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diff --git a/43602-8.txt b/43602-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 247f1d7..0000000 --- a/43602-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6650 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of A History of Art for Beginners and Students, by -Clara Erskine Clement - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: A History of Art for Beginners and Students - Painting, Sculpture, Architecture - -Author: Clara Erskine Clement - -Release Date: August 30, 2013 [EBook #43602] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF ART *** - - - - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Charlie Howard, and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--THE PYRAMIDS OF GHIZEH.] - - - - -A - -HISTORY OF ART - -FOR - -BEGINNERS AND STUDENTS - -PAINTING--SCULPTURE--ARCHITECTURE - - -WITH - -_COMPLETE INDEXES AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS_ - - -BY - -CLARA ERSKINE CLEMENT - -AUTHOR OF "HANDBOOK OF LEGENDARY AND MYTHOLOGICAL ART," "PAINTERS, -SCULPTORS, ENGRAVERS, ARCHITECTS AND THEIR WORKS," "ARTISTS OF THE -NINETEENTH CENTURY," ETC. - -[Illustration] - - NEW YORK - FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY - MDCCCXCI - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1887, - BY FREDERICK A. STOKES, - - SUCCESSOR TO WHITE, STOKES, & ALLEN. - - - - -[Illustration] - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - PAGE - ANCIENT OR HEATHEN ARCHITECTURE. 3000 B.C. TO A.D. 328, 1 - EGYPT, 2 - ASSYRIA, 20 - BABYLON, 29 - PERSIA, 34 - JUDEA, 44 - GREECE, 46 - ETRURIA, 71 - ROME, 74 - - - CHAPTER II. - - CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. A.D. 328 TO ABOUT 1400, 87 - GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, 93 - BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE, 117 - SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE, 123 - - - CHAPTER III. - - MODERN ARCHITECTURE. A.D. 1400 TO THE PRESENT TIME, 133 - ITALY, 134 - SPAIN, 145 - FRANCE, 153 - ENGLAND, 166 - GERMANY, 172 - THEATRES AND MUSIC HALLS, 179 - UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 181 - - GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS, 191 - - INDEX, 195 - - - - -[Illustration] - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - PAGE - The Pyramids of Ghizeh, _Frontispiece_ - The Ascent of a Pyramid, 4 - View of Gallery in the Great Pyramid, 5 - Poulterer's Shop, 6 - Rock-cut Tomb (Beni-Hassan), 6 - The Hall of Columns at Karnak, 10 - Pillar from Thebes (showing the Three Parts), 11 - Sculptured Capital, 12 - Palm Capital, 12 - Pillar from Sedingæ, 12 - The Great Sphinx, 13 - Cleopatra's Needles, 15 - Pavilion at Medinet Habou, 17 - Temple on the Island of Philæ, 18 - Gateways in Walls of Khorsabad, 21 - Entrance to Smaller Temple (Nimrud), 22 - Pavement Slab (from Koyunjik), 23 - Remains of Propylæum, or Outer Gateway (Khorsabad), 24 - Plan of Palace (Khorsabad), 25 - Relief from Khorsabad. A Temple, 26 - Restoration of an Assyrian Palace, 28 - Elevation of the Temple of the Seven Spheres at Borsippa, 31 - Birs-i-Nimrud (near Babylon), 33 - Masonry of Great Platform (Persepolis), 36 - Parapet Wall of Staircase. _Persepolis._ (Restored), 37 - Ruins of the Palace of Darius (Persepolis), 38 - Gateway of Hall of a Hundred Columns, 39 - Double-horned Lion Capital, 40 - Complex Capital and Base of Pillars (Persepolis), 40 - Base of Another Pillar (Persepolis), 40 - Ground-plan (Restored) of Hall of Xerxes (Persepolis), 41 - Part of a Base of the Time of Cyrus (Pasargadæ), 42 - The Tomb of Cyrus, 43 - Roof of One of the Compartments of the Gate Huldah, 45 - Temple of Diana (Eleusis), 48 - Gravestone from Mycenæ (Schliemann), 49 - Small Temple at Rhamnus, 50 - The Parthenon. _Athens._ (Restored), 51 - Plan of Temple of Apollo (Bassæ), 52 - From the Parthenon (Athens), 53 - Ionic Architecture, 55 - Ionic Base, 55 - Attic Base, 55 - Base from Temple of Hera (Samos), 56 - Ionic Capital (front view), 56 - Ionic Capital (side view), 56 - From Monument of Lysicrates (Athens), 57 - Corinthian Order, 58 - Caryatid, 59 - Stool, or Chair (Khorsabad), 59 - The Acropolis. _Athens._ (Restored), 63 - The Erechtheium. _Athens._ (Restored), 66 - Choragic Monument of Lysicrates. _Athens_, 68 - The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (Restored), 69 - Tombs at Castel d'Asso, 71 - Principal Chamber of the Regulini-Galeassi Tomb, 72 - Arch at Volterra, 73 - Gateway (Arpino), 73 - Arch of Cloaca Maxima (Rome), 74 - Composite Order, from the Arch of Septimius Severus (Rome), 75 - Doric Arcade, 76 - Ground-plan of Pantheon (Rome), 77 - Interior of the Pantheon, 78 - Longitudinal Section of Basilica of Maxentius, 79 - Arch of Constantine (Rome), 82 - Arch of Trajan (Beneventum), 83 - Tomb of Cecilia Metella, 84 - Columbarium near the Gate of St. Sebastian (Rome), 85 - Interior of Basilica of St. Paul's (Rome), 88 - The Cathedral of Chartres, 91 - Church of St. Nicholas (Caen), 95 - Façade of Cathedral of Notre Dame (Paris), 96 - Clustered Pillar, 97 - Buttress, 97 - Hinge, 97 - Iron-work, 97 - Gargoyle, 97 - Nail-head, 98 - Scroll, 98 - Section of Church (Carcassone). With Outer Aisles Added in - Fourteenth Century, 99 - Spires of Laon Cathedral, 100 - Portal of the Minorites' Church (Vienna), 101 - External Elevation, Cathedral of Paris, 102 - Wheel Window, from Cathedral (Toscanella), 103 - Collegiate Church. _Toro._ (From Villa Amil), 105 - St. Paul, Saragossa, 106 - Cloister (Tarazona), 107 - Rood-screen, from the Madeleine (Troyes), 108 - Palace of Wartburg, 109 - Tower of Cremona, 111 - St. Mark's Cathedral (Venice), 113 - Section of San Miniato (near Florence), 115 - San Giovanni degli Eremiti (Palermo), 116 - Church of St. Sophia. _Constantinople._ (Exterior View), 118 - Lower Order of St. Sophia, 119 - Upper Order of St. Sophia, 120 - Interior View of Church of St. Sophia, 121 - Mosque of Kaitbey, 124 - The Call to Prayer, 125 - Exterior of the Sanctuary in the Mosque of Cordova, 127 - Court of the Lions (Alhambra), 131 - The Cathedral of Florence and Giotto's Campanile, 135 - View of St. Peter's (Rome), 137 - Section of St. Peter's, 139 - East Elevation of Library of St. Mark, 141 - The Doge's Palace (Venice), 143 - Great Court of the Hospital of Milan, 144 - The Escurial (near Madrid), 147 - Façade of the Church of St. Michael (Dijon), 155 - Façade of the Dome of the Invalides (Paris), 156 - The Pantheon (Paris), 157 - The Madeleine (Paris), 159 - Pavilion de l'Horloge and Part of the Court of the Louvre, 161 - Château of Chambord, 163 - Porte St. Denis (Paris), 164 - Arc de l'Étoile (Paris), 165 - East Elevation of St. Paul's (Covent Garden), 167 - St. Paul's, London (from the West), 168 - St. George's Hall (Liverpool), 169 - Windsor Castle, 170 - The Houses of Parliament (London), 171 - The Brandenburg Gate (Berlin), 174 - The Basilica at Munich, 175 - The Ruhmeshalle (near Munich), 176 - The Museum (Berlin), 177 - The Walhalla, 178 - The New Opera House (Paris), 180 - The United States Capitol (Washington), 182 - State Capitol (Columbus, Ohio), 183 - Sir William Pepperell's House (Kittery Point, Maine), 185 - Old Morrisania (Morrisania, New York), 187 - Residence at Irvington, New York, 189 - - - - -[Illustration] - -ARCHITECTURE. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -ANCIENT OR HEATHEN ARCHITECTURE. - -3000 B.C. TO A.D. 328. - - -Architecture seems to me to be the most wonderful of all the arts. We -may not love it as much as others, when we are young perhaps we cannot -do so, because it is so great and so grand; but at any time of life one -can see that in Architecture some of the most marvellous achievements -of men are displayed. The principal reason for saying this is that -Architecture is not an imitative art, like Painting and Sculpture. The -first picture that was ever painted was a portrait or an imitation of -something that the painter had seen. So in Sculpture, the first statue -or bas-relief was an attempt to reproduce some being or object that the -sculptor had seen, or to make a work which combined portions of several -things that he had observed; but in Architecture this was not true. No -temples or tombs or palaces existed until they had first taken form in -the mind and imagination of the builders, and were created out of space -and nothingness, so to speak. Thus Painting and Sculpture are imitative -arts, but Architecture is a constructive art; and while one may love -pictures or statues more than the work of the architect, it seems to -me that one must wonder most at the last. - -We do not know how long the earth has existed, and in studying the -most ancient times of which we have any accurate knowledge, we come -upon facts which prove that men must have lived and died long before -the dates of which we can speak exactly. The earliest nations of whose -Architecture we can give an account are called heathen nations, and -their art is called Ancient or Heathen Art, and this comes down to the -time when the Roman Emperor Constantine was converted to Christianity, -and changed the Roman Capitol from Rome to Constantinople in the year -of our Lord 328. - -The buildings and the ruins which still remain from these ancient times -are in Egypt, Assyria, Persia, Judea, Asia Minor, Greece, Etruria, and -Rome. Many of these have been excavated or uncovered, as, during the -ages that have passed since their erection, they had been buried away -from sight by the accumulation of earth about them. These excavations -are always going on in various countries, and men are ever striving -to learn more about the wonders of ancient days; and we may hope that -in the future as marvellous things may be revealed to us as have been -shown in the past. - - -EGYPT. - -As we consider the Architecture of Egypt, the Great Pyramid first -attracts attention on account of its antiquity and its importance. This -was built by Cheops, who is also called Suphis, about 3000 years before -Christ. At that distant day the Egyptians seem to have been a nation of -pyramid-builders, for even now, after all the years that have rolled -between them and us, we know of more than sixty of these mysterious -monuments which have been opened and explored. - -Of all these the three pyramids at Ghizeh (Fig. 1) are best known, and -that of Cheops is the most remarkable among them. Those of you who have -studied the history of the wars of Napoleon I. will remember that it -was near this spot that he fought the so-called Battle of the Pyramids, -and that in addressing his soldiers he reminded them that here the -ages looked down upon them, thus referring to the many years during -which this great pyramid had stood on the border of the desert, as if -watching the flight of Time and calmly waiting to see what would happen -on the final day of all earthly things. - -There have been much speculation and many opinions as to the use for -which these pyramids were made, but the most general belief is that -they were intended for the tombs of the powerful kings who reigned in -Egypt and caused them to be built. - -The pyramid of Cheops was four hundred and eighty feet and nine inches -high, and its base was seven hundred and sixty-four feet square. It -is so difficult to understand the size of anything from mere figures, -that I shall try to make it plainer by saying that it covers more than -thirteen acres of land, which is more than twice as much as is covered -by any building in the world. Its height is as great as that of any -cathedral spire in Europe, and more than twice that of the monument on -Bunker Hill, which is but two hundred and twenty feet, and yet looks -very high. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--THE ASCENT OF A PYRAMID.] - -When it was built it was covered with a casing of stone, the different -pieces being fitted together and polished to a surface like glass; -but this covering has been torn away and the stones used for other -purposes, which has left the pyramid in a series of two hundred and -three rough and jagged steps, some of them being two feet and a half -in height, growing less toward the top, but not diminishing with any -regularity. The top is now a platform thirty-two feet and eight inches -square. Each traveller who ascends this pyramid has from one to four -Fellahs or Arabs, who pull him forward or upward by his arms, or push -him and lift him from behind, and finally drag him to the top (Fig. 2). -When he thinks of all the weary months and days of the twenty years -during which it is said that those who built it worked, cutting out the -stone in the quarries, moving it to the spot where it was required, and -then raising it to the great heights and fitting it all in place, he -regards his fatigue in its ascent as a little thing, though at the time -it is no joke to him. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--VIEW OF GALLERY IN THE GREAT PYRAMID.] - -Many of the pyramids were encased in stone taken from the Mokattam -Mountains, which were somewhat more than half a mile distant; but the -pyramid of Cheops was covered with the red Syenite granite, which must -have been quarried in the "red mountain," nearly five hundred miles -away, near to Syene, or the modern Assouan. The interior of the pyramid -is divided into chambers and passages (Fig. 3), which are lined with -beautiful slabs of granite and constructed in such a way as to prove -that at the remote time in which the pyramids were built Egyptian -architects and workmen were already skilled in planning and executing -great works. Of the seventy pyramids known to have existed in those -early days, sixty-nine had the entrance on the north side, leaving -but a single exception to this rule; all of them were situated on the -western side of the River Nile, just on the edge of the desert, beyond -the strip of cultivable ground which borders the river. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--POULTERER'S SHOP.] - -Near the pyramids there are numerous tombs, which are built somewhat -like low houses, having several apartments with but one entrance from -the outside. The walls of these apartments are adorned with pictures -similar to this one of a poulterer's shop (Fig. 4); they represent the -manners and customs of the ancient Egyptians with great exactness. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--ROCK-CUT TOMB, BENI-HASSAN.] - -The tombs at Beni-Hassan are among the most ancient ruins of Egypt, and -are very interesting (Fig. 5). They were made between 2466 and 2266 -B.C. They are on the eastern bank of the Nile, and are hewn out of the -solid rock; they are ornamented with sculptures and pictures which -are full of interest; it has been said that these tombs were built by -the Pharaoh, or king, of Joseph's time, and one of the paintings is -often spoken of as being a representation of the brethren of Joseph; -but of this there is no proof. The colors of the pictures are fresh -and bright, and they show that many of the customs and amusements of -that long, long ago were similar to our own, and in some cases quite -the same. The manufactures of glass and linen, cabinet work, gold -ornaments, and other artistic objects are pictured there; the games of -ball, draughts, and _morra_ are shown, while the animals, birds, and -fishes of Egypt are all accurately depicted. - -An interesting thing to notice about these tombs is the way in which -the epistyle--the part resting upon the columns--imitates squarely-hewn -joists, as if the roof were of wood supported by a row of timbers. -When we come to the architecture of Greece we shall see that its most -important style, the Doric, arose from the imitation in stone of the -details of a wooden roof, and from a likeness between these tombs and -the Doric order, this style has been named the Proto-Doric. - -The tombs near Thebes which are called the "Tombs of the Kings," -and many other Egyptian tombs, are very interesting, and within a -short time some which had not before been observed have been opened, -and proved to be rich in decorations, and also to contain valuable -ornaments and works of art, as well as papyri, or records of historical -value. - -The most magnificent of all the Egyptian tombs is that of King Seti -I., who began to reign in 1366 B.C. He was fond of splendid buildings, -and all the architects of his time were very busy in carrying out his -plans. His tomb was not discovered until 1817, and was then found by an -Italian traveller, whose name, Belzoni, has been given to the tomb. The -staircase by which it is entered is twenty-four feet long, and opens -into a spacious passage, the walls of which are beautifully ornamented -with sculptures and paintings. This is succeeded by other staircases, -fine halls, and corridors, all of which extend four hundred and five -feet into the mountain in which the tomb is excavated, making also a -gradual descent of ninety feet from its entrance. It is a wonderful -monument to the skill and taste of the architects who lived and labored -more than three thousand years ago. - -The two principal cities of ancient Egypt were Memphis and Thebes. The -first has been almost literally taken to pieces and carried away, for -as other more modern cities have been built up near it, the materials -which were first used in the old temples and palaces have been carried -here and there, and again utilized in erecting new edifices. - -Thebes, on the contrary, has stood alone during all the centuries that -have passed since its decline, and there is now no better spot in which -to study the ancient Egyptian architecture, because its temples are -still so complete that a good idea can be formed from them of what they -must have been when they were perfect. The ruins at Thebes are on both -banks of the Nile, and no description can do justice to their grandeur, -or give a full estimate of their wonders; but I shall try to tell -something of the palace-temple of Karnak, which has been called "the -noblest effort of architectural magnificence ever produced by the hand -of man." - -The word palace-temple has a strange sound to us because we do not now -associate the ideas which the two words represent. Many palaces of more -modern countries and times have their chapels, but the union of a grand -temple and a grand palace is extremely rare, to say the least. Perhaps -the Vatican and St. Peter's at Rome represent the idea and spirit of -the Egyptian palace-temples as nearly as any buildings that are now in -existence. - -The Egyptian religion controlled all the affairs of the nation. The -Pharaoh, or king, was the chief of the religion, as well as of the -State. When a king came to the throne he became a priest also, by -being made a member of a priestly order. He was instructed in sacred -learning; he regulated the service of the temple; on great occasions -he offered the sacrifices himself, and, in fact, he was considered -not only as a descendant of gods, but as a veritable god. In some -sculptures and paintings the gods are represented as attending upon -the kings, and after the death of a king the same sort of veneration -was paid to him as that given to the gods. This explains the building -of the palace and temple together, and shows the reason why the gods -and the kings, and the affairs of religion and of government, could -not be separated. As we study the arts of different countries we are -constantly reminded that the religion of a people is the central point -from which the arts spring forth. From its teachings they take their -tone, and adapt their forms and uses to its requirements. I refer to -this fact from time to time because it is important to remember that it -underlies much of the art of the world. - -It may be said that all the art of Egypt was devoted to the service of -its religion. Of course this is true of that used in the decoration -of the temples; it is also true of all that did honor to the kings, -because they were regarded as sacred persons, and all their wars and -wonderful acts which are represented in sculpture and painting, and by -statues and obelisks, are considered as deeds that were performed for -the sake of the gods and by their aid. - -It was also the religious belief in the immortality of the soul that -led the Egyptians to build their tombs with such care, and to provide -such splendid places in which to lay the body, which was the house of -the spirit. - -In the study of Architecture it will also be noted that a country -which has no national religion--or one in which the government and -the religion have no connection with each other--has no absolutely -national architecture. It will have certain features which depend upon -the climate, the building materials at command, and upon the general -customs of the people; but here and there will be seen specimens of -all existing orders of architecture, and buildings in some degree -representing the art of all countries and periods; such architecture -is known by the term composite, because it is composed of portions of -several different orders, and has no absolutely distinct character. - -This palace-temple of Karnak is made up of a collection of courts and -halls, and it is very difficult to comprehend the size of all these -parts which go to make up the enormous whole. The entire space devoted -to it is almost twice as large as the whole area of St. Peter's at -Rome, and four times as great as any of the other cathedrals of -Europe; a dozen of the largest American churches could be placed within -its limits and there still be room for a few chapels. All this enormous -space is not covered by roofs, for there were many courts and passages -which were always open to the sky, and one portion was added after -another, and by one sovereign and another, until the completion of the -whole was made long after the Pharaoh who commenced it had been laid in -one of the tombs of the kings. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--THE HALL OF COLUMNS AT KARNAK.] - -The most remarkable apartment of all is called the great Hypostyle -Hall, which high-sounding name means simply a hall with pillars (Fig. -6). This hall and its two pylons, or entrances, cover more space than -the great cathedral of Cologne, which is one of the largest and most -famous churches of all Europe. - -This splendid hall had originally one hundred and thirty-four -magnificent columns, of which more than one hundred still remain; they -are of colossal size, some of them being sixty feet high without the -base or capital, which would increase them to ninety feet, and their -diameter is twelve feet. This large number of columns was necessary to -uphold the roof, as the Egyptians knew nothing of the arch, and had no -way of supporting a covering over a space wider than it was possible -to cover by beams. The hall was lighted by making the columns down the -middle half as high again as the others, so that the roof was lifted, -and the light came in at the sides, which were left open. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--PILLAR FROM THEBES. - -Showing the three parts.] - -As I must speak often of columns, it is well to say here that the -column or pillar usually consists of three parts--the base, the shaft, -and the capital (Fig. 7). The base is the lowest part on which the -shaft rests. Sometimes, as in the Grecian Doric order, the base is -left out. The capital is the head of the column, and is usually the -most ornamental part, giving the most noticeable characteristics of -the different kinds of pillars. The shaft is the body of the pillar, -between the base and capital, or all below the capital when the base is -omitted. - -The Egyptian pillars seem to have grown out of the square stone piers -which at first were used for support. The square corners were first -cut off, making an eight-sided pier; then some architect carried the -cutting farther, and by slicing off each corner once more gave the -pillar sixteen sides. The advantage of the octagonal piers over the -square ones was that the cutting off of sharp corners made it easier -for people to move about between them, while the play of light on -the sides was more varied and pleasant to the eye. The sixteen-sided -pillar did not much increase the first of these advantages, while the -face of its sides became so narrow that the variety of light and shade -was less distinct and attractive. It is probable that the channelling -of the sides of the shaft was first done to overcome this difficulty, -by making the shadows deeper and the lights more striking; and we -then have a shaft very like that of the Grecian Doric shown in the -picture in Fig. 40, or the Assyrian pillars in Figs. 29 and 30. In -the Egyptian pillars it was usual to leave one side unchannelled and -ornament it with hieroglyphics. In time the forms of the Egyptian -pillars became very varied, and the richest ornaments were used upon -them. The columns in the hall at Karnak are very much decorated with -painting and sculptures, as Fig. 6 shows. The capitals represent the -full-blown flowers and the buds of the sacred lotus, or water-lily. In -other cases the pillars were made to represent bundles of the papyrus -plant, and the capitals were often beautifully carved with palm leaves -or ornamented with a female head. (See Figs. 8, 9, and 10). - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--SCULPTURED CAPITAL.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--PALM CAPITAL.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.--PILLAR FROM SEDINGA.] - -The whole impression of grandeur made by the Temple of Karnak was -increased by the fact that the Temple of Luxor, which is not far away, -is also very impressive and beautiful, and was formerly connected with -Karnak by an avenue bordered on each side with a row of sphinxes cut -out of stone. These were a kind of statue which belonged to Egyptian -art, and originated in an Egyptian idea, although a resemblance to it -exists in the art of other ancient countries (Fig. 11). - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--THE GREAT SPHINX.] - -Before the Temple of Luxor stood Colossi, or enormous statues, of -Rameses the Great, who built the temple, and not far distant were two -fine obelisks, one of which is now in Paris. - -There was much irregularity in the lines and plan of Egyptian palaces -and temples. It often happens that the side walls of an apartment -or court-yard are not at right angles; the pillars were placed so -irregularly and the decorations so little governed by any rule in their -arrangement, that it seems as if the Egyptians were intentionally -regardless of symmetry and regularity. - -The whole effect of the ancient Thebes can scarcely be imagined; its -grandeur was much increased by the fact that its splendid buildings -were on both banks of the Nile, which river flowed slowly and -majestically by, as if it borrowed a sort of dignity from the splendid -piles which it reflected, and which those who sailed upon its bosom -regarded with awe and admiration. There are many other places on the -Nile where one sees wonderful ruins of ancient edifices, but we have -not space to describe or even to name them, and Thebes is the most -remarkable of all. - - "Thebes, hearing still the Memnon's mystic tones, - Where Egypt's earliest monarchs reared their thrones, - Favored of Jove! the hundred-gated queen, - Though fallen, grand; though desolate, serene; - The blood with awe runs coldly through our veins - As we approach her far-spread, vast remains. - Forests of pillars crown old Nilus' side, - Obelisks to heaven high lift their sculptured pride; - Rows of dark sphinxes, sweeping far away, - Lead to proud fanes and tombs august as they. - Colossal chiefs in granite sit around, - As wrapped in thought, or sunk in grief profound. - - "The mighty columns ranged in long array, - The statues fresh as chiselled yesterday, - We scarce can think two thousand years have flown - Since in proud Thebes a Pharaoh's grandeur shone, - But in yon marble court or sphinx-lined street, - Some moving pageant half expect to meet, - See great Sesostris, come from distant war, - Kings linked in chains to drag his ivory car; - Or view that bright procession sweeping on, - To meet at Memphis far-famed Solomon, - When, borne by Love, he crossed the Syrian wild, - To wed the Pharaoh's blooming child." - -The obelisks of ancient Egypt have a present interest which is almost -personal to everybody, since so many of them have been taken away -from the banks of the Nile and so placed that they now overlook the -Bosphorus, the Tiber, the Seine, the Thames, and our own Hudson River; -in truth, there are twelve obelisks in Rome, which is a larger number -than are now standing in all Egypt. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--CLEOPATRA'S NEEDLES.] - -The above cut (Fig. 12) shows the two obelisks known as Cleopatra's -Needles, as they were seen for a long time at Alexandria. They have -both crossed the seas; one was presented to the British nation by -Mehemet Ali, and the other, which now stands in Central Park, was a -gift to America from the late Khedive of Egypt, Ismail Pasha. - -The obelisks were usually erected by the kings to express their worship -of the gods, and stood before the temple bearing dedications of the -house to its particular deity; they were covered with the quaint, -curious devices which served as letters to the Egyptians, which we -call hieroglyphics, and each sovereign thus recorded his praises, and -declared his respect for the special gods whom he wished to honor. -They were very striking objects, and must have made a fine effect -when the temples and statues and avenues of sphinxes, and all the -ancient grandeur of the Egyptians was at its height; and these grave -stone watchmen looked down upon triumphal processions and gorgeous -ceremonials, and kings and queens with their trains of courtiers passed -near them on their way to and from the temple-palaces. - -It is always interesting to study the houses and homes of a -people--domestic architecture, as it is called; but one cannot do that -in Egypt. It may almost be said that but one ancient home exists, and -as that probably belonged to some royal person, we cannot learn from it -how the people lived. There were many very rich Egyptians outside of -the royal families, and they dwelt in splendor and luxury; on the other -hand, there were multitudes of slaves and very poor people, who had -barely enough to eat to keep them alive and enable them to do the work -which was set them by their task-masters. - -The house of which we speak is at Medinet Habou, on the opposite side -of the Nile from Karnak (Fig. 13). It has three floors, with three -rooms on each floor, and is very irregular in form. But if we have no -ancient houses to study in Egypt, we can learn much about them from the -paintings which still exist, and we may believe that the cities which -surrounded the old temples fully displayed the wealth and taste of the -inhabitants. These pictures show the houses in the midst of gardens -laid out with arbors, pavilions, artificial lakes, and many beautiful -objects, such as we see in the fine gardens of our own day. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--PAVILION AT MEDINET HABOU.] - -After about 1200 B.C. there was a long period of decline in the -architecture of Egypt; occasionally some sovereign tried to do as the -older kings had done, but no real revival of the arts occurred until -the rule of the Ptolemies was established; this was after 332 B.C., -when Alexander the Great conquered the Persians, who had ruled in Egypt -about one hundred and ninety-five years. - -Under the Ptolemies Egypt was as prosperous as she had been under the -Pharaohs, but the arts of this later time never reached such purity -and greatness as was shown in the best days of Thebes; the buildings -were rich and splendid instead of noble and grand, or, as we might say, -"more for show" than was the older style. - -It is singular that, though the Egypt of the Ptolemies was under Greek -and Roman influence, it still remained essentially Egyptian. It seems -as if the country had a sort of converting effect upon the strangers -who planned and built the temples of Denderah, and Edfou, and beautiful -Philæ, and made them try to work and build as if they were the sons of -the pure old Egyptians instead of foreign conquerors. So true is this -that before A.D. 1799, when scholars began to read hieroglyphics, the -learned men of Europe who studied art believed that these later temples -were older than those of Thebes. - -Outside of Thebes there is no building now to be seen in Egypt which -gives so charming an impression of what Egypt might be as does the -lovely temple on the island of Philæ (Fig. 14). Others are more sublime -and imposing, but none are so varied and beautiful. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--TEMPLE ON THE ISLAND OF PHILÆ.] - -There is no more attractive spot in Egypt than this island, and when we -know that the priests who served in the Temple of Isis here were never -allowed to leave the island, we do not feel as if that was a misfortune -to them. It was a pity, however, that none but priests were allowed to -go there, and in passing I wish to note the fact that this was the -most ancient monastery of which we know; for that it was in simple -fact, and the monks lived lives of strict devotion and suffered severe -penance. - -The buildings at Philæ, as well as most of those of the Ptolemaic age, -had the same irregularity of form of which we have spoken before; their -design, as a whole, was fine, but the details were inferior, and it -often happens that the sculpture and painting which in the earlier -times improved and beautified everything, lost their effect and really -injured the appearance of the whole structure. - -At first thought one would expect to be able to learn much more about -the manners and customs of the later than of the earlier days of Egypt, -and to find out just how they arranged their dwellings. But this is not -so, for history tells us of nothing save the superstitious religious -worship of the conquerors of Egypt. There are no pictures of the -houses, or of the occupations and amusements of the people; no warlike -stories are told; we have no tombs with their instructive inscriptions; -not even the agricultural and mechanical arts are represented in the -ruins of this time. The fine arts, the early religion, the spirit of -independence and conquest had all died out; in truth, the wonderful -civilization of the days of the pyramid-builders and their descendants -was gone, and when Constantine came into power Egypt had lost her place -among the nations of the earth, and her grandeur was as a tale that is -told. - -The weakness of Egyptian architecture lay in its monotony or sameness. -Not only did it not develop historically, remaining very much the same -as long as it lasted, but the same forms are repeated until, even with -all their grandeur, they become wearisome. The plan of the temples -varies little; the tendency toward the shape of the pyramid appears -everywhere; while the powerful influence of the ritual of the Egyptian -religion gives a strong likeness among all the places of worship. The -Greeks performed the most important parts of their service in the open -air before their temples, and almost all their care was lavished on -exteriors; the Egyptians, on the other hand, elaborated the interior -with great abundance of ornaments, yet without that power of adaptation -which gave so great an air of variety and grace to Grecian art. - -A second and even more serious fault in Egyptian architecture is a -want of proportion. In natural organized objects there is always a -fixed proportion between the parts, so that if a naturalist is given a -single bone of an animal he can reproduce with considerable exactness -the entire beast. In art it is necessary to follow this principle -of adapting one part to another, and without this both grace and -refinement are wanting. The Egyptian temples are often too massive, so -that they impress by their size simply, and not by any beauty of plan -or arrangement. - -Yet for grandeur and impressiveness no nation has ever excelled the -Egyptians as builders. One may prefer the style and the ornamentation -of the Greeks, or the forms and arrangement of the Gothic order; but, -taken as a whole, the combination of architecture, sculpture, painting, -and hieroglyphics which goes to make up an Egyptian temple, with the -addition of the obelisks, the avenues of sphinxes and the Colossi, -which all seemed to belong together--these, one and all, result in -a whole that has never been surpassed in effect during the thirty -centuries that have rolled over the earth since Cheops built his -magnificent tomb on the great desert of Egypt. - - -ASSYRIA. - -Our knowledge of Egyptian history is more exact than that of some other -ancient nations, because scholars have been able to read Egyptian -hieroglyphics for a much longer time than they have read the cuneiform -or arrow-headed inscriptions which are found in Assyria, Babylon, -and Persia. But we know a great deal about the ruins of Assyria, and -especially of the cities of Nineveh and Khorsabad, where there are -wonderful architectural remains. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--GATEWAYS IN WALLS OF KHORSABAD.] - -The walls which surrounded Nineveh are an important part of its ruins. -It is said that in the days of the earliest sovereign these walls were -one hundred feet high, and so broad that three chariots could drive -abreast on their top. This story does not seem unreasonable, for all -the years that have passed, and all the dust and deposit of these ages -that are collected about the foot of the walls, still leave some places -where they are forty-six feet high and from one to two hundred feet -wide. The lower portion was of limestone, and the upper of sun-dried -bricks; the blocks of stone were neatly hewn out and smoothly polished. -The walls surrounded the city, which was so large that one hundred and -seventy-five thousand people could live there, and we know that its -inhabitants were very numerous. The gates which opened through the -walls were surmounted by lofty towers, and it is supposed that shorter -towers were built upon the walls between the gateways (Fig. 15). - -The above plans show the arrangement of gateways which have been -excavated. It seems that there were four separate gates, and between -them large chambers which may have been used by soldiers or guards. -The two outer gates were ornamented by sculptured figures of colossal -bulls with human heads and other strange designs; but the inner gates -had a plain finish of alabaster slabs. It is thought that arches -covered these gateways like some representations of gates which are -seen on Assyrian bas-reliefs. Within the gates there is a pavement -of large slabs, in which the marks worn by chariot wheels are still -plainly seen. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.--ENTRANCE TO SMALLER TEMPLE, NIMRUD.] - -We learn that the Assyrians made their religion a prominent part of -their lives. The inscriptions of the kings begin and end with praises -and prayers to their gods, and on all occasions religious worship is -spoken of as a principal duty. We know that the monarchs devoted much -care to the temples, and built new ones continually; but it also -appears from the excavations that have been made that they devoted -the best of their art and the greatest sum of their riches to the -palaces of their kings. The temple was far less splendid than the -palace to which it was attached as a sort of appendage. This was -undoubtedly due to the fact that the Assyrian kings received more than -the monarchs of any other ancient people divine honors while still -living; so that the palace was regarded as the actual dwelling of a -god. The inner ornamentation of the temples was confined to religious -subjects represented on sculptured slabs upon the walls, but no large -proportion of the wall was decorated, and the rest was merely plastered -and painted in set figures. The gateways and entrances were guarded by -sacred figures of colossal bulls, or lions (Fig. 16), and covered with -inscriptions; there was a similarity between the palace entrances and -those of the temples. - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.--PAVEMENT SLAB FROM KOYUNJIK.] - -The palaces were always built on artificial platforms, which were made -of solid brick or stone, or else the outside walls of the platforms -were built of these substances and the middle part filled in with dirt -and rubbish. Sometimes the platforms, which were from twenty to thirty -feet high, were in terraces and flights of steps led up and down from -one to another. It also happened that more than one palace was erected -on the same platform; thus the size and form of the platforms was much -varied, and when palaces were enlarged the platforms were changed also, -and their shape was often very irregular. The tops of the platforms -were paved with stone slabs or bricks, the last being sometimes as -much as two feet square; the pavements were frequently ornamented with -artistic designs (Fig. 17), and inscriptions are also found upon them. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.--REMAINS OF PROPYLÆUM, OR OUTER GATEWAY, -KHORSABAD.] - -At the lower part of the platform there was a terrace on which several -small buildings were usually placed, and near by was an important -gateway, or, more properly, a propylæum, through which every one must -pass who entered the palace from the city. The next cut (Fig. 18) shows -one of these grand entrances decorated with the human-headed bulls -and the figure of what is believed to be the Assyrian Hercules, who -is most frequently represented in the act of strangling a lion. Much -rich ornament was lavished on these portals, and the entrance space was -probably protected by an arch. - -Below these portals, quite down on a level with the city, there were -outer gateways, through which one entered a court in front of the -ascent to the lower terrace. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.--PLAN OF PALACE, KHORSABAD.] - -The principal apartments of the palaces were the courts, the grand -halls, and the small, private chambers. The fine palaces had several -courts each; they varied from one hundred and twenty by ninety feet, to -two hundred and fifty by one hundred and fifty feet in size, and were -paved in the same way as the platforms outside (Fig. 19). - -The grand halls were the finest portions of these splendid edifices; -here was the richest ornament, and the walls were lined with sculptured -slabs, while colossal bulls, winged genii, and other figures were -placed at the entrances. Upon the slabs the principal events in the -lives of the monarchs were represented, as well as their portraits, and -religious ceremonies, battles, and many incidents of interest to the -nation (Fig. 20). - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.--RELIEF FROM KHORSABAD. A TEMPLE.] - -The slabs rested on the paved floors of the halls and reached a height -of ten or twelve feet; above them the walls were of burnt brick, -sometimes in brilliant colors; the whole height of the walls was from -fifteen to twenty feet. The smaller chambers surrounded these grand -halls, and the number of rooms was very large; in one palace which has -been but partially explored there are sixty-eight apartments, and it -is not probable that any Assyrian palace had less than forty or fifty -rooms on its ground floor. Of all the palaces which have been examined -that of Khorsabad is best known and can be most exactly described. It -is believed that Sargon, a son of Sennacherib, built it, and it is very -splendid. - -After entering at the great portal one passes through various courts -and corridors; these are all adorned with sculptures such as have -been described above; at length one reaches the great inner court of -the palace, which was a square of about one hundred and fifty feet -in size. This court had buildings on two sides, and the other sides -extended to the edge of the terrace of the platform on which the -palace was built, and commanded broad views of the open country. On -one side the buildings contained the less important apartments of the -officers of the court; the grand state apartments were on the other -side. There were ten of these at Khorsabad; five were large halls, -four were smaller chambers, and one a long and narrow room. Three of -the large halls were connected with one another, and their decorations -were by far the most splendid of any in the palace. In one of them -the sculptures represented the king superintending the reception and -chastisement of prisoners, and is called the "Hall of Punishment." The -middle hall has no distinguishing feature, but the third opened into -the "Temple Court," on one side of which the small temple was situated. -The lower sculptures of the middle and third halls represented the -military history of Sargon, who is seen in all sorts of soldier-like -positions and occupations; some of the upper sculptures represent -religious ceremonies. - -On one side of the Temple Court there were several chambers called -Priests' Rooms, but the temple itself and the portions of the palace -connected with it are not as well preserved as the other parts, and -have nothing about them to interest us in their study. - -The palaces of Nineveh are much less perfect than the palace-temples -of Thebes, and cannot be described with as much exactness. There is no -wall of them still standing more than sixteen feet above the ground, -and we do not even know whether they had upper stories or not, or how -they were lighted--in a word, nothing is positively known about them -above the ground floors, and it is very strange that the sculptures -nowhere represent a royal residence. But what we do know of the -Assyrians proves that they equalled and perhaps excelled all other -Oriental nations as architects and designers, as well as in other -departments of art and industry. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--RESTORATION OF AN ASSYRIAN PALACE.] - -This representation of an Assyrian palace (Fig. 21) is a restoration, -as it is called, being made up by a careful study of the remains and -such facts as can be learned from bas-reliefs, and cannot be wholly -unlike the dwellings of the king-gods. It is pleasing in general -appearance, and for lightness and elegance is even to be preferred -to Egyptian architecture, though it is far inferior in dignity and -impressiveness. - -The Assyrians knew the use of both column and arch, but never developed -either to any extent. They also employed the obelisk, and it is -noticeable that instead of terminating it with a pyramid, as was the -case in Egypt, they capped it with the diminishing terraces, which -is the fundamental form which underlies all the architecture of the -country, as the smooth pyramid is the most prominent element in the -architecture of Egypt. - - -BABYLON. - -It is probable that Babylon was the largest and finest of all the -ancient cities. The walls which surrounded it, together with its -hanging gardens, were reckoned among the "seven wonders of the world" -by the ancients. Its walls were pierced by a hundred gates and -surmounted by two hundred and fifty towers; these towers added much to -the grand appearance of the city; they were not very high above the -walls, and were probably used as guard-rooms by soldiers. - -The River Euphrates ran through the city. Brick walls were built upon -its banks, and every street which led to the river had a gateway in -these walls which opened to a sloping landing which extended down -to the water's edge; boats were kept at these landings for those -who wished to cross the stream. There was also a foot-bridge across -the river that could be used only by day, and one writer, Diodorus, -declares that a tunnel also existed which joined the two sides of the -river, and was fifteen feet wide and twelve feet high in the inside. - -The accounts of the "Hanging Gardens" make it seem that they resembled -an artificial terraced mountain built upon arches of masonry and -covered with earth, in which grew trees, shrubs, and flowers. It is -said by some writers that this mountain was at least seventy-five feet -high, and occupied a square of four acres; others say that in its -highest part it reached three hundred feet; but all agree that it was a -wonderful work and very beautiful. - -In the interior of the structure machinery was concealed which raised -water from the Euphrates and filled a reservoir at the summit, from -which it was taken to moisten the earth and nourish the plants. Flights -of steps led up to the top, and on the way there were entrances to fine -apartments where one could rest. These rooms, built in the walls which -supported the structure, were cool and pleasant, and afforded fine -views of the city and its surroundings. The whole effect of the gardens -when seen from a distance was that of a wooded pyramid. It seems a pity -that it should have been called a "Hanging Garden," since, when one -knows how it was built, this name is strangely unsuitable, and carries -a certain disappointment with it. - -The accounts of the origin of this garden are interesting. One of -them says that it was made by Semiramis, a queen who was famous for -her prowess as a warrior, for having conquered some cities and built -others, for having dammed up the River Euphrates, and performed many -marvellous and heroic deeds. It is not probable that any woman ever did -all the wonders which are attributed to Semiramis, but we love to read -these tales of the old, old time, and it is important for us to know -them since they are often referred to in books and in conversation. - -Another account relates that the gardens were made by Nebuchadnezzar -to please his Median queen, Amytis, because the country round about -Babylon seemed so barren and desolate to her, and she longed for the -lovely scenery of her native land. - -What we have said will show that the Babylonians were advanced in -the science of such works as come more properly under the head of -engineering; their palaces were also fine, and their dwelling-houses -lofty; they had three or four stories, and were covered by vaulted -roofs. But the Babylonians, like the Egyptians, lavished their best -art upon their temples. The temple was built in the most prominent -position and magnificently adorned. It was usually within a walled -inclosure, and the most important temple at Babylon, called that of -Belus, is said to have had an area of thirty acres devoted to it. The -chief distinguishing feature of a Babylonish temple was a tower built -in stages (Fig. 22). - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.--ELEVATION OF THE TEMPLE OF THE SEVEN SPHERES -AT BORSIPPA.] - -The number of the stages varied, eight being the largest. At the summit -of the tower there was a chapel or an altar, and the ascent was by -steps or an inclined plane which wound around the sides of the tower. -The Babylonians were famous astronomers, and it is believed that these -towers were used as observatories as well as for places of worship. At -the base of the tower there was a chapel for the use of those who could -not ascend the height, and near by, in the open air, different altars -were placed, for the worship of the Babylonians included the offering -of sacrifices. - -Very ancient writers describe the riches of the shrines at Babylon as -being of a value beyond our belief. They tell of colossal images of the -gods of solid gold; of enormous lions in the same precious metal; of -serpents of silver, each of thirty talents' weight (a talent equalled -about two thousand dollars of our money), and of golden tables, bowls, -and drinking-cups, besides magnificent offerings of many kinds which -faithful worshippers had devoted to the gods. These great treasures -fell into the hands of the Persians when they conquered Babylon. - -The Birs-i-Nimrud has been more fully examined than any other -Babylonish ruin, and a description of it can be given with a good -degree of correctness. As it now stands, every brick in it bears the -name of Nebuchadnezzar; it is believed that he repaired or rebuilt it, -but there is no reason to think that he changed its plan. Be this as it -may, it is a very interesting ruin (Fig. 23). It was a temple raised -on a platform and built in seven stages; these stages represented -the seven spheres in which the seven planets moved (according to the -ancient astronomy), and a particular color was assigned to each planet, -and the stages colored according to this idea. That of the sun was -golden; the moon, silver; Saturn, black; Jupiter, orange; Mars, red; -Venus, pale yellow, and Mercury, deep blue. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.--BIRS-I-NIMRUD, NEAR BABYLON.] - -It is curious to know how the various colors were obtained. The lower -stage, representing Saturn, was covered with bitumen; that of Jupiter -was faced with bricks burned to an orange color; that of Mars was made -of bricks from a bright red clay and half burned, so that they had a -blood-red tint; the stage dedicated to the sun was probably covered -with thin plates of gold; that of Venus had pale yellow bricks; that of -Mercury was subjected to intense heat after it was erected, and this -produced vitrification and gave it a blue color; and the stage of the -moon was coated in shining white metals. - -Thus the tower rose up, all glowing in colors and tints as cunningly -arranged as if produced by Nature herself. The silvery, shining band -was probably the highest, and had the effect of mingling with the -bright sky above. We can scarcely understand how glorious the effect -must have been, and when we try to imagine it, and then think of the -present wretched condition of these ruins, it gives great force to -the prophecies concerning Babylon which foretold that her broad walls -should be utterly broken down, her gates burned with fire, and the -golden city swept with the besom of destruction. - -We know so little of the arrangement of the palaces of Babylon that we -cannot speak of them in detail. They differed from those of Assyria in -two important points: they are of burnt bricks instead of those dried -in the sun which the Assyrians used, and at Babylon in the decoration -of the walls colored pictures upon the brick-work took the place of -the alabaster bas-reliefs which were found in the palaces of Nineveh. - -These paintings represented hunting scenes, battles, and other -important events, and were alternated with portions of the wall upon -which were inscriptions painted in white on a blue ground, or spaces -with a regular pattern of rosettes or some fixed design in geometrical -figures. A sufficient number of these decorations have been found -in the ruins of Babylon to prove beyond a doubt that this was the -customary finish of the walls. We also know that the houses of Babylon -were three or four stories in height, but were rudely constructed and -indicate an inferior style of domestic architecture. - - -PERSIA. - -The Persians were the pupils of the Assyrians and Babylonians in Art, -Learning, and Science, and they learned their lessons so well that -they built magnificent palaces and tombs. Temples seem to have been -unimportant to them, and we know nothing of any Persian temple remains -that would attract the attention of travellers or scholars. - -The four most important Persian palaces of which we have any good -degree of knowledge are that of Ecbatana, the ruins of which are very -imperfect; a second at Susa, of which the arrangement is known; a -third at Persepolis, which is not well enough preserved for any exact -description to be given; and a fourth, the so-called Great Palace, -near Persepolis, in which the latest Persian sovereigns lived. This -magnificent palace was burned by Alexander the Great before he or his -soldiers had seen its splendor. The story is that he made a feast at -which Thais, a beautiful and wicked woman, appeared, and by her arts -gained such power over Alexander that he consented to her proposal to -fire the palace, and the king, wearing a crown of flowers upon his -head, seized a torch and himself executed the dreadful deed, while all -the company followed him with acclamations, singing, and wild shouts. -At last they surrounded and danced about the dreadful conflagration. - -The poet Dryden wrote an ode upon "Alexander's Feast" in 1697 which has -a world-wide reputation. I quote a few lines from it: - - "'Twas at the royal feast for Persia won - By Philip's warlike son: - Aloft, in awful state, - The godlike hero sate - On his imperial throne; - His valiant peers were placed around, - Their brows with roses and with myrtles bound - (So should desert in arms be crowned); - The lovely Thais by his side - Sate, like a blooming Eastern bride, - In flower of youth and beauty's pride. - Happy, happy, happy pair! - None but the brave, - None but the brave, - None but the brave deserves the fair. - - "Behold how they toss their torches on high, - How they point to the Persian abodes, - And glittering temples of their hostile gods! - The princes applaud with a furious joy, - And the king seized a flambeau with zeal to destroy; - Thais led the way - To light him to his prey, - And, like another Helen, fired another Troy." - -Much study and time has been given to the examination of the ruins of -Persepolis, and the whole arrangement of the city has been discovered -and is made plain to the student of these matters by means of the many -charts, plans, and photographs of it which now exist. I shall try to -tell you something of the Great Palace of Persepolis, and the other -palaces near it and on the platform with it, for the Persians, like the -Assyrians and Babylonians, built their palaces upon platforms. This -one of which we speak was distinct from the city, but quite near it, -and is in almost perfect condition. - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.--MASONRY OF GREAT PLATFORM, PERSEPOLIS.] - -It is composed of large masses of hewn stone held together by clamps -of iron or lead. Many of the blocks in this platform wall are so large -as to make their removal from the quarries and their elevation to the -required height a difficult mechanical task, which could only have been -performed by skilled laborers with good means for carrying on their -work. The wall was not laid in regular blocks, but was like this plate -(Fig. 24). - -The platform was not of the same height in all its parts, and seems -to have been in several terraces, three of which can still be seen. -The buildings were on the upper terrace, which is about forty-five -feet above the plain and very large; it is seven hundred and seventy -feet long and four hundred feet wide. The staircases are an important -feature of these ruins, and when all the palaces were in perfection -these broad steps, with their landings and splendid decorations, must -have made a noble and magnificent effect. The ascent of the staircases -was so gradual and easy that men went up and down on horseback, and -travellers now ascend and descend in this way. - -There is little doubt that the staircases of Persepolis were the -finest that were ever built in any part of the world, and on some -of them ten horsemen could ride abreast. The broadest, or platform -staircase, is entirely without ornament; another which leads from the -platform up to the central or upper terrace is so elaborately decorated -that it appears to be covered with sculptures. There are colossal -representations of lions, bulls, Persian guardsmen, rows of trees, and -continuous processions of smaller figures. In some parts the sculptures -represent various nations bringing tributes to the Persian monarch; in -other parts all the different officers of the court and those of the -army are seen, and the latter appear to be guarding the stairs. (See -Fig. 25.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.--PARAPET WALL OF STAIRCASE, PERSEPOLIS -(RESTORED).] - -In a conspicuous position on this ornamental staircase there are -three slabs; on two there is no design of any sort; on the third an -inscription says that this was the work of "Xerxes, the Great King, -the King of Kings, the son of King Darius, the Achæmenian." This -inscription is in the Persian tongue, and it is probable that it was -the intention to repeat it on the slabs which are left plain in some -other languages, so that it could easily be read by those of different -nations; it was customary with the ancients to repeat inscriptions in -this way. - -The other staircases of this great platform are all more or less -decorated with sculptures and resemble that described; they lead to -the different palaces, of which there are three. The palaces are those -of Darius, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes Ochus, and besides these there are -two great pillared halls; one of these is called the "Hall of One -Hundred Columns," and the other _Chehl Minar_, or the "Great Hall of -Audience." - -This view of the palace of Darius gives an idea of the appearance -of all these buildings. A description of them would be only a wordy -repetition of the characteristics of one apartment and hall after -another, and I shall leave them to speak of the magnificent halls which -are the glory of the ruins of Persepolis, and the wonders of the world -to those who are acquainted with the architectural monuments of the -Turkish, Greek, Roman, Moorish, and Christian nations. (See Fig. 26.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.--RUINS OF THE PALACE OF DARIUS, PERSEPOLIS.] - -The Hall of a Hundred Columns was very splendid, as one may judge -from this picture of its gateway (Fig. 27); but the _Chehl Minar_, or -Great Hall of Audience, which is also called the Hall of Xerxes, was -the most remarkable of all these edifices. Its ruins occupy a space -of almost three hundred and fifty feet in length and two hundred and -forty-six feet in width, and consist principally of four different -kinds of columns. One portion of this hall was arranged in a square, -in which there were six rows of six pillars each, and on three sides -of this square there were magnificent porches, in each of which there -were twelve columns; so that the number of pillars in the square was -thirty-six, and that of those in the three porches was the same. These -porches stood out boldly from the main building and were grand in their -effect. - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.--GATEWAY OF HALL OF A HUNDRED COLUMNS.] - -The columns which remain in various parts of this hall are so high -that it is thought that they must originally have measured sixty-four -feet throughout the whole building. The capitals of the pillars were of -three kinds: the double Horned Lion capital (Fig. 28) was used in the -eastern porch, and was very simple; in the western porch was the double -Bull capital, which corresponded to the first in size and general form, -the difference being only in the shape of the animal. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.--DOUBLE HORNED LION CAPITAL.] - -The north porch faced the great sculptured staircase, and was the real -front of the hall. On this side the columns were much ornamented. The -following plates show the entire design of them, and it will be seen -that the bases were very beautiful (Figs. 29 and 30). - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--COMPLEX CAPITAL AND BASE OF PILLARS, -PERSEPOLIS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--BASE OF ANOTHER PILLAR, PERSEPOLIS.] - -The capitals have three distinct parts; at the bottom is a sort of -bed of lotus leaves, part of which are turned down, and the others -standing up form a kind of cup on which the next section above rests. -The middle section is fluted and has spiral scrolls or volutes, such -as are seen in Ionic capitals, only here they are in a perpendicular -position instead of the customary horizontal one. The upper portion had -the same double figures of bulls as were on the columns of the western -colonnade. The decoration on the bases was made of two or three rows -of hanging lotus leaves, some round and others pointed in form. The -shafts of these pillars were formed of different blocks of stone joined -by iron cramps; they were cut in exact and regular flutings, numbering -from forty-eight to fifty-two on each pillar. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.--GROUND PLAN (RESTORED) OF HALL OF XERXES, -PERSEPOLIS.] - -This plan of the Hall of Audience will help you to understand its -arrangement more clearly (Fig. 31). - -The square with the thirty-six columns, and the three porches with -twelve columns each, are distinctly marked. The most ornamental pillars -were on the side with the entrance or gateway. The two small rooms on -the ends of the main portico may have been guard-rooms. - -We can only regret that, while we know certain things about this hall, -there is still much of which we know nothing. However, there are many -theories concerning it. Some authorities believe that it was roofed, -while others think that it was open and protected only by curtains -and hangings, of which the Persians made much use. As we cannot know -positively about it, and Persepolis was the spring residence of the -Persian kings, it is pleasant to fancy that this splendid pillared hall -was a summer throne-room, having beautiful hangings that could be drawn -aside at will, admitting all the spicy breezes of that sunny land, -and realizing the description of the palace of Shushan in the Book of -Esther, which says, "In the court of the garden of the king's palace; -where were white, green, and blue hangings, fastened with cords of fine -linen and purple to silver rings and pillars of marble; the beds were -of gold and silver, upon a pavement of red, and blue, and white, and -black marble." - -Here the king could receive all those who sought him; the glorious -view of the plains of Susa and Persepolis, the breezes which came to -him laden with the odors of the choicest flowers would soothe him to -content, and realize his full desire for that deep breath from open air -which gives a sense of freedom and power. We know that no Oriental, be -he monarch or slave, desires to live beneath a roof or within closed -doors. - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.--PART OF A BASE OF THE TIME OF CYRUS, -PASARGADÆ.] - -The column was in Persia developed with a good deal of originality -and much artistic feeling; and one fine base of the time of Cyrus is -especially interesting for its close resemblance to the base of certain -Ionic pillars afterward made in Greece (Fig. 32). - -The tombs of the royal Persians were usually hewn out of the solid -rock; the tomb of Cyrus, only, resembles a little house; this plate -gives a representation of it (Fig. 33). - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.--THE TOMB OF CYRUS.] - -The one apartment in this tomb is about eleven feet long, seven feet -broad, and seven feet high; it has no window, and a low, narrow doorway -in one of the end walls is the only entrance to it. Ancient writers say -that the body of Cyrus in a golden coffin was deposited in this tomb. - -Seven other tombs have been explored; they are excavations in the sides -of the mountains high enough to be prominent objects to the sight, -and yet difficult of approach. The fronts of these tombs are much -ornamented, and the internal chambers are large; there are recesses for -the burial-cases, and these vary in number, some having only space for -three bodies. The tomb of Darius had three recesses, in each of which -there were three burial-cases; but this was an unusually large number. -The tombs near Persepolis are the finest which have yet been examined. - -The most noticeable characteristic of Persian architecture is its -regularity. The plans used are simple, and only straight lines occur in -them; thus, all the angles are right angles. The columns are regularly -placed, and the two sides of an apartment or building correspond to -each other. The magnificent staircases, and the abundance of elegant -columns which have been called "groves of pillars" by some writers, -produced a grand and dignified effect. The huge size of the blocks of -stone used by Persian builders gives an impression of great power in -those who planned their use, and demands for them the respect of all -thoughtful students of these edifices. - -The faults of this architecture lay in the narrow doorways, the small -number of passages, and the clumsy thickness of the walls. But these -faults are insignificant in comparison with its beauties, and it is all -the more to be admired that it was invented by the Persians, not copied -from other nations, and there is little doubt that the Greeks profited -by its study to improve their own style, and through this study -substituted lightness and elegance for the clumsy and heavy effect of -the earliest Grecian architecture. - - -JUDEA. - -There is so much of religious, historical, romantic, and poetical -association with the land of Judea, that it is a disappointment to -know that there are no remains of Judean architecture from which to -study the early art-history of that country; it is literally true that -nothing remains. - -The ruins of Jerusalem, Baalbec, Palmyra, Petra, and places beyond -the Jordan are not Jewish, but Roman remains. The most interesting -remnant is a passage and gateway which belonged to the great temple at -Jerusalem. This passage is situated beneath the platform of the temple; -it is called "The Gateway Huldah." The width of it is forty-one feet, -and at one point there is a magnificent pillar, called a monolith, -because it is cut from a single stone. This pillar supports four -arches, which divide the passage into as many compartments, each one -of which has a flat dome. On these domes or roofs there were formerly -beautiful ornamental designs, one of which remains, and is like this -picture (Fig. 34). Its combination of Oriental and Roman design proves -that it cannot be very old, but must have been made after the influence -of the Romans had been felt in Judea. - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.--ROOF OF ONE OF THE COMPARTMENTS OF THE GATE -HULDAH.] - -Since the excavations in Assyria, and through the use of the knowledge -obtained there and in other ancient countries, and by comparing this -with the descriptions of the Bible and the works of Josephus, some -antiquarians have made plans and drawings of what they believe that -the temple at Jerusalem must have been at the time of the Crucifixion. -The result of this work has little interest, for two reasons: first, -because we do not know that it is correct; second, because even at the -time to which it is ascribed, it was not the ancient temple of Solomon. -That had been destroyed, and after the return of the Jews from the -Captivity, was rebuilt; again, it had been changed and restored by the -Romans under Herod, so that it had little in reality, or by way of -association, to give it the sacred and intense interest for us which -would belong to the true, ancient temple at Jerusalem. - - "Lost Salem of the Jews, great sepulchre. - Of all profane and of all holy things, - Where Jew and Turk and Gentile yet concur - To make thee what thou art, thy history brings - Thoughts mixed of joy and woe. The whole earth rings - With the sad truth which He has prophesied, - Who would have sheltered with his holy wings - Thee and thy children. You his power defied; - You scourged him while he lived, and mocked him as he died! - - "There is a star in the untroubled sky, - That caught the first light which its Maker made,-- - It led the hymn of other orbs on high; - 'Twill shine when all the fires of heaven shall fade. - Pilgrims at Salem's porch, be that your aid! - For it has kept its watch on Palestine! - Look to its holy light, nor be dismayed, - Though broken is each consecrated shrine, - Though crushed and ruined all which men have called divine." - - -GREECE. - -The earliest history of Greece is lost in what we may call the Age of -Legend. From that period have come to us such marvellous stories of -gods and goddesses, and all sorts of wonderful happenings and doings, -that even the most serious and wise scholars can learn little about it, -and it remains to all alike a kind of delightful fairy-land. - -Back to that remote age one can send his fancy and imagination to -feast upon the tales of wondrous bravery, passionate love, dire -revenge, and supernatural occurrences of every sort until he is weary -of it all. Then he is glad to come back to his actual life, in which -cause and effect are so much more clearly seen, and which, if more -matter-of-fact, is more comfortable than the hap-hazard existence of -those remarkable beings who were liable to be changed into beasts, or -trees, or almost anything else at a moment's notice, or to be whisked -away from the midst of their families and friends and set down to -starve in some desolate place where there was nothing to eat, and no -one to listen to complaints of sorrow or hunger. - -This legendary time in Grecian history begins nobody knows when, and -ends about one thousand years before the birth of Christ. Our only -knowledge of it comes from the mythology which we have inherited from -the past, and the two poems of Homer, called the "Iliad" and the -"Odyssey." - -The "Iliad" recounts the anger of Achilles and all that happened in the -Trojan War; the "Odyssey" relates the wonderful adventures of Ulysses. -Probably Homer never thought of such a thing as being an historian--he -was a poet--much less did he dream of being the only historian of any -certain time or age; but since, in the course of his poems, he refers -to the manners and customs of the years that had preceded him, and -gives accounts of certain past events, he is, in truth, the prime -source from which we learn the little that we know of the prehistoric -days in Greece. - -It is believed that Homer wrote about 850 B.C., and after that date -we have nothing complete in Greek literature until the time of -Herodotus, who is called the "Father of History" and was born in 484 -B.C. Thus four centuries between Homer and Herodotus are left with no -authoritative writings. - -The legendary or first period of Greek history was followed by five -hundred years more of which we have no continuous history; but facts -have been gathered here and there from the works of various authors -which make it possible to give a reliable account of the Greece of that -time. For our purpose in this book we go on to a still later time, or -a third period, which began about 500 B.C., in which the architecture -and art which we have in mind, when we use the general term Greek Art, -originated. - -It is true that before this temples had been erected of which we -have some knowledge, and the elegant and ornate articles which Dr. -Schliemann has found in his excavations at Troy and Mycenæ prove -that the art of that remote time reached a high point of excellence. -The temples and other buildings of which we know anything, and which -belonged to the second period, were clumsy and rude when compared with -the perfection of the time which we propose to study. - -Before we speak of any one edifice it is best to understand something -of the various orders of Greek architecture, more especially as the -terms which belong to it and had their origin in it are now used in -speaking of architecture the world over, and from being first applied -to Greek art have grown to be general in their application. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.--GRAVESTONE FROM MYCENÆ (SCHLIEMANN).] - -In the most ancient days of Greece the royal fortresses were the finest -structures, but in later days the temple became the supreme object -upon which thought and labor were lavished. The public buildings which -served the uses of the whole people were second in consideration, while -the private dwellings were of the least importance of all. The Greek -temple was built upon a raised structure like those of Assyria and -other Oriental nations, but the Greek temple was much smaller, and by -a dignified and simple elegance in detail, and a harmony in all its -parts, it expressed a more noble religious sentiment than could be -conveyed by all the vast piles of massive confusion that had abounded -in more Eastern lands. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.--TEMPLE OF DIANA, ELEUSIS.] - -The earliest and simplest Greek temples were merely small, square -chambers made to contain an image of a god, and in later times, when -the temples came to be splendid and grand, the apartment containing -the sacred image was still called the _cella_ or cell, as it had been -named from the first. The simplest form of temple was like the little -cut (Fig. 36), and had two pillars in the centre of the front and two -square pilasters at the front end of the side walls. These pilasters -are called _antæ_, and the whole style of the building is called -_distyle in antis_; the word distyle denotes the two pillars, and the -expression means two pillars with antæ. - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.--SMALL TEMPLE AT RHAMNUS.] - -The above picture shows the next advance that was made in form (Fig. -37). A porch was added to the cell, the two parts being separated -by a wall with a doorway in it. After a time the number of pillars in -front was increased to six, and the two outer ones were the first of a -row which extended along the entire length of the sides of the temple, -thus forming a peristyle, or a row of columns entirely around the cell; -the cell itself remained, according to the original plan, in the centre -of the building. The ground plan of such a temple is given in the next -wood-cut (Fig. 38). - -[Illustration: FIG. 38--PLAN OF TEMPLE OF APOLLO, BASSÆ.] - -A large proportion of the Greek temples were built in this manner, and -were called _hexastyle_ from the six columns on the front. - -The different orders of ancient Greek architecture are called the -Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. The Greeks were very fond of -the Doric order, and used it so extensively as to make it almost -exclusively their own. The picture of the Parthenon will help you to -understand the explanations of the characteristics of the Doric order -(Fig. 39). - -[Illustration: FIG. 39--THE PARTHENON. _Athens_. (RESTORED.)] - -As you see, the pillars had no base, but rested directly on the upper -plinth of the foundation of the building. The shaft of the column is -cut in flutings, and the number of them varies from sixteen to twenty; -the latter number being most frequently used. The capital of the column -is divided into two portions; the lower one is called the _echinus_, -and projects beyond the shaft and supports a square tile or block which -is called the _abacus_, and this is the architectural name for the -upper member of all capitals to columns. The _architrave_ or principal -beam above these columns rests directly on the capitals and runs around -the building. This architrave is made of separate blocks of marble -or stone, and is finished at the top by a small strip of the same -materials, which is called a _tenia_. This cut, which gives a section -of the Parthenon on a larger scale than the last picture, will enable -you to find the different portions more easily (Fig. 40). - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.--FROM THE PARTHENON, ATHENS.] - -Above the architrave and resting on it is the _frieze_; this is -ornamented with fluted spaces called _triglyphs_, because they are -cut in three flutings. The spaces between the triglyphs are called -_metopes_, and sometimes left plain, and sometimes ornamented with -sculptures, as is the case in the frieze of the Parthenon. Under the -triglyphs six little blocks, or drops, are placed so that they lay -over the architrave. Above the frieze there is another narrow strip, -or tenia, like that upon the architrave. Above all this rests the -_cornice_, and underneath the cornice are one or more rows of the -small, drop-like blocks such as make the lower finish of the triglyphs; -in the lower band of the cornice separate blocks are placed over each -triglyph and each metope, with a small space between. - -It is important to know that the architrave, frieze, and cornice, -all taken together, form what is called the _entablature_; and the -entablature occupies the whole of the broad space between the top of -the capitals of the pillars and the lower edge of the roof. - -The triangular space formed by the sloping of the roof upon the ends -of a building is called the _pediment_, and, as you will see in the -picture of the Parthenon, its pediment was ornamented with elaborate -sculptures which are spoken of in the volume of this series which is -devoted to that art. It was customary to thus ornament the pediment and -to paint the walls of the cella and other portions of the building, so -that while the pure Doric style seems at first sight to be stiff and -straight in its effect, it becomes rich and ornamental by the use of -sculpture and painting, and yet remains solid and stable. - -The Doric style may be regarded as a native growth in Greece, as almost -every detail of its construction and its ornaments may be traced back -to the early wooden buildings of the people, as the architecture -of the tombs of Beni-Hassan had been. The triglyphs, for instance, -represent the ends of the beams upon which the rafters rested, while -the bas-reliefs between took the place of the votive offerings which -in the primitive temples were placed in the open spaces between the -beams. It is not necessary here to go into all the particulars of this -resemblance, which perhaps learned men have sometimes carried too far, -and which are rather difficult to understand; it is enough to say that -there are excellent reasons for regarding the theory as, upon the -whole, sound, although, of course, the Grecian architects modified and -enriched the forms which the simple timber work had suggested. - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.--IONIC ARCHITECTURE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 42.--IONIC BASE, FROM PRIENE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.--ATTIC BASE.] - -The next great order was called the Ionic, and has a close relation -with certain forms found in Asia Minor. This picture of an Ionic -capital and entablature is taken from the Temple of Athena at Priene -(Fig. 41). Its scroll-like capital recalls those of the pillars in the -Great Hall of Xerxes at Persepolis, shown in Figs. 28 and 29, and many -examples of even closer resemblance might be given. The order differed -from the Doric principally in the ornamentation of its capitals and -in the fact that the columns have bases. These cuts show different -kinds of bases belonging to the Ionic order. The first is from the -temple at Priene (Fig. 42), and the second is the form known as the -Attic base (Fig. 43). The third is especially interesting from its -close resemblance to the ancient Persian base shown in Fig. 32, and is -another illustration of the Eastern origin of this order (Fig. 44). - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.--BASE FROM TEMPLE OF HERA, SAMOS.] - -The Ionic capital is very easily recognized by its spiral projections, -or scrolls, which are called volutes (Fig. 45). These are so placed -that they present a flat surface on the opposite sides of the capital, -like the picture below (Fig. 46); sometimes the volutes are finished by -a rosette in the centre. - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.--IONIC CAPITAL (FRONT VIEW).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.--IONIC CAPITAL (SIDE VIEW).] - -The shaft of the Ionic column is sometimes plain and sometimes fluted; -the flutings number twenty-four, and are separated by a narrow, plain -band or fillet. In some ancient examples of the Ionic order the entire -entablature is left plain, but in many instances there are bands of -carvings, as in the first Ionic example given above; in some modern -Italian architecture even more ornament has been added. - -The three, or sometimes two, layers or bands of stone which form the -Ionic architrave project a little, each one more than the other, and -the ornamented band above it serves to separate it from the frieze so -as to make these two portions of the entablature quite distinct from -each other. The frieze is never divided into set spaces as in the Doric -order, but when ornamented has a continuous design in relief. - -The lower part of the cornice is frequently cut in little pieces or -dentals which form what is called the "tooth-like ornament;" these -have the effect of hanging from underneath the cornice. There is a -certain pleasing effect in Ionic architecture which, perhaps, appeals -to our taste at first sight more forcibly than does the severe elegance -of the Doric order. Nevertheless, the latter is a higher type of art, -and it is not probable that it can ever be superseded by any new -invention or lose the prestige which it has held so long. - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.--FROM MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES, ATHENS.] - -That which is called the Corinthian order differs very little from the -Ionic except in the capital, but as this was so prominent a member of -the Ionic style, the difference seems greater than it really is. It is -therefore not necessary to speak of its parts in detail. The Choragic -Monument of Lysicrates at Athens is as good a specimen of the order as -remains at this time, and of this we give an illustration (Fig. 47). - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.--CORINTHIAN ORDER.] - -The Corinthian order of architecture does not belong to the early -period of art in Greece. It came after the influence of Oriental -architecture had been shown in the Ionic style; and perhaps the -beautiful Corinthian capital may have been suggested by the palm-leaf -and lotus capitals of Egypt. What has been said of other orders will -help you in understanding this; but I shall tell you especially about -its capital, as that is its distinguishing feature. The form of the -capital may be called bell-shaped, and it is set round with two rows of -leaves, eight in each row; above these is a third row of leaves, or of -a sort of small twisted husks, which supports eight small volutes. The -abacus or top portion of the capital is cut out at the corners so that -sharp projections are made, called horns, and one volute comes directly -under each horn of the abacus. This cut (Fig. 48) gives a more distinct -idea of the capital than does that above, and you will see that four -of the volutes really form the upper corners of the capital. The four -other volutes meet on two opposite sides of the capital; sometimes -they are interwoven, and a flower, or rosette, or some other ornament -is placed above them and lays up over the abacus. Different kinds -of leaves are used in making this capital; olive, water plant, and -acanthus are all thus employed; there is a very pretty legend as to its -origin which makes the acanthus seem to be the only one which belongs -to it, and is as follows: - -It was the custom in Greece to place a basket upon the new-made graves -in which were the viands which those there buried had preferred when -in life. About 550 B.C. a lovely virgin died at Corinth, and her nurse -arranged the basket with care and covered it with a tile. It happened -that the basket was set directly over a young acanthus plant, and the -leaves grew up about it in such a manner that the sculptor Callimachus -was attracted by its grace and beauty, and conceived the idea of using -it as a model for a new capital in architecture. I have always been -sorry that it was not named for the beautiful maiden rather than for -the city in which she was buried. - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.--CARYATID.] - -Another feature of Greek architecture is the use of the Caryatid, or -a human figure standing upon a base and supporting the capital of -a column upon the head, or, to put it more plainly, a human figure -serving as the shaft to a column. These figures are usually females, -and this picture of one from the Erechtheium at Athens shows how -they are placed (Fig. 49). Sometimes the figures of giants, called -_Telamones_, were used in the same way. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.--STOOL, OR CHAIR, KHORSABAD.] - -In Oriental art such figures are numerous; they are used to support -platforms and the thrones of kings; their position is sometimes varied -by making the uplifted hands bear the weight instead of the head (Fig. -50). In any case this feature in architecture is tiresome, and its use -is certainly questionable as a matter of good taste. - -Having given a general outline of the characteristics of Greek -architecture, I will speak of some remarkable edifices which are -beautiful in themselves and have an interest for us on account of their -associations with the history of the world, as well as with that of -art. - -The Temple of Diana at Ephesus, of which nothing now remains, was the -largest and most splendid of all the Greek temples. It was four hundred -and twenty-five feet long by two hundred and twenty wide. - -The ancients counted this temple as one of the Seven Wonders of the -World, and when we know that its pillars were sixty feet high, and -that the beams of the architrave which had to be lifted up above the -pillars to be put in place were each thirty feet long, we can readily -understand that the building of it was a wonderful work. This was not -the first temple that had stood on the same spot, for we know that one -had been burned on the night in which Alexander the Great was born, 356 -B.C. It was set on fire by Herostratus; he was tried for this crime -and was put to the torture to make him declare his motive for doing -such a dreadful deed; he gave as his only reason his desire to have his -name handed down through all ages, and he believed that by burning the -temple he should accomplish his object--as, indeed, he did, for every -historian repeats the story of his crime, and his name stands as a -synonym for wicked ambition. - -After this destruction the temple was rebuilt on a most magnificent -scale, and was not finished until two hundred and twenty years had -passed. Diana was a great and powerful goddess, and all the nations of -Asia united in gifts for the adornment of her shrine; the women even -gave their personal ornaments to be sold to increase the fund to be -spent upon it. - -This temple was four times as large as the Parthenon at Athens, and -had one hundred and twenty-seven splendid columns, thirty-six of which -were finely carved and were the gifts of various sovereigns. The grand -staircase was made from the wood of a single Cyprian vine. But great -as was the temple itself, its adornments of statues by the sculptor -Praxiteles, and the vast treasures of ornaments and rare objects by -which it was enriched made it even more famous. The Temple of Diana -was robbed by Nero and burned by the Goths, but its final destruction -probably occurred after A.D. 381, when the Emperor Theodosius I. issued -an edict forbidding all the ceremonies of the pagan worship. - -Many beautiful objects were taken away to adorn the mediæval churches -of other religions than that of the Ephesians. Some of its green jasper -columns were used to support the dome of St. Sophia at Constantinople, -and other parts of it are seen in the cathedrals of Italy. - -There is scarcely a more desolate spot in the world than is the Ephesus -of to-day. No remaining ruins are so preserved as to afford the visitor -any satisfaction. The marbles and stone have been used to build other -towns, which in their turn have been destroyed. The inhabitants are a -handful of poor Greek peasants; wolves and jackals from the neighboring -mountains roam about; and though an abundance of myrtle and some lovely -groves relieve the gloominess of the scene, it is impossible when -there to re-create in imagination the splendid Ephesian city, with -its wharves and docks, its temples, theatres, and palaces, which were -so famous as to cause it to be spoken of with wonder throughout the -ancient world. - -We often hear of the glory of the Periclean age at Athens, and it is -true that under the leadership of Pericles Athens reached its greatest -prosperity. This picture shows the Acropolis as it appeared at that -time (Fig. 51). - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.--THE ACROPOLIS. _Athens._ (RESTORED.)] - -In these best days of Athens the whole Acropolis was consecrated to -religious worship and ceremonials, and its entire extent was occupied -by temples and statues of the gods. The fact that I have before -mentioned, that the religion of a country moulds its art, is especially -true of the art of Greece; figures of the gods and bas-reliefs of the -ceremonies of the Grecian worship form a large and most important part -of the work of the Greek artists, and the splendid temples were raised -to be the sacred homes of the statues of the great gods, to which the -people could come with offerings and prayers. - -The Acropolis was also a sort of fortress, because it was an eminence, -and its sides of craggy rock allowed of but one ascent; thus it could -be easily defended. Then, when all the wonders and riches of art -had been collected there, the pure white marble, the sculpture and -painting, and the ornaments of shining metals which glistened in the -sun, while brilliant colors added their rich effect, it might be called -a gorgeous museum, such as has never since been equalled in the history -of the world. - -It is important to know that the Athenians worshipped three different -goddesses, all called by the one name of Athene or Athena. The most -ancient and most sacred of these was Athena Polias, whose statue, made -of olive-wood, was believed to have fallen from heaven. The Erechtheium -was dedicated to this goddess, and there this holy, heaven-sent figure -was kept, with other sacred objects of which I shall speak in their -place. - -The Athena next in importance was the goddess of the Parthenon, or the -"House of the Virgin," as the word signifies, for this Athena Parthenos -is the same as the goddess Minerva, who is said never to have married -or known the sentiment of love; she was the goddess of war, prudence, -and wisdom. The third Athena was called Promachos, which means the -champion. Phidias made of her one of his splendid statues, standing -erect, with helmet, spear, and shield. - -In describing the Acropolis we shall begin with the Propylæa, or the -entrances, which occupy the centre of our picture and to which the -steps lead, showing the passage between the pillars, three being left -on each side. This magnificent series of entrances--as the whole -ascent from the outer gate in the wall, up the steps, and through the -passage between the pillars may be called--was erected about 437 B.C., -and cost two thousand talents of gold, which is equal to about two -millions of our dollars. The fame of the Propylæa was world-wide, and -together with the Parthenon it was considered the architectural glory -of the Periclean age. The style in which they are built is a splendid -example of the combination of the Doric and the Ionic orders, for while -the exterior is almost pure Doric, the interior is made more cheerful -by the use of the Ionic columns and ornamentation. - -High up at the right of the picture stands the Parthenon. Its -architecture, which is Doric, has been described. We do not know when -this temple was begun, but it is probably on the site of an older one. -It was finished 438 B.C., and the general care of its erection was -given to Phidias, the most famous of all sculptors. The marble of which -the Parthenon was built was pure Pentelic, and as it rested on a rude -basement of limestone the contrast between the two made the marble of -the temple seem all the finer. Within and without this temple abounded -in magnificent sculptures executed by Phidias himself or under his -orders. - -The Erechtheium, which is only partly visible at the back on the left -of the picture, was the most sacred temple of Athens. It was the -burial-place of Erechtheus, who was regarded not only as the founder -of this temple, but also of the religion of Athena in Athens. Beside -the heaven-descended statue of Athena Polias which was kept here, there -was the sacred olive-tree which Athena had called forth from the earth -when she was contending for the possession of Attica; here, too, was -the well of salt water which Poseidon (or Neptune) made by striking the -spot with his trident, and several other sacred objects (Fig. 52). - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.--THE ERECHTHEIUM. _Athens._ (RESTORED.)] - -This beautiful temple was built in the Ionic style, and is very -interesting because it is so different in form from every other Greek -temple of which we know. This is partly due to the fact that it was -built where the ground was not level, one portion of it being eight -feet higher than another. A second reason for its irregularity may -be that it required to be divided into more cells or apartments than -other Greek temples in order to arrange the different sacred objects -within its walls. A very considerable portion of this temple is still -standing. The frieze, of which but little remains, was of black marble, -upon which there were figures in white marble. - -The Erechtheium is certainly a splendid example of the Attic-Ionic -style, and the eye rests upon it with admiration; but its half-pillars -and caryatides, its various porches and luxuriant detail of form and -ornament, are less effective as a whole than is the Parthenon in its -pure Doric architecture. - -An interesting fact about Greek architecture is that the marbles used -were painted in high colors. There is a theory, which may or may not -be true, that the custom first arose in the same way as the shape of -the Doric entablature, from the imitation of wooden buildings. The wood -was painted to preserve it, and when stone began to be substituted, -the architects, accustomed to bright effects, colored the marbles -to look like wood. Whether this is the true origin of the custom or -not, it is certain that the custom prevailed. The lower parts of the -pillars of a Doric temple were usually stained a light golden-brown -tint; the triglyphs and the mutules, or brackets beneath the cornices, -were a rich blue; the trunnels, or wooden pins, were red or gilded; -the metopes had a dark red background, against which the bas-reliefs -with which they were ornamented stood out in strong contrast, while the -frieze and cornice were richly painted with garlands and leaves. So -highly colored a building would seem less out of place amid the varied -landscape of Greece than under our colder skies, and it is difficult -for us to form any just idea of the splendid appearance it must have -presented. - -One of the most wonderful things about Greek architecture is the way -in which allowance was made for the deception of the eye by certain -forms and lines. It is not easy to explain this fully, but it is too -remarkable to be wholly passed over. If a column were cut so as to -diminish regularly from the bottom to the top it would seem to the eye -to hollow in, and to correct this the clever Greek architect made his -columns swell out a little at the middle. This is called _entasis_, and -is the best known of the means taken to make forms look as they should. -Another case is that of long horizontal lines. If they are really level -they appear to sag at the centre, therefore in Greek temples they -are delicately rounded up a little, and so have the effect of being -perfectly straight. These two examples may serve to show what I mean -by saying that architectural forms were made one way so as to look -another, and in nothing did the Greek architecture show more marvellous -skill and taste than in this. - -In other Grecian cities the architecture differed but little from that -of Athens, and, indeed, the influence of Athenian art and artists was -felt all over the Eastern world; it is therefore not necessary for our -purpose to speak further of Greek temples. - -Next in importance were the municipal buildings, of which we find but -few traces at Athens. The monument of Lysicrates is so beautiful that -it gives us a most exalted idea of what the taste in such edifices must -have been (Fig. 53). - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.--CHORAGIC MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES. _Athens._] - -This monument was erected in the year 334 B.C. when Lysicrates was -_choragus_; this officer provided the chorus for the plays represented -at Athens for the year. It was expensive to hold this position, and its -duties were arduous; the choragus had to find the men for the chorus, -bring them together, and have them instructed in the music, and also -provide proper food for them while they studied. It was customary to -present a tripod to the _choragus_ who provided the finest musical -entertainment, and also to build a monument upon which the tripod was -placed as a lasting honor to him who had received it. There was a -street at Athens called the "Street of the Tripods" because it passed a -line of choragic monuments. These monuments were dedicated to different -gods; this of Lysicrates was devoted to Bacchus, and was decorated -with sculptures representing scenes in the story of that god, who was -regarded as the patron of plays and theatres; indeed, the Greek drama -originated in the choruses which were sung at his festivals. - -The Greek theatres were very large and fine; the seats were ranged in a -half circle, but as none remain in a sufficient state of preservation -to afford a satisfactory picture, it would be impossible to give a -clear description of them here. - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.--THE MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS (RESTORED).] - -The ancient Greeks were not tomb-builders, and we know little of -their burial-places. However, the Mausoleum built at Halicarnassus by -Artemisia, in memory of her husband, Mausolus, was so important as to -be numbered among the seven wonders of the world (Fig. 54). Mausolus -was the King of Caria, of which country Halicarnassus was the chief -city. He died about 353 B.C., and his wife, Artemisia, gradually faded -away with sorrow at his death, and survived him but two years. But -during this time she had commenced the erection of the Mausoleum, -and the artists to whom she intrusted the work were as faithful in -completing it as though she had lived, for the sake of their own fame -as artists. This magnificent tomb may be described as an example of -architecture as a fine art exclusively, for it cannot be said to have -been useful, since the body of Mausolus was burned according to custom, -and certainly a much smaller tomb would have been sufficient for the -remaining ashes. - -The whole height of the Mausoleum was one hundred and forty feet; the -north and south aisles were sixty-three feet long, and the others a -little less. The burial vault was at the base, and the whole mass -above it was ornamented with magnificent designs splendidly executed. -Above the whole was a quadriga, or four-horse chariot, in which it is -said that a figure of Mausolus was placed so that from land or sea it -could be seen at a great distance. It is not strange that this tomb -was called a wonder in its day, and from it we still take our word -"mausoleum" for all burial-places which merit so distinguished a name. - -Writers of the twelfth century speak of the beauty of this tomb, -but in A.D. 1402, when the Knights of St. John took possession of -Halicarnassus, it no longer remained, and a castle was built upon its -site. The tomb had been buried, probably by an earthquake, and the name -of the place was then changed to Boodroom. - -In the year 1522 some sculptures were found there, but it was not until -1856 that Mr. Newton, an Englishman, discovered that these remains had -belonged to the Mausoleum. A large collection of reliefs, statues, and -other objects, more or less imperfect, was taken to London and placed -in the British Museum, where they are known as the "Halicarnassus -Sculptures." - -As other temples were influenced by the example of the Athenian -builders, so many other tombs resembled that of Mausolus in greater or -less degree, although none approached it in grandeur and magnificence. - -Of the domestic architecture of the Greeks we know very little. Almost -all that is said of it is chiefly speculation, as even the descriptions -of Grecian palaces and houses which are given by the classic writers -are imperfect. The life of the Greek was passed largely in public, at -the temple, the theatre, or the baths, or at least in the open air, and -comparatively little attention was given to the building of the private -houses; but in the ruins of the temples and other monuments which -still exist we have sufficient proof that no art has surpassed that of -ancient Greece in purity, elegance, and grandeur of style. - - -ETRURIA. - -Since the Etruscans were an earlier Italian nation than the Romans, -and Rome, in her primal days, was ruled by Etruscan kings, it is here -fitting to speak of this remarkable old people. - -As Rome increased the Etruscans disappeared, and the younger power -came to have so mighty an influence in the world that it absorbed the -consideration of all nations as much as if no other had ever ruled in -Italy. - -No Etruscan temple now remains, but we know that they were not splendid -like those of Greece. They were of two forms, one being circular and -dedicated to a single deity, while others were devoted to three gods -and had three cells; their walls were built at right angles, thus -making their shape regular. - -The theatres and amphitheatres of the Etruscans were nearly circular -and much like those of the later Italians, but not one remains except -that at Sutri, which, being cut in the rock, does not afford a good -example of the usual arrangement of these edifices. - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.--TOMBS AT CASTEL D'ASSO.] - -In fact, the only important remains of Etruscan architecture are the -tombs, of which there are many. These are of two kinds; the first -are cut in the rocks and resemble the Egyptian tombs at Beni-Hassan, -reminding one of little houses (Fig. 55). - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.--PRINCIPAL CHAMBER IN REGULINI-GALEASSI TOMB.] - -The second and most numerous class are mounds of earth raised above -a wall at the base. These were called "Tumuli," and some of them had -fine, well-furnished apartments in their midst. The next cut shows such -a room as it appeared when first opened; in it were found bedsteads, -biers, shields, arrows, a variety of vessels, and several kinds of -useful utensils (Fig. 56). - -[Illustration: FIG. 57.--ARCH AT VOLTERRA.] - -These tombs are in truth more connected with other arts than with -architecture, and many beautiful articles have been found in them. -The most interesting feature of Etruscan architecture is the arch, -which was first brought into general use by the Romans, but is -found in Etruscan remains (Fig. 57), both in the semi-circular and -pointed forms. The principle of the arch had been known to several -Oriental nations, but it had been applied only to short spaces and -comparatively unimportant uses, such as windows and doorways (Fig. 58). - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.--GATEWAY. _Arpino._] - -There is no doubt that many of the earliest works of the Romans were -executed under the direction of Etruscan architects. Among these was -the great Cloaca Maxima, or principal drain of ancient Rome. This was a -wonderful achievement; it is probable that the oldest arch in Europe is -that of this sewer, and the fact of its still remaining proves how well -it must have been built in order to last so long (Fig. 59). - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.--ARCH OF CLOACA MAXIMA. _Rome._] - - -ROME. - -The early works of Rome, which were largely executed by the Etruscans, -were principally those useful, semi-architectural objects necessary in -the making of a city, such as aqueducts and bridges. These belong quite -as much to civil engineering as to architecture, and we shall not speak -of them. - -In studying Roman architecture one is surprised at the number of uses -to which it was applied, for not only do the temples, tombs, theatres, -and monuments such as we have found in other countries exist in Rome, -but there are also basilicas, baths, palaces, triumphal arches, pillars -of victory, fountains, and various other objects suited to the wants of -a great people. - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.--COMPOSITE ORDER, FROM THE ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS -SEVERUS. _Rome._] - -No truly pure, national order of architecture existed at Rome. The -union of the arch of the Etruscans with the columns of the Greeks -enabled the Romans to change the forms of their edifices and to produce -a great variety in them. They employed the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian -orders, but they rarely used one of these alone; they united them in -endless combinations, and introduced a capital of the order which is -called the Composite (Fig. 60). It consists of the lower part of the -Corinthian and the upper part of the Ionic capital; this was very rich -in ornament, but the line where the two orders were joined was always a -defect, and it never came into general favor. - -The Romans also introduced what is called the Tuscan order, which is -usually mentioned with the Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite, -as being one of the five classic orders of architecture, although it -is really little more than a variety of the Doric, as the Composite is -of the Corinthian order. It differed from the Doric in having a base, -while its frieze was simple and unadorned, the cornice also being very -plain. The shaft of the Tuscan column was never fluted. - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--DORIC ARCADE.] - -The Romans also used an arcade which was a combination of Greek and -Etruscan art, like this cut (Fig. 61); thus showing a power of adapting -forms which already existed in new combinations and for new purposes, -rather than an originative genius. - -A very important advance made by the Romans was the improvement of -interior architecture. The halls and portions of edifices to be used -were more cared for than ever before; this was sometimes done at the -expense of the exteriors, to which the Greeks had devoted all their -thought. In fact, many ancient Roman temples were inferior to other -edifices which they built. The Pantheon is the only one existing in -such a state as to be spoken of with satisfaction. - -[Illustration: FIG. 62.--GROUND-PLAN OF PANTHEON. _Rome._] - -This ground-plan (Fig. 62) shows that the Pantheon is circular with -a porch. Taken separately, the rotunda and the porch are each fine -in their own way, but the joining of the circular and angular forms -has an effect of unfitness which one cannot forget even when looking -at that which we regard with reverent interest. The central portion -was at first a part of the Baths of Agrippa, but on account of its -great beauty it was changed by Agrippa himself into a temple, by the -addition of a row of Corinthian columns around the interior. (See Fig. -63.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 63.--INTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON.] - -Taken all in all, the effect of the Pantheon is that of grandeur and -simplicity. When we remember that sixteen hundred and eighty-eight -years have passed since it was repaired by Septimius Severus, we wonder -at its good preservation, though we know that it has been robbed of -its bronze covering and other fine ornaments. An inscription still -remaining on its portico states that Marcus Aurelius and Septimius -Severus repaired this temple; history says that Hadrian restored it -after a fire, probably about the year 117, and it is even said that -Agrippa, who died A.D. 13, added the portico to a rotunda which existed -before his time. - -The objects now in the interior of the Pantheon are so largely modern -that they do not belong to this portion of our subject, but there is -much interest associated with this spot, and it is dear to all the -world as the burial-place of Raphael, Annibale Caracci, and other great -artists. - -Next to the temples of Rome came the Basilicas, of which there were -many before the time of Constantine. The word basilica means the royal -house, and these edifices were first intended for a court-room in which -the king administered his laws; later they became markets, or places of -exchange, where men met for business transactions. The ruins of the -Basilicas of Trajan and Maxentius, two of the finest of these edifices, -are in such condition that their plans can be understood (Fig. 64). -They were large, and divided into aisles by rows of columns; at one -end there was a semi-circular recess or apse, in which was a raised -platform, approached by steps, also semi-circular in form. Upon this -platform the king or other exalted officer had his place, while those -of lesser rank were on the steps below, on either side. Fronting the -apse was an altar upon which sacrifices were offered before commencing -any important business. - -[Illustration: FIG. 64.--LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF BASILICA OF MAXENTIUS.] - -The principal reason for speaking of basilicas is that by the above cut -you may see the great change made in architecture about this time by -the use of columns, only half the height of the building, which were -united by arches. This was a very important step, and is, in truth, one -of the principal features that mark the progress of the change from -ancient to Gothic architecture--a change not fully developed until the -twelfth century. - -I shall not say much of the theatres, amphitheatres, and baths of -ancient Rome, because it is not easy to treat them in the simple manner -suited to this book; they were magnificent and costly, and made an -important part of Roman architecture; they were probably copied from -the public buildings of the Etruscans. - -Marcus Scaurus built a theatre in 58 B.C. which held eighty thousand -spectators; it had rich columns and statues, and was decorated with -gold, silver, and ivory. The first stone theatre in Rome was built in -55 B.C., and was only half the size of that of Marcus Scaurus. Parts -of the theatre of Marcellus still remain in the present Orsini Palace -in Rome, and serve to give an idea of the architecture of the period -immediately before the birth of Christ. - -The Emperor Augustus boasted that he had found a city of brick and -had changed it to one of marble, but after his time architecture -suffered a decline, and its second flourishing period may be dated from -A.D. 69. To this time belongs the Colosseum, also called the Flavian -Amphitheatre; it covers about five acres of ground, and is sufficiently -well preserved for a good idea to be formed of what it must have been -when in its best estate. The enormous size of these ancient Roman -edifices is almost too much for us to imagine, and the most extensive -of them all were the _Thermæ_, or public baths. - -The Baths of Diocletian, built A.D. 303, were the largest of all; they -had seats for twenty-four hundred bathers. These baths were in reality -a group of spacious halls of varied forms, but all magnificent in size. -The great hall of the Baths of Diocletian was three hundred and fifty -feet long by eighty feet in width and ninety-six feet high; it was -converted into a church by Michael Angelo and is called S. Maria Degli -Angeli, or Holy Mary of the Angels. Many splendid pictures which were -once in St. Peter's are now in this church, and copies of them made in -mosaic fill the places where they were originally hung. - -The Baths of Caracalla were built in A.D. 217, and though they had -seats for but sixteen hundred bathers, they were much more splendid -than the Baths of Diocletian. They were surrounded by pleasure -gardens, porticoes, and a stadium or race-course, where all sorts of -games were held. Some beautiful mosaic pavements have been taken from -these baths, and are now in the Lateran and the Villa Borghese palaces; -there was a Pinacotica, or Fine Art Gallery here, in which were some of -the greatest art treasures of the world, such as the Farnese Hercules, -the Farnese Bull, the two Gladiators, and other famous statues, besides -cameos, bronzes, and sculptures, almost without end. The granite basins -in the Piazza Farnese, and some green basalt urns now in the Vatican -Museum, were taken from the Baths of Caracalla, and, indeed, all over -Rome there are objects of more or less beauty which were found here. - -Formerly the site of these baths was like a beautiful Eden where -Nature made herself happy in luxuriant growths of all lovely things. -The poet Shelley was very fond of going there, and wrote of it, "Among -the flowery glades and thickets of odoriferous blossoming trees, which -are extended in ever-winding labyrinths upon its immense platforms -and dizzy arches suspended in the air," by which we know that the -ruins were covered with a soil which was fruitful in flowers, vines, -and trees; but all these have been torn away in order to make the -excavations which were necessary for the exploration of these wonderful -baths, and now the parts which remain stand fully exposed to the view -of the curious traveller. - -The Roman Triumphal Arches were one of the characteristic outgrowths of -the Imperial period. These splendid works were designed to perpetuate -the fame of the emperors and to recall to the people the important -acts of their lives. The arch of Constantine given below is one of the -most famous arches in Rome (Fig. 65). It is believed that parts of it -were in an arch of Trajan's time, and some even go so far as to say -that it was originally dedicated to the earlier emperor and adopted -by Constantine as his own. It is remarkably well preserved, and this -is undoubtedly due to the fact of its being dedicated to the first -Christian sovereign of Rome. The other most famous arches in the city -are that of Titus, which dates from A.D. 81, and that of Septimius -Severus, which was erected in honor of him and of his wife, Julia, by -the silversmiths and merchants of the Forum Boarium, in which spot the -arch was raised. - -[Illustration: FIG. 65.--ARCH OF CONSTANTINE. _Rome._] - -These triumphal arches existed in all the countries where Rome held -sway, and, indeed, this is true of all kinds of Roman architectural -works. - -This Arch of Beneventum was erected in the second century after Christ, -by Trajan, when he repaired the Appian Way. It is one of the most -graceful and best preserved of all the arches of Italy (Fig. 66). - -[Illustration: FIG. 66.--ARCH OF TRAJAN. _Beneventum._] - -All these arches had originally groups of statuary upon them, for which -they served merely as the pedestals. Their taking the form of an arch -was due to their being placed in the public way, where it was necessary -to leave a passage for the street. Sometimes they were placed where two -roads met, and a double arch was then made. Elaborate as the arches -often were, you must keep in mind that they are only a part of the -entire design, and that the least important part; the statuary, which -has been destroyed by time, being really the more striking feature of -the whole. - -[Illustration: FIG. 67.--TOMB OF CECILIA METELLA.] - -The tombs of Rome were very numerous, and were an important element -in Roman architecture. The tomb of Cecilia Metella is of importance -because it is the oldest remaining building of Imperial Rome and the -finest tomb which has been preserved (Fig. 67). - -As you see, the tomb is a round tower. In the thirteenth century it -was turned into a fortress, and so much dust has been deposited on its -summit in the passing of time that bushes and ivy now grow there. Many -writers describe it, and Byron in his "Childe Harold" spoke of it in -some verses, of which the following is the beginning: - - "There is a stern round tower of other days, - Firm as a fortress, with its fence of stone, - Such as an army's baffled strength delays, - Standing with half its battlements alone, - And with two thousand years of ivy grown, - The garland of eternity, where wave - The green leaves over all by time o'erthrown;-- - What was this tower of strength? within its cave - What treasure lay so lock'd, so hid?--a woman's grave." - -The tomb of Hadrian, now known as the Castle of St. Angelo, is very -interesting, and is one of the most prominent and familiar objects in -Rome at the present day. But the tombs called Columbaria were much -in use in ancient Rome, and differed essentially from those of which -we have spoken, inasmuch as they were usually below the ground, and -externally had no architecture. They consisted of oblong or square -apartments, the sides of which were filled with small apertures of the -proper size to hold an urn which contained the ashes that remained -after a body had been burned, according to the Roman custom. Some of -these apartments, especially when they belonged to private families, -were adorned with pilasters and decorated with colors. (See Fig. 68.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 68.--COLUMBARIUM NEAR THE GATE OF ST. SEBASTIAN. -_Rome._] - -The sepulchres of Rome were gradually enlarged, until, in the days of -Constantine, they were frequently built like small temples above the -ground, with crypts or vaults beneath them. - -So little now remains of the ancient domestic architecture of Rome that -one is forced to study this subject from written descriptions collected -from the works of various historians, poets, and other writers. But -from what we know we may conclude that the villas and country-houses -were so constructed as to be full of comfort, and suited to the uses -for which they were built, without too much regard to the symmetry -of the exteriors. The interior convenience was the chief thing to -be considered, and when finished they must have often resembled a -collection of buildings all joined together, of various heights and -shapes; but within they were adapted to the different seasons, as -some rooms were made for being warm, while others were arranged for -coolness; the views from the windows were also an important feature, -and, in short, the pleasure of the people living in them was made the -first point to be gained, rather than the impression upon the eye of -those who saw them from without. - -There was great luxury and elegance in the palaces of the noble classes -in ancient Rome. The home of Diocletian at Spalatro was one of the most -famous Roman palaces, and its ruins show that it was once magnificent. -This palace was divided by four streets which ran through it at right -angles with each other and met in its centre. Its entrances were -called the Golden, Iron, and Brazen Gates. Its exterior architecture -was simple and massive, as it was necessary that it should serve as a -fortress in case of an attack. Its principal gallery overlooked the -sea; it was five hundred and fifteen feet long and twenty-four feet -wide, and was famous for its architectural beauty and for the views -which it commanded. - - - - -[Illustration] - -CHAPTER II. - -CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. - -A.D. 328 TO ABOUT 1400. - - -I have written more in detail concerning Ancient architecture than I -shall do of that of later times, because it is best to be thorough in -studying the beginnings of things; then we can make an application of -our knowledge which helps us to understand the results of what has gone -before, just as we are prepared for the full-blown rose after we have -seen the bud. Or, to be more practical, just as we use the simplest -principles of arithmetic to help us to understand the more difficult -ones; sometimes we scarcely remember that in the last lessons of the -book we unconsciously apply the first tables and rules which were so -difficult to us in the beginning. - -I shall not try, because I have not space, to give a connected account -of Christian architecture, but I shall endeavor to give such an outline -of its rise and progress in various countries as will make a good -foundation for the knowledge you will gain from books which you will -read in future. - -The architecture of Italy in the period which followed the conversion -of the Emperor Constantine is called the Romanesque order. As the -Christians were encouraged under Constantine and became bold in their -worship, many basilicas were given up for their use. The bishops held -the principal place upon the platform formerly occupied by the king -and his highest officers, and the priests of the lower orders were -ranged around them. The same altars which had served for the heathen -sacrifices were used for the worship of the true God, and from this -cause the word basilica has come to signify a large, grand church, in -the speech of our time. - -[Illustration: FIG. 69.--INTERIOR OF BASILICA OF ST. PAUL'S. _Rome._] - -Among the early basilicas of Rome which still remain none are more -distinguished than that of _San Paolo fuori della Mura_, or St. Paul's -without the Walls. It was ancient, and splendid in design and ornament. -In 1823 it was burned, and has been rebuilt with great magnificence, -but the picture above shows it as it was before the fire (Fig. 69). -It was built about 386 A.D. under the Emperors Valentinian II. and -Theodosius. - -This basilica had four rows of Corinthian columns, twenty in each -row; many of these pillars were taken from more ancient edifices, and -were composed of very beautiful marbles, forming by far the finest -collection of columns in the world. The bronze gates were cast at -Constantinople; the fine paintings and magnificent mosaics with which -it was decorated added much to its splendor. Tradition taught that the -body of St. Paul was buried beneath the high altar. - -Before the Reformation the sovereigns of England were protectors of -this basilica just as those of France were of St. John Lateran; this -gives it a peculiar interest for British people, and the symbol of the -Order of the Garter is still seen among its decorations. On account of -its associations, San Paolo was the most interesting, if not the most -beautiful, of the oldest Christian edifices in Rome. - -In the early days there were many circular churches throughout Italy; -some of these had been built at first for tombs. The Christians used -churches of this form for baptisms, for the sacrament for the dying, -burials, and sometimes for marriage. - -The circular temple of Vesta is very beautiful. It had originally -twenty Corinthian columns; nineteen of which still remain. This temple -is not older than the time of Vespasian, and is not the famous one -mentioned by Horace and other ancient writers, in which the Palladium -was preserved--that temple no longer exists. It is probable that many -of the earliest churches built by Christians in Italy were circular in -form, and numbers of these still remain in various Italian cities; but -they differed from the ancient temples of this form in their want of -exterior decoration. The ancient Romans had used columns, peristyles, -and porticoes; the Christians used the latter only in a few instances, -but even these were soon abandoned. - -The beautiful Baptistery at Florence was originally the cathedral -of the city. It is octagonal, or eight-sided, and this form is not -infrequent in buildings of the fourth and following centuries. It -is said that this Baptistery was built by Theodolinda, who married -Autharis, King of the Lombards in 589. - -This king had proposed to Garibald, King of Bavaria, for the hand of -his daughter, and had been accepted. Autharis grew impatient at the -ceremonies of the wooing, and escaping from his palace joined the -embassy to the King of Bavaria. - -When they reached the court of Garibald and were received by that -monarch, Autharis advanced to the throne and told the old king that the -ambassador before him was indeed the Minister of State at the Lombard -Court, but that he was the only real friend of Autharis, and to him had -been given a charge to report to the Italian king concerning the charms -of Theodolinda. Garibald summoned his daughter, and after an admiring -gaze the stranger hailed her Queen of Italy and respectfully asked that -she should, according to custom, give a glass of wine to the first of -her future subjects who had tendered her his duty. Her father commanded -her to give the cup, and as Autharis returned it to her he secretly -touched her hand and then put his finger on his own lips. At evening -Theodolinda told this incident to her nurse, who assured her that this -handsome and bold stranger could have been none other than her future -husband, since no subject would venture on such conduct. - -[Illustration: FIG. 70.--THE CATHEDRAL OF CHARTRES.] - -The ambassadors were dismissed, and some Bavarians accompanied the -Lombards to the Italian frontier. Before they separated Autharis -raised himself in his stirrups and threw his battle-axe against a tree -with great skill, exclaiming, "Such are the strokes of the King of -the Lombards!" Then all knew the rank of this gallant stranger. The -approach of a French army compelled Garibald to leave his capital; -he took refuge in Italy, and Autharis celebrated his marriage in the -palace of Verona; he lived but one year, but in that time Theodolinda -had so endeared herself to the people that she was allowed to bestow -the Italian sceptre with her hand. She had converted her husband to -the Catholic faith. She also founded the cathedral of Monza and other -churches in Lombardy and Tuscany, all of which she dedicated to St. -John the Baptist, who was her patron saint. - -The cathedral of Monza is very interesting from its historical -associations. Here is deposited the famous iron crown which was -presented to Theodolinda by Pope Gregory I. This crown is made of a -broad band of gold set with jewels, and the iron from which it is -named is a narrow circlet inside, said to have been made from one -of the nails used in the crucifixion of Christ, and brought from -Jerusalem by the Empress Helena. This crown is kept in a casket which -forms the centre of the cross above the high altar in the cathedral -of Monza; it was carried away in 1859 by the Austrians; at the close -of the Italo-Prussian war, in 1866, the Emperor of Austria gave it to -Victor Emmanuel, then King of Italy. This crown has been used at the -coronation of thirty-four sovereigns; among them were Charlemagne, -Charles V., and Napoleon I. The latter wore it at his second coronation -as King of the Lombards in 1805. He placed it on his head himself, -saying, "God has given it to me, woe to him who touches it!" - -There are few secular buildings of this period remaining in Italy, and -Romanesque architecture endured but a short time, for it was almost -abandoned at the time of the death of Gregory the Great, in 604. During -the next four and a half centuries the old styles were dying out and -the Gothic order was developing, but cannot be said to have reached any -high degree of perfection before the close of the eleventh century. - - -GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. - -It is difficult to speak concisely of Gothic architecture because there -is so much that can be said of its origin, and then it has so extended -itself to all parts of the world as to render it in a sense universal. -Perhaps Fergusson makes it as simple as it can be made when he divides -Europe by a line from Memel on the shores of the Baltic Sea to Spalatro -on the Adriatic, and then carries the line westward to Fermo and -divides Italy almost as the forty-third parallel of latitude divides -it. He then says that during the Middle Ages, or from about the seventh -to the fifteenth centuries, the architecture north and west of these -lines was Gothic; south and east it was Byzantine, with the exception -of Rome, which always remained individual, and a rule unto herself. - -There was a very general belief in all Christian lands that the world -would end in the year 1000 A.D., and when this dreaded period had -passed without that event happening, men seem everywhere to have been -seized with a passion for erecting stone buildings. An old chronicler -named Rodulphe Glaber, who died in 1045 A.D., relates that as early -as the year 1003 A.D. so many churches and monasteries of marble were -being erected, especially in France and Italy, "that the world appeared -to be putting off its old dingy attire and putting on a new white robe. -Then nearly all the bishops' seats, the churches, the monasteries, and -even the oratories of the villages were changed for better ones." - -Such a movement could not fail to have a great influence upon -architecture, and it was at this time that the Gothic style began to -be rapidly developed; and, indeed, so far as any particular time may -be fixed for the beginning of the Gothic order, it would fall in the -tenth and eleventh centuries. The classic forms, with their horizontal -cornices and severe regularity, were then laid aside, and a greater -freedom and variety than had ever obtained before began to make itself -felt in all architectural designs. - -We must first try to understand what are the distinguishing features -of Gothic architecture. Perhaps the principal one may be called -constructiveness; which is to say, that in Gothic architecture there -is far greater variety of form, and the power to make larger and more -complicated buildings than had been possible with the orders which -preceded it. During the Middle Ages the aim was to produce large -edifices, and to build and ornament them in a way that would make them -appear to be even larger than they were. The early Gothic buildings are -so massive as to have a clumsy effect, because the architects had not -yet learned how to make these enormous masses strong and enduring, and -yet so arranged as to be light and graceful in their appearance. - -A second striking difference between the ancient orders and the Gothic, -is that in the former enormous blocks of stone or marble were used and -great importance was attached to this. Many ancient works are called -Cyclopean for this reason. It does not make a building more beautiful -to have it massive, but it does make it grand. Even in a less colossal -mode of building a column is more effective when it is a monolith, -and an architrave more beautiful when its beams are not joined too -frequently. But in the Gothic order the use of massive blocks is -largely given up, and the endeavor is to so arrange smaller materials -as to display remarkable constructive skill. - -[Illustration: FIG. 71.--CHURCH OF ST. NICHOLAS. _Caen._] - -A third and a very important feature of the Gothic order is the use of -the arch. The much-increased constructive power of which we have spoken -depended very largely upon this. The ancients knew the use of the arch, -but did not like it because they thought that it took away from the -repose of a building. Even now the Hindoos will not use it; they say, -"An arch never sleeps," and though the Mohammedan builders have used it -in their country, the Hindoos cannot overcome their dislike of it. In -the Gothic order, however, the use of arches, both round and pointed, -is unending. The results are very much varied, and range all the way -from a grand and impressive effect to a sort of toy-like lightness -which seems more suited to the block-houses made by children than to -the works of architects. The earlier Gothic arches were round, although -pointed arches are occasionally found in very ancient buildings. The -picture (Fig. 71), however, gives a just idea of the form of arch most -used until the introduction of the pointed arch, which occurred in -France during the twelfth century. Of this form the doorways of the -next cut present a fine example (Fig. 72). - -[Illustration: FIG. 72.--FAÇADE OF CATHEDRAL OF NOTRE DAME. _Paris._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 73.--CLUSTERED PILLAR.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 74.--BUTTRESS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 75.--HINGE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 77.--IRON-WORK.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 78.--GARGOYLE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 76.--NAIL-HEAD.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 79.--SCROLL.] - -An important characteristic of Gothic architecture was the fact that -every part of the building was so made as to show its use. Instead of -hiding the supports they were made prominent. If a pier or buttress -was to stand a perpendicular strain, even the lines of decoration were -generally made to run in that direction; if extra supports were needed, -they were not concealed, but built in so as to show, and even to be -prominent. In the details the same feeling was often shown in a very -marked degree; the hinges and nails and locks of Gothic buildings were -made to be seen, and whatever was needed for use was treated as if it -were of value as an ornament. The spouts by which the water was carried -over the eaves were made bold and comparatively large, and carved into -those curious shapes of animals and monsters called gargoyles, which -are seen on so many mediæval edifices. Many of these details of Gothic -buildings are very elegant, and serve to-day as models for modern -workmen. (See Figs. 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79.) - -Among the inventions of Gothic architects the division of the interior -into three aisles, with the centre one much the highest, was very -important. By this arrangement the space was made to appear longer and -higher than it really was, and what was lost in the effect of width was -more than made up in a certain elegance of form which is very pleasing. -The three central aisles of the next cut illustrate this arrangement -(Fig. 80). - -[Illustration: FIG. 80.--SECTION OF CHURCH. _Carcassone._ WITH OUTER -AISLES ADDED IN FOURTEENTH CENTURY.] - -The Gothic builders gave loftiness to their edifices by the use of -spires and towers. They became very skilful in constructing them with -buttresses below and pinnacles above, so that the spires should not -detract from the apparent size of the buildings to which they were -attached (Fig. 81). - -[Illustration: FIG. 81.--SPIRES OF LAON CATHEDRAL.] - -In the matter of design in ornament the Gothic order had no fixed -method, except so far as its forms were symbolic. Every form of -vegetable design was employed; vines and leaves were abundant. As -a rule the use of human forms or animals as supports to columns or -other weights was avoided. If they were introduced the animals were -not reproductions of such as exist, but the imaginary griffin or -other monster, and at times dwarfs or grotesque human beings, were -represented as if for caricatures. - -Sculptured figures were usually placed upon a pedestal either with or -without niches for them, and were not made to appear to be a part of -the building itself. The deep recesses of Gothic portals, the pinnacles -and niches gave opportunities to display exterior sculpture to great -advantage (Fig. 82). The interiors were also appropriate for any amount -of artistic ornament in bas-reliefs or figures that could be lavished -upon them. - -[Illustration: FIG. 82.--PORTAL OF THE MINORITES' CHURCH. _Vienna._] - -The most original and effective feature of ornament, however, which was -introduced by Gothic architects is that of painted glass. To this they -devoted their best talent. It is not necessary to say how beautiful and -decorative it is; we all know this, and our only wonder is that it was -left for the Gothic architects to apply it to architectural uses. We do -not know precisely when stained or painted glass was invented, but we -know that it existed as early as 800, and came into very general use in -the eleventh and twelfth centuries. - -[Illustration: FIG. 83--EXTERNAL ELEVATION, CATHEDRAL OF PARIS.] - -Before painted glass was used windows were made very small, and it was -some time before the large, rich style was adopted. The following cut -from Notre Dame, at Paris, gives the three stages of the change, and it -is interesting to see them thus in one church (Fig. 83). - -On the left are the undivided windows without mullions or dividing -supports; next, at the right, the upper window shows the form with one -perpendicular mullion and a circular or rose window above the centre; -lastly, on the right of the lower story we see a full traceried window. - -The window became one of the most important and characteristic features -of Gothic buildings. These large open spaces gave opportunity for -elegant shapes and splendid colors, both the form of the opening and -the dividing ribs, or tracery, as it was called, being made with the -utmost beauty and grace. The round windows, called rose windows and -wheel windows, were often exquisitely designed, as the following -example shows (Fig. 84). - -[Illustration: FIG. 84.--WHEEL WINDOW, FROM CATHEDRAL. _Toscanella._] - -The window is illustrative of the influence which climate may have on -the development of architectural style. In warm countries where spaces -were left open, window forms and painted glass were, of course, never -employed; but in more northern lands they became one of the most marked -features in important edifices. - -A whole book might be written about these windows and be very -interesting also, but we can give no more space to them here. - -Gothic architecture gradually extended from the centre of Italy to -the most northern bounds of civilization, and though practised by so -many nations, was as much the architectural expression of a religion -as the architecture of a single ancient nation had been the outgrowth -of its peculiar religious belief. During the Middle Ages the priests -and monks preserved learning in the midst of general darkness and -ignorance, and were the chief patrons of all art which survived the -decline of the time. They built up the Christian faith by every means -in their power. The monks were missionaries. They went to various -countries, and selecting favorable spots they founded abbeys; around -these abbeys a poor population settled; gradually churches were built, -and it frequently happened that the monks not only planned the work to -be done, but also executed it with their own hands. Many of them were -masons and builders, and several bishops were architects. St. Germain, -Bishop of Paris, designed the church in that city now called by his -name, and was also sent to Angers to build another church, and to Mans -to erect a monastery. - -The finest buildings being thus made for religious purposes and under -the direction of the clergy, they must have been as full an expression -of Christianity as were the temple-palaces of Egypt an expression of -the religion of Osiris and Isis, when the kings were both priests and -sovereigns, and dwelt in these palaces. And this was true as long as -Gothic art was in the hands of the clergy and used almost entirely for -religious purposes. - -Later on, when it was employed for civic edifices erected under the -direction of laymen, it became an expression of political independence -also. The freedom of thought which came with the decline of the feudal -system inspired new aspirations and imaginations in the hearts and -minds of men, and these found expression in all the arts, and very -especially in architecture. If we cannot always admire the manner in -which Gothic art was made to express these lofty desires, we can fully -sympathize with the sentiment which was behind it. - -The Gothic order held undisputed sway west and north of the -geographical line of which we have spoken until the fifteenth century. -Then a revival of classical literature took place, and with this there -arose also a revival of classic art and architecture; this revival is -known as the Renaissance, or the new birth, and the period of time -is spoken of as that of the Renaissance. The effect of this classic -reaction was very great upon all the educated classes of Europe, and -its influence may be said to have endured through about three centuries. - -Again, during the eighteenth century, Gothic art was revived. A -reverence has grown up for the good that wrestled with the darkness of -the Middle Ages and survived all their evils. The rough, strong manhood -of that time is now justly appreciated. Perhaps the feeling in this -direction is too much exaggerated. While our regard for a rude and -weather-stained monument of the spirit and architecture of the past may -be natural and proper, the imitation of it which is made in our day may -easily become absurd, and is very rarely suited to our purposes. - -Spain is one of the countries which are on the Gothic side of the -geographical line we have drawn, and among the many splendid edifices -in that country some of the finest are of the Gothic order. There is no -national architecture there, for though the Spaniards love art and its -expression passionately, they have themselves invented almost nothing -which is artistic. - -[Illustration: FIG. 85.--COLLEGIATE CHURCH, TORO. _From Villa Amil._] - -But while it is true that the Spaniards invented no styles, they -did modify those which they adopted, and there are peculiarities -in the Spanish use and arrangement of the Gothic order which give -it new elements in the eyes of those who understand architecture -scientifically. To the uneducated also it appears to have a personality -of its own, something that is suited to Spain and the Spaniards; so -that, while we know that Spanish Gothic architecture was borrowed -from France and Germany, we yet feel that if the cathedrals of Paris -and Cologne were to be put down in Valencia or Madrid they would look -like strangers, and not at all well-contented ones at that; and if -the churches of Toledo or Burgos were copied precisely in any other -country, they would have an air of being quite out of keeping with -everything around them (Fig. 85). - -We call the architecture of Spain before 1066 the "Early Spanish," and -from that time the Gothic order prevailed during nearly three centuries. - -[Illustration: FIG. 86.--ST. PAUL. _Saragossa._] - -Meantime in the south of Spain the Moresco or Moorish order had sprung -up, of which Fig. 86 gives an example. It was gradually adopted to a -limited extent, until finally some specimens of it existed in almost -every province of the country. The Gothic order was affected by it, -inasmuch as the richness of ornament of the Moorish order so pleased -the taste of the Spaniards that their architects allowed themselves to -indulge in a certain Moorish manner of treating the Gothic style. We -cannot describe these differences in words, but Figs. 86 and 87 will -make it plain. - -[Illustration: FIG. 87.--CLOISTER. _Tarazona._] - -As has been said, the interior decoration of all Gothic churches was -very rich and abundant. It is also true that all church furniture was -made with great care; the matter of symbolism was carefully considered, -and each design made to indicate the use of the article for which it -was intended. No altar, preaching-desk, stall, chair, or screen was -made without due attention to every detail, and the endeavor to have it -in harmony with its use and its position in the church. The following -cut shows a rood-screen, which was the kind of screen that was placed -before the crucifixion over the high altar (Fig. 88). - -[Illustration: FIG. 88.--ROOD-SCREEN, FROM THE MADELEINE. _Troyes._] - -The fantastic sculptures and wealth of ornament in Gothic decorations -produce a confusing effect on the brain and the eye if we look at -the whole carelessly; but when we remember that each separate design -has its especial meaning we are interested to examine them, and we -find that the variety of forms is almost innumerable. Where there are -trailing vines and lions, faith is indicated; roses and pelicans are -the symbols of mercy and divine love; dogs and ivy, of truth; lambs, of -gentleness, innocence, and submission; fishes are an emblem of water -and the rite of baptism; the dragon, of sin and paganism; a serpent, -too, typifies sin, and when wound around a globe it indicates the power -of evil over the whole world; a hind or hart signifies solitude; the -dove, purity; the olive, peace; the palm, martyrdom; the lily, purity -and chastity; the lamp, lantern, or taper, piety; fire and flames, zeal -and the sufferings of martyrdom; a flaming heart, fervent piety and -spiritual love; a shell, pilgrimage; a standard or banner, victory; -and so on, and on, we find that meaning and thought were worked out in -every bit of Gothic ornament, and that what at first appears so wild -and hap-hazard is full of a method which well repays one for the study -of it. - -The Gothic order was also used in building municipal edifices, -palaces, and even for the purposes of domestic architecture. The finest -remains of this kind are in Germany, the most interesting of them all -being the castle on the Wartburg. This castle is large, grand, and -imposing. It is also well preserved. A few years ago it was discovered -that many windows and arched galleries, of very beautiful style, had -been filled up, and that frescoes and other decorations had been -covered. The Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar caused its restoration, and the -ancient halls are now quite in their original state. (See Fig. 89.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 89.--PALACE OF WARTBURG.] - -There are very interesting legends and historical facts connected with -this castle of Wartburg. As early as 1204 to 1208, when Hermann, Count -of Thuringia, dwelt there with his wife, the Countess Sophia, it is -related that the "War of the Minstrels" occurred. This was a contest -between several of the wandering minstrels or Minnesingers of that -time as to who should excel, and he who failed was to suffer death. -The penalty fell on Henry of Ofterdingen; in his despair he begged the -Countess to gain him a respite so that he could go for his master, -Klingsor. Her prayer was granted, and in the end Henry of Ofterdingen -saved his head, though the legend says that Satan aided him. This story -is without doubt founded on truth, but has much of fancy mingled with -it. - -The next remarkable story connected with Wartburg is the residence here -of St. Elizabeth of Hungary, as she is called. This wonderful woman -was the daughter of the King of Hungary, and when four years old she -was betrothed to Prince Louis, son of Count Hermann, mentioned above. -At this tender age she was given to his family. Her life at Wartburg -was very remarkable, and I advise you to read about it, for it is too -long to be given here. At last, her husband having died in Jerusalem, -where he had gone with the Crusaders, his brother Henry drove her out -with her children to seek a home where she could. She suffered much, -and supported herself by spinning wool. But when the knights who had -gone with her husband returned, they obliged Henry to give the son of -Elizabeth his rights. She received the city of Marburg as her dower, -but she did not live long. Miraculous things are told of her, and she -is often represented by painters and sculptors. - -Again, Wartburg was the residence of a remarkable person; for Luther -dwelt there after escaping from the Diet at Worms. He was called Ritter -George, and the room where he wrote and spent much of his time is shown -to travellers who visit the castle. - -We come back now to Italy, the country we left when we passed from the -Romanesque to Gothic architecture. In the north of Italy where the -Gothic order had prevailed after the eleventh century, it had been -modified by the Romanesque influences and Roman traditions, in some -such degree as the Moors had influenced the Gothic order in Spain. But, -on the whole, the mediæval buildings of Northern Italy were Gothic in -style. - -Rome, as we said, was individual, and her art remained Roman or -Romanesque up to the date of the Renaissance. In Southern Italy, as we -shall see, the architecture was of the Byzantine order. - -Among the most interesting edifices of the Middle Ages are the Italian -towers. They were frequently quite separate from the churches and were -built for various purposes. Some of them were bell towers, and such a -tower was called a _campanile_. Others were in some way associated with -the civic power of the cities which built them; but the largest number -were for religious uses. - -The _campanile_ is always square at the bottom and for some distance -up, and then is frequently changed to an octagonal or circular form and -finished with a slender spire or ornamental design. - -[Illustration: FIG. 90.--TOWER OF CREMONA.] - -Fig. 90 shows one of the finest square towers in all Italy. It was -built in 1296 to commemorate a peace after a long war. It is three -hundred and ninety-six feet high. It has little beauty in the lower two -thirds; above that it is more pleasing, but the two parts do not look -as if they belonged together. The tower of Italy, however, which is -most beloved and most famous is that of Giotto, beside the cathedral of -Florence. (See Fig. 102.) - -Another striking feature of Gothic art in Northern Italy is seen in the -porches attached to the churches. They are commonly on the side, and -as they were usually added after the rest of the church was finished, -and frequently do not correspond to the rest in style, they look as if -they were parts of some other churches and had come on a visit to those -beside which they stand. In Italy the main portion of these porches -always rested on lions. - -A porch at Bergamo is one of the finest, and certainly its details are -exquisite, and the whole structure is beautiful when it is considered -separately; but as a part of the church it loses its effect, and seems -to be pushed against it as a chair is placed beside the wall of a room. - -Some of the mediæval town-halls are still well preserved, and a few of -them are truly beautiful. Perhaps the Broletto at Como is as fine a -remnant of civic architecture as exists in Northern Italy. It is not -very large and is faced with party-colored marbles. - -The architecture of Venice and the Venetian Province must be treated -almost as if it were outside of Italy, because it differs so much from -that of other portions of that country. During the Middle Ages it was -the most prosperous portion of Italy. Its architecture was influenced -by the Byzantine and Saracenic orders, but is not like them; neither -is it like that of Northern Italy; in fact, it is Venetian, being -Gothic in principle, but treated with Eastern feeling and decorated -in Oriental taste; and this was quite natural since the Venetians had -extensive traffic and intercourse with the nations of the East. - -[Illustration: FIG. 91.--ST. MARK'S CATHEDRAL. _Venice._] - -There are few places in the world, of no greater extent, about which so -many interesting associations cluster as about the Piazza of St. Mark's -in Venice. On one side stands the great basilica, and not far away are -the _campanile_ and the clock-tower; the ancient Doge's Palace, and the -beautiful Library of St. Mark, of later date, are near by, with their -treasures of art and literature to increase the value of the whole. It -is a spot dear to all, and especially so to English-speaking people, -since the poetry of Shakespeare has given them a reason for personal -interest in it under all its varying aspects. At some hours of the day -St. Mark's seems as if it were the very centre of the earth, to which -men of all nations are hastening; again this bustle dies away, and one -could fancy it to be forgotten and deserted of all mankind, though its -silence is eloquent in its power to recall the great events of the -Venice of the past. (See Figs. 91, 105, and 106.) - -St. Mark's Basilica is called Byzantine in its order, and in a general -way the term is applicable to it; but on careful examination there -are so many differences between it and a purely Byzantine church that -it would be more properly described by the name Italian or Venetian -Byzantine. Its five domes were added to its original form late in the -Middle Ages, and though there are many Eastern mosques with this -number, they are not arranged like those of St. Mark's, and so have -quite a different appearance. The portico with its five entrances is -not European in form, but the details of these deep recesses are more -like the Norman architecture than like anything Byzantine. - -It is scarcely profitable to carry this examination farther, for, in -a word, the whole effect of St. Mark's is very impressive from the -exterior, and the interior is so beautiful in its subdued light and -shadow that one is satisfied to enjoy it without criticising it, and -many critics consider it one of the finest interiors of Western Europe. - -The same difficulty which one finds in defining or classing the -architecture of Venice is met in that of Southern Italy, which is -Byzantine and not Byzantine, but, in fact, is that order so changed -that the name of Byzantine-Romanesque seems better suited to it than -any other term could be. We shall mention but a single example of this -order, and pass to the true Byzantine style. - -[Illustration: FIG. 92.--SECTION OF SAN MINIATO. _Near Florence._] - -The church of San Miniato, which overlooks the city of Florence, was -built in 1013, and is one of the most perfect as well as one of the -earliest of the churches of the Byzantine-Romanesque order in Italy. -It is not large, but the proportions are so good as to make it very -pleasing; the pillars are so nearly classic in design that they were -probably taken from some earlier building, and the effect of colored -panelling both within and without is very satisfactory to the eye. (See -Fig. 92.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 93.--SAN GIOVANNI DEGLI EREMITI. _Palermo._] - -There arose in Sicily in the eleventh century, and after the Norman -Conquest, a remarkable style of architecture. It belongs to Christian -art because it was used by Christians to construct places of Christian -worship; but, in truth, it was a combination of Greek spirit with Roman -form and Saracenic ornament. It makes an interesting episode in the -study of architecture. I shall give one picture of a church built by -King Roger for Christian use as late as 1132, which, except for the -tower, might well be mistaken for a purely Oriental edifice (Fig. 93). - - -BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. - -This term strictly belongs to the order which arose in the East after -Constantinople was made the Roman capital. It is especially the order -of the Greek Church as contrasted with the Latin or Roman Church. It -would make all architectural writing and talking much clearer if this -fact were kept in mind; but, unfortunately, wherever some special -bit of carving in an Oriental design or a little colored decoration -is used--as is frequently done in the modern composite styles of -building--the term Byzantine is carelessly applied, until it is -difficult for one not learned in architecture to discover what the -Byzantine order is, or where it belongs. - -We have spoken of its influence and partial use in Italy. Now we -will consider it in its home and its purity. Before the time of -Constantine the architecture used at Rome was employed at Jerusalem, -Constantinople, and other Eastern cities which were under Roman rule -and influence. Between the time of Constantine and the death of -Justinian, in A.D. 565, the true ancient Byzantine order was developed. -The church of St. Sophia, at Constantinople, was the greatest and the -last product of the pure old Byzantine style. - -From that time the order employed may be called the Neo-Byzantine. This -was a decline of art as much as the history of Greece and the Eastern -Empire during the same period (about 600 to 1453) was the history of -the decline and extinction of a power that had once been as great among -governments as St. Sophia (Fig. 94) was among churches. - -[Illustration: FIG. 94.--CHURCH OF ST. SOPHIA. _Constantinople. -Exterior View._] - -The chief characteristic of Byzantine architecture is the use of the -dome, which is the most important part of its design. A grand central -dome rises over the principal portion of the edifice, and just as in -other orders courts and colonnades were added to the simpler basilica -form in the ground plan of the churches, so in the Byzantine order -lesser domes and cupolas were added above until almost any number of -them was admissible, and they were placed with little attention to -regularity or symmetry of arrangement. - -[Illustration: FIG. 95.--LOWER ORDER OF ST. SOPHIA.] - -As domes were the chief exterior feature, so the profuse ornamentation -was most noticeable in the interior. The walls were richly decorated -with variegated marbles; the vaulted ceilings of the domes and niches -were lined with brilliant mosaics; the columns, friezes, cornices, door -and window-frames, and the railings to galleries were of marbles, and -entirely covered with ornamental designs (Figs. 95 and 96). - -[Illustration: FIG. 96.--UPPER ORDER OF ST. SOPHIA.] - -The historian Gibbon describes the building of St. Sophia and its -decorations. He tells us that the emperor went daily, clad in a linen -tunic, to oversee the work. The architect was named Anthemius; he -employed ten thousand workmen, and they were all paid each evening. -When it was completed and Justinian was present at its consecration, he -exclaimed, "Glory be to God, who hath thought me worthy to accomplish -so great a work; I have vanquished thee, O Solomon!" - -Paul Silentiarius was a poet; he saw St. Sophia in all its glory and -describes it with enthusiasm. It was very rich in variegated marbles. -He mentions the following: 1. _The Carystian_, pale with iron veins. -2. _The Phrygian_, two sorts, both of a rosy hue; one with a white -shade, the other purple with silver flowers. 3. _The Porphyry of -Egypt_, with small stars. 4. _The green marble of Laconia._ 5. _The -Carian_, from Mount Iassis, with oblique veins, white and red. 6. _The -Lydian_, pale, with a red flower. 7. _The African or Mauritanian_, -of a gold or saffron hue. 8. _The Celtic_, black, with white veins. -9. _The Bosphoric_, white, with black edges. There were also the -_Proconnesian_, which made the pavement; and the _Thessalian_ and -_Molossian_ in different parts. - -This array of marbles was made even more effective by the beautiful -columns brought from older temples. The mosaics were rich in color, and -numerous, and many parts of the church were covered with gold, so that -the effect was dazzling. - -Those objects that were most sacred were of solid gold and silver, -while such as were less important were only covered with gold-leaf. In -the sanctuary there was altogether forty thousand pounds of silver; the -vases and vessels used about the altar were of pure gold and studded -with gems. Its whole cost was almost beyond belief. At the close of -his description Gibbon says: "A magnificent temple is a laudable -monument of taste and religion, and the enthusiast who entered the dome -of St. Sophia might be tempted to suppose that it was the residence or -even the workmanship of the Deity. Yet how dull is the artifice, how -insignificant is the labor, if it be compared with the formation of the -vilest insect that crawls upon the surface of the temple!" - -Of course, individual taste must largely influence the opinion -regarding the beauty of any work of art, but to me St. Sophia, which -is the chief example of Byzantine architecture, is far less beautiful -and less grand than the finest Gothic cathedrals. Comparatively little -attention was paid to the elegance and decoration of the exterior -in the Eastern edifices, while the interiors, in spite of all their -riches, have a flat and unrelieved effect. Probably the chief reason -for this is that color is substituted for relief--that is to say, in -Gothic architecture heavy mouldings and panellings, though of the same -color as the walls themselves, yet produce a marvellous effect of light -and shadow, and even lend an element of perspective to various parts -of the building. In the place of these mouldings flat bands of color -are often used in the Byzantine order, and the whole result is much -weakened, though a certain gorgeousness comes from the color. Another -cause of disappointment in St. Sophia is the absence of painted glass. -At the same time, and in spite of these defects, St. Sophia is grand -and beautiful--but not solemn and impressive in comparison with the dim -cathedral aisles of many Gothic churches in other parts of the world. -(See Fig. 97.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 97.--INTERIOR VIEW OF CHURCH OF ST. SOPHIA.] - -The Romanesque and Byzantine styles came at last to be so mingled that -it would be folly to attempt to separate their influence, but the -Byzantine had much more originality, and left a far wider mark. - -Among the most noted examples of the latter style, beside St. Sophia -and St. Mark's, are the church of St. Vitale at Ravenna, the cathedral -at Aix-la-Chapelle, supposed to have been built by Charlemagne about -800 A.D., and the church of the Mother of God at Constantinople. - - -SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. - -In speaking of Saracenic architecture I will first explain that it is -one with the Moresco or Moorish order of which I spoke in connection -with Spain. The only difference is that the earliest Mohammedan -conquerors of Spain are said to have come from ancient Mauri or -Mauritania and were called Moors, while the name of _Saraceni_, which -means "the Easterns," was also given to them. Thus the Mohammedan -architecture in Spain is called both Moresco, or Moorish, and -Saracenic. Again, it is also called Arabian, but I think this is -the least correct, since the Easterns who went to Spain were not so -universally Arabian as to warrant this name. When we speak of Moresco -or Moorish architecture we speak of Spain; but the term Saracenic is -used for Mohammedan architecture in all countries where it is found, -and is a just term, for they are Eastern or Oriental lands. - -In absolute fact, Saracenic architecture is that of the followers of -"the Prophet," as Mohammed is called, and would be more suitably named -if it were called Mohammedan architecture, or the architecture of Islam. - -Mohammed was born at Mecca A.D. 570, but it was not until 611 that he -was commissioned, as he believed, to build up a new faith and a new -church. At first his followers were so few and so mingled with other -sects and tribes in their outward life that they had no distinctive -art. It was not until A.D. 876, when the ruler Ibn-Touloun commenced -his splendid mosque at Cairo, that the Mohammedans could claim any -architecture as their own. It is very interesting to know that there -were pointed arches in this mosque, probably two centuries, at least, -earlier than they were used in England, for it is generally believed -that they were first used there in the rebuilding of Canterbury -Cathedral after it was burned in 1174. When, however, the Saracenic -order was fully established it was so individual and so different from -all other architecture that there is no mistaking it for that of any -other religion or nation than that of Mohammed and his followers. - -The picture of the mosque of Kaitbey shows one of the finest and most -elegant mosques of the East. It is just outside the walls of Cairo, and -is quite modern, having been built in 1463. This view of it gives an -excellent idea of the appearance of a fine mosque and shows the minaret -or tower, which is so important in a mosque, to good advantage (Fig. -98). - -[Illustration: FIG. 98.--MOSQUE OF KAITBEY.] - -These minarets are constantly used for the many calls to prayer which -are made throughout the day and night. The person who makes these calls -is styled "the Muezzin," and is usually blind. Several times during -the day he ascends the minaret and calls out in a loud and melodious -tone, "God is most great; there is no God but Allah, and I testify that -Mohammed is Allah's prophet! Come to prayer! Come to security! Prayer -is better than sleep!" This is several times repeated and is called the -_Adan_. - -The form of words used for the night varies a little, ending, "There -is no God but Allah. He has no companion! To Him belongs dominion, -etc.;" this is called the _Ula_. The call made an hour before day is -the _Ebed_, and praises the perfection of God. When one is sleeping -near enough to a minaret to hear the muezzin's voice it is a pleasant -sound and helps one to realize that the care of God is ever about him; -the clear, Christian bell can be heard by more people, and this was -originally intended as a call to prayer. (See Fig. 99.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 99.--THE CALL TO PRAYER.] - -The principal homes of Saracenic architecture are Syria, Egypt, Mecca, -Barbary, Spain, Sicily, Turkey, Persia, and India. There are many very -interesting mosques and minarets that might be mentioned had we space, -but I can speak only of the mosque of Cordova, which is universally -admitted to be the finest Saracenic edifice in the world (Fig. 100), -and shall quote a part of the interesting description of it given by De -Amicis in his delightful book called "Spain and the Spaniards." - -[Illustration: FIG. 100.--EXTERIOR OF THE SANCTUARY IN THE MOSQUE OF -CORDOVA.] - -This mosque was commenced by the Caliph Abd-er-Rahman in 786, and was -completed by his son Heshâm, who died 796. The great Caliph declared -that he would build a mosque which should exceed all others in the -world and be the Mecca of the West. De Amicis, after describing the -garden which surrounds the mosque, enters, and then goes on as follows: -"Imagine a forest, fancy yourself in the thickest portion of it, and -that you can see nothing but the trunks of trees. So, in this mosque, -on whatever side you look, the eye loses itself among the columns. -It is a forest of marble whose confines one cannot discover. You -follow with your eye, one by one, the very long rows of columns that -interlace at every step with numberless other rows, and you reach -a semi-obscure background, in which other columns still seem to be -gleaming. There are nineteen naves, which extend in every direction, -traversed by thirty-three others, supported (among them all) by more -than nine hundred columns of porphyry, jasper, breccia, and marbles of -every color. Each column upholds a small pilaster, and between them -runs an arch (see plate above), and a second one extends from pilaster -to pilaster, the latter placed above the former, and both of them in -the shape of a horseshoe; so that, in imagining the columns to be the -trunks of so many trees, the arches represent the branches, and the -similitude of the mosque to a forest is complete.... How much variety -there is in that edifice which at first sight seems so uniform! The -proportions of the columns, the designs of the capitals, the forms -of the arches change, one might say, at every step. The majority of -the columns are old, and were taken from the Arabs of Northern Spain, -Gaul, and Roman Africa, and some are said to have belonged to a temple -of Janus, on the ruins of which was built the church that the Arabs -destroyed in order to erect the mosque. Above several of the capitals -one can still see traces of the crosses that were cut on them, which -the Arabs broke with their chisels.... I stopped for a long time to -look at the ceiling and walls of the principal chapel, the only part of -the mosque that is quite intact. It is a dazzling gleam of crystals of -a thousand colors, a network of arabesques, which puzzles the mind, and -a complication of bas-reliefs, gildings, ornaments, minutiæ of design -and coloring, of a delicacy, grace, and perfection sufficient to drive -the most patient painter distracted.... You might turn a hundred times -to look at it, and it would only seem to you, in thinking it over, a -mingling of blue, red, green, gilded and luminous points, or a very -intricate embroidery changing continually, with the greatest rapidity, -both design and coloring. Only from the fiery and indefatigable -imagination of the Arabs could such a perfect miracle of art -emanate.... Such is the mosque of to-day. But what must it have been in -the time of the Arabs? It was not surrounded by a wall, but open, so -that one could catch a glimpse of the garden from every part of it; and -from the garden one could see to the end of the long naves, and the air -was full of the fragrance of oranges and flowers. The columns which now -number less than a thousand were then fourteen hundred; the ceiling was -of cedar-wood and larch, sculptured and enamelled in the finest manner; -the walls were trimmed with marble; the light of eight hundred lamps, -filled with perfumed oil, made all the crystals in the mosaics gleam, -and produced on the pavements, arches, and walls a marvellous play -of color and reflection. 'A sea of splendors,' sang a poet, 'filled -this mysterious recess; the ambient air was impregnated with aromas -and harmonies, and the thoughts of the faithful wandered and lost -themselves in the labyrinth of columns which gleamed like lances in the -sun.'" - -The famous palace of the Alhambra is so well known that I cannot leave -this part of our subject without one picture and one bit of description -of it from the same author, De Amicis. - -The Alhambra was built about four centuries ago, and the wall which -inclosed it was four thousand feet long by twenty-two hundred feet -wide. Within this there were gardens, fountains, kiosks, and many -beautiful, fanciful structures, all of which doubtless cost as -much as the more necessary parts of the edifice. The roofs of the -different parts of the palace were supported by forty-three hundred -columns of precious marbles; eleven hundred and seventy-two of these -were presented to Abd-er-Rahman (for he was also the founder of the -Alhambra) by sovereigns of other countries, or else brought by him -from distant shores for the decoration of this splendid, fairy-like -place. All the pavements were of beautiful marbles; the walls, too, -were of the same material, with friezes arranged in splendid colors; -the ceilings were of deep blue color, with figures in gilding and -interlacing designs running over all. In truth, nothing that could be -imagined or wealth buy to make this palace beautiful was left out; and -yet we are told that the palace of Zahra which was destroyed was still -finer. All this leads one to almost believe that the "Arabian Nights" -are no fanciful tales, but quite as true as many more serious sounding -stories. - -The Court of the Lions is called "the gem of Arabian art in Spain," -and of this our author says: "It is a forest of columns, a mingling of -arches and embroideries, an indefinable elegance, an indescribable -delicacy, a prodigious richness, a something light, transparent, and -undulating like a great pavilion of lace; with almost the appearance of -a building which must dissolve at a breath; a variety of lights, views, -mysterious darkness, a confusion, a capricious disorder of little -things, the majesty of a palace, the gayety of a kiosk, an amorous -grace, an extravagance, a delirium, the fancy of an imaginative child, -the dream of an angel, a madness, a nameless something--such is the -first effect produced by the Court of the Lions!" (Fig. 101.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 101.--COURT OF THE LIONS. ALHAMBRA.] - -This court is not large; the ceiling is high, and a light portico -runs round it upheld by white marble columns in clusters of two, -three, or more, so arranged as to resemble trees coming up from the -ground. Above the columns the designs almost resemble curtains, and -there are little graceful suggestions like ribbons and waving flowers. -"From the middle of the shortest sides advance two groups of columns, -which form two species of square temples of nine arches each (see -cut) surmounted by as many colored cupolas. The walls of these little -temples and the exterior of the portico are a real lace-work of stucco, -embroideries, and hems, cut and pierced from one side to the other, and -as transparent as net-work, changing in design at every step. Sometimes -they end in points, in crimps, in festoons, sometimes in ribbons waving -round the arches, in kinds of stalactites, fringes, trinkets, and bows -which seem to move and mingle with each other at the slightest breath -of air. Large Arabic inscriptions run along the four walls, over the -arches, around the capitals, and on the walls of the little temples. In -the centre of the court rises a great marble basin, upheld by twelve -lions (see cut), and surrounded by a little paved canal.... At every -step one takes in the court that forest of columns seems to move and -change place, to form again in another way; behind one column, which -seems alone, two, three, or a row will spring out; others separate, -unite, and separate again.... We remained for more than an hour in the -court, and it passed like a flash; I, too, did what almost all people -do, be they Spanish or strangers, men or women, poets or not. I ran my -hand along the walls, touched all the little columns, and passed my two -hands around them, one by one, as around the waist of a child; I hid -among them, counted them, looked at them on a hundred sides, crossed -the court in a hundred ways, tried if it were true that in saying a -word, _sotto voce_, into the mouth of one lion, one could hear it -distinctly from the mouths of all the others; I looked on the marbles -for the spots of blood of poetic legends, and wearied both brain and -eye over the arabesques.... In all my life I have never thought, nor -said, nor shall I say, so many foolish, stupid, pretty, senseless -things as I said and thought in that hour." - -The study of Saracenic architecture in Turkey, Persia, and India is -very interesting, but our space warns us that we must hasten to leave -this dreamy, fairy-like part of our subject and come down to later -times and more realistic matters. - - - - -[Illustration] - -CHAPTER III. - -MODERN ARCHITECTURE. - -1400 A.D. TO THE PRESENT TIME. - - -All Architecture since the time of the Renaissance is called Modern -Architecture; this term, therefore, embraces all edifices erected -during nearly four centuries. - -When I first spoke of Architecture I said that it was a constructive -art, and not imitative like Painting and Sculpture. In its earlier -history this was true, but the time came when it also became an -imitative art and had no true or original style. The Gothic order was -the last distinct order which arose, and since its decline, at the -beginning of the Renaissance, all architecture has been an imitation -because it is a reproduction of what existed before; at times some one -of the older orders has been in favor and closely imitated, and again, -parts of several orders are combined in one edifice. Since the time of -the Reformation it has been true, almost without exception, that every -building of any importance has been copied from something belonging to -a country and a people foreign to the land in which it was erected. - -When the revival of Classic Literature began, Rome was the first to -feel its influence. It was welcomed there with open arms, just as we -might receive the early history and literature of our country if it had -all been lost and was found again; for this was precisely what it meant -to the Romans, when, after the Dark Ages, the works of Livy, Tacitus, -and Cæsar were in their hands, and they read of the history, art, and -literature of their past. They were enthusiastic, and their feeling -soon spread over all Italy. - -France was the next to adopt the newly-revived ideas, for that country -looked to Rome as the source of true religion, and a model in all -things. Spain was then in an unsettled state, and welcomed the revival -of classic art as heartily as it had already embraced the Church of -Rome. - -In Germany the love of the classics was enthusiastic, but that nation -was more taken up with literature and slower in adopting the revival -of the arts than were the more southern peoples, and the fifteenth -and sixteenth centuries are a barren period in the history of German -architecture. - -In England, too, the Renaissance made slow progress. It was not until -the time of Charles I. that any influence was felt in Great Britain -from the revival of classic taste which was so well established on the -Continent. - -As it is true that no new order of Architecture has arisen since the -time of those of which I have already told you, I shall try to make -you understand something of Modern Architecture by speaking of certain -important edifices in one country and another, with no attempt at any -more detailed explanation of it. - - -ITALY. - -We cannot say that the art of the Renaissance originated in one -city or another, because the movement in the revival of art was so -general throughout Italy; but Florence has a strong claim to our first -consideration from the fact that Filippo Brunelleschi was a Florentine -and did his greatest work in his native city, and on account of it has -been called "the father of the Art of the Renaissance." He was born in -1377, and from his early boyhood was inclined to be an architect. The -cathedral of Florence (Fig. 102), which is also called the church of -Sta. Maria del Fiore, had been built long before, but had never been -finished by a roof or dome. - -[Illustration: FIG. 102.--THE CATHEDRAL OF FLORENCE AND GIOTTO'S -CAMPANILE.] - -Brunelleschi was possessed with but one desire, which was to complete -this cathedral. He went to Rome and diligently studied the remains -of classic art which he found there, and especially the dome of the -Pantheon. Returning to Florence he took measures to bring his plans -before the superintendents of the cathedral works; he was ridiculed and -discouraged on every hand, but he never gave up his hopes nor lessened -his study of the ways and means by which the dome could be built. Thus -many weary years passed by; Brunelleschi made drawings in secret, and -from these he constructed models in order to convince himself of what -he could do. - -At last those who had authority in the matter were ready to act, and a -convention was called, before which the architects of different nations -appeared and were requested to explain their theories of what could be -done to cover the cathedral. Many artists were assembled and various -plans were shown, but after all had been examined the work was given to -Brunelleschi, and he was happy in finding that the years he had devoted -to the study of the dome had not been spent in vain. - -It was on this occasion that Brunelleschi refused to show his models, -and when the other architects blamed him for this he asked that some -eggs should be brought, and proposed that he who could make an egg -stand upright on a smooth piece of marble should be the builder of the -dome. The others tried to do this and failed; at last Brunelleschi -brought his egg down on the marble with a sharp tap and left it -standing erect. Then all exclaimed, "Oh, we could have done that if we -had known that was the way," to which Brunelleschi replied, "So you -could have built a dome if I had shown you my models." - -This story is often told of Columbus, but as Brunelleschi was much -older than Columbus, and the fact is related by Florentine writers -of his time, it is probable that Columbus had heard of it from the -geographer Toscanelli, who was a great admirer of Brunelleschi and a -friend of Columbus also. In building the dome, Brunelleschi encountered -great difficulties, but he lived to be assured of his success, for at -his death, in 1444, it lacked but little of completion, and all the -parts essential to its perfection and durability were finished. - -This is the largest dome in the world, for though the cross on the top -of St. Peter's is farther from the ground than that of Florence, the -dome itself above the church is not as large as the dome of Sta. Maria -del Fiore. - -This work made Brunelleschi's greatest fame, but he was the architect -of many other fine churches and of secular buildings also; among the -last the Pitti Palace, in which is the famous Pitti Gallery, is one of -the most important. When you go to Florence you will see a statue of -Filippo Brunelleschi, which is very interesting, on account of the way -in which it is represented and the position in which it is placed. It -is on one side of the Piazza of the cathedral; he is calmly sitting -there with a plan of the church spread before him on his lap, while he -lifts his head to look at the great dome as it stands out against the -sky, the realization of all his thought and labor during so many years. - -[Illustration: FIG. 103.--VIEW OF ST. PETER'S. _Rome._] - -The church of St. Peter's at Rome, which is the largest and most -magnificent of all Christian temples, was begun about 1450, and was -not brought into its present form until about 1661, or more than two -centuries later (Fig. 103). - -The history of its building is largely a story of contentions and -troubles between popes, architects, and artists of different kinds. -As it now stands it is as much the work of Michael Angelo as of any -one man, but several other architects left their imprint upon it, both -before and after his time; and all who aided in its construction were -eminent men, in their way. Michael Angelo was in his seventy-second -year when he took up the task of completing St. Peter's. Bramante, -Raphael, and Peruzzi had preceded him as architects of the church; -Michael Angelo designed the dome, and when he was ninety it was nearly -finished; the models for its completion which he made were not followed -after his death; his plan would have made the church more harmonious -with the dome, in size, than it now is. Money was sent in large sums, -from all Europe, to carry on this work; the finest materials were -used in building it, and the most gifted artists were employed in its -decoration; it is now the vast home of multitudes of treasures. "I -have hung the Pantheon in the air!" Michael Angelo is said to have -exclaimed, while looking at the splendid dome of St. Peter's; and no -dome in the world has a more imposing effect, although its harmony with -the rest of the building is injured by the change of the plan from that -of a Greek cross which was made after his death.[A] - - [A] The interior diameter of the dome of St. Peter's is one - hundred and thirty-nine feet; that of St. Sophia, one - hundred and fifteen feet, and that of Sta. Maria del Fiore, - at Florence, one hundred and thirty-eight feet, six inches. - -In spite of all this the critics of architecture are never weary of -pointing out the defects of St. Peter's; but to those who cannot apply -to it the test of strictly scientific rules, its interior is sublime in -its effect, and has few rivals--perhaps but one--in the world, and that -is the great Hypostyle Hall at Karnak, of which we spoke when writing -of Egyptian architecture. But even here the difference is almost too -great to admit of comparison; the spirit of the two is so unlike--St. -Peter's is complete and Karnak is a ruin--so, after all, it must be -admitted that the interior of St. Peter's is superior to all other -edifices of which we know (Fig. 104). - -[Illustration: FIG. 104.--SECTION OF ST. PETER'S.] - -From the time of the beginning of the Renaissance, about 1420, to -about 1630, the architecture of Venice was going through a change, and -finally reached such perfection that during the next half century the -most magnificent style of architecture prevailed which has ever been -known there. We mean to say that the whole effect was the grandest, -for, while it is true that the edifices of that time are stately and -striking in their appearance, it is equally true that their form and -ornamentation are not as much in keeping with their use as they had -been in older edifices. - -Sansovino, who lived from 1479 to 1570, was an important architect and -had great influence upon modern Venetian architecture. His masterpiece -was the Library of St. Mark, of which the preceding cut gives one -end (Fig. 105). It is a very beautiful structure, and is made more -interesting from the fact that it stands directly opposite to the -Doge's Palace, and in the midst of all the interest which centres about -the Piazza of St. Mark. - -[Illustration: FIG. 105.--EAST ELEVATION OF LIBRARY OF ST. MARK. -_Venice._] - -The Ducal Palace at Venice is called by John Ruskin, the great English -critic, "the central edifice of the world." It is divided into three -stories, of which the uppermost occupies rather more than half the -height of the building. The two lower stories are arcades of low, -pointed arches, supported on pillars, the one beneath being bolder and -heavier in character than the second. The capitals of the columns are -greatly varied, no two in the upper arcade being exactly alike. Above -the arches of the middle story was a row of open-work spaces, of the -form called quatrefoil; while the third story is faced with alternating -blocks of rose-colored and white marble, and is pierced with a few -large pointed windows. The whole front, or façade, is crowned by an -open parapet made up of blocks of stone carved into lily-like forms -alternating with lance-shaped leaves. The whole effect is one of great -richness and beauty, especially since time has mellowed its color, and -softened without destroying the whiteness of its marbles (Fig. 106). - -[Illustration: FIG. 106.--THE DOGE'S PALACE. _Venice._] - -During the time of the Renaissance there were churches, palaces, -museums, hospitals, and other large buildings erected in all the -important cities of Italy. There are but few of these which have such -special features as entitle them to be selected for description here. -The reason for this has been given already--viz.: there was nothing new -in them; they were all repetitions of what has been described in one -form or another. Perhaps the next cut gives as good an example of -secular architecture in this age as any that could be selected (Fig. -107). - -[Illustration: FIG. 107.--GREAT COURT OF THE HOSPITAL OF MILAN.] - -Indeed, it is one of the most remarkable buildings of its class in any -age. It was commenced by Francesco Sforza and his wife, Bianca, in -1456. They died long before its completion, and one part and another -have been changed from time to time, but its great court, which was -designed by Bramante, still remains, the finest thing of its kind in -all Italy. - -I shall now leave Italy with saying that the early days of the -Renaissance were the best days of Italian Architecture, and, indeed, of -Italian Art. The period made sacred by the genius and works of Michael -Angelo, Bramante, Sangallo, Leonardo da Vinci, and Raphael was a -golden era, and still sheds its lustre over the land of their nativity. -These artists followed the highest ideal of Art, and their errors were -superior to the so-called successes of less gifted men. - -The Italian Art of the fifteenth century was individual and grand; in -the sixteenth century it became formal and elegant; in the seventeenth -century it was bizarre, over-ornamented, and uncertain in its aim and -execution; since then it has been comparatively unimportant, and its -architecture scarcely merits censure, and certainly cannot be praised. - - -SPAIN. - -From the time of the fall of Granada, in 1492 to 1558, Spain was the -leading nation of Europe. The whole country had been united under -Ferdinand and Isabella, and their reign was a glorious period for their -country. The importance of the nation was increased by the discovery -of the New World, and so many great men were in her councils that her -eminence was sure, and almost undisputed. Thus it followed that during -the first half of the sixteenth century the Architecture of Spain gave -expression to the spirit by which the nation was then animated. - -This did not long continue, however, for the iron, practical rule -of Philip II. crushed out enthusiasm and was fatal to artistic -inspiration. This sovereign desired only to extend his kingdom; the -priests, who acquired almost limitless power under his reign, aimed -only to strengthen their authority, while the people were wildly -pursuing riches in the New World which opened up to them a vast and -attractive field. Thus no place or time was left to the cultivation -of Art, and the only noteworthy period of Spanish Architecture since -the beginning of the Renaissance was the sixty years which we have -mentioned. - -The Modern Architecture of Spain has been divided into three eras, each -of which was distinguished by its own style. The first extends from -the beginning of the Renaissance down to that of the abdication of the -great Emperor Charles V. in 1555; the manner of this period is called -Platerisco, or the silversmith's style, on account of the vast amount -of fine, filigree ornament which was used. The second period is from -the above date to about 1650, and its art is called the Græco-Roman -style because it is an attempt to revive the Classic Art of the -ancient Greeks and Romans. The third period comes from 1650 to about a -century later, and the Spaniards call its manner the Churrigueresque, -which difficult name they take from that of Josef de Churriguera, the -architect who invented this style. Since 1750 we may almost say that no -such thing as Spanish Architecture has existed. - -The cathedrals of Granada, Jaen, and Valladolid, and the churches -of Malaga and Segovia, with many other ecclesiastical edifices, are -among the chief monuments of Spanish Renaissance Architecture, but -we shall pass on to a little later period and speak of but one great -achievement, the famous Escurial, which is of much historic interest. - -This combination of basilica, palace, monastery, and college was begun -in 1563 by Philip II., in accordance with a vow which he made to St. -Lawrence at the battle of St. Quentin. This battle was fought in 1557 -under the walls of the French town of St. Quentin, by the French and -the Spaniards, and the latter were completely victorious. - -This cut gives an idea of how grand and impressive this collection -of walls, towers, courts, and edifices must be, all crowned with the -dome of the basilica. It is almost like a city by itself, and all who -visit it agree that it is a gloomy and depressing place in spite of its -grandeur (Fig. 108). - -[Illustration: FIG. 108.--THE ESCURIAL. _Near Madrid._] - -The front has three imposing entrances, with towers at the corner -angles. Within the inclosure are a college, monastery, palace with -state apartments, the church, numerous courts, gardens, and fountains. -The front is injured by the great number of small windows, which divide -it into such numberless sections as to become very tiresome to the -eye, while they take away the noble elegance of larger spaces and the -air of repose which such spaces give. The angle towers are not as rich -in effect as they should be, and the side walls have been compared -to those of a Manchester cotton-mill; thus the exterior, which is -effective from its size and general air, has not the beauty of detail -which satisfies a close observer. - -The effect of the interior, as one goes in by the central entrance, -is all that can be desired. The court leads directly to the square -before the church; as one passes to it he has the college on one side, -the monastery on the other, farther on the palace, with the whole -culminating in the grand state apartments and the basilica. The various -courts are striking in their arrangement, and the church with its dome -and towers gives a supreme glory to the whole. Gardens, fountains, and -many other fine objects add their effect to the richness and beauty -of the whole; but all are insignificant beside the basilica, which -merits a place in the foremost rank of the churches of the Renaissance. -Indeed, the Escurial is a marvellous place, and is often called "the -eighth wonder of the world." The richest marbles, splendid pictures, -and many magnificent objects help to make it one of the grandest works -of modern architecture. - -It is also true that it is one of the gloomiest places visited by -travellers, and I shall quote a few lines from De Amicis to show the -depressing effect which it has upon those who go there. - -"The first feeling is that of sadness; the whole building is of -dirt-colored stone, and striped with white between the stones; the -roofs are covered with strips of lead. It looks like an edifice built -of earth. The walls are very high and bare, and contain a great number -of loopholes. One would call it a prison rather than a convent.... -The locality, the forms, the colors, everything, in fact, seems to -have been chosen by him who founded the edifice with the intention of -offering to the eyes of men a sad and solemn spectacle. Before entering -you have lost all your gayety; you no longer smile, but think. You -stop at the doors of the Escurial with a sort of trepidation, as at -the gates of a deserted city; it seems to you that, if the terrors of -the Inquisition reigned in some corner of the world, they ought to -reign among those walls. You would say that therein one might still -see the last traces of it and hear its last echo.... The royal palace -is superb, and it is better to see it before entering the convent and -church, in order not to confuse the separate impressions produced by -each. This palace occupies the northeast corner of the edifice. Several -rooms are full of pictures, others are covered from floor to ceiling -with tapestries, representing bull-fights, public balls, games, fêtes, -and Spanish costumes, designed by Goya; others are regally furnished -and adorned; the floor, the doors, and the windows are covered with -marvellous inlaid work and stupendous gilding. But among all the rooms -the most noteworthy is that of Philip II.; it is rather a cell than a -room, is bare and squalid, with an alcove which answers to the royal -oratory of the church, so that, from the bed, by keeping the doors -open, one can see the priest who is saying mass. Philip II. slept in -that cell, had his last illness there, and there he died. One still -sees some chairs used by him, two little stools upon which he rested -the leg tormented with gout, and a writing-desk. The walls are white, -the ceiling flat and without any ornament, and the floor of brick.... -In the court-yard of the kings you can form a first idea of the immense -frame-work of the edifice. The court is inclosed by walls; on the side -opposite the doors is the façade of the church. On a spacious flight -of steps there are six enormous Doric columns, each of which upholds -a large pedestal, and every pedestal a statue. There are six colossal -statues, by Battiste Monegro, representing Jehoshaphat, Ezekiel, David, -Solomon, Joshua, and Manasseh. The court-yard is paved, scattered -with bunches of damp turf. The walls look like rocks cut in points; -everything is rigid, massive, and heavy, and presents the fantastic -appearance of a Titanic edifice, hewn out of solid stone, and ready to -defy the shocks of earth and the lightnings of heaven. There one begins -to understand what the Escurial really is. - -"One ascends the steps and enters the church. The interior is sad and -bare.... Beside the high altar, sculptured and gilded in the Spanish -style, in the inter-columns of the two royal oratories, one sees two -groups of bronze statues kneeling, with their hands clasped toward the -altar. On the right Charles V. and the Empress Isabella, and several -princesses; on the left, Philip II. with his wives.... In a corner, -near a secret door, is the chair which Philip II. occupied. He received -through that door letters and important messages, without being seen -by the priests who were chanting in the choir. This church, which, in -comparison with the entire building, seems very small, is nevertheless -one of the largest in Spain, and although it appears so free from -ornamentation, contains immense treasures of marble, gold, relics, -and pictures, which the darkness in part conceals, and from which the -sad appearance of the edifice distracts one's attention.... But every -feeling sinks into that of sadness. The color of the stone, the gloomy -light, and the profound silence which surrounds you, recall your mind -incessantly to the vastitude, unknown recesses, and solitude of the -building, and leave no room for the pleasure of admiration. The aspect -of the church awakens in you an inexplicable feeling of inquietude. You -would divine, were you not otherwise aware of it, that those walls are -surrounded, for a great distance, by nothing but granite, darkness, -and silence; without seeing the enormous edifice, you feel it; you -feel that you are in the midst of an uninhabited city; you would fain -quicken your pace in order to see it rapidly, to free yourself from the -weight of that mystery, and to seek, if they exist anywhere, bright -light, noise, and life.... One goes to the convent, and here human -imagination loses itself; ... you pass through a long subterranean -corridor, so narrow that you can touch the walls with your elbows, -low enough almost to hit the ceiling with your head, and as damp as -a submarine grotto; you reach the end, turn, and you are in another -corridor. You go on, come to doors, look, and other corridors stretch -away before you as far as the eye can reach. At the end of some you see -a ray of light, at the end of others an open door, through which you -catch a glimpse of a suite of rooms.... You look through a door and -start back alarmed; at the end of that long corridor, into which you -have glanced, you have seen a man as motionless as a spectre, who was -looking at you. You proceed, and emerge on a narrow court, inclosed -by high walls, which is gloomy, overgrown with weeds, and illumined -by a faint light which seems to fall from an unknown sun, like the -court of the witches described to us when we were children.... You -pass through other corridors, staircases, suites of empty rooms, and -narrow courts, and everywhere there is granite, a pale light, and the -silence of a tomb. For a short time you think you would be able to -retrace your steps; then your memory becomes confused, and you remember -nothing more; you seem to have walked ten miles, to have been in that -labyrinth for a month, and not to be able to get out of it. You come to -a court and say, 'I have seen it already!' but you are mistaken; it is -another.... You seem to be dreaming; catch glimpses of long frescoed -walls ornamented with pictures, crucifixes, and inscriptions; you see -and forget; and ask yourself, 'Where am I?'... On you go from corridor -to corridor, court to court; you look ahead with suspicion; almost -expect to see suddenly, at the turning of a corner, a row of skeleton -monks, with their hoods drawn over their eyes and their arms folded; -you think of Philip II., and seem to hear his retreating step through -dark hallways; you remember all that you have read of him, of his -treasures, the Inquisition, and all becomes clear to your mind's eye; -you understand everything for the first time; the Escurial _is_ Philip -II., he is still there, alive and frightful, and with him the image -of his terrible God.... The Escurial surrounds, holds, and overwhelms -you; the cold of its stones penetrates to your marrow; the sadness of -its sepulchral labyrinths invades your soul; if you are with a friend -you say, 'Let us leave;' if you were alone you would take to flight. At -last you mount a staircase, enter a room, go to the window, and salute -with a burst of gratitude the mountains, sun, freedom, and the great -and beneficent God who loves and pardons. What a long breath one draws -at that window! - -"An illustrious traveller said that after having passed a day in the -convent of the Escurial, one ought to feel happy throughout one's life, -in simply thinking that one might still be among those walls, but is -no longer there. This is almost true. Even at the present day, after -so great a lapse of time, on rainy days, when I am sad, I think of the -Escurial, then look at the walls of my room, and rejoice!" - -During the sixteenth century there were many palaces erected in Spain, -but nothing can be added to the impressions you will get from the -descriptions we have quoted of the cheerful, gay Alhambra, and the -gloomy, sad Escurial. - -The domestic architecture of Spain is unattractive. There are no -fine _châteaux_, as in France, or elegant parks, as in England. Ford -compares the front of the residence of the Duke of Medina to "ten -Baker-street houses put together," and this is true of many so-called -palaces. This state of modern Spanish architecture is fully accounted -for by the following quotation from Fergusson, the learned writer on -architecture: - -"On the whole, perhaps, we should not be far wrong in assuming that the -Spaniards are among the least artistic people in Europe. Great things -have been done in their country by foreigners, and they themselves have -done creditable things in periods of great excitement, and under the -pressure of foreign example; but in themselves they seem to have no -innate love of Art, no real appreciation for its beauties, and, when -left to themselves, they care little for the expression of beauty in -any of the forms in which Art has learned to embody itself. In Painting -they have done some things that are worthy of praise; in Sculpture they -have done very little; and in Architectural Art they certainly have not -achieved success. Notwithstanding that they have a climate inviting -to architectural display in every form; though they have the best of -materials in infinite abundance; though they had wealth and learning, -and were stimulated by the example of what had been done in their own -country, and was doing by other nations--in spite of all this, they -have fallen far short of what was effected either in Italy or France, -and now seem to be utterly incapable of appreciating the excellencies -of Architectural Art, or of caring to enjoy them." - - -FRANCE. - -After the reigns of Charles VIII. and Louis XII. the French people -became somewhat familiar with Italian Art, and at length, during the -reign of Francis I., from 1515 to 1546, everything Italian was the -fashion in France. Francis invited such artists as Leonardo da Vinci, -Benvenuto Cellini, Primaticcio, and Andrea del Sarto to come to France -and aid him in his works at Fontainebleau and elsewhere. - -It was not long before the Gothic architecture which had been so much -used and improved in France was thought to be inferior in beauty to -the Italian architecture as it existed in the sixteenth century, and -very soon the latter style was adopted and considered as the only one -worthy of admiration. But the French architects had been so trained -to the Gothic order that it was not easy for them to change their -habits of design, and the result was that new edifices were largely -of the Gothic form, but were finished and ornamented like the Italian -buildings; by this means the effect of the whole, when completed, was -such as is seen in this picture of the church of St. Michael at Dijon -(Fig. 109). In these days no one approves of this union of Gothic -design and Italian decoration, but when it was the fashion it was -thought to be very beautiful by French architects. - -[Illustration: FIG. 109.--FAÇADE OF THE CHURCH OF ST. MICHAEL. _Dijon._] - -Francis I., who was so anxious to introduce Italian art into France, -erected edifices of a very different sort from those which he attempted -to imitate. In Italy, the principal buildings of the Renaissance were -churches or convents, or such as were in some way for religious uses. -Francis I. built palaces like that of Fontainebleau, and splendid -châteaux like those of Chambord, or Chenonceaux, and the Italian style -of architecture could not be readily adapted to the lighter uses of the -French kings. The splendid massive Pitti Palace, built after the design -of the great Brunelleschi, would scarcely have harmonized with the -river banks and the lovely undulating meadows around a country villa -or château. So it gradually happened that French Architecture was more -graceful, light, and elegant than the architecture of the churches, -monasteries, and other religious edifices of Italy, and at the same -time the Italian feeling and influence can easily be traced in the -French buildings of the time of which we speak. - -In Italy the Pope and the Church governed in Art, and considered it -only as a religious means of glorifying the Church and impressing its -doctrines upon the whole people. In France the sovereigns held the -leading place, and in the midst of their ambitions and their gayeties -they found little time to consider the matter of church architecture. -Though the church of St. Eustache was erected at Paris, and other -churches were restored, it was not until 1629, when Cardinal Richelieu -ordered the building of the church of the Sarbonne, that an example -was given of the full effects upon French church architecture of the -change from the Gothic, or Mediæval style, to that of the Renaissance, -or the Classic style. - -Perhaps the church of the Invalides is the most remarkable building of -the seventeenth century in France. It was designed and superintended -by Jules Hardouin Mansard, a skilful architect, who was born in 1647, -and died in 1708. The erection of the dome of the Invalides occupied -him from 1680 to 1706. It is a fashion to criticise this as well as all -famous buildings, but if it is remembered that the dome was intended to -be _the feature_ of the edifice, and that it was therefore necessary to -sacrifice something to it, in the construction of the whole, we must -admit that what its admirers claim for it is true--namely, that it is -one of the finest domical edifices in Europe, and a most satisfactory -example of the architecture of its class (Fig. 110). - -[Illustration: FIG. 110.--FAÇADE OF THE DOME OF THE INVALIDES. _Paris._] - -Directly underneath this dome is the crypt in which is the sarcophagus -which contains the remains of Napoleon Bonaparte. On the door which -leads to the crypt are inscribed the following words, taken from the -will of the exile at St. Helena: "I desire that my ashes may rest on -the banks of the Seine, in the midst of the French people whom I have -loved so well." - -This tomb is said to have cost nearly two millions of dollars, and -though it is beautiful, and in good taste in its details, yet one can -but regret that all this expense should not have erected a splendid -mausoleum, such as would have dignified the monumental art of France. - -The church of St. Genevieve, or the Pantheon, as it is usually called, -is a very important architectural work. It was twenty-six years in -building, and was not completed until after the death of its architect, -Soufflot, which occurred in 1781 (Fig. 111). - -[Illustration: FIG. 111.--THE PANTHEON. _Paris._] - -It is said that this church was begun as the fulfilment of a vow made -by King Louis XV. when he was ill, but as the French Revolution was -in progress when it was completed, it was dedicated to the "_Grands -Hommes_," or the great men of France, and not to God or the sweet St. -Genevieve, who was one of the patron saints of Paris. - -The dome of the Pantheon is elegant and chaste, but not great in design -or effect, and the whole appearance of the church is weakened by the -extreme width of the spaces between the front columns; this makes the -entablature appear weak, and is altogether a serious defect. Another -striking fault is the way in which a second column is placed outside -at each end of the portico; one cannot imagine a reason for this, and -it is confusing and unmeaning in the extreme. The interior of the -Pantheon is superior to the exterior, and many authorities name it as -the most satisfactory of all modern, classical church interiors; when -it was built it was believed to be as perfect an imitation of antique -classical architecture as could be made, and all the world may be -grateful that it escaped the fate prepared for it by the Communists. -This was averted by the discovery and cutting of the fuse which they -had prepared for its destruction on May 24th, 1871; the fuse led to the -crypts beneath the church, where these reckless men had placed large -quantities of powder. - -In the beginning of the present century French architects believed it -best to reproduce exactly ancient temples which had been destroyed. -According to this view the church of the Madeleine was begun in 1804, -after the designs of Vignon. Outwardly it is a temple of the Corinthian -order, and is very beautiful, though its position greatly lessens -its effect. If it were on a height, or standing in a large square by -itself, it would be far more imposing (Fig. 112). - -[Illustration: FIG. 112.--THE MADELEINE. _Paris._] - -The church of the Trinity and that of the Augustines, at Paris, are -important church edifices of the present day, but though much thought -and time have been lavished on them, they are not as attractive as -we could wish the works of our own time to be; and they seem almost -unworthy of attention when we remember that in the same city there are -so many examples of architecture that have far more artistic beauty, -as well as the additional charms of age and the interest of historical -associations. - -We have already spoken of the sort of building in which Francis I. -delighted. Of all his undertakings the rebuilding of the Louvre was the -most successful. Its whole design was fine and the ornaments beautiful; -many of these decorations were made after the drawings of Jean Goujon, -who was an eminent master in such sculptures. The court of the Louvre -has never been excelled in any country of Europe; it is a wonderful -work for the time in which it was built, and satisfies the taste of -the most critical observers (Fig. 113). - -[Illustration: FIG. 113.--PAVILION DE L'HORLOGE AND PART OF THE COURT -OF THE LOUVRE.] - -We cannot give space to descriptions of the châteaux built by Francis -I., but this picture of that of Chambord affords a good example of what -these buildings were (Fig. 114). - -[Illustration: FIG. 114.--CHÂTEAU OF CHAMBORD.] - -From the time of the reign of Charles IX. (1560) to the close of the -reign of Louis XIII., the style of architecture which was used in -France was called the "style of Henry IV.;" this last-named king ruled -before Louis XIII., and during his time architecture sank to a very low -plane--there was nothing in it to admire or imitate. Under Louis XIII. -it began to improve, and in the days of Louis XIV., who is called the -"_Grand Monarque_," all the arts made great progress and received much -patronage from the king, and all the people of the court, for whom -the king was a model. Louis XIV. began a revival of Roman classical -architecture, and there is no doubt that he believed that he equalled, -or perhaps excelled, Julius Cæsar and all other Roman emperors as a -patron of the Fine Arts. - -But we know that this great monarch was deceived by his self-love and -by the flatteries of those who surrounded him and wished to obtain -favors from him. His architectural works had so many faults that it is -very tiresome to read what is written about them, and in any case it -is pleasanter to speak of virtues than of faults. The works of Louis -XIV. were certainly herculean, and when we think of the building of the -palace of Versailles, the completion of the Louvre, and the numberless -hôtels, châteaux, and palaces which belong to his reign, we feel sure -that if only the vastness of the architectural works of his time is -considered, he well merits the title of the Great Monarch. But these -important edifices require more time and space if spoken of in detail -than we can give, and I pass to some consideration of the works of our -own time. - -The architecture of the reign of Napoleon III. requires the space -of a volume, at least, were it to be clearly described, for during -that reign there was scarcely a city of France that did not add some -important building to its public edifices. First, the city of Paris was -remodelled and rebuilt to a marvellous extent, and as in other matters -Paris is the leader, so its example was followed in architecture. The -new Bourse in Lyons, the Custom House at Rouen, and the Exchange at -Marseilles are good specimens of what was done in this way outside the -great metropolis. - -During the reign of Louis Philippe, and a little later, French domestic -architecture was vastly improved, and since then much more attention -has been given by Frenchmen to the houses in which they live. The -appearance of the new Boulevards and streets of Paris is picturesque, -while the houses are rich and elegant. Many portions of this city are -more beautiful than any other city of Europe; and yet it is true that -the architecture of forty years or so ago was more satisfactory than -that of the present time. - -[Illustration: FIG. 115.--PORTE ST. DENIS. _Paris._] - -The French are an enthusiastic people, and have been very fond of -erecting monuments in public places which would remind them continually -of the glories of their nation, the conquests of their armies, and -the achievements of their great men. Triumphal Arches and Columns of -Victory are almost numberless in France; many of them are impressive, -and some are really very fine in their architecture. Since the Porte -St. Denis was (Fig. 115) erected, in 1672, almost every possible -design has been used for these monuments, in one portion of France or -another, until, finally, the Arc de l'Étoile (Fig. 116) was built at -the upper end of the Champs Elysées, at Paris. This is the noblest -of all modern triumphal arches, as well as one of the most splendid -ornaments in a city which is richly decorated with architectural works -of various styles and periods--from that of the fine Renaissance -example seen in the west front of the Louvre, built in 1541, down -to the Arc de l'Étoile, the Fontaine St. Michel, and the Palais du -Trocadéro of our own time. - -[Illustration: FIG. 116.--ARC DE L'ÉTOILE. _Paris._] - -The French architecture of the present century is in truth a classic -revival; its style has been called the _néo-Grec_, or revived Greek, -and the principal buildings of the reign of Napoleon III. all show that -a study of Greek art had influenced those who designed these edifices. - - -ENGLAND. - -We may say that England has never had an architecture of its own, since -it has always imitated and reproduced the orders which have originated -in other countries. The Gothic order is more than any other the order -of England, and, in truth, of Great Britain. All English cathedrals, -save one, and a very large proportion of the churches, in city and -country, are built in this style of architecture. - -It is also true that during the Middle Ages, when the Roman Catholics -were in power in England and made use of Gothic architecture, they -built so many churches, that, during several later centuries, it might -be truly said that England had no church architecture, because so few -new churches were required or built. - -It is so difficult to trace the origin and progress of the Classical -or Renaissance feeling in English architecture that I shall leave it -altogether, and passing the transition style and period, speak directly -of the first great architect of the Renaissance in England, Inigo -Jones, who was born in 1572 and died in 1653. He studied in Italy -and brought back to his native country a fondness for the Italian -architecture of that day. He became the favorite court architect, -and there are many important edifices in England which were built -from his designs. His most notable work was the palace of Whitehall, -though his design was never fully carried out in it; had it been, this -palace would have excelled all others in Europe, either of earlier or -later date. Among the churches designed by Inigo Jones that of St. -Paul's, Covent Garden, is interesting because it is probably the first -important Protestant church erected in England which still exists. It -is small and simple, being almost an exact reproduction of the early -Greek temples called _distyle in antis_, such as I described when -speaking of Greek architecture (Fig. 117). - -[Illustration: FIG. 117.--EAST ELEVATION OF ST. PAUL'S. _Covent -Garden._] - -Inigo Jones made many designs for villas and private residences, and -perhaps he is more famous for these works than for any others. Among -them are Chiswick and Wilton House, and many others of less importance. - -After Jones came Sir Christopher Wren, who was the architect of some of -the finest buildings in London. He was born in 1632 and died in 1723. -The great fire, in 1666, when he was thirty-four years old, gave him a -splendid opportunity to show his talents. Only three days after this -fire he presented to the king a plan for rebuilding the city, which -would have made it one of the most convenient as well as one of the -most beautiful cities of the world. - -Sir Christopher Wren is most frequently mentioned as the architect -of St. Paul's Cathedral. This was commenced nine years after the -great fire, and was thirty-five years in building. St. Paul's is the -largest and finest Protestant cathedral in the world, and among all -the churches of Europe that have been erected since the revival of -Classical architecture, St. Peter's, at Rome, alone excels it (Fig. -118). - -[Illustration: FIG. 118.--ST. PAUL'S, LONDON. _From the West._] - -Although so many years were consumed in the building of St. Paul's, -Sir Christopher Wren lived to superintend it all, and had the -gratification of placing the topmost stone in the lantern of this -splendid monument to his genius. - -The western towers of Westminster Abbey are said to have been built -after a design by Wren, but of this there is a doubt. Among his other -works in church architecture are the steeple of Bow Church, London; the -church of St. Stephen's, Walbrook; St. Bride's, Fleet Street, and St. -James's, Piccadilly. - -The royal palaces of Winchester and Hampton were designed by Wren, and -many other well-known edifices, among which is Greenwich Hospital. -He made some signal failures, but it is great praise to say, what is -undoubtedly true, that, though he was a pioneer in the Renaissance -architecture of England, and died a century and a half ago, no one of -his countrymen has surpassed him, and we may well question whether any -other English architect has equalled him. - -[Illustration: FIG. 119.--ST. GEORGE'S HALL. _Liverpool._] - -Churches, palaces, university buildings, and fine examples of municipal -and domestic architecture are so numerous in England and other -portions of Great Britain that we cannot speak of them in detail. The -culmination of the taste for the imitation of Classical architecture -was reached about the beginning of the present century, and among -the most notable edifices in that manner are the British Museum, -Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge, and St. George's Hall, Liverpool (Fig. -119). - -A revival of Gothic Architecture has taken place in England in our -own time. The three most prominent secular buildings in this style -are Windsor Castle, the Houses of Parliament, and the New Museum, -at Oxford. Of course, in the case of Windsor Castle, the work was a -remodelling, but the reparations were so extensive as to almost equal -a rebuilding. Sir Jeffry Wyatville had the superintendence of it, -and succeeded in making it appear like an ancient building refitted -in the nineteenth century--that is to say, it combines modern luxury -and convenience in its interior with the exterior appearance of the -castellated fortresses of a more barbarous age (Fig. 120). - -[Illustration: FIG. 120.--WINDSOR CASTLE.] - -In the Houses of Parliament there was an attempt to carry out, even to -the minutest detail, the Gothic style as it existed in the Tudor age, -when there was an excess of ornament, most elaborate doorways, and the -fan-tracery vaultings were decorated with pendent ornaments which look -like clusters of stalactites. Sir Charles Barry was its architect. The -present school of artists in England are never weary of abusing it; -they call it a horror and declare its style to be obsolete. In fact, -it is not the success at which Barry aimed; but it excels the other -efforts to revive the Gothic in this day, not only in England, but -in all Europe, and has many points to be admired in its plan and its -detail, while the beauty of its sky-line must be admitted by all (Fig. -121). - -[Illustration: FIG. 121.--THE HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT. _London._] - -In the New Museum of Oxford, the Gothic is that of Lombardy, rather -than the Early English. It is an example of the result of the -teaching of Mr. Ruskin. It does not realize the expectations of -those who advocated this manner of building, and has proved a great -disappointment to the advanced theorists of a quarter of a century ago. - -English architecture of the present day may be concisely described by -saying that it is Gothic for churches, parsonage-houses, school-houses, -and all edifices in which the clergy are interested or of which they -have the oversight. On the other hand, palaces, town-halls, municipal -buildings, club-houses, and such structures as come within the care of -the laity, are almost without exception in the Classic style. - -Neither of these orders seems to be exactly suited to the climate of -England or to the wants of its people; therefore, neither would satisfy -the demands of the ancients, who taught that the architecture of a -nation should be precisely adapted to its climate and to the purposes -for which the edifices are intended. In fact, the ancients carried -their ideas of fitness so far that one could tell at a glance the -object for which a structure had been designed; we know that it is not -possible to comply with this law in this day, although it is doubtless -in accord with the true ideal of what perfect architecture should be. -At the present day there is little doubt that the edifices of the -Church and clergy are far more praiseworthy and true architecturally -than are those for secular and domestic uses. - - -GERMANY. - -I shall not speak of the period of the Renaissance in Germany, but -shall go forward to the time of the Revival of Classic Architecture, -which dated about 1825. During the eighteenth century the discoveries -which were made in Greece were of great interest to all the world, and -the drawings which were made of the temples and monuments, as well -as of the lesser objects of art which existed there, were sent all -over Europe, and had such an effect upon the different nations, that -with one accord they began to adopt the Greek style of architecture, -whenever any important work was to be done. This effect was very -marked in Germany, and the German architects tried to copy every detail -of Greek architecture with great exactness. - -When we begin to speak of modern German architecture at this point, we -do not omit anything important, for the struggles of the Reformation, -and the results of the Thirty Years' War were such, that no great -architectural advances were attempted for a long time. Again, -the division of Germany into many small principalities, and the -establishment of many little courts so divided the wealth of the German -people into small portions, that no one was rich enough to undertake -large buildings. There was no one great central city as in France and -England, and no one sovereign was rich enough to adorn his capital with -splendid edifices or to be a magnificent patron of art and artists -after the fashion of the "_Grand Monarque_" in France. - -Before taking up the Revival, however, I wish, for two reasons, to give -a picture of the Brandenburg Gate, at Berlin. This gate was erected -between 1784 and 1792. It is important because such monuments are -more rare in Germany than in other European countries, especially of -the time in which this was built, and because it is one of the best -imitations of Greek art that exists in any nation (Fig. 122). - -[Illustration: FIG. 122.--THE BRANDENBURG GATE. _Berlin._] - -It is interesting to remember that when Napoleon entered Berlin as a -conqueror, after the Battle of Jena, he sent the Car of Victory, which -surmounts this gate, to Paris, as a trophy of his prowess. After his -abdication it was returned to its original position. - -The effect of the German revival of Greek art is more plainly seen in -Munich than in any other city. It is the capital of Bavaria, and one of -its kings, Louis I., while he was young and had not yet become king, -resided at Rome; he was a passionate lover of art, and he resolved -that when he came to the throne he would make his capital famous for -beautiful things. Above all, he desired to imitate all that he had -most admired in the countries he had visited, and also the art of the -ancients as he knew it from models and pictures. For this reason it -happens that Munich is a collection of copies of buildings which have -existed in other countries and in past ages, and as these buildings, -which were first made in marble and stone, are mostly copied in plaster -in Munich, much of their beauty is lost; and since these copied -buildings are not used for the same purposes for which the ancient ones -were intended, the whole effect of them is very far from pleasing or -satisfactory. In fact, the result is just such as must always follow -the imitation of a beautiful object, when no proper regard is paid to -the use to be made of it. If, for example, a fine copy of a light and -airy Swiss châlet should be made in the United States of America, -and placed on some business street in one of our cities, and used for -a bank building, we could not deny that it was an exact copy of a -building which is good in its way; but it would be so unsuited to its -position and its uses, that the man who built it there would be counted -as insane or foolish. And this is the effect of the modern architecture -of Munich; it seems as if King Louis must have been a madman to expend -so much time and money in this absurd kind of imitative architecture, -and yet it is very interesting to visit this city and see these -edifices. - -Of the Munich churches erected under Louis I. that of St. Ludwig is in -the Byzantine order; the Aue-Kirche is in the pointed German Gothic, -and the Basilica is like a Roman basilica of the fifth century. It -resembles that of St. Paul's-without-the-Walls; it was begun in 1835 -and completed in 1850. In a vault beneath this basilica Louis and his -Queen, Theresa, are buried. The picture given here shows its extreme -simplicity; its whole effect is solemn and satisfactory; still one must -regret that since it is so fine up to a certain point, it should not -have been made still finer (Fig. 123). - -[Illustration: FIG. 123.--THE BASILICA AT MUNICH.] - -The Ruhmeshalle, or Hall of Fame, at Munich, is an interesting and -somewhat unique edifice. It is a portico of marble with forty-eight -Doric columns, each twenty-six feet high. Against the walls are -brackets holding busts of celebrated Germans who have lived since -1400. In front of the portico stands the colossal bronze statue of -Bavaria. She is represented as a protectress with a lion by her side; -in the right hand she holds a sword, and a chaplet in the left; it is -sixty-one and a half feet high, and the pedestal raises it twenty-eight -and a half feet more; inside, a staircase leads up into the head, where -there are seats for eight persons. The view from the top of this statue -is fine, and so extensive that in a favorable atmosphere the heights -of the Alps can be discerned. The hill upon which the Ruhmeshalle is -built is to the south of Munich, and is called the Theresienhöhe. -The grand statue is intended to be the principal object of interest -here, and the portico is made so low as to throw the figure out and -show it off to advantage; altogether it is one of the most successful -architectural works in Munich (Fig. 124). - -[Illustration: FIG. 124.--THE RUHMESHALLE. _Near Munich._] - -The Glyptothek, or Sculpture Gallery, the Pinakothek, or Picture -Gallery, the Royal Palace, the Public Library, the War Office, the -University, Blind School, other palaces and secular buildings, all -belong to the time of the Revival in Germany. The Ludwig Strasse, which -King Louis fondly hoped to make one of the most beautiful avenues in -the world, is--with its Roman arch at one end, and a weak copy of the -Loggia dei Lanzi at the other--a tiresome, meaningless, architectural -failure. - -[Illustration: FIG. 125.--THE MUSEUM. _Berlin._] - -The Museum of Berlin is a striking result of the same Revival of -Classic architecture, and is far more splendid than anything in Munich -(Fig. 125). - -In Dresden the most important works in this style are the New Theatre -and Picture Gallery. The last is almost an exact reproduction of the -Pinakothek of Munich. All over Germany the effects of this Revival are -more or less prominent, but I shall speak of but one other edifice, the -Walhalla (Fig. 126). - -[Illustration: FIG. 126.--THE WALHALLA.] - -This is also a Temple of Fame, and is situated about six miles from -Ratisbon. It overlooks the River Danube from a height of more than -three hundred feet. It was begun in 1830, and was twelve years in -building, costing eight millions of florins. It is of white marble, -and on the exterior is an exact reproduction of the Parthenon at -Athens. The interior is divided into two parts by an entablature, -which supports fourteen caryatides, made from colored marbles. These -figures in turn support a second entablature, on which is a frieze in -eight compartments, on which is sculptured scenes representing the -history of Germany from its early days to the time of the introduction -of Christianity. Along the lower wall there are one hundred busts of -illustrious Germans who had lived from the earliest days of Germany -down to those of the poet Goethe. - -The grounds about the Walhalla are laid out in walks, and from them -there are fine, extensive views. Taken by itself there is much to -admire in the Walhalla. The sculptures arouse an enthusiasm about -Germany, her history, and the men who have helped to make it, in spite -of the strange unfitness with which the artists have mingled Grecian -myths and German sagas. But aside from this sort of interest the -whole thing seems incongruous and strangely unsuited to its position; -one writer goes so far as to say of it that "Minerva, descending in -Cheapside to separate two quarrelling cabmen, could hardly be more out -of place." And yet it is true that the Walhalla is the only worthy -rival to St. George's Hall, Liverpool, as an example of the possible -adaptability of Greek or Roman Architecture to the needs and uses of -our own days. - - -THEATRES AND MUSIC HALLS. - -In speaking of theatres I will first give a list of the most important -ones in Europe, as they are given by Fergusson in his "History of -Modern Architecture." - - ----------------------------+----------------------+---------- - | Depth from Curtain | Depth of - | to back of Boxes. | Stage. - ----------------------------+----------------------+---------- - | feet. | feet. - La Scala, Milan | 105 | 77 - San Carlo, Naples | 100 | 74 - Carlo Felice, Genoa | 95 | 80 - New Opera House, Paris | 95 | 98 - Opera House, London (old) | 95 | 45 - Turin Opera House | 90 | 110 - Covent Garden, London | 89 | 89 - St. Petersburg, Opera | 87 | 100 - Académie de Musique, Paris | 85 | 82 - Parma, Opera | 82 | 76 - Fenice, Venice | 82 | 48 - Munich Theatre | 80 | 87 - Madrid Theatre | 79 | 55 - ----------------------------+----------------------+---------- - -The Opera House of La Scala, at Milan, is generally said to be the -finest of all for seeing and hearing what goes on upon the stage: it -was begun in 1776 and finished two years later. San Carlo, Naples, -holds the second place, and was first erected in 1737, but was almost -destroyed by fire in 1816, and was afterward thoroughly rebuilt. - -The new Opera House of Paris is interesting to us because it has been -built so recently and so much written and said of it that we are -familiar with it. Any description that would do it justice would occupy -more space than we can afford for it, but this cut (Fig. 127) gives an -excellent idea of its size and exterior appearance. It is distinguished -by great richness of material and profusion of ornament, its interior -decorations being especially splendid. It has been criticised as -lacking repose and dignity, but its elegance and magnificence compel -admiration. - -[Illustration: FIG. 127.--THE NEW OPERA HOUSE. _Paris._] - -Music halls are only another sort of theatre, and have come into great -favor in recent days, especially in England. The Albert Hall, South -Kensington, is the finest music hall that has been erected. It seats -eight thousand people, besides accommodating an orchestra of two -hundred and a chorus of one thousand singers; it is one hundred and -thirty-six feet from the floor to the highest part of the ceiling. This -hall has some defects, but is so far successful as to prove that a -theatre or music hall could be so constructed as to seat ten thousand -persons and permit them to hear the music as distinctly as it is heard -in many halls where only two or three thousand can be comfortable. - - -UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. - -When we remember that we have been able to give some account of -architecture as it existed thousands of years before Christ, and to -speak of the temples and tombs of the grand old nations who laid the -foundation of the arts and civilization of the world--and then, when -we remember the little time that has passed since the first roof was -raised in our own land, we may well be proud of our country as it -is--and at the same time we know that its architecture may in truth be -said to be a thing of the future. - -It is but a few years, not more than seventy, since any building -existed here that could be termed architectural in any degree. To be -sure, there were many comfortable, generous-sized homes scattered up -and down the land, but they made no claim to architectural design, and -were not such edifices as one considers when speaking or writing of -architecture. - -The first buildings to which much attention was given in the United -States were the Capitols, both State and National, and until recently -they were in what may be called a Classic style, because they had -porticoes with columns and certain other features of ancient orders; -but when the cella, as is the case in America, is divided into -two or more stories, with rows of prosaic windows all around, and -chimneys, and perhaps attics also added, the term Classic Architecture -immediately becomes questionable, and it is difficult to find a name -exactly suited to the needs of the case; for it is still true that from -a distance, and in answer to a general glance, they are nearer to the -Classic orders than to anything else. - -[Illustration: FIG. 128.--THE UNITED STATES CAPITOL. _Washington._] - -The National Capitol at Washington, which is the principal edifice in -the United States, was begun in 1793, when General Washington laid the -foundation-stone; the main portion was completed in 1830; two wings and -the dome have since been added, and its present size is greater than -that of any other legislative building in the world, except the British -Houses of Parliament (Fig. 128). - -The dome, and the splendid porticoes, with the magnificent flights of -steps leading up to them, are the fine features of the Capitol. The -dome compares well with those that are famous in the world, and taken -all in all the Washington Capitol is more stately than the Houses of -Parliament, and is open to as little criticism as buildings of its -class in other lands. - -Several of the State Capitols illustrate the manner of building which -I described above. This cut of the Capitol of Ohio is an excellent -example of it (Fig. 129). - -[Illustration: FIG. 129--STATE CAPITOL. _Columbus, Ohio._] - -In domestic architecture, while there has been no style so original and -absolutely defined as to be definitely called American, we may roughly -classify three periods--the Colonial, the Middle, and the Modern. -These terms have no close application, and you must understand that I -use them rather for convenience than because they accurately, or even -approximately, indicate particular styles. The mansions of the Colonial -period are, perhaps, most easily recognized, and in some respects were -the frankest and most independent class of houses ever built in this -country. The early settlers took whatever suited them from all styles, -and instead of imitating the English, the Dutch, or the French manner -of building, mingled parts of all, with especial reference to the needs -of their climate and surroundings. - -[Illustration: FIG. 130.--SIR WILLIAM PEPPERELL'S HOUSE. _Kittery -Point, Maine._] - -This fine old house (Fig. 130) shows the plain, homely, yet quaint -style of many of the mansions of the Colonial period. It was built -near the beginning of the last century, and occupied by Sir William -Pepperell until his death. Its interior, with heavy wainscoting of -solid mahogany, was more imposing by far than the exterior. The Van -Rensselaer homestead at Albany is an excellent example of a more -stately house, possessing much dignity and impressiveness. - -The Middle period was a time when domestic architecture, still without -any originality and losing much of the independence of the Colonial, -copied more closely from foreign models. Some fine old mansions belong -to this period, which covered the last years of the last century and -the first half of this. The celebrated Cragie House at Cambridge, -occupied by the poet Longfellow; "Elmwood," the home of James Russell -Lowell; "Bedford House," in Westchester County, New York, the home of -the Hon. John Jay, are to be referred to this period; and so is the -imposing "Old Morrisania," at Morrisania, New York, the old Morris -mansion (Fig. 131). - -[Illustration: FIG. 131.--"OLD MORRISANIA." _Morrisania, New York._] - -It is modelled after a French château, and was erected by General -Morris after his return from France in 1800. It is one of the most -striking among the mansions of its time, and both its interior and -exterior are highly interesting. - -These views serve to illustrate the want of anything like a regular -style, of which I spoke above; but they show how many different forces -were at work to influence building in the Modern period. This division -is meant to extend to and include the present time, and so great is the -diversity of styles now employed that in a work like this it would be -idle to attempt anything like an enumeration of them, and still less -to try and determine their origin and importance. I can only give you -one example of the handsome and costly homes which are being built -to-day, and leave you to observe others as you now see them everywhere -about the country (Fig. 132). A modern writer on American architecture -claims that in private dwellings an American order is gradually being -developed by the changes made to adapt foreign forms to our climate, -and especially to the brilliancy of the sunlight here. All this is so -difficult to define, however, that it would be impossible to show it -clearly in the limits of a book like this, even if it exists. - -[Illustration: FIG. 132.--RESIDENCE AT IRVINGTON, NEW YORK.] - -What is called the "Queen Anne" style, modelled upon the English -fashion of the time of that monarch, is very widely used in country -houses at the present time, sometimes in conjunction with the Colonial, -which also exists as an independent style. The tendency of domestic -architecture is to make everything quaint and picturesque, though this -is not so far carried to extremes as was the case a few years since. - -In public buildings many splendid edifices have been erected of late -years. The imitation of classic forms which was formerly the fashion, -and which is so strikingly exhibited by Girard College, Philadelphia, -is now almost entirely laid aside. A lighter, less constrained style, -which may be called eclectic--which means selecting--because it -takes freely from any and all styles whatever suits its purpose, -is arising; and as this selecting is being every year more and more -intelligently done, and as original ideas are constantly being -incorporated with those chosen, the prospects for architecture are more -promising than ever before in this country. The Casino, at Newport, -is a fine example of a modern building; and the still more recent -Casino in New York shows a fine example of the adapting of ideas from -Saracenic architecture to American uses. The Capitol at Albany has many -fine features, but it is the work of several designers who did not -harmonize. Memorial Hall, at Cambridge, is one of the more striking of -modern American buildings, but its sky-line--that is, its outline as -seen against the sky--lacks simplicity and repose. - -The churches in this country exhibit the widest variety of style. -Trinity Church in New York was the first Gothic church erected in -America, and Trinity Church in Boston, one of the latest churches of -importance, is also Gothic, though of the variety called Norman Gothic, -and considerably varied. The Roman Catholic Cathedral of New York, and -many others of less magnitude, might be cited as a proof that American -architecture is advancing, and that we may speak hopefully of its -future. - -Railroad depots and school-houses of certain types are among the -most distinctive and characteristic American edifices. The first, -especially, are being constructed more nearly in accordance with the -ancient principle of suiting the structure to its uses than are any -other buildings that are worthy to be considered architecturally. -Art museums and public libraries, too, now form an important feature -in both town and country, and, in short, the beginning of American -architecture, for that is all that can be claimed for what as yet -exists, is such as would be the natural outcome of a nation such as -ours--varied, restless, bold, ugly, original, and progressive. All -these terms can be applied to American art, but in and through it all -there is a promise of something more. As greater age will bring -repose and dignity of bearing to our people, so our Fine Arts will -take on the best of our characteristics; as we outgrow our national -crudities the change will be shown in our architecture, and we may well -anticipate that in the future we shall command the consideration and -assume the same importance in these regards that our excellence in the -Useful Arts has already won for us in all the world. - - - - -[Illustration] - -GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. - - -_Abacus._--The uppermost portion of the capital of a column, upon which -rested the weight above. - -_Aisle._--The lateral divisions of a church; more properly, the side -subdivisions. - -_Amphitheatre._--A round or oval theatre. - -_Apse._--The semi-circular or polygonal termination to the choir or -aisles of a church. - -_Arcade._--A series of arches supported on piers or columns. - -_Arch._--A construction of wedge-shaped blocks of stone or of bricks, -of curved outline, spanning an open space. - -_Architrave._--(1) The lowest division of the entablature, in Classic -architecture resting on the abacus. (2) The moulding used to ornament -the margin of an opening. - - -_Base._--The foot of a column or wall. - -_Basilica._--Originally a Roman hall of justice; afterward an early -Christian church. - -_Buttress._--A projection built from a wall for strength. - -_Byzantine._--The Christian architecture of the Eastern church, -sometimes called the round arched; named from Byzantium -(Constantinople). - - -_Capital._--The head of a column or pilaster. - -_Caryatid._--A statue of a woman used as a column. - -_Cathedral._--A church containing the seat of a bishop. - -_Cella._--That part of the temple within the walls. - -_Chamfer._--A slope or bevel formed by cutting off the edge of an angle. - -_Column._--A pillar or post, round or polygonal; the term includes the -base, shaft, and capital. - -_Composite Order._--See _Order_. - -_Corinthian Order._--See _Order_. - -_Cornice._--The horizontal projection crowning a building or some -portion of a building. Each classic order had its peculiar cornice. - -_Crypt._--A vault beneath a building. - - -_Dome._--A cupola or spherical convex roof. - -_Doric Order._--See _Order_. - - -_Entablature._--In classic styles all the structure above the columns -except the gable. The entablature had three members, the architrave or -epistyle, the frieze, and the cornice. - -_Entasis._--The swelling of a column near the middle to counteract the -appearance of concavity caused by an optical delusion. - -_Epistyle._--See _Architrave_. - - -_Façade._--The exterior face of a building. - -_Frieze._--The middle member of an entablature. - - -_Gable._--The triangular-shaped wall supporting the end of a roof. - -_Gargoyle._--A projecting water-spout carved in stone or metal. - - -_Hexastyle._--A portico having six columns in front. - - -_Intercolumniation._--The clear space between two columns. - -_Ionic Order._--See _Order_. - - -_Metope._--The space between the triglyphs in the frieze of the Doric -Order. - -_Minaret._--A slender tower with balconies from which Mohammedan hours -of prayer are called. - -_Mosaic._--Ornamental work made by cementing together small pieces of -glass, stone, or metal in given designs. - - -_Nave._--The central aisle of a church; the western part of the church -occupied by the congregation. - - -_Obelisk._--A quadrangular monolith terminating in a pyramid. - -_Order._--An entire column with its appropriate entablature. There are -usually said to be five orders: Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and -Composite; the first and last are, however, only varieties of the Doric -and Corinthian developed by the Romans. The peculiarities of the orders -have been described in the body of the book. When more than one order -was used in a building, the heavier and plainer, the Doric and Tuscan, -are placed beneath the others. - - -_Pediment._--In classic architecture what the gable (which see) was in -later styles. - -_Peristyle._--A court surrounded by a row of columns; also the -colonnade itself surrounding such a space. - -_Pier._--A solid wall built to support a weight. - -_Pilaster._--A square column, generally attached to the wall. - -_Pillar._--See _Column_. - -_Plinth._--A square member forming the lower division of the base of a -column. - -_Polychrome._--Many-colored; applied to the staining of walls or -architectural ornaments. - - -_Quatrefoil._--A four-leaved ornament or opening. - - -_Shaft._--The middle portion of a column, between base and capital. - -_Story._--The portion of a building between one floor and the next. - - -_Triglyph._--An ornament upon the Doric frieze consisting of three -vertical, angular channels separated by narrow, flat spaces. - - - - -[Illustration] - -INDEX. - - - Abacus, 52 - - Abd-er-Rahman, Caliph, 126 - - Acropolis, 61, 62 - - Adan, the, 126 - - Age of Legend (Greece), 46 - - Agrippa, 76 - - Albert Hall, South Kensington, 181 - - Alexander the Great; 17; - and Thais, 34 - - Alexandria, obelisks at, 15 - - Alhambra; 129; - described by De Amicis, 129, 130 - - American architecture; - youth of, 181; - domestic, 183, 184; - periods of, 184; - modern writer on, 186; - promise of, 188, 190 (and _see_ United States) - - Amytis, 30 - - Ancient or heathen art, 2 - - Ancient architecture; 87; - change from, to Gothic, 79; - adapted to climate and use, 172 - - Andrea del Sarto, 153 - - Angers, church at, 103 - - Antæ. _See_ pilasters - - Arabs, 128 - - Arcades; - combined from Greek and Etruscan art, 76; - of Ducal Palace, Venice, 142 - - Arc de l'Étoile (Paris), 165 - - Arch; - knowledge of principle of, 73; - found in Etruscan ruins, 73; - oldest in Europe (of Cloaca Maxima), 74; - the Roman triumphal, 81; - of Titus, 82; - of Septimius Severus, 82; - of Beneventum, 82, 83; - Roman, 83; - (Gothic) unending use of, 95; - French use of pointed, 96; - early use of pointed, 123; - examples of, in Court of the Lions, 130; - examples of, in Ducal Palace, 142; - triumphal, in France, 164 - - Architecture _in general_, 1 - - Architrave, 52, 56 - - Art; - as effected by Athenian influence, 67; - (Gothic) religious use of, 103; - (Gothic) revival of, 104; - (Gothic) applied to civic edifices, 104; - of Renaissance, and Filippo Brunelleschi, 134-138; - (Italian) 145; - (Italian) as a means of religion, 154 - - Artaxerxes Ochus, palace of, 38 - - Artemisia, 68, 69 - - Assouan. _See_ Syene - - Assyria; - ruins of, 21; - cuneiform inscriptions found in, 21; - religious influence in, 22; - bas-reliefs of, 22; - palaces of, described, 23-26; - Hercules of, 24; - excelling in - architects and designers, 28; - obelisk of, 28, 29 - - Assyrian pillars, shaft of, 12 - - Assyrians, Persians taught by, 34 - - Astronomy, and Birs-i-Nimrud, 32 - - Athena; - Parthenos, 62; - Polias; - statue of, 62, 64; - Promachos, 62 (and _see_ Minerva) - - Athens; - Choragic Monument of Lysicrates at, 57; - Erechtheium at, 59; - Acropolis of, 61; - municipal buildings of, 67 - - Attic base, 55 - - Attic-Ionic style, the Erechtheium an example of, 65 - - Aue-Kirche (Munich), 175 - - Augustines, church of the (Paris), 160 - - Augustus (Emperor), boast of, 80 - - Autharis, 90 - - Avenue of Sphinxes, 13 - - - Babylon; - inscriptions of, 21; - hanging gardens of, 29; - temples of, 30; - temple of Belus at, 31; - prophecies concerning, 33 - - Babylonians; - knowledge of, as builders, 30; - Persians taught by, 34 - - Bacchus, monument of Lysicrates dedicated to, 68 - - Baptistery at Florence, 90 - - Barry, Sir Charles, 171 - - Base; - Grecian Doric, 11; - decorations on, at Persepolis, 41; - Attic, 55; - Ionic, 55; - Tuscan order of, 76; - Composite, 76 - - Basilica; - of St. Paul's (Rome), 88; - of the Escurial, 146, 148; - near St. Mark's, 114; - at Munich, 175 - - Basilicas; - of Rome, 78; - of Trajan and Maxentius, 79; - columns of, 79; - given up to Christians, 87 - - Bas-reliefs, of Assyria, 22 - - Baths; - of Agrippa, 76; - of Diocletian, 80; - of Caracalla, 80 - - Battiste Monegro, statues of Escurial by, 149 - - Bavaria, bronze statue of, 176 - - Bedford House, 184 - - Belus, temple of (Babylon), 31 - - Belzoni, and tomb of Seti I., 7 - - Beneventum, arch of, 82, 83 - - Beni-Hassan, tombs at, 5 - - Benvenuto Cellini, 153 - - Bergamo, porch at, 112 - - Berlin; - Brandenburg Gate at, 173; - New Museum at, 177 - - Bianca, wife of Francesco Sforza, 144 - - Birs-i-Nimrud, 32 - - Bishop of Paris, St. Germain, 173 - - Boodroom, name of Halicarnassus changed to, 70 - - Boulevards (Paris), 164 - - Bourse (Lyons), 162 - - Bow Church (London), steeple of, 168 - - Bramante; 140; - great court (Milan), designed by, 144 - - Brandenburg Gate (Berlin), 173 - - British Museum, 169 - - Broletto at Como, 112 - - Brunelleschi, Filippo; 134; - and story of Columbus and the egg, 138; - statue of (Florence), 138; - architect of Pitti Palace, 138, 154 - - Byzantine order, the; - geographical boundaries of, 93; - in Southern Italy, 111, 115; - and Constantinople, 117; - the dome the chief characteristic of, 117; - and the Greek Church, 117; - decline of, 117; - exterior and interior of, 119 - - Byzantine-Romanesque, 115, 122 - - - Cæsar, works of, 134 - - Cairo; - mosque at, 123; - mosque near, 125 - - Caliph Abd-er-Rahman, 126 - - Callimachus (sculptor), and Corinthian capital, 58, 59 - - Cambridge, Fitzwilliam College at, 169 - - Campaniles, 112, 114 (and _see_ Clock-tower). - - Canterbury Cathedral, and pointed arches, 124 - - Capital; - definition of, 11; - varieties of in Great Hall of Karnak, 40; - Grecian, 52; - Ionic, 55; - of Corinthian order, 57, 58; - of Roman Composite order, 75; - variety of in mosque of Cordova, 128; - in Ducal Palace, 142 - - Capitol; - State and National, 181; - at Washington, 182, 183; - of Ohio, 183; - at Albany, 188 - - Car of Victory, and Napoleon, 173 - - Cardinal Richelieu, 154 - - Caria, King of, 69 - - Caryatides; 59; - of the Walhalla, 178 - - Casino; - at Newport, 188; - at New York, 188 - - Castle of Wartburg, 109, 110 - - Cathedral; - at Aix-la-Chapelle, 123; - at Florence, 136, 138; - at Jaen, 146; - at Valladolid, 146; - of St. Paul's London, 167; - at New York, 188 - - Cecilia Metella, tomb of, 84 - - Cella, 51 - - Central Park, New York, obelisk in, 16 - - Chambord, château of, 154, 161 - - Champs Elysées, Arc de l'Étoile in (Paris), 165 - - Charlemagne, 123 - - Charles I. of England and classic art, 134 - - Charles V. of Spain, abdication of, 146 - - Charles IX. of France, 161 - - Chehl Minar, 38 (and _see_ Great Hall of Audience) - - Chenonceaux, châteaux of, 154 - - Cheops. _See_ Pyramids - - Chiswick House, Inigo Jones designer of, 167 - - Choragic Monument of Lysicrates (Athens), 57 - - Choragus, 67 - - Christians; - art of, in Sicily, 116; - under Constantine, 87; - rise and progress of architecture of, 87; - influence of belief of, 93 - - Church; - of San Miniato, 115; - of Mother of God (Constantinople), 123; - of St. Vitale (Ravenna), 123; - of the Escurial, 155; - of the Sarbonne, 156; - of St. Genevieve, 158 (and _see_ Pantheon); - of the Invalides (Paris), 156-158; - of the Trinity (Paris), 160; - of the Madeleine (Paris), 160; - of the Augustines (Paris), 160; - of St. Paul's (Covent Garden), 166; - of St. Stephen's (Walbrook), 168; - of St. Ludwig (Munich), 175 - - Churches; - early forms of, in Italy, 89; - (Gothic) interiors of, 98, - rood-screens of, 107; - of Burgos, 105; - of Toledo, 105; - of Malaga and Segovia, 146 - - Churriguera, Josef de, 146 - - Churrigueresque style, 146 - - Civic order, Broletto at Como, 112 - - Classic style, revival of, in Germany, 172 - - Classic literature of Rome, influence of, 153 - - Cleopatra's Needles, 15 - - Cloaca Maxima (Rome), 74 - - Clock-tower; near St. Mark's (Venice), 114 (and _see_ Campanile) - - Cologne, great cathedral of, 10 - - Colonial period (America), 184 - - Colosseum, 80 - - Colossi, 13 (and _see_ Rameses the Great) - - Columbaria, 84, 85 - - Columns; 11; - of Hypostyle Hall (Karnak), 11; - Assyrian knowledge of, 28; - of Great Hall of Audience, 39, 40; - Persian development of, 42; - Grecian, 52; - Ionic, 56; - of temple of Diana (Ephesus), 60; - of green jasper at St. Sophia, 61; - Tuscan order of, 76; - of basilicas, 79; of St. Paul's (Rome), 89; - of St. Sophia, 120; - of mosque of Cordova, 127, 128; - of the Alhambra, 129, 130; - in court-yard of the Escurial, 149; - of the Pantheon, 158; - of Victory, in France, 164; - of portico of Ruhmeshalle, 176 (and _see_ "Groves of Pillars" and - Pillars) - - Composite order, 75 - - Constantine, Emperor; 2; - Egypt in time of, 19; - arch of, 81; - Christians under, 87, 117 - - Constantinople; - St. Sophia at, 61; - and Byzantine order, 117 - - Convent of Escurial, 150, 151 - - Cordova, mosque at, 126 - - Corinthian capital, 58, 59 - - Corinthian order; 52; 57; - capital of, 57, 58; - shown in the Madeleine (Paris), 160 - - Cornice, 53, 76 - - Count of Thuringia, 110 - - Court of the Lions, 129, 130 - - Cragie House (Cambridge), 184 - - Crown, iron, of Theodolinda, 92 - - Crypt of the Invalides, 158 - - Custom House at Rouen, 162 - - Cyrus, tomb of, 42, 43 - - - Darius; - palace of, 38; - tomb of, 43 - - Dark Ages, 134 - - De Amicis; - quoted concerning the mosque of Cordova, 126; - quoted concerning the Escurial, 148-152 - - Diana, 60 - - Diocletian, palace of (Spalatro), 86 - - Distyle in Antis, 51 - - Doge's Palace (Venice), 114 (and _see_ Ducal Palace) - - Dome; - chief characteristic of Byzantine architecture, 117; 119; - of the cathedral of Florence, 138; - of St. Peter's (Rome), 138; - of the Invalides, 157; - of the Pantheon (Paris), 158; - of the Capitol (Washington), 183 - - Domes of St. Mark's (Venice), 114 - - Domestic architecture; - Egyptian study of, 16; - of Greece, 70; - of Rome, 85; - Gothic, 109; - of Spain, 152; - of France, 162; - examples of, in Great Britain, 169; - of America, 183, 184 - - Doric order; - imitated old Egyptian tombs, 7; - characteristics of, 52-54; - traced back, 54; - and Ionic order, compared, 57; - Propylæa and Parthenon as examples of, 64 - - Dresden, new theatre and picture gallery of, 177 - - Ducal Palace (Venice), and John Ruskin, 142 (and _see_ Doge's Palace) - - - "Easterns," the, 123 (and _see_ Saracens) - - Ebed, the, 126 - - Ecbatana, palace of, 34 - - Echinus, 52 - - Eclectic style, 188 - - Edfou, temple of, 17 - - 'Early Spanish' architecture, 106 - - Egypt, tombs and ruins of, 2-20; - religion of, influencing art, 8; - pillars of, 11; - hieroglyphics on pillars of, 12; - irregular plans of palaces and temples of, 13; - obelisks of, removed, 15; - ancient houses of, 16; - domestic architecture of, 16; - under the Ptolemies, 17; - decline of arts of, in later days, 19; - in time of Constantine (Emperor), 19; - present knowledge of history of, 20 - - Elmwood, 184 - - England; - imitation of other styles of architecture in, 166; - Gothic order in, 166; - examples of various architectural styles in, 169; - art of, at the present time, 172; - revival of Gothic art in, 170 - - Entablature; - definition of, 54; - of Walhalla, 178 - - Entasis, 67 - - Ephesus; - temple of Diana at, 60; - desolation at, 61 - - Epistyle, 7 - - Erechtheium (Athens); 59; - and Athena Polias, 62; - burial-place of Erechtheus, 64; - founded by Erechtheus, 64; - example of Attic-Ionic style, 65 - - Erechtheus, founder of the Erechtheium, 65 - - Escurial (near Madrid), 146-152; - combination forming, 146; - dome of basilica of, 146; - palace of, 147; - De Amicis's description of, 148-152; - statues of, by Battiste Monegro, 149; - room of Philip II. in, 149; - basilica of, 149; - church of, 149; - courtyard of the kings of, 149; - convent of, 150, 151 - - Etruscans; 71; - theatres and amphitheatres of, 72 - - Euphrates, 29 - - Exchange at Marseilles, 162 - - - Façade of Ducal Palace, 142 - - "Farnese Bull," 81 - - "Farnese Hercules," 81 - - Ferdinand and Isabella, reign of, 145 - - Fergusson and Gothic architecture, 93 - - Filippo Brunelleschi and art of Renaissance, 134-138 - - Fine Art Gallery, near baths of Caracalla, 81 - - Fitzwilliam College (Cambridge), 169 - - Flavian Amphitheatre, 80 - - Florence, cathedral of, 134 - - Fontaine St. Michel, 165 - - Fontainebleau, palace of, 154 - - Fortress, the Acropolis as a, 62 - - Fortresses of ancient Greece, 48 - - Forum Boarium, 82 - - France; - and revival of classic art, 134; - and Gothic architecture, 153; - sovereigns of, as influencing architecture, 154; - change in style in, from Gothic to Renaissance, 156; - style of Henry IV. in, 161; - time of classic revival, 162; - domestic architecture of, 162; - _Neo-Grec_ style in, 165, 166; - modern, 165, 166 - - Francesco Sforza, 144 - - Francis I., of France; - and introduction of Italian art, 154; - Louvre rebuilt by, 160 - - Frieze; - definition of, 53; - of Ionic order, 56; - of Tuscan order, 76; - of Walhalla, 178 - - - Gargoyle, 98 - - Garibald, King of Bavaria, 90 - - Gateway Huldah of temple at Jerusalem, 44 - - Gateways; - in walls of Nineveh, 21; - in walls of Babylon, 29; - golden, iron, and brazen, of palace of Diocletian, 86 - - Germany; - and revival of classic art, 134; - imitation of details of Greek architecture in, 173; - modern architecture of, 173 - - Ghizeh, pyramids of, 3 - - Gibbon (historian) and St. Sophia, 122 - - Giotto's campanile, 112 - - Girard College (Philadelphia), 186 - - Glaber, Rodulphe, 93 - - Glyptothek at Munich, 177 - - Gothic order; - Fergusson's location of, 93; - extension and origin of, 93; - invention of interior aisles in, 98; - design of, in ornament, 99; - painted glass applied to, 100; - Spanish variation of, 105; - modification of in Northern Italy, 111; - combined with Eastern decoration in Venetian architecture, 114; - last distinct order, 133; - in France, 153; - union of, with Italian design in France, 154; - in England, 166; - in the Tudor age, 170; - and Houses of Parliament, 171 - - Goths, temple of Diana burned by, 61 - - Goujon, Jean, and the Louvre, 160 - - Goya, 149 - - Græco-Roman style, 146 - - Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar, 110 - - "_Grand Monarque._" _See_ Louis XIV. - - "_Grands Hommes_," Pantheon dedicated to, 158 - - Great Hall of Audience; - plan of, 41; - theories concerning, 42 - - Great Hall of Baths of Diocletian, 80 - - Great Palace near Persepolis, 36-38 - - Grecian Doric order; - shaft of, 12; - domestic architecture of, 70 - - Greece; - art of, as compared with that of Egypt, 20; - prehistoric days of, 47; - origin of architecture of, 48; - coloring of marbles in, 65; - skill in deceiving the eye, in architecture of, 67; - theatres of, 68; - origin of drama in, 68; - effect in Germany of discoveries in, 173 - - Greenwich Hospital, 169 - - Gregory I. (Pope), 92 - - "Groves of Pillars," 44 - - - Hadrian; 77; - tomb of (castle of St. Angelo), 84 - - Halicarnassus; - mausoleum at, 68; - in possession of Knights of St. John, 70; - name of, changed to Boodroom, 70; - sculptures of, in British Museum, 70 - - Hall of Fame, 176 (and _see_ Ruhmeshalle) - - Hall of One Hundred Columns, 38 - - Hall of Xerxes, 38-41 (and _see_ Great Hall of Audience) - - Hampton, palace of (designed by Wren), 169 - - Hanging Gardens of Babylon; 29; - interior structure of, 29, 30; - and Semiramis, 30; - and Nebuchadnezzar, 30 - - Henry of Ofterdingen, 110 - - "Hercules of Assyria," 24 - - Hermann, Count of Thuringia, 110 - - Herodotus, "Father of History," 47 - - Herostratus, 60 - - Heshâm, 126 - - Hexastyle, 52 - - Homer, "Iliad" and "Odyssey" of, 47 - - "House of the Virgin," 62 (and _see_ Parthenon) - - Houses of Parliament (London); 170; - and Gothic revision, 171 - - Hypostyle Hall (Karnak); 11; - compared with St. Peter's (Rome), 140 - - - Ibn-touloun, mosque built by, 123 - - "Iliad," knowledge of Grecian history from, 47 - - Inigo Jones. _See_ Jones, Inigo - - Inscriptions, Arabic, 130 - - Invalides, church of the, 156-158 - - Ionic capital, 55, 56 - - Ionic order; 52-54; - traced back, 55; - capital of, 55, 56; - architrave of, 56; - columns of, 56; - compared with Doric order, 57; - combined with Doric in interior of the Parthenon, 64 - - Isabella and Ferdinand, reign of, 145 - - Isis, temple of, 18 - - Ismail Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, 16 - - Italy; - architecture of; 87; - Byzantine order in southern part of, 111; - best days of architecture in, 144 - - - Jaen (Granada); - cathedral of, 146 - - Jay, Hon. John, home of, 184 - - Jerusalem, temple of; - Gateway Huldah of, 44; - design of, proving Roman influence, 45 - - Jones, Inigo (architect); 166; - designer of Chiswick House, 167; - designer of Wilton House, 167 - - Jordan, ruins beyond, 44 - - Josef de Churriguera, 146 - - Josephus, proving time of building temple of Jerusalem, 45 - - Judea; - art-history of, 44; - ruins of, at Jerusalem, Baalbec, Palmyra, and Petra, 44 - - Justinian (Emperor), and St. Sophia, 119 - - - Kaitbey, mosque at, 125 - - Karnak, palace-temple of; 8-12; - Hypostyle Hall in, 10 - - Khedive of Egypt, Ismail Pasha, 16 - - Khorsabad, palace of, 26 - - - La Scala, Milan, 180 - - Lateran, palace of, 81 - - Leonardo da Vinci, 153 - - Library of St. Mark's (Venice), 142 - - Liverpool, St. George's Hall at, 169 - - Livy, works of, 134 - - Longfellow, home of, 184 - - Louis I. (Bavaria), and revival of Greek art, 173, 175 - - Louis XIII. (France), and classic architecture, 161 - - Louis XIV. (France), and revival of classic architecture, 162 - - Louis XV. (France), 158 - - Louis Philippe, 162 - - Louvre (Paris), 160 - - Lowell, James Russell, home of, 184 - - Ludwig Strasse (Munich), architectural failure, 177 - - Luther and castle of Wartburg, 111 - - Lyons, new Bourse in, 162 - - Lysicrates, monument of, 67 - - - Madeleine, church of the, 160 - - Malaga, churches of, 146 - - Mans, monastery at, 103 - - Mansard, Jules Hardouin, 156 - - Marburg, 110 - - Marcus Scaurus, 80 - - Marseilles, exchange at, 162 - - Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, 68 - - Mausolus, 69, 70 - - Maxentius, basilica of, 79 - - Mecca, 123 - - Medinet Habou, house at, 16 - - Mehemet Ali, 15 - - Memorial Hall (Cambridge), 188 - - Memphis, ruins of, used in new buildings, 7 - - Metope, 53 - - Michael Angelo, and church of S. Maria Degli Angeli, 80; - and St. Peter's (Rome), 138-140 - - Middle Ages; - Italian towers of, 111; - prosperity of architecture of (Venice), 114 - - Middle period in America, 184 - - Milan, La Scala of, 180 - - Minarets of mosques, 125 - - Minerva. _See_ Athena - - Modern architecture; - imitative, 133; - since Renaissance, 133; - in Italy, 134; - three eras of, in Spain, 146; - in Germany, 173; - diversity of style of, in United States, 186 - - Mohammed, 123 - - Mokattam Mountains, 4 - - Monks of Middle Ages, 102 - - Monolith of the Gateway Holdah, 44 - - Monuments in France, 164 - - Monza, cathedral of, 92 - - Moresco or Moorish order, 106, 123 - - Morris, General, and "Old Morrisania," 184 - - Morrisania, 184 - - Mosaics of St. Sophia, 120 - - Mosque; - at Cairo, 123; - minarets of same, 125; - near Cairo, 125 - - Mosque of Cordova, 126; - De Amicis, concerning, 126; - naves of, 127; - marbles of, 127; - columns of, 127, 128 - - Mosque of Kaitboy, 125 - - Mother of God, church of (Constantinople), 123 - - Muezzin, the call of, 125, 126 - - Munich; - modern architecture of, 173, 174; - church of St. Ludwig at, 175; - Ruhmeshalle at, 176; - glyptothek of, 177 - - Museum; - of Berlin, 177; - at Oxford, 170, 171 - - Music halls, 180 - - Mutules, 65 - - Mycenæ, 48 - - Mythology, 47 - - - Napoleon I.; - and pyramids, 3; - tomb of, 158; - inscription from will of, 158; - Car of Victory, trophy of, 173 - - Napoleon III., 162, 166 - - Nebuchadnezzar; - and "Hanging Gardens," 30; - and Birs-i-Nimrud, 32 - - Neo-Byzantine order, 117 - - Neo-Grec order, 166 - - Nero (Emperor), temple of Diana robbed by, 61 - - New museum at Oxford, 170, 171 - - New theatre, Dresden, 177 - - Newton, discoverer of sculptures at Halicarnassus, 70 - - New World, discovery of, 145 - - New York, Trinity Church in, 188 - - Nile, near Thebes, 14 - - Nineveh; - walls of, 21; - gateways of, 21; - ornamentation of gateways of, 23; - palaces of, 27 - - Norman Conquest, 116 - - Northern Spain, Arabs of, 128 - - - Obelisk; - now in Paris, 13; - at Alexandria, 15; - Cleopatra's Needles, 15; - expressing worship, 16; - in Central Park, New York, 16; - the Assyrian, 28, 29 - - "Odyssey," knowledge of Grecian history from, 47 - - "Old Morrisania," 184 - - Opera House (Paris), 180 - - Order. _See_ Gothic, Moresco or Moorish, Civil, Neo-Byzantine, - _Neo-Grec_, Romanesque, Byzantine, Saracenic - - Order of the Garter, symbol of, 89 - - Oriental art; - characteristics of, 59; - and the caryatid, 59 - - Oxford, new museum at, 170 - - - Painted glass and Gothic architecture, 100 - - Palace; - of Khorsabad, 27; - of Ecbatana, 34; - of Susa, 34; - of Artaxerxes Ochus, 38; - of Darius, 38; - of Xerxes, 38; - of Diocletian at Spalatro, 86; - of the Escurial, 147, 149; - of Versailles, 162; - of Whitehall, 166; - of Hampton, 169; - of Winchester, 169 - - Palaces; - of Assyria, 23-26; - of Nineveh, 27 - - Palace-temples, Egyptian, 8 - - Palais du Trocadéro, 165 - - Pantheon (Rome); 76-78; - rotunda and porch of, 76; - preservation of, 77; - inscription on portico of, 77; - burial-place of Raphael and Annibale Caracci, 78 - - Pantheon (Paris), 158; - and _see_ church of St. Genevieve - - Parapet of Ducal Palace, Venice, 142 - - Paris; - rebuilt, 162; - the boulevards of, 164; - new opera house of, 180 - - Parthenon (Athens); 53, 54; - built of Pentelic marble, 64; - of Doric order of architecture, 64; - erected under care of Phidias, 64; - sculptures of, 64 - - Paul Silentiarius and description of St. Sophia, 120 - - Pediment, 54 - - Pepperell, Sir William, 184 - - Pericles at Athens, 61 - - Peristyle, 52 - - Persepolis; - great palace near, 36-38; - spring residence of Persian kings, 42 - - Persia; - inscriptions found in, 21; - palaces of, 34; - taught by Assyria and Babylonia, 34; - platforms of, 36; - regularity of architecture of, 43; - faults of architecture of, 44 - - Peruzzi, 140 - - Pharaoh, and tombs at Beni-Hassan, 6 - - Phidias; - and Athena Promachos, 62; - Parthenon erected under care of, 64; - sculptures executed by, 64 - - Philæ; - temple on island of, 18; - buildings at, 19 - - Philip II. of Spain; - and decline of Spanish art, 145; - and the Escurial, 146; - cell of, in the Escurial, 149; - chair of, 150 - - Piazza of St. Mark (Venice), 142 - - Picture Gallery, Dresden, 177 - - Piers, Egyptian, 11 - - Pilasters, 52; 127; (and _see_ Antæ) - - Pillar of the Gateway Huldah, 44 - - Pillars; - of Great Hall of Audience, 38-41; - of Doric order, 52; - of San Miniato, 116; - of Ducal Palace, 142; - (and _see_ Columns) - - Pinacotica, near Baths of Caracalla, 81 - - Pinakothek (Dresden), 177 - - Pitti Palace, gallery of, 138, 154 - - Platerisco, 146 - - Platforms, Persian, 36 - - Pope, the, and Italian art, 154 - - Porches of Northern Italy, 112 - - Porte St. Denis (Paris), 164 - - Portico; - of basilica of St. Mark's, 115; - of the Court of Lions, 130; - the Ruhmeshalle, 176; - of Capitol at Washington, 183 - - Praxiteles and temple of Diana, 60, 61 - - Priene, temple of Athena at, 55 - - Priests, patrons of art during Middle Ages, 102 - - Primaticcio, 153 - - Prince Louis of Thuringia, 110 - - Promachos (_see_ Athena), 62 - - Propylæa; - Assyrian, 24; - of Acropolis, 62, 64 - - Proto-Doric order, 7 - - Ptolemies, 17 - - Public Library of Munich, 177 - - Pyramids of Cheops; 2; - size of, 3; - interior of, 4 - - Pyramids of Ghizeh; 3; - tombs near, 5 - - - Quatrefoil, 142 - - "Queen Anne style" in America, 186 - - - Rameses the Great. _See_ Colossi. - - Raphael, 140 - - Ratisbon, the Walhalla near, 178 - - Reformation, the, 133 - - Religion; - influencing Egyptian art, 8; - a factor in national architecture, 9 - - Renaissance; 104; 134; - buildings erected in Italy during, 142; - and Leonardo da Vinci, 145; - and Michael Angelo, 145; - and Raphael, 145; - in England, 166 - - Richelieu (cardinal), 154 - - "Ritter George," 111 - - Roman theatre, first, 80 - - Romanesque order, 87 - - Romanesque and Byzantine orders mingled, 122 - - Rome; - ruled by Etruscans, 71; - acqueducts and bridges of, 74; - earliest works of, directed by Etruscans, 74; - growth of Composite order in, 75; - temples of, 76; - interior architecture of, 76; - Pantheon of, 76-78; - basilicas of, 78; - decline of art in, 80; - theatres of, 80; - triumphal arches of, 81; - tombs of, 83-86; - domestic architecture of, 85; - influence of classic literature in, 133; - St. Peter's at, 138-140 - - Rood-screens, 107 - - Rose windows, 102 - - Rouen, custom house at, 162 - - Royal Palace at Munich, 177 - - Ruhmeshalle (Munich); - columns of, 176; - statue in front of, 176 - - Ruins; - Assyrian, 21; - Judean, 44; - of temple of Diana, at Ephesus, 60 - - Ruskin, John; - and Ducal Palace (Venice), 142; - teaching of, 171 - - - St. Bride's (Fleet Street), 168 - - St. Elizabeth of Hungary, 110 - - St. Eustache, church of (Paris), 154 - - St. Genevieve, church of (Paris), 158 - - St. George's Hall, Liverpool, 169 - - St. Germain; 103, 173 - - St. James's (Piccadilly), church of, 168 - - St. John Lateran, 89 - - St. Ludwig, church of (Munich), 175 - - St. Mark's (Venice), 114; - piazza of, 114; - portico of, 115 - - St. Mark's, Library of (Venice), 114 - - St. Paul's, cathedral of (London), 167 - - St. Paul's, Covent Garden, 166, 167 - - St. Paul's without the Walls; 88; - bronze gates of, 89; - columns of, 89 - - St. Peter's (Rome); - as compared with palace-temple, 8; - dome and cross of, 138; - and Michael Angelo, 138-140; - begun and finished, 138-140; - criticised, 140 - - St. Quentin, battle of, 146 - - St. Sophia, church of (Constantinople); - green jasper columns of, 61; 117; - and Justinian, 119; - Gibbon's description of, 119; - Paul Silentiarius's description of, 120 - - St. Vitale, church of (Ravenna), 123 - - San Carlo, opera house of (Naples), 180 - - San Miniato, church of (Florence), 115, 116 - - San Paolo fuori della Mura. _See_ St. Paul's without the Walls - - Sansovino, 142 - - Sta. Maria del Fiore. _See_ cathedral of Florence - - Sta. Maria Degli Angeli, church of, and Michael Angelo, 80 - - Saraceni. _See_ "the Easterns" - - Saracenic architecture, 123, 124; - principal homes of, 126; - study of, 132 - - Sargon, 26 - - Scaurus, Marcus, 80 - - Schliemann, 48 - - Sculpture Gallery of Munich, 177 - - Sculptures; - executed by Phidias, 64; - Gothic use of, in decoration, 107 - - Segovia, churches of, 146 - - Semiramis (Queen), and "Hanging Gardens," 30 - - Sennacherib, 26 - - Septimius Severus; - and Pantheon, 77; - arch of, 82; - wife of, 82 - - Sepulchres, 85 (and _see_ Tombs) - - Seti I., tomb of, 7 - - Sforza, Francesco, 144 - - Shaft of Tuscan column, 76 - - Shrines of Babylon, riches of, 31, 32 - - Shushan, 42 - - Sicilian architecture, remarkable style of, 116 - - Sicily, Christian art of, 116 - - Soufflot (architect), 158 - - Spain; - and Gothic art, 104, 105; - and Moorish architecture, 123; - and classic art, 134; - from time of fall of Granada, 145; - modern architecture of, 146; - domestic architecture of, 152; - people of, as artists, and Fergusson, 152, 153 - - Sphinx, 13 - - Spires, 98 - - Staircase of temple of Diana (Ephesus), 60 - - Staircases of Persepolis, 36 - - Statue of Bavaria, 176 - - Statues of the Escurial, 149, 150 - - Street of the Tripods, 68 - - Suphis. _See_ Cheops - - Susa, palace of, 34 - - Sutri, 72 - - Syene, granite of, in pyramids, 4 - - Symbol of Order of the Garter, 89 - - Symbolism of Gothic ornament, 107, 108 - - - Tacitus, 134 - - Tapestries of Escurial, 149 - - Temple; - of Karnak, 13; - of Luxor, 13; - of Denderah, 17; - of Philæ, 17; - influenced by Egypt, in building, 17; - of Birs-i-Nimrud, 32; - of Jerusalem, 44, 45; - earliest style of, in Greece, 48; - of Athena at Priene, 55; - of Diana at Ephesus, 60, - and Praxiteles, 60, 61, - and Theodosius I. (Emperor), 61, - burned by Goths, 61, - robbed by Nero, 61; - the Erechtheium as a, 65; - of Vesta, 89 - - Temple Court of palace of Khorsabad, 27 - - Temples; - of Babylon, 30; - of Rome, 76; - in the Court of the Lions, 130 - - Tenia, 52 - - Thais, 34 - - Theatres; - of Rome, 80; - list of most important, 179 - - Thebes; - "Tombs of the Kings" near, 7; - grandeur of ruins of, 7,8 - - Theodolinda; 90; - iron crown of, 92 - - Theodosius I., and temple of Diana, - 61; - and St. Paul's without the Walls, 88 - - Theresa, Queen of Louis I. of Bavaria, 176 - - Theresienhöhe, 177 - - Thermæ, 80 - - Titus, arch of, 82 - - Tomb; - of Seti I., 7; - of Cyrus, 42, 43; - of Darius, 43; - of Mausolus, 69, 70; - of Hadrian, 84 - - Tombs; - at Beni-Hassan, 5; near Pyramids, 5; - "of the kings," near Thebes, 7; - Persian, 42; - exploration of Persian, 43; - Etruscan, 73; - of Rome, 83-86 - - Toscanelli, 138 - - Tower; - of Birs-i-Nimrud, 32; - of Giotto, 112 - - Towers; - of Babylonish temples, 31; - in Gothic architecture, 98; - of Italy, in Middle Ages, 111; - of Westminster Abbey, 168 (and _see_ Campanile) - - Trajan; - basilica of, 79; - and arch of Beneventum, 82 - - Triglyphs, 53 - - Trinity Church; - Paris, 160; - Boston, 188; - New York, 188 - - Tripod, 68 - - Trojan war, 47 - - Troy, Schliemann's discoveries at, 48 - - Tudor age, Gothic style in, 170 - - Tumuli, 73 - - Tuscan order, 75, 76 - - - Ula, the, 126 - - United States; - capitols of, 181; - first buildings of, 181; - classic architecture and, 182; - cella divided in, 182; - characteristic types of edifices in, 188 - - University of Munich, 177 - - - Valentinian II., 88 - - Valladolid, cathedral of, 146 - - Van Rensselaer homestead, 184 - - Vatican compared with palace-temple, 8 - - Venice, architecture of, 114 - - Versailles, palace of, 162 - - Vesta, temple of, 89 - - Vignon, 160 - - Villa Borghese, palace of, 81 - - - Walhalla, 178, 179 - - Walls; - of Nineveh, 21; - of Babylon, 29 - - War office (Munich), 177 - - Wartburg, castle on, 109 - - Washington (U. S.), national capitol at, 182 - - Washington, George, and national capital, 182 - - Wren, Sir Christopher, 167, 168, 169 - - Wyatville, Sir Jeffrey, 170 - - - Xerxes, 37, 38 - - - Zahra, 129 - - - - -Transcriber's Notes: - - -Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant -preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. - -Simple typographical errors were corrected. - -Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained. - -Mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved between paragraphs and some -illustrations have been moved closer to the text that references them. - -Uncaptioned illustrations are decorative Headpieces or the publisher's -logo on the Title page. - -Most Index entries that did not match the referenced text have been -changed when the differences were hyphenation or accent marks. 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