the dimensions from your plan, two more -like Fig. 431, and two like Fig. 432. To make the stem- and stern-posts, -take two pieces of joist, about 2" x 4" and of sufficient length, and -with the chisel and saw cut a rabbet on each side of each piece, on the -principle shown in Fig. 424. Give these rabbets a good coat of -white-lead paint. - -[Illustration FIG. 429.] - -[Illustration FIG. 430.] - -[Illustration FIG. 431.] - -[Illustration FIG. 432.] - -The sides are got out in the way already shown. On them mark the -position for the centre mould. Insert and nail into place the two next -largest frames, at the proper places, and so on until all are in -position. All, except the centre one, will require to have their edges -slightly bevelled with the plane to fit the sides. You can do this best -as you put them in place. Paint the edges of the frames with white lead -before nailing them in position. Next fit pieces of 1/2" board to form -the coaming around the well-hole, and fasten them to the three middle -frames. The details of this you can easily arrange for yourself. The -general idea is expressed in Figs. 427 and 434. - -Before proceeding further with the deck, thoroughly paint the whole of -the inside of the boat with white lead, working it well into all the -joints and cracks. After giving it a few days to dry, look the inside -over carefully for any holes or defects to be stopped. After filling any -there may be, give the entire inside another coat, working it well into -all crevices as before. Do not neglect this part of the work, as it will -not be easy to get at the inside (except in the middle) after the deck -is put on. - -On the middle of the deck stretch strips of 1/2" wood about 4" wide from -the coaming of the well to the stem- and stern-posts, tapering the -pieces as they approach the ends and resting them on the tops of the -frames, to which they should be firmly nailed. - -If you wish to sail, a stiff brace or thwart can be put in for the mast, -with a block for a step. - -One or more strips, 1" x 1/2", can now be placed longitudinally on each -side of the deck and nailed to the frames. - -Additional deck-beams, running from gunwale to gunwale, and having the -requisite arch or convexity, can be put in if needed. A few brackets can -also be put under the deck, reaching from the sides to the coaming, if -needed. - -A keel about one inch square, or deeper at the centre, if desired, can -be fitted along the entire length of the bottom. It had best be fastened -on with screws. If your boat is to be used in deep water only, you can -make the keel 3" or 4" deep in the middle, rockering it up towards the -ends, and the boat can be sailed without a centre-board. - -Cover the deck with canvas, fastened with small tacks to the coaming and -to the sides. The edges of the canvas can be drawn down over the gunwale -for about half an inch, the edge being finally covered by a gunwale -strip screwed from stem- to stern-post. A piece of half-round 7/8" -moulding is good, although any small strip will do. Dampen the canvas -and then give it at least two coats of paint. A wooden deck can be put -on if preferred. - - * * * * * - -=Canvas-covered Canoes.=--To make a really good canoe wholly of wood -requires a degree of skill much greater than can be expected of the -beginner, or than is attained by the average amateur. Any boy or amateur -can, however, with the help of canvas and with a very few tools and at -slight expense, make some simple varieties which will serve the purpose -satisfactorily. The canoe is sharp at both ends, requires only a paddle, -and is light enough to be easily handled ashore. If carefully made, a -canvas canoe will be strong, durable, and not difficult to mend, though -repairs are seldom necessary if proper care is taken. If canvas of good -quality is used, it will not be easily punctured or torn as one might -think, but will stand an amount of banging around, running into snags, -dragging over obstacles, and abuse generally, that would badly injure -any but the best of wooden canoes. - -The variety of designs for canoes which has developed or been evolved -from the more primitive forms is in these days almost endless, and the -number of types from which to choose is confusing. The purpose for which -the canoe is to be used will help you somewhat in selecting the -type--whether for paddling only, or sailing, or for cruising and general -use, and whether for a river or small pond, or for the deep and rough -water of a lake or bay. All these matters must be considered in -determining the beam, depth, shape of the midship section, the draught, -degree of sheer, whether to have keel, centre-board, or neither, and -other points. This is too complex a subject to be treated in a hand-book -on wood-working, and you can easily obtain the desired information, as -well as detailed instructions for drawing the plans, from some good book -on the subject. - -A caution against making the framework too light and without sufficient -stiffness may not be out of place. One frequently sees canoes, made by -young boys, of such flimsy pieces and covered with such weak cloth that -one is surprised that they can live in the quietest mill-pond, which is -really testimony to the tenacious strength of a canvas-covered boat when -properly made. A certain degree of flexibility is one of the desirable -features of these boats, but they should always have sufficient -stiffness to maintain their general shape in all weathers and in all -waters to which a canoe is suited; therefore be sure to make a frame -which will keep its shape of itself without relying upon the canvas to -hold it together. - -It is quite common to see these boats which (otherwise well built) lack -stiffness lengthways--that is, in the longitudinal vertical section. -Such boats after a little use become bent up in the middle, or -"hog-backed." This is entirely unnecessary. Be sure, before putting on -the canvas, that your frame is stiff enough lengthways to keep its shape -permanently. If by any fault in your planning you find that it is not -so, be sure to add extra stiffening braces inside before putting on the -canvas, or your boat will probably be a failure.[40] - -Canvas-covered boats should always be kept out of the water and under -cover when not in use, as long-continued exposure to the water will be -injurious. - -An easily constructed paddling canoe, 14' or 15' long, and with beam -about 30", will first be described. - -It should be understood by the novice that this first form of -construction here given is not that adopted by the professional -boat-builder. It is given simply as a process by which one untrained in -the more regular methods of construction can turn out a cheap and -serviceable canoe, and at the same time acquire experience which will be -of use if he should later attempt the more scientific, but also more -difficult, details of construction used by regular boat-builders. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, _Nailing_, _Painting_, in Part V., and look up any other -references. - - * * * * * - -Care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from -knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. - -[Illustration FIG. 433.] - -Having made your working drawings for a canoe of the size and -proportions which you may think best to adopt, begin the actual work by -getting out moulds (Fig. 433) upon exactly the same principle as in the -case of the flat-bottomed canoe just described, except that they will be -of curved outline, as this is to be a round-bottomed boat. Get out also -a bottom strip or keelson with stem- and stern-pieces, which can be -alike. - -[Illustration FIG. 434.] - -[Illustration FIG. 435.] - -The arrangement and method of fitting these parts is evident from the -illustrations. The keelson can be laid along the edge of a plank or some -flat surface and blocked up towards the ends to give the desired degree -of curvature or rocker. First fit in place the centre mould and then the -two at the ends of the well-hole (Fig. 434), with the stem- and -stern-posts (Fig. 435). These can be temporarily tacked or stayed in -place until you are sure the positions are right. The coaming frame or -wash board around the well-hole can now be put on, which will hold the -three middle frames securely, and the two deck-strips running lengthways -from the well-coaming to the tops of the stem- and stern-posts can be -attached (Fig. 435). Next fit the two gunwale-strips, putting in also -the remaining moulds or frames. After this the lengthways ribbands are -to be fitted around the moulds from bow to stern (Figs. 435 and 435a, -showing section at end of well). This will complete the shape of the -boat. - -Great care must be taken with all this adjusting of the framework, -measuring, sighting, and testing in every way you can think of, to see -that all the curves are "fair," without sharp or irregular turns, and -also to see that both sides of the boat are alike. This is very -important. The pieces may be all of the correct lengths, but still the -boat may be one-sided, or twisted, or have a list. - -[Illustration FIG. 435a.] - -[Illustration FIG. 436.] - -A glance at Fig. 436 will show (as an exaggerated example) that pieces -of the right dimensions can easily be put together in such a way that -the boat may be ill-shaped,--an unfortunate result which is sometimes -seen in home-made boats, due to lack of care in testing the angles and -curves when putting the work together. - -The ends of these strips will be more securely fastened to the stem- and -stern-posts if depressions or "gains" are cut in the posts to receive -them (Fig. 437), but this is not absolutely necessary if the ends are -properly bevelled and carefully screwed to the stem- and stern-posts. - -[Illustration FIG. 437.] - -For additional stiffness, insert a series of ribs (Fig. 435), from 3" to -6" apart, according to their size and stiffness, from bow to stern. -Barrel-hooping can be used and if sound is excellent, or strips of ash, -oak, or elm, about 7/8" x 1/4", can be used. It will not be necessary to -bend these around a form. Those near the middle can be at once bent into -place. As the ends of the boat are approached, the ribs will require to -be rendered more pliable before being put in place (see _Bending Wood_). -The ribs can be nailed or screwed to the keel and finally be fastened to -the ribbands, at their intersection, with copper nails clinched or -riveted. Cheaper fastenings can be used, however, but copper is the -best. - -To hold such pieces in place temporarily, clamps can be easily made -which will be sufficiently strong for the purpose (see Fig. 548). - -When all these parts are fastened together, the frame will be complete. - -To make a first-class job, the entire frame should be thoroughly -painted, or at least given a soaking coat of oil, or it can be -varnished. - -For the canvas, get firm, closely-woven duck or sail-cloth of good -quality and of sufficient width to reach from gunwale to gunwale. It is -not necessary or advantageous to get the heaviest-weight grade, but -beware of covering your boat with light drilling or the like, which, -although you can make it water-tight, will not be sufficiently durable -for anything but a boat for temporary use. - -Find the middle of the canvas, lengthways, and stretch it on this line -directly along the keel, the frame of the boat being placed bottom up. -Tack at each end, and then, starting at the middle, strain the canvas -around the boat, working along a little way at a time towards each end -alternately and tacking to the top or inside of the gunwale as you -proceed. Do not try to cover the top with the same piece as the bottom. -If you can get a large needle and some stout cord, you can pull the -canvas into place by lacing the edges across the top or deck of the -boat, working from the middle towards the ends. In lieu of a needle use -an awl or a nail. By lacing in this way and by manipulating the canvas -with the hands you can, if you are careful, stretch it to fit the frame -so that it will be smooth to a point considerably above the water-line. -At the upper part, as you approach the deck line or gunwale, you may be -unable to prevent some fulness, which you can dispose of by pleating if -necessary. At the ends some little folding under may also be required, -but you need have no great difficulty in adjusting the canvas neatly and -so as to make tight joints. It is a good plan to cut a shallow rabbet on -each side of the stem- and stern-posts, just deep enough so that when -the edge of the canvas is folded under and tacked, the surface of the -canvas will be flush with the side of the post (Fig. 437). Small tacks -should be used--not large carpet-tacks. Copper are best, but galvanized -ones can be used. In all parts where leakage could occur, the tacks -should be driven closely together, so that their heads touch, seeing -that a good coat of lead is laid on the wood underneath. After the -bottom of the canoe has been covered, the deck can be treated in the -same way. - -When the canvas is all on, dampen it slightly and paint thoroughly, -painting, also, the coaming around the well-hole and the exposed parts -of the stem- and stern-posts (see _Painting_). The dampening is supposed -to cause the first coat of paint to penetrate the canvas more thoroughly -than if the canvas is quite dry. Oil is sometimes applied before -painting. After it has dried thoroughly, apply another coat. Do not -spare the paint, for though the canvas absorbs a great deal, which adds -to the weight of the boat as well as to the cost, it is really essential -in making a good canvas-covered boat that it be well painted. - -A light removable flooring, or grating of slats, should be placed on the -bottom of the well, resting on the frames. - - * * * * * - -To make a canvas canoe with a keel, you have only to make the keel of a -piece of 1-1/4" or 1-1/2" stock (with a depth of, perhaps, 1-1/4" or -1-1/2"), thinning it somewhat towards the ends so that it will join -smoothly with the stem- and stern-posts. It can be fitted to these posts -as shown in Fig. 438, and screwed directly to the keelson. - -[Illustration Fig. 438.] - -Particular care must be taken that the keel be got out straight and that -it be fitted exactly on the centre line. In this case the canvas may be -put on in two parts, being nailed to the keelson on each side of the -keel; or the canoe can be made as previously described and the keel -simply screwed on outside of the canvas, the latter being first -thoroughly painted. Oak is excellent for a keel, but is rather heavy for -a light canoe. Ash will do. Pine can be used. The keel will wear better -if got out so that the concentric rings (annual rings) of the wood will -be horizontal or parallel with the bottom of the boat and at right -angles to the screws with which the keel is fastened on. If these layers -incline slightly upward at the bow the keel will wear better. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration FIG. 439.] - -A more advanced form of construction, and one more in line with the -methods of a regular boat-builder, is shown in Fig. 439, the essential -difference between this and the form previously described being that -regular bent ribs are substituted for the frames made of board, and the -latter, after serving as moulds around which to build the boat, are -taken out, the bent ribs being sufficiently stout to ensure strength and -stiffness. - -If you attempt this method the ribs must be carefully bent (see _Bending -Wood_). Oak, ash, or elm is suitable for ribs. If a cooper's shop is -within reach you can get the material there. It must, of course, be of -good grain and free from flaws. - - * * * * * - -The process of construction is similar to that already shown. A -suggestion for the arrangement of deck timbers (which can be of oak, -ash, spruce, or any strong wood) is shown in Figs. 439 and 440, and for -putting in a curved wash board or coaming in Fig. 440. For the latter a -thin piece of straight-grained oak, elm, or ash can be used. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration FIG. 440.] - -[Illustration FIG. 441.] - -An excellent way to make a canvas-covered canoe is shown in Fig. 441. -The essential principle of this consists in having a stiff gunwale, -stiff keelson (inside the ribs), and ribs stout and numerous enough to -ensure a permanently strong and stiff framework without the assistance -of the lengthways ribbands. The outside is then sheathed with very thin -strips of basswood, pine, or any reasonably strong and light wood -(perhaps 3/16" thick and 2" or 3" wide), fitting them carefully to the -shape, but without any attempt to make water-tight joints. If this boat, -which is complete in all respects except that of being water-tight, is -then covered with canvas as already described, the result will be a -strong, smooth boat, without the irregularities of surface which are a -necessary feature of the unsheathed form. - -This method is adopted in making canvas-covered canoes after the model -of the birch-bark canoe, and the result is an admirable boat, which, -while perhaps hardly equal to a genuine "birch" of Indian manufacture, -is certainly the next thing to it for an open paddling canoe. Of course, -if you can work up your design after the model of a real birch, you will -have accomplished as much as you could wish in this line--but to design -and construct a good canoe upon the birch model is not an easy thing for -the beginner to do, and had best not be attempted until after -considerable experience in simpler and less graceful forms. This mode of -construction can well be applied, however, to a canoe of almost any -type. The sheathing can be painted and the canvas laid on the fresh -paint. - -Another form of construction is to omit the keelson and fasten the -frames and ribs directly to the top of the keel, having previously cut a -rabbet for the canvas (as in case of the stem- and stern-posts) on each -side of the keel at the top; the canvas by this arrangement being put on -in two parts, one on each side of the keel. - -It is, of course, possible to construct a canoe with nothing but two -gunwale-strips, stem- and stern-posts, a strip for a keelson, and a -number of barrel-hoops for ribs; and such affairs are quite often put -together by boys, but they are apt to be of light and flimsy -construction and to lack sufficient stiffness to keep their shape after -being used for a while. A certain degree of flexibility and lack of -rigidity is desirable in a canvas-covered boat, and, in fact, it is to -this quality that it owes much of its merit; but it should have enough -stiffness to hold its general shape permanently. - -An extremely simple method is to omit the stem-pieces and simply bend -the keelson up at each end to meet the gunwales at bow and stern, where -all the lengthways pieces can be fastened to a block, canvas being -stretched over the whole as already described. A canoe which turns up so -excessively on the bottom at bow and stern has some disadvantages, but -still a useful and cheap boat can readily be made in this way. It should -have a quite flat cross-section in the middle. - -Most canoes can be sailed on the wind, often very successfully, by -having a deep keel--which can be rockered or increased in depth towards -the middle--or by adding a centre-board. But the latter is quite a nice -operation, particularly so in case of making your first boat (see page -330). - - * * * * * - -The holes and the steps for the masts should be arranged before the -canvas is put on, fitting extra thwarts across if needed, and it is a -good plan to fit tubes for the masts. In case of sailing, the steering -can be done with the paddle, or a rudder can be used (in which case a -straight stern-post should be put in, for which a knee is good) and -lines be led forward to the well-hole from a yoke at the top of the -rudder. Many arrangements have been devised for steering sailing-canoes, -but these details, as well as those for the rigging, can be found in any -good book on the subject. If you are a novice, begin with a simple -leg-of-mutton sail (Fig. 448). - - * * * * * - -It is better to buy oars than to try to make them. You may, however, -have occasion to make a paddle. A good shape is shown in Fig. 442, but -you can choose from a variety of forms. - -[Illustration FIG. 442.] - - * * * * * - -The length can readily be determined from some paddle which suits you or -you can experiment with a strip of wood. Five inches is a good width, -and 5' to 5-1/2' a good length, but these are matters of individual -preference. Spruce is a good wood for your first attempt at -paddle-making. It makes a good paddle and is easier to work than birch, -beech, or maple, or any of the harder woods. Pine can be used. Use a -centre line in making your pattern. After the pattern is marked on the -wood have the outline sawed at a mill or do it yourself with the -turning-saw, or make a series of saw-kerfs to the line with the hand-saw -and remove the superfluous wood with the draw-knife, spoke-shave, or -chisel (see _Paring_). Having the outline correct, mark a line along the -middle of the edge of the blade, and gradually and carefully shave the -surfaces down towards this middle line, also tapering the thickness -towards the ends. The draw-knife, spoke-shave, plane, rasp, file, -scraper, and sandpaper can be used (see all of these tools in Part V. -and also _Paring_ and _Rounding Sticks_). Great care is needed to trim a -paddle nicely to shape. A little hasty cutting may ruin the work. - -[Illustration FIG. 443.] - -The double-bladed paddle can be made of a single piece, or two pieces -can be joined by a ferrule (Fig. 443). The double-bladed paddle can be -from about 7' to 8' or 9' long and the blades are made broader and -shorter than that of the single paddle. A couple of round rubber rings -on each end of the handle will stop some of the dripping of water from -the blades as they are raised. - - -=Small Sail-boat.=--The boat shown in Fig. 444 is a good form for the -amateur to attempt, and makes a serviceable craft for sheltered waters. -From twelve to sixteen feet is a good length, and the beam should be -wide, as shown. The depth can be from twelve to sixteen inches. - - * * * * * - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, _Nailing_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -Care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from -knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. Pine is excellent. - -[Illustration FIG. 444.] - -The general principle of construction does not differ from that of the -flat-bottomed boats already described, and detailed directions are -therefore omitted. The sides should each be of one 3/4" or 7/8" board. -The arrangement of the details is obvious. Knees can be used to good -advantage. The deck should be of wood, the boards (1/2") resting on -cross-beams or carlins, reaching from gunwale to gunwale (as already -shown) and slightly arched. Around the well-hole, brackets can be used -(Fig. 445). The deck can be covered with canvas. - -[Illustration FIG. 445.] - -This boat, as shown in the illustration, is planked across the bottom -like the other flat-bottomed boats already described, but the bottom -boards can run lengthways instead, if preferred. In this case knees -should be inserted, or cross-frames of some kind, to reach across the -bottom and to which the bottom boards can be nailed. The bottom boards -should be not less than 3/4" thick and the edges must be carefully -jointed (see _Jointing_). They can be laid slightly apart and the seams -caulked (see page 302). Strips of flannel laid in thick white-lead paint -can be placed between the edges of the sides and stern and the bottom -boards, or the edges can simply be painted. - -[Illustration FIG. 446.] - -[Illustration FIG. 447.] - -The construction of the case or trunk for the centre-board can be -understood from Figs. 446 and 447. By either method of construction the -trunk consists of two upright posts, or "headledges," cut with shoulders -at the lower end, and sides of board screwed to these posts. A slot is -sawed through the bottom of the boat of sufficient width and length to -give the centre-board free passage--that is, of the dimensions of the -opening at the bottom of the trunk. To cut this slot several holes can -be bored close together until an opening is made sufficiently large to -start the saw. By the arrangement shown in Fig. 446, a plank is taken -and a slot is cut in it enough longer than that in the bottom of the -boat to include the lower ends of the headledges, which should fit -snugly. The sides of the trunk are screwed to this plank from -underneath, and the plank is in turn screwed to the bottom of the boat. -The headledges can be additionally fastened from the edge of the plank, -horizontally. Unless the bottom of the boat is straight, the plank must -be accurately fitted to the curve on the under side,--not an easy task -(see _Scribing_ and _Paring_). All the joints should be laid in thick -white-lead paint, and at the bottom flannel can be laid in the seam, -with lead, or caulking can be resorted to. - -By the method shown in Fig. 447, the headledges and sides are fitted to -a board on the bottom, or to the keelson, and, after being put in place, -strips of plank are fitted lengthways on each side at the bottom and -bolted or screwed to the bottom and to the sides of the trunk. The lower -edges of these strips must be fitted to the curve of the bottom and the -whole made tight, as just shown. Much care must be taken with this work -to make tight joints. The inside of the trunk should be painted before -putting together, and holes be bored carefully for all the screws (see -_Boring_ and _Screws_). - -The centre-board itself can be of wood or of galvanized plate iron and -is pivoted at the forward lower corner, and can be raised and lowered by -a rod attached to the after corner. - -Remember to paint the inside of the boat carefully with at least two -coats before putting on the deck, and also that copper nails and brass -fittings are better than those of galvanized iron (particularly for salt -water) if you can afford them. - -The coaming or wash board can be of 1/2" oak, ash, or elm. The deck can -first be laid, lapping slightly over the space to be left open. The line -for the coaming can then be marked on the deck, and the projecting wood -sawed or trimmed to the line, when the coaming can be bent into place -and fastened. - -The gunwale-strip, like the stern-post, the rudder, and the tiller, -should be of hard wood, as oak. Hackmatack is good for the stem. - -The mast should be of spruce. A strong thwart, with a hole in it, can be -fitted across between the sides, just under the deck, and a block with -another hole fastened to the bottom. The place at which to step the mast -must depend upon the style of rig you adopt. - -One who is used to sailing a boat will not seek for information on this -subject in a manual on wood-working, but for the novice it may be well -to state that a leg-of-mutton sail (Fig. 448) is undoubtedly the -simplest, easiest, and safest rig for the beginner, and it will be wise -to learn to manage this rig first. The spritsail (Fig. 449), with or -without the boom, is an easily managed sail, which works well with this -boat. Either of these rigs can be unshipped in a moment, the mast, sail -and all being lifted out when desired. For other styles of rigging you -should consult someone used to sailing or some book on the subject. - -[Illustration FIG. 448.] - -[Illustration FIG. 449.] - -For the painting, see _Painting_, in Part V. - - -=Small Ice-Boat.=--The main framework of even the most elaborate -ice-boat consists merely of a lengthways centre timber or "backbone" and -a cross-piece or "runner-board" (Fig. 450), the whole resting on three -runners, one of which acts as a rudder. - -Before beginning work read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - -[Illustration FIG. 450.] - -[Illustration FIG. 451.] - -A small boat can be made as shown in Fig. 451. The dimensions can easily -be altered. The particular rig given is merely for illustration, for -this is not a book on sailing, and you can find all the facts you need -about rigging in any good book on the subject. If you are a novice you -had best be content with a simple leg-of-mutton sail (Fig. 448), which -is, for the beginner, the safest and most easily managed. A spritsail -(Fig. 449) or some other simple form can be used if desired. If you know -how to sail a boat, you can adopt such rig as you think best. - -[Illustration FIG. 452.] - -[Illustration FIG. 453.] - -First get out the backbone. Get a piece of clear spruce, or pine, -perhaps 12' x 3" x 4". A round spar may be used. Be careful to select -good lumber, as great strain is put upon it. A piece which has naturally -sprung lengthways should be placed with the convex edge upwards. Next -get out the runner-board, perhaps 6-1/2' x 2" x 9", of spruce. Pine is -also good, or any strong wood will do. Choose a clear, sound plank. If -naturally sprung in a bow-like curve, put the convex side upwards. -Smooth the pieces sufficiently to avoid splinters and roughness. Thin -the runner-plank on top each way from the centre down to about an inch -in thickness at each end, if you can have it sawed at the mill. It is -hardly worth while to do this by hand. Fasten the runner-board, at -exactly the middle of its length, across the backbone, at a point -perhaps 6-1/2' from the stern end, with a strap-hanger (Fig. 452) -screwed up with nuts and broad washers on the under side. If you cannot -afford this, put a bolt through both pieces (see _Boring_), tightening -underneath with nut and washer, and putting cleats on the runner-board -(Fig. 453). Be sure that one edge of the runner-board is straight and at -right angles to the backbone. Nail a piece of board, 18" long and 3" -wide, across the stern end of the centre timber. Add the two side pieces -_a b_ and _c d_ (Fig. 450), of 2" spruce joist, nailing them firmly in -place, thus forming the sides of an irregular box (see _Nailing_). Turn -the frame over and nail a bottom on this box, laying the boards -crosswise and nailing to the backbone as well as to the sides and end. - -Next, to make the runners, get out six pieces of oak, or other hard, -strong wood, 9" x 3" x 4". Mark with the square from the straightened -edge of the runner-board the positions for the inner blocks, equally -distant from the backbone, screwing them in place (Fig. 454), with one -screw in each. Measure across with a stick from one to the other at -each end to see that they are just parallel, and also test their being -at right angles to the runner-plank, which in turn must be at right -angles to the backbone, in order that the runners may be parallel and -not slewed sideways. Having tightly screwed these inner blocks, brace -them with angle blocks, as shown. The outer blocks can next be fitted, -leaving just space enough for the runners to play freely, but not -loosely, between the blocks. The holes for the pins for the runners can -be bored in the outer pieces before they are screwed on. Then, using -these holes as a guide, those in the inner blocks can be bored in line. -The runners themselves should be carefully made and fitted, for they are -a very vital part of the boat. On the large boats they have usually been -made of oak, with a shoe of cast iron at the bottom attached by bolts, -but this is quite a piece of work for a small boat and you can get the -blacksmith to work out the whole runner, with a hole bored for the -pin-bolt. Make a pattern about 18" or 20" long, rocking _very_ slightly -in the middle and more quickly near the ends. The hole for the pin -should be back of the middle, so that more of the shoe will be in front -of than behind the pin. This is to lessen the shock when the runner -strikes an obstruction. The cutting edge may have an angle of about 45 deg. -for trial (Fig. 455). If too blunt or too sharp you can alter it. It -will take considerable filing to get the edge true, straight, and -uniform (see _Filing_). Finish with an oil-stone. - -[Illustration FIG. 454.] - -[Illustration FIG. 455.] - -The rudder-runner can be a little shorter. Screw a piece of 2" oak plank -on top of the rudder-blocks and on top of this fasten a plate or socket -to which is attached a piece of gas-pipe about a foot long, for a -rudder-post. At the top of the rudder-post screw an elbow and a short -piece of pipe for a tiller (Fig. 456). If suitable gas-pipe cannot be -found, the blacksmith can fix an arrangement that will answer, but it -must be strongly fastened to the rudder-blocks, and there should be some -kind of metal bearing between the wooden top of the rudder and the under -side of the backbone, if nothing more than a washer. The two surfaces of -wood should not rub against each other. Wind the handle of the tiller -with cord, cloth, or bicycle tape. - -[Illustration FIG. 456.] - -[Illustration FIG. 457.] - -Stay the bowsprit (or forward end of the backbone) by stout wires to the -runner-plank. These can best be of wire rope passed through eye-bolts or -attached to iron straps and tightened with turnbuckles, but to save that -expense strong wire can be used. Notches can be cut at the edges of the -runner-plank and the backbone, and wire be wound around to hold rings to -which the wire guys can be fastened, but it is hard to make such an -arrangement taut and to keep it so. Next fasten a mast step with square -hole to the backbone (Fig. 457), forward of the front edge of the -runner-plank. Put in eye-bolts at ends of the runner-plank and at the -bow for shrouds and a few inches from the stern of the backbone for the -main sheet. Wire rope is best for the shrouds, but common wire or rope -can be used. For the mast and spars use natural sticks of spruce. The -sides of the box can be built up higher at the stern with boards, if you -wish, to prevent being thrown off by the sudden movements of the boat. A -rubber washer under the backbone where the rudder-post passes through is -sometimes used to lessen the jar when passing over obstructions. A -curved piece of wood fastened on the under side of the backbone just in -front of the rudder will act as a fender for the rudder, in case of -slight obstructions. - -The whole boat can be oiled, painted, or varnished if desired (see -_Finishing_ and _Painting_). - -If you use a cat-rig, spritsail, or other rig without any head-sail -before the mast, it would be well to place the runner-plank further -forward. - -[Illustration FIG. 458.] - -The latest and best way to brace the frame of an ice-boat is to strain -guys of wire rope (Fig. 458), tightened with turnbuckles, omitting the -side pieces, and fastening a car or box to the backbone, but this -arrangement, though lighter and more elastic, is more expensive and not -so easy to make for a small boat as the one just described. - -A somewhat simpler way to arrange the framework is shown in Figs. 459, -460, and 461. In place of the runners already described a cheaper -arrangement can be made by the blacksmith of 5/8" bar iron, steeled, and -bent up at the ends, as shown in Fig. 461. - -A much smaller affair can be made by simply arranging two pieces of -joist or plank in the form of a cross (bracing them so far as may be -necessary), putting cleats under each end of the shorter cross-piece or -runner-board and fastening common skates to the cleats, using another -pivoted skate at the stern for a rudder. The runners of the skates -should be ground, or filed, as shown above. - -[Illustration FIG. 459.] - -[Illustration FIG. 460.] - -[Illustration FIG. 461.] - -The details of such a small ice-boat you can work out for yourself by -modifying and simplifying according to your ingenuity the suggestions -for a larger boat given above. The hardest part to fix is the -rudder-post and tiller. Some iron arrangement is best, but something can -be contrived in the following manner, which is not, however, recommended -as very satisfactory. Fasten the rudder skate upon a piece of board in -which is cut a mortise. Into this mortise a short piece of hard wood, -like a large broomstick with squared end, is fitted for a rudder-post. -The upper end of the rudder-post, squared just like the lower end, is -fitted into a mortise cut in the tiller piece. A washer should be placed -between the skate-block and the backbone, and the rudder-post should -turn freely in the hole in the backbone, but not loosely enough to -wobble around. Cut the mortise in the tiller and fit to the post before -cutting off and shaping the tiller, to avoid danger of splitting. An -extra block may have to be put under the backbone at the rudder to level -the boat so that the skates will bear properly on the ice, for if the -stern is much lower, so that they drag by the heels, the boat will not -sail properly. Wooden arrangements of this sort are, however, only -justifiable as makeshifts, and require good workmanship to be strong and -effective. - - -[Illustration] - -=House-Boat.=--A house-boat consists of two parts, one of which (the -boat) is essentially like the scow or flat boat already described, and -the other (the house) is usually much the same as some of the little -structures described in Part III. (_House-building for Beginners_), -however expensively and elaborately it may be arranged and fitted up. -The advantages of the house-boat for camping, shooting, fishing, and for -some kinds of excursions are too well known to require explanation. It -is an excellent thing for two or more to build together. It may not be -out of place to suggest that, in the desire to have the house -sufficiently large and convenient, you should not be misled into making -plans which will necessitate building a large boat. Dimensions (on -paper) for such things are quite deceptive, and to build a large boat, -even of such a simple type as the scow or flatboat, is quite a serious -undertaking for the beginner--as regards both labour and expense. - - * * * * * - -If you can find a scow or flatboat already built, of suitable dimensions -and which is sufficiently tight, or can be made so by caulking, you have -only to proceed to build the house upon it. If, however, the boat as -well as the house is to be built, you can proceed to build the boat in -the way already described (page 299). Additional suggestions may be -found in Figs. 462 and 463. - -Before beginning read carefully _Marking_, _Rule_, _Square_, _Saw_, -_Plane_, _Nailing_, in Part V., and look up any other references. - - -[Illustration FIG. 462.] - -Two-inch plank should be used for these boats, which are intended to be -from 14' to 20' long. After putting together the sides, ends, and -bottom, as already described, 2" x 4" joists can be laid lengthways on -the bottom, as shown, which will afford an underpinning for the house, -will distribute the weight over the bottom, keep the floor raised above -the water which may leak in or collect from the rain, and also stiffen -the structure of the boat. Before laying these joists, notches should be -cut on the under edges with the saw or hatchet, in several places, to -allow the water to pass through, as in the case of the boats already -described. - -[Illustration FIG. 463.] - -The illustrations show a general system of construction for the house, -which can be followed, or you can make such alterations as you think -desirable. In addition to the suggestions in the accompanying -illustrations, further details and suggestions will be found in Part -III. (_House-building for Beginners_). Most of the details are matters -of personal preference, and can readily be arranged without more -detailed description. The roof had best be covered with canvas, put on -as one piece (being sewed previously if necessary). If laid in paint and -then given two or three coats of paint, much as in the case of the -canvas-sheathed canoes already described, a tight and durable roof will -be the result. After the edges of the canvas are tacked under the edge -of the roof, strips of moulding can be nailed around under the edge. - -An even simpler way to make the roof is to have it flat, but slanting -slightly towards either bow or stern. An inclination of 3" is enough, -with tight canvas roof, to shed the water. - -The remaining details of the construction of the house have already been -treated. The interior arrangements you can contrive as desired. - -Either, or both, of the ends can be decked over, or the whole can first -be decked over and the house built on the deck. In this case, access to -the hull, for stowage, can be had by hatches, or trap-doors inside the -house. If both the ends are to be decked, the hull can very well have -one or two lengthways divisions of plank, for stiffness and -strength,--that is, insert between the ends one or two pieces of the -size and shape of the sides, in which case the lengthways joist already -spoken of will be omitted. This is a good way. In case of decking, nail -a strip of moulding on the outside along the juncture of the house and -the deck, so as to make a tight joint, which should be well painted. - -If one or both ends are undecked, a removable grating of slats (a part -of which is shown in Fig. 462) will be useful. - -It is well to have at least one window at the bow end of the house, for -the boat will of course lie with bow towards the wind and it will be a -good thing when housed in a storm to be able to see to windward, as you -cannot well keep the door at that end open, while the after door will -usually be sufficiently sheltered to be left open. Many modifications of -these simple plans can be made. The roof can be extended over either -end, which is easily done without altering the system of construction. -This is very convenient under some circumstances, and will add but -little to the expense. The frame can even be covered with canvas, but -this will be inferior to wood, except in point of lightness. A solid -roof is best, however, in any case. - -Sweeps must, of course, be provided for rowing, sculling, or steering, -and a mast can easily be added, on which sufficient sail can be hoisted -to be quite a help in going before the wind. If a mast is used, the door -at the bow end of the house can be at one side of the end so that the -mast can be close to the house, to which it can be fastened. A rudder -can be added, if desired, with a skag. - -The whole craft should be thoroughly painted (see _Painting_). - -Houses are sometimes built on rafts. This will do very well if the raft -is a good one, like a float. A float can be easily made, if you have the -materials, by laying a thick flooring on logs or heavy timbers and -providing greater buoyancy than such a platform naturally has by -fastening under it, between the timbers, as many empty and sealed -barrels or casks (oil-barrels are good) as may be necessary. When the -float is stationary and under ordinary circumstances, there is, of -course, no need to fasten the casks in any way except to fence them -around so that they cannot roll or slide out, as their buoyancy will -prevent their escaping, but it is easy to fasten them by chains or -otherwise if needed. This makes an excellent foundation on which to -build a house, and has some advantages over a boat for a stationary -arrangement, but is obviously not as well suited for moving around as a -scow or flatboat. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[40] Unless too heavily loaded, a canvas-covered canoe will float in -case of a capsize, but some form of air-chambers is desirable and a safe -precaution in any small boat. It is hardly safe to rely upon your -ability to build water-tight compartments in the ends of canvas (or -wooden) boats, as is sometimes recommended--that is, as a part of the -regular construction of the boat. It is not easy for an amateur to do -this. It is better to have the air-tight compartments made separately -and independent of the boat itself. Copper boxes or air-tanks fitted to -the space at the ends are the best and the only really reliable -expedient, but they are expensive. Light wooden boxes covered with -canvas and thoroughly painted can be used, as well as galvanised boxes -or even varnish cans sealed and painted. Any such contrivance can be -made tight at first, but is always liable to become leaky (except by the -use of copper tanks), particularly as it is usually concealed from -examination. - - - - -PART V - -_COMMON TOOLS AND THEIR USE, WITH SOME EVERY-DAY OPERATIONS_ - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - - -=Anvil.=--An anvil is often useful and is sometimes combined with a -vise. It should have a flat steel surface and also a tapering, rounded -(conical) point. An old flat-iron does quite well. - - -=Auger-Bit.=--See _Bits_. - - -[Illustration FIG. 464.] - -=Awl.=--The _Brad-awl_ is the simplest boring tool you will use. Unlike -gimlets and bits, it does not take out any wood, but merely presses it -aside out of the way, which is good for nail and screw holes, because -the elasticity of the woody fibres tends to make them spring back and -close around the nail or screw, thus helping to keep it in place. The -awl should always be a trifle smaller than the nail. Bore with the -cutting edge across the grain of the wood, on the same principle as in -driving nails (Fig. 464), lest the wedge shape of the tool cause the -wood to split (see _Nailing_). Press the awl straight down in this -position until the point is well into the wood, when you can twist it a -little, at the same time pushing it further into the wood. There is -always risk of splitting thin wood near an edge, unless you use great -care. The brad-awl can be sharpened easily. See _Sharpening_ and also -_Boring_. - -Do not buy combination awls with "tool-chest handles," filled with an -assortment of awls and little chisels, gouges, screw-drivers, saws, etc. -Such affairs are sometimes useful, but the loose tools are apt to become -lost or broken, and the money can be used to better advantage in other -ways. - -It is well to have a variety of sizes of awls, fitted into _hardwood_ -handles. An awl handle into which awls of various sizes can be fitted, -somewhat as a brace holds bits, answers very well, if you have to carry -your tools from place to place, but for shop-work it is more convenient -to have each awl in a separate handle. - -The _Marking-awl_ or _Scratch-awl_ is simply an awl with a round, sharp -point used for marking in carpentry, but for very close work a knife or -chisel is better. See _Marking_. - - -=Axe.=--This is such a common tool that it needs no description, and is, -moreover, seldom required for amateur work. - - -=Back-Saw.=--See _Saw_. - - -[Illustration FIG. 465.] - -[Illustration FIG. 466.] - -=Beading.=--A tool for scraping beading, reeds, and the like, can be -made by filing the reverse of the shape required on the edge of a piece -of saw-blade steel, taken from a broken saw or scraper, and inserting -this blade in a kerf sawed in the end of a piece of wood (Fig. 465). To -change the position of the blade, one or both of the screws can be -loosened and then tightened after the blade has been adjusted. This tool -is pushed forward with both hands, much like a scraper, the shoulder of -the block bearing against the edge of the board as in using the gauge -(Fig. 466). Tools for this purpose can be bought. - -It usually produces the best effect not to carry this beading to the -extreme ends of an edge, but to stop a short distance from the ends and -with a chisel cut the beads to a square and abrupt end (Fig. 305). See -_Plane_. - - -=Bending Wood.=--To bend a piece (without steaming or boiling) which is -to be fastened so that but one side will show, make a series of -saw-cuts of equal depth (Fig. 467) across the piece, and partly through -it, on the back side (the side which will not show), first running a -gauge line along the edge (see _Gauge_), that the cuts may be of equal -depth. This will practically, so far as bending is concerned, make the -piece thinner, and it can readily be bent and fastened in position. The -nearer together and the deeper the cuts are the more the piece can be -bent--that is, up to the breaking-point. Hot water can be used on the -face side. Such curves can sometimes be strengthened by driving wedges, -with glue, into the saw-kerfs after the piece is bent to the desired -curve (Fig. 468). - -[Illustration FIG. 467.] - -[Illustration FIG. 468.] - -To make a small piece of wood pliable, so that it will bend to any -reasonable extent (which, however, depends much upon the kind of wood), -soak it for some time in boiling water, when it can usually be bent into -the desired shape. It must be securely held in position until the -moisture has entirely left it, or it will spring back to (or towards) -its original shape. This drying will take from several hours to several -days, according to the size of the piece and the condition of the -atmosphere. There is almost always a tendency to spring back a little -towards the original shape, so it is well to bend a piece a little more -than you wish it to remain, except where it is to be fastened so that it -cannot spring back. - -Wood which naturally bends easily (particularly thin pieces) can often -be made pliable enough by simply soaking in cold water, but hot water is -usually more effective. Anything which you cannot manage with the hot -water you can take to a mill or a ship-yard and have steamed in a -regular steam-chest, which is really nothing, in principle, but a big -wooden or iron box, with a steam-pipe running into it, in which the -pieces are kept until the steam has made them pliable. Wood is now bent -for many purposes by "end pressure," but this is impracticable for the -amateur. - -To bend the ends of pieces like skis, hockies, etc., a big kettle or -common wash-boiler full of boiling water can be used. An apparatus for -long sticks, as ribs for a canoe, can be made with a piece of iron pipe -of suitable size. Plug one end tightly and stick it firmly in the -ground, so that the pipe is fixed in a slanting direction. Put water in -the pipe, build a fire underneath, put the sticks in the pipe, stuff a -rag loosely in the upper end and the apparatus will be in working order -(Fig. 469). - -[Illustration FIG. 469.] - -You must often have some sort of form or mould for bending the piece and -for holding it while drying. For some kinds of bending, where there is -no occasion to be accurate, you can often bend a piece around some -corner or common object, as a barrel, log, etc., and tie it in place -until dry, or fasten it with cleats, but for nice work you should make a -form or mould. If you wish to bend ribs, for instance, which should be -accurate in shape, you can cut a piece of board or plank to fit the -concave side of the desired curve. Fasten this piece upon any flat -surface, as an old plank, and bore holes for wooden pins around the -curve at such a distance from the pattern piece or mould that the piece -to be bent can be firmly wedged against it, as shown in Fig. 470; or you -can attach blocks instead of pins--any arrangement by which the bent -piece can be wedged in place. A strap of hoop iron or other metal or -even a thin piece of wood can be placed outside of the stick to be bent, -to prevent the wood splitting or splintering on the outside, as it is -liable to do if bent much, unless of good quality and straight grain, -but there is no need of doing this in many cases. - -[Illustration FIG. 470.] - -[Illustration FIG. 471.] - -Another way is to have the mould or form in two parts, as the two parts -of a board or plank through which the curve has been sawed (Fig. 471). -The piece to be bent is put between the two forms, which are then -pressed together by clamps, wedges, or a lever. This is a good way for -short pieces which cannot easily be bent, or which do not readily cling -to the required curve. - -Another form of bending-mould is shown (an inverted view) in Fig. 472. -In this case the pieces to be bent are held in place by easily made -clamps. - -[Illustration FIG. 472.] - -[Illustration FIG. 473.] - -A simple way to make a form for bending strips is to cut the curve out -of a piece of plank, or boards nailed together (Fig. 473). The end of -the strip is then caught against the cleat and the piece bent around the -curve. If it tends to spring off the curve, you must contrive some way -to clamp, wedge, or even tie it in place. As a piece must be left on the -form until dry and set, if you have a number to bend, it may be better -to make a form wide enough to bend them all at once. Take any boards, -or build a curved addition on the end of a box, and contrive a wider -form on the same principle (Fig. 474). - -For ribs, and the like, the stock should be got out so that the annual -layers will be at right angles to the direction of the nails with which -the pieces are to be fastened, or parallel with the curved sides of the -pieces. - -[Illustration FIG. 474.] - - -=Bevel.=--This is similar to the square, but with a movable blade which -can be set at any angle. When permanently fixed at an angle of 45 deg., it -is called a _mitre-square_. The bevel is useful, not merely to mark any -desired angle, but to repeat some angle already formed, to which you -apply it, moving the blade until it fits the angle, when the tool can be -applied to another piece and the angle repeated. The directions about -holding the head of the square close to the edge apply also to the use -of the bevel (see _Square_). - -[Illustration FIG. 475.] - -To obtain an angle of 45 deg. with the bevel, place it against the inside -edge of the large steel square (Fig. 475), setting the blade at such an -angle that it will intercept equal distances on both arms of the square. - -On this same principle, for other angles, observe the figures -intercepted by the blade, as shown in Fig. 476. Note that for this angle -the figures are 2 and 4, and you can get the angle again at any time by -setting the bevel at those figures. You can also set the bevel by laying -off the required angle with compasses on a straight-edged board, to -which the bevel can be applied. The angle should be so laid out on the -board that it will not be necessary to try to set the point of the -compasses exactly at the edge, which is of course impossible. See -_Bevelling_. - -[Illustration FIG. 476.] - - -=Bevelling.=--To bevel the edge of a piece with the chisel, draw-knife, -spoke-shave, plane, or even knife, first mark parallel lines to work to -with a pencil-gauge (see _Gauge_) rather than a spur-gauge, so as not to -leave a scratch to disfigure the work after the bevel or chamfer is cut -(Figs. 477 and 485). Then pare the edge down gradually to these lines, -or prepare the way by first scoring the wood with cuts (Fig. 615), being -sure to trim off in the direction of the grain; but in bevelling both -end and side, as in Fig. 478, first cut the end, because of possible -chipping at the corner, and in cutting the end you can work from each -corner towards the centre. In paring a bevel across the grain, push the -chisel as shown in Fig. 479, as it is the easiest and cleanest way to -cut, and prevents splintering. - -[Illustration FIG. 477.] - -[Illustration FIG. 478.] - -[Illustration RIGHT. WRONG. FIG. 479.] - -A simple bevel (Figs. 477 and 478) is usually best made with the plane, -whenever there is room to use it. Plane bevels in end wood from both -edges and you can often slant the plane to good advantage like the -chisel in Fig. 479. See also _Chamfering_. - - -=Bit-Brace or Bit-Stock.=--This tool requires no description. The -_ratchet_ brace is useful for boring in awkward places where it is -difficult to use a common bit-stock. There is also a contrivance for -extending the bit-brace to bore in places which cannot be reached by the -common brace alone, but this you will seldom require. An angular -bit-stock, with a "universal angle" adjustment, is useful. By this the -bit can be pointed in different directions, while the bit-stock is -turned continuously in the ordinary way, thus enabling a hole to be -conveniently bored in an out-of-the-way corner. See _Boring_. - - -=Bits.=--The _auger-bit_ (the sizes of which are arranged by sixteenths -of an inch) so commonly used with the bit-brace, consists, at the -cutting end, of a spur, two scoring-nibs, and two cutting-lips. You will -see from Fig. 480 that the spur _a_, acting like a gimlet point or a -screw (which it is), starts the bit by drawing it into the wood so that -the scoring-nibs _b_ make a circular cut around the circumference. As -this cut deepens, the cutting-lips _c_ slice away the wood to be removed -in the form of shavings, which are brought to the surface as the boring -proceeds. - -This bit can be sharpened with a file, the scoring-nibs being sharpened -from the inside, lest they be made to score a circle too small for the -rest of the bit, while the cutting-lips are filed from the under side. - -[Illustration FIG. 480.] - -[Illustration FIG. 481.] - -The _centre-bit_ is a useful tool, particularly for very thin stock. The -spear-like point _a_ (Fig. 481), acting as a centre, the point _b_ cuts -a deep ring, and the edge _c_, which is bent so as to form a flat -chisel, scoops out the pieces of wood, and so a round and smooth hole is -made. This bit does not cut very well with the grain. It can be -sharpened with a small oil-stone. It is well to bore a trial hole with -this bit in a piece of waste wood when exactness is required, because -the spur is not exactly in the centre, so that the hole cut is a trifle -wider than the diameter of the bit. - -The _expansion-bit_ has an adjustable contrivance that enables it to -bore holes of various sizes, but such tools are hardly necessary for -beginners, though very convenient and often used by carpenters. - -The _gimlet-bit_ is a common form, but is easily dulled and bent and is -likely to split delicate work. The _quill-bit_ is excellent, except for -end grain. _Shell-bit_, _gouge-bit_, _pod-bit_, _spoon-bit_, -_duck's-bill-bit_, etc., are names applied to simple tools good for -boring small holes. They are easily sharpened with a stone, work quickly -and leave a smooth hole, but do not cut so well in end grain. They are -not as much in use as formerly, the twist-drill taking their place for -many purposes. - -_Reamers_, or tapering bits (half-round, square, octagonal, conical), -are useful to enlarge holes and occasionally to make them conical. -Reamers for metal are also useful. - -For other forms of boring implements, see _Awls_ and _Twist-drill_. See -also _Boring_ and _Countersink_. - - -=Block-Plane.=--See _Plane_. - - -=Boards or Planks, Laying Exposed.=--In laying boards or planks to be -exposed to the weather, place them (unless they are from the middle of -the tree) so as to have the outer side exposed--that is, the side -farthest from the heart should be put outside or uppermost. If put the -other way the action of the atmosphere, water, etc., will tend to -separate and loosen the layers and fibres (Fig. 482). - -[Illustration FIG. 482.] - - -=Boring.=--In boring with the bit-brace, after the bit has gone a short -distance into the wood, stop and, keeping the brace in position, test -carefully from in front and from one side to see whether the bit is at -right angles to the surface. Repeat this test and alter the position of -the brace as many times as may be necessary until you are sure that the -bit is going through at the right angle. A common way to do this is to -stand squarely in front of the work and judge by the eye whether the bit -is at right angles with the work, and then to stand at either side at -right angles to the first position and judge of the angle again. The -direction of the bit can be tested more accurately by applying the -square. Few people can bore accurately without some such test. - -[Illustration FIG. 483.] - -Some workmen rest the chin on the left hand on top of the handle of the -brace, to steady it (Fig. 483), and to increase the pressure, and -sometimes the shoulder is applied. - -To remove a bit from the wood, give the brace a turn or two backward, -which will loosen the spur, and then either pull the bit straight out, -if it can be done easily without turning the brace, or, as you pull it -out, keep turning the brace as if boring, thus bringing out the chips, -which, if you remove the bit by turning the brace backward, will be left -in the hole. - -In boring through a board or timber, watch to see when the spur of the -bit begins to come through on the other side; when it does, turn the -piece over and bore in from that side, or clamp a piece of waste wood on -the other side and bore right through into it. Either way will prevent -splintering or a ragged or "burred" edge, where the bit leaves the wood. - -In boring a hole of any depth with the grain, _i.e._, in the end of a -piece of wood, withdraw the bit, after it has entered the wood a short -distance, to clear the chips from the hole, reinsert, bore, and withdraw -again, and continue in this way until you reach the required depth. This -will save injuring the bit, and will make the boring easier. - -In boring with small bits, particularly when there is danger of -splitting, as with the gimlet-bit, draw out the bit and chips once in a -while. - -When the position of a hole must be exact on both sides of the wood it -is well to mark the position accurately on each side and bore from each -side until the holes meet. - -Frequently holes must not be bored through a piece, but must stop at a -certain depth. Suppose you have to make a dozen holes 2" deep. Take a -wooden tube if you have one, or bore a hole through a block of wood of -such length that when pressed against the jaws of the brace two inches -of the end of the bit will project beyond the tube or block (Fig. 484). -Then bore until the end of the tube touches the surface of the wood, -when the hole will, of course, be 2" deep. Metal attachments can be -bought for this purpose. See _Awl_, _Bits_, _Twist-drill_. - -[Illustration FIG. 484.] - -To cut a hole larger than any bit you have, bore a series of smaller -holes just within the circumference of the desired circle, and trim to -the line with the gouge or finish with keyhole or compass-saw. - - -=Bow-Saw.=--See _Saw_. - - -=Brad-awl.=--See _Awl_. - - -=Bruises, To Take Out.=--Small bruises in wood can be taken out by -wetting the place with warm water, or even with cold water, and rubbing -down the grain with sandpaper if necessary. If that is not sufficient, a -hot iron, as a flat-iron, held near the bruise, the latter being covered -with wet blotting paper or several thicknesses of brown paper, will -often remove a quite large dent. The operation can be repeated until it -has no further effect. - - -=Brushes.=--It is well to have a brush of some sort for cleaning off -work, the bench, etc. A sash brush is good. - -For most of your painting, shellacing, etc., you will usually get along -better with small flat brushes than with large round ones, except for -very coarse work. Those with flattened handles are convenient. From one -to two inches in diameter will usually be large enough, unless for such -work as painting the outside of a house, when something larger will save -time. For painting small or narrow surfaces, the brushes used for -"drawing" sashes are good, and for drawing lines "pencil" brushes will -be required. A good brush for glue can be made by soaking one end of a -piece of rattan in hot water and then pounding the softened part, when -the fibres will separate, making a stiff brush. - - -=Bull-Nosed Plane=--See _Plane_. - - -=Calipers.=--Calipers, which are "inside" or "outside," according to -whether they are to find the diameter of a hole or the outside diameter -of an object, are very important in some work, as turning, but, though -very useful at times, are not nearly as important for the work of the -beginner as compasses. - - -=Carving-Chisel.=--See _Carving Tools_. - - -=Carving Tools.=--A few carving tools are often very useful for general -wood-work. It is convenient to have these carving tools fitted in -handles of a different pattern from your other tools. An octagonal shape -is good. A _carving-chisel_ is very useful in working on odd-shaped -pieces, because the cutting edge is bevelled on both sides. A carver's -_skew_ chisel will be, perhaps, more generally useful for your work than -one ground squarely across. A _parting-tool_, sometimes called a "V -tool," is occasionally convenient, though hardly a necessity for most -plain work. A small _veining-tool_ (like a very small gouge) is often -useful. - - -=Centre-Bit.=--See _Bits_. - - -=Chalk-Line.=--See _Marking_. - - -=Chamfering.=--A chamfer is the surface formed by cutting away the angle -made by two faces of a piece of wood. - -[Illustration FIG. 485.] - -In cutting the _ends_ of a stop-chamfer (Fig. 485), take care not to cut -quite down to the line at first, as you will be very apt to cut a little -too deep and leave a tool mark which cannot be removed. In the case of -long stop-chamfers, use the plane whenever you can, so far as it can be -used without hitting the wood at the ends. The draw-knife can often be -used to remove the wood, being followed by the plane. The plane can be -used slantingly, so as to cut nearer the ends, and a bull-nosed plane -will cut nearer still, but the extreme ends will have to be trimmed to -shape with the chisel or other tool. See also _Bevelling_ and _Paring_. - - -=Chisel.=--The _firmer-chisel_ is meant for light hand-work, for paring -off wood and trimming to shape, and can be used for light mortising, -though the mortise-chisel is intended for that purpose. It is often an -advantage to have the long edges of such a chisel bevelled on the same -side as the cutting basil, as it can be used more conveniently in some -places. Taking off the corner of the basil when grinding, often answers -the purpose. - -The _framing-chisel_ is stouter than the firmer, has a stronger handle -to stand heavy blows of the mallet, and is meant, as the name indicates, -for framing, mortising, and other heavy work.[41] See _Mortising_. - -[Illustration FIG. 486.] - -[Illustration FIG. 487.] - -The _straight-bent chisel_ is shaped as shown in Fig. 487, and is very -useful for cleaning out corners, grooves, and other places where the -common firmer-chisel cannot be used to advantage. - -A _skew-chisel_ is simply ground slanting, instead of squarely across, -and is useful for corners and odd work. See _Carving Tools_. - -There are other forms, seldom needed by the amateur, as the -_corner-chisel_, which is used for cutting or paring angles and corners. - -Those chisels and gouges which have the handles fitted into sockets at -the upper end of the iron, instead of the iron being stuck into the -handle, and with ferrules at the upper end where they are struck by the -mallet are, of course, the strongest for heavy work, although the -lighter handles are just as good for light work. - -Do not let your left hand get in front of the edge of the chisel while -working, for the tool may slip and give you a bad cut, and in most cases -the left hand should be kept on the lower part of the chisel to help -control it, which is not easily done with one hand. In some cases, as in -paring the edge of a piece directly downward towards the bench, it may -be proper to hold the work with the left hand and use the chisel with -the right; but as a rule, particularly for beginners, first see that the -work is securely fastened or held from slipping by vise, clamp, or other -expedient, and then keep the left hand on the chisel, which will steady -and guide the tool, and, incidentally, prevent the hand from being cut. -See _Paring_ and _Sharpening_. - - -=Circular-plane.=--See _Plane_. - - -=Clamps.=--Long clamps (cabinet-clamps), shown in the accompanying -illustrations, are extremely useful in making glued joints and in -various clamping operations. Many, of different lengths, are to be found -in wood-working shops. Although much work can be accomplished without -them, if you can afford a pair or more of medium length, or longer, they -will be very useful. Wooden clamps will answer every purpose, although -steel ones are better, but more expensive. - -[Illustration FIG. 488.] - -To clamp two or more flat pieces together, as in making a "glue-joint," -or in clamping framework, as a door or picture-frame, lay the work -across the horses, which should be so placed that their tops will be as -nearly level, or in the same plane, as possible, and apply the clamps as -shown in Fig. 488, always putting pieces of waste wood between the edges -of the work and the clamps. Place the clamps so that either the flat -side of the bar or the corner, as shown, will lie against the surface of -the work, thus keeping it from bending towards the bar when the screw is -tightened. The number of clamps to be used must depend on the size of -the work, but there is not usually much danger of an amateur's work -being clamped too securely.[42] - -If you have to glue a flexible strip, put a stiff piece outside between -it and the clamp to distribute the pressure. - -You will often find by sighting across the surface of the work as you -tighten the clamps, particularly in the case of door-frames, -picture-frames, and the like, that the surface is winding. When this -happens, move one or more corners of the work up or down, as the case -may be, in the clamps, and thus take out the winding. A little -experimenting will show how to do this. In the case of framed work, such -as doors or picture-frames, test the angles with the square as soon as -the joints are brought to a bearing. If the angles are not right, as -will often be the case, move one end of either one or both of the clamps -to the right or left, as the case may be, and you can easily change the -angle until the square shows it to be right, when the screws can be -tightened and the joints should close accurately. In clamping nearly all -kinds of "case" work, such as bookcases, cabinets, boxes, and the like, -these directions about moving the clamps until the angles are correct -and the work free from winding are applicable. - -In such cases as that shown in Fig. 488, waste no time in trying to get -the surfaces _exactly_ flush with each other at the joint before -partially tightening the clamps, lest the glue become set. Any slight -alteration can best then be made by tapping with the hammer near the -joint, whenever either piece needs to be raised or lowered, putting a -block under the hammer if the dent will not be removed by planing (see -_Gluing_). The clamps can then be screwed tighter. - -[Illustration FIG. 489.] - -[Illustration FIG. 490.] - -In such cases as gluing the joints of a box, put stout blocks or cleats -over the joints before tightening the clamps (Fig. 489), to distribute -the pressure. This applies to all cases of clamping where the pieces to -be glued are not heavy enough to resist the change of shape from the -pressure of the clamps, and pieces of waste wood are almost always -required in any case to prevent bruising of the work. - -You can contrive home-made clamps out of any strong pieces of wood of -suitable length, by nailing or screwing a block at each end (Fig. 490), -when the work can be tightly wedged to a close bearing by driving home -the double wedge shown, using, if necessary, one or more blocks, B, when -you use the clamp for smaller work than that for which it was made. By -keeping such clamps for future use, you will soon have enough to answer -very well until you can afford to buy the regular cabinet-clamps. - -On the same principle, a simple clamp, derived from the Orient, can be -made by boring a series of holes in two stout strips--just as the holes -are bored in the sides of a ladder, but nearer together. The work to be -glued is laid on one of these strips in the same way as shown in Fig. -490. The other strip is then placed directly above and stout pins put -through corresponding holes outside of the work, which can then be -wedged against the pins in the way just shown. - -Another way, which can be applied to many cases, is to put a stout -cord, doubled, around the work, and inserting a stick between the two -parts of the string, turn it around until, the doubled cord thus -becoming shortened, the parts of the work are drawn together. This can -only be done where there is room to swing the stick around, as, for -example, to tighten the rounds of a chair by drawing the legs together -(Fig. 491). - -[Illustration FIG. 491.] - -[Illustration FIG. 492.] - -You can often apply pressure, when no more convenient means are at hand, -by making use of the elasticity of a board or pole. Suppose, for -example, you need to press two blocks tightly together, as shown in Fig. -492. Place them on the bench or floor and spring in a board or pole -between the top of the upper block and a beam of the floor above, as -shown. Of course this board must be a little longer than merely to reach -between the two points, as it must be sprung into place bent, when in -the effort to straighten itself out again it will cause pressure on the -blocks. Pieces should be placed outside the blocks when scarring of the -surface is to be avoided. The pressure can be applied in any direction, -always supposing that you have something firm to press against. - -Pressure can often be obtained by a lever, and many applications of the -wedge will suggest themselves in your work. Even if you have a shopful -of clamps and hand-screws and vises, these applications of the simple -mechanical powers often come into play (see Fig. 390). See also page 71. - -Adjustable wood-carver's clamps can be bought for holding pieces in -position on the bench, and are useful, but by no means necessary, as -common clamps, or various devices, can be used. - -The small iron clamps which can be used in place of hand-screws are very -useful. - -For other suggestions about clamping, see _Hand-screws_. - - -[Illustration FIG. 493.] - -[Illustration FIG. 494.] - -=Cleating.=--A simple way to join two or more pieces of board or plank -to make a wider piece is to cleat them. If short, they can be cleated -across the ends. This can also be done to keep a single board from -warping (Fig. 493). Such a cleat should not be glued unless the width is -very slight, on account of the expansion and contraction across the -board being so much greater than that lengthways of the cleat (see pages -50-53). Screws (which are best), nails, or dowels should be used, as -they will give some play to the pieces. A groove can also be made in the -cleat, into which a tongue on the end of the board is fitted. Grooves -can be cut in both cleat and board and a tongue or spline inserted (Fig. -494). These are operations best done by machinery. This end-cleating -does very well on small work and where the tendency to warp is not too -great. For heavier work, as doors, cleats on the side are better, but -they are sometimes in the way, and not always desirable on the ground of -looks. This is a strong way. Side cleats should be fastened with screws -(see _Screws_) or clinched nails (see _Nailing_), but not with glue, for -the same reason as in the case of end cleats. If the cleat is wide -enough, do not put the screws in a straight line, but "alternate" them -(Fig. 368). See _Jointing_ and _Doors and Panels_. - - -=Clinching-Nails.=--See _Nailing_. - - -=Compasses.=--Wing compasses, or those with arc and set-screw, are easy -to adjust accurately and will not slip, but, whatever kind you get, be -sure that the points stay where you put them and do not spring away or -wobble around. - -The chief uses of this tool are to strike circles, to lay off angles and -arcs, to take off measurements from a rule or some object, to lay off -measurements, and to "scribe" in places where a gauge can not be used -(see _Scribing_). In using compasses, particularly those which are not -set by a screw, hold them and swing them around by the top at the hinged -joint, rather than grasp them near the points, which may cause them to -move or slip. - -[Illustration FIG. 495.] - -Circles or circular arcs can be struck roughly, as you doubtless know, -with a string and a nail at the centre, the string being loose around -the nail. This method is not very accurate, for obvious reasons, and is -only suitable for rough work. A more accurate way is to drive two nails -through a strip of wood at a distance apart just equal to the radius of -the required circle, one nail being driven into the wood to act as the -centre, the other doing the marking (Fig. 495). Instead of the marking -nail a hole can be bored for a pencil. You can use a stick of this sort -repeatedly by changing the position of the centre nail, or of the -marking point. The same can be done with a brad or stout pin and a -pencil, using stiff paper, card-board, or zinc instead of a stick. By -such expedients you can do a great deal of work without buying -compasses. - - -=Compass-Saw.=--See _Saw_. - - -[Illustration FIG. 496.] - -=Corner-Blocks.=--These are merely small pieces of pine, or other wood -which holds glue well, with two adjacent surfaces at right angles. Hot -glue is applied to them and they are rubbed into interior angles of -cabinet-work, to strengthen and stiffen the work (Fig. 496), and are -very useful for this purpose. They are got out in short pieces, -lengthways of the grain, and can be freely used in places where they -will not show, as inside of the base-board in Fig. 304. The shape can be -varied according to the conditions of the joint. Apply hot glue -plentifully, place the block where it is to go, and rub it back and -forth several times, when it can be left for the glue to dry. - - -=Corner-Chisel.=--See _Chisel_. - - -=Countersink.=--This tool, to be used with the bit-brace, for enlarging -the outer part of a hole, thus forming a cavity or depression for -receiving the head of a screw (Fig. 497), is quite important, as being -much more convenient than to use gouge, chisel, or knife for the -purpose. See page 205. - -[Illustration FIG. 497.] - -The rose form of countersink is common and good. The Clark double-cut -countersink (for wood only) cuts smoothly and is easily sharpened. A -countersink for metal is useful. - - -=Cracks, To Stop.=--See _Holes_, _To Stop_. - - -=Cross-Cut Saw.=--See _Saw_. - - -=Cutting-Pliers.=--A pair of these will often be useful in connection -with wood-working operations. - - -=Dents, To Take Out.=--See _Bruises_. - - -=Dividers.=--See _Compasses_. - - -=Doors and Panels.=--It is important to have some understanding of the -theory of framing panels, doors, and the like. The simplest form of door -is, of course, a piece of board. This will do for some cases, but it is -liable to warp or wind,--if a large door, sometimes to such a degree as -to be useless. It is also, if large, liable to swell or shrink so as to -be either too loose or too tight, and to break. Cleating can be resorted -to (see _Cleating_), but will not prevent the swelling and shrinking, -nor is a cleated door especially ornamental. Besides, there are limits -to the width of ordinary boards. Several boards can, however, be joined, -edge to edge, and cleated on one side, in which way a large door can be -made (Fig. 405), and, if the boards are not fitted too closely together, -there may be no trouble caused by the swelling and shrinking. Another -way to make a very _strong_ door is to make it of two thicknesses, or -layers, one running up and down and the other crossways, or diagonally, -the two thicknesses being firmly nailed or screwed together. - -[Illustration FIG. 498.] - -[Illustration FIG. 499.] - -[Illustration FIG. 500.] - -[Illustration FIG. 501.] - -[Illustration FIG. 502.] - -[Illustration FIG. 503.] - -All such arrangements are, however, suited for the rougher class of -work. When we come to nicer work we must have something more scientific, -that will swell and shrink as little as possible and that will look -better. So, instead of using a broad flat surface with the boards all -running one way, we try to overcome the faults of the flat door by -framing the pieces together. Suppose, for a theoretical case, that you -make a door like Fig. 498. It will not warp or curl because of the -cleats at the top and bottom, but it will swell and shrink in width -because there is such a wide surface of board to be affected by the -atmosphere, etc., and it may become winding. To lessen these objections -the middle part of the board can be removed--all but a strip at each -edge (Fig. 499). It will not now swell and shrink much in width because -most of the board has been removed. This frame will hold its shape quite -well, but it is only a frame, not a door. How can you fill up this open -frame to make a door, so as to avoid the trouble about warping, winding, -swelling, and shrinking? First, however, as this frame is considerably -taller than it is wide, you will readily see that it will be a better -arrangement to make it as shown in Fig. 500, with the cross-pieces -between the uprights, according to the usual custom in such cases. -Suppose, now, that you fill up the open space with a _thin_ board, -fastened on one side (Fig. 501), instead of the thick wood which -occupied the space at first. The thin board will tend to warp and twist, -but, being thin, it will not exert force enough to change the shape of -the thick frame. That will prevent the warping and winding from doing -much harm. If the screw-holes in this thin piece are reasonably loose, -they will allow play enough for the board to expand and contract without -putting any strain on the frame. This arrangement does not, however, -look very nice on the side to which the board is screwed, though it can -be used in some situations. Suppose, finally, that you cut a groove -around the inside edge of the frame of the door (Fig. 502) into which -this thin board can be fitted loosely, making the groove deep enough to -give the board room to shrink and swell in width without dropping out or -pushing against the frame. You now have a complete door (Fig. 503), and -the warping, winding, swelling, and shrinking will do as little harm as -possible. That is all there is to the theory of framing doors, panels, -and the like. - -[Illustration RIGHT. WRONG. FIG. 504.] - -The panel should fit closely into the groove, but at the same time be -loose enough to slide in and out as it expands and contracts, and should -not be wide enough to reach to the bottom of the grooves, but room be -left for all possible change in width, as shown in Fig. 504, which shows -sections on the line AB. All this is important and has many applications -to other things than doors. It is not very uncommon for amateurs, -ignorant of these simple principles, to make a door-frame properly, but -in fitting the panel to make it the full width of the space from the -bottom of one groove to the bottom of the opposite, and also to make it -such a snug fit in the groove as to be stuck tight, all with the idea of -making such a good fit as to prevent any of the gaping cracks so often -seen, but really taking the very course to ruin the work. So important -is it that the panel should have play, that it is quite common in nice -work to rub wax or tallow around the edge of the panel, lest some of the -glue from the joints of the frame should cause it to stick when the -frame is glued up. If the panel is badly fitted or stuck, it may buckle -or split, or the frame be split or forced apart at the joints. - -There are many more elaborate ways of arranging the details of -door-framing and panelling (too numerous to be described here, as they -will not often be required by the beginner); but if you understand the -general principles upon which this simple door is put together, you will -understand the principles upon which all panelling is based; and, though -you may never do much of it, it is quite important to have a clear -understanding of the theory, which is really quite simple--for it has -many applications which may save you much trouble, labour, and expense. - -The best way to fasten the frame of a door together is by mortise and -tenon (see _Mortising_). This method is almost invariably adopted for -house doors. Dowelling is often used for smaller doors, but is inferior -to the mortise and tenon. - -A common way nowadays to make light doors, and such as are not to be -subjected to much strain, is to run the grooves in the stiles through to -the ends and cut tongues or short tenons on the ends of the rails to fit -these grooves, as shown in Figs. 508 and 509. The whole door, panel and -all, can thus be quickly got out and fitted accurately with a circular -saw at any wood-working mill, without any hand-work being required, -except the smoothing of the pieces and the putting together. In this way -you can have a door made for a small sum, smoothing and putting it -together yourself. Such a door is not fitted, however, to stand great -strain. A house door made in that way would last but a short time. Any -heavy door, or one to have much strain, or liable to be slammed, should -be framed with mortise and tenon. You can have grooving for a door-frame -done at the mill very cheaply and do the mortising yourself, or you can -have the mortising done by machine at slight expense. Sometimes the -grooving and mortising are combined,--an excellent way (Fig. 592). - -In using any of these methods mark distinctly one side of each piece for -the "face" and lay out all the work from that side only. If the job is -to be taken to a mill, see that the work is all gauged from the face -side. - -[Illustration FIG. 505.] - -[Illustration FIG. 506.] - -In laying out such work never cut off the stiles (Fig. 505) to length at -first. Leave them too long (Fig. 507). The projecting ends will be -useful when you knock the frame apart for gluing, after first putting it -together to see if everything fits. Besides, the extra length makes the -ends stronger for the mortising and less likely to split out. The rails -in door-framing and panelling are usually wider than the stiles. - -In laying out a door or panelled frame, place the stiles together, with -the inside edges uppermost, and square lines across the edges to mark -the positions for the rails (Fig. 506). Carry these lines across the -faces of the stiles, and mark the rails and stiles with some symbols to -indicate the way they are to be fitted together (Fig. 507). - -[Illustration FIG. 507.] - -The whole should be put together once to see that everything is right -before beginning to glue. Before putting together permanently, the panel -and the inside edges of the frame (the edges which come next the panel) -must first be planed and smoothed, as this cannot well be done -afterwards. - -Then fit the panel in the grooves of the rails (Fig. 508), glue the -tenons of one end of the rails and the grooves or mortises of the -corresponding stile (see _Gluing_), taking care not to put any glue -where it may cause the panel to stick, and fit these parts into place -(Fig. 509). Drive the rails home. Then glue and fit the other side of -the frame in the same way (Fig. 510)--all being done as quickly as -possible. Finally clamp the frame securely (see _Clamps_). The tongued -and grooved joint represented in the accompanying illustrations is not -as good as a mortise and tenon, as already stated, but is shown as a -simple way for making a light door. Leave the work to dry, and when dry -remove the clamps. Saw off the ends of the stiles, and dress off the -surface of the frame with the plane (see _Plane_), after which you can -smooth with scraper (see _Scraper_) and sandpaper (see _Sandpaper_), and -the door or panel will be done. When there is objection to the end of a -tenon showing on the outside edge of the stile, and a blind mortise is -not desired (see _Mortising_), the end of the tenon can be cut a little -short and the mortise-hole on the edge plugged with a piece of wood, -with the grain running the same way as that of the stile. Fit the piece -with a very trifling bevel on the edges, glue, drive tightly into place, -and when dry smooth off (Fig. 511). - -[Illustration FIG. 508.] - -[Illustration FIG. 509.] - -[Illustration FIG. 510.] - -[Illustration FIG. 511.] - -It is hardly worth while to work out the grooving or grooved and tongued -joints by hand in these days when it can be so cheaply done by -machinery. If obliged to do it by hand, you should have the proper plane -for the purpose, as it will be very difficult and slow work otherwise. - -A panel is sometimes made flush with either side of the frame, by having -a deep rabbet on that side, as in the case of a desk lid, for instance, -but this is a form which can well be avoided by the beginner. - - -=Dovetailing.=--This is an operation requiring considerable skill to do -well and, with the exception of an occasional single dovetail, is not -frequently required in the work of the beginner. It is, however, a -valuable, workmanlike accomplishment and a thoroughly scientific method, -of which the amateur should have some understanding, even if he should -never use it. - -[Illustration FIG. 512.] - -[Illustration FIG. 513.] - -The _common_ form, such as is used in joining the sides of a box (Fig. -512), can be done as follows: Mark the lines _ab_ (Fig. 513) completely -around each piece, at a distance from the end equal to the thickness of -the stock. Lay off the lines _cd_ on the end of the piece A. Lay off the -oblique lines _ec_ on both sides of the piece. With the back-saw cut by -these oblique lines (_ec_) to the lines _ab_. Fasten the piece in the -vise, end upward, for the sawing. With the chisel, cut out the parts to -be removed (marked _m_), as in cutting a mortise (see _Mortising_), -undercutting very slightly at the end (Fig. 302). When this cutting has -been cleanly done, lay the piece A on the end of the piece B in the way -it is finally to go, so that the pins just cut will rest exactly in -position across the end of the piece B. Mark around the pins, forming -the oblique lines _fg_, from the ends of which square the lines _gh_ on -both sides of the piece. Remove the wood as before, taking care not to -cut on the wrong sides of the lines which mark the pins, or the -dovetailing may come together too loosely. When exactly fitted, apply -glue, fit together, and when dry smooth off with plane, scraper, and -sandpaper, as may be required. - -[Illustration FIG. 514.] - -_Lap_ or _drawer_ dovetailing (Fig. 514) is similar to the preceding -form, but the ends of the pins or dovetails on the piece forming the -side of the drawer are shortened, and the recesses in the front piece -which are to receive them are not cut through. First the side piece A -(Fig. 515) is marked and cut on the principle just shown, the pins being -shorter; then the piece B is marked and cut to fit. - -Practised workmen in dovetailing usually (unless symmetry of the pins is -required) determine the bevels for the pins of the first piece by eye, -but the beginner would best not attempt to lay off angles or saw by eye. - -[Illustration FIG. 515.] - -_Mitre_ dovetailing (_blind_ or _secret_ dovetailing) is used in cases -where it is desired to conceal the dovetails, the result looking like an -ordinary mitred joint, but this is difficult work for the beginner. - - -=Dovetail Saw.=--See _Saw_ (_Back-Saw_). - - -=Dowelling.=--Dowels are merely round sticks of different diameters and -usually of hard wood. They can be bought ready made and can be used -instead of nails or screws, or instead of mortising, dovetailing, etc. -They can be used simply as pins or in many cases can be split and -wedged, though the holes must be tapered with a gouge if wedges of much -thickness are to be used (Fig. 516). - -[Illustration FIG. 516.] - -A common use of dowels is to fasten the frames of tables, chairs, -bedsteads, and various domestic articles. - -The use of dowels for such purposes is not to be recommended, however, -although very common in cheap work and in much work which is not cheap -in price. The mortise and tenon is usually much to be preferred. -Dowelling, to be really good, has to be skilfully done, while it is a -very common way to stick the work together in any manner that will look -right on the outside. A dowelled joint is not, as a rule, as scientific -a form of construction as a well-planned mortise and tenon,--a statement -which you can easily prove for yourself by comparing some article of -your grandmother's or great-grandmother's time, and which is still -strong, with some modern dowelled chair, which is in so many cases all -to pieces and thrown on the woodpile after a short term of service. The -gaping joints and dropping apart of modern dowelled work can be seen on -every hand. There are some cases, however, where the use of dowels is -scientific and just what is required. For example, split dowels, wedged -dovetail fashion like wedged tenons, are often very useful (see -_Mortising_). - -[Illustration FIG. 517.] - -[Illustration FIG. 518.] - -To find the centres for boring, so that the holes bored in the two -pieces shall be in line, you can cut off the heads of some small wire -brads so that they will be pointed at both ends. Stick the brads into -one piece where the centres of the holes should be. Then press this -piece against the other in the position it is to take when the work is -done and the brads will of course prick holes in the second piece -exactly corresponding to those in the first piece (Fig. 517). Instead of -brads, small shot can be used in a similar manner. It is well to take a -round-pointed awl, or some such tool, and carefully prick a small hole -with it at each of the points marked. This is to start the spur of the -bit exactly at the point, as the spur sometimes has a way of working off -to one side, so that the hole may not be in exactly the right place. The -hardest part, however, is to bore the holes exactly at right angles to -the surface, as a slight deviation in either or both may make a bad -angle where the two holes meet. You can sometimes lay the pieces flat on -the bench and arrange boards or blocks so as to guide the bit straight. -The dowels must be thoroughly dry. It is better to have them a trifle -too large, rather than too small, for you can easily trim them down to a -snug fit. Scratch them lengthways with the toothed-plane, or with the -edge of a file. Countersink a little hollow around the opening of each -hole (see _Countersink_), to catch the surplus glue which would -otherwise form a rim around the dowel (Fig. 517). Before gluing you -should fit the work together once, as it is very awkward to make changes -after the gluing is begun. When the parts fit accurately, take the joint -apart for gluing. Brush a little glue around the inside of one of the -holes, dip one end of a dowel in the glue and drive into place. Wipe off -the superfluous glue and repeat the process with each of the dowels in -that half of the joint. Leave this to dry a day, or more if you can. -Then clean any hardened glue from the dowels and glue them, as before, -into the other piece, this time putting glue on the flat surfaces which -are to come together. The whole should be firmly clamped and left to dry -(see _Gluing_ and _Clamps_). Dowels are sometimes used in joining the -edges of pieces, as in Fig. 518, and in many other joints too numerous -to be specified (see _Joints_ and _Jointing_). - -Dowelling looks very easy, but it is usually hard for the beginner to -bore the holes straight and to make the pieces fit accurately. - - -=Dowel-Plate.=--A steel plate with various holes of such sizes that pins -made by driving blocks of wood through them will drive snugly into the -holes made by the corresponding bits. This is useful in fitting dowels. - - -=Drawers.=--The making of well-fitting and smoothly running drawers is -an operation requiring much skill--more skill than can be expected of -the beginner, or, in fact, than is attained by the average workman. The -beginner should, however, have some understanding of the work, even if -he does not attain a high degree of skill in its execution. - -Bear in mind that it is much easier to make a drawer which is narrow and -long (from front to back) run smoothly than one which is wide across the -front, but shallow from front to back. - -The more accurately the case which holds the drawers is made, the easier -it is to make smoothly running drawers. In good work having more than -one drawer, a horizontal frame is fitted beneath each drawer for it to -run on. These frames, as well as the whole case, should be free from -winding, and it is also important that the stock for the drawers should -be true. The front and sides of a drawer should be got out to fit very -snugly in their places. The piece for the back is narrower than the -front piece, to allow for the bottom (Fig. 521), and is often cut off at -the top also. The front, sides, and back can be put together with any -suitable form of joint. Dovetailing is by far the best way, but it is -difficult for the beginner (see _Dovetailing_). The joints shown in Fig. -519 can very well be used for ordinary work. These can be quickly made -by machinery (see _Joints_). See also _Gluing_ and _Clamps_. - -[Illustration FIG. 519.] - -A groove for the bottom must be cut on the inside of the front and of -the sides (Fig. 520). The insides of the pieces must be smoothed before -putting the drawer together. When these parts are fitted, slip the -bottom (previously fitted) into place. It should be got out with the -grain running across the drawer, or parallel with the front (Fig. 521), -and should be glued at the front edge _only_, the rest being free to -swell and shrink, which saves the drawer from injury. - -[Illustration FIG. 520.] - -[Illustration FIG. 521.] - -Be sure that the drawer is rectangular (putting in the bottom will -assist in this) and free from winding. When put together and dry, -carefully smooth the front and the sides. A little trimming with the -plane may be required to make the drawer run freely, but care should be -taken not to plane away too much. A drawer which is a trifle larger at -the back than at the front will run better than if larger in front, as -it will be less likely to bind or catch. Small slides, between which the -drawer runs, are fastened at each side outside the drawer, at the -bottom, and must be adjusted carefully. - -Thin blocks or "stops" can be fastened on the cross-frame so that the -inside of the drawer front will strike against them when the drawer has -been pushed in as far as it should go, or the drawer can be stopped at -the back. - -A simple way to attach a drawer under a shelf, bench, or table is shown -in Fig. 143. The contrivance shown in Figs. 141 and 142 can sometimes be -used in place of small drawers. - -Bayberry tallow is excellent to rub on the sides of drawers. - - -[Illustration FIG. 522.] - -[Illustration FIG. 523.] - -=Draw-Knife= or =Draw-Shave=.--The draw-knife or draw-shave is very -useful for slicing off large pieces and for trimming wood into odd -shapes. It can be obtained with folding handles, adjustable at different -angles, for use in places which can not be reached by the blade of the -old-fashioned draw-knife; but the latter is good enough for all ordinary -purposes. Choose a medium-sized or large one. It is in principle simply -a knife or very wide and short-bladed chisel with a handle at each end, -and can be used with the flat side or the bevel against the wood as the -character of the work may require. Having but a short bearing surface to -guide its course, it is very prone to follow the grain and cut deeper -than you wish, so you must take special pains to cut with the grain, -stopping and cutting the other way, whenever necessary. Attachments can -be bought for guiding the draw-knife in chamfering and such cases. - -The draw-knife can often be best used with an oblique stroke--either -drawing it sideways across the work at the same time that you pull it -towards you (Fig. 522), or holding it obliquely across the work and -pulling it straight towards you (Fig. 523). - -It is one of the most dangerous tools if carelessly left lying around, -and should be kept hung up out of reach of all small children. See -_Paring_, _Bevelling_, and _Chamfering_. - - -=Draw-Shave.=--See _Draw-knife_. - - -=Drill.=--Drills for metal only are often useful to the wood-worker, but -the one most important for the amateur is the twist-drill. See -_Twist-drill_. - - -=Drill-Stock.=--There are various patterns of drill-stocks, some of them -automatic, for holding drills of different sizes for small holes. _Hand -drills_ with revolving handle, like an egg-beater, can be used for small -drills. See _Bit-brace_. - - -=Duck's-bill-Bit.=--See _Bits_. - - -=Expansion-Bit.=--See _Bits_. - - -=File.=--The file is a piece of hard steel with rows of ridges or teeth -cut obliquely on the surface. When cut in one direction only it is -called _single_-cut, but when there are two oblique rows of teeth -crossing each other it is called _double_-cut. These ridges incline -towards the end or point of the tool, so that the file, like the saw, -plane, and scraper, cuts when pushed forward. Files for wood have wider -teeth than those for metal, so do not use a wood file on metal or a -metal file for wood. The slab-sided shape (Fig. 524) is perhaps the most -useful, if you can have but one file. A round "rat-tailed" file is also -useful, and various other shapes if you can have a variety. For metal, -the triangular, flat, the half-round, shown in Fig. 525, and the -rat-tail are best. Files are very important for smoothing or rounding -edges and curving surfaces. - -[Illustration FIG. 524.] - -[Illustration FIG. 525.] - -Before beginning to file, be sure that the wood is firmly secured so -that it will not slip and so that you can use the file with both hands. -Hold the tool with the right hand, thumb uppermost, and steady the end -with the left hand, thumb uppermost (Fig. 526), or with the fingers or -palm. To file squarely across, push the tool steadily and evenly -straight forward, without rocking up and down, and pressing only on the -forward stroke. - -[Illustration FIG. 526.] - -In filing rounded surfaces, a rocking motion is often helpful and the -way and direction in which to file in such cases must depend upon the -shape of the work and the grain of the wood, as you will quickly learn. -See _Rounding-sticks_. - -Press lightly the first time you use a new file, until the fine edges of -the teeth have been worn a little, as a violent filing on the first -strokes may damage the cutting edges of the teeth. - -When a file becomes clogged with wood-dust or other substances, soak it -in hot water a little while and then brush with a stiff brush. A -_file-card_ is useful. A piece of dog-fish skin, if you can obtain it, -cuts somewhat like a file or coarse sandpaper, and is useful for curved -surfaces where you wish to use the tools after smoothing. - - -=Filing.=--See _File_. - - -=Filing (of Saws).=--See _Sharpening_. - - -=Finishing.=--To acquire a high degree of proficiency in finishing -indoor wood-work requires long training and practice, but the simpler -processes can be undertaken to good advantage by the beginner. - -There are a number of ways from which to choose. Simply rubbing -thoroughly with linseed oil gives a good, soft, permanent finish, which -some prefer to anything else, but you should be sure that all -superfluous oil is rubbed off. Do not hang a recently oiled book-shelf -or cabinet against the wall-paper of the room, for fear of defacing it. -An oil finish, unless rubbed a good deal, has the disadvantage of -getting soiled and collecting dust and dirt, but it is easily -sandpapered and renewed and is certainly in better taste than a coarse, -shiny, cheap varnish. - -An old-fashioned way is simply to apply a mixture of turpentine and -beeswax, rubbing it as long as your strength and patience will allow. -Melt some beeswax in a can or saucepan and, when melted and taken from -the stove, pour in enough turpentine to make it the consistency of -paste. Then apply with a brush or cloth and rub in and clean off the -excess with a stiff brush or cloth, scrubbing the work as you would a -stove. This makes a beautiful finish, soft and lustrous. It shows spots, -however, and, though it is so easily applied, it requires continual -renewing and rubbing to be kept in good condition. - -To make a hard and durable coating on the surface of the wood some kind -of varnish is required. There is nothing better than shellac for the -purpose of the amateur. It is not very hard to use, and there is -certainly nothing which gives a finish of nicer quality. The surface -dries quickly and the coat hardens more rapidly than most kinds of -varnish. For some cases, as a boat, it is well to shellac first and -finish with good varnish.[43] Shellac is cut (dissolved) in alcohol, and -can be bought prepared, but it is better to cut it yourself, to -diminish the chance of adulteration with cheaper substances. Orange -shellac will do for most of your work. Into an open-mouthed bottle put -some of the shellac (which comes in flakes and looks somewhat like glue) -and pour over it enough grain alcohol (95 per cent. grade) to somewhat -more than cover the shellac. Cork the bottle and leave in a warm place -until the shellac is cut. Shaking will hasten the process. Wood alcohol -can be used and is cheaper, but work done with it is not so good. It is -a deadly poison taken internally and on account of the fumes it is best -not to use it for a long time in a close room. If the tawny tint of the -orange shellac is objectionable, white (bleached) shellac can be used, -but this it is well to buy already prepared. It is a little harder to -use than the coloured kind. - -Use a flat bristle-brush and not a soft camel's-hair brush, unless for -the last coat. One from one inch to two inches wide will be probably -suitable for most of your work. For large surfaces, however, a larger -brush is better. After using, always clean the brush thoroughly with -alcohol. - -Always shellac in a warm, dry place, free from dust--never where it is -cold and damp; but on the other hand do not leave the work close to a -hot stove or it may blister. - -The shellac should be quite thin. It should flow very freely from the -brush. Of the two extremes, it is better to have it too thin rather than -too thick. Three or four thin coats give a much better result than two -coats of thick, gummy shellac. Never try to thin it with anything but -alcohol. Keep the bottle corked to prevent evaporation of the alcohol -and to keep out the dust. - -Before beginning to shellac, see that the work is free from dust. Pour a -small quantity of the shellac into a small dish of glass or earthenware, -not of tin. Before applying to the wood, wipe the surplus shellac from -the brush on the edge of the dish, so that it will not drip, and then -lay on the coat as evenly and smoothly as possible, working from the top -or from one end or side, and with the grain, so far as possible.[44] Do -not apply the brush at first exactly at the edge of the surface, lest -the shellac collect too thickly at the edge, but apply the brush first a -little way on the surface and _then_ work from the edge. Work quickly -and lightly. Begin and end the strokes of the brush gradually--lighten -them at the end--so as to avoid a "lap" when the strokes begin again. -Do not work over the coat after it has begun to set or try to patch up -spots. Simply lay it on as well as you can and let it go at that. If it -is not right you will know how to do better next time. - -Give each coat plenty of time to harden before applying -another--twenty-four hours is none too long. Do not put on five or six -coats in a day as is sometimes done. The outer coat hinders the drying -of the shellac underneath, by keeping the air from it,--just as with -paints,--and the way to do durable work is not to put on a fresh coat -until the previous one is thoroughly dry and hard. Shellac dries very -quickly so that you can touch it, but does not get really hard -throughout for some time, so do not be in haste to put on a second -coat.[45] - -If there are holes, cracks, or defects of any kind to be filled up, this -is the time to do it--after the first coat is hard. One way to do this -is to hold a hot iron close to a piece of shellac directly over the -hole, which will be filled with the melted shellac. The surplus can be -carefully pared off after it is hard. Another way is to use wax coloured -to match the wood. The wax can easily be coloured by melting and adding -a small quantity of whatever dry colour--burnt umber, for instance--may -be required. Do not use putty in such cases. - -When the first coat is hard, skim over the surface with very fine -sandpaper (00), to remove any roughnesses, and apply the second coat. -This is sometimes sufficient. If not, sandpaper and shellac again, and a -fourth time if necessary. When you have a sufficient "body" of shellac -on the wood, you can much improve the quality of the surface by rubbing -it down with powdered pumice-stone and oil, which will remove the -"shiny" effect and leave a softer and finer surface. To do this, take a -bit of felt or haircloth, and wet it with thin oil (kerosene will do, -or petroleum, or linseed oil thinned with turpentine or benzine, but -the latter is dangerous to have around), take up a little of the pumice, -and carefully and evenly rub over the surface, with the grain, renewing -the oil and pumice as may be needed, or they can be sprinkled on the -work. But be careful to rub evenly and not too long on any one spot, for -it will be hard to repair the damage if you should rub through to the -wood. Wipe the whole off thoroughly with soft cloth. This process will -be sufficient for most amateur work. For some work simply rubbing down -with the finest sandpaper wet with oil is enough. In using sandpaper for -rubbing down nice work, split it--that is, remove the outer layer of -paper, which will leave the sanded layer thin and pliable and less -likely to scratch or rub through the finish. A handful of tightly -squeezed curled hair can be used. - -If varnish is to be used over the shellac as in case of a boat, simply -sandpaper the shellac and do not rub with pumice and oil. - -With fine-grained wood, such as cherry, the process given above is all -that will be required, but with coarse, open-grained wood, like oak, a -good many coats will be needed to fill the pores and give a smooth -surface. Therefore a "filler" is often used to fill the pores of the -grain. This is cheap and can be bought in the form of paste (either -light or dark), which you can apply according to the directions on the -can. Rub it into the wood thoroughly, let it stand until it begins to -set, or stiffen, then rub it off with a bit of burlap or any coarse -material, _across the grain_ (lest you wipe it out of the pores). After -it has become hard enough, sandpaper, and clean off any that may remain -on the surface. Then shellac as described. The filler can have the -shade of the wood, or sometimes, as in oak, the figure of the grain can -be brought out finely by using a filler somewhat darker than the hue of -the wood. Be sure to clean off the filler thoroughly, using a tool to -clean out the angles and corners, or the finished surface will have a -cloudy or muddy appearance. - -The general directions given for shellacing apply also to the use of -varnish, but varnishing is in some respects harder for the amateur to do -well. Consult the dealer about the kind of varnish and the brush best -suited to the particular piece of work you have in hand. The final coat -of varnish can be rubbed down with pumice or tripoli and water. -Rotten-stone used with oil (petroleum is good) is excellent for giving a -soft polish. - -French polishing is often attempted by the amateur, but it should be -learned by taking a lesson from a practical polisher, and not from a -book. The general idea of the process is as follows: A wad or pad of -wool is made and on this is poured thin shellac, adding whatever alcohol -may be necessary. This wet pad is then covered with a piece of clean -linen, a drop of oil put on the outside to prevent the shellac from -sticking, and the pad is then quickly passed over the surface with a -circular motion, or with longer strokes in the form of the figure 8, or -in some cases simply back and forth. After doing this for a while a very -thin coat will have been deposited. This is allowed to dry for a short -time, when the process is repeated, again and again, until a sufficient -body of the polished finish has been formed. The details of the process -vary with different finishers. It is quite easy to polish a small flat -surface or such an object as the arm of a chair, but it is much harder -for an amateur to successfully polish a large flat surface, like a -table-top, except after much practice. A first coating of shellac -applied with the brush and skimmed over with sandpaper will save labour -in the polishing process. - -Before refinishing old work it should, if the surface is in bad -condition, be scraped down to the wood, using the scraper and finishing -with sandpaper. A chisel (used like the scraper) is sometimes convenient -to remove a thick body of old varnish. If the surface does not need -scraping, it should be cleaned, either by washing with soapsuds or it -can be scrubbed clean with the finest sandpaper, split, using oil or -water as the case may be, but seeing that the work is wiped off -perfectly dry before applying a new coat. Pumice can be used, as already -described, and a stiff brush, like a nail-or tooth-brush, is excellent -for cleaning out corners and carved work. - -For simply brightening and cleaning furniture, a mixture of equal parts -of linseed oil and turpentine with a minute quantity of japan is -excellent. It should be well rubbed and carefully cleaned off. This will -make scratches and bruises less conspicuous, and will make the article -look fresher for a time, but it is only a cleaner and not a substitute -for refinishing. - - -=Firmer-Chisel.=--See _Chisel_. - - -=Fore-Plane.=--See _Plane_. - - -=Framing-Chisel.=--See _Chisel_. - - -=Gauge.=--There are many kinds of gauges in the market, but they all -depend on the same principle, having a block, head, stock, or fence, to -slide along against the edge of the wood, and a bar, beam, or stem, -which slides through the block, can be set to project from it at any -required distance, and which has near its end a spur or marking point -(Fig. 533). The stem has the divisions of a rule marked upon it, so that -the spur can be readily set at the required distance. In some gauges the -spur or marking point is sharpened to an edge parallel with the head, -rather than to a point, as it is more certain to make a clear, sharp -line, and is best when slightly convex on the side toward the head (Fig. -527). This gives the spur a tendency to run the line _away_ from and not -toward the edge where the head is, thus helping to keep the head close -up to the edge. Sometimes a round point is used, and occasionally a -knife point or blade for cutting thin stock into strips; and sometimes a -wheel with sharpened edge. A form of gauge adapted for gauging from -curved as well as straight edges is also made. Do not trust the accuracy -of the scale marked on a common gauge, for if the spur is at all out of -place, as is sometimes the case, you cannot rely upon the scale. Test by -measuring from the head to the spur with the rule. - -[Illustration FIG. 527.] - -The _mortise-gauge_ has two spurs, one of which is movable and can be -set at any required distance from the other, so that two lines can be -marked at once, as for a mortise. This is a time-saving tool, and very -convenient, but not a necessity for amateur work. - -There are gauges with long beams or stems and with long heads for -gauging across wide spaces, but when you need anything of the sort you -can easily make it and use with it either pencil, awl, or knife, as may -best suit the case in hand. - -If you wish to draw a line two inches from the edge of a board, for -example, you can mark off two or more points at the required distance -and with a rule and pencil draw the line through these points. If you -were to make the points so near together as to touch, you would have the -line without needing the ruler. This is what the gauge does. It makes a -continuous measurement and a continuous mark, which is of course the -line required. - -The only gauge you need for rough work is a rule (or even a stick) and a -pencil. To draw a line, for example, two inches from the edge of a -board, take the rule in one hand, and lay the end flat on the surface of -the board so that it laps over two inches from the edge (Fig. 528). -Place the forefinger underneath, against the edge, so that the end of -the rule will remain two inches from the edge, and simply slide rule and -finger along the edge, holding a pencil at the end of the rule with the -other hand to make the mark. The finger must be kept evenly pressed -against the edge. This is only suited for rough work, or for getting -out stock approximately to shape, and of course cannot be depended upon -for accurate measurement. - -[Illustration FIG. 528.] - -[Illustration FIG. 529.] - -[Illustration FIG. 530.] - -Something more accurate, with which you cannot get splinters in your -finger, can easily be made, when needed, in this way. To run a line two -inches from an edge, for example, and parallel to it, simply take any -short stick and cut a piece out of it at one end so that the distance -from the shoulder to the end will be just two inches, as shown in Fig. -529. Apply this to the edge of the piece and slide it along on the same -principle as the rule and finger, being careful to keep the shoulder -pressed up to the edge and the pencil or knife held firmly against the -end. Instead of cutting out a piece you can nail one piece on another -(Fig. 530). The latter is better for straight work because the head or -fence is longer and so can be more securely pressed against the edge. An -objection to this gauge is the need of making a new one for every -measurement, but where there is occasion to keep repeating a measurement -it is particularly convenient and quickly made. - -[Illustration FIG. 531.] - -[Illustration FIG. 532.] - -For another home-made gauge (Fig. 531) cut a recess in one side of a -block just wide enough to hold the rule and just deep enough so that -the flat side of the rule will project a trifle above the surface of the -block. On this side of the block fasten a small strip, with a screw, so -that when the two pieces are seized in the hand the rule will be held -fast at the point to which it is adjusted. This is more accurate than to -use the hand alone. You can readily contrive such arrangements, which -will be quite accurate if carefully used, but it is not worth while to -spend much time over such makeshifts (except in case of necessity), for -a fairly good gauge can be bought for a small sum. - -[Illustration FIG. 533.] - -The gauge is usually an awkward tool for the beginner to use. He finds -it hard to keep the stock firmly against the edge while sliding it -along, and lets the spur dig or plough deeply into the wood--the spur -tends to follow the grain of the wood and when the grain runs toward the -edge the result is often as shown in Fig. 532, the stock being pushed -from the edge. The stock is then pushed back and the wobbly process -continued. To avoid these errors, the gauge, held well in front of you -in one hand, should be tipped or inclined from you so that the spur will -be drawn along the surface (Fig. 533) and will make but a slight -scratch. Then, keeping the stock or head _firmly pressed_ against the -edge, push the gauge steadily from you, watching carefully to see (1st) -that the spur does not begin to dig into the wood instead of lightly -scratching it, and (2d) that the head does not slip away from the edge. -This will prevent the point catching or jumping and will insure a good -mark, which can easily be deepened by going over the line a second time -if necessary. - -It is easier to mark a line when the spur is near the head of the gauge -than when it is run out to some distance. The guiding power of the fence -or head is greater over a point near to it than over a point at a -distance, from which you can readily see that, conversely, the longer -the head or fence, the easier the gauging becomes--that is, for -_straight_ lines, which is much the most common use of the gauge. In -gauging from a curved edge, a long fence, unless curved, would be -impracticable. - -Where it will injure the work to have the gauge marks show (as when the -work is to be finished with shellac or varnish), be careful not to carry -them farther than necessary, as very slight scratches show plainly after -finishing. Otherwise, in cases where the marks will not show or do no -harm, as in rough framing, it is as well to run them past the required -points, as it is quicker to do so and the juncture of lines which cross -is more distinct. - -Gauge from the same side of the wood in laying out mortises or any lines -intended to be in the middle of a piece of wood, or at a fixed distance -from one edge, else if the edges are not exactly parallel (as is often -the case) the markings will differ. See also _Scribing_. - - -=Gimlet.=--The gimlet is useful, cheap, and good for boring where the -hole does not come near the edge, but near the edge or in thin wood -great care must be taken to prevent splitting. If necessary to use it in -such a case, keep turning it backwards for every turn ahead and do not -try to force it through the wood. It is better, however, to use some -other tool if you can (see _Bits_ and _Twist-drill_), for the tapering -form of the gimlet gives it a wedge-like, prying action upon the woody -fibres. - - -=Gimlet-Bit.=--See _Bits_. - - -=Glazing.=--An old chisel can be used to clean off old putty before -setting glass. On new work, see that the rabbet or shoulder where the -putty is to go is primed with lead paint before putting on the putty -(see _Painting_). You can buy glazier's points, to hold the glass in -position under the putty, for a trifle, or very small brads can be used. -No special directions are necessary for using the putty. - -To set common glass in furniture, as in bookcase doors, it is better to -fasten it in place with small strips, not pressed too tightly against -it. Strips of plain moulding are good. To set plate glass in furniture, -the same means can be used for small pieces, but large plates, as for a -mirror, should be held in place by little strips of soft pine, one or -two inches long, bevelled on one side. The other side being glued, these -strips can be lightly pressed into the crack around the glass. These -short pieces, glued to the frame on one side and with the bevelled side -wedging the glass into place, hold the latter securely, but, owing to -the softness of the wood, not too rigidly. - - -=Glue.=--See _Gluing_. - - -=Gluing.=--Glue is made from refuse animal matter, and also from parts -of fishes, the latter being known as fish glue. It comes in sheets or -cakes or flakes, to be dissolved and used hot, or already prepared in -liquid form. - -The majority of practical mechanics prefer the former (_i.e._, "hot" -glue) for nice work, although the use of liquid glue has increased much -of late years. Hot glue is probably preferable if all the conditions are -just as they should be, but if not so, liquid or "cold" glue may be -better. - -Buy the best grade. It is the cheapest for good work, and you will not -use enough to make the price much of an obstacle. The only _sure_ test -by which to buy glue is to get a little and see how it holds. A good way -to prove the quality of your glue is to soak it over night, or as long -as may be necessary, in whatever quantity of water you think it will -absorb. The more it will swell without dissolving, the better the -quality. _Poor_ glue will dissolve. - -You cannot positively tell good glue by the colour, for there are many -kinds (and for more than one purpose) and many makers, but whatever the -colour, the glue should be clear looking and not cloudy or muddy. Do not -use glue that has a mouldy or otherwise disagreeable or offensive smell -or a bad taste. - -To prepare hot glue, break the glue into small pieces, and soak it in -all the cold water it will absorb for perhaps twelve hours, when it will -have become swollen and softened and will look and feel somewhat like -jelly. Then put it in the inner glue-pot (see _Glue-pot)_ and cause the -water in the outer vessel to boil for several hours. It is quicker to -dissolve the glue at once without soaking, but the result does not seem -to be quite as good as by the former method. The glue to be right for -use must be thin enough to drip from the brush in a thread or stream, -without collecting in drops like water, and you can tell something about -its being in condition to use by testing it between your fingers. Do not -weaken its strength, however, by diluting with more water than is -necessary. - -It is important to keep the glue and the glue-pot clean, and if the -odour from your glue becomes offensive at any time clean out the -glue-pot and make fresh. - -Glue loses strength by repeated meltings, so do not dissolve too much at -a time, and after heating it over two or three times throw away any that -is left in the glue-pot, cleaning the latter thoroughly. On work which -you are very particular about mix fresh glue each time.[46] - -You can make a good glue-brush of a stick of rattan. Soften the end in -hot water and pound it with the hammer until the fibres separate. For -corners, cracks, holes, and the like use sticks, which you can whittle -to any required shape. - -Although apparently too simple an operation to need much explanation, -and often ignored in books on wood-work, as if anyone could of course -glue two pieces together, the operation, to be really successful, calls -for more knowledge of the principles involved than beginners or amateurs -usually possess. Do not daub a thick layer of lukewarm glue on the -pieces, and then slap them together as you would make a sandwich, after -the usual domestic fashion. Done in this way the pieces often stick for -a while, but there is nothing certain about it. - -We have seen that wood is full of little holes (pores, as they are -commonly called), or spaces between the fibres (see Fig. 6). The glue -becomes worked into these little pores and that is what gives it such a -firm hold on the wood, somewhat as plastering is forced (purposely) into -the cracks between the laths. - -So you must have the glue thin, that it may fill these little cavities -and get a "grip" on the wood; you must have it hot, that it may the more -easily penetrate these open spaces before it becomes chilled; you must -have the wood warm, that the glue may not be chilled and begin to set -before it has a chance to penetrate the interstices of the wood; and you -must press the pieces together so hard as to expel the body of glue from -between them, forcing it into the pores and squeezing outside what will -not go in, to be wiped or scraped off afterward. For what you want is -not to have the two pieces held together by a layer of glue between -them, lightly sticking to each surface and separating the two in -proportion to the thickness of the layer; but to have the two surfaces -as close together as possible, held so by the tenacity of the glue -reaching from the cavities of one surface to those of the other. The -closer the surfaces are forced together the better, as the glue will be -less exposed to the atmosphere. - -You will see from all this that gluing should be done in a warm room of -an even temperature. - -While with hot glue it will not do to change the relative positions of -the pieces after putting together, you can have considerable time to get -them in position if the liquid or cold glue is used. Where several -places in the same piece of work have to be glued together at the same -time, it is frequently very hard to get around with the hot glue before -that first applied has begun to set, unless you have help. In such -cases, cold glue is a great convenience. If your shop is not warm or if -you cannot have your glue hot, you had better use the liquid glue. It -takes much longer to set than the other. In cold weather it should be -slightly warmed. It can be thinned with vinegar or acetic acid, or what -you wish to use at once may be thinned with water. Do not pour water -into the can of glue, as it will not keep so well. - -You will also readily see that it is much easier to make good glued -joints in soft wood than in hard, for the former is more readily -squeezed to a fit by the clamping, while with the latter it is quite -essential that the pieces should fit with extreme accuracy before -clamping (see note under _Clamps_). - -Before beginning to glue have everything laid out, fit the pieces -together, clamp them up just as if you had put on the glue, and see that -everything comes together right--_i.e._, rehearse the gluing process -before using the glue itself. This is a very important point, -particularly when there are several pieces to be glued, for you will -have no time to waste after you have begun to use the glue. - -Do not spread the glue on too thick. Take the dirt off both pieces, -then, while putting the glue on one, have the other warming slightly at -the fire. The moment the glue on the brush leaves the glue-pot it begins -to cool. If it fairly begins to set before you get the two pieces -together, your joint will not be good. You will have to take it apart, -scrape off all the old glue, and begin over again. So you will see there -is no time to be lost when once you begin and it will be too late then -to correct any mistakes in the fitting of the wood-work. Good workmen -always put the work together and take it apart again before gluing. - -Do not wipe off the glue which squeezes out from a glued joint (unless -for some special reason) nor wash it off with water. Let it harden, and -clean it off after the joint has set. It helps protect the joint. - -Do not be in haste to unclamp your work. When to release it depends on -the kind of wood, the kind of work, and the circumstances under which -the gluing is done, and no exact time can be set. If for some temporary -and unimportant purpose and in soft pine, for instance, you can unclamp -in a few hours or even less, but for important work, which is to hold -permanently, twelve hours is scarcely time enough even for soft wood and -hot glue, and twenty-four hours is none too long, for though the glue -dries quickly to the touch, it takes considerable time to get thoroughly -hard. It is safer to allow more time for hard wood. The thickness of the -stock makes a difference also. Large junks and blocks and boards glued -flatways require more time than 1/4" stock, thin strips, or little -splinters. You can tell something by the condition of the glue that is -squeezed from the joint. Liquid glue sets much more slowly, and -twenty-four hours is soon enough to release the work under average -conditions. The warmth and dryness of the air make a good deal of -difference. Under unfavourable conditions more than forty-eight hours -may be required. - -If for any reason you cannot clamp a joint, after applying the glue rub -one piece back and forth upon the other a few times. - -Rub wax, soap, or tallow on any part which must not be stuck by surplus -glue which may exude from a joint, as in the case of a panel which may -become stuck by the glue used in fastening the frame (see _Doors and -Panels_). - -To glue two pieces where the surface is to be planed or trimmed at the -joint, do not glue them together after they are planed or trimmed, but -glue them first, and plane or trim them afterwards, taking care to have -the grain of the pieces run in the same direction (see _Jointing_). - -To glue pieces end to end, or as in a mitre,--that is, "end -wood,"--first size with thin glue to stop the pores, else the glue will -be quickly soaked up. Then, after allowing this coat to stand, glue in -the ordinary way. But glued joints in end wood are seldom good and are -to be avoided. - -A great deal of glued work comes apart, and a great many mistakes in -putting work together are caused by not understanding, or not bearing in -mind, the way wood expands and contracts and warps and winds from heat -and cold, dryness and moisture. This is an important matter if you wish -to do good gluing. Do not think that all that is necessary is to have -your wood dry and that then you can glue the pieces together in any -relative positions. Veneers or thin pieces are sometimes successfully -glued with the grain of the pieces running at right angles, as seen in -chair seats, but as a rule avoid gluing wide pieces together with the -grain running at right angles. See _Laying out the Work_, in Chapter -IV.; also _Jointing_. - - -=Glue-Pot.=--This can be bought of copper, iron, or tin. A medium-sized -one is more useful than a very small one. Have a cover to keep out dust -and loose particles. - -If obliged to make shift without a proper glue-pot, always use two -dishes like a regular glue-pot, with water in the outer one, on the -principle of the double boiler used for cooking, else the glue will be -sure to burn and be spoiled. Two cans, such as are used for tomatoes or -other vegetables, can be used on a pinch, one being larger than the -other and fastened in place with wire or in some way to keep the smaller -can from moving around too much; but a regular glue-pot is much better. -See _Gluing_. - - -=Gouge.=--This tool is similar to the chisel, except for the curvature -across the blade. The common gouge has the bevel on the convex or outer -side and is known as an "outside" gouge. This is the more useful for -ordinary work. The "inside" gouge has the bevel on the inner or concave -side. Although very useful for many purposes, it is less important for -general work and is harder to sharpen. Gouges are of various degrees of -curvature, Fig. 534 showing a "flat" and a "quick" curve. Those of -moderate depth and curvature will be more useful for your work than very -deep or very flat ones. - -[Illustration FIG. 534.] - -[Illustration FIG. 535.] - -In using the common or "outside" gouge, light, short strokes should -usually be made, for only the bevel of the tool bears on the wood, which -makes this gouge quite hard to control. - -You can often apply the principle of the sliding or sideways cut in -using the gouge, as with the chisel, to good advantage. You can roll the -gouge around with your hand from side to side so as to make it cut -slantingly. This is particularly useful to give a clean cut when gouging -across the grain (Fig. 535). In some cases, in working out a moulding, -for instance, you can hold the tool at an angle with the work and get a -better result than to push it straight forward lengthways (Fig. 536). - -[Illustration FIG. 536.] - -Be careful not to scoop out little hollows below the required depth of -the cut, and keep the direction of the grain in mind the same as with -the chisel. The little inequalities left by the gouge can be reduced -easily by the file, curved scraper, or glass and sandpaper. See -_Sharpening_. - - -=Gouge-Bit.=--See _Bits_. - - -=Grindstone.=--When you get to the point of having a grindstone, get one -which is somewhat soft and fine, for if too coarse it will produce a -rougher edge than is desirable for your tools. - -Do not allow your grindstone to become softened in spots by being left -partially immersed in a trough of water, as it will wear away -irregularly. With the best of care a stone will, however, become untrue -after continued use, not merely in its circular outline, but the face -will become hollowed and uneven. It must then be trued, either by some -one of the contrivances now made for the purpose, or by simply turning -the stone into the correct shape by holding the _end_ of a piece of soft -iron, as a piece of pipe, against the surface, without water, moving the -iron as occasion requires, until the stone becomes true. - - -=Grooving.=--Grooves of different dimensions are often required for -various purposes in wood-working. By far the best way, as a practical -matter, is to take the work to a mill and have the grooving done by -machine, which is not expensive. It can be done by hand with the planes -devised for the purpose (as the plough), but though these are valuable -tools, they are largely superseded, or becoming so, by machine-work, and -it is usually fully as well for the amateur to take such work to the -mill as to buy the tools. - -In some cases the sides of the groove can be sawed by the hand-saws and -the material removed by the chisel, but this is not easy if the groove -is long. Pieces are sometimes clamped beside the line to guide the saw -and sometimes even attached to the saw itself, or to a piece of -saw-blade. The lines for the groove can be scored with the knife or -chisel and the wood between removed by the chisel, much as in cutting a -mortise. - -In nice work, as fitting a shelf in a bookcase, it makes a better joint -not to fit the entire end of the shelf into a groove, but to cut a -tongue or wide tenon on the end of the shelf, with a shoulder at each -side and the front edge, to fit into a corresponding groove, as shown in -Fig. 284. - - -=Half-Round File.=--See _File_. - - -[Illustration FIG. 537.] - -[Illustration FIG. 538.] - -[Illustration FIG. 539.] - -[Illustration FIG. 540.] - -[Illustration FIG. 541.] - -[Illustration FIG. 542.] - -=Halving.=--This joint shown in Fig. 537 is a common, simple, and good -way of joining two sticks when they cross at right angles or obliquely. -Place the sticks in position and mark the width of each upon the surface -of the other, using a knife or chisel for scribing. With small sticks -the wood can be removed with the knife, first cutting a notch at each -side and then paring off the wood between (Fig. 538). With large pieces -the lines should be marked by the square, the depth (one-half the -thickness of either piece) by the gauge. The lines at the outside of the -space can then be sawed down to the gauge line, taking care to keep just -on the inside edge of the line. The wood between can be pared out with -the chisel down to the gauge lines. When the halving is at the ends of -the pieces or at the end of one piece (Fig. 539), the process is the -same, except that the wood can be entirely removed by the saw. Other -forms involving bevelling and dovetailing are shown in Figs. 540, 541, -and 542. This principle of the lap joint is often carried a little -further and we have the open mortise and tenon (Fig. 543), which can -successfully be applied to a mitred joint and can also be dovetailed, -and boxes are now made by machine with the corners entirely made up of a -continuous series of these joints (Fig. 544). See _Joints_. - -[Illustration FIG. 543.] - -[Illustration FIG. 544.] - - -=Hammer.=--The hammer is made in many forms, but the common kind used by -carpenters will usually answer your purpose, and is too familiar to -require description. For general use select one of medium size and -weight. Remember that the face of the hammer-head, although harder than -the nails it is meant to drive, is not intended to pound every piece of -hardened steel you may run across, nor to break up boulders when you are -after minerals. For the use of the hammer see _Nailing_. - - -=Hand-Screws.=--Hand-screws are of great use in clamping work that has -been glued and for holding pieces in any required position. Wooden -hand-screws are probably the most generally useful, but a couple (or -more) of the simple iron clamps will be of great service at times, as -they can be used more advantageously than the wooden ones in some kinds -of work. Get medium-sized hand-screws rather than small ones if you can, -as they will be generally more serviceable. - -[Illustration FIG. 545.] - -[Illustration FIG. 546.] - -[Illustration FIG. 547.] - -To open or close a hand-screw, hold it at arm's-length in front of you -with a handle in each hand, and with a twirling motion revolve it toward -or from you, as may be required, to increase or decrease the opening -between the jaws. The screws should be greased or rubbed over with -black-lead, soap, or bayberry tallow. - -To hold two pieces together with uniform pressure is of course necessary -for gluing and various other operations, but a little practice will show -you how to adjust the hand-screws so that the jaws will bear on the wood -evenly. The main point to remember is to keep the jaws parallel. The -final tightening is given entirely by the outer screw, so, in adjusting -the screws, leave the jaws open a little at the tip as in Fig. 545, that -when the final pressure is put upon the outer screw the jaws will bear -on the wood with an even pressure (Fig. 546). If the jaws were adjusted -to bear evenly before tightening the outer screw, the final result would -be as shown in Fig. 547. - -[Illustration FIG. 548.] - -In clamping together finished work or pieces which could be injured by -the pressure, always put pieces of waste wood between the work and the -hand-screws. In case of delicate work, like carving or mouldings, a -piece of _soft pine_ placed between the surface and the hand-screws or -clamps will enable considerable pressure to be applied without injury to -the work. - -A simple home-made clamp, suitable for such work as temporarily holding -in place parts of the frame of a boat, for instance, is shown in Fig. -548. See _Clamps_ and also Figs. 66 and 647. - - -=Hatchet.=--The hatchet is too familiar to need description. A common, -medium-sized hatchet, that can easily be swung with one hand, is all -that the beginner will ordinarily require, although there is quite a -variety of hatchets and axes for various purposes. - -The main thing in the use of the hatchet, besides keeping your fingers -out of the way, is to look sharply after the direction of the grain of -the wood, as it is not easy to stop a blow in the wrong place, for the -hatchet is not so easily controlled as some other tools. Experience is -the best teacher in the use of a hatchet. For removing superfluous wood -with the hatchet, see _Paring_. - - -=Hinges.=--There are many varieties of hinges for various purposes. The -common kind, like that shown in Fig. 135, had best, for neatness' sake, -on moderately heavy work, be narrower than the thickness of the stock, -so as not to extend across the edge. The hinge should be sunk in the -wood of one or both of the parts to be hinged--in the case of many -boxes, for instance, one half of the hinge when shut is usually sunk in -each part, but in some kinds of work the whole thickness may be sunk in -one part. The hinge can be held in position on the edge (in the case of -the box) so that the centre of the pin on which it turns is in line with -the back of the box, or sometimes a little outside. Marks can be made -with the knife or chisel at the ends of the hinge, and the recess in -which it is to fit marked with the square and gauge. This wood should be -removed with the chisel, first making cross cuts to break up the grain, -as in Fig. 614. Fit the other hinge or hinges in the same way. Next lay -the lid exactly in position on top of the hinges and mark by them and -cut the recesses in the top in the same way. Hold the hinges in place -with two or three screws each and see whether the cover opens and shuts -as it should. Make any needed alterations, and finally screw the hinges -firmly in place. Another way is to place the lid exactly in position -(shut) and mark directly from the hinges, on both box and cover at the -same time, the points from which to lay out the recesses. It will be -well to look at a properly fitted hinge for a similar purpose before -beginning your work, since one rule cannot be laid down for all cases. - -For strap-hinges, T-hinges, and the like, see page 247. - - -=Holes and Cracks, To Fill.=--The simplest way to stop holes, cracks, -checks, and the like, in painted work, is with putty, always applying it -_after_ the first coat of paint and never before (see _Painting_), but -this method should not be used for other than painted work, and the -nicer the work, the less desirable the use of putty becomes. - -For nice work, as furniture, which has not been finished, small holes or -cracks are often stopped by putting a daub of hot glue on the smooth end -of a piece of wood of the same kind as the article, and with a sharp -chisel, held nearly at right angles with the surface, scraping off fine -wood-dust, which, mixing with the glue, forms a paste with which the -crack can be more than filled. When hard, the surplus can be pared and -scraped off. - -Plaster of Paris (calcined plaster), mixed with very thin hot glue, is -excellent for stopping cracks and holes of considerable size. It can be -mixed with water only, but this is not as good. - -[Illustration FIG. 549.] - -Fitting in a plug of wood is a good way when the hole is of such shape -that you can do so, making the grain of the plug run the same way as -that of the piece to be plugged. Taper the plug slightly, so that when -driven in it will fit tightly and not be flush with the surface, but -project above it (Fig. 549). Dip in hot glue, and drive well in. When -dry smooth off. If the hole is irregular, trim to some shape to which -you can fit a plug. In nice work take pains to have the plug a good -match for the rest of the wood. - -Slight cracks at the end of a piece can often be plugged and at the same -time secured against further splitting by sawing directly down the -crack, so as to remove it and substitute a straight saw-kerf. In this -kerf a slip of wood can be fitted and glued. - -Wax, and also melted shellac, can be used to stop holes and cracks in -finished work. For this, see under _Finishing_. - - -=Jack-Plane.=--See _Plane_. - - -=Jointer.=--See _Plane_. - - -[Illustration FIG. 550.] - -=Jointing.=--This term is applied to the act of straightening and making -true the edges of two boards or planks which are to be joined to make a -tight joint, with glue or otherwise. It is, also, popularly applied to -straightening the edge of one piece only, as to "joint" the edge of a -board. This you will often have to do, and for jointing two edges which -are to be glued particular care will be required. Assuming that the -edges have been got out nearly straight, the only plane you will require -is the fore-plane,--or better, the jointer, or even the "long" jointer -if the piece is long and you are fortunate enough to have these -tools,--and it should be set fine, although if the edge is very crooked -and you have to work off much superfluous stock, the iron can be set to -make a coarse shaving at first. - -In shooting or jointing edges it is customary to hold the finger under -the sole of the plane as a guide (Fig. 550). This helps in regard to the -common fault of tipping the plane sideways so as to plane off more on -one side than on the other (Fig. 551). This trouble may be aggravated by -a wrong position of the left hand on the fore part of the plane in case -you use a wooden plane (see Fig. 624 for correct position). Keep testing -across the edge with the square (Fig. 640). The shooting-board can be -used to advantage for short pieces (see _Shooting-board_), and -attachable guides can also be obtained. - -[Illustration FIG. 551.] - -The jointing should be done with long, deliberate, steady strokes. Any -hasty, hit-or-miss slashing away with the plane will be sure to result -in a bad joint, and you can easily get the edge into such shape by three -or four careless strokes that it will take you a good while to get it -straight. Try also to avoid planing the edge rounding, from end to end -(see _Plane_, Figs. 635-637). Sight along the edge. Also test with -straight-edge, looking toward the light. If any shines through, the edge -is not yet accurate and the process must be resumed. - -If you are jointing two edges, as for a "glue-joint," first examine the -pieces to see which edges will best go together, according to the -purpose for which they are intended. Look at the end grain so as to -arrange it in different ways if you are building up a piece of selected -parts (Fig. 559). If merely joining two or more boards to make a wider -one, notice the way the grain runs lengthways, and the way it crops up -to the surface, for you will have, for everything but the roughest work, -to plane the surface over after the joint is glued, and if the grain -runs in two or three different ways it will be harder to make the -surface smooth. There are cases, however, in handsomely figured wood, as -quartered oak or mahogany, where you will arrange the grain in the way -that will look the best, but in such cases you expect to go through -extra labour for the sake of having the article as handsome as possible. -With soft, straight-grained white pine or whitewood, these matters are -of less importance. When you have the pieces laid together in the best -way, mark on the surface right across the joints (Fig. 552) so that you -will know how to put the pieces together, for you will forget how they -were arranged after you have moved them around a few times. - -[Illustration FIG. 552.] - -[Illustration WRONG. RIGHT. FIG. 553.] - -Joint each edge separately. For nice work it is well to joint the edges -of the successive pieces alternately from opposite sides,--that is, if -in planing the edge of the first piece the marked (or face) side of the -board is _towards_ you, plane the edge of the next piece with the face -side of the board against the bench, or _away_ from you. This helps to -counteract the result of any tendency to tip the plane to one side or -any inaccuracy in setting the plane-iron. See _Shooting-board_. - -Then, putting one piece in the vice with the jointed edge upwards, lay -the other edge upon it in the proper position and see if the two edges -touch throughout. If not, one or both must be planed with thin, careful -strokes until they do fit, for the joint will not be good unless the -edges coincide. Remember, however, that it takes more than merely -touching to make a good joint. The _surfaces_ of the boards must be in -line (in the same plane). Of course this really depends upon the edges -being square. Test by holding a straight-edge, the square, the edge of -the plane, or anything straight, against the surface of the boards (Fig. -553).[47] - -Do not be misled by the directions you may see in "amateur" books and -magazine articles which tell you, for cases like this,--when you wish to -glue up the lid of a desk, for instance,--to plane and sandpaper your -boards carefully on the sides and then fit the edges together, after -which you "have only to glue the edges and the job is done." That is not -the right way to make a glued joint, as you will find out for yourself -after you have planed a few dozen boards the second time. The skilled -workman seldom attempts to do this except in repairing or some case -where the surface of the pieces must be preserved. The practical -work-man's way (which is the way for you), is to glue first and plane -afterwards. The best way, practically, is to glue up the rough boards -before they have been planed at all, and then have the whole planed down -as one piece by machine to the required thickness. Of course you should -get the surfaces as nearly in line as you can, to avoid needless planing -afterwards, but give your special attention to making the joint hold -(see note under _Clamps_). - -Sometimes the edges of boards to be glued are purposely planed, -hollowing lengthways, so that the two pieces touch at the ends, but do -not quite come together in the middle, the idea being that a clamp at -the middle will force the joint together for its whole length and will -give a stronger result than to attempt to make both edges exactly -straight. If there is to be any open place in the joint before gluing, -it is better to have it at the middle than at the ends, but there is a -difference of opinion as to whether there is any advantage in springing -boards to fit in this way. - -Before gluing hardwood edges, it is well to tooth them over with the -toothed-plane, if you have one. (See _Plane_.) - -See _Plane_, _Gluing_, _Joints_, _Cleating_, _Dowelling_, etc. - -=Joints and Splices.=--There are many kinds of splices and joints used -in the different branches of wood-work, a few of which are here given. - -[Illustration FIG. 554.] - -The common square butt-joint (Fig. 554) is the simplest way to join two -pieces at right angles, as in making a box or frame, and is used for all -common work. Glue is of but little use with this joint. Rely wholly on -nails or screws. - -[Illustration FIG. 555.] - -To make a better joint, cut a rabbet at the end of one piece and you -have a joint (Fig. 555) which shows less end wood, and can be helped a -good deal by gluing, on account of the shoulder. - -[Illustration FIG. 556.] - -Another way is shown in Fig. 556. Some strength and stiffness is gained -by the tongue and groove, but a groove near the end introduces an -element of weakness. - -[Illustration FIG. 557.] - -A much stronger way and a tighter joint (Fig. 557) is often used for -cisterns, water-tanks, and horse troughs, but the projecting ends are -objectionable for most purposes. See _Halving_, _Mitring_, -_Dovetailing_, and also _Box-making_, page 219. - -In nailing any such joints as those just shown, remember to always bore -holes for the nails wherever there is danger of splitting. See _Awl_, -_Bits_, _Boring_, _Nailing_. - -There are many ways, besides those just mentioned, for joining sticks -and timbers at right angles, which is something you will often have to -do, whether for a kite or some small framework or for the timbers of a -building. - -To join two or more boards or planks to make a wider surface, several -methods can be used. Cleating, though strong and suitable for all such -work as drawing-boards, rough doors, and the like, is often undesirable, -both on account of the looks and because the cleats may be in the way -(see _Cleating_). The simplest way, without cleats, is to glue the -jointed edges (see _Jointing_ and _Gluing_). Dowels can be used with -this joint (see _Dowelling_), or grooves can be cut and a strip or -spline or tongue inserted (Fig. 558). This last way can be done at the -mill quicker and better than by hand. The edges can also be halved, or a -rabbet cut in each edge from opposite sides. The boards can also be -"matched" (see page 46), in which case it is not usual to glue them. All -of these joints can best be made by machine. - -[Illustration FIG. 558.] - -[Illustration FIG. 559.] - -To avoid the warping and change of shape to which wide pieces are -subject, particularly when they are not middle boards (see Chapter III), -they are often built up of selected narrower pieces (Fig. 559). This is -done for many things,--the frames of machines, the tops of -sewing-tables, drawing-boards, chopping-blocks, etc. Masts, bows, -fishing-rods, and the like are sometimes built up of selected pieces, -the idea being that a better result can be obtained by combining -selected smaller pieces, that flaws and defects (which are apt to occur -in larger pieces) can be avoided, and that sometimes the grain can be -arranged to better advantage. This is doubtless true, but there is -always the objection that glued joints may give way. If you can get a -piece which is practically perfect, it is probably in most cases better -than a glued-up combination, for it is not easy to improve on Nature -when you can get her best specimens; but unless you can get -_first-class_ stock of the dimensions required, it is better to "build -up" with smaller pieces of selected stock. - -Where the ends of two pieces come together and you wish to make a close -joint, you will, of course, saw the pieces off as squarely as possible, -using the square or perhaps the mitre-box. If you mark and saw them with -exactness, and if everything about their arrangement is straight and -square and true, the ends will come together exactly and make a close -joint, but as a practical matter this frequently will not happen, -however careful you may be. For nice work, the workmanlike way in such -cases is to plane or pare the ends until they fit, but for rougher work -the expedient of sawing the ends to fit can be resorted to. To do this, -put the ends together as they are to go (Fig. 560), keep them from -moving, and saw straight down through the joint. As the saw will leave a -kerf of uniform thickness, the pieces can now be pushed together and the -ends will fit, unless the joint was very much open, in which case you -have only to saw again, and if necessary repeat the operation until the -ends fit. This is a very useful expedient in case of need, but should -not be relied on as a regular way to make joints, lest it engender a -careless and inaccurate method of work. This applies also to joints -which meet at any angle. - -[Illustration FIG. 560.] - -[Illustration FIG. 561.] - -In some cases, where only one side of each piece shows, as in laying -floor-boards, it is usual to undercut the ends slightly--that is, to -make the joint a little open at the bottom, which gives a tight and neat -joint on the side which shows (Fig. 561, which is exaggerated). - -Another way to make an end joint is by bevelled scarfing or splaying -(Fig. 562). You will see the ends of the clapboards on old houses joined -in this way, and it doubtless makes a better joint in many cases than -the common square or butt-joint, but it is more work. Strips of moulding -are often cut in this way. - -[Illustration FIG. 562.] - -[Illustration FIG. 563.] - -[Illustration FIG. 564.] - -There are many ways of splicing two or more pieces so as to get greater -length, many of them, such as are used in bridge-building and -roof-framing, being quite complicated. You will rarely, however, in -such work as you will do at first, have occasion to do more than nail -strips (fish-plates) on the sides of the pieces or make a halved splice -or scarfed joint (Fig. 563). The latter is often made longer than that -shown and fastened in various ways. A joint for a brace is shown in Fig. -564. - -See _Cleats_, _Doors_, _Dovetailing_, _Dowelling_, _Gluing_, _Halving_, -_Mitring_, _Mortising_, _Nailing_, etc. - - -=Keyhole Saw.=--See _Saw_. - - -=Knife.=--An excellent knife for shop work is a sloyd knife. A good -shoe-knife will do very well. This is better for shop work than a -jack-knife. It will not close on your fingers for one thing. For general -purposes, however, a pocket-knife is the best thing, as you cannot carry -a sloyd knife around with you. In buying it get a good plain knife with -not more than two or three blades and of the best steel you can afford. -Do not waste money in trying to get your whole kit of tools into the -compass of one jack-knife handle. In selecting a knife, open the blades -and sight along the back to see that each blade is accurately in line -with the handle, as they are sometimes fastened at a slight angle, which -weakens the knife. - -An immense variety of work can be done with a common pocket- or -jack-knife, which is the best _emergency_ tool for either the beginner -or the skilled workman. One great thing about whittling is that you -cannot rely on squares, rules, or compasses to get your work right, but -must be independent, think quickly, look sharply, and rely on your own -faculties. A knife is so easy to sharpen that there is not much excuse -for using a dull one. See _Sharpening_. - -In cutting, always keep your left hand _behind_ the blade, and as a -general rule cut _from_ you, for the tool may slip and cut you instead -of the wood. There are cases where you have to cut towards you, but -there is never any need of getting your left hand in front of the -cutting-edge. - - -=Level.=--A spirit-level is important for some work, but not often -necessary for the beginner, as a substitute can easily be made. A -horizontal or level line being at right angles with a vertical line, a -home-made level can be made by using the principle of the plumb-line, as -shown on page 96. When the plumb-line hangs freely on the line _ab_, -which is at right angles to _cd_, the latter line (_cd_) must of course -be level. The frame should be several feet long for levelling large -work, as it can be adjusted more accurately than if small. - - -=Linseed Oil.=--See _Finishing_ and _Painting_. - - -=Locks.=--Use locks of good quality or none at all. Never put very cheap -locks on good work. There are many varieties of locks, some to be -screwed on the outside of the wood, others to be sunk in recesses cut in -the side of the wood, others still to be let into mortises--chest-locks, -door-locks, cupboard-locks, drawer-locks, etc. - -To fit a chest- or box-lock (not a mortise-lock), place the lock in the -right position, mark around the part required to be sunk in the wood, -which can be cut away with gouge and chisel, the keyhole having been -bored quite through the wood and trimmed to a neat outline which will -conform to the shape of the key. When the lock has been screwed in its -recess, put the "hasp," or part which is to be on the lid, into its -place in the lock, just where it will be when the chest is locked. Then -close the lid, and by slightly pressing you can make a mark on it to -show where to put the hasp. Sometimes you can mark the place with a -pencil, or by putting transfer-paper between the hasp and the wood, or -by rubbing blackened grease on the plate of the hasp. The plate of the -hasp should be sunk in the lid to be flush with the surface, and may -then be screwed on, bearing in mind the thickness of the lid when -selecting the screws. A mortise-lock is fitted in a similar way, but let -into a mortise (see _Mortising_). - -To fit a common drawer-lock, determine the place for the keyhole and -place the lock in position on the inside as before. With a pencil mark -the outline of the box-part of the lock, which bears against the wood. -Cut away the wood within this line, making a recess slightly deeper than -the thickness of the box-part of the lock. The hole must be bored for -the key, as before. Put the lock into place and mark the outline of the -outer plate, not merely on the inside of the drawer front but also on -the top edge. Cut away the wood with the chisel to let the plate sink -flush with the wood. When the keyhole is shaped, try the lock and if it -works, screw it on. Close the drawer and turn the key hard to raise the -bolts (the tops of which have been previously rubbed with blackened -grease, such as can be scraped from an oil-stone, or using transfer -paper), which, pressing against the wood, will mark the places for the -mortises into which they are to slide. Cut these mortises and the drawer -can be locked. - -The variety of locks and their arrangement in regard to fitting is so -great that it will be best for you to examine a well-fitted lock for the -same purpose that the lock you have to fit is intended, for one rule -cannot be given for all cases. - - -=Mallet.=--The mallet, which is merely a hammer with a wooden head, is -made in various forms and sizes, from the big beetle of the wood-chopper -to the ladies' carving mallet. It is used to strike the wooden -tool-handles. - -For heavy work a mallet with the handle put through the head from the -outside, like the handle of a pickaxe, is good because the head cannot -come off. A rounded head with the handle on the end (like a -potato-masher) saves having to notice how you hold it, as it is equally -effective in any position. A mallet of this type can be turned all in -one piece. Hickory or lignum-vitae or any dense, hard wood is good for a -mallet. - -You do not gain force by using the mallet instead of the hammer, but the -softer and more yielding blow of the mallet saves the tool-handle. - - -=Marking.=--For all rough work the ordinary carpenter's pencil, -sharpened flatways, like a screw-driver, is the most convenient and -durable instrument. For nicer work, where you need more accurate lines, -the common round pencil (medium hard or rather soft) is all you need, -but for nice, close work (such as marking accurate joints), a knife, the -corner of a chisel, a marking-awl, or a scriber of some sort is -necessary. There is no need to buy any tool for this, although they are -to be had--nothing is better than a common pocket-knife or a chisel. -Keep your pencils sharp by rubbing them on a piece of fine sandpaper, or -an old file. - -[Illustration Fig. 565.] - -In scribing with the chisel, the edge is drawn along with one corner -slightly raised and the flat side next the straight-edge, holding the -tool either like a pencil or for deeper scoring as in Fig. 565. - -In all marking and scribing, whether with pencil, awl, knife, chisel, or -other tool, be sure that the marking edge is kept close up to the rule, -straight-edge, or square, as it will often tend to follow the grain of -the wood and run off the line, and will sometimes force the -straight-edge or square out of position if the latter is not held -firmly. - -Do not try to stop lines which meet at a given point, but let them cross -one another when they will not show in the finished work, as it is -quicker to do so and the crossing of two lines marks a point more -accurately than a dot. For work to be finished, however, scoring the -surface with lines should be avoided wherever they will show, as they -will become conspicuous after the work is finished. - -[Illustration THIN RULE--FINE WORK. FIG. 566.] - -[Illustration THICK RULE--ROUGH WORK. FIG. 567.] - -In marking lines with a _straight-edge_ or ruler you must be careful -that it does not slip. If it is long you can put weights on it. To mark -a line _accurately_ through given points, the ruler should not quite -touch the points, but be pushed almost up to them and equally distant -from each (Fig. 566). This will give you a clear view of both points so -that you can be sure that the pencil or whatever you mark with will go -as nearly as possible through the centre of each. Bearing the pencil -against the edge of the ruler, you can slant it a trifle till the -pencil-point will just coincide with the given point on the wood, and, -keeping the same inclination, move the pencil along the ruler, and it -should also go through the second given point. This applies to a regular -ruler with a comparatively thin edge, and to fine work only. In marking -by a thick edge, or where extreme nicety is not required, you will of -course put the straight-edge right up to the points and run the -pencil-point along in the angle (Fig. 567). - -Besides marking lines, the straight-edge (in some form), is used to -determine whether a surface is true. See _Straight-edge_. - -For rough, off-hand marking, particularly on undressed stock, chalk is -often best. Sticks, shaped like school-crayons, of graphite or some -black composition, are good for rough marking. - -The _chalk-line_ is used for distances too great to be covered -conveniently by a straight-edge and in places where the latter could not -so well be used. The chalk-line is a chalked cord drawn taut between the -two points to be connected. It is better to use a small cord than a -large one, and blue chalk is often preferred to white. Fasten one end of -the cord with a loop around an awl or nail at one end of the desired -line, and from this point chalk the cord, holding it between the thumb -and the chalk so that the cord will bear on the flat side of the chalk -in such a way as to wear it away evenly without cutting it in two. Then -draw the chalked cord tight to the other end of the desired line and, -holding the end down with one hand, lift the cord from as near the -middle as practicable with the thumb and forefinger of the other hand -and let it snap back on to the surface. The cord should be raised -squarely from the work and not pulled slantingly to one side or the line -will not be straight. - - -=Marking-Awl.=--See _Awl_. - - -=Marking-Gauge.=--See _Gauge_. - - -=Matching-Plane.=--See _Plane_. - - -=Measurements and Measuring.=--For various suggestions, see _Rule_, and -also pages 47, 48, 50, 167 (footnote), 244, and 261. - - -=Mirror-Plates.=--A good way to fasten such articles as mirrors, -cabinets, etc., to the wall is by mirror-plates, which you can buy or -make yourself of brass. These should be sunk in the wood so as to be -flush with the back side of the shelves. After being fitted, they should -be taken off during the process of finishing the work. - - -=Mitre.=--See _Mitring_. - - -=Mitre-Board.=--See _Mitring_ and also page 92. - - -=Mitre-Box.=--If you can afford it, an iron mitre-box which will cut at -various angles will be very useful. You can make one yourself of wood. -You can get a carpenter to make you one for a small sum, but the iron -ones are better. See page 90. - - -=Mitre Shooting-Board.=--See page 94. - - -=Mitring.=--A common joint is the mitre (Fig. 568). Its only advantage -is that it shows nothing but a line at the angle and the "end wood" is -entirely concealed. It is a weak joint at best, even when made by a -skilled workman, and is particularly hard for an amateur to make well. -The slightest variation in one of the corners of a frame or box throws -the whole structure out of shape and in attempting to correct the error -the other joints are apt to be opened, and if the whole is finally got -together in a fashion it is often after bother enough to have -accomplished much good work in some other way. - -[Illustration FIG. 568.] - -[Illustration FIG. 569.] - -[Illustration FIG. 570.] - -The mitre is particularly unscientific for wide pieces used flatways -(Fig. 569), as the inevitable expansion and contraction of the pieces is -very apt to cause an open joint. If the wood is not quite dry, so that -it shrinks, the joint may open permanently toward the inside corner, for -when the wood shrinks in width the pieces will become narrower and so -separate at the joint, leaving a crack, tapering from the inner to the -outer corner. Even if the wood is thoroughly seasoned it will expand and -contract more or less. When it expands, the joint will tend to open at -the outer corner (Fig. 570). When it contracts it will tend to open, as -just shown (Fig. 571), at the inner corner. - -[Illustration FIG. 571.] - -[Illustration FIG. 572.] - -[Illustration FIG. 573.] - -Of course there are some cases, as in making a picture frame of prepared -"mouldings," when mitring is the only way in which the frame can be put -together, and there are some other cases in which it is the most proper -and suitable joint, but as a general rule, for amateur work, -particularly in framing where strength is a consideration, avoid the -mitre. Other and better forms for anything like a box are shown in Figs. -554, 555, 556, 557. - -The mitre is sometimes strengthened for box work and the like by fitting -a spline or tongue with the grain running across and not lengthways of -the joint (Fig. 572.) This, properly glued under pressure, makes a good -joint and one much superior to the plain mitre. But, though easy to do -with machinery, it is a slow and careful job to make such a joint by -hand, and if a case arises where you wish it done you had best take the -work to a factory, where a circular saw is all that is needed. - -The principle of halving shown in Figs. 539 and 543, can also be applied -to a mitred joint. - -Saw-kerfs are often made (Figs. 573 and 574) into which small strips are -tightly fitted and glued. This is a good way and easily done, once -having got the mitre properly put together. A combination of the mitre -with the joint shown in Fig. 555 is shown in Fig. 575. See also -_Dovetailing_ and _Joints_. - -[Illustration FIG. 574.] - -[Illustration FIG. 575.] - -[Illustration FIG. 576.] - -To lay off a mitre, or the lines by which to cut the intersection of any -two pieces at any angle, a simple way is that shown in Fig. 576. The -pieces are laid one above the other at the desired angle. Then the -points of intersection are marked on each edge. Lines connecting these -points will give the desired angles for sawing. The square can be used -to help in determining the points accurately and to project them to the -upper side of the top piece. - - -=Mortise and Tenon.=--See _Mortising_. - - -=Mortise-Chisel.=--See _Chisel_. - - -=Mortise-Gauge.=--See _Gauge_. - - -=Mortising (Mortise and Tenon).=--If you can get out two pieces and fit -them together accurately with a mortise-and-tenon joint, and do the work -well, you will be competent to handle a great many of the difficulties -of ordinary wood-work. - -You will often have occasion to use this joint. The mortise is the hole -in one of the two pieces to be joined. The tenon is the pin or -projection in the other piece, shaped to fit the mortise. - -[Illustration FIG. 577.] - -[Illustration FIG. 578.] - -[Illustration FIG. 579.] - -To lay out a mortise and tenon (Fig. 577), select and mark the working -faces for each piece. First take the piece in which the mortise is to be -cut (Fig. 578). Square two lines, _ab_ and _cd_, across the face and the -same distance apart as the width of the piece on which the tenon is to -be cut. Carry these lines across the side X (_ae_ and _cf_) and also -across the side opposite to X (that is, the side where the tenon will -come through). - -Next take the tenon-piece (Fig. 579) and measure from the end a distance -a little greater than the width of the face of the mortise-piece, and at -this point square a line, _gh_, across the face of the tenon-piece. -Continue this line, _gi_, around the piece, with the square. - -Now take the gauge and, setting it at the distance from the face settled -upon for the mortise, scribe the line _jk_ on the side X and also on the -side opposite X. Also from the face of the tenon-piece, without changing -the gauge, mark the line _lm_ on the side X, on the opposite side, and -on the end. Set the gauge to measure from the face to the other side of -the mortise,--that is, add the width of the mortise to the figure at -which the gauge was set,--and scribe another set of lines, _op_ and -_rs_, in the same manner as before, remembering to gauge all the time -from the same face. - -In the coarser kinds of work, where marks on the surface do no harm, the -gauge marks can be run across the other lines, as being easier and more -distinct, but in fine work, especially that which is to be finished, -care should be taken not to make scratches that will be seen when the -work is finished. The parts to be cut away are indicated by cross marks -(Fig. 580) and it will be seen at once that the tenon and mortise are -laid out correctly. - -[Illustration FIG. 580.] - -To cut, take first the mortise-piece and fasten it securely by vise or -clamp in a convenient position. The simplest way to remove the wood is -to bore a series of holes with a bit of a diameter as nearly the width -of the mortise as you have (Fig. 580), but a trifle smaller. This -removes a large part of the wood with but slight danger of splitting. -The rest can easily be trimmed away to the lines with the chisel, taking -care not to jam the chisel down lengthways of the mortise when the -latter is blocked with chips or firm wood, or the wood may split off at -the side of the mortise. - -To cut out the wood with the chisel only (or to trim the ends of the -mortise after using the bit), bear in mind the way the chisel acts when -you drive it into the wood. If both sides of the chisel were bevelled -(as is the case with carving chisels), it would tend to go straight down -into the wood, and if held vertically would make a vertical cut (Fig. -581), but the chisels you use for mortising are flat on one side and -bevelled on the other. Being one-sided in this way, the edge of the tool -is forced by the inclined bevel to slide off, so to speak, more or less, -in the direction of the side which is flat. You can prove this easily by -holding a chisel across the grain of a board and driving it in. If you -hold the tool lightly, you will see that as you drive it in it will -incline to cut under, always on the side which is flat (Fig. 581). - -[Illustration FIG. 581.] - -[Illustration FIG. 582.] - -This shows how to go to work to cut a mortise so as to keep the sides -square and true. If you put the chisel at the end, flat side outward, -the cut will tend to run under and make the hole too large below the -surface. If you turn the tool the other way, it tends to slip in towards -the middle of the mortise. So, to cut out the wood, take a chisel just a -trifle less in width than the mortise, and, beginning near the middle of -the mortise, hold the chisel as in Fig. 582 and make successive cuts, -working toward the end, first in one direction and then in the other, -giving the chisel handle a slight pull toward the centre of the mortise -each time you move it, to loosen the chips (Fig. 583). You can thus work -safely toward the ends, which will be left slanting (Fig. 584). - -[Illustration FIG. 583.] - -[Illustration FIG. 584.] - -[Illustration FIG. 585.] - -After cutting about half through the piece in this way, turn it over and -repeat the process from the other side, the result being a hole like -that shown in Fig. 585. Now turn the chisel around with the flat side -toward either end of the hole, and you can pare down the ends to the -line without danger of undercutting (Fig. 585). - -Care must be taken not to jam the chisel down lengthways of the grain -until the hole is practically cleared of wood, or the side of the -mortise may be split off. Use the chisel lengthways of the grain only at -the end of the process, to pare the sides of the mortise evenly, with -light strokes, down to the line. - -In all the use of the chisel, take pains to hold it vertically as -regards the _sides_ of the mortise--that is, do not tip it over -sideways, or the mortise will be slanting or too wide at the bottom. - -The common firmer- or paring-chisel can be used for all light mortising, -but for heavy work the regular mortising-chisel should be used (see -_Chisel_). - -To cut the tenon, simply saw carefully on the line _gh_ and its opposite -(Fig. 579) and then on the lines _lm_ and _rs_. Be careful not to cut -beyond the line, so as to make the tenon too small. It is easy to trim -it a little with the chisel if it is too large. Cut a little bevel -around the end of the tenon, so that it will drive through smoothly -without catching and tearing the sides or ends of the mortise. When it -goes through properly and the tenon and shoulder fit snugly, the -projecting end of the tenon can be sawed off after the whole job is -done. - -The tenon should be just large enough to drive through with a slight -pressure and fit snugly without any wobbling around. It should not be so -tight as to require much force to drive it home, or there will be danger -of splitting out the sides of the mortise. - -[Illustration FIG. 586.] - -[Illustration FIG. 587.] - -[Illustration FIG. 588.] - -There is no absolute rule as to how wide to make the mortise and tenon -in proportion to the width of the pieces. It depends on the kind of -work, the kinds of wood, the kind of strain to be put on the joint, and -various circumstances too complex to be gone into here. If the tenon is -very thin it will be weaker than the sides of the mortise (Fig. 586). If -very thick, the sides of the mortise will be too thin and will be weaker -than the tenon (Fig. 587). One third of the width is as thin as a tenon -is often made. It will then sometimes be weaker than the sides of the -mortise, as you can see from Fig. 588. But it all depends on what the -joint is for. If it is to stand violent wrenching, the tenon in this -case might break before the mortise-cheeks, and had best be made a -little thicker, with the sides of the mortise a little thinner; but, on -the other hand, if the joint is merely to hold the tenon-piece in -position, as in case of a post resting on a sill, one third is plenty -wide enough for the tenon, as it will be best not to weaken the sill by -cutting any larger mortise than is necessary. Sometimes the tenon-piece -is simply let in to the other piece for its full width. This is called -housing (Fig. 589). Two thirds of the width of the piece is thicker than -you will be likely to have occasion to make a tenon, as this leaves the -cheeks of the mortise very thin. It is wholly a matter of judgment -(between, say, one third and two thirds of the width), according to the -conditions of each job. - -[Illustration FIG. 589.] - - -The length to which a mortise can safely be cut is also a matter of -judgment according to circumstances. If the tenon is thin, the mortise -can be longer than if the tenon is thick, as the cheeks will be thicker -and stronger, but, as a rule, avoid trying to make very long mortises, -unless the tenon is very thin and the wood very strong, as there will -not be strength enough left in the cheeks of the mortise (Fig. 590). Six -times as long as it is wide is about as long as it is well to make a -mortise under ordinary circumstances, though, as just said, it all -depends on the conditions of the particular piece of work. - -[Illustration FIG. 590.] - -[Illustration FIG. 591.] - -When a wide piece is to be mortised into another piece, two or more -tenons are sometimes cut, thus avoiding too long a mortise, but this -will not do for very wide pieces, unless some of the tenons are fitted -loosely, for the expansion and contraction of the wide piece may cause -it to buckle or split if all the mortises fit snugly (Fig. 591). - -In such cases as a door-frame or when the end of a board is to be fitted -into the side of a post, a tongue and groove is often used in addition -to the tenon, and this (known as "relishing") is a good way to do (Fig. -592). - -[Illustration FIG. 592.] - -[Illustration FIG. 593.] - -The mortise and tenon given above is a very simple form. Sometimes the -tenon is short and does not go through (Fig. 593). This is a common -form, and is used a great deal in the best work. It is sometimes called -blind mortising, the tenon being known as a "stub" tenon. - -Mortise and tenon joints are sometimes merely fitted together, but can -also be glued (see _Gluing_), pinned, wedged, or dovetailed and fastened -with a key. - -To pin a mortise and tenon, simply mark a point with square and gauge -upon each side of the piece containing the mortise (Fig. 593), fit the -tenon in place, and bore in from each side (or in rough work bore right -through from one side until the spur appears on the opposite surface) -(see _Boring_). Then drive through a snugly fitting pin and trim off the -projecting ends. The pin should be slightly pointed before driving, on -the same principle that the end of the tenon is bevelled. It is not -necessary to round the pin. An eight-sided one is just as good. - -Do not use too large pins. In ship-building, bridge-building, and -old-fashioned house-framing pins and treenails from 1" to 1-3/4" or more -in diameter, are used. Dowels of various sizes will usually answer for -such framing as you may have to do (though a rift-pin is stronger). For -such work as pinning a joint in a chair, you will not need anything -larger than a 1/4" hardwood pin. - -You must use judgment as to how near the edge to place the pin. If you -put it too far from the edge, its hold on the tenon will be weak and the -end of the tenon may break out (shear). If you put it too near the edge, -the sides of the mortise may tear or split out. - -[Illustration FIG. 594.] - -[Illustration FIG. 595.] - -Sometimes, particularly in timber work, to insure a snug fit at the -joint, "draw-boring" is resorted to (Fig. 594). The hole for the pin is -not bored through the tenon as just shown, but is bored a trifle nearer -the shoulder of the tenon than the other holes (in the mortise-piece). -The result is that when the pin is driven through it draws the -tenon-piece down to a snug fit at the shoulder. But this has to be done -with judgment. If the hole in the tenon is too much out of line, driving -the pin through tends to split (strictly speaking to _shear_) the end of -the tenon, and too much strain is put on the pin. - -In the mortising just shown, there are only two shoulders where the -tenon begins--that is, the tenon is made by only four cuts. This is good -for all common or rough work. In nice work a shoulder is also cut at -each edge of the tenon (Fig. 595). This makes a neater-looking joint, as -these shoulders cover the ends of the mortise completely. When the joint -comes at the end of the mortise-piece, the tenon can extend to the edge -on the outside and the mortise be cut clear out to the end, forming an -open mortise-and-tenon joint (Fig. 543), or a wide shoulder can be left -on the outside of the tenon--the tenon itself being made narrower (Fig. -596). This course is adopted in doors and frames of various kinds (see -Fig. 334). - -[Illustration FIG. 596.] - -[Illustration FIG. 597.] - -[Illustration FIG. 598.] - -[Illustration FIG. 599.] - -[Illustration FIG. 600.] - -A good way to fasten tenons is to wedge them. This can be done whether -the tenon goes through the mortise-piece or only part way, as in a blind -joint. The wedges can be driven between the tenon and the ends of the -mortise (Fig. 597), or, as is often better, driven into cuts made in the -tenon itself, thus spreading the tenon toward the end, dovetail fashion, -making it extremely difficult, or impossible, to pull it out of the -mortise. Before wedging, the mortise should be cut under or enlarged -toward the side on which the tenon comes through (Fig. 598). The wedges -can then be dipped in glue and driven as in Fig. 599. To spread the -tenons themselves, one or two or even three saw-cuts should be made in -the tenon, lengthways and farther than the wedges will extend (Fig. -600). The tenon and mortise having been properly glued, the tenon is -fitted in place, and the wedges, previously prepared of some strong wood -and tapering quite gradually, are dipped in the glue and driven down -into the saw-cuts, thus spreading the end of the tenon into a dovetail -until it fills the mortise (Fig. 601). It is often best to drive the -outer wedges nearer the edge of the tenon than is shown in Fig. 600, -lest the tenon-piece be split. - -[Illustration FIG. 601.] - -[Illustration FIG. 602.] - -The process is much the same when the tenon does not go through the -mortise-piece (Fig. 602). The mortise is undercut as before, and -saw-cuts are made in the end of the tenon. The wedges are carefully -planned and cut so that, when the tenon is finally in place, they will -be of the right size to spread it so as to fit the mortise. The wedges -must not be too long, so as to interfere with the tenon being driven -home or to break off. When you are sure the whole will go into place and -fit snugly, glue everything, start the wedges in the cracks, and drive -the tenon quickly to place. This will of course drive in the wedges, -which will spread the tenon at the end and fix it firmly. In fact, if -well done, you cannot get it out again. - -There are other forms of mortise and tenon, but they will be seldom -required by the amateur. See _Joints_. - - -=Nailing.=--To drive nails, hold the hammer near the end of the handle. -Do not, as is often done by boys and amateurs, grasp it close to the -head. The nearer the end of the handle you take hold, the harder blow -you can strike, just as the longer the handle, the harder the blow. Use -light strokes--mere taps--in starting the nail. After you are sure it is -going straight you can then use more force to drive it home. Do not try -to sink the nail-head quite flush with the wood. Leave that for the -nail-set. You may think that any slight depression you may make if the -hammer strikes the wood will be too slight to be seen, but that is not -so, as the slightest dent or depression will probably show in finished -work. - -The head of the hammer should be swung back and forth through an arc of -a circle of which the wrist is the centre. Do this carefully and -steadily and you will send the nail in quicker and straighter than when -you flourish the hammer wildly around in the air and bring it down with -a ferocious bang somewhere in the vicinity of the nail, as boys of all -ages have been known to do. - -Now, remembering that the hammer-head will (and should) swing around in -an arc of which your wrist is the centre, you must see that your wrist -is in such a position that the hammer-head can strike the nail -squarely--that is, the hammer-handle, when the head rests squarely on -the nail-head, must be in a line parallel with the flat surface of the -top of the nail (Fig. 603). If the wrist is much above or below this -line, the nail will be struck slantingly, and either be driven crooked -or bent (Fig. 604). - -[Illustration FIG. 603.] - -[Illustration FIG. 604.] - -First place the hammer in the correct driving position, and then swing -it back and forth as nearly in the same curve as you can. Practise this -motion a little on a soft piece of board to see how squarely you can -dent the board and how nearly you can hit the same dent with successive -strokes. - -Frequently a nail does not drive straight, but becomes bent and goes in -the wrong direction. If you withdraw it do not, as a rule, try to drive -another in the same hole, but start it in another place. Sometimes a -nail will be bent because the face of the hammer-head has glue or grease -on it. In such a case rub it on a piece of fine sandpaper or in the -ashes or the ground. - -Holes should always be bored when there is any chance of splitting, or -when _slender_ nails are driven into _hard_ wood (lest they bend), but -remember that the hole, particularly in the inner piece, should not be -quite as large as the nail. With nails having large heads it does not -matter in hard wood if the holes in the outer piece are about as large -as the nails, provided the latter drive tightly into the inner piece. - -[Illustration RIGHT. WRONG. FIG. 605.] - -The hole made by a brad-awl is better, when it does not split the wood, -than one made by a bit or drill, because it does not remove the wood but -merely presses it aside, so that when the nail is driven the fibres tend -to spring back to their original position and close in around the nail, -helping to hold it in place. - -In driving the old-fashioned nails, which have two sides parallel, while -the other two incline toward the point or taper, they should be used on -the same principle on which you use the brad-awl. If placed the other -way, the wedge shape of the nail will tend to separate the fibres and -split the wood (Fig. 605). With nails having two sides smooth and two -rough, as you pick them up you can tell by the fingers which way to hold -them, the rough sides going across the grain and the smooth sides with -it. - -Nails will drive into hard wood easier if you touch the points to -grease, tallow, lard, or soap. - -[Illustration FIG. 606.] - -[Illustration FIG. 607.] - -[Illustration FIG. 608.] - -_"Toe" Nailing._--If you wish nails to hold as much as possible, toe -them--that is, slant them (Fig. 606). You can see at a glance that the -board will be held much tighter than if the nails were driven straight -up and down. Of course you cannot always drive nails this way, and there -are many cases in which you would gain nothing, but it takes only a -moment longer to toe nails, and it is often very useful where you wish -to be sure that the work will hold together. There are many cases where -you cannot nail any other way, as when you fasten a stud to the top of a -sill (Fig. 607), and you can see at once that it is advantageous. Of -course this is not a good method for work which you may wish to take -apart again. - -Slanting the nails helps to draw one piece tightly up to another, as is -often desirable for a tight box or a floor (Fig. 608). You can increase -this effect, after you have driven the nail part way in, by drawing the -hammer towards you as you strike, or in the direction towards which the -nail points, thus bending the upper part of it toward the other piece, -which tends to make a tight joint. - -_Clinching Nails._--The way to clinch nails is simply to drive them -through against a heavy hammer, or any solid metal object, held on the -other side. As the point comes through it is gradually turned over or -hooked around into the wood and when the head is driven home the point -will be firmly embedded in the wood. Another way is to simply strike the -projecting ends with light, slanting blows. This will gradually bend or -curl the point over to one side, and as it bends over you can pound more -directly downward until the hooked end of the nail is buried in the -wood. Clinching is very useful for many purposes, as in nailing cleats -on a shed door. It is usually best to bend the nails over in the -direction of the grain, rather than across it. - -Whether to clinch or toe the nails must depend on the work. Clinching is -better for anything that is to be slammed or subjected to violent -treatment, while in many cases toeing is better, and frequently you -cannot reach the points of the nails to clinch them. - -_Blind nailing_ is resorted to in order to have a clear, smooth surface, -as in floors laid with matched-boards. Each board is nailed just above -the tongue, with the nails slanting through the solid part of the board -(Fig. 609). This holds the board down and tends to force it closer to -the adjoining board. The grooved edge of the next board entirely -conceals the nailing and leaves an unbroken surface. - -[Illustration FIG. 609.] - -[Illustration FIG. 610.] - -Another form of concealed nailing, known as "_sliver_" nailing, is -sometimes practised in inside work (sometimes in putting up "inside -finish"). A little shaving is raised with the gouge (an _inside_ gouge -is best) or a narrow chisel, where the nail is to go, and curled away -sufficiently to drive and set the nail (Fig. 610). Hot glue is then -dabbed into the groove, the shaving (which is only raised at one end and -not detached from the wood) is pressed back into place, and the spot -rubbed with sandpaper drawn around a flat block until the shaving is -firmly glued where it belongs. This takes but a moment or two, and when -the work is finally smoothed and finished the place cannot be detected, -if the operation has been properly done. This is convenient to know in -case you have to drive a nail where there is objection to its being -seen. - -See _Withdrawing Nails_. - - -=Nails.=--There are many kinds of nails, many more than is worth while -to specify here, as you will probably use those of wire for most of your -work. When another kind would be preferable (as is the case for some -purposes) it will be specified. The nails in common use before the -introduction of those of wire were known as "cut," being stamped from a -sheet of metal, and "wrought," the latter kind being much older and -originally forged by hand into shape, one by one (hence the name), but -now commonly made by machine. The expressions three-penny, eight-penny, -ten-penny, etc., indicate the length, and come from an old custom of so -designating the lengths, but you need only to call for them by the -length, as 2 inch or 2-3/4 inch, in order to get what you want, and you -can easily select whatever degree of stoutness you need. Copper or -galvanised nails and tacks will be needed for your boat-building, copper -being preferable, particularly for salt water. - -[Illustration FIG. 611.] - - -=Nail-Set, or Punch.=--The nail-set, for sinking nail-heads below the -surface, is quite important, and it is well to have a large one and a -fine one. The end of the set or punch must not be allowed to become -rounding or it will be all the time slipping off the nail-head and -punching holes in the surrounding wood. A slight conical depression in -the end of the set is good. Do not use a file for a nail-set, for the -end is too hard and will dent the face of the hammer-head. - -When setting nails, hold the nail-set firmly against the little finger, -placing the latter on the wood close to the head of the nail, as shown -in Fig. 611. This will keep the set from slipping off the nail-head and -damaging the work. - - -=Nippers.=--A pair of these will often be of use in wood-working -operations. - - -=Odd-Jobs.=--A very simple combined tool known as "Odd-jobs" can be used -as a marking-gauge, mortise-gauge, scratch-awl, try-square, T-square, -depth-gauge, mitre-square, spirit-level and plumb, inside-square, and -beam-compass. It is well suited to much amateur work, and is cheap. - - -=Oil.=--Sperm oil is good to use with your oil-stones. Kerosene is good. -Lard oil can be used. All thick and gummy oils should be avoided. Never -use linseed oil or any similar vegetable oil, as it is not a good -lubricator, and gums the stone. Glycerine thinned with turpentine or -alcohol is sometimes used, and even turpentine alone. For oil for -finishing and painting, see _Finishing_ and _Painting_. - - -=Oil-stone.=--It is very essential to have a good oil-stone. They can be -found of many degrees of fineness. Those of very fine and hard grain, -which give a keen edge but cut very slowly, will not be found so well -adapted to your use as those of moderate coarseness and softness, which -cut faster. The stone known as Red Washita is good to use for -wood-working tools, as it cuts rapidly. It should be free from hard -spots. The Arkansas stone produces a very fine edge, but is of so fine -texture that it is not so well adapted for your tools as a coarser -stone, unless you happen to find a quick-cutting one. The Turkey stone -will produce a keen edge, but is not so good for your use. - -Some stones (and excellent ones) cut best with water. When first trying -a new stone use water, and if the surface does not become at all glazed -or polished it will not be necessary for you to use oil. - -The stone should always be kept covered when not in use, to protect it -from the dust and dirt. Set it in a block with a cover or make a box for -it. Always wipe it clean after using, to remove the paste of ground -stone, steel, and oil left on the surface. - -When an oil-stone becomes unevenly worn, it can be trued by rubbing it -around on a sheet of sandpaper fastened on a flat surface, like the side -of a board. Water can be used in this operation. - -In addition to the ordinary flat oil-stone, slips of stone of various -shapes are useful, a common and useful form being that shown in Fig. -612, wedge-shaped on one edge and convex on the other. If you have -V-tools, carving gouges, or other tools sharpened on the inside, you -must have slips of stone of various shapes with which to sharpen them. -See _Oil_ and _Sharpening_. - -[Illustration FIG. 612.] - - -=Painting.=--You can paint your work very satisfactorily--perhaps not -quite as well or quickly as a skilled painter by trade, but well enough -for all practical purposes if you observe carefully a few simple -principles. If you disregard them and think, like many amateurs, that -anyone can paint right off the first time without any knowledge or -thought, your painting will be botch-work. - -Keep your work well painted. It is cheaper in the end to paint -frequently and keep the work protected from the decay and damage due to -exposure--not to speak of the better appearance. - -Do not use cheap paint, unless, of course, for some cheap or temporary -purpose, and it is most important that the first or "priming" coat -should be of good quality. If you are obliged to use inferior paint at -all, use the best for the first coat and the poorer quality outside -rather than the reverse, but it is economy of money and time to use good -paint throughout. - -Prepared liquid paints are the simplest, handiest, and cleanest for -amateur work, and (if you do not try to economise on the quality) the -best for you to use for many purposes, but for outside work (work -exposed to the weather) you can probably do no better than to use the -best quality of white lead and oil,[48] coloured if desired, which costs -less, is more durable, and which you can easily mix yourself, or buy -already mixed of a painter. If you need but a little, you can get a pot -of paint with suitable brush at a paint shop, returning what you do not -use and paying by weight. But if you have much painting to do, it is -better and cheaper to have your own brushes and paint. The prepared -paints of any colour you can also buy in the form of paste, to be -thinned when used, which is usually cheaper than the prepared paint in -liquid form. - -The white lead you can buy by the pound, ground and already thinned with -oil, or, what is perhaps more reliable, ground in the form of paste -ready to be thinned with oil or, if for inside work, with turpentine. -White lead, which is also the basis or an ingredient of the prepared -paints, is a poisonous and unhealthful substance. There is, however, but -slight danger (practically none) from such painting as you will do. But -it is well to wear old clothes when you paint, and carefully wash the -hands and face as soon as the work is done, and in case of continued -indoor painting to see that the room is well ventilated. The mere odour -from a can of paint is enough to make some people feel ill, as you may -know, while it can be used for a long time by others apparently without -harm. - -In regard to coloured paints, the simplest way is to buy your colours -ready mixed in oil, to be thinned for use, or in liquid form of any -desired colour, prepared to use upon opening the can. You can, however, -colour or tint your paint yourself with various dry colours, which you -can buy in the form of powder at the paint shops for a few cents. It -takes but very little of most colours. Do not stir these dry colours -directly into your paint, but first mix them with oil or turpentine. - -It requires considerable knowledge of colours and their combinations to -know how to mix different colours or shades to produce some particular -shade, or to match some tint, but when the exact shade makes no -difference you will have no great difficulty in producing the colour you -wish. Test the shade of your paint on a piece of wood. The way it looks -in the paint-pot is often very deceptive. In making a shade darker, -especially when tinting white paint, be careful to add but a very -little of the darker pigment at first and be sure that it is thoroughly -mixed, or you will be likely to find after you have begun to paint that -you have a much darker shade than you intended. It is surprising how -small a quantity is sometimes needed to tint a whole canful of white -paint--the merest dab of chrome yellow will tint a quart of white paint -to a good cream shade. Remember that it is much easier to add a little -more colour if the result is not dark enough than to lighten the shade -if too dark. - -Linseed oil (either raw or boiled) is required with which to mix the -lead and thin it to the proper consistency. Raw oil is best for outside -work that is exposed to the weather, as it is more penetrating and more -adhesive, although slower in drying than boiled oil. Boiled oil does -very well for inside work where it is not exposed to the weather. There -is some difference of opinion, however, in regard to the use of the two -kinds. - -Turpentine is also used for thinning paint. It makes the paint flow -easily and is freely used for that reason, but it probably detracts from -the durability of all paint if used lavishly and should never be used -for outside work. It is commonly used for inside work and causes the -paint to work more freely and smoothly from the brush and to dry more -quickly. It gives the paint that dull, soft, or "dead" appearance often -desired in inside work, instead of the shiny surface which is produced -when mixed with linseed oil alone. - -It is usual to add to the paint something else, known as a "dryer," to -cause it to dry more quickly. Japan is one of the best of these -preparations, but be careful to use very little of any form of dryer, as -it is undoubtedly injurious to the durability of the paint and liable to -cause cracking and checking. Avoid all kinds of "chain-lightning" -dryers. Do not add a dryer to the colour until just before you use the -paint and only to the amount you are to use at one time. - -Another ingredient, which is not injurious to use, is zinc, but zinc -paints are considered inferior. Red lead is commonly used to paint iron -and is considered very durable for that purpose. Black japan varnish is -often used. Iron must always be dry and it will be better to have it -warm also. - -Be sure that your work is thoroughly dry before beginning to paint, else -the wood will be liable to decay, or the paint to peel, or both. Do not -paint wood before it is thoroughly seasoned. Look the work over -carefully and see that it is ready in all respects, before applying the -paint. See that the surface is free from dust. - -Look over the work for any knots or streaks of resinous or pitchy matter -and wash them with a coat or two of shellac, to "kill" the turpentine -and prevent its oozing through and spoiling the paint. - -Try to mix enough, and only enough, paint for the coat you are about to -put on, but do not mix a great quantity in advance with the idea of -keeping it on hand. - -The first coat should be thin rather than thick--with plenty of oil to -saturate the wood. The oil will be quickly drawn into the wood, and you -can readily see that the first coat should be thin to properly soak into -the surface. If thick, the paint will not be sufficiently absorbed, but -the oil will soak in quickly, leaving too much residue of the pigment on -the outside. Work this first coat well into the wood. Take up but little -paint, and draw the brush carefully over the edge of the pail,[49] or -over a wire stretched across the top, to remove any superfluity of -paint, and begin the painting at the highest part of the work, or the -part farthest from you, to prevent spattering or dripping paint over the -freshly covered surface. Begin, also, at one end or side of the surface, -working toward the other end or side, drawing the brush back and forth -both ways to distribute the paint as evenly and smoothly as possible, -and try not to leave any part of a surface untouched until another time, -or it will be likely to show a "lap" where you end and begin--that is, -if you cannot cover the work entirely at one time, leave off where there -is some natural line or break in the work. Finish the side or the end -and do not leave off right in the middle of a flat surface. This does -not matter quite so much in the priming, but will show plainly in the -later coats. - -After this coat has had time to dry thoroughly, carefully putty the -holes and cracks. Remember never to use the putty until after at least -one coat of paint has been applied and dried. The reason for this is -that the fresh wood will quickly absorb the oil from the putty, leaving -it dry and crumbly, while if a coat of paint has been put on first and -dried, the wood will be already charged, so to speak; the pores will be -more or less choked up and the bulk of the oil will remain in the putty. - -Paint with the grain of the wood, or the long way of the work, using a -large brush for large surfaces and finishing all corners, mouldings, and -edges with a small brush. In doors or panel-work first paint the panels, -then the rails, then the styles (see Fig. 505). You will thus follow the -construction of the work and the grain of the wood, and where you daub -the paint beyond the part you are painting (as you will have to do), the -daub will be wiped out neatly when you paint the next part. - -Paint joints in outside work, tenons and mortises, shoulders, etc., -before putting together, with good white lead. It is not always -customary to paint the hidden parts of joints before putting together, -particularly in cheap work, but it is well to do so in all work which -you wish to have endure, in all framework exposed to water and the -weather, and in boat-building. Exposed work quickly decays at the joints -and seams because the water and dampness collect in such places and do -not run off or evaporate as readily as from a smooth surface, so the -more you can protect these hidden parts with paint, the better, and the -labour is but slight. - -When you have paint left in the paint-pot which you wish to keep for use -another time, pour just enough raw linseed oil over the top to cover it -completely. This thin layer of oil will exclude the air and keep the -paint from hardening. When you wish to use it again, pour off the oil or -stir it into the paint, according to whether the latter requires more -oil or not. When you get through painting, if you are going to do more -in a short time, it will do to leave the brush in the paint, but do not -leave it standing or resting on the bottom of the can, as that tends to -bend the ends of the bristles and get the brush out of shape. Rig a wire -hook on the handle and hang the brush so that the bristles will be -covered by the paint, but without touching the bottom. If you are not -going to use the brush again for some time, it should be cleaned and put -away. Turpentine is often used, but kerosene answers every purpose. Be -careful to wash out all the paint, however, as a very little left -between the bristles will stick them together so as sometimes to ruin -the brush. Another way to keep brushes which are in use is to hang them -from the handles in a can partially filled with oil, the whole being -kept covered. Water can be used instead of oil. Arrange it so that the -hairs will be just covered. - -The first coat especially should be given plenty of time to dry, for it -is the _foundation_ and _basis_ of the whole operation and the firmness -and durability of the painting depends much upon it. - -Each succeeding coat should have plenty of time to dry before applying -another, bearing in mind that applying a second coat, before the first -is fully hard, excludes the air from the under layer of paint and causes -it to dry much more slowly than if left exposed as it should be. In such -cases, the outside surface may often seem to be dry and hard while the -paint underneath remains comparatively soft. When the first layer -finally does dry, the tendency is to crack the surface of the outside, -which has dried first. You can find an extreme illustration of this -point in some old paint and varnish shop where some convenient place on -the wall has been taken against which to slap and work brushes. You can -find daubs of old paint and varnish, sometimes an inch thick, made up in -this way of hundreds of layers slapped on before the previous ones were -dry, the inside remaining soft in some cases after twenty years. - -Paint dries, as a rule, more quickly in a warm temperature than where it -is cold, and more quickly where it is dry than where it is damp. So, if -you are obliged to paint where it is cold or damp, you will be justified -in using more dryer than where it is warm and dry. - -Sandpaper _nice_ inside work after the first coat and between each two -successive coats. Pumice can be used for old inside work to be -repainted. Steel wool can also be used. - -Keep a rag with you, when painting, to wipe off the spattering which you -will be sure to make. It is not easy to get daubs of paint off after -they are hard. - -Turpentine will take the paint from your hands, but common kerosene will -clean them satisfactorily when the paint is fresh, and is probably -better for the hands. - - -=Panels.=--See _Doors_ and _Panels_. - - -=Panel-Saw.=--See _Saw_. - - -=Paring.=--In paring or trimming a piece of wood to a line, if there is -much surplus wood to be removed, you can sometimes chop pretty boldly -with the hatchet until you get near the line, provided you watch the -direction of the grain carefully to see that the split cannot run up to -the line; sometimes you can chop safely in one direction but not in the -opposite (Fig. 613), but as a rule keep well away from the line for the -first cut. Even wood that appears to be quite straight-grained will -often split differently from the way you expect. - -[Illustration FIG. 613.] - -[Illustration FIG. 614.] - -[Illustration FIG. 615.] - -To trim a piece of wood, like the edge of a board, down to a line, with -a hatchet, for instance, you can first score the piece with a series of -short cuts, stopping short of the line, to break up the grain of the -wood, and then trim these loosened chips off down to the line with the -plane, chisel, draw-knife, or whatever tool may be suitable. The main -point is to cut in such a direction that the grain will not cause the -cuts to extend farther than the line or to run into the main piece of -wood (Fig. 614). The same principle can be applied often in trimming and -removing superfluous wood with a chisel, a draw-knife, or a knife. The -cuts can often be made with the saw to better advantage (Fig. 614). It -takes a little more time to make these cross-cuts with hatchet, knife, -chisel, or saw than to whack away furiously lengthways, as if you were -chopping kindling, but after you have spoiled a few pieces by splitting -beyond the line you will conclude that the former is the more -workmanlike and reliable way. - -This same principle is applicable to making chamfers or bevels with a -chisel or knife (Fig. 615). You will find frequent occasion to apply -this principle of breaking the grain into small pieces before making the -final cuts in many kinds of work. It is in constant use in "roughing -out" carving. - -[Illustration FIG. 616.] - -To trim to a curve as shown in Fig. 616, begin at the edge just -_outside_ of the end of the curve and work _with_ the grain from _a_ to -_b_. It is often a help in such cases to first remove part of the wood -with the saw, as on the lines _bc_ and then _ef._ Finally trim the -curve smoothly close to the line. Frequently this can be done to better -advantage with the work held in the vise instead of lying horizontally -on the bench. - -[Illustration FIG. 617. RIGHT. WRONG.] - -Paring off superfluous wood down to a given line or trimming off an -irregular edge with the chisel is very easily done provided the grain of -the wood is straight, or runs in the same direction, even if slanting, -as in Fig. 617, because you can then cut with the grain. It is often -better, however, to cut across the grain, or diagonally, with the -chisel, as the wood is less likely to be split by the tool. - -When the grain runs in several directions, and keeps cropping up to the -surface and dipping down again as shown in Fig. 701, it becomes more -difficult to pare the surface smoothly with the chisel. In such a case -remember the sliding or drawing stroke and traverse the surface with a -diagonal crossways motion (Fig. 619) that will trim off the fibres with -a slanting stroke without causing them to be torn up. Slant the cut so -that if the wood should tend to split, it will be in the direction of -the part cut away and not towards the piece to be kept--_i.e._, so that -the chips will split and not the body of the wood. Reverse the chisel -and cut in the opposite direction when a change in the direction of the -grain requires it. Some pieces are, however, so extremely irregular that -you cannot do this, but must slice away the best that you can and leave -the rest to other tools. In cutting off a corner or rounding or -bevelling an edge you can use the slanting cut (Fig. 620). - -[Illustration FIG. 619.] - -[Illustration FIG. 620.] - -In using the chisel for paring, let the left hand, which is nearer the -cutting-edge than the right, act as a brake or countercheck or drag to -check the progress of the tool. It is largely by the varying balance of -these two forces--the pushing forward of the tool with the right hand -and the checking and controlling with the left--that correct and -effective control of the tool is gained. The left hand should in many -cases rest upon or grasp the wood as well as the blade. See _Chisel_. - - -=Paring-Chisel.=--See _Chisel_. - - -=Parting-Tool.=--See _Carving Tools_. - - -=Pencil.=--See _Marking_. - - -=Pincers.=--There are various kinds of _pincers_, _pliers_, and -_nippers_. A pair of common pliers and also cutting nippers will be very -useful. - - -=Plane.=--A plane is in principle (roughly speaking), as you will -readily see, nothing but a chisel stuck through a block of wood or iron. -Small or narrow surfaces may be smoothed to a certain degree by the -chisel, the knife, or even the hatchet, but for large surfaces something -is needed which can be more exactly controlled than the knife, ax, or -chisel, held in the hands. So, to hold the chisel firmly in one position -and to apply force to it more advantageously, it is firmly fixed in a -block of convenient size and shape and becomes a plane. - -A very short block will prevent the chisel cutting deeper at one point -than another, but the tool will follow the irregularities of the surface -and, though it may make the surface smooth, it will not make it level, -or flat; so the block is made longer, that it may not go down into all -the little hollows, but plane off only the higher parts. - -The two essential parts of a plane are the _iron_ and the _stock_. The -bottom surface of the stock is called the _sole_ or _face_ (_ab_ in Fig. -621), the wedge-shaped hole where the iron goes is called the _throat_ -(_c_), and the slot at the bottom through which the edge of the iron -projects is called the _mouth_ (_d_). - -[Illustration FIG. 621.] - -Bear in mind that the shape of the cut made by the plane will be a -reversed copy of the shape of the cutting-edge. If the edge is rounding, -the cut will be hollowing. If the edge is hollowing, the cut will be -rounding. If the edge is straight, the cut will be straight. If the edge -is nicked, ridges will be left on the wood. - -If buying new, you will do best, as a rule, to get iron planes, though -very good ones can be had with wooden stocks, but with the convenient -appliances of the iron planes. Some workmen still prefer the old wooden -planes, but it is better to buy iron ones. - -[Illustration FIG. 622.] - -[Illustration FIG. 623.] - -The _jack-plane_ is used for coarse work and to rough off the surface -with large shavings, ready for the other planes. Fourteen or fifteen -inches is a good length. The edge of the iron is not ground squarely -across, like the chisel, but is rounded slightly so as to cut deeper in -the middle (Fig. 622). Heavy shavings can be cut and the rough outside -of a piece of wood taken off quicker and easier than with a more -squarely ground iron, but it does not leave the surface smooth, as the -strokes of the jack-plane form a series of hollows and ridges (Fig. 623, -exaggerated). After taking off the rough surface with the iron -projecting considerably, you can of course set the iron finer, and by -going over the work several times you can take off the worst of the -ridges, but without a great deal of labour you can never get a really -smooth surface with a plane that cuts hollows. A common use of the -jack-plane is for "traversing," or planing across the grain, which is -often the quickest and easiest way to reduce a surface to the desired -shape, and for cleaning off where pieces have been glued together. If -you should use a jack-plane to do the work of a fore-plane, have it -ground more squarely across like the fore-plane. - -If you use an old-fashioned wooden plane, take the handle in your right -hand, laying your left over the top and side, just a little in front of -the iron, with the thumb towards you and the fingers on the farther -side, as shown in Fig. 624. This position allows you to bear weight on -the fore part of the plane when necessary and to control the tool to the -best advantage. This applies to the old-fashioned wooden planes. If your -plane is iron, there is a handle or knob for the left hand which you -simply grasp in a natural way. - -Push the jack-plane forward steadily an arm's-length. Then stop and -start afresh for another arm's-length stroke. When drawing the plane -back tip it on the farther edge. The cap or break-iron can be set quite -far back from the edge for rough work, about one eighth inch, but much -nearer for finer work. - -[Illustration FIG. 624.] - -In these days when almost everything is planed by machinery with greater -or less smoothness, you will probably not have much use for a jack-plane -unless you find you have a good deal of rough planing to do yourself. - -[Illustration FIG. 625.] - -The _fore-plane_ or _trying-plane_ is longer and larger than the -jack-plane. Eighteen to twenty-two inches is a good length. It is used -to straighten and level the surface after the worst roughness has been -taken off. The surface having been roughed off by the jack-plane, the -fore-plane is not required to take off such heavy shavings and the iron -is therefore ground squarely across like a chisel, but very slightly -rounded at the corners (Fig. 625). It is held in the same way as the -jack-plane, but the stroke should be long and steady, for the -fore-plane, which is long, will straighten the surface, and smooth it -also. The iron can project more for soft and loose-grained woods than -for hard, and the cap or break-iron should be nearer the edge for hard -woods. - -The _jointer_ (22" to 30" in length) or _long jointer_ (from 24" to -30"), is still longer than the fore-plane and correspondingly more -accurate for making a surface level and true, or for shooting the edges -of boards. Twenty-four inches is a good length. It is very useful for -making joints to be glued, and is used in the same way as the -fore-plane, the stroke being continued steadily the whole length of the -piece if possible. - -The _smoothing-plane_ is used, as its name indicates, for the final -smoothing of the surface, so far as it can be done with a plane. It is -from five to ten inches long. - -It is an invaluable plane to the amateur, and the beginner can get along -very well for a great deal of work with no other, for stock can be -bought ready planed and can easily be trued and jointed, when necessary, -at any wood-working mill or shop at slight expense. - -[Illustration FIG. 626.] - -A plane with a short stock, as the smoothing-plane, will make your work -smooth, but it is hard to make it straight and level or true with such a -tool, because, being short, it will follow the larger irregularities of -the surface and will only plane off the smaller inequalities. It will go -up and down over the hills and valleys of the wood, so to speak, while a -longer plane cannot do this, but will cut off the tops of the hills -until the surface is made level, as shown in Fig. 626. The -smoothing-plane is therefore merely to _smooth_ the surface after it has -been straightened by a longer plane, or in cases where smoothness only -is essential and it is not required that the surface should be true. -Small pieces can, of course, be straightened and trued by the -smoothing-plane alone. - -A wooden smoothing-plane can be held as shown in Fig. 627. An iron plane -can be used by laying the hand naturally over the knob for the purpose. - -[Illustration FIG. 627.] - -The _block-plane_ is small and is meant chiefly for planing across the -ends of pieces (for planing "end-grain"), but it is also frequently -useful in other directions. The iron is usually set at a more acute -angle with the face of the stock than in the other planes and with the -bevel upwards, and the width of the mouth is often adjustable, which is -a convenience. A block-plane is made which can, by means of a detachable -side, be used as a rabbet-plane. The block-plane makes a quite good -substitute for a smoothing-plane for amateur work and is a very useful -little tool. - -The _toothed-plane_ is about the size of the smoothing-plane, but the -iron is corrugated or scored with grooves lengthwise, so that one side -of the cutting-edge of the iron, instead of being smooth, is notched -into little teeth somewhat like a fine saw or the edge of a file, and -the iron is inserted in the body of the plane almost vertically. This -plane makes scratches all along its course instead of taking off -shavings. It is used in veneering and in gluing other surfaces. It can -frequently be used to good advantage to break up the grain where two -edges or surfaces are to be glued together, so that the glue may hold -the two rough surfaces together more strongly, upon somewhat the same -principle that the plastering on a lathed wall holds its place tightly -through the hold it gets on the cracks between the laths, intentionally -left for the purpose. The toothed-plane is used for this purpose in -veneering. The idea upon which this tool is based originated with the -Orientals, who have for ages scratched or toothed the joints of their -wood-work. - -It can also be used to subdue a refractory piece of crooked grain which -you wish to get smooth, but which may crop to the surface in such a way -that you cannot plane it without chipping the grain. By scratching the -surface thoroughly in all directions with the toothed-plane set very -fine, the obstinate fibres can be broken so that the surface can be -smoothed with the scraper, not using the smoothing-plane. As a matter -of fact, however, if you cannot smooth a piece of wood, the trouble is -_usually_ with the edge of the plane-iron or its adjustment, or with -your manner of planing, for a _very keen_ edge is supposed to be able to -cut the most obstinate grain, unless, of course, the wood is -extraordinarily hard. - -The _bull-nosed-plane_ has the iron close to the fore end of the stock, -to work into corners and awkward places which cannot be reached by the -smoothing- or block-planes. The iron is reversed. A very small plane -(perhaps four inches long) of this kind is useful. - -The _circular-plane_ is used for planing curved surfaces, the sole being -now made of a thin, flexible metal plate and adjustable so that either -concave or convex surfaces can be smoothed. It is very useful at times, -but is not essential for an amateur. - -The _rabbet-plane_, which is used to cut rabbets, as the name indicates, -is a useful tool, but in most cases you can dispense with it by having -rabbets cut at a mill. - -A _router_, for cleaning out and smoothing the bottoms of grooves and -depressions, is very useful at times. - -There is a variety of other planes for special purposes, as the -_plough_, _matching-planes_, _hollow_ and _round planes_, -_beading-planes_, etc., as well as various _combination_ and -"_universal_" _planes_. Many of these are excellent, but, as a rule, are -not important for the amateur in these days, as the work they do can be -so easily and cheaply done at a mill. You will seldom feel the need of -buying any of them, unless you live where you cannot reach a factory. - -[Illustration FIG. 628.] - -[Illustration FIG. 629.] - -You will find it important to bear in mind the purpose of the cap or -dull iron screwed upon one side of the cutting-iron, in what are called -"double-ironed" planes. A plane with a single iron, like a chisel, will -cut satisfactorily and easily for straight-grained, soft wood, and for -hard wood when planing with the grain, but many pieces of stock are -difficult to plane, because the grain does not run in the same way, but -turns and twists, cropping up to the surface and dipping down again in -all sorts of curious and perplexing ways. In planing them the wood is -likely to be continually chipping or tearing and breaking off below the -surface, instead of planing smoothly like a piece of straight-grained -pine, leaving dents and rough hollows over the surface. The natural -tendency of the plane-iron is to split the wood in front of the iron in -such cases (Fig. 628). To remedy this the plane has a double iron. An -iron or cap with a dull edge is screwed on to the face of the -cutting-iron (Fig. 629) so as to help bend and break off the shavings -before the split gets fairly started (Fig. 630), when the iron can cut -it smoothly off. The thickness of the shavings is greatly exaggerated in -the cuts for the sake of illustration. - -[Illustration FIG. 630.] - -The cutting edge is said to have "lead" in proportion to the distance it -is in advance of the cap-iron. The cap can be set some little distance -from the edge for the jack-plane, as far as an eighth of an inch, but -with the fore-plane and smoothing-plane it must be set quite close to -the edge, the distance varying according to the character of the wood. -The more crooked or cross-grained the wood, the nearer the dull iron is -brought down towards the edge of the sharp one. The nearer the edge, the -smoother the result, but the harder to work the plane. - -[Illustration FIG. 631.] - -Something more than the break-iron is required, however, to insure -breaking the shavings. There must be an angle, against which they can be -broken, close in front of the cutting edge and above the shaving. This -angle is the forward edge of the mouth or slot in the sole through which -the iron projects (Fig. 631). Thus the width of the mouth makes a -difference in the smoothness of the surface, for a narrow mouth is -necessary to ensure the shaving being readily broken by the cap. With a -wide mouth, the shaving will not be broken by the cap in time, because -there is no corner against which to break it. - -With straight-grained wood this does not make so much difference, but -with crooked and broken grain narrowness of mouth is quite essential to -a smooth surface, provided that the opening is wide enough to allow the -shaving to pass through freely. Rough and knotty wood requires the mouth -very narrow and the iron set very fine (_i.e._, projecting but very -little from the sole) and the cap quite near the edge. - -The modern iron planes have simple appliances for setting or adjusting -the projection of the iron from the sole and thus regulating the -thickness of the shaving. If, however, you are obliged to use the -old-fashioned wooden planes, you raise the iron in the same way that you -loosen it for removal, by lightly tapping on the top of the fore end of -the stock, keeping hold of the plane with the left hand so as to prevent -the iron falling through if loosened too much. When the iron is raised -enough, fix it in place by tapping on top of the "chip" (Fig. 621, _e_) -or wedge which holds it in place. To lower the cutting edge, loosen as -before and, checking the edge with the finger, let it project the -required distance, which you can tell about by looking along the sole -(Fig. 632), and fix in place by tapping the "chip" as before. This is -the process used in removing the iron for sharpening and replacing it, -the chip being removed as well as the iron. Any carpenter will show you -the operation. Always hold the plane in the left hand in all these -adjusting operations. Do not strike or tap any part of it while it rests -on the bench or on anything solid. - -To smooth a rough piece of wood, use first the jack-plane, to remove the -rough surface and superfluous wood, and then the fore-plane, to -straighten and smooth the surface. If there is no need to have the -surface true, but only smooth, you can omit using the fore-plane and -follow the jack-plane at once by the smoothing-plane. With ordinary -machine-planed stock you do not usually need the jack-plane, though it -is sometimes useful in reducing a piece of wood to a given shape. - -Before beginning to plane, see that all dirt or grit which might dull -the tool is brushed from the surface. - -Turn the plane over and sight along the sole (Fig. 632), not merely to -see that the iron projects to the required degree, but also to see that -it projects equally, lest one side or corner of the iron should cut more -deeply than the other, and thus make a groove or scratch on the wood -(Fig. 633). The latest iron planes have appliances to adjust any -inequality of this sort, but if your plane is not so arranged a little -tapping on one side of the upper end of the iron will correct the -trouble. Try the plane on a waste piece before beginning on nice work. - -[Illustration FIG. 632.] - -Plane with the grain, as a rule, and the fibres will be cut off cleanly -where they crop up to the surface and your work will be left smooth. If -you plane against the grain, some of the fibres will tend to splinter or -chip off just below the surface before they are cut off (Fig. 634). - -Stand behind the work with the plane before you. Plane with the arms -(and from the shoulder), not with the whole body. Try to shove the plane -straight ahead, also to plane as equally and evenly as possible over the -surface; for while it is comparatively easy to get a surface smooth it -is quite another thing to keep it true or to make it true if warped or -winding. - -[Illustration FIG. 633.] - -The natural tendency, and a common fault, is to begin and end the stroke -as shown in Fig. 635. Rolling the body back and forth, instead of -pushing steadily with the arms from the shoulder, aggravates this -trouble. The result of this way (which is unconscious at first) is that -the surface after planing is apt to be as shown in Fig. 636. To prevent -this, press down with the _left_ hand on the _forward_ part of the -plane during the _first_ part of the stroke, and with the _right_ hand -on the _rear_ part of the plane during the _last_ part of the stroke -(Fig. 637). - -[Illustration RIGHT. WRONG. FIG. 634.] - -In planing wood which is dirty or rough, it is best to lift the plane -from the work when drawing it back for a fresh stroke, or to draw it -back so that only the point touches the board, or to draw it back on -edge, but in planing small surfaces of clean wood it is not usually -worth while to take this precaution. - -[Illustration FIG. 635.] - -[Illustration FIG. 636.] - -[Illustration FIG. 637.] - -In planing pieces with crooked grain, turn the piece when practicable, -so as to plane as much of it with the grain as you can. But many pieces -are so crooked in grain that you cannot do this. So at times it is well -to turn your plane sideways to get a slicing cut and cross the grain at -an angle (Fig. 638); but as a rule the plane should be pushed straight -forward. - -A few drops of oil rubbed over the face of the plane will make it run -more smoothly, particularly on hard wood. - -[Illustration FIG. 638.] - -Test the accuracy of your planing of broad surfaces with a -straight-edge, the blade of a square, or the edge of the plane itself -(if straight). By applying such a straight-edge across the surface or -lengthways or diagonally you can tell whether your work is straight and -true (Fig. 639). Also "sight" with your eye. If the surface is large or -long, winding-sticks can be used (see _Winding-sticks_). In planing -edges test lengthways with the eye and straight-edge of some sort, and -crossways by applying the try-square (Fig. 640). (See _Jointing_.) - -[Illustration FIG. 639.] - -It is, of course, harder to plane a broad surface, as the side of a -board, than a narrow one, as the edge. When planing a flat surface, as a -board, be careful not to plane off more at the edges than elsewhere -(Fig. 641), as you will be quite likely to do if you allow the plane to -tip sideways over the edge instead of keeping the sole parallel with the -flat surface. - -[Illustration FIG. 640.] - -When planing across end-grain with the block-plane or smoothing-plane, -either secure a waste piece of wood at the side where the planing ends, -to prevent the edge chipping off, as shown in Fig. 642, or plane from -both edges toward the middle (Fig. 643). - -The use of the straight-edge will give the necessary clue to the process -of making warped surfaces true. (See _Truing Surfaces_.) - -[Illustration FIG. 641.] - -[Illustration FIG. 642.] - -Whenever you make nice articles from wood planed by an ordinary cylinder -planer, the wood will seem quite smooth just as it is, but do not -neglect to smooth it carefully so as to take out all the "planer-marks" -or those little corrugations across the grain left by the machine will -often show clear across the room as soon as the work is finished. See -pages 44, 45, and 46, and also _Sharpening_. - -[Illustration FIG. 643.] - - -=Planing.=--See _Plane_, _Jointing_, _Truing Surfaces_. - - -=Plank, Laying.=--See _Boards_, _Laying_. - - -=Plough.=--See _Plane_. - - -=Plumb.=--You can make a plumb-line by merely hanging any weight at the -end of a cord, when the cord will of course be vertical as soon as it -stops swinging (Fig. 644). For convenience in using hang the cord on a -board as shown in Fig. 130. When the cord hangs exactly on the line or -at the apex of the notch the edge of the board will be vertical. - -A long board will give a more accurate test than a short one in most -cases, just as a long plane will make a straighter edge than a short -plane, for the long board will bridge over the irregularities of the -surface to be plumbed. For example, to take an exaggerated case, the -post plumbed as at _a_ (Fig. 645) is vertical, taken as a whole; while -the same post plumbed as at _b_ leans over, because the short board -happens to be placed where the surface of the post is not straight. - -[Illustration FIG. 644.] - -[Illustration FIG. 645.] - -[Illustration FIG. 646.] - -When the plumb-line is used to determine a point exactly over or under -another point, as in surveying, the bob is shaped with a point like a -top (Fig. 646). For making the plumb, see page 96. (See also _Level_.) - - -=Pod-Bit.=--See _Bits_. - - -=Punch= (=for Nails=).--See _Nail-set_. - - -=Putty.=--Common putty is (or should be) a mixture of linseed oil and -whiting of about the consistency of dough. A mixture of white lead -worked in with the whiting is, however, superior for some purposes, and -is better when but one coat of paint is to be put on after the puttying. -To colour putty, stir the colouring matter in a little oil and then work -and knead it into the putty until the whole is coloured. Keep putty -under water. Do not leave it wrapped in the paper in which you may take -it from the painter's, for the oil will be absorbed by the paper and the -putty will quickly become dry and hard. Use a square-bladed putty-knife -for flat surfaces, and do not use your fingers. See also _Holes, To -Stop_. - - -=Putty-Knife.=--An old case-knife can be used (better if reshaped -squarely across or to an obtuse angle), or, in fact, any knife, but a -regular putty-knife is best. - - -=Quill-Bit.=--See _Bits_. - - -=Rabbet.=--A rabbet is a recess or rectangular groove cut lengthways in -the edge of a piece of board, plank, or other timber (Fig. 284). It is -usually better for the amateur to get such work done at a mill, when -practicable, rather than to do it by hand. The rabbet-plane is, however, -a very useful tool to have. In some cases, as at the end of a piece, the -saw can be used, the lines for the rabbet having been carefully marked -with a knife or chisel. The chisel can also be used to make a rabbet, -much as in cutting a mortise, taking pains when driving the chisel down -next the line not to cut under or jam the wood beyond the line. In the -final trimming to the line, the chisel should be held with the flat side -toward the line. In removing the wood with the chisel, it is often best -to pare across the grain rather than with it (see _Paring_). - -A strip of wood can be clamped across the piece exactly on the line as a -guide for the saw and the sawing be done with the heel or rear corner of -the saw, keeping the latter close up to the gauge stick, and pieces are -sometimes even clamped to the saw itself to guide it, but such -arrangements, though useful expedients under some circumstances, are -hardly the most workmanlike methods. - - -=Rabbet-Plane.=--See _Plane_. - - -=Rasp.=--The rasp--only used for wood--is a sort of coarse file, but -instead of ridge-like teeth it is studded with projecting points, which -tear off the wood more quickly, but also more roughly, than the file. It -is extremely useful to remove surplus wood and to get curved objects -roughly into shape. One good-sized half-round (or "slab-sided") rasp -will be a great help. See _File_. - - -=Rasping.=--See _Filing_. - - -=Reamers.=--See _Bits_. - - -=Repairing Furniture.=--To repair thoroughly--to make things as strong -as when new and to leave no sign of the mending--often requires more -skill and ingenuity and more general knowledge of wood-working than to -make new articles. Skill in repairing comes not merely from general -knowledge of wood-working, but from experience and ingenuity in applying -your knowledge to new problems. You will rarely have two jobs of -repairing just alike, even if of the same kind, and the variety is -almost endless. It is, therefore, impossible to give rules to cover all -the different cases. In fact, to attempt to give complete directions for -repairing would be to describe the majority of operations used in -wood-working, and the reader is referred to other parts of the book for -whatever information it may contain. Suggestions on one or two points -may, however, be of use. - -Suppose the arm of a chair comes off, after having been stuck on with -glue perhaps a dozen times. How is it usually mended each time it comes -off? The family glue-pot, containing the dregs of all the glue used -since it was bought, is put on the stove, a little water poured in, and -as soon as the glue gets warmed into a thick paste a lot of it is daubed -on to the joints, on top of the thick coating they already have, and the -arm pushed as nearly into place as it will go. It is then usually left -for a few hours and sometimes even tied on with a string while the glue -dries. Of course it sticks for a while and then the usual result -follows. - -Now how should you go to work to do this properly? First clean off all -the old glue. This is important. You want to put the fresh glue on the -wood, not on top of the old glue; but do not scrape away the wood in -getting off the glue so that the parts will no longer fit. Next, see -whether the pieces will fit together as they should. If they will, then -contrive some way to clamp them in place while the glue is drying. -Sometimes hand-screws will do this, sometimes clamps, sometimes a rope -twisted, and often it will take all your ingenuity to contrive any -arrangement, but clamped they must be if you wish to be sure of a good -job. - -[Illustration FIG. 647.] - -The pieces often make an angle with one another, or are curved, so that -the clamps or hand-screws will not hold, but slip as fast as you tighten -them. In such a case the method shown in Fig. 647 can often be used. -Screw a hand-screw firmly on each side of the joint, rubbing chalk on -the insides of the jaws to help prevent slipping, and putting on the -hand-screws so that the jaws will be parallel. Then, by using two other -hand-screws, those first put on can be drawn towards one another and the -joint firmly closed. Then proceed to glue the parts as with new work. -For the way to do this see _Gluing_. - -In patching old work with new wood, pains should be taken to have the -wood match as well as possible, and, as a rule, pare or trim the new -pieces after they are glued in place rather than before. Staining to -match the older parts is often required (see _Staining_). See also -_Holes, To Stop_. - -The repaired joint may never be quite as strong as a new one, therefore -it is well to reinforce it with a block glued and screwed on the under -or inner side, in cases where this can be done without injuring the -appearance, as inside of the frame under a chair, sofa, or table. - -It is not uncommon, particularly in work which has come apart several -times, for the tenons to be too small. If you can glue on thin pieces to -make the tenon larger, trimming them afterwards to fit, it will be the -best way; but if the conditions do not admit of this, a little muslin, -laid in glue, can sometimes be wrapped around the tenon as the latter is -fitted to place. The same can sometimes be done with round pins or -dowels. The expedient of splitting and wedging tenons and dowels can -often be applied in repairing (see _Mortising_ and _Dowels_). - -Sometimes you may find it necessary to use screws in places where the -heads will show. In such cases first make, when possible, a neat round -or square hole with bit or chisel of sufficient diameter to admit the -head of the screw and deep enough to allow a shallow plug to be inserted -after the screw has been set (see _Holes, To Stop_). The hardest part in -finished work is to make the patch match the rest of the work. - -See also _Gluing_, _Clamps_, and whatever other operations may be -required. - - -=Ripping-Saw.=--See _Saw_. - - -=Rivets.=--In heading rivets hold another hammer or piece of metal, or -have someone else do so, against the head of the rivet while upsetting -the other end. - - -=Rounding Sticks.=--It is often required to round sticks for poles, -masts, spars, arrows, and a great many other purposes. First plane the -piece until it is as nearly _square_, in section, as you can make it. -Then use the form shown on page 95, which will hold the squared stick -firmly while you plane off the corners, making it _eight-sided_. Be -careful not to plane the corners off too much, for the eight sides of -the stick should be as nearly alike as possible. Next, if the stick is -large enough, plane off each of the eight corners so that it will be -_sixteen-sided_. This is about as far as you can go in this way, unless -the stick is very large. Set the plane quite fine for taking off these -corners or you may plane off too much before you know it. The rest of -the rounding you must do with light, fine strokes, testing by eye and by -passing your hand over the work (for you can judge a great deal by the -sense of touch). The rasp and file can often be used to good advantage. -The spoke-shave is good for the final smoothing, followed by the scraper -or glass (both of which can be curved) and sandpaper. The latter can be -used crosswise as well as lengthwise. Cut it in strips and pull it back -and forth around the stick, much as bootblacks put the final polish on -shoes with a strip of cloth (Fig. 648). - -[Illustration FIG. 648.] - -To hold large sticks for this final shaping and smoothing you can put -them in the vise, but if there are several, and large, it is better to -contrive some way to hold them after the fashion of the centres of a -lathe. For one centre, drive a nail or screw through a block or stick of -wood and screw the block in the vise (Fig. 649). Make the other centre -in the same way and fasten it at such a distance from the first centre -that the stick will just fit in between the two. Just how to fasten this -second centre will depend on the length of the stick to be rounded and -the arrangements of your shop, but you can easily contrive some way to -hold it. The stick held between these centres will be clear of -everything and can be turned around without trouble. The middle can be -supported, if necessary, by a piece of board or a strip lightly nailed -to the bench-top. - -Masts and spars should be "natural sticks," if possible, and the final -shaping and smoothing will be all they will require, for which some such -apparatus as that just described will save time and trouble. - -[Illustration FIG. 649.] - -To round small sticks, as spars for model boats, arrows, etc., the same -process should be followed so far as the small size of the sticks will -allow, as you can of course shave more accurately with the plane, on -account of the long guiding sole, for the same degree of effort, than -with any "free-hand" tool like the knife. But when the stick is quite -small it is hard to hold it firmly, and it is also too much covered by -the plane. In such cases turn Japanese. Fasten the plane bottom-up in -the vise (or even hold it in your lap if you have no vise) and pull the -stick along the sole of the plane instead of pushing the plane over the -stick. But _look out for your fingers_ when you do this, for a -plane-iron in this position has a great appetite for finger-tips. - -In filing a short, round stick, one end can often be rested on the bench -and the stick turned around towards you as you file. - -A good way to finish the shaping of such small sticks is to hold your -knife with the edge downward close against the side of your leg just -above the knee. Then pull the stick up steadily between your leg and the -knife. The leg acts as a sort of gauge to steady both the stick and the -knife and with care you can cut a very even shaving in this way. - -One very important thing to bear in mind in _all_ these rounding -operations is that you will rarely find wood with absolutely straight -grain, except in "rift" stock or natural sticks (and in these there are -often seemingly unaccountable twists and crooked streaks); so you need -to _keep constant watch_ of the direction of the grain, for even a -slight turn of the stick will often bring the grain wrong with relation -to your tool, and one false cut running in too deep, or even across the -stick, will spoil the work. - - -=Router.=--See _Plane_. - - -=Rule.=--A rule with which to lay out your work and measure your stock -is one of the first tools of which you can make use. A two-foot rule, -folding once, is the most convenient for shop-work, but the more common -kind, folding to six inches in length, is more convenient to carry -around away from the shop. One brass-bound (with brass edges) is more -durable, but hardly as convenient to use as the common cheap kind, which -will answer every purpose until it breaks. - -[Illustration FIG. 650.] - -To mark distances with the rule for accurate work, lay the rule on edge -so that the divisions marked on it will touch the wood and not be an -eighth of an inch above it, as they are when the rule lies flat (Fig. -650). You can thus mark the points more accurately. - - -=Sandpaper.=--The fineness of sandpaper is indicated by numbers--00 (the -finest), 0, 1/2, 1, 1-1/2, 2, 2-1/2 and 3 (the coarsest). You will use -the fine and medium numbers more than the very coarse ones, and will -seldom require coarser than 1-1/2. Test sandpaper, when buying, by -rubbing the sand a little with your hand to see if it is securely stuck -on, and tear the paper a little to see if it is strong. - -Never use sandpaper until all the cutting with the tools is done. -Sandpaper _with_ the grain, except for work which is to be painted. - -The proper use of sandpaper, as a rule, for such work as you will do, is -merely to give a little extra smoothness, to take out little scratches, -to round edges, and the like, but _not_ to cut away the wood and scrub -it into the shape you wish. To use it much, except to skim over your -work, is apt to get you into a slovenly style of working, and the -result will lack the sharp accuracy of good work. Do not rely on the -sandpaper to remove the defects in your work. Do the work right and you -will need but little sandpaper, except in a few operations which will be -specified when there is occasion. - -[Illustration FIG. 651.] - -For flat surfaces it is well to fold the sandpaper over a flat block of -cork or wood (Fig. 651), the edges of which have been slightly rounded. -If the surface is curved, the block should be curved correspondingly. A -piece of thick rubber or leather which can be bent to fit the surface is -excellent. Care should be taken not to round the corners and edges of -the work when sandpapering. - -In sandpapering any very delicate piece of work, when the edge might get -rounded or the surface scratched by the stiffness of even the finest -sandpaper, as in rubbing down finished work, split the paper, which you -can easily do by removing the outer layer of paper from the back, when -the remaining part to which the sand adheres will be much softer and -more flexible. - - -=Saw.=--Saws are used for cutting across the grain and with the grain -and there are various kinds for special purposes. - -The _cross-cutting saw_ is used, as the name indicates, for cutting -across the grain of wood and for ordinary work. The blade is usually -thicker at the teeth than at the back, to stiffen it and to enable it to -pass through the wood more freely. From 18" to 24" is a good length for -a cross-cutting saw (or more commonly called _panel_-saw) for your work, -with about eight to ten teeth to the inch. - -Examine the teeth (Fig. 652) and you will see that they are pointed and -sharp, somewhat like the point of your knife, and that they cut across -the fibres much the same as your knife does when you hold it upright and -draw it across a board. - -[Illustration FIG. 652.] - - -[Illustration FIG. 653.] - -You will notice, also, that the teeth are alternately bent -outwards,--one tooth being bent out to one side, the next to the other -side,--this spreading of the teeth (which is called the "set") making -the saw wider at the points of the teeth than elsewhere. You will also -notice that the sharp cutting edge of each tooth is on the outside. This -set, and the way the teeth are sharpened, makes the cut wider than the -thickness of the blade, thus giving the saw "clearance" and enabling it -to slip back and forth easily and without "binding" (Fig. 653). As a -practical matter of fact, however, it is nothing uncommon for a saw to -bind in the cut, either from not sawing straight or from the wood -closing on the saw (see Fig. 695). The teeth not only cut or break off -the fibres in parallel lines at the points of the teeth, but also tear -off and remove the bits of wood (_i.e._, the sawdust) between these -parallel cuts. - -The degree to which the teeth are set and the number of teeth to the -inch depend upon the use to which the saw is to be put and the kind of -wood to be used. Of course the finer the teeth the smoother the cut. -Cross-cut saws are usually sharpened differently for soft and for hard -wood, but little set being required for the latter, while the former -needs a wider set to give the blade clearance, because the fibres of the -looser-textured soft wood are bent aside by the tearing action of the -saw teeth and are not so cleanly cut off as in the hard wood. - -We have examined the teeth of the cross-cut saw and have seen that they -cut across the grain of the wood very much as the point and edge of a -knife, and that the fibres, being cut or broken or torn off in fine -pieces, are removed from the kerf by the teeth. Now to saw in the -direction of the grain, instead of across it, we use a saw based on a -different principle. As we used little knives to cut across the grain, -so we use little chisels to cut with the grain. Look at the teeth of the -_ripping-saw_ and you will see that they are little chisels sharp only -at the end (Fig. 654), though not as acute as chisels for obvious -reasons. These sharp ends, which are square (Fig. 655, showing set) or -may be oblique, cut or tear off the fibres, and the front edges of the -teeth push the pieces out of the cut. The teeth of the cross-cut saw -are filed so that the front cutting-edge is _drawn_ across the wood in -the most effective way, much as you would draw the knife-point across, -while the teeth of the ripping-saw are pointed forward at a more acute -angle so that the cutting-edge is _pushed_ through the wood, somewhat as -you push a chisel. - -[Illustration FIG. 654.] - -[Illustration FIG. 655.] - -[Illustration FIG. 656.] - -The ripping-saw cuts only on the down stroke. It is not suitable for use -directly across the grain, as it tears the fibres when pushed across -them much more than the cross-cut saw. The ripping-saw usually has -larger teeth than the cross-cut saw. From 5-1/2 to 8 points to the inch -will do for your work. The ripping-saw usually cuts best when held -slanting rather than at right angles with the board (Fig. 656), as you -can easily understand when you think how a chisel works best in paring -at the end of a board. - -If the cut closes up after the saw so as to "bind" it, drive a wedge (or -even a screw-driver or chisel) into the crack so as to open it enough -for the saw to work freely. Binding of the saw from this cause is very -common in making long cuts. When you come to a hard knot in splitting -you can sometimes gain by taking the cross-cut saw to cut through it. - -You will probably get most of your splitting done at a mill and will not -have to depend on hand ripping-saws so much as your grandfathers did. - -The _back-saw_ should have, for your use, from 10 to 16 teeth to the -inch and be perhaps 12 inches long. The blade is very thin to insure a -finer and more accurate cut than can be made with the common saw, and -therefore requires care in using. It has a back (whence the name) made -of a thin piece of brass or iron put on so as to give the blade the -necessary firmness. - -This is an exceedingly useful tool, with which and a common panel saw -you can do a great deal of work without any other. The back-saw must be -used with care, for the blade is so thin that a little wrenching will -spring it out of shape in spite of the strengthening back. - -In the _compass-saw_ the blade is very narrow, being about one inch at -the broadest part and diminishing gradually to about a quarter of an -inch at the other end. It is about fifteen inches long and is employed -in cutting curved forms. As the blade is narrow and tapers towards the -back and the teeth have a wide set it will cut a small circle. Notice -that the teeth of the compass-saw are a sort of a compromise between -those of the ripping and cross-cut saws, which enables them to cut -freely either way of the grain, as is of course necessary in sawing -curves. - -The _turning-_ or _bow-saw_ is much better for any work with which the -bow will not interfere, and is a very useful tool at times. Get one with -handles which turn so that the blade can be turned to saw at an angle -with the frame. You will need a few extra blades of different widths. -The main thing to be borne in mind is to make the cut square with the -surface. It is easier to follow the line than to secure a cut at right -angles to the surface. - -The _keyhole-saw_, which is even smaller than the compass-saw, is used -for cutting quicker curves, as for a keyhole. It has a handle like that -of a chisel, with a slot cut through from end to end. There is a screw -on one side, so that the blade may be fixed at any length, according to -the size of the hole to be cut. A good kind, which can be used for both -compass- and keyhole-saws, has a handle into which various blades can be -fitted. - -[Illustration FIG. 657.] - -Compass- and keyhole-saws are difficult for beginners to use without -bending, twisting, or breaking their thin and narrow blades. Most of -your curved sawing can be done better with a turning-saw or at a mill by -a band- or jig-saw. If done at the mill, have a piece of waste wood put -on the under side to prevent the burr, or ragged edge, left by the -sawing. - -A common way to test saws, when buying, is to take the handle in one -hand and bend the point of the saw around in a curve sideways and then -let the blade spring back, which it should do without being permanently -bent or sprung. - -[Illustration FIG. 658.] - -Do not saw from one side of the line. Have your eyes above the line so -that you can look on both sides of the saw (Fig. 657). This will help -you to keep the saw-blade at right angles with the surface of the wood. - -Hold the saw firmly with the forefinger pressed against the side of the -handle to help guide and steady it (Fig. 657). - -Having placed the saw just at the outside edge of the line and on the -farther side of the piece, seize the wood with the left hand and hold -the thumb against the blade (_above_ the teeth) to help start the cut in -the right place (Fig. 658). Aside from the danger of the saw jumping and -damaging the wood unless guided by the thumb, it is liable to cut your -left hand. - -You can make a little notch with the knife or chisel on the outside of -the line, to help start the saw, in the case of nice work, if you wish. -Cut straight in just on the line and then make a sloping cut to meet -this from outside the line (Fig. 659). First draw the saw gently -backwards, guiding it by the thumb, with as little pressure on the wood -as possible until you see that the cut is started right, then push it -gently forward, and after a few easy strokes in this way to get the cut -started right, keep on with long, steady strokes, but not long enough so -that the end of the saw enters the kerf, lest it catch and the saw -buckle. The saw should cut most on the downward motion, not on the up -stroke. - -[Illustration FIG. 659.] - -With a sharp saw, there is nothing gained by bearing down heavily on the -teeth, which may spring the saw and make crooked work. Rather let the -saw run of itself with an easy, _light_ stroke, guiding it carefully, -and not letting it press on the wood on the up stroke. The more hastily -and furiously you saw the poorer the result will probably be. - -When you _begin_ to run off the line, as you will be pretty sure to do, -twist the saw a little with the wrist as you go on, which will bring it -back to the line, because of the kerf being wider than the thickness of -the saw-blade. - -[Illustration FIG. 660.] - -Beginners are apt to bend the saw over to one side. You can tell whether -it is cutting at right angles with the face of the board by testing with -the try-square as shown in Fig. 660. Such a test as this is, however, -too inconvenient for ordinary practical work and you should learn as -quickly as you can to hold the saw-blade correctly. - -At the end of the cut, as at the beginning, saw gently with quick, light -strokes, and hold the piece which is being cut off with the left hand, -lest it break off and splinter one of the two pieces. - -If the saw "binds" or does not work easily, you can for your _rougher_ -work put a little tallow, butter, lard, or lubricating oil on the blade, -but beware of doing this for your _nice_ work, or it will deface it -when done. If the binding is caused by the springing together of the -wood (Fig. 695) the crack should be wedged open. - -Do not get into the habit of sawing a little way outside of the line and -then trimming off the superfluous wood with your knife or a chisel. That -is not a good way to learn to saw by a line. Try your best to make the -cut where it should be (even if you do make mistakes for a good while) -and thus get into the habit of doing it right without having to rely on -any other tool than the saw. - -Many pieces of wood can better be screwed in the vise for sawing instead -of being laid on the horses, and this position is often preferable. In -this case you grasp the wood with the left hand and use the saw as -already described. (See _Sharpening_). - - -=Saw-Filing.=--See _Sharpening_. - - -=Sawing.=--See _Saw_. - - -=Saw-Set.=--Various contrivances can be bought for setting saw teeth. -When you get to the point of needing one you can easily find a variety -from which to select. - - -=Scraper.=--The scraper is made of saw-blade steel (frequently from an -old saw) and may be of any shape or size to suit the work required of -it. A common form for scraping flat surfaces is rectangular like a -postal-card, and a good size is from 2" x 4" to 3" x 5". - -A piece of glass makes a good scraper for almost every purpose except -where a flat, true surface is required. It is good to smooth the handle -of a paddle, for instance, but not good for scraping the top of a nice -table. For many rounded surfaces glass is fully as good as a steel -scraper, but for general use the latter is much better. The following -directions may be of use when you wish to break glass to use for a -scraper: "Take the back of a knife, or the smooth, straight edge of any -piece of iron fixed with tolerable firmness for a moment, then, taking -the piece of glass in both hands, rest its edge midway between them on -the edge of the iron; let the upper edge of the glass lean from you, -and push it gently along the iron, so as slightly to indent the edge of -the glass; then, reversing its position so as to make it lean towards -you, draw it smartly along the iron, and you will find it separated by a -clean fracture directly across, forming a line more or less curved, and -leaving one edge of the glass much sharper than the other. By a little -practice, and by pressing a little more with one hand than the other, -almost any curvature that the work to be done may require may be -achieved" (Lord and Baines, _Shifts and Expedients of Camp Life_). - -The edge of the scraper is turned over so as to form a sort of hooked -edge or angle (Fig. 661), which when pushed over the surface scrapes off -thin shavings. To smooth a flat surface the scraper can be held with -both hands, between the fingers and thumb (Fig. 662), and pushed along -in the direction towards which it is inclined. Sometimes one end of the -scraper is held between the thumb and fingers of the left hand and the -palm of the right hand applied below to push the tool along. As a rule -scrape with the grain, and it is often advantageous to hold the scraper -obliquely to the grain when pushing it forward. In case of some crooked -and twisted grain you will find it best to scrape in any and in all -directions. - -[Illustration FIG. 661.] - -[Illustration FIG. 662.] - -You can make scrapers yourself by filing and grinding pieces of old -saw-blades. It is very convenient to have a number of them with edges of -various degrees of curvature (both convex and concave), but these you -can make as you need them. A scraper is sometimes set in a stock and -guided by handles like those of a spoke-shave, and sometimes set in a -stock like a plane and used in the same manner. A scraper of the latter -sort is often useful to assist in keeping the surface true when -scraping, as its flat sole prevents its following all the undulations of -the surface as readily as the hand-scraper, with which one is apt to -make depressions by scraping too much in some particular spot. But so -far as smoothing the surface goes there is nothing better than the -common hand-scraper or so easily taken care of. For sharpening the -scraper, see _Sharpening_. - -In many large places you can get your wood for nice work scraped to a -satin-like finish by a machine made for the purpose, but this is hardly -worth while for ordinary work. You can also have it smoothed very nicely -by sandpapering machines, but this is not advisable if there is to be -any cutting of the wood afterwards, as the grit left in the pores of the -wood will quickly take the keen edge from your tools. - -The best test for smoothness alone is to run the fingers over the -surface with a light touch. Great acuteness of touch can be acquired in -this way. Any experienced wood-worker can at once detect inequalities -with his fingers that he could not possibly see. Irregularities in -curves can be detected in the same way. - -_Bead cutters_ or _scrapers_ and _reed scrapers_ and _fluters_ can be -bought of various patterns. You will hardly need to buy anything of the -sort for some time, as you can make one when required. See _Beading_. - - -=Scratch-Awl.=--See _Awl_. - - -=Screw-Driver.=--The screw-driver is too familiar to need description, -but in buying one see that the end is shaped like either of those shown -in Fig. 663 and not as shown in Fig. 664. Cheap screw-drivers are often -made in the latter way. If ground with a short bevel (Fig. 664) it will -bear only on the top of the slot in the screw and will be all the time -slipping out, on the principle of the inclined plane, while if the sides -are parallel or concaved slightly the end will remain at the bottom of -the nick of the screw. This is also a help in extracting screws, as it -saves the need of pressing against the screw so hard to keep the -screw-driver from slipping out of the slot. It is well to have -screw-drivers of different sizes, as it is difficult and often -impossible to use a screw-driver with an edge much too large or too -small. - -[Illustration FIG. 663.] - -[Illustration FIG. 664.] - -Remember that a long screw-driver is always preferable to a short one, -except where lack of space makes a short one necessary. The reason for -this is in the fact that in using the screw-driver you do not, as a -practical matter, keep it exactly in the line of the screw, but keep -wobbling it round more or less, which gives a leverage in the form of a -crank-like action as you turn the handle. The longer the screw-driver -the larger the circle or wobbling curve you describe with your hand and -the greater the leverage (Fig. 665). - -[Illustration FIG. 665.] - -A screw-driver to be turned by the bit-brace is very useful for driving -screws rapidly and with force, on account of the greater leverage gained -by using the brace instead of the common handle. This is particularly -useful where they need to be driven in very hard or when tight screws -have to be loosened. It also saves much time when many screws are to be -used. It is not advisable to buy automatic screw-drivers. They work -satisfactorily for light work, but are not suitable for such wrenching -and straining as your screw-drivers are liable to be subjected to. You -want screw-drivers to which you can apply all your strength. See -_Screws_. - - -=Screws.=--There are many kinds of screws. You will use the common -wood-screws for most of your work. These are either flat-headed or -round-headed, and of steel (either bright or blue or bronzed or nickled) -or of brass. When others are required they will be mentioned. It is -doubtful economy to buy second-hand or waste screws, but a pound or two -of "mixed" screws, which you can get at any hardware store, will be -very useful when you want some odd screw for some special purpose. Many -of the screws in the "mixed" lots, which are sold very cheap, are -defective, but you can often find among them just the peculiar screw you -need, and so save time and money. - -Nails are often used where it would be better to use screws, which will, -as a rule, hold the pieces more securely. When work becomes loose, -screws can be tightened, while nails usually have to be redriven. - -To make a screw drive easily, rub the point on a piece of common soap. -Oil is objectionable for nice work on account of the spot made by it. If -screws are to be used in places where they may rust, it is a good plan -to warm them slightly and then dip them in melted tallow or lard. They -can also be inserted and removed more easily for this treatment. Try to -keep the screw-driver from slipping from the slot of the screw (see -_Screw-driver_). - -[Illustration FIG. 666.] - -In boring holes for screws, considerable discretion must be used. The -hole in the outer piece (the one nearer the head of the screw) should be -large enough to allow the screw to slip through freely--that is, you -should not screw it into both pieces, but only the inner one, the screw -acting somewhat in the nature of a clamp to bind the outer piece to the -inner by pinching it tight between the screw-head and the inner piece -(Fig. 666). How much of a hole to bore in the piece into which the point -of the screw enters depends on circumstances. The stouter the screw the -less hole required. The softer and larger the piece and the farther from -the edge the less hole required. If the piece is small or liable to -split, the hole must be carefully made--the more carefully in proportion -to the slenderness of the screw, as a slim screw is liable to twist off -in hard wood unless a sufficient hole is provided. Brass screws are very -apt to do this, and much care must be used, particularly with slender -ones in hard wood. If the hole is a bit too large, they will not hold. -If a trifle too small, they will twist off, which is very annoying, -especially in such cases as hinge-screws, for instance, where the place -for the screws cannot well be changed. The hole should be somewhat -smaller than the diameter of the screw. In good-sized pieces of soft -wood there is frequently no need of any hole. - -In rough work, especially in soft wood, the screws may be pounded part -way with the hammer, driving them home with the screw-driver. Some -theoretical workman will be quite sure to tell you never to do such a -thing as that, so be sure to understand what is meant. Theoretically -there may be some loss of holding power by that process, but practically -the screws will hold just as well for the cases in which you are advised -to do that way. Judgment must be used about all such things and theories -are only of value when used by the light of common-sense. For example, -if you are screwing the top on a mahogany table or framing a nice boat -_never_ think of using a hammer to start your screws, but if you are -putting cleats on an old shed door or screwing up a packing-case do not -spend an hour and a lot of strength driving screws all the way with a -screw-driver when you can do the work in half an hour by driving the -screws three quarters of the way in with the hammer. Good practical -workmen are just as certain to use the hammer in such cases as they are -careful _not_ to use it for nice work or where the full holding power of -the screw is needed. - -Flat-headed screws almost always should be countersunk (see -_Countersink_), for neatness if for no other reason, and in hard wood -you should cut the depression for the head of the screw with the regular -countersink made for the purpose. This should be done for nice work in -soft wood where a good surface is required, but for _common_ work in -soft wood there is no need, as a rule, for the head of the screw will -sink itself easily until flush with the surface. - -If a screw hole requires to be moved a little, but not far enough so -that a new hole can be bored without the bit slipping into the old hole, -plug the old hole with a wooden pin dipped in glue, and when dry bore -the new hole where required. - -See _Screw-driver_. - - -=Scribing.=--Compasses are often used for scribing a line parallel to -another line or surface, whether regular or irregular, in places where -the gauge cannot be used. Suppose, for instance, you wish to cut the -edge of a board to fit the undulating surface shown in Fig. 667. Run -the compasses along with one point on the surface and the other making a -mark on the board, and the line on the board will be parallel with the -surface. - -[Illustration FIG. 667.] - -[Illustration FIG. 668.] - -[Illustration FIG. 669.] - -Another example is that of making a table, bench, chair, horse, or any -four-legged object stand evenly. If it stands on three legs, which is a -common fault and likely to occur in your first attempts, do not hastily -saw one leg shorter by guess, and, making it too short, saw another and -so on until it stands firmly, when the top will probably be all out of -level. If there is any true surface on which you can stand the article -(right side up), you can level the top by wedging under the legs until -the corners of the top are equally distant from the surface on which the -object stands. Then setting the compasses at a distance equal to that at -which the end of the shortest leg is raised (Fig. 668), scribe around -the other legs, which can then be cut off.[50] - -See also _Winding-Sticks_ and _Marking_. - - -=Setting Saws.=--See _Sharpening_. - - -=Sharpening.=--Before attempting to sharpen your tools yourself it would -be well to read the advice given on page 22 under _Care of Tools_. - -The general process of sharpening edged tools is first to grind them to -as keen an edge as possible on the grindstone, or the emery-wheel, then -to smooth down the coarse edge left by the grindstone by rubbing on a -fine stone with oil or water, and finally stropping on leather. The -grindstone must be kept wet while grinding or the heat caused by the -friction of the tool on the dry stone will ruin the temper of the steel. -Besides, the water carries off the waste particles of stone and steel. -Stand on the side towards which the top of the stone turns. The tool can -be ground with the stone turning from you, and, in fact, this usually -seems the natural way to a novice, but it is usually more difficult to -grind uniformly in that way and too thin an edge (a "wire-edge," ragged -but not sharp) is apt to be produced, the removal of which is difficult -without further damaging the edge and delaying the final sharpening. - -To grind the point of a knife, it can be moved back and forth lengthways -with a curving motion, while resting flat on the grindstone, and to -grind the straight part of the blade, it can be allowed to bear very -slightly harder near the edge of the stone than elsewhere, as it is -passed back and forth. - -To grind a chisel, grasp the handle with the right hand, hold the blade -in the left hand with the fingers uppermost and near the cutting-edge. -The arms and wrists should be kept as rigid as possible, the former at -the sides of the body, so that the tool may be held firmly against the -motion of the stone. Lay the chisel with slight pressure quite flatly on -the stone and then raise the handle until the bevel touches the stone. -As you grind keep moving the tool slowly back and forth across the -stone, which helps keep the edge of the tool straight and prevents the -stone being worn away too much in one place. Use plenty of water. - -The common way of holding the tool on the stone is the one just -described, but it can also be held at right angles to this position, so -that, in the case of a chisel, for instance, the grinding action of the -stone instead of being from the edge toward the handle is from side to -side of the blade. The tool is ground quicker and easier by this means, -and it is a good way to reduce the edge to shape, finishing the grinding -by the regular method. - -You will see that the curvature of the stone will tend to give the bevel -a slight curve, in whatever position the tool is held, which is -advantageous in the common way of grinding. When held so that the stone -grinds from side to side of the blade the tool must be continually -turned a little in the hand so that each part of the edge will bear in -turn on the stone, as, the tool edge being flat, and the surface of the -stone rounding, the tool would otherwise be ground hollowing. It is -harder to hold the tool in this way, however, without its slipping or -making nicks or grooves in the stone, and you had best learn to grind in -the ordinary manner. - -Try to grind squarely across the chisel--that is, to have the -cutting-edge at right angles to the lengthways edge of the tool. Apply -the square at intervals to test the accuracy of the grinding. - -The angle for grinding the bevel of such tools as the chisel is about -twenty-five degrees, but when used for very hard wood the angle should -be slightly greater, or the edge may be broken. - -Do all the grinding on the bevel. Do not apply the flat side of the tool -to the grindstone. Any slight burr or turning over of the edge on the -flat side should be taken off by the oil-stone. - -If the edge is badly nicked or broken, you can first straighten or grind -it down roughly on the side of the stone or by holding it nearly at -right angles to the stone--but with the latter turning the other -way--before grinding in the regular way. - -To tell when the tool is ground sufficiently, hold the edge in front of -you toward the light. If the edge can be seen as a bright shining line -it is a sign that the tool is dull. It will not be sharp until this -bright line has been removed, and the edge has become invisible, for a -really keen edge cannot be seen by the naked eye. Bear this in mind, as -it is the final test and the simplest way to tell when to stop grinding. - -In grinding on a grindstone and in rubbing on an oil-stone, the great -difficulty is to keep the same angle between the tool and the stone, as -the natural tendency in moving the tool is to rock it back and forth and -thus alter the angle between the blade and the stone. An arrangement can -be bought which preserves the desired angle without effort on the part -of the grinder. A little ingenuity will enable you to rig up a guide or -gauge with a piece of board which will enable you to replace the tool on -the grindstone at the same angle. - -The plane-iron is sharpened in the same way as the chisel, only, being -wider than most of the chisels you are likely to use, it requires more -care to sharpen. The plane-irons can be ground to a somewhat more acute -angle than the chisels, although the jack-plane, which is used for rough -work, may require more strength at the edge. - -In rubbing the edge upon the _oil-stone_, do not attempt to smooth down -the whole bevel made by the grindstone, but first lay the tool lightly -on the stone as shown in Fig. 670_a_, then raise the handle until the -upper part of the bevel is very slightly raised,--barely enough to clear -the stone (Fig. 670_b_),--and then proceed with the whetting, thus -making a second or little bevel at the edge (Fig. 671). - -The tool must be moved back and forth very steadily or instead of a -second bevel the whole edge will be rounded (Fig. 672) and will not have -the requisite keenness. The angle of this second bevel is usually about -ten degrees greater than the long bevel, or thirty-five degrees, -although the angles of sharpening should be varied slightly according to -the hardness of the wood and the kind of work to be done; but where you -have only few tools and must use them for all kinds of work you cannot -always, as a practical matter, pay much regard to such variations, as of -course you cannot keep regrinding your tools every time you begin on a -new piece of wood. Just how acute to make the edge you must learn by -experience, according to the conditions of your work. An edge suitable -for delicate work in white-pine would be immediately ruined if used upon -lignum-vitae. - -[Illustration FIG. 670.] - -[Illustration FIG. 671.] - -[Illustration FIG. 672.] - -Any little wire edge which is produced on the flat side by the process -of rubbing on the oil-stone can be removed by drawing the flat side of -the iron over the stone once, but be sure that you do not raise the -handle at all, as the slightest bevel on the flat side of the edge will -spoil it. After the tool has been sharpened a good many times on the -oil-stone this smaller bevel (the oil-stone bevel, so to speak) will -become so wide that it is a waste of time and strength to rub it down. -The chisel must then be reground and a new bevel made on the oil-stone. - -It is a good plan to have a separate stone or "slip" for the outside -bevel of gouges, because it is so hard to avoid rubbing hollows in the -stone, which injures it for the other tools. Care must be taken also -with very narrow or pointed tools lest the stone be grooved or nicked. -Gouges can be rubbed at right angles with the stone, rolling the tool -with the left hand, or by the use of a slip they can be rubbed as -described below. For rubbing gouges on the inside, _i.e._, on the -concave surface, rounded pieces of stone, called "slips," are used. -These can be bought of various sizes and shapes to fit the various -curves. Do not think, however, that you must try to find a slip that -will fit each gouge as exactly as if it had been shaped by the gouge -itself. The curve of the slip may be a little "quicker" or sharper than -that of the tool, but must not be flatter or of course it cannot be made -to bear on all parts of the curve. - -In rubbing with the slip, hold the tool upright in the hand and rub the -slip up and down, moving the slip and not the tool. If you rest the -tool against the bench, it will steady it and also avoid any probability -of your finger slipping on to the edge. The more common "outside" gouges -are not rubbed on the inside, except the merest touch of the slip to -remove any wire edge or burr. The draw-knife is also rubbed with a flat -slip, in the same manner, resting it on the bench. - -In rubbing the knife on the oil-stone give it a circular motion rather -than simply back and forth, particularly for the point. The straight -part can be allowed to bear a little more heavily near the edge of the -stone as it is passed back and forth. - -It is much the best way to sharpen tools frequently, as soon as they -begin to get dull, when they will require but little rubbing on the -stone, rather than to let them get into such condition that it is a long -and hard job to whet them; and of course the more careful you are to -_keep_ them sharp, the better work you will do. - -To test the sharpness of your tools, cut across the grain of a piece of -soft pine wood. If the cut is clean and smooth, the tools are sharp, but -if the cut is rough or the wood torn, further sharpening is needed. The -reason for using soft wood, which at first thought might not seem to -require as keen an edge as hard wood, is because the fibrous structure -of the soft wood, being more yielding, offers less resistance to the -tool and so is torn or crushed apart except by a very keen edge, while -the firmer structure of the hard wood can be cut smoothly by a tool -which would tear the soft wood. The difference is somewhat like that -between cutting a fresh loaf of bread or cake and a stale one. - -The edge left by the oil-stone can be improved by _stropping_ on a piece -of leather on which a little paste of lard and emery or some similar -composition has been spread. This is better than to strop knives and -other tools on your boots. Any piece of leather such as barbers use, or -even a piece from an old boot, will answer. For flat edges see that the -strop rests on a flat surface, so as not to tend to round the edge, as -it may do if held carelessly in the hand. See _Oil-stone_ and _Strop_. - -_Saw Filing_ is particularly hard for boys and amateurs to do -satisfactorily and you are advised not to undertake it until you have -become quite familiar with the use of tools, for it does not need to be -done very often, costs but little, and there are very few places where -you cannot get it done. - -It is not difficult to understand the _theory_ of setting and filing saw -teeth, but to fix a saw in really good shape is hard for an -amateur,--and for that matter you will find but a small proportion of -good workmen who are experts in saw filing. Even in very small villages -there is almost always some mechanic who has the knack of putting saws -in order better than anyone else and who therefore makes quite a -business of such work and people bring their saws to him from all the -country round, even though they may be able to fix them tolerably well -themselves, so great is the advantage in the quality of the work and the -saving of time in having a saw in perfect condition. You had best do the -same, and have your saws fixed whenever they get dull. The expense is -but slight, and there is nothing that will conduce more to good work, -and to your own success and satisfaction, than to have your tools in -first-rate working order. - -When you get to the point of filing and setting your saws you are -advised to take a lesson from a good saw-filer. There are few persons so -situated that they cannot do this, or at least watch someone go through -the process, and thus learn much more readily than by reading about the -process in a book. In fact, it is one of those things that it is so hard -to learn from a book that merely a few remarks on the subject are given -here. - -The saw is firmly fastened in a saw-clamp, expressly for the purpose, so -that it will not shake or rattle. The teeth are "jointed," or reduced to -the same level, by lightly passing the flat side of a file over their -points, lengthways of the saw. The saw can also be jointed along the -sides after filing, but this is frequently omitted. - -For a cross-cutting saw the file (a triangular saw-file) is held at an -angle with the blade depending upon the particular form of tooth -adopted, as you will see by examination. The handle being grasped in the -right hand, the point of the file should be held between the thumb and -forefinger of the left hand (Fig. 526). The file must be pushed across -with an even, straight stroke, without any rocking or up and down -motion, pressure being applied only on the forward or pushing stroke, -the tool being drawn back very lightly or lifted entirely on the back -stroke. The filing is begun at one end of the saw, filing only the teeth -which bend away from you (_i.e._, every alternate tooth), carefully -keeping the file at the proper angle, pressing only on the tooth you are -filing, but keeping the tool lightly touching the adjacent tooth, and -making allowance for the fact that when you file the alternate set the -passing file will take off a little from the teeth first filed. The saw -is then turned around and the process repeated with the other teeth. If -you look lengthways along the edge of a panel-saw that has been properly -filed and set, an angular trough or groove will be seen along the whole -length, so that you can slide a needle along in it from one end of the -saw to the other. - -The ripping-saw is usually filed squarely across the saw (at -right-angles to the blade), as you will see at once on examination of -the teeth (Figs. 654 and 655), but sometimes at a more acute angle. - -The teeth are set by bending every other tooth outward, first setting -those on one side and then those on the other. You should do this with -some one of the various adjustable tooth-setting contrivances sold for -the purpose, as it requires a skilled workman to set teeth in any other -way, and any attempt on your part to do so without some instrument -adjusted to the purpose will probably result in damaging the saw. - -For soft and loose-fibred wood more set is needed than for hard wood, -because the fibres, which are quite cleanly cut or broken in the hard -wood, in the more yielding soft wood are bent aside by the teeth to -close in upon the blade with considerable binding force; and less set is -required by fine work than for coarse. The angles and points of saw -teeth can be more acute for soft than for hard wood. - -To sharpen the scraper you must have a sharpener or burnisher. The edge -of a chisel or any piece of very hard steel can be used after a fashion, -but it is better to have a regular tool for the purpose, which can be -made easily from an old three-cornered file, such as is used for filing -saws, by grinding off the teeth and slightly rounding the angles on the -grindstone until the whole tool is smooth. Two opposite edges of the -scraper are ground or filed and the edge then turned over by the -burnisher. Some workmen grind the edges with an obtuse bevel and use -only one angle of each edge. Others grind the edges square and use both -angles of each edge. The bevel gives a slightly keener scraping edge -than to grind the steel square, but it requires more frequent sharpening -and the squared edge turned over on both sides is likely to be more -satisfactory. - -[Illustration FIG. 673.] - -First grind or file the two opposite edges squarely across and slightly -round each corner to prevent scratching the wood. If there is a burr at -the edge it can be removed by rubbing the scraper lightly on the -oil-stone, but this is advisable only for final scraping of very fine -work. Having thus got the edge at right angles and smooth, lay the -scraper flat on its side near the edge of the bench and rub the -burnisher back and forth a few times in the position shown in Fig. 673, -which is almost flat on the scraper. This rubbing bends a little of the -steel over the edge. Do this on each opposite edge of the two sides, -giving four edges thus curled over. Next, holding the scraper as shown -in Fig. 674, draw the burnisher with a firm, even stroke, once or twice, -lengthways of the edge, as shown. The scraper can be laid flat on the -bench, if preferred, slightly projecting over the edge. Notice that the -tool should be drawn with a slightly end to end motion, as shown, which -helps turn the edge. This turns a fine scraping edge, which will take -off shavings. All four edges are treated in the same way. After one edge -gets dull, use another. When all four are dull, resharpen with the -burnisher as before, without grinding or filing the edge. This can be -done a few times, but soon the edges will get worn off and rounded, and -the scraper then needs refiling. - -[Illustration FIG. 674.] - - -=Shellac.=--See _Finishing_. - - -=Shell-Bit=.--See _Bits_. - - -=Shelves.=--Examples of shelves fitted permanently into place are given -in Chapter X. (on Furniture). Removable shelves can most easily be -fitted to rest on cleats screwed to the sides of the space, but this -arrangement does not always look very well and the position of the -shelves cannot be changed so readily as by using screw-eyes driven into -the sides under the shelves (Fig. 675), recesses of the right shape -being cut on the under side of the shelves so that the screw-eyes will -be sunk and not be conspicuous. The position of the shelves can quickly -be changed by screwing the supports higher or lower as may be required. -Pins and other contrivances to fit in a series of holes can be bought -for this purpose. A common way to adjust shelves is shown in Fig. 676. -The construction is obvious. The vertical strips can be laid on edge -side by side, clamped together, and the notches laid out and cut as if -there were but one piece. Where a circular saw is available the notches -are cut on the side of a narrow piece of board which is then sawed into -the desired strips or "ratchets." - -[Illustration FIG. 675.] - -[Illustration FIG. 676.] - - -=Shooting-Board.=--The shooting-board is very useful for jointing edges, -particularly for short, thin stock. The carpenter or cabinet-maker will -make you one for a moderate price, or you can make one yourself as soon -as you become a good enough workman (see page 93). - -[Illustration FIG. 677.] - -To use it, the board to be jointed is laid flat on the raised part of -the shooting-board, where it is firmly held with the left hand, with the -end of the board pressing against the stop of the shooting-board, and -the edge to be jointed lapping over the edge of the raised part. The -planing is done with the plane lying on its side on the lower part of -the shooting-board (Fig. 677). The cutting-edge of the plane thus being -at right angles with the surface of the board, the edge will be planed -squarely across. The shooting-board should be fastened on the bench in -some way, to prevent it from slipping around. - -Attachments to keep the sole of the plane at right angles to the surface -of the piece can be had at any hardware store, and serve the same -purpose as a shooting-board for thick stock, but not equally well for -thin pieces. - -You can reverse the sides of two pieces to be jointed for gluing, as -described on page 406, giving a joint like that shown in Fig. 678 (which -is exaggerated). The iron of the plane is sometimes purposely set to -project unevenly beyond the sole. - -[Illustration FIG. 678.] - -If you have many joints to make, you can have the edges jointed at -slight expense at any wood-working mill on a planer made for the -purpose. See _Jointing_. - - -=Smoothing-Plane.=--See _Plane_. - - -=Smoothing Surfaces.=--See _Plane_, _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_. - - -=Splices.=--See _Joints and Splices_. - - -=Spline.=--A flexible strip, used as a ruler, for drawing curves. See -_Marking_. - - -=Splitting-Saw.=--See _Saw_. - - -=Splitting Wood.=--We have seen how a log in drying cracks along the -radial lines (page 31), thus showing the natural lines of cleavage or -separation in the direction of the medullary rays, that is, radiating -from the centre. From this we see that the wood will, of course, split -most easily and smoothly on the radial lines. Like all wood-choppers you -can often make practical use of this fact in splitting wood with a knife -or chisel, or in splitting fuel with an axe. The next easiest way to -split wood is as nearly as may be on the line of the annual rings, or -tangential to the line of the medullary rays, in the same direction as -when the layers separate in forming "cup shakes" (see Appendix). This -way is sometimes easier than to rive a stout log through the centre. - - -=Spokeshave.=--The spoke-shave is very useful for smoothing small curved -and irregular surfaces. Metal spoke-shaves of various patterns can be -bought with various adjustments for different curves, etc. Also a -"universal" spoke-shave can be had, with movable handles and detachable -bottoms which can be adapted for curved or straight work, and a width -gauge by means of which it can be used for rabbeting. - -The spoke-shave is a very useful tool and works upon the same general -principle as the plane, but lacking the long flat sole of the plane is -used only for irregular surfaces, which its short and sometimes curved -face enables it to smooth with great ease. It also acts on the same -principle as a draw-knife with the addition of a guiding stock. It bears -somewhat the same relation to the draw-knife that the plane does to the -chisel. - -[Illustration FIG. 679.] - -Grasp the tool firmly, bearing downward with both hands and pressing -forward with the thumbs, pushing the tool from you so as to cut like a -plane (Fig. 679). Of course it can also be drawn towards you when the -circumstances of the work render it advisable. See _Paring_ and -_Sharpening_. - - -=Spoon-Bit.=--See _Bits_. - - -=Square.=--This tool is one of the most useful in the list, for the -importance of having your work "square" can hardly be over-estimated. - -The _try-square_ should have a metal strip on the inside edge of the -wooden arm, head, or beam, or the handle can be wholly of metal. Get a -medium-sized try-square (9- or 10-inch blade is good) rather than a very -small one, as it is much more useful; and a graduated scale, like a -rule, on the blade is sometimes serviceable. - -[Illustration FIG. 680.] - -The primary use of this tool is to test or "try" the accuracy of -right-angled work--hence the name. The one special point to bear in mind -in using it for this purpose is to be sure that the head or beam is -pressed _firmly_ against the edge or side to which it is applied, -determining the accuracy of the angle by the position of the blade (Fig. -680). - -You will also use the try-square continually for marking straight lines -across boards or timbers at right angles to one side or one edge (Fig. -681). In using it for this purpose be sure not merely to press the head -of the square firmly against the edge of the board, but to _keep_ it -securely in the same position. When the blade is placed correctly on the -given point do the marking as by any straight-edge. Another way is to -place the point of the pencil or knife directly on the given point and -slide the square along until it bears on the pencil or knife. Then, -keeping the head of the square firmly against the edge, the line can be -drawn along the blade. - -[Illustration FIG. 681.] - -[Illustration FIG. 682.] - -The try-square sometimes is made with the end of the head or beam next -the blade cut on a bevel. By placing this bevel against the edge a -try-square of this construction can also be used as a mitre-square (Fig. -682). - -If you buy a second-hand square, or if a square has been wrenched, you -can test its accuracy by marking a line with it across a surface from a -straight edge, then turning the square over and repeating the operation; -the two lines should coincide. But the edge from which you rule must be -perfectly straight, or the test will be of no value. If, however, you -buy new squares made by the best makers they will be as accurate as any -test you can apply to them. - -Beginners, particularly young beginners, are very apt to be so engrossed -in making the line along the blade that they forget to keep the head in -position, or let it slip, when the blade will of course cease to be at -right angles with the edge or side (Fig. 683). - -[Illustration FIG. 683.] - -The _framing-square_, "_steel-square_," or large two-foot carpenter's -square, is a very useful and important tool; not merely for framing and -large, heavy work but also for small work, and it is of great value in -many mechanical operations. Even an iron square is very useful, but a -nickel-plated steel-square is the best, as the figures are more distinct -and it is less likely to rust. The long arm makes a good straight-edge. -See also page 181. - -=Staining.=--When you stain wood, do it for the sake of the colour, -preserving the beauty of the grain, and not to try to imitate a more -expensive wood. It is better, as a rule, to use good wood of a handsome -colour and leave it as it is to mellow with age than to stain or colour -it, but there are times when you will wish to stain wood. - -The main point to bear in mind for successful staining is to colour the -wood itself, not to put on a superficial coat of coloured varnish. For -instance, the fumes of ammonia (or the liquid itself) will give oak in a -very short time the same dark colour which the ammonia in the air will -produce after years of exposure. This is a natural process--merely -anticipating the change caused by time. - -There are a number of ways of staining dependent upon such chemical -processes carried on in the wood itself. These ways are the best, as you -can readily see. Having got the right colour, the wood can be oiled, -shellacked, varnished, or waxed in the usual way. By this method the -natural grain of the wood is not obscured. In fact, the figure of the -grain is sometimes made more conspicuous. - -Another way is to wash the wood with some thin stain of the desired -colour, after which you can finish in the usual way. This is a good -method, for the wood itself is coloured to some distance below the -surface, and after it is finished it will take considerable bruising to -expose its original colour. This method also sometimes enhances the -beauty of the grain. - -The poorest way to stain, but a very common one with amateurs and in -cheap work, is, instead of staining the wood itself, to cover the -surface with coloured varnish or shellac. This is often the cheapest and -quickest way of getting a desired colour, but it is decidedly the -poorest way. Of course, no coating of colour put on outside can be as -durable as colour imbedded in the substance of the wood itself, and -scarring or injury to the coating exposes the original colour beneath. -Besides this, the grain and character of the wood are necessarily -obscured by a coloured coating. Wood finished in this way almost always -has a cheap, artificial look, and you can usually detect the fraud at a -glance. There are many cheap "varnish stains" or coloured varnishes, but -you will do well to avoid them, unless for the cheapest and poorest -work. - -There are two things you will wish to do in staining. One is simply to -darken or enrich the natural colour of the wood, so as to give it at -once the rich, deep, mellow tone produced by age. This is always the -best way to do when it will give the colour you want. But if you want to -change the colour entirely--to make pine wood red or green, or cherry -black, you must use some chemical process that will develop a new colour -in the wood, or must apply a regular stain. - -Raw linseed oil alone, well rubbed in and allowed to stand before -applying shellac or varnish, will deepen and bring out the natural -colouring in time as well as anything else, but it takes a good while. -Repeated applications, each thoroughly rubbed in and the excess rubbed -off, and after standing some days or weeks, given a light rubbing down -with fine sandpaper, then another oiling, and so on, will in time give a -surface of beautiful colour, as well as a soft and attractive lustre. -But to carry out this process may take months, so that you will not be -very likely to practise it; but you see the result sometimes on old -wooden tool-handles and plane-stocks which have been so treated. If you -do not care about deepening the colour greatly, one or two applications, -allowed to stand a week or two before finishing, will often be -sufficient and will make a great difference in the looks of your work, -and take off that raw, fresh look peculiar to recently cut wood. - -If your work is such that you can defer the shellacing for a year or so, -as in the case of some pretty piece of furniture to remain in the house, -there is no way you can develop the richness of the wood better than to -oil it and let it stand to mellow, with occasional applications of oil -and rubbing down. Then finally rub down with fine sandpaper and shellac -in the usual way. - -To hasten the process we must apply something stronger than oil. If the -work is of oak, shut it up in a box or _tight_ closet, with a dish of -_strong_ ammonia on the floor. Do not stay in the box or closet -yourself, as it is dangerous. A simpler way is to wash the work with the -ammonia, more than once if necessary. Have the room well ventilated when -you do this, and do not inhale more of the fumes than necessary. Wetting -the wood is sometimes a disadvantage, however, in glued-up work, and it -"raises the grain," which must be rubbed down with fine sandpaper before -finishing. - -To deepen the colour of mahogany or cherry, simply wash it with -lime-water (a simple solution of common lime in water) as many times as -may be necessary, which is cheap and effective. After this process, -thoroughly clean out all cracks and corners before sandpapering, for -particles of the lime which may be deposited will spoil the appearance -of the work when finished. This process preserves the natural appearance -of the wood. The only drawback is the necessity of getting the work so -wet. Some days should be allowed for the water to evaporate before -shellacking. To get a darker shade, apply in the same way a solution of -bichromate of potash in water. - -Whitewood takes stains finely--much better than pine. Oak will stain -almost any colour, but the individuality of the wood--the character of -its grain and structure--is so strongly marked that it is poor taste to -attempt to stain it to imitate other woods. If you stain it, stain it -just as you would paint it, simply for the colour. - -A good way for indoor work, such as a piece of furniture or anything of -the sort you may wish to colour, is to mix dry pigments with japan and -then thin the mixture with turpentine, or turpentine alone can be used. -After the work is coloured in this way put on a couple of coats of -varnish. For outside work you can use oil. This is a cheap way and wears -well. It applies only to the cheaper woods which you do not care to -leave of the natural colour. For black inside work you can use -ivory-black, ground in japan and thinned with turpentine. Ivory-black or -bone-black are superior to lampblack, but the latter will do very well -for most purposes. Dragon's blood in alcohol is used to give a colour -similar to mahogany. Alkanet root in raw linseed oil will give a warm -and mellow hue to mahogany or cherry. - -There is an almost endless number of recipes for staining, but such -others as you need you can learn from some finisher or painter, for the -limits of this book do not allow fuller treatment of so extensive a -subject. - - -=Steel-Square.=--See _Square_. - - -=Steel-Wool.=--Long, fine steel shavings done up in bundles can be used -instead of sandpaper for some purposes. There are various degrees of -fineness. This is good for cleaning off paint and for smoothing curved -surfaces, but should not be used until all work with the edge-tools is -done, because of the particles of the metal. It can be used for "rubbing -down" in finishing. - - -=Straight-Bent Chisel.=--See _Chisel_. - - -=Straight-Edge.=--There are no definite dimensions for a straight-edge. -Any piece of wood that is straight and convenient to use can be so -called; the size and the length depending on the work for which it is -to be used, from a common ruler to a long board. The edge of a large -carpenter's square is handy for short work. Clear white pine or -straight-grained mahogany is good for straight-edges, but a -straight-edge is not the easiest thing for a beginner to make, and you -will do well to find something straight to use for a while until you -acquire the skill to make one--or get the carpenter to make you one, -which he will do for a very small sum or for nothing. - -[Illustration FIG. 684.] - -To test a straight-edge, mark a line by it, then turn the straight-edge -over and see if it still coincides with the line, or mark another line -and see if it coincides with the first one. Try your straight-edges by -this test once in a while, as they are liable to become crooked. In -turning the edge over, however, do not reverse the ends, as in case of -an undulating curvature the curves may agree and give you the impression -that the edge is straight when it is not. In the first case shown in -Fig. 684 (exaggerated) this would not happen, but in the second case -(also exaggerated) it might. See _Marking_. - - -=Strop.=--A piece of hard, smooth leather on which to strop your tools -you can easily procure. It can be fastened on a piece of wood (see page -85). Spread on it a paste of sweet oil and emery, lard oil and crocus -powder, or some similar preparation. A pine board on which "air-dust" -has accumulated can even be used. See remarks under _Sharpening_. - - -=Tacks.=--Tacks are sold as one-ounce, two-ounce, and so on according -to size. - -Do not use tacks for fastening wood to wood, but only for fastening -leather or cloth or the like to wood. The pointed wedge-shape of the -tack tends to split thin wood, and is not at all suitable to fasten two -pieces of wood together, particularly in thin wood or near the edge. -Possibly you may have seen some disastrous results from the attempt to -tack pieces of wood together. - - -=Tape-Measure.=--This article (preferably of steel) is often useful, -though not nearly as important for an amateur to buy as many other -things. - - -=Tenon.=--See _Mortising_. - - -=Tenon-Saw.=--See _Saw_ (_Back-Saw_). - - -=Tool-Racks.=--See page 83. - - -=Toothed-Plane.=--See _Plane_. - - -[Illustration FIG. 685.] - -[Illustration FIG. 686.] - -=Truing Surfaces.=--To true a curved or warped surface, as of a board, -lay it on the bench with the rounded side down and wedge it firmly -underneath to make it as nearly level as possible. Then scribe a line -with the compasses across each end of the board at the height of the -lowest point of the surface (Fig. 685). Cut a depression or kind of -rabbet at each end down to this line (Fig. 686). Next, by the use of -winding-sticks placed on each of these rabbets you can easily see -whether they are in line (see _Winding-sticks_). Alter the rabbets if -necessary to get them in line. Draw lines on each edge connecting the -bottoms of the rabbets, and plane away the superfluous wood down to -these lines. When this is done the top of the board will be true or in -the same plane. Test it by placing the straight-edges in different -positions on the surface and sighting as before, correcting any errors. -One side of the board being made true in this way, the other can be made -parallel by gauging a line all around the edge, measuring by the -thinnest point of the board, and planing off the superfluous wood in the -same manner as the first side. - -You can sometimes facilitate the process of planing off the superfluous -wood by making cuts with the saw and removing part of it with the -chisel, or by planing across the grain (the jack-plane is good for this -purpose), or paring across the grain with the chisel, or any such -method, always being careful not to cut quite as deep as the intended -surface, so that all the marks and cuts can be removed by the final -planing. See _Plane_, and also page 179. - - -=Try-Square.=--See _Square_. - - -=Turning-Saw.=--See _Saw_. - - -=Turpentine.=--See _Finishing_ and _Painting_. - - -=Twist-Drill.=--The twist-drill is much better than the gimlet-bit. It -makes a good hole, bores easily, is not easily dulled, can be used upon -metal, and one kind in common use can be easily kept in order by simply -sharpening the ends. There are various patterns. A little care is -necessary, however, particularly in hard wood, as they are liable to be -snapped by bending. See _Bits_. - - -=Varnish.=--See _Finishing_. - - -=Veining-Tool.=--See _Carving-Tools_. - - -=Vise.=--See page 65. For vise for metal-work, see page 70. - - -=Warping, To Remove.=--Of course the simplest way to straighten a warped -board is to put a weight on it, but the difficulty here is that it -usually will stay straight only while the weight is on it, unless you -leave it longer than the patience of the average amateur lasts. To do -this (or to warp a straight board either) with some chance of success, -(1) heat one side, or (2) wet one side, or (3) wet one side and heat the -other, or (4) wet both sides and expose one to the fire (Fig. 687). But -do not be too sure that the result will be lasting. Sometimes it will -and sometimes not. Another way is to thoroughly soak the board, press it -into shape between clamps or under a weight, and leave it until dry; a -week or more is none too long, and boiling water is better than cold. -Simply laying a board down on a flat surface will often cause it to -warp, because the two sides of the board will be unequally exposed to -the action of the atmosphere. Planing off one side only, or planing one -side more than the other, often produces the same effect. See pages -50-53 and Appendix. - -[Illustration FIG. 687.] - - -=Wedges.=--Wedges are in constant use for lifting or separating heavy -bodies, as doubtless you know, and the principle of the wedge comes in -in using the axe, hatchet, chisel, knife, and the other edge-tools (see -page 25). Besides this use of the wedge you will often find it valuable -to tighten or clamp objects of various kinds, or to hold them firmly in -place. - -If you wish to split objects or tear them apart, use a _single_ wedge, -for the increasing thickness of the wedge applied at one point tears or -splits the wood apart. But if you merely wish to squeeze, or press, or -hold firmly, or move, _without damaging the shape of the wood_, use -_double_ wedges,--that is, two wedges having the same inclination or -taper and pointing opposite ways. You will see that the sides of the -double wedge (that is, the outsides of the wedges) will be parallel no -matter how hard you drive the separate wedges, so that the pressure will -be exerted without injuring or jamming the surfaces against which the -wedge bears (see Fig. 333). Short, flaring wedges do the work more -quickly, but require harder blows to drive, and are more liable to slip. -Long, tapering wedges work more slowly, more easily, and are not liable -to slip. You will also use wedging to secure tenons and dowels (see -_Mortising_, etc.). - - -=Whittling.=--See _Knife_. - - -=Winding-Sticks.=--Two straight-edges, each of equal width throughout, -can be laid on edge, one across each end of the surface to be tested. -Stand back a little and look across the top edge of one to the top edge -of the other, and if these edges agree you may know at once that there -is no winding where you have placed the straight-edges (Fig. 688). By -putting them in different positions you can finally determine whether -the whole surface is true or not. - -[Illustration FIG. 688.] - -[Illustration FIG. 689.] - -It is more accurate to use winding-sticks considerably longer than the -width of the piece to be tested, as then any warping or winding will be -exaggerated and more easily seen (Fig. 689). If the upper edges of the -sticks are thin, or "feather-edged," it is easier to tell exactly when -they are in line, but this does not ordinarily matter, except in work -requiring extreme accuracy. - -To find, for example, when the legs of a table, chair, or the like are -cut so that the article will stand evenly, turn it over with the legs -sticking up, put straight-edges on the ends of the legs, sight across -these (Fig. 690), and trim one or two legs until the edges are in line. -See _Scribing_ for other methods. - -[Illustration FIG. 690.] - -Warping or winding of short pieces can be detected by simply laying one -straight-edge diagonally from corner to corner (Fig. 691). This will -show at once which parts require to be planed to make the surface true. - -[Illustration FIG. 691.] - - -=Withdrawing Nails.=--When withdrawing nails place a block under the -hammer-head as shown (Fig. 692), using more blocks, if necessary, as the -nail is withdrawn. - -To draw the nails from boxes, pry up a board, together with the nails, a -short distance--perhaps 1/4"--and then with a _sharp_, _quick_ blow of -the hammer pound the board back into place, not striking the nails but -the board between them. This will usually leave the nail-heads -projecting a little above the surface, so that you can draw them as -shown in Fig. 692, and thus save splitting or defacing the boards and -bending the nails, as usually results from smashing or wrenching boxes -apart. The quick blow drives the board back before the motion has time -to communicate itself to the nails, on somewhat the same principle that -a bullet makes a round hole in a window pane without smashing the glass. - -[Illustration FIG. 692.] - - -=Wood-Filler.=--See _Finishing_. - - -=Wrench.=--A strong wrench is often very serviceable in wood-working -operations. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[41] _Mortise-chisels_ with great thickness of blade (Fig. 486) are not -likely to break, and the width of the sides bearing against the sides of -the mortise tends to make the cutting more accurate. - -[42] You may be told that perfect joints do not require much clamping, -but a perfect joint is impossible, and as a practical matter, only the -skilled workman or the most accurate machinery can make even a _good_ -joint of much length, so great is the difficulty of avoiding little -inaccuracies. Besides this, there is always the liability to more or -less springing or change of shape on the part of the pieces. The joint -which was good when you stopped planing may not be as good by the time -the glue has set, particularly if the gluing does not immediately follow -the jointing. In addition to this, the pressure from clamping at only -one or two points, or at points too far apart, may force the joint to -open elsewhere. Do not infer from this that even the beginner should be -content with a poor joint, with the idea that it can be squeezed and -jammed to a sufficiently good fit by applying muscle to the clamps. Of -course this jamming or mashing of the fibres to fit occurs, to a -microscopic degree, in even the best joint, and it can sometimes be done -to a perceptible extent with soft wood, but to do this intentionally is -very unworkmanlike, and the greatest care should be taken to make as -good a joint as possible before gluing and applying the clamps. Do not, -however, flatter yourself that you can make so accurate a joint that you -can afford to neglect proper clamping, unless, in such cases as that -shown in Fig. 488, you adopt the old-fashioned way of rubbing the two -edges together and then leaving the rest to the glue, but this is not so -good a process for the beginner, except with small pieces, such as -corner-blocks (see _Corner-blocks_). See _Jointing_. - -[43] Shellac is, strictly speaking, a kind of varnish, but it is so -different from many kinds of varnish in common use that it is quite -commonly spoken of as shellac, in contradistinction from what is -popularly known as varnish, and the term is so used here. - -[44] In shellacing doors or panel work, first shellac the panels, then -the rails, and finally the styles (see Fig. 505), because daubs or runs -can be wiped off and covered better when you thus follow the -construction of the work. - -[45] As an extreme illustration, it may be interesting to note the way -the best lacquer work (which is so durable) is made by the Japanese, an -article being given, as Professor Morse tells us, one coat a year, the -finest work having twenty-one coats and the artist rowing out to sea for -miles each time to make sure that all dust is avoided. - -[46] Two pieces properly glued are often stronger than one solid -piece--that is, the glued joint is stronger than the wood itself, as -you will probably discover some day when you have occasion to break -apart a piece of good gluing; but after a long time the glue is apt to -deteriorate in adhesive or cohesive force, particularly if the joint -has not been protected by paint or varnish, so do the best work you can -if you wish it to last. Nevertheless, in important work it is usually -safest to take a whole piece when you can, rather than glue up two or -more pieces, except in cases, perhaps, where the matter of warping, -etc., is concerned, when it may be better to build up the desired shape -of pieces selected for the purpose. - -[47] It may be useful to know, although not suitable work for the -beginner, that there is no better way to joint edges (to make glued -joints, as in Fig. 552) than with a first-class circular saw, run by one -who knows how to use it. The minute roughnesses left by the saw assist -the glue to hold, and as inconspicuous and strong joints as possible can -be quickly produced in this way by a good workman with a first-class -saw, but do not expect a satisfactory result except under these -conditions. - -[48] This seems to be the common opinion among experienced men. There -are, however, many painters of experience who prefer the prepared liquid -paint for outside work, and it certainly saves trouble. - -[49] It is not a good plan to wipe brushes on the sharp edge of a tin -can, as it injures the bristles. - -[50] Another method of doing this is to find a true surface to stand the -legs on and measure the distance the free leg rises from the surface--1" -for example. Do nothing to that leg, of course, or to the one -_diagonally_ opposite, but saw 1/2" from each of the two other legs. -Suppose, for example, the legs _a_, _b_, and _c_ touch (Fig. 669), and -_d_ rises 3/4" from the floor. Make _a_ and _c_ each 3/8" shorter. Of -course you cannot hit it exactly by this method, but a few strokes of a -tool will finish the work. - - - - -APPENDIX - - -=Collection of Specimens of Wood.=--Waste pieces of all the common woods -can easily be obtained at the wood working shops. Have some system about -the size and shape of the specimens. Some kinds you may be able to get -only in pieces of such shape as you can find among the odds and ends of -the shops, and many rare foreign and tropical woods you can obtain only -in quite small pieces, but even these will show the character of the -wood and add value to the collection. Waste scraps of veneers of rare -woods can be glued on blocks of pine. - -The specimens will be most valuable if you can get them out so as to -show a longitudinal section along the medullary rays (or through the -heart), a longitudinal section at right angles to the medullary rays (or -tangential to the annual rings), and a cross section (Fig. 693). It will -be an advantage also to show not only the heartwood but the sapwood and -bark. If you cannot get such large pieces of even the common woods, a -collection of small flat blocks will be well worth making. - -[Illustration FIG. 693.] - -The specimens will show to best advantage if polished (one half of each -side can be polished) or finished with a dull lustre, and they will be -good objects on which to practise finishing (see _Finishing_ in Part -V.). - -All the information you can pick up about the strength, durability, -toughness, elasticity, and uses of the various woods will be sure to -come in play sooner or later. The gradations of hardness, density, -weight, toughness, elasticity, etc., are almost endless. - -Notice, therefore, the weight, colour, hardness, density, and -characteristic odour of the specimens; the proportion of heart to -sapwood, and the colour of each; the size and condition of the pith; the -character of the grain, whether coarse or fine, close or open and -porous; the number, arrangement, size, and colour of the medullary rays -(when visible); the width and character of the annual rings (when -visible), whether wide or narrow, with many or few ducts or resin -canals. You will find many things to notice in some woods. Use a -magnifying-glass if you can. - -Notice also about the bark. Hunt up all the woody stems you can, compare -the bark of the different specimens, noting its colour, taste, odour, -surface, thickness, and the different ways it cracks and is cast off; -and notice how easily you can learn to tell the common trees by the bark -alone. Sections of small stems or branches will often show the character -of the wood well. - -Note what you can about the character and habits of the trees -themselves; the height, diameter, age, and the shape and peculiarities -of the leaves. In this connection, a collection of leaves will also be -interesting to make. You can soon learn to tell the common trees by -their leaves. - -Notice how, in some trees, as the pines, spruces, firs, the stem grows -right straight up to the top, forming a spire-shaped tree. This is -called an _excurrent_ trunk (Lat., _excurrere_, to run out). Notice how, -in other trees, like the elm, oak, etc., the stem branches again and -again until it is lost in the branches. This is called a _deliquescent_ -stem (Lat., _deliquescere_, to melt away). - -Study the shape and arrangement of the different kinds of trees as shown -in outline against the sky; best, perhaps, when the leaves are off. You -can learn to tell the common trees by their outline. Do they look stout, -firm, strong, and rugged, or delicate, yielding, and graceful? To a -certain extent you can thus form an idea of the character of the wood, -as in comparing the pine, with its comparatively light top and slender -leaves, with the heavy growth which the trunk of the oak has to sustain -in wind and snow. - - -=Preservation of Forests.=--Forests are of great value from their effect -upon the climate, making it more equable. They tend to cause abundant -and needed rainfall and to preserve the moisture when fallen, releasing -it to the rivers gradually, and thus preventing abnormal freshets and -extreme droughts. By absorbing and parting with heat slowly they cause -the changes of temperature to be less sudden than in the open country. -They temper the heat, and they serve as a protection, or "wind-break," -to adjacent land. Trees, with other vegetation, are essential to the -purification of the air. All this is in addition to the obvious uses of -supplying fuel and wood for an almost endless variety of purposes, not -to speak of the value of trees for shade and as features of the -landscape. - -The reckless rate at which the forests of the United States are being -destroyed is becoming a serious matter, not merely because of depriving -wood-workers of the materials with which to work, but because of the -influence of the forests upon the climate, the soil, etc., upon which so -much of the welfare of mankind depends. At the present rate of -destruction many generations cannot pass before the supply of wood will -be practically exhausted. It is every year becoming more difficult to -obtain native lumber of the best quality and large size. - -One of the most serious aspects of the matter, however, is in regard to -the washing away of the soil, which owes not merely its origin but its -preservation to the forest and other vegetable growths. Professor Shaler -tells us that "it is in this action of the rain upon the bared surface -of the ground that we find the principal danger which menaces man in his -use of the earth." - -The individual wood-worker may not have control of any forest or -wood-lot, but he can at least use his influence indirectly, when -opportunity offers, toward needed legislation to restrict, or at least -regulate, the improvident waste now going on, and he can in many cases -take advantage of Arbor Day to plant at least one tree toward preserving -the balance required by nature. - - -=Common Woods and Some of their Characteristics.=--There are many things -to be considered by the beginner when choosing his wood. Many of these -points have been treated in Chapter III. (to which the reader is -referred), but a few additional remarks about the various kinds may be -of use. - -One important thing, however, to be borne in mind before beginning, is -to select straight-grained, plain, rather soft, and easily worked stock. -With this and with _sharp_ tools you will have every chance of success, -while with hard, crooked-grained wood and with _dull_ tools you will be -well started on the road to discouragement and failure. - -It may be remarked, incidentally, that beginning with soft woods, such -as white pine, calls for even keener-edged tools than can be got along -with for harder woods, like oak. This, however, though it may seem a -disadvantage, is really a good thing, for it _compels_ one to keep his -tools sharp. You will soon find that it is impossible to do even -passable work in the softer woods without sharp tools, while with harder -wood you may succeed by brute force in mauling the work into tolerable -shape without being sufficiently impressed by the fact that your tools -are dull and require sharpening. - -Besides the familiar fact that the heartwood is usually better than the -sapwood,[51] it may be useful to remember that, as a rule, the wood from -a young tree is tougher than that from an old one; the best, hardest, -and strongest in the young tree usually being nearest the heart, while -in an old tree the heart, having begun to deteriorate, is softer and not -as good as the more recently formed growths nearer the sapwood. If the -tree is in its prime the wood is more uniformly hard throughout. The -sapwood, as a rule, is tougher than the heartwood, though usually -inferior in other respects; and timber light in weight is sometimes -tougher than heavy wood, though the latter is often stronger and more -durable and preferable for some purposes. The application of these -statements varies much according to the kind of wood and different -circumstances, for the growth and structure of trees is a very complex -matter, and the diversities almost infinite. - -It may be well to bear in mind, considering the great variety of -purposes for which the amateur uses wood, the distinction between the -_elasticity_ needed for such purposes as a bow or horizontal bar, and -the _toughness_ required for the ribs of a canoe, or the wattles of a -basket. In the former case the material must not merely bend without -breaking, but must spring back (or nearly so) to its former shape when -released, as with lancewood or white ash; while in the latter case it -must bend without breaking, but is not required to spring back to its -original form when released, as with many green sticks which can be -easily bent, but have not much resilience. These two qualities are found -combined in endlessly varying degrees in all woods. Elastic wood must -necessarily have toughness up to the breaking-point, but tough wood may -have but little elasticity. - -Earliest of all trees, historically, come the pines--the conifers--and -then the broad-leaved trees. The conifers, or needle-leaved trees, -include the pines, firs, spruces, cypresses, larches, and cedars. As a -rule they contain turpentine, have a comparatively straight and regular -fibre and simple structure, are usually light, flexible, and elastic, -and the wood is more easily split or torn apart than that from the -broad-leaved trees, and is easily worked. The wood of the broad-leaved -trees is more complex in structure than that of the conifers and, as a -rule, harder, and for many purposes stronger and more durable. - -Besides the woods in general use there are many which have merely a -local value where they grow, and a long list could be made of the woods -which have but very limited uses, as well as of those which, from their -scarcity, hardness, small size, or other peculiarities are practically -out of the question for the beginner or the amateur, except on rare -occasions. - -The following list makes no claim to completeness, but may be of some -use to the beginner. - -=Apple.=--This wood is used for turning, such as handles, etc., and for -other small work. It is handsome, fine-grained, and somewhat hard. - -=Ash.=--This is a valuable wood, of which there are a number of -varieties. It is used for agricultural implements, carriage-building, -floors, interior finish, cabinet-work, etc. Ash is flexible, tough, and -elastic. It is good to stand a quick and violent strain, as that put on -a horizontal bar in the gymnasium, although in time it becomes brittle. -_White ash_ is the variety best suited for such purposes. It is good for -oars and the like. Ash is of a rather coarse and usually -straight-grained texture, and most varieties are not difficult to work. - -=Basswood.=--The wood of the American linden, or basswood, is soft and -light in substance, white or light brown in colour, is easily bent but -not easily split, free from knots but prone to warp, and is used for -cabinet-work, carriage-work, and for various minor articles. It can be -obtained in boards of considerable width. - -=Beech.=--This close-grained wood, hard, firm, strong, and taking a good -polish, is extensively used for machine-frames, handles, plane-stocks, -some kinds of furniture, and a variety of minor articles, but will not -often be needed by the amateur. The medullary rays are noticeable. - -=Birch.=--The birch, of which there are many species, is widely -distributed in North America, and furnishes an important wood, which is -used for a great variety of purposes,--for furniture, floors, interior -finish, turning, and a long list of minor articles. It is close-grained, -and most varieties are hard and strong, but not difficult to work, and -are susceptible of being given a smooth satiny surface and a fine -finish. The uses of the bark of the canoe birch are familiar to all. -This tree is good not merely for canoes, but its wood is used for -paddles, skis, and the like. - -The _black birch_ is especially esteemed for furniture and interior -work. It is of a beautiful reddish- or yellowish-brown colour, and much -of it is beautifully figured with wavy and curly grain. It is frequently -stained in imitation of mahogany, a deception much assisted by the -resemblance in grain, and not easily detected if skilfully done. - -=Black Walnut.=--Large black-walnut trees are practically almost as -thoroughly exterminated in America as the bisons of the Western -prairies. The wood can be obtained, however, though it is not abundant -in very wide boards. It is durable, usually straight-grained, moderately -strong and hard, not difficult to work, holds glue well, and can be -given a fine finish. It holds its shape well, and is an excellent wood -for many purposes in interior finishing, cabinet-work, and for various -minor articles. It has been very extensively used for gun-stocks. Its -sombre colour is not always admired, but it is an excellent wood for -amateur work. When mottled or in the form of burl it is, of course, -harder to smooth. The English and Italian varieties of walnut have long -been used. - -=Boxwood.=--This wood is distinguished for its extremely compact and -even grain. It is hard and heavy, is used in turning, wood-engraving, -and the like, but is not likely to be required by the amateur. - -=Butternut.=--This wood, found in North America, has a rather coarsely -marked grain, is soft, light, of a yellowish-brown colour, and when -finished makes a handsome wood for furniture and interior work. - -It is easily worked, but is not the easiest material for the amateur to -smooth satisfactorily, because of the peculiar texture of the wood, -which tends to "rough up" unless the tools are very keen. - -=Buttonwood.=--See _Sycamore_. - -=Cedar.=--This tree, found quite abundantly in the United States, -furnishes a wood which is exceedingly durable, particularly where -exposed to the alternations of moisture and dryness, as when inserted in -the ground or in situations near the ground, and is very valuable for -fence-posts, foundation-posts for buildings, railroad ties, shingles, -pails, and the like. Some varieties of cedar are used for building -purposes and interior fittings. - -The varieties of _white cedar_ are light, of good grain and easy to -work, soft, and not particularly strong, but durable and admirably -adapted to such purposes as boat-building, for which it is largely used. -_Red cedar_, which is in many respects similar to the other varieties, -is distinguished by its colour and by its strong fragrance, which, being -obnoxious to insects, makes it excellent for chests and closets. It is -used for pencils. - -=Cherry.=--This is a valuable wood for the amateur. It is found -extensively in the United States. It is fine-grained, of moderate -hardness, not difficult to work, and of a beautiful reddish-brown or -yellowish-brown colour. It has a satin-like surface when smoothed, and -can be given a beautiful finish. The _black cherry_ is especially -esteemed. It can be obtained, so far as it has not been exterminated, in -quite wide boards. Cherry mellows and grows richer in colour with age. -The varieties having a wavy texture are especially beautiful. It is much -used for cabinet-work, interior finish, and for many purposes. The -beginner should select only the softer and straight-grained varieties, -as some of the harder and denser kinds are exceedingly hard to smooth. - -=Chestnut.=--The value of this wood to the amateur lies chiefly in its -durability. It lasts well in or near the ground or exposed to the -weather. It can be used for framing, for posts for a fence or to support -a building, and for similar purposes. It is soft, coarse-grained, not -very strong, but is not difficult to work. - -=Cottonwood.=--This is a soft, light, close-grained wood, used for -woodenware, boxes, pulp, etc. - -=Cypress.=--This wood is found in North America, Mexico, parts of Asia -and Europe. It is a valuable material, yellowish or yellowish-brown in -colour, very durable when exposed to the weather or in contact with the -soil, light, soft, easily worked, and is used for general lumber -purposes for which pine is used, but to which it is superior for -withstanding exposure. It is used for interior finish, doors, -clapboards, shingles, cabinet-work, boat-building, posts, and a great -variety of purposes. It takes a fine finish. The cypress of the Southern -United States is of large size, and the wood is of beautiful figure and -colouring. Valuable varieties are found upon the Pacific coast. - -=Deal.=--See _Pine_ and _Spruce_. - -=Ebony.=--The excessive hardness of ebony renders it unsuited for -amateur work. It is also expensive. It is very hard and solid, with -black heartwood and white sapwood, and is used for furniture, turning, -and small articles. - -=Elm.=--This useful wood, strong, tough, and durable, usually flexible, -heavy and hard, is extensively used in some of its varieties for -boat-building, the frames of agricultural implements, yokes, wheel-hubs, -chairs, cooperage, and many other purposes. Some species are very good -for continued exposure to wet. The _rock elm_ is a valuable variety, -esteemed for flexibility and toughness as well as durability and -strength. - -=Fir.=--See _Pine_ and _Spruce_. - -=Hemlock.=--This wood, valuable for its bark, is cheap, coarse-grained -and subject to shakes, brittle and easily split, and somewhat soft, but -not easy to work. It is unfit for nice work, but can be used for rough -framing and rough boarding, for which its holding nails well renders it -suitable. - -=Hickory.=--This wood, found in the eastern parts of North America, is -highly esteemed for its strength and great elasticity. It is hard, -tough, heavy, and close-grained. It is largely used for carriage-work, -agricultural implements, hoops, axe-helves, and the like. It is hard to -work. The _shagbark_ is especially valued for timber. - -=Holly.=--This wood is quite hard, close-grained, and very white, though -it does not retain the purity of its colour. It is used for small -articles of cabinet-work and for turning. - -=Lancewood.=--The use of this wood for bows, fishing-rods, and such -purposes has been extensive. It is distinguished for its elasticity. - -=Lignum Vitae.=--The extreme hardness, solidity, and durability of lignum -vitae make it of great value for pulley-sheaves, balls for bowling, -mallets, small handles, and turned objects. It is too excessively hard -for the beginner to use. - -=Locust.=--The wood of the locust of North America is hard, strong, -heavy, exceedingly durable, and of yellowish or brownish colour. It is a -valuable wood, and is used extensively for posts for fences and for the -support of buildings, for ship-building, and for other work to be -subjected to exposure or to contact with the ground. It is used in -turning, but not extensively for interior work. - -=Mahogany.=--This highly valuable wood, which did not come into general -use until the eighteenth century, is found in the West Indies, Mexico, -Central America, and some other regions. It is very durable. The colour -is found in a great variety of shades from golden-brown to deep -reddish-brown. Some varieties are light and quite soft, even spongy, -while others (the best) are very hard and heavy, close-grained, and -strong. In some kinds the grain is quite straight, in others curved and -twisted into an endless variety of crooked shapes, the latter being the -most beautiful for ornamental work, but more liable to change of shape -than the straight-grained varieties. - -The straight-grained varieties change their shape but little,--less than -most woods,--and are therefore excellently suited for the framework or -structural parts of cabinet-work, for pattern-making, and the like. The -so-called _baywood_ holds its shape well and is easily worked, but is -not especially beautiful. The better grades of mahogany grow darker and -richer in colour with age, but some varieties become bleached and -lustreless with exposure. - -It is of the greatest value for interior finishing, for furniture, and -for cabinet-work generally, and is also used for many other purposes. - -The term mahogany is used in commerce in a rather comprehensive way. -Mahogany from San Domingo has long been highly esteemed, but is now -difficult or impossible to obtain. The light-coloured variety known as -_white mahogany_ is much valued for its beauty. - -Mahogany is excellent for holding glue. It can be obtained in wide -pieces, thus often saving the necessity of gluing. It can be given a -beautiful dull finish or a high polish, as may be desired. - -The beginner should only attempt the plain, softer, straight-grained -kinds of mahogany at first. The other varieties require much skill to -smooth and, in case of the harder pieces, even to work at all; and -these, however beautiful they may be, should be deferred until -considerable proficiency has been attained. - -=Maple.=--The maple grows freely in the United States, and is much used -for a great variety of purposes, the _sugar_ or _rock maple_ being -especially esteemed. It is close-grained, hard, strong, heavy, and of a -light yellowish-, reddish-, or brownish-white colour (sometimes almost -white, though found in varying shades), and can be smoothed to a -satin-like surface and be given a good finish. It can be stained -satisfactorily. The curly or wavy varieties furnish wood of much beauty, -the peculiar contortion of the grain known as "bird's-eye" being much -admired. Maple is extensively used for cabinet-work and interior -finishing, floors, machine-frames, work-benches, turning, and a great -variety of miscellaneous articles. - -There are a number of varieties of the maple. The beginner should -confine himself at first to the softer and straight-grained specimens, -as the other kinds are hard to work and to smooth. - -=Oak.=--Of all the broad-leaved trees the oak is probably the most -valuable, and has for ages stood as a type of strength. It is widely -scattered in various parts of the world, and nearly three hundred -varieties have been noted. - -Oak is distinguished for its combination of useful qualities. It is -hard, tough, elastic, heavy, durable, stiff (except after steaming, when -it readily bends), and durable when exposed to the weather or to the -soil. Oak is more or less subject to checking. It is strongly -impregnated with tannic acid, which tends to destroy iron fastenings. - -_American white oak._ This important variety is found in North America, -and from it is obtained most excellent timber. It is used for a variety -of purposes too great to be specified, from the construction of -buildings and ships to furniture and agricultural implements, carriages, -etc. It is an invaluable wood. - -_British oak_ has long been held in the highest regard for its -combination of valuable qualities, and has been used for more purposes -than can be here mentioned. - -The _live oak_, found in southern parts of North America, may be -mentioned as a valuable wood, very strong, tough, and durable, which, -before the introduction of iron and steel in ship-building, was -extensively used in that business; but it is excessively hard and -unsuited to amateur work. - -Varieties of _red oak_ are extensively used, but, though valuable, are -of inferior quality to the white oak. Other varieties largely used in -England and on the Continent are seldom marketed in the United States. - -=Pear.=--The wood of the pear tree is somewhat like that of the apple -tree. It can be readily carved. - -=Pine.=--First and foremost among the needle-leaved trees comes the -pine, of which about seventy species are known. The _white pine_, known -in England as yellow pine and also as Weymouth pine, is widely -distributed in America, and is, or has been, our most valuable timber -tree, but seems to be doomed to rapid extinction, at least so far as the -wide, clear boards and planks of old-growth timber are concerned, which -are now exceedingly hard to obtain. - -There is no better wood for the beginner than clear white pine for all -purposes to which it is suited. - -It is light, stiff, straight-grained and of close fibre, easily worked, -can be easily nailed, and takes a good finish. When allowed to grow it -has reached a large size (as in the so-called "pumpkin" pine), -furnishing very wide, clear boards, of beautiful texture and with a -fine, satiny surface. It is of a light yellowish-brown colour, growing -darker with time. It is soft, resinous, and of moderate strength. Pine -is cut into lumber of many forms, and is used for inside finishing of -houses, for many purposes of carpentry and cabinet-making, for masts and -spars, for clapboards, shingles, and laths, doors, sashes, blinds, -patterns for castings, and a long list of different purposes. It holds -glue exceedingly well and takes paint well. - -Other varieties, as the _sugar pine_, the _Canadian red pine_, the -_yellow pine_, etc., grow in America. White pine is also found in -Europe. The _Scotch pine_ or _Norway pine_, known also as _red_, -_Scotch_, or _yellow fir_, and as _yellow deal_ and _red deal_,[52] is -the common pine of the North of Europe, hence its name, _Pinus -sylvestris_, pine of the forest. It is hard, strong, not very resinous, -and is extensively used. - -_Southern or Hard Pine._ This very important timber is found on the -Southern Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States. It is very hard, -heavy, and resinous, with coarse and strongly marked grain. It is -durable, strong, and not easily worked by the beginner, and is hard to -nail after seasoning. It is extensively used for girders, floor-timbers, -joists, and many kinds of heavy timber work, including trestles, -bridges, and roofs, for masts and spars, for general carpentry, floors, -decks, and interior finish, railway cars, railway ties, and many other -purposes, and, in addition, for the manufacture of turpentine. - -Other varieties of hard pine are sold and used successfully for the same -purposes, all under the common name of hard pine, Southern pine, Georgia -pine, yellow hard pine, etc. Another variety of hard "pitch" pine -(_Pinus rigida_), often confused with the Southern pine, is heavy, -resinous, and durable, but not suited for the better class of work. - -=Plum.=--This is a fine-grained, hard wood, used for turning, engraving, -etc. - -=Redwood.=--The two varieties of the giant _Sequoia_ of the Pacific -coast are the _Sequoia sempervirens_ and the _Sequoia gigantea_ or -_Wellingtonia_. The former, the most important tree of the Pacific -coast, is of immense size (supposed to reach a height of even four -hundred feet), red in colour, rather soft, light, and moderately strong, -easily worked and finished, and very durable when exposed to the soil. -It is used for general lumber purposes, carpentry, interior finish, -posts, tanks, shingles, and a great variety of uses. - -The _S. gigantea_ or _Wellingtonia_, which has the largest trunk in the -world, is also red in colour, coarse-grained, rather weak, soft and -light in texture, and of great durability when exposed to the soil. It -is used for lumber and general building purposes, posts, shingles, etc. -These are the "Big Trees," thought in some instances to be even five -thousand years old, and of which the familiar stories are told about a -stage-coach having been driven through a hollow tree, and about -twenty-five people having danced at one time upon a stump. - -=Rosewood.=--This wood, of handsome grain and colouring, has been much -admired and extensively used for veneering. It is hard and heavy and of -a peculiar texture, which seems oily to the touch. It is not well suited -to amateur work, and is expensive. - -=Satinwood.=--This handsome yellowish-brown wood is hardly to be -considered by the amateur except for the occasional use of a small -piece. - -=Spruce.=--The wood of the spruce, of which there are a number of -varieties, is quite abundant, is light and straight-grained, and -comparatively free from large knots. It is largely used for many of the -same purposes as white pine, to which it is inferior for interior finish -and fine work, but superior in strength, hardness, and toughness. Both -white and black spruce are extensively used for carpentry, interior -finish, flooring, fencing, and inferior wood-work generally. It has the -great disadvantage of curling and twisting and springing badly, and is -not as nice to work as white pine. Spruce of good quality makes good -paddles, spars, and the like, and is valuable for such work. The wood of -the Norway spruce is known in England as _white deal_. - -=Sycamore.=--This handsome wood, found in various parts of the world, -and of a light yellowish or reddish-brown colour, is esteemed for -interior work. The medullary rays are noticeable. It is rather hard, but -not very difficult to work. It is not durable for outside work exposed -to the weather. Known also as _Buttonwood_. - -=Walnut.=--See _Black Walnut_. - -=Whitewood.=--Like white pine, whitewood is an excellent wood for the -early attempts of the beginner. - -Whitewood, which is by no means white, but greenish- or brownish-yellow, -is the name applied to the wood of the tulip tree. This tree attains a -large size, thus furnishing wide boards, which are of such straight and -even grain and so free from knots as to be of great use for many -purposes. It is brittle and soft, but light and very easily worked. It -is not, for most purposes, as reliable a wood as white pine, but is -extensively used in the wood-working arts. It is more liable to warp and -twist than pine. It takes a stain exceedingly well. - -=Willow.=--An important use of this wood is for baskets. It will not -often be required by the beginner, except for whistles. - -=Yew.=--This wood, like lancewood, is distinguished for its elasticity, -and is highly esteemed for bows and the like. - - * * * * * - - -Many other woods can be alluded to, as catalpa (for posts and the like), -elder (for various small articles), dogwood (for turning and the like), -gum (for various common articles), hornbeam or ironwood (for mallets, -handles, wheel-cogs, etc.), poplar (for pulp), sassafras (for posts, -hoops, etc.), teak (from the East, strong and valuable), tupelo (hubs of -wheels, etc.), and a great variety of others which cannot be specified, -as they are but seldom required by the amateur and never needed by the -beginner. - - -=Felling and Seasoning.=--A tree should usually be cut for timber at or -near its maturity, as a young tree has too much sapwood and will not be -as strong and dense or durable, while an old one is likely to get -brittle and inelastic and the centre of the heartwood is liable to -decay, being the oldest portion. A young tree, though softer and not so -durable, furnishes a tougher and more elastic wood, and sometimes has a -finer grain. - -Trees differ so much, and the uses to which the wood is to be put are so -various, that no exact ages can be set for cutting--probably from fifty -to one hundred years for good timber, to make a rough statement. Some -trees furnish excellent timber at a much greater age than one hundred -years. Pine is thought to be ripe for cutting at about seventy-five or -one hundred years of age, oak at from sixty to one hundred years or -more, and the various other woods mature at different ages. - -Midwinter, or the dry season in tropical regions, is usually preferred -for felling, because the sap is quiet. Decay sets in more rapidly in the -sapwood and between the wood and the bark during the period of active -growth, because of the perishable nature of the substances involved in -the growth. Midsummer is considered equally good by some. - -The various methods of cutting the log into the lumber of commerce have -been treated in Chapter III., to which the reader is referred. In this -connection it will be noticed that, although boards cut through or near -the middle are, as a rule, the best, when they contain the pith they are -sometimes valueless in the centre, as well as when, in the case of an -old tree, decay has begun at that point. - -As the water evaporates gradually from green wood exposed to the air but -protected from the weather, one might infer that in time it would -evaporate entirely, leaving the wood absolutely dry, just as the water -will entirely disappear from a tumbler or a tea-kettle. This is not so, -however. The drying goes on until there is only about ten to twenty per -cent. of moisture left, but no amount of open-air seasoning will -entirely remove this small per cent. of moisture, the amount varying -with the temperature and the humidity of the atmosphere. It can be got -rid of only by applying heat, kiln-drying, baking, currents of hot air, -vacuum process, or some artificial method of seasoning. After having -completely dried the wood by any of these methods, if it is again -exposed to the atmosphere, it absorbs moisture quite rapidly until it -has taken up perhaps fifteen per cent., more or less, of its own weight. -So you see that, though you may by artificial means make wood entirely -dry, it will not stay in this unnatural condition unless in some way -entirely protected from the atmosphere _at once_, but will reabsorb the -moisture it has lost until it reaches a condition in harmony with the -atmosphere. Recent investigations show that the very fibre or substance -of the wood itself imbibes and holds moisture tenaciously, this being -additional to the water popularly understood to be contained in the -pores or cavities of the wood. - -There are various other methods besides kiln-drying (referred to in -Chapter III.) of seasoning and of hastening the drying process. Wood is -sometimes soaked in water before being seasoned. This assists in -removing the soluble elements of the sap, but it is doubtful whether the -process improves the quality of the wood. Smoking and steaming are also -resorted to. Small pieces can readily be smoked, which hardens the wood -and adds to its durability,--a method which has been known for -centuries,--but care must be taken not to burn, scorch, or crack the -wood. - - -=Decay and Preservation.=--Timber decays fastest when alternately wet -and dry, as in the piles of a wharf, fence-posts, and the like, or when -subjected to a hot, moist, close atmosphere, as the sills and -floor-timbers situated over some damp and unventilated cellar. Fig. 694 -shows the decay caused by alternate wetness and dryness, while the -parts above and below are still sound. - -[Illustration FIG. 694.] - -Wood lasts the best when kept dry and well ventilated. When kept -constantly wet it is somewhat softened, and will not resist so much, but -it does not decay. Recently, upon cutting a slab from the outside of a -large log taken from the bed of a river, where it had lain for one -hundred years or more, the interior proved as sound and clear as could -be found in any lumber-yard. Undoubtedly, however, such long submersion -lessens the elastic strength of timber after it is dried. That is not, -however, an extreme example of durability. Wood has been taken from bogs -and ancient lake-dwellings after being preserved for ages. Piles were -taken from the Old London Bridge after about 650 years of service. Piles -placed in the Rhine about 2000 years ago have been found quite sound -during the present century; and piles are now regularly used, as you -doubtless know, for the support of the most massive stone buildings and -piers, but only where they are driven deep in the ground or below the -low-water line. Many examples of the durability of wood kept dry are -found in European structures. Timbers put into the roof of Westminster -Abbey in the reign of Richard II. are still in place, and the -roof-timbers of some of the older Italian churches remain in good -condition. - -Thorough seasoning, protection from the sun and rain, and the free -circulation of air are the essentials to the preservation of timber. - -Many preparations and chemical processes have been tried for the -_preservation of wood_. - -Creosote is one of the best preservatives known. Insects and fungi are -repelled by its odour. The modern so-called "creosote stains" are -excellent, not very expensive, and easily applied. They are only -suitable for outside work, however, on account of the odour. - -Coal-tar and wood-tar or pitch, applied hot in thin coats, are also good -and cheap preservatives for exposed wood-work. - -Charring the ends of fence-posts by holding them for a short time over a -fire and forming a protecting coating of charcoal is another method -which has been extensively used. - -Oil paint will protect wood from moisture from without, and is the -method most commonly in use. - -In the case of any external coating, however, which interferes with the -process of evaporation, as tar or paint, the wood must be _thoroughly -dry_ when it is applied, or the moisture within will be unable to -escape, and will cause decay. - -Lumber as well as the living tree has enemies in the form of insects and -worms, but the conditions best for the preservation of the wood, as -referred to above, are also the least favourable for the attacks of -animal life and of fungi. - -As soon as the tree has been felled and dies, decomposition begins, as -in all organic bodies, and sooner or later will totally destroy the -wood. The woody fibre itself will last for ages, but some of the -substances involved in the growth soon decay. The sap is liable to -fermentation, shown by a bluish tint, and decay sets in. Fungi are -liable to fasten upon the wood. Worms and insects also attack it, -preferring that which is richest in sap. Thus we see that the danger of -decay originates chiefly in the decomposition of the sap (although in -living trees past their prime decay begins in the heartwood while the -sapwood is sound), so the more the sap can be got rid of the better. -There are, however, some substances found in various trees, aside from -those elements especially required for their growth, which render the -wood more durable, like tannic acid, which abounds in oak and a number -of trees, particularly in the bark. There is no advantage in getting rid -of the turpentine and other volatile oils and the resinous deposits -found in needle-leaved trees, particularly in the case of those woods in -which they abound. Care should be taken, however, not to use a piece of -pine badly streaked or spotted with resinous deposits in a place where -it will be exposed, as the turpentine or resinous matter will be apt to -ooze out and blister the paint. - -_Wet rot_ is a decay of the unseasoned wood, which may also be caused in -seasoned wood by moisture with a temperate degree of warmth. It occurs -in wood alternately exposed to dryness and moisture. _Dry rot_, which is -due to fungi, does not attack _dry_ wood, but is found where there is -dampness and lack of free circulation of air, as in warm, damp, and -unventilated situations, like cellars and the more confined parts of -ships, and in time results in the entire crumbling away of the wood. -There are several forms of dry rot. One of the most common and worst of -dry-rot fungi attacks pine and fir. Fungi also attack oak. Creosote is -used as a preventive, to the extent to which it saturates the wood. - - -=Effects of Expansion and Contraction.=--Cracks, curling, warping, -winding, or twisting are due to nothing but irregular and uneven -swelling and shrinking. Some kinds of wood shrink much in drying, others -but little. Some, after seasoning, swell or shrink and curl and warp to -a marked degree with every change in temperature and dryness. Others, -once thoroughly air-seasoned, alter much less in shape or size under -ordinary circumstances. - -We have already seen that the heart side of a board tends to become -convex in seasoning, owing to the shrinkage of the other side, and that -if one part swells much more than another the wood becomes out of -shape,--warped, curled, or twisted. If one part shrinks much faster than -another, cracks usually result in the quicker shrinking portion. If you -stick one end of a green board into the hot oven of the kitchen stove, -the heated end will crack and split before the rest of the board has -fairly begun to dry. We have seen illustrations of this in the seasoning -process, as shown in Chapter III. - -Exposure of one side of a seasoned piece to either dampness or heat will -thus cause the piece to curl. The dampness swells the side affected or -the heat shrinks it so that the convexity will be on the dampened side, -or the concavity on the heated side, as the case may be. - -If lumber were of perfectly uniform texture, hung up where it would be -entirely unconfined and free to swell or shrink in all directions, and -equally exposed all over the surface to exactly the same degrees and -changes of heat and cold, dryness and moisture, it would simply grow -larger or smaller without changing its form or shape. There would then -be no curling, warping or winding. As a matter of fact, however, wood is -not uniform in texture, but exceedingly varied, some pieces being -extremely complex in structure; neither is it always free to expand and -contract in every direction, nor equally exposed on all sides to the -alternations of heat and cold, moisture and dryness. - -To come to the practical application of these facts, we have seen (in -Chapter III.) that boards for nice work should be planed down equally, -as nearly as may be, from both sides; that the mere dressing off of the -surface by hand will sometimes cause a board to warp badly; and that it -is better to buy stock of as nearly the required thickness as possible, -than to plane it down or split it. It should also be noted that when a -board is being sawed in two or split lengthwise with a saw it sometimes -springs together behind the saw with so much force that the crack has to -be wedged open in order to continue sawing (Fig. 695). Sometimes the -crack opens wider instead of closing (Fig. 696). You see from this that -you cannot always be sure when you split a board that the parts will -retain the shape they had in the original board. In working up large -pieces into smaller ones, unexpected twists and crooks will often be -found in the smaller pieces which did not exist in the original stock. -Sometimes mahogany, for instance, will act in this way very markedly. -Strips sawed off from a board, for example, will sometimes immediately -spring into very crooked forms, as shown in Fig. 697 (which would not -be exaggerated if the pieces were drawn of greater proportionate -length). - -[Illustration FIG. 695.] - -[Illustration FIG. 696.] - -[Illustration FIG. 697.] - -[Illustration FIG. 698.] - -In splitting stock flatwise, _i.e._, making two thinner boards out of a -thick board or plank, a similar result often follows. The latent power -set free, so to speak, by suddenly exposing the middle of a board, -plank, or other timber to the atmosphere sometimes causes curious -developments. It being necessary one day to split for a picture frame a -large mahogany board, 1" thick by 2' square, with a circular hole -already sawed from the centre, the pieces warped and twisted as the -sawing went on (Fig. 698), until, just as they were nearly separated, -the whole thing "went off" with a report like a toy pistol, breaking -into a dozen pieces and scattering them around the shop. - -In very crooked-grained wood you will frequently find uneven and -undulating forms of warping and twisting that you do not find in -straight-grained pieces, but such wood is often of the most beautiful -figure for indoor work. Where the grain is crooked, cropping up to the -surface as in Fig. 701, the cut-off ends of the fibrous structure, so to -speak, are exposed in places to the atmosphere. These open ends, "end -wood," thus brought to the surface are more susceptible to moisture and -dryness than the sides of the bundles of fibrous tissue, which tends to -produce unequal swelling, shrinking, and warping. - -You will see if you look at the ends of logs and stumps that the heart -is frequently not in the centre, in some cases taking such a devious -course throughout the stem as to make the grain so crooked that no -method of sawing will remove the tendency to warp or twist, just shown. -Such trees may show a beautiful grain. Even in straight trees the pith -is not usually quite straight, and is apt to take a somewhat zigzag -course, due to the crooked way the tree grew when young (Fig. 699). - -[Illustration FIG. 699.] - -Imagine, for an exaggerated illustration, that you could see with X-rays -the pith as crooked as Fig. 699. that shown in Fig. 700. Imagine that -from this tree you could saw out the board indicated, keeping with it -the whole pith or heart as if it were a wire rope woven in and out of -the board, so that the appearance would be somewhat like that shown in -Fig. 701. Bear in mind that the annual rings are layers of wood, so to -speak, which may vary in thickness, growing around the heart. You will -see that these layers, or rings, as they dip below or rise above the -surface of the board, will cause the grain to form various patterns, -perhaps somewhat as shown in Fig. 701, which makes no claim to -accurately showing the grain in this case. In fact, all such variations -of grain in lumber are due to the surface of the piece being at an angle -with the layers. - -[Illustration FIG. 700.] - -[Illustration FIG. 701.] - -In addition, the knots caused by branches, the twisting of the stems -screw-fashion (as is seen in cedar), wounds, and other causes, often -produce very crooked and tangled grain, and the wood of many -broad-leaved trees is sometimes extremely complicated in texture, -especially when all these irregularities occur in the same piece. It is -the nature of some kinds of mahogany, from whatever cause, to have the -fibres strangely interlaced or running in very different directions in -layers which are quite near each other. - -The warping, twisting, and cracking is obviated in many cases where it -is objectionable (as in the wooden frames of machines, the tops of -benches) by building up with a number of smaller pieces, of which you -will often see illustrations. To do this to the best advantage, the -pieces should be selected and put together so that, though the grain -will run in the same direction lengthways, the annual rings at the ends -will not run together as in a whole beam, but will be reversed or -arranged in various combinations, so that the tendencies of the -different parts to warp or twist will counteract each other. Instead of -a single board, which would naturally become warped in one large curve, -a number of strips can be glued up with the grain of the strips arranged -in alternate fashion (Fig. 559), so that in place of one large curve the -warping will merely result in a slightly wavy line. - -Where but one side of a board is seen or used and where the full -strength is not needed, warping and twisting can be largely prevented by -lengthways saw-cuts on the back or under surface, as in a drawing-board, -the crossways strength required being secured by the cleats. Doors and -most forms of panelled work also illustrate these matters of swelling -and shrinking (see _Doors and Panels_). - -_Shakes._--_Heart-shakes_ are cracks radiating from the centre in the -line of the medullary rays, widest at the pith and narrowing toward the -outside, and supposed to be chiefly caused by the shrinkage of the older -wood due to the beginning of decay while the tree is standing (Fig. -702). Slight heart-shakes are common, but if large and numerous or -twisting in the length of the log, they injure the timber seriously for -cutting up. - -[Illustration FIG. 702.] - -_Star-shakes_ are also radiating cracks, but, unlike the heart-shakes, -the cracks are widest at the outside, narrowing toward the centre (Fig. -703), and are often caused by the shrinkage of the outer part due to the -outside of the tree drying faster than the inside, as it naturally does -from being more exposed after being felled; but they are sometimes owing -to the beginning of decay and other causes. - -[Illustration FIG. 703.] - -_Cup-shakes_ are cracks between some of the annual rings, separating the -layers more or less (Fig. 704), sometimes reaching entirely around, -separating the centre from the outer portion, and are supposed to be -caused by the swaying of the tree in the wind (hence sometimes known as -_wind-shakes_), or to some shock or extreme changes of temperature, or -other causes. - -[Illustration FIG. 704.] - -Combinations of the various shakes may be found in the same log. - - -=A Few Suggestions about Working-Drawings.=--Drawing is far too -extensive a subject to be even briefly treated in a manual on -wood-working, but a few general remarks on matters connected with -working-drawings may be of help to some. - -While an ordinary picture gives a correct idea of how an object looks, -we cannot take accurate measurements from it. When we need dimensions, -as in practical work, we must have some drawings which will show us at -once the exact shapes, sizes, and positions of the various parts. In -addition to the picture to give us the general idea, we have for working -purposes what are called _elevations_, _plans_, _sections_, etc. - -In such a case as that of the little house shown on page 242, the -picture (Fig. 363) shows us the appearance of the building, but for -purposes of construction, working-drawings should also be made. The view -of what you would see if you stood directly in front of this house, with -only the front visible, is shown in Fig. 364, and is called the _front -elevation_. Stand opposite either side or end, and the view seen is -represented in Fig. 364 as the _side elevation_. In the same manner -the _rear elevation_ is given. Next imagine yourself in the air directly -above the house. This view is called the _plan_.[53] In this case, as -the view of the interior is desired, the view is shown as if the roof -were removed. If the sides or ends are not alike, as is sometimes the -case, two side or end views may be needed. In the case illustrated, -inside elevations are also given, to show the construction. - -Elevations, whether one or several, must always be taken at right angles -to the plan. Although commonly, in simple work, confined to -representations of each side or end, they can be taken from any point of -view that may be at right angles to the plan. They may be taken from the -corners or at any angles that may best show any complicated details of -the object. If the object is quite simple, one elevation and the plan, -or two elevations without the plan, may be quite sufficient, as the -elevation or plan omitted can in such cases be understood at once. - -Always make your drawings full-sized when the object to be made is not -too large. You are much less likely to make mistakes in taking your -dimensions and measurements from a drawing the actual size of the object -than where you have to take them from a smaller drawing, and you also -can get a better idea from a full-sized drawing just how the object will -look. It is a safe-guard, with a drawing which is symmetrical, to lay it -out from a centre line, measuring to the right and left. - -If you make a drawing of which each line is one half the length of the -same line in the real object, it is called a "half-size" drawing, and -is said to be drawn on a scale of 6" to the foot. If "one fourth size," -the scale is 3" to the foot. The scale is often expressed as an -equation, viz.: 2 in. = 1 ft., or 1/4" = 1'. - -If the drawing is not made with accuracy, it is necessary to put the -dimensions upon it, and this is often done for convenience and quickness -of execution in the case of drawings which are accurate. - -Details inside of an object, that is, such parts as cannot be seen or -properly shown in the elevations or plan, are often shown by dotted -lines, as in Fig. 597. Sometimes dotted lines are used in the same way -to show the back of an object, to save making extra drawings. Too many -dotted lines, however, are confusing, so if the parts that do not show -on the surface are not quite simple and cannot be clearly shown by -dotted lines on the plan and elevations, it is usual to make another -kind of drawing especially to show such details. This is called a -"section" (Lat., _sectio_, from _secare_, to cut), and represents what -would be shown if the object were cut apart or sawed through at the -place where the view of the details is wanted. The surface supposed to -be cut is usually indicated by parallel lines crossing the surface, -independent parts, as those of different pieces, frequently being shown -by changing the direction of the parallel lines, as in Fig. 504. - -When both sides of an object are alike, labour and space are often saved -by making a drawing of one side or one half only, from a centre line. -The same way is sometimes adopted in making sections, and an elevation -and section can sometimes be combined in this way in one drawing. - -As soon as you become used to plans and elevations, you can by combining -the plan and elevations in your mind quickly imagine the form of the -object represented, and often, unless it is complicated, get fully as -good a conception of it as from a picture, and a more accurate knowledge -of its proportions and details, so that in many cases there is no need -of having a picture at all in order to construct the object. It is often -a convenience to have a picture, however, and frequently an assistance -in forming a correct idea of something you have never seen. Where the -appearance of the object is of consequence, as in the case of a house or -bookcase, for instance, the picture is of the first consequence, for you -must have a correct representation of the general appearance of the -object before you begin to make the working-drawings. You will soon find -that merely having an idea in your mind is not always sufficient from -which to make working-drawings, although the first step in the process. -You will often find that when the idea in your mind is put into the form -of a picture, it does not look at all as you thought it would, and that -if you had started at once on the working-drawings without first making -a sketch or picture, the result would have been unsatisfactory and -sometimes entirely impracticable. - -Even making a sketch or picture that just expresses your idea will not -always result in the completed object being just what you wish. Strange -though it may seem, it is a fact, practically, that the completed object -often looks quite different from what the sketch leads you to expect. -That result, however, is something which cannot be helped, so you need -not give it any attention, only do not be surprised if once in a while -you find that what you have made is not just what you thought it would -be. First make the best design you can, then accurate working-drawings, -then work carefully by the drawings, and if the result is not always -exactly what you expected, you can console yourself with the thought -that your experience is only that of architects, designers, carpenters, -and workmen in all lines, and that no one can foresee _all_ the -conditions by which a piece of projected work will be affected. - -Oblique or parallel projections are often used, from which measurements -can be made. Such projections are not true representations of the -objects as they appear to the eye, but they are often used because -readily understood and easily drawn. They often answer every purpose -from a practical point of view. Figs. 120 and 344 are examples. - -Another way of representing objects for practical purposes is that shown -in Figs. 121 and 407, and known as "isometric[54] projection" or -"isometric perspective." This method is incorrect so far as giving an -accurate picture is concerned, for the object is always represented as -being too large in the farther parts, because the inclined lines are -drawn parallel instead of converging; but it is often very useful from a -practical point of view, because by it all that is required can -frequently be expressed in one drawing. - -Isometric perspective will not readily give the correct dimensions -except in the lines which are vertical or which slant either way at an -angle of 30 deg. with the horizontal,--_i.e._, you cannot take the other -dimensions right off with a rule as from a plan, and therefore, so far -as obtaining correct dimensions is concerned, it is practically not -useful for other than rectangular objects; but so far as merely showing -the general shape or conveying the idea of the form it can often be -advantageously used in representing many objects containing curved -lines. Isometric projection has the advantage of being easy of -execution, and of being so pictorial that it is almost always easy to -see what is meant. - - -=A First-Class Bench.=--The construction of the bench shown on page 101 -is not difficult to understand, but considerable skill is required to -make a really good one. The arrangement of the vise is shown in Fig. -705, which is an inverted view (as if looking up from underneath). The -vise is kept parallel by the stout bars of hard wood, parallel to the -screw, which slide through mortises cut in the front of the bench-top, -and are further guided by the cleats screwed to the under side of the -top, where it is thinner than at the front edge. In case of using such a -vise where the bench-top is not so thick in front, the thickness can -easily be made sufficient by screwing a stout cleat on the under side -where the vise comes. In this cleat can be cut the mortises for the -slide-bars. The end-vise or "tail-screw" shown in Fig. 143 involves -rather more work, but slides upon a similar principle. Perhaps the best -way for the amateur is to make the end-vise in the same way as the main -vise, adding the movable stop. - -[Illustration FIG. 705.] - -There is no better way to make the front of this bench-top than to build -it up of narrow boards on edge, planed true, and thoroughly glued and -bolted together. The planing and truing can best be done by machine, -however. If well put together, such a bench-top will defy changes of -weather and will stand a great deal of hard usage. The back part of the -top can be thinner, but can very well be built up if desired. An -excellent way to fasten the frame of such a bench together is with -bolts, by which the parts can be drawn to a firm bearing. - -It is impossible to make such a bench too rigid. If so stiffly framed -that it cannot change its shape, and if the top is carefully trued, you -will have something which will be a great help to good work. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[51] In elm, ash, and hickory the sapwood is sometimes considered better -than the heart. - -[52] The term deal, though often loosely applied to the wood of the pine -and fir, properly refers to planks of these woods cut more than 7" wide -and 6' long--usually 3" thick and 9" wide. The term is common in Great -Britain but not in the United States. - -[53] This definition of elevations and plan as being representations of -what you would see if you stood opposite the sides or above the top of -the object, is merely a rough explanation of the general meaning of the -terms. As a matter of scientific accuracy the elevation is, strictly -speaking, not the way the side would appear if you looked at it from one -position, but the way it would appear if you could look at it from -directly opposite every point of it--as if you could have an infinite -number of eyes, one being opposite every point of the object. The -elevation shows the front or side or end as it really is, not as it -looks, either in the form of an exact copy if the object is small, or of -a small copy made in the same proportion if the object is too large to -be represented full size. - -[54] Gr., equal measure. - - - - - INDEX - - - Adze, Indian, 11 - - -- Japanese, 15 - - Air-chambers, 318, 319 (footnote) - - -- dried stock, 164. See _Seasoning_. - - -- drying, 36-40, 522-524 - - -- pure, 277-279 - - -- tanks, 318, 319 (footnote) - - Alkanet root, 498 - - Ammonia (for staining), 495, 497 - - Angle-blocks. See _Corner-blocks_, 365 - - Angles, determining, with bevel, 350 - - Angular bit-brace, 352 - - Animals, houses for, 126-140 - - Annual rings, 29 - - Anvil, 77, 344 - - Apparatus, athletic and gymnastic. - See _Gymnastic Apparatus_ and _Implements for Outdoor Sports_. - - Apple (wood), 512 - - Apron, 56 - - Arbours, 291-293 - - Arcs, describing circular, 364, 365 - - Arkansas stone, 434 - - Ash, 512 - - -- sapwood, 42, 510 - - Auger-bit, 352 - - Awl, Japanese, 15 - - Awls, 344, 345 - - Axe, 345 - - - Backbone, ice-boat, 334 - - Back-saw, 469 - - Backs for case work, 194 - - Balcony, 295, 297 - - Ball and block, 219 - - Balloon frame, 280 - - Bar, horizontal, 166-168, 173 - - Bars, parallel, 164-166 - - Bassoolah, 11, 12 - - Basswood, 512 - - Bath-house, 293, 294 - - Batteau, 299-314 - - Battening, 282 - - Bayberry tallow, 378 - - Baywood. See _Mahogany_. - - Beading, 198, 345, 346 - - -- -planes, 451 - - Bead-scraper, 345, 346 - - Beams. See _Collar-beams_, _beams_, etc. - - Beech, 512 - - Bench, filing-, 75-77 - - -- finishing-, 77 - - -- hook, 86-88 - - -- stop, 71-75 - - -- top, 62, 63, 74, 536 - - -- vise, 65-71, 74, 101, 536 - - -- work-, 57-65, 101, 536, 537 - - Bending wood, 40, 346-349 - - Bevel, 349, 350 - - Bevelling, 350, 351, 357 - -- edges of sides of boat, 305 - - Big trees, 520 - - Birch, 512, 513 - -- model (canoe), 325, 326 - - Bird-houses. See _Houses for animals_. - - Bird's-eye maple, 517 - - Bit-brace, 351, 352 - - -- angular, 352 - - -- maker, 22 - - -- use of, 353-356 (_Boring_) - - -- where to keep, 83 - - Bits, 352, 353 - - -- arrangement, 83 - - -- maker, 22 - - Bit-stock. See _Bit-brace_. - - Black birch, 512, 513 - - -- bone-, 498 - - -- cherry, 514 - - -- ivory-, 498 - - Black, lamp-, 498 - - -- walnut, 513 - - Blind dovetailing, 373 - - -- nailing, 432 - - Block-form, 176, 240 - - -- -plane, 449 - - Board, sprung, for pressure, 362 - - -- -measure, 47, 48 - - Boarding, outside, 269 - - Boards, definition of, 46 - - -- matched-, 46, 47 - - -- or planks, laying exposed, 353 - - -- splitting, 527-529 - - Boat-building, 298-343 - - -- house-, 339-343 - - -- -houses, 294-297 - - -- ice-, 332-339 - - Boats, toy, hulls of, 227-237 - - -- (windmill), 114, 115 - - Bob-sled, 156-163 - - Body plan, 229, 230 (footnote) - - Boiled oil, 437 (_Painting_) - - Bone-black, 498 - - Bookcase and lounge, 211 - - -- dwarf, 196 - - -- low, 196 - - -- pinned ("knock-down"), 195 - - -- wall, or hanging, 186, 187 - - -- with cupboard, 197 - - -- with desk, 198-200 - - Bookcases, 193-200 - - Book-rack, 183, 184 - - -- -shelf, hanging, 185 - - Booths, play, 241-249 - - Boring, 353-356 - - -- Japanese, 15 - - Bow-gun, 154 - - -- -saw, 469, 470 - - Boxes, 219, 227 - - Box-making, 219-227 - - Boxwood, 513 - - Brace for bits. See _Bit-brace_. - - -- -joint, 411 - - Braced frame, 280 - - Braces, corner, for house frames, 266 - - Brad-awl, 344, 345 - - -- holes made by, 430 - - Brake for sleds, 160-163 - - British oak, 518 - - Broad-leaved trees, 511 - - Bruises and cuts, 86 - - Bruises in wood, to take out, 356 - - Brushes, 356 - - -- care of, 440 - - Buck. See _Vaulting-horse_. - - "Built-up" stock, 409, 410, 530, 531 - - Bull-nosed-plane, 450 - - Burnisher for scraper, 487 - - Butternut, 513 - - Butt-joint, 408 - - Buttonwood. See _Sycamore_. - - Buying lumber, suggestions about, 36-45. See also _Seasoning_. - - -- tools, suggestions about, 15-22 - - - Cabinet-clamps. See _Clamps_. - - -- corner-, 190, 191 - - -- for guns, fishing-rods, etc., 215, 216 - - -- for tools and supplies, 96-101 - - -- medicine, 191, 193 - - -- music, 200, 201 - - -- wall, or hanging, 186, 189, 190 - - -- -work. See _Furniture_. - - Cabins, 241-259 - - Cages for animals, 126-140 - - Calcined plaster, 403 - - Calipers, 356 - - Camping-houses. See _House-building for Beginners_. - - Canoe, "birch" model, 325, 326 - - -- canvas-covered, 317-328 - - -- flat-bottomed, 311-317 - - -- " " (canvas-covered), 313, 314 - - Canvas-covered canoe (flat-bottomed), 313, 314 - - -- canoes, 317-328 - - Canvas, covering canoe with, 322, 323 - - -- deck, 317 - - -- painting, 323 - - Cap (plane-iron), 451, 452 - - Care of stock, 44 - - -- of tools, 22, 23 - - Carlins, 325, 329 - - Carpentry, Japanese, 12-15 - - Carving-tools, 20, 357 - - -- makers of, 22 - - Case, centre-board, 330, 331 - - -- music, 200, 201 - - Casing for doors, 269 - - -- for doors and windows, 272 - - Catalpa, 522 - - Caulking, 302, 303, 330 - - Cedar, 513, 514 - - Centre-bit, 352 - - -- -board, 330, 331 - - -- -board trunk, 330, 331 - - -- -table, 206, 207 - - Chain, wooden, 218, 219 - - Chair, outdoor, 210 - - -- -table, 212-214 - - Chalk, 416 - - -- -line, 416 - - Chamfering, 350, 351, 357 - - Charring wood, 263, 264, 525 - - Checking of lumber, 31, 42, 526 - - Cherry, 514 - - Chestnut, 514 - - Chests, 219-227 - - Chimney. See _Smoke-pipe_. - - Chip (of plane), 453 - - Chisels, 357-359 - - -- arrangement of, 83 - - -- makers of, 22 - - -- sharpening. See _Sharpening_. - - -- use of, 358, 359, 421-423, 442-444 - - Chopping-block, 86 - - -- wood. See _Splitting Wood_. - - Circles and arcs, describing, 364, 365 - - Circular-plane, 450 - - Clamping, 71, 359-363 (_Clamps_), 395, 461 - - Clamps, 71, 359-363, 395, 461. See also _Hand-screws_. - - Clapboarding, 273, 274 - - Clapboards, 48, 274 - - Cleaner for furniture, etc., 386 - - Cleating, 53, 363, 364 - - Cleats. See _Cleating_. - - -- for rowlocks, 301, 302, 306 - - Clinching nails, 431 - - Club-house, 296, 297 - - Coal-tar, 525 - - Coaming, 316, 320, 325, 331 - - Collar-beams, 287 - - Collection of specimens of wood, 44, 507, 508 - - Colour of lumber, 40 - - "Combination" articles (furniture), 198-200, 211-214 - - "Combination" planes, 451 - - Compartments (pigeon-holes), 200 - - -- water-tight, 318, 319 (footnote) - - Compasses, 364, 365. See also _Scribing_. - - Compass-plane. See _Circular-plane_. - - -- -saw, 469, 470 - - Concealed nailing. See _Blind-_ and _Sliver-nailing_, 432 - - Conifers, 511 - - Coop, 129 - - Cord, twisted, for pressure, 362 - - Corner-blocks, 365 - - -- book-shelves and seat, 212 - - -- -braces for house frame, 266 - - -- -chisel, 358 - - -- -posts, 265, 266 - - -- -seat and shelves, 212 - - -- -shelves or cabinets, 190, 191 - - "Cottage Row," 271-276 - - Cottages, simple summer, 271-290 - - Cottonwood, 514 - - Couch with bookcase, etc., 211 - - Countersink, 365, 478 - - Cracking of lumber, 31, 42, 526 - - Cracks and holes, to fill, 384, 403, 404 - - -- flashing, 273 - - Creosote, 525 - - -- -stains, 270, 525 - - Cricket, or footstool, 210 - - Crooked grain, 529, 530 - - Crossbow, 154 - - Cross-cutting-saw, 466, 467 - - -- -grained stock, 40, 41, 529, 530 - - Cupboard. See _Cabinet_. - - Cup-shakes, 531 - - Curling of lumber, 32-34, 409, 410, 502, 526-531 - - Curves, sawing, 180 - - -- trimming or paring, 443 - - Cut-nails, 433 - - -- best for shingling, 270 - - Cuts and bruises, 86 - - Cutting the log, 31-35 - - -- the tree. See _Felling_. - - Cutting-edges, 25-28. See also _Sharpening_. - - -- -pliers, 366 - - Cutwater, 309-311 - - Cypress, 514, 515 - - - Daggers, wooden, 106, 107 - - Deal, 519, 521 - - Decay and preservation, 41, 524-526 - - Deck, 329 - - -- canvas, 317 - - -- for toy boats, 236 - - -- timbers, 325, 329 - - Deliquescent stem, 508 - - Designing, 175-177, 239-241, 276, 534, 535 - - Desk and bookcase, 198-200 - - -- -rack, 184, 185 - - Dimension stock, 45 - - Dividers. See _Compasses_. - - Dog-fish skin, 381 - - Dog-houses, 133-136 - - Dogwood, 522 - - Dolls' house, 121-125 - - Door, 247 - - -- and window frames, space for, 266 - - -- -casings, 269, 272 - - Doors and panels, 366-372 - - -- and windows, sizes of, 276 - - -- sliding, 132, 133 - - Double-bladed paddle, 328 - - -- -ironed planes, 451 - - -- -runner, 156-163 - - Dovetailing, 372, 373 - - Dowelling, 374-376 - - Dowel-plate, 376 - - Dowels, 374 - - Dragon's blood, 498 - - Drainage, 278, 279 - - Drawboring, 426 - - Drawer, or lap, dovetailing, 373 - - Drawers, 101, 376-378 - - Drawing nails, 504, 505 - - Drawings, working, 49, 50, 532-536 - - Draw-knife or draw-shave, 378, 379 - - -- use of, 442-444 - - Draw-stroke, 26-28, 351, 378, 379, 443, 444, 456 - - Drill, primitive, 10 - - -- -stock, 379 - - Drills, 379 - - Driving nails. See _Nailing_. - - Dry rot, 526 - - -- situation, 277 - - Dryer, 438 (_Painting_) - - Drying lumber, methods of, 36-40, 523, 524 - - Duck's-bill-bit, 353 - - Dwarf bookcase, 196 - - - Ebony, 48, 515 - - Edges, cutting, 25-28. See also _Sharpening_. - - Elasticity, 40, 511 - - -- loss of, 37, 524 - - Elder, 522 - - Elevations, 532-534 - - Elm, 515 - - -- sapwood, 42, 510 - - End-grain, 529 - - -- planing, 457 - - Essentials to successful work, 102 - - Estimating, 54, 55 - - Excurrent trunk, 508 - - Expansion and contraction, 30-33, 50-53, 225, 526-531 - - -- bit, 352 - - - Face (of plane), 445 - - -- (of stock), 54 - - Facing edges of case work, 198 - - Farm school, 271 - - Felling and seasoning, 522-524. See also _Seasoning_. - - Figured stock. See _Grain of Wood_. - - File-card, 381 - - Files, 379-381 - - -- maker of, 22 - - Filing, 379-381 - - -- -bench, 75-77 - - -- saw-, 485-487 (_Sharpening_) - - Filler, wood, 385 (_Finishing_) - - Finishing, 182, 183, 381-386 - - -- -bench, 77 - - Fin-keel type, 229-236 - - Fir. See _Pine_ and _Spruce_. - - Firmer-chisel, 357, 359 - - Fishing-lodges. See _House-building for Beginners_. - - Fish-plates, 411 - - Flashing, 257, 258, 272, 273 - - Flatboat, 299-308 - - Flat-bottomed boats, 299-317 - - Floor-beams, 254, 255, 266, 267, 287, 288, 296 - - Flooring for canoe, 323 - - -- rift-, 36 - - Floors, 254, 255, 266-268, 287, 288, 296 - - Flower-pot stands, 201, 202, 207 - - Footstool or cricket, 210 - - Fore-plane, 447, 448 - - Forests, preservation of, 509 - - Forms for bending. See _Moulds_. - - Foundation, 259, 260, 262-264, 279 - - Frame for buildings, 249, 250, 254, 265-269, 272, 279, 280, 286, - 287, 296. See also _Houses for Animals_. - - -- balloon, 280 - - -- braced and mortised, 280 - - -- for boat. See _Moulds_ and _Boat-building for Beginners_. - - Frames, door and window, sizes of, 276; - spaces for, 266 - - -- picture-, 216, 217 - - Framing-chisels, 358 - - Framing (doors and panels). See _Doors and Panels_. - - -- (house). See _Frame for Buildings_. - - -- -square, 495 - - French polishing, 385, 386 - - Frogs, turtles, lizards, etc., tank for, 139, 140 - - Front elevation, 532 - - Fungi, 41, 43, and _Decay and Preservation_, 524-526 - - Furniture, 175-217 - - -- repairing, 460-462 - - - Gain, 288 (Fig. 399) - - Gauge, 386-390 - - -- for bevels and chamfers, 351 - - -- makers, 22 - - Gauging. See _Gauge_. - - Georgia pine, 520 - - Giant swing, 172, 173 - - Gimlet, 390 - - -- -bit, 353 - - Glass for scraper, 473, 474 - - -- setting, 391 - - Glazing, 391 - - Glue. See _Gluing_. - - Glued-joints, 360 (footnote), 392, 393 (footnote). - See also _Gluing_, _Clamps_, _Hand-screws_, and - _Repairing Furniture_. - - -- clamping, 359-363 - - -- rubbing, 365 (_Corner-blocks_) - - Glue-pot, 396 - - Gluing, 391-396. - See also _Clamps_, _Hand-screws_, and _Repairing Furniture_. - - -- old work. See _Repairing Furniture_. - - Glycerine, 434 - - Gouge, 396-398 - - -- -bit, 353 - - Gouges, arrangement of, 83 - - -- makers of, 22 - - Grain of wood, 30, 33-36, 40 - - -- crooked or cross-grained, 35, 36, 40, 529, 530 - - Grinding. See _Sharpening_. - - Grindstone, 398 - - -- use of, 480-482 - - Grooving, 185, 187, 398 - - Gum (wood), 522 - - Gun-cabinet, etc., 215, 216 - - Guns and pistols (wooden), 152-154 - - Gunwale strip, 306, 317, 320 - - Gymnastic apparatus, 163-174 - - - Half-breadth plan, 229, 230 - - Half-round file, 380 - - Halving (halved-joints), 399, 400 - - Hammer, 400 - - -- use of. See _Nailing_, 428-430, and also 504, 505 - - Handles, etc., oiling, 23 - - Hand-screws, 400-402 - - -- use of, 71, 400-402, 461 - - Hanging bookcase, 186, 187 - - -- book-shelf, 185 - - "Happy Jack," 112-114 - - Hard pine, 519, 520 - - -- wood, 45 - - Hatchet, 402 - - -- use of, 441, 442 - - Headledges, 330, 331 - - Heart, crooked, 529, 530 - - -- shakes, 531 - - -- wood, 29, 42, 43, 510 - - Hemlock, 515 - - Hen-houses. - See _Houses for Animals_ and _House-building for Beginners_. - - Hickory, 515 - - -- sapwood, 510 - - Hinges, 247, 402, 403 - - Hip-rafters, 284 - - Hip-roof, 284-286 - - Holes and cracks, to fill, 384, 403, 404 - - Hollow and round planes, 451 - - Holly, 516 - - Horizontal bar, 166-168, 173 - - Hornbeam, 522 - - Horse, vaulting-, 170-172 - - Horses, or trestles, 88-90 - - House, bath-, 293, 294 - - -- -boats, 339-343 - - -- -building for beginners, 238-297 - - -- designing, 239-241 - - -- situation, 239. See also _Houses_. - - Housed joint, 424 and Fig. 557 - - Houses, boat-, 294-297 - - -- club-, 296, 297 - - -- dolls', 121-125 - - -- for animals, 126-140 - - -- play-, 241-259 - - -- portable, 247, 248 - - -- summer-, 291-293. See also _House_. - - Housing (housed joint). 424 and Fig. 557 - - Hunting-lodges. See _House-building for Beginners_. - - Hutch, rabbit, 132, 133 - - - Ice-boat, small, 332-339 - - Indian turning, 10, 11 - - Inside calipers, 356 - - Iron (of plane), 445 - - -- painting, 438 - - Ironwood, 522 - - Isometric projection or perspective, 535 - - Ivory black, 498 - - - Jack-knife. See _Knife_, 411, 412 - - -- -plane, 446, 447 - - -- -rafter, 284 - - Japan, 438 (_Painting_) - - -- varnish, 438 - - Japanese carpenter's vise, 13 - - -- carpentry, 12-15 - - -- lacquer, 383 (footnote) - - -- tools, 14, 15 - - Jointer, 448 - - Jointing, 360 (footnote), 404-408, 491 (_Shooting-board_) - - Joints, 221, 222 - - Joints and splices, 408-411 - - -- for gluing, 360, 392, 393 (footnote). See _Glued-joints_. - - -- housed, 424 and Fig. 557 - - -- in exposed work, painting, 439, 440 - - -- mitred. See _Mitring_. - - -- relished, 425 - - Joists, definition, 47 - - - Keel, 316, 323, 324, 327 - - -- built up, 237 - - -- (skag), 307 - - Keelson, 320 - - Kennel, 133-136 - - Kerfing. See _Bending Wood_, 346 - - Keyhole-saw, 470 - - Kiln-drying, 37-40. See _Seasoning_. - - King-bolt, 158 - - Knees, 314 - - Knife, 411, 412 - - -- makers, 22 - - -- putty, 459 - - -- sharpening, 480, 484 - - -- use of, 442-444 - - Knives, wooden, 106, 107 - - "Knock-down" construction, 195 - - - Lacquer, Japanese, 383 (footnote) - - Ladders (gymnastic), 173 - - Lampblack, 498 - - Lancewood, 516 - - Lap or drawer dovetailing, 373 - - Lard oil, 434 - - Lathe, primitive Indian, 10, 11 - - Laths, 48 - - Lattice-work, 282, 291, 292 - - Laying out the work, 50-54 - - Lead (of plane-iron), 452 - - -- over door- and window-casings, 272, 273 - - -- red, 438 (_Painting_) - - -- white. See _Painting_. - - Lean-to, 241-250 - - -- addition, 281, 282 - - -- roof, frame for, 250 - - Ledger-board, 296 - - Leg-of-mutton sail, 332 - - Leopard wood, 48 - - Level, 96, 412 - - -- makers, 22 - - Levelling tables, horses, chairs, etc., 479, 480, 504 - - Lighthouse, 120 - - Lignum-vitae, 516 - - Lime-water, 497, 498 - - Linden. See _Basswood_. - - Linseed oil. See _Finishing_, _Painting_ (437), and _Staining_. - - Lizards, frogs, turtles, etc., tank for, 139, 140 - - Live oak, 518 - - Load water-line, 230 (footnote) - - Location of house, 277-279 - - Locks, 412, 413 - - Locust, 516 - - Log, cutting the, 31-35 - - Long jointer, 448 - - Lounge with bookcase, etc., 211 - - Lumber, characteristics. See Chapter III. (_Wood_), and 510-522 - - -- charring, 263, 264, 525 - - -- checking and cracking, 31, 42, 526 - - -- colour of, 40 - - -- cross-grained, 40, 41, 529, 530 - - -- curling and warping, 32-34, 41, 409, 502, 526-531 - - -- definition, 45 - - -- dressed, 45, 46 - - -- rift, 35, 36 - - -- sawing, 31-35. See also _Expansion and Contraction_. - - -- seasoning, 36-40, 42, 164, 177, 178, 522-524 - - -- selection of, 33-45 - - -- stacking, 39 - - -- swelling and shrinking, 30-35, 50-53, 225, 526-531 - - -- undressed, 45 - - -- wany, 40 - - -- warped, 41. See _Warping_. - - -- winding, 41. See _Winding_. - - - M, 47 - - Mahogany, 516 - - -- cracks in, 42 - - Mallet, 414 - - Maple, 517 - - Marking, 414-416 - - -- -awl. See _Awl_ and _Marking_. - - -- distances. See _Rule_, 465 - - -- -gauge. See _Gauge_. - - Mason's square, 261 - - Masts, 331 - - Matched-boards, 46, 47 - - -- striking, 245 - - Matching-planes, 21, 47, 451 - - Maxims, 102 - - Measurements. See _Rule_, and also - 47, 48, 50, 59, 167(footnote), 244, 261 - - Measuring. See _Measurements_. - - Measuring-rod, 53 - - Medicine-cabinet, 191, 193 - - Medullary rays, 29, 30 - - Middle-boards, 34, 35, 523 - - Mirror-plates, 416 - - Mirrors, setting, 391 - - Mitre. See _Mitring_. - - -- -board, 92, 93 - - -- -box, 90-92 - - -- dovetailing, 373 - - -- shooting-board, 94 - - -- -square, 349 - - Mitring, 221, 417-419 - - Models, 240 - - Mortise and tenon. See _Mortising_. - - Mortise-chisels, 358 - - -- -gauge, 387 - - -- open, 400 - - Mortised frame, 280 - - Mortising, 419-428 - - Mouldings, 48, 197, 198 (footnote) - - Moulds (for bending), 348, 349 - - -- (for boat), 304, 307, 309, 310, 315, 316, 319, 320 - - Mouth (of plane), 445, 452, 453 - - Music-case, 200, 201 - - - Nailing, 428-433 - - Nails, 433 - - -- copper and galvanised, 300 - - -- for shingling, 270 - - -- how to keep, 85 - - -- use of, 430-433 (_Nailing_) - - -- withdrawing, 504, 505 - - Nail-set, 433, 434 - - Needle-leaved trees, 511 - - Nippers, 434, 445 - - Norway pine, 519 - - -- spruce, 521 - - Notch-boards, 289 - - - Oak, 517, 518 - - Oak, quartered, 34 - - Oblique projections, 535 - - Odd-jobs, 434 - - Oil, 434 - - -- -finish, 381 - - -- linseed, See _Finishing_, _Painting_, and _Staining_. - - Oiling handles, etc., 23 - - Oil-stone, 434, 435 - - -- box for, 85 - - -- use of, See _Sharpening_. - - Open mortise and tenon, 400 - - Operations, some every-day, 344-505 - - Outdoor seat, 210 - - Outside calipers, 356 - - Overshot water-wheels, 117, 118 - - - Packing-cases, 225 - - Paddles, 327, 328 - - Paint, See _Painting_. - - Painting, 435-441 - - -- canvas, 323 - - -- shingles, 270 - - Panels, 366-372 (_Doors and Panels_) - - Panel-saw, 466 - - Parallel bars, 164-166 - - -- projection, 535 - - Paring, 441-444 - - -- -chisel, See _Chisel_ 357, 358 - - Parting tool, See _Carving Tools_. - - Patterns for bending, See _Moulds_. - - Pear (wood), 518 - - Pencil, See _Marking_, 414 - - Perspective, isometric, 535 - - Piazza, 283, 287-289 - - Picture-frames, 216, 217 - - Pigeon-holes, 200 - - -- -houses. See _Houses for Animals_. - - Piers, 259, 260, 279 - - Piles, 524 - - Pincers, 445 - - Pine, 518-520 - - Pinning mortise and tenon, 425 - - Pins for mortise and tenon, 426 - - Pipe-rack, 188, 189 - - Pistols and guns (wooden), 152-154 - - Pitch, 525 - - -- pine, 520 - - Pith, crooked, 529, 530 - - Plan, 532-534 - - -- (boat), 229, 230 - - Plane, 445-458 - - -- how to hold, 446, 447 - - -- -iron, adjusting, 453, 454 - - -- sharpening, See _Sharpening_. - - -- wooden jack- or fore-, holding, 446 See _Planes_. - - Planer-marks, 458 - - Planes, Japanese, 13, 14 - - -- makers, 22 - - -- where to keep, 82 - - -- wooden, oiling, 23. See _Plane_. - - Planing down stock, 44 - - Planks, definition, 47 - - -- laying, See _Boards, laying_. - - -- splitting, See _Boards, splitting_. - - Plans, See _Working Drawings_. - - Plant-stands, 201, 202, 207 - - Plaster of Paris, 403 - - Plates, 266 - - Play-houses, -booths, or -stores, 241-259 - - -- "Cottage Row," 271, 276 - - -- -village, 118-121, 271, 276 - - Pliers, 445 - - -- cutting-, 366 - - Plough, 21, 451. See _Plane_. - - Plum (wood), 520 - - Plumb, 96, 458 - - Pod-bit, 353 - - Pole, sprung, for pressure, 362 - - -- for skis, 148 - - Poles (for gymnastics), 173 - - Polishing, 385, 386 - - Poplar, 522 - - Posts, corner-, 265, 266 - - -- foundation, 262-264 - - -- setting, 262, 263 - - Potash, bichromate of, 498 - - Poultry-houses, - See _House-building for Beginners_ and _Houses for Animals_. - - Preservation of wood, decay and, 524-526 - - -- of forests, 509 - - Pressure, means of applying, See _Clamps_ and _Hand-screws_. - - Projections, oblique or parallel, and isometric, 535 - - Proportions of structures, 176, 240 - - Punch (for nails), See _Nail-set_, 433, 434 - - Punts and scows, 299-308 - - Purlins, 268 - - Putty, 459 - - -- -knife, 459 - - -- use of, 403, 439 - - - Quartered oak, 34, 179 - - Queen-bolts, 159 - - Quill-bit, 353 - - - Rabbet, 185, 187, 459 - - -- -hutch, 132, 133 - - -- -plane. See _Plane_ 450, 451 - - Rack, for books, 183, 184 - - -- for pipes, 188, 189 - - -- for table or desk, 184, 185 - - -- for tools, 83, 84 - - Rafters, 282 - - -- arrangement of, 287 - - -- hip-, 284 - - -- jack-, 284 - - -- laying out, 268 - - Rails (of door or panel work), 370 - - -- (of table), 204 - - Rasp, 460 - - Rasping. See _Filing_. - - Ratchet-brace, 351 - - Ratchets (for shelves), 489 - - Rat-tailed file, 380 - - Raw oil. See _Painting_, 437 - - Rays, medullary, 29, 30 - - Reamers, 353 - - Rear elevation, 532 - - Red cedar, 514 - - -- deal, 519 - - -- fir, 519 - - -- lead, 438 (_Painting_) - - -- oak, 518 - - -- pine, Canadian, 519 - - Redwood, 520 - - Relishing (relished joint), 425 - - Repairing furniture, 460-462 - - Ribbands, 320 - - Ribs, 314, 321, 324, 325 - - -- bending. See _Bending Wood_. - - Ridge-board, 268 - - Rift-flooring, 36 - - -- stock, 35, 36 - - Rings, annual, 29 - - -- swinging (gymnastic), 173 - - Ripping-saw, 468, 469 (_Saw_) - - Risers, 289 - - Rivets, 462 - - Rock elm, 515 - - -- maple, 517 - - Rod, measuring, 53 - - Roof-boards, 268 - - -- -timbers, 268 - - -- durability of, 525 - - Roofing-paper, 246, 258 - - Roofs, 128, 268-270 - - -- for house-boat, 341, 342 - - -- hip-, 284-286 - - -- lean-to, shed, or single-pitched, 241, 250 - - -- overhang of, 282 - - Rope twisted for pressure, 362 - - Rosewood, 520 - - Rot, wet and dry, 526 - - Rounding sticks, 462-465 - - -- form for, 95, 96 - - Router, See _Plane_, 451 - - Rowboat, small, 308-311 - - Rowboats, 299-317 - - Rowlocks, 302, 306, 313 - - Rubbing down, 384 - - Rule, 465 - - -- makers, 22 - - Ruler, marking by, 415 - - Runner-board, ice-boat, 334 - - Runners, ice-boat, 335-338 - - Running foot, 48, 244 - - Runway for animals, 128, 276 - - Rust, preventing, 23 - - Rustic summer houses and arbours, 292, 293 - - - Saddle-boards, 269 - - Sail-boat, small, 311, 328-332 - - Sail, leg-of-mutton, 332 - - -- sprit-, 332 - - San Domingo mahogany, 517 - - Sandpaper, 465, 466 - - -- block, 466 - - Sandpapering. See _Sandpaper_. - - Sanitary precautions, 277-279 - - Sap, 30 - - Sapwood, 29, 42, 43, 510 - - Sassafras, 522 - - Satinwood, 521 - - Saw, 466-473 - - -- -filing, 485-487 (_Sharpening_) - - Saw-set, 473 - - Sawing. See _Saw_. - - -- curves, 180 - - -- joints to fit, 410 - - -- log, ways of, 30-35 - - -- lumber, 31-35 - - Saws, Japanese, 14, 15 - - -- makers, 22 - - -- where to keep, 82 - - Scale (for drawings), 533 - - Scarfing, bevelled, or splaying, 410, 411 - - Schedule of materials, 55 - - Scoring with cuts. See _Paring_. - - Scotch fir, 519 - - -- pine, 519 - - Scows and punts, 299-308 - - Scrap-boxes, 85 - - Scraper, 473, 474 - - -- for beading, 345, 346 - - -- Japanese, 13, 14 - - -- sharpening, 487, 488 (_Sharpening_) - - -- where to keep, 85 - - Scraping. See _Scraper_. - - Scratch-awl, 345 (_Awl_) - - Screw-drivers, 475, 476 - - -- for bit-brace, 476 - - -- long and short, 476 - - Screws, and their use, 476-479 - - -- how to keep, 85 - - Scriber. See _Marking_, 414 - - Scribing. See _Marking_, 414-416 and 479, 480 - - Seams of boat. See _Caulking_. - - Seasoned stock, 164, 177, 178 - - -- tests for, 39, 40. See _Seasoning lumber_. - - Seasoning lumber, 36-40, 42, 164, 177, 178, 522-524 - - Seat for corner, with shelves, 212 - - -- outdoor, 210 - - Second story, framing at, 296, 297 - - Secret dovetailing, 373 - - -- nailing. See _Blind-_ and _Sliver-nailing_, 432 - - Section, 533, 534 - - See-saw, tilt or, 142-145 - - _Sequoia_, 520 - - Set (for nails), 433, 434 - - -- (of saw), 467 - - Setting glass, 391 - - Setting mirrors, 391 - - -- nails, 433, 434 - - -- posts, 262, 263 - - -- saws. See _Sharpening_. - - Settle, corner, with shelves, 212 - - -- with table, 212-214 - - Sewerage, 278, 279 - - Shacks, 241-259 - - Shagbark (hickory), 515 - - Shakes, 531 - - Sharpening tools, 16, 22, 23, 25, 480-488 - - Sharpie (sail-boat), 328-332 - - Shave. See _Draw-knife_ and _Spokeshave_. - - Sheathing, 46, 47, 245, 269 - - -- for canvas canoe, 325, 326 - - -- outside of house with paper, 273 - - -- -paper, 246 - - -- striking, 245 - - Shed-roof. See _Lean-to_. - - Sheer plan, 229, 230 - - Shelf for books, hanging, 185 - - Shellac. See _Finishing_. - - Shell-bit, 353 (_Bits_) - - Shelves, corner, 190, 191 - - -- ends of, 195 - - -- for pipes, etc., 188, 189 - - -- for wall, 187-189 - - -- movable, 489 - - -- or pigeon-holes, 200 - - Shingles, 48, 269 - - Shingling, 269, 270 - - -- hips, 285, 286 - - Shooting-board, 93, 94 - - -- use of, 490, 491 - - Shrinkage, 30-35 - - -- effects of swelling and shrinking, 526-531. - See _Expansion and Contraction_. - - Shutter, 247, 258 - - Side elevation, 532 - - -- -plates, 287 - - Sills, 265 - - Silver-grain or rays. See _Medullary rays_ and _Quartered oak_. - - Single-pitched roof. See _Lean-to_. - - Site, selection of, 277-279 - - Sizing of floor-beams, 267 - - Skag, 307 - - Skew-chisel, 357, 358 - - Skiffs, 308-314 - - Skis, 145-148 - - Slab-sided file, 380 - - Sleds, 155-163 - - Slips, 435, 484 - - Sliver nailing, 432 - - Sloid knife. See _Knife_, 411, 412 - - -- work-bench, 57 - - Smoke-pipe, 257-259 - - Smoking wood, 524 - - Smoothing, 179, 180, 450, 453, 457, 458. - See _Plane_, _Scraper_, _Sandpaper_. - - -- -plane, 448, 449 - - Snake, wooden, 108, 109 - - Sofa with bookcase, etc., 211 - - Soft wood, 45 - - Sole (of plane), 445 - - Southern pine, 519, 520 - - Specimens of wood, 44, 507, 508 - - Sperm oil, 434 - - Splaying (splice), 410, 411 - - Splices. See _Joints and Splices_. - - Spline, 491 - - Split stock. See _Rift_. - - Splitting stock, 44, 527-529 - - -- wood, 28, 491 - - Spokeshave, 491, 492 - - -- makers, 22 - - Spoon-bit, 353 - - Sporting-cabinet, 215, 216 - - Spring-board, 170 - - Spritsail, 332 - - Spruce, 521 - - Square, 492-495 - - -- -foot, 47, 244 (note) - - -- makers, 22 - - -- mitre, 349 - - -- where to keep, 84, 85, and _Frontispiece_ - - Squaring work, 181 - - -- with clamps, 360, 361 - - Squirrel-house, 136-139 - - Stacking lumber, 39, 44 - - -- result of careless, 42 - - Staining, 495-498 - - -- shingles, 270 - - Stains, creosote-, 270, 525 - - Stairs, 289 - - -- (for little houses), 123 - - Staking out, 260-262 - - Stands, for plants, 201, 202, 207 - - Stands, small, 202, 207-209 - - Star-shakes, 531 - - Steam-chest, 347 - - Steaming wood, 347 (_Bending_) - - Steel square, 495 - - -- -wool, 498, 499 - - Steering (sleds), 159, 160, 163 - - Stem-posts, 309, 310, 320-323 - - Steps, 289 - - Stern-post, 327. See _Stem-posts_. - - "Sticking" lumber. See _Stacking_. - - Stile (of door or panel work), 370 - - Stilts, 141 - - Stock (of plane), 445 - - -- "built up," 409, 410, 530, 531 - - -- care of, 44 - - -- cross- or crooked-grained, 40, 41, 529, 530 - - -- planing down, 44 - - -- splitting, 527-529 - - -- rift or split, 35, 36. See _Lumber_. - - Stop, bench-, 71-75 - - -- -chamfer, 357 - - -- for drawers, 378 - - Stove-pipe. See _Smoke-pipe_. - - Stores or houses, play-, 241-259 - - Straight-bent chisel, 358 - - Straight-edge, 86, 499 - - -- marking by, 415 - - -- to detect warping or winding. See _Winding-sticks_. - - Striking circles and arcs, 364, 365 - - Stringers or strings (stairs), 289 - - Strop, 85, 499, 500 - - Stropping, 485 - - Studding, 266, 287 - - -- second-story, 296 - - Sugar maple, 517 - - -- pine, 519 - - Summer cottages, simple, 271-290 - - -- -houses, 291-293 - - Sunlight, 277, 278 - - Swelling and shrinking, 30-35, 50-53, 225, 526-531 - - Swing, giant, 172, 173 - - Swords, wooden, 106, 107 - - Sycamore, 521 - - - Table, and settle, or chair, 212-214 - - -- -top, putting on, 203, 205, 206, 209 - - Tables, 203-209 - - Tacks, 500 - - -- for canvas canoes, 323 - - Tallow, bayberry, 378 - - Tamping, 263 - - Tank, water-, for frogs, etc., 139, 140 - - Tannic acid, 526 - - Tape, 500 - - Tar, coal- and wood-, 525 - - Teak, 522 - - Templates, 231 - - Tennis rackets, 104 - - Tenon. See _Mortising_. - - -- -saw. See _Saw_ (_Back-saw_). - - Tenons (in repairing), 462 - - Thole-pins, 302 - - Thompson's Island, 271 - - Three-cornered file. See _File_. - - Throat (of plane), 445 - - Tilt, or see-saw, 142-145 - - Timber, definition, 45 - - -- durability of. See _Lumber_. - - Toboggan, 148-152 - - Toe-nailing, 431, 432 - - Toggle-joint, application of, 267 - - Tool-cabinets, 96-101 - - -- -chest, 96, 97, 223, 224 - - -- -handles, oiling, 23 - - -- -rack, 83, 84 - - Tools, 9-28 - - -- and supplies, arrangement, 80-86, 96 - - -- cabinet for, 96-101 - - -- care of, 22, 23 - - -- common, and their use, 344-505 - - -- edge-, 25-28 - - -- Japanese, 14, 15 - - -- lists of, 18-20 - - -- makers, 22 - - -- primitive, 9-15 - - -- sharpening, 16, 22, 23, 25, 480-488 - - -- "universal," 18 - - -- use of, 23-25 - - Toothed-plane, 449, 450 - - Toothing, 449, 450 - - Totlet Town, 118-121 - - Toughness, 40, 511 - - Toy boats, hulls of, 227-237 - - -- village, 118-121 - - Toys, 106-125 - - Trapeze, 173 - - Travelling-cage, 140 - - Traverse (sled), 156-163 - - Traversing, 446 - - Treads, 289 - - Trees. See _Felling and Seasoning_ and _Preservation of Forests_. - - -- big, 520 - - -- broad-leaved, 511 - - -- conifers or needle-leaved, 511 - - Trestles, 88-90 - - Triangular file, 380 - - Trigger, 153 - - Trimming. See _Paring_. - - Truing, grindstone, 398 - - -- oil-stone, 435 - - -- stock (surfaces), 179, 500, 501 - - Trunk for centre-board, 330, 331 - - Trying-plane, 447, 448 (_Plane_) - - Try-square. See _Square_ (492). - - Tulip wood, 48 - - Tupelo, 522 - - Turning, Indian, 10, 11 - - -- -saw, 469, 470 - - Turpentine. See _Finishing_ and _Painting_, 437, 438, 498, 526 - - Turtles, frogs, lizards, etc., tank for, 139, 140 - - Twist-drill, 501 - - "Twister" (rope), 362 - - Twisting. See _Winding_. - - Two-foot square, 495 - - - Undercutting, 195, 410 - - Underpinning, 259, 260, 262-264, 279 - - Undershot water-wheel, 116, 117 - - "Universal" planes, 451 - - -- tools, 18 - - - Varnish. See _Finishing_. - - -- Japan, 438 - - -- -stains, 496 - - Vaulting apparatus, 169 - - -- board, 170 - - -- -horse, 170, 172 - - Veining-tool. See _Carving-tools_. - - Village, play, "Cottage Row," 271-276 - - -- Totlet Town, 118-121 - - Vise, bench-, 65-71, 536 - - -- for metal, 75, 76 - - Vise, Japanese carpenter's, 13 - - -- parallelism of jaws, 67, 68 - - V tool, 357 - - - Wale-strips. See _Gunwale strips_. - - Wall-cabinet, 186, 189, 190 - - -- -shelves, 187-189 - - Walnut. See _Black Walnut_, 513 - - Warping of lumber, 32-34, 409, 410, 502, 526-531 - - Washboard. See _Coaming_. - - Washita stone, 434 - - Water-line, 230 (footnote) - - -- pure, 277-279 - - -- -table, 273 - - -- -tank for frogs, turtles, etc., 139, 140 - - -- -tight compartments, 318, 319 (footnote) - - -- -wheels, 116-118 - - Wax finish, 381 - - Weather-drying, 36, 40. See _Seasoning_. - - Weather-vane (steamboat), 115. See _Windmills_. - - Wedge for splitting, 28 - - Wedges, 502, 503 - - Wedging. See _Wedges_. - - -- tenons, 427, 428 - - Wet rot, 526 - - Weymouth pine. See _Pine_. - - Wheel, steering- (for sled), 160 - - Whetstone. See _Oil-stone_. - - Whetting. See _Sharpening_. - - White ash, 512 - - -- cedar, 514 - - -- deal, 521 - - -- lead. See _Painting_. - - -- mahogany, 517 - - -- oak, 518 - - -- pine, 518, 519 - - Whitewood, 521 - - Whittling, 4, 218, 219. See _Knife_. - - Willow, 522 - - Winding, 41, 360, 526-531 - - -- -sticks, 503, 504 - - Windmills, 109-116 - - Window-casings, 272 - - -- -shutter, 258 - - -- sliding, 248 - - Windows and doors, sizes of, 276 - - Wind-shakes, 531 - - Wing compasses, 364 - - Wire-edge, 480 - - Withdrawing nails, 504, 505 - - Wood, 29-48 (Chapter III.), 510-522. See _lumber_. - - -- charring, 263, 264, 525 - - -- checking and cracking, 31, 42, 526 - - -- collection of specimens, 44, 507, 508 - - -- colour of, 40 - - -- cross-grained, 40, 41, 529, 530 - - -- curling and warping, 32-34, 409, 410, 502, 526-531 - - -- durability of. See _Decay and Preservation_. - - -- -filler, 385 - - -- hard, 45 - - -- methods of drying, 36-40, 522-524 - - -- quality of, 33-35, 510, 511, 522 - - -- seasoning of, 36-40, 42, 164, 177, 178, 522-524 - - -- selection of, 33-45, 510, 511, 522 - - -- shrinkage and swelling, 30-35, 50-53, 225, 526-531 - - -- soft, 45 - - -- -tar, 525 - - -- warped, 41. See _Warping_. - - -- winding, 41. See _Winding_. - - Wooden chain, 218, 219 - - -- guns and pistols, 152-154 - - Woods and some of their characteristics, 510-522 - - Work-bench, 57-65 - - -- first-class, 101, 536, 537 - - -- makeshifts, 77-80 - - -- position and care of, 74, 75 - - -- sloid, 57 - - -- top, 74, 536 - - Working drawings, 49, 50, 532-536 - - -- edge or surface, 54 - - Workshop, 56-101, 259-270 - - Wrench, 505 - - Wrought nails, 433 - - - Yellow deal, 519 (_Pine_) - - -- fir, 519 - - -- pine, 519 - - Yew, 522 - - - Zinc, 438 (_Painting_) - - - - -The Boy with an Idea Series. - - -=I. The Young Mechanic.= Practical Carpentry. Containing directions for -the use of all kinds of tools, and for the construction of steam-engines -and mechanical models, including the art of turning in wood and metal. -By the author of "The Lathe and its Uses," etc. Authorized reprint from -English edition, with corrections, etc. Illustrated, small 4to, cloth -extra - - $1 75 - - "A valuable book, eminently useful to beginners, and suggestive - even to the experienced and skilful."--_Albany Journal._ - -=II. Amongst Machines.= By the author of "The Young Mechanic." Embracing -descriptions of the various mechanical appliances used in the -manufacture of wood, metal, and other substances. Profusely illustrated. -8vo, cloth - - $1 75 - - "A book of wondrous fascination, written in a clear, bright, - pointed style. A volume to be commended above a dozen - stories."--_Boston Traveler._ - -=III. The Boy Engineers.= What they did and how they did it. 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With 308 illustrations the size of life. 8^o, -_net_, $3.00. - - "Anybody who can read English can use the work and make his - identifications, and, in the case of some of the flowers, the - drawings alone furnish all that is necessary.... The descriptions - are as good of their kind as the drawings are of theirs."--_N. Y. - Times._ - -=THE SHRUBS OF NORTHEASTERN AMERICA.= By CHARLES S. NEWHALL. Fully -illustrated. 8^o, $1.75. - - "This volume is beautifully printed on beautiful paper, and has a - list of 116 illustrations calculated to explain the text. It has a - mine of precious information, such as is seldom gathered within the - covers of such a volume."--_Baltimore Farmer._ - - -=THE VINES OF NORTHEASTERN AMERICA.= By CHARLES S. NEWHALL. Fully -illustrated. 8^o, $1.75. - - "The work is that of the true scientist, artistically presented in - a popular form to an appreciative class of readers."--_The - Churchman._ - - -=THE TREES OF NORTHEASTERN AMERICA.= By CHARLES S. NEWHALL. 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