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diff --git a/old/43588.txt b/old/43588.txt deleted file mode 100644 index c6eae43..0000000 --- a/old/43588.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9100 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Palestine, by Claude Reignier Conder - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Palestine - -Author: Claude Reignier Conder - -Release Date: August 28, 2013 [EBook #43588] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PALESTINE *** - - - - -Produced by Heiko Evermann, Chuck and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was -created from images of public domain material made available -by the University of Toronto Libraries -(http://link.library.utoronto.ca/booksonline/).) - - - - - - - - - - - The World's Great Explorers and Explorations. - - Edited by J. SCOTT KELTIE, Librarian, Royal Geographical Society; - H. J. MACKINDER, M.A., Reader in Geography at the University of - Oxford; and E. G. RAVENSTEIN, F.R.G.S. - - - - - PALESTINE. - -[Illustration: A PICTORIAL MAP OF JERUSALEM AND THE HOLY LAND, FOR THE -USE OF PILGRIMS. - -(_From a MS. of the 13th Century in the Burgundian Library at -Brussels._) - -_Frontispiece._] - - - - - PALESTINE. - - BY - - MAJOR C. R. CONDER, D.C.L., R.E. - - LEADER OF THE PALESTINE EXPLORING - EXPEDITION. - - NEW YORK - - DODD, MEAD & COMPANY - - PUBLISHERS - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The Editors of the present series having done me the honour to ask me -briefly to relate the story of Palestine Exploration, and especially of -the expeditions which I commanded; and having stipulated that the book -should contain not only an account of the more interesting results of -that work, but also something of the personal adventures of those -employed, I have endeavoured to record what seems of most interest in -both respects. - -Many things here said will be found at greater length in previous works -which I have written, scattered through several volumes amid more -special subjects. I hope, however, that the reader will discover also a -good deal that is not noticed in those volumes; for the sources of -information concerning ancient Palestine are constantly increasing; and, -among others, I may mention, that the series of Palestine Pilgrim Texts, -edited by Sir Charles Wilson, has added greatly to our knowledge, and -has enabled me to understand many things which were previously doubtful. - -The full story of the dangers and difficulties through which the work -was brought to a successful conclusion cannot be given in these pages, -and no one recognises more than I do the imperfections which--as in all -human work--have caused it here and there to fall short of the ideal -which we set before us. What can, however, be claimed for Palestine -exploration is, that the ideal was always as high as modern scientific -demands require. The explorations were conducted without reference to -preconceived theory, or to any consideration other than the discovery of -facts. The conclusions which different minds may draw from the facts -must inevitably differ, but the facts will always remain as a scientific -basis on which the study of Palestine in all ages must be henceforth -founded. - -I fear that even now, after so much has been written, the facts are not -always well known--certainly they have often been misrepresented. It is -my desire, as far as possible, in these pages to summarise those facts -which seem most important, while giving a sketch of the mode of research -whereby they were brought to light. - - C. R. C. - - _Note._--The maps illustrating this volume have been revised by - Major Conder, who is more especially responsible for those of the - Kingdom of Jerusalem and of Modern Palestine. The geological - sketch-map embodies Major Conder's researches, as also the - important explorations of Dr. K. Diener in the Lebanon.--ED. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - -CHAP. PAGE - -INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER 1 - -I. EXPLORATIONS IN JUDEA 22 - -II. THE SURVEY OF SAMARIA 59 - -III. RESEARCHES IN GALILEE 83 - -IV. THE SURVEY OF MOAB 134 - -V. EXPLORATIONS IN GILEAD 171 - -VI. NORTHERN SYRIA 190 - -VII. THE RESULTS OF EXPLORATION 214 - - -APPENDICES:-- - -NOTE ON JERUSALEM EXCAVATION 247 - -INDEX OF OLD TESTAMENT SITES IDENTIFIED IN -PALESTINE 252 - -INDEX OF NEW TESTAMENT SITES IDENTIFIED IN -PALESTINE 262 - - -INDEX 267 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS. - - -_FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS._ - -1. A Pictorial Map of Jerusalem and the Holy Land -for the use of Pilgrims (_from a MS. of the 13th -Century in the Burgundian Library at Brussels_) _Frontispiece_ - -2. The Plain of Jericho, as seen from Ai _to face page_ 35 - -3. The Dead Sea (view S.E. of Taiyibeh) " 43 - -4. Alphabets of Western Asia " 173 - -5. Jebel Sannin (Lebanon) " 192 - - -_ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT._ - -Portrait of Dr. Robinson (_from a photograph_) _page_ 16 - -Portrait of Sir C. Wilson (_from a photograph by Maull & Fox_) " 17 - -Portrait of Sir C. Warren (_from a photograph_) " 18 - -Desert of Beersheba " 53 - -Kurn Sartaba " 68 - -The Jordan Valley ('Esh el Ghurab) " 73 - -A Camp in the Jordan Valley " 80 - -Mount Tabor " 86 - -Carmel " 88 - -Nain " 93 - -The Sea of Galilee " 99 - -Krak des Chevaliers (Kala't el Hosn) " 108 - -Moab Mountains from the Plain of Shittim " 142 - -A Dolmen west of Heshbon " 144 - -View of Dead Sea from Mount Nebo " 158 - -Hittites from Abu Simbel " 198 - -Hamath Stone, No. 1 " 200 - - -_MAPS (Printed in Colours)._ - -I. General Map of Palestine _facing page_ 1 - -II. Physical Map of Palestine _at end_ - -III. Geological Map of Palestine " - -IV. Palestine as divided among the Twelve Tribes " - -V. Palestine " - -VI. The Kingdom of Jerusalem, showing the Fiefs, about 1187 A.D. " - -VII. Modern Palestine, showing the Turkish Provinces " - - -_MAPS IN TEXT._ - -Palestine and Syria according to Ptolemy, _c._ 100 A.D. _page_ 2 - -A Section of Peutinger's Table " 4 - -Marin Sanuto's Map of the Holy Land, 1321 " 12 - -The Holy Land, from the Atlas of Ortelius, _c._ 1591 " 14 - -[Illustration: PALESTINE] - - - - -PALESTINE. - - - - -_INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER._ - - -The long narrow strip of country on the east shore of the Mediterranean, -which in a manner was the centre of the ancient world, has in all ages -been a land of pilgrimage. For five hundred miles it stretches from the -deserts of Sinai to the rugged Taurus, and its width, shut in between -the Syrian deserts and the sea, is rarely more than fifty miles. It can -never be quite the same to us as other lands, bound up as it is with our -earliest memories, with the Bible and the story of the faith; and it is -to the credit of our native land that we have been the first to gather -that complete account of the country, of its ancient remains, and of its -present inhabitants, which (if we except India) does not exist in equal -exactness for any other Eastern land. - -The oldest explorer of Palestine--if we do not reckon Abraham--was the -brave King Thothmes III., who marched his armies throughout its whole -length on his way towards Euphrates. Many are the pilgrims and -conquerors who have followed the same great highways along which he -went. When, in the early Christian ages, the land became sacred to -Europe, the patient pilgrims of Italy, and even of Gaul, journeyed along -the shores of Asia Minor, and sometimes were able to reach the Holy -City, and to bring back to their homes some account of the country; -while in later ages the pilgrims came not singly, but in hosts -continually increasing, and finally as crusaders, colonists, and -traders. - -[Illustration: PALESTINE AND PART OF SYRIA ACCORDING TO PTOLEMY, _c._ -100 A.D.] - -The literature of Palestine exploration begins, therefore, with the -establishment of Christianity. Before that date we have very little -outside the Bible except in the works of Josephus, whose descriptions, -though at times unreliable as regards measurement, are invaluable as the -accounts of an eye-witness of the state of the country before the -destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. We have scattered notes in the -Talmud, in Pliny, in Ptolemy,[1] in Strabo, and in other classic works, -which have been collected by the care of Reland and of later writers; -but it was only when the Holy Land became a land of pilgrimage for -Christians that itineraries and detailed accounts of its towns and holy -places began to be penned. - -The Bordeaux pilgrim[2] actually visited Jerusalem while Constantine's -basilica was being built over the supposed site of the Holy Sepulchre, -and in Palestine his brief record of stations and distances is expanded -into notes on the places which he found most revered by Syrian -Christians. In the same reign, Eusebius, the historian of the Church, -constructed an Onomasticon, which answered roughly to the modern -geographical gazetteer. His aim--and that of Jerome, who rather later -rendered this work from Greek into Latin, adding notes of his own--was -to identify as far as possible the places mentioned in the Old and New -Testaments with places existing in the country as known to themselves. -This work is both scholarly and honest in intention, but the traditions -on which Eusebius and Jerome relied have not in all cases proved to be -reconcilable with the Biblical requirements as studied by modern -science. The Onomasticon is, however, of great importance as regards the -topography of Palestine in the fourth century, and has often led to the -recovery of yet more ancient sites, which might otherwise have been -lost. Jerome had an intimate personal knowledge, not only of the country -round Jerusalem and Bethlehem, where he lived so long, but also of the -whole of Western Palestine. Places east of Jordan are noticed in the -Onomasticon, but that region was less perfectly known to the Christian -co-authors of this work. In the fourth century the Roman roads were -marked by milestones, and thus the distances given by Eusebius and -Jerome are actual, and not computed distances. Measurement on the Survey -map, which shows these milestones whereever they remain by the roadside, -proves that for the most part the Onomasticon distances are very -correct, and the sites of places so described can, as a rule, be -recovered with little difficulty. - -[Illustration: A SECTION OF PEUTINGER'S TABLE.] - -The Peutinger Tables, representing the Roman map of Palestine about 393 -A.D., give us also the distances along these roads; but the knowledge of -the map-maker as to the region east of Jordan was most imperfect, and -the map, which presents no latitudes or longitudes, is much distorted. -To the same century belongs Jerome's elegant letter on the travels of -his pious friend Paula, which is, however, but a slight sketch, more -remarkable for its eloquence and fanciful illustration of Scripture -than for topographical description.[3] - -A short tract--very valuable, however, to the student of Jerusalem -topography--was penned by Eucherius in the fifth century; and in the -sixth we have the account by Theodorus (or Theodosius) of the Holy Land -in the days of Justinian.[4] The eulogistic record by Procopius of the -buildings of Justinian also gives accounts and references to the names -of his monasteries and churches in Palestine, which are of considerable -use.[5] In the same reign also (about 530 A.D.) Antoninus Martyr[6] set -forth from Piacenza, and journeyed to Constantinople, Cyprus, Syria, and -Palestine. He even crossed the Jordan and went through the Sinaitic -desert to Egypt. Like the Bordeaux pilgrim, Antoninus was a firm -believer in the apocryphal Gospels, which already began to be held in -high estimation. The former pilgrim repeats stories from the Gospel of -the Hebrews; the latter, in addition, refers to the Gospel of the -Infancy; but, in spite of the superstitious tone of the narrative of -Antoninus, his itinerary is valuable, because it covers the whole region -west of Jordan, and contains notes of contemporary custom and belief -which are of great antiquarian interest. - -The conquest of Palestine by Omar did not by any means lead to the -closing of the country to Christians. One of the best known and most -detailed accounts of the Holy Land written up to that time was taken -down from the lips of the French Bishop Arculphus[7] by Adamnan, Bishop -of Iona, about 680 A.D., in the monastery of Hy. It appears that Arculph -was in Palestine during the reign of Mu'awiyeh, the first independent -Khalif of Syria ruling in Damascus, and the same policy of toleration -and peace which was inaugurated by this ruler enabled St. Willibald in -722 A.D.[8] to journey through the whole length of the land. These -writers are concerned chiefly in description of the holy places, which -increased in number and in celebrity from century to century. Arculphus -constantly interrupts his narrative with pious legends, much resembling -those of the modern Roman Catholic guide-books to Palestine, though some -of the sites which were correctly identified by these early Christian -pilgrims were transferred by the Latin priests of the twelfth century to -impossible localities, where they are still in some cases shown to -Latins, while the older tradition survives among the Greek Christians. -We often encounter an interesting note in these pilgrim diaries, such as -Arculphus' description of the pine-wood north of Hebron, now represented -by but a few scattered trees. St. Willibald seems to have been regarded -as a harmless hermit, who, when once the object of his journey was -understood, was allowed by the "Commander of the Faithful" to travel in -peace throughout the land. - -In the reign of Charlemagne good political relations existed between -that monarch and the Khalif of Baghdad, Harun er Rashid. The keys of -Jerusalem were presented to the Western monarch, who founded a hospice -for the Latins in that city. About half a century later, at the time -when Baghdad was at the height of its glory as a centre of literature -and civilisation, Bernard, called the Wise,[9] with two other monks, one -Italian, the other Spanish, visited the Holy Land from Egypt, and they -were able to obtain permits which were respected by the local governors. - -The rise of the Fatemites in Egypt altered materially the status of the -Christians in Syria. We have no known Christian account of Palestine -between the ninth and twelfth centuries. Hakem, the mad Khalif of Egypt, -destroyed the Christian churches in Jerusalem in 1010 A.D., and the -country seems to have been then closed to pilgrims. - -During this period, however, we have at least two important works, -namely, that of El Mukaddasi (about 985 A.D.), and the journey of Nasir -i Khusrau in 1047 A.D.[10] El Mukaddasi ("the man of Jerusalem") was so -named from his native town, his real name being Shems ed Din. He -describes the whole of Syria, its towns and holy places (or Moslem -sanctuaries), its climate, religion, commerce, manners and customs, and -local marvellous sights. The legends are no less wonderful than those of -his monkish predecessors, but his notes are often of great historical -interest, and he is the earliest writer as yet known who plainly -ascribes the building of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem to its real -author, the Khalif 'Abd el Melek. It is remarkable that he speaks of -the Syrian Moslems as living in constant terror of the Greek pirates, -who descended on the coasts and made slaves of the inhabitants, whom -they carried off to Constantinople. The Christians were still, he says, -numerous in Jerusalem, and "unmannerly in public places." The power of -the Khalifs was indeed at this time greatly shaken by the schisms of -Islam, and the Greek galleys invaded the ports, which had to be closed -by iron chains. The Samaritans appear to have flourished at this time as -well as the Jews, and the Samaritan Chronicle, which commences in the -twelfth century, speaks of this sect as very widely spread even earlier, -in the sixth and seventh centuries A.D. - -Abu Muin Nasir, son of Khusrau, was born near Balkh, and journeyed -through Media and Armenia by Palestine to Cairo, thence to Mecca and -Basrah, and back through Persia to Merv and Balkh, the whole time spent -being seven years. He gives good general accounts of Jerusalem, Hebron, -and other places, though his description does not materially add to our -information. - -The rise of the Seljuks boded little good to Syria. Melek Shah in 1073 -A.D. conquered Damascus, and by the end of the century Jerusalem groaned -under the Turkish tyranny. It was at this time--just before the conquest -of the Holy City, which had been wrested from the Turks by the -Egyptians--that Foucher of Chartres began his chronicle of the first -Crusade, which contains useful topographical notes. The great history of -the Latin Kingdom by William of Tyre is full of interesting information -as to the condition of the country under its Norman rulers (1182-85 -A.D.), and to this we must add the Chronicles of Raymond d'Agiles and -Albert of Aix, which belong to the time of the first Crusade.[11] - -Two other early works of the Crusading period are of special value. -Saewulf[12] visited the Holy Land in 1102 A.D., before the building of -most of the Norman castles and cathedrals; and the Russian Abbot Daniel, -whose account has only recently been translated into English,[13] is -believed to have arrived as early as 1106 A.D. From Ephesus he went to -Patmos and Cyprus, and thence to Jerusalem and all over Western -Palestine. His account is one of the fullest that we possess for the -earliest Crusading period. In the middle of the twelfth century we have -the topographical account by Fetellus,[14] which refers to places not -generally described; and rather later we have the valuable descriptions -by Theodoricus and John of Wirzburg,[15] while only two years before -Saladin's conquest of Jerusalem, John Phocas[16] wrote a shorter account -in Greek upon silk, which is interesting as the work of a Greek -ecclesiastic at a time when the Latins were the dominant sect. The names -of monasteries in the Jordan Valley, otherwise unnoticed, are -recoverable in his account. - -Much interesting topographical information of this period is to be found -in the Cartulary of the Holy Sepulchre,[17] which gives striking -evidence of the rapidly increasing possessions of the Latin Church, due -to the gifts and legacies of kings and barons. The cartularies of the -great orders and the laws contained in the Assizes of Jerusalem are -equally important to an understanding of Palestine under the rule of its -feudal monarchs. It is possible to reconstruct the map of the country at -this period in a very complete manner from such material.[18] - -The Jews were not encouraged in Syria by the Normans. Benjamin of -Tudela, however, made his famous journey from Saragossa in 1160, and -returned in 1173 after visiting Palestine, Persia, Sinai, and Egypt; he -was interested in the "lost tribes," whom the mediaeval Jews recognised -in the Jewish kingdom of the Khozars in the Caucasus, and his account of -Palestine is a valuable set-off to those of the Christian visitors.[19] -We have pilgrimages by Rabbis in later centuries, viz., Rabbi Bar Simson -in 1210 A.D., Rabbi Isaac Chelo of Aragon in 1334, and others of the -fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries.[20] These refer chiefly -to the holy cities of the Jews, especially to Tiberias and Safed in -Galilee, and record visits to the tombs of celebrated Rabbis, many of -which are still preserved, and some yet visited by the Jews of -Palestine. Several important points regarding early Christian and -Talmudic topography are cleared up by these works. - -One of the favourite accounts of the Holy City and of Palestine at the -time of its conquest by Saladin was written by an unknown author, and -was reproduced in the thirteenth century in the Chronicle of Ernoul.[21] -There are many manuscripts of this, as of earlier works, which were -preserved in the monasteries of Europe, and recopied by students who -seem to have had little idea of the importance of preserving the -original purity of their text. Some of the versions are mere abstracts, -some are supplemented by paraphrases from Scripture. The original work -known as the _Citez de Jherusalem_ was evidently penned by one who had -long lived in the Holy City, and knew every street, church, and -monastery. He gives us the Frankish names for the streets, and the -topography is easily traced in the modern city. There are perhaps few -towns which are better known than Jerusalem in the latter part of the -twelfth century A.D., and the varying manuscripts throw an interesting -light on the way in which errors and variations crept into a popular -work before the invention of printing. - -The vivid and spirited chronicle of the campaigns of Richard Lion-Heart -by Geoffrey de Vinsauf (1189-1192 A.D.) informs us of the condition of -the maritime region, and describes a part of Palestine which few have -visited, between Haifa and Jaffa, as well as the region east of Ascalon -and as far south as the border of Egypt. The topography of this -chronicle I studied on the ground with great care in 1873-75. The -charming pages of Joinville, though of great interest as describing the -unfortunate Crusade of St. Louis in 1256 A.D., contain much less of -geographical value than the preceding.[22] - -[Illustration: MAP OF MARIN SANUTO.] - -In the fourteenth century men's minds were often occupied with schemes -for the recovery of the Holy Places. Marino Sanuto, a Venetian noble, -who is said to have travelled in the East, wrote an elaborate work on -the subject, which he presented to Pope John in 1321. The greater part -is taken up with his views as to the military steps necessary for an -expedition against the Saracens, but a very full gazetteer of Palestine, -with a map, is also introduced into the work. Some have doubted whether -Marino Sanuto ever visited Palestine. His information is, however, very -correct on the whole, and his account of roads, springs, and other -features appears to be founded on reliable observation. - -During the transition period of the struggle between Christendom and -Islam, Palestine had narrowly escaped the horrors of a Mongol invasion. -Mangu Khan, to whom St. Louis had sent the mild and pious William de -Rubruquis at his distant capital of Karakorum (in Mongolia) in 1253, was -defeated by the Egyptian Sultan Kelaun, successor of the terrible -Bibars, in 1280, and had already been defeated in 1276 by Bibars himself -near La Chamelle (now Homs) in Northern Syria. A very interesting letter -has lately been published by Mr. Basevi Sanders from Sir Joseph de Cancy -in Palestine to Edward the First in England,[23] written in 1281, and -describing the later defeat near Le Lagon (the Lake of Homs), which -saved the country from the cruelty from which other lands were then -suffering. The Mameluk Sultans ruled in Palestine down to 1516 A.D., -when the Turkish Selim overthrew their power at Aleppo, since which time -Palestine has been a Turkish province. During the three centuries of -Mameluk rule there are many descriptions, Christian and Moslem, of the -country, and the well-known Travels of Sir John Mandeville are among the -earliest. He was a contemporary of Marino Sanuto, and although those -portions of the work (with which he consoled his rheumatic old age) that -refer to more distant lands are made up from various sources, going back -to the fables of Pliny and Solinus, still the account of Palestine -itself appears to be original, and contains passages (such as that which -relates to the fair held near Banias) which show special knowledge of -the country. In 1432 Sir Bertrandon de la Brocquiere, with other -knights, made an adventurous journey through the whole length of the -country, and through Northern Syria and Asia Minor to -Constantinople.[24] To the same period belongs John Poloner's -description, which shows us how tenaciously the Latin monks held to -their possessions in the Holy Land.[25] - -[Illustration: THE HOLY LAND, FROM THE ATLAS OF ORTELIUS, _c._ 1591.] - -In the fifteenth century we have Moslem accounts by Kemal ed Din and -Mejr ed Din, which are of value in tracing the architectural history of -Jerusalem. Mejr ed Din was Kady of the city, and his topographical -account, though brief, is minutely detailed.[26] Among other Christian -travellers of this century, Felix Fabri (1483-84), a Dominican monk, has -left one of the best accounts. But how little these later Christian -pilgrims contributed to enlarging our exact knowledge of Palestine may -be judged of from such a map as that contributed by Christian Schrot to -the Atlas of Ortelius, a map very decidedly inferior to that supplied -more than two centuries earlier by Marino Sanuto. - -Of travellers who visited Palestine during the early Turkish period, the -first in importance is the shrewd and moderate Maundrell (1697 -A.D.).[27] He was chaplain of the English factory at Aleppo, which dated -back to the time of Elizabeth, and the account of his travels shows that -it was more difficult to traverse Palestine in his days than to -penetrate into Eastern Mongolia in the days of Rubruquis and Marco Polo. -Among the tyrannical chiefs of various small districts who robbed and -annoyed him was Sheikh Shibleh near Jenin, whose tomb is now a sacred -shrine on the hill above Kefr Kud. Of this holy man he records that "he -eased us in a very courteous manner of some of our coats, which now (the -heat both of the climate and season increasing upon us) began to grow -not only superfluous but burdensome." - -In these early days travelling was perilous, and, as a rule, only -possible in disguise. In 1803 the journey of Seetzen was specially -valuable, and the travels of the celebrated Burckhardt followed soon -after in 1809-16. Both these explorers died in the East before their -self-allotted tasks were complete. In 1816 Buckingham (still remembered -by the elder generation as a gallant explorer) visited Palestine, and in -1817 Irby and Mangles made an adventurous journey in the country east -of the Jordan. Their account is still valuable for this region. From -that time forward the accounts of personal visits to the country become -too numerous to be here recorded. The names of Bartlett, Wilson, Tobler, -Thomson, Lynch, De Saulcy, Van de Velde, Williams, and Porter are among -the better known of those who preceded or were contemporary with the -celebrated Robinson. - -[Illustration: PORTRAIT OF DR. EDWARD ROBINSON (_Born 1794, Died -1863_).] - -But it was only in 1838 that really scientific exploration of Palestine -began with the journey of the famous American (Dr. Robinson), whose -works long continued to be the standard authority on Palestine -geography, and whose bold and original researches have been so fully -confirmed by the excavations and explorations of the last twenty years. - -[Illustration: PORTRAIT OF SIR CHARLES WILSON. _From a Photograph by -Maull & Fox, Piccadilly._] - -To this same period, preceding actual surveys, belongs the work of De -Vogue, whose monographs on the Temple, the Dome of the Rock, the -churches of Palestine, and his splendid volume of plates for Northern -Syrian architecture, together with his collection and decipherment of -various early inscriptions in the country, give him the highest rank as -an Orientalist. With his name must be coupled that of Waddington, who -first attempted to form a corpus of Greek texts from inscriptions found -in Palestine, while the standard authority on Phoenician and Hebrew -texts is the recently published corpus of Semitic inscriptions by Renan. - -[Illustration: PORTRAIT OF SIR C. WARREN.] - -Sir C. W. Wilson's survey of Jerusalem and travels in Palestine in -1864-66, and his subsequent exploration of the Sinaitic desert in 1867, -roused public attention to the neglected state of Palestine geography, -leading to the execution for the Palestine Exploration Fund of the -wonderful excavations by Sir C. Warren at Jerusalem. These excavations -round the walls of the old Temple area, carried out in the teeth of -fanatic and political obstruction, have enabled us to replace the weary -controversies of half a century ago by the actual results of measurement -and scientific exploration. Sir Charles Wilson's already published -survey of the Holy City, his reconnaissances throughout the length of -the Palestine watershed, preceding his Sinai Expedition, his survey of -the Sea of Galilee, and his exact determination of the level of the Dead -Sea, 1292 feet below the Mediterranean, were the first efforts of modern -science to supply really valuable statistics concerning Palestine -itself. The shafts and tunnels of Sir Charles Warren were the first -serious attempts of the engineer to place our knowledge of Jerusalem on -an equal footing with that which had been in like manner attained at -Nineveh and Babylon some twenty years before. - -It was by the advice of these experienced explorers that the survey of -Palestine from Dan to Beersheba, and from the Jordan to the Great Sea, -was undertaken, a work which commenced in 1872, was completed in the -field in 1877, but not fully published till 1882. It is with this work -that the present volume is chiefly concerned, since it was my good -fortune to conduct the parties almost from the first, and to carry out -the publication of the maps and memoirs. It had first been intended that -Captain Stewart, R.E., should have commanded the party, but that officer -was unfortunate in falling ill almost at once on reaching the field of -work; and it was through the kindness of the late Major Anderson, R.E., -the comrade of Sir Charles Wilson in Palestine, that my name was brought -forward as one who had been deeply interested in the work of previous -explorers, and who desired to act as Captain Stewart's assistant. By the -sudden illness of that officer, the non-commissioned officers were left -in Palestine without a military superior; and as my military education -at Chatham had just been completed, I was fortunate in being selected, -at the age of not quite twenty-four years, to the command of the Survey -Expedition. - -Since the completion of the survey of Western Palestine, the survey of -Moab, Gilead, and Bashan has been commenced. In 1881 I set out in charge -of a small party, hoping to finish this new enterprise in about three -years' time. But alas! I found much change in Syria during the interval -of my absence. The suspicions of the Sultan were aroused; the Turkish -Government refused to believe in the genuineness of our desire to obtain -antiquarian knowledge. Political intrigues were rife, and after -struggling against these difficulties for fifteen months, after -surveying secretly about five hundred square miles of the most -interesting country east of the Dead Sea, and after vainly attempting to -obtain the consent of the Sultan to further work, it became necessary to -recall the party in the same year in which the researches of Mr. Rassam -in Chaldea were suspended and a general veto placed on all systematic -exploration. - -Since that year, however, a little work has been done from time to time -by residents in communication with the Home Society. Herr Schumacher, a -young German colonist, has made some excellent maps of parts of Bashan, -and Dr. Hull has explored the geology of the district south of the Dead -Sea, while further discoveries have even been made in Jerusalem by Herr -Konrad Schick, who has recovered part of the second wall and one of the -important pools (the Piscina Interior) in the north-east corner of the -city. - -The most interesting result of Herr Schumacher's journeys have been the -discovery of the sites of Hippos and Kokaba east of the Sea of Galilee, -and of dolmen centres like those which I found in Moab. - -The task with which I am charged is, however, to give a general account -of the exploration of Palestine conducted by the parties under my -command; and taking the subject roughly in the order of date of survey, -I hope to show that not only in a geographical sense, but also as a -contribution to the true understanding of the ancient history of the -East, our labours were not in vain, and our method was such as to give -exhaustive results. - -In concluding this introductory sketch, I should wish to point out that -the Palestine of 1889 is not the Palestine which I entered in 1872. -Partly on account of the work of the Palestine Exploration Fund, partly -because of political changes, the number of travellers has enormously -increased. In 1873 it was possible to visit villages where the face of a -Frank had never been seen, but now even the Arabs beyond Jordan are -often brought in contact with Europeans. Such a chance of studying the -archaic manners of the peasantry and the natural condition of the -nomadic Arabs as we enjoyed cannot now recur. For six years I lived -entirely among the peasantry, but since then war, cruel taxation, and -the rapacity of usurers has broken up and ruined the peasant society as -it existed fifteen years ago. In 1882 I saw only too plainly the change -that had come over the land. The Palestine of the early years of the -Survey hardly now exists. The country is a Levantine land, where Western -fabrics, Western ideas, and even Western languages, meet the traveller -at every point. In the present pages I have attempted to give some idea -of the country as it was in the last years of its truly Oriental -condition, with a peasantry as yet hardly quite tamed by the Turk, and -regions as yet hardly traversed by the European explorer. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -_EXPLORATIONS IN JUDEA._ - - -Nearly every tourist in Palestine lands at Jaffa, and thence travels to -Jerusalem. The open roadstead, the yellow dunes, the distant shadowy -mountains, the brown town on its hillock, the palms, the orange-gardens -and the picturesque crowd are familiar to very many of my readers. So -are the paths over the plain, the mud villages and cactus hedges, the -great minaret tower of Ramleh, and the rough mountains, with scattered -copses of mastic and oak, with stone hamlets and terraced olive groves, -through which lies the way to the Holy City. - -When first I traversed this road in July 1872, it was less frequented -than it is now. The long rows of Jewish cottages which first meet the -eye on reaching the plateau west of the city were not then built, and -Mr. Cook's signboard was not fixed to the ancient walls of Jerusalem. -The increase of the population by the arrival of 15,000 European Jews -had not commenced, and what has now been gained in prosperity has been -lost in picturesque antiquity of appearance. Jerusalem was then still an -Oriental, but has now become what is known as a Levantine town. - -The winters of 1873, of 1874, and of 1881 I spent within the walls, and -many other visits were necessary from time to time; but our work lay in -the country, and it was only here and there that we were able to add new -details to the exhaustive and scientific records of Sir Charles Wilson -and Sir Charles Warren in Jerusalem itself. My first impression was one -of disappointment. The city is small, the hills are stony, barren, and -shapeless. One seemed always to be traversing bylanes, so narrow were -the steep streets, which afterwards became so familiar. But Jerusalem is -a city which to the student becomes more interesting the longer he -explores the remains of a past stretching back through the proud days of -the Crusading kingdom to the glories of the Arab Khalifate, to the -quaint superstitions of the Byzantines, to the greatness of the -Herodians, to the earlier civilisation of the Hebrews. Relics still -remain of the works of every age, from the time when David first fixed -his throne on Sion; and even after fifteen years of exploration a great -discovery remained to be made in the finding of the only Hebrew -inscription, as yet known in Western Palestine, which dates back to the -times of the kings of Judah. - -Space will not allow of a complete account of Jerusalem, which may be -found in the publications of the Palestine Exploration Fund.[28] Few -scenes in the East remain more distinctly printed on the memory than do -those connected with life in Jerusalem. The motley crowd in its lanes, -where every race of Europe and of Western Asia meets; the gloomy -churches; the beauty of the Arab chapel of the Rock; the strange -fanaticism of the Greek festival of the Holy Fire; the dervish -processions issuing from the old Temple area; the pathetic wailing at -the Temple wall; the Jewish Passover; the horns blown at the feast of -Tabernacles; Russian, Armenian, Greek, and Georgian pilgrims; the Christ -crucified by Franciscan monks in the gilded chapel of Calvary; the poor -whose feet are washed by a crowned bishop--all remain in the memory with -the mighty ramparts of the city as seen by Christ and His disciples, and -the blue goggles of the tourist from the West. No other town presents -such an epitome of history, or gathers a crowd so representative of East -and West. - -There are only two discoveries to which I propose to refer, as being the -most important since the closing of Sir Charles Warren's mines. These -are the discovery of the Temple rampart and that of the Siloam -inscription. The extent of the Temple area, as rebuilt by Herod the -Great, was defined by the excavations which Sir Charles Warren carried -down to the rock foundations, in some parts by mines 70 to 100 feet -deep,[29] but in no part did he find the ancient walls rising above the -level of the inner court. The north-west corner of the area is occupied -by barracks, standing on the cliff which was once crowned by the citadel -of Antonia; and outside this cliff is the rock-cut trench, converted -later into a covered double pool, which the Christians of the fourth -century regarded as Bethesda. From this pool a narrow lofty tunnel leads -southwards through the cliff. It is an ancient aqueduct, which was -stopped up by the building of the Temple wall. Sir Charles Warren -explored it with great difficulty on a raft on the sewage with which it -was filled; but in 1873 was cleared out by the city authorities, and I -was able to explore it at leisure. At the very end, through a hole in -the floor, it was possible to reach a chamber over this rocky passage, -built against the Temple wall and lighted by a window which looks into -the north-west part of the Temple court. The east wall of the chamber is -the ancient wall built by Herod, and here I found the same great drafted -stones which occur in the foundations. I also found that the wall was -adorned outside above the ground-level by projecting buttresses, just -like those of the enclosure at Hebron, to be mentioned immediately. We -are thus able to picture the appearance of the great ramparts of -Herod's Temple enclosure, with such buttresses running round the walls -and capped by a boldly corbelled cornice, presenting the same simple and -massive appearance which may still be seen in the smaller enclosure -round the tombs of the Patriarchs at Hebron. - -The discovery of the Siloam inscription was an instance of the -accidental manner in which important monuments are often recovered; yet, -as in other cases, it was due to the education which the native -population receives from the scientific explorer. Had the importance of -such discoveries not been impressed on the minds of natives, it is -possible that the Jewish boy who, falling down in the water of the -narrow aqueduct, first observed the only known relic of the writing of -his ancestors in King Hezekiah's days, would not have been conscious how -valuable a discovery he had made on a spot visited by more than one -eager explorer who passed unconscious by the silent text. - -On the east side of Jerusalem runs the deep Kedron gorge; under the -Temple walls on its western slope a rock chamber contains the one spring -of Jerusalem, known as the Virgin's Fountain to Christians, and as the -"Mother of Steps" to Moslems, because of the stairs which lead down into -the vault from the present surface of the valley, as raised by the -accumulated rubbish of twenty-five centuries of stormy history. This -spring, with its intermittent rush of waters welling up under the steps, -is the En Rogel of the Old Testament, and I believe the Bethesda or -"House of the Stream," the troubling of whose waters is mentioned in the -fourth Gospel. From the back of the rock chamber a passage, also -rock-cut, and scarcely large enough in places for a grown man to squeeze -through, runs south under the Ophel hill for about a third of a mile, -to the reservoir which is the undisputed site of the ancient Pool of -Siloam. The course of the channel is serpentine, and the farther end -near the Pool of Siloam enlarges into a passage of considerable height. -Down this channel the waters of the spring rush to the pool whenever the -sudden flow takes place. In autumn there is an interval of several days; -in winter the sudden flow takes place sometimes twice in a day. A -natural syphon from an underground basin accounts for this flow, as also -for that of the "Sabbatic river" in North Syria. When it occurs, the -narrow parts of the passage are filled to the roof with water. - -This passage was explored by Dr. Robinson, Sir Charles Wilson, Sir -Charles Warren, and others, but the inscription on the rock close to the -mouth of the tunnel was not seen, being then under water. When it was -found in 1880 by a boy who entered from the Siloam end of the passage, -it was almost obliterated by the deposit of lime crystals on the -letters. Professor Sayce, then in Palestine, made a copy, and was able -to find out the general meaning of the text. In 1881 Dr. Guthe, a German -explorer, cleaned the text with a weak acid solution, and I was then -able, with the aid of Lieutenant Mantell, R.E., to take a proper -"squeeze." It was a work of labour and requiring patience, for on two -occasions we sat for three or four hours cramped up in the water in -order to obtain a perfect copy of every letter, and afterwards to verify -these copies by examining each letter with the candle placed so as to -throw the light from right, left, top and bottom. Only by such labour -can reliable copies be made. We were rewarded by sending home the first -accurate copy published in Europe, and were able to settle many -disputed points raised by the imperfect copy of the text before it was -cleaned. An excellent cast was afterwards made. - -The contents of the text, which now ranks as one of the most valuable -found in the East, are not of historic importance. The six lines of -beautifully chiselled letters record only the making of the tunnel, -which seems to have been regarded as a triumph of Hebrew engineering -skill. It was begun from both ends, and the workmen heard the sound of -the picks of the other party in the bowels of the hill, and called to -their fellows. Thus guided, they advanced and broke through; the two -tunnels proving to be only a few feet out of line. No date, no royal -name, or other means of ascertaining the age of the text exist; yet our -knowledge is enough to fix very closely, from the forms of the letters, -the century in which it must have been written. It is probably to this -tunnel that the Bible refers in noting the water-works of King Hezekiah -(2 Chron. xxxii. 30); and the text shows us that monumental writing was -in use among the Hebrews about 700 B.C. The differences between these -Hebrew letters and those used by the Phoenicians of the same age also -show us that writing must have been familiar to the inhabitants of -Jerusalem for many centuries before the time when this text was -engraved; and it thus becomes the first monumental proof of the early -civilisation of the Hebrews which has been drawn from their own records -on the rock. - -Being aware of the contents of the text, we determined to re-explore and -survey the whole length of the tunnel, in order to see if any other -texts could be found, and to discover if possible the exact place where -the two parties of workmen met, on that day 2580 years before, when -they heard each others' voices through the rock. Followed by Lieutenant -Mantell and Mr. G. Armstrong, I crawled over the mud and sharp pebbles -for the whole distance, dragging with us a chain, and taking compass -angles, which were entered in a wet note-book by the light of a candle -often put out by the water. We also suffered from the bites of the -leeches and from the want of air; but our chief danger was the sudden -rise of the water, which might have caught us in that narrow part of the -passage, where, crawling flat, we were hardly able to squeeze through -and to keep our lights burning. We noted, however, two shafts to which -we might retire if the water rose, and which were perhaps made in order -to allow the workmen to stand upright at times and rest. It is almost -impossible to suppose that the narrowest parts were excavated by grown -men; at all events, they must have been narrower in the shoulders than -the explorers; but I believe that boys were probably employed. In this -narrow part no inscription could have been cut, nor did we find any -tablets on the rock in other parts like that already noticed. On the -first occasion, after five hours, we reached the Virgin's Pool safely; -but we found a second visit necessary, and in order to make the danger -less, we determined to pass down the tunnel from the spring, where I -stationed a servant to warn us if the water began to rise. Hardly had we -got a hundred yards down the passage when we heard his shouts, and at -once began to canter on all fours to the spring chamber over the pebbles -and mud. We had crossed the pool with the water only up to our knees, -but when we again reached it from the tunnel at the back, it was well up -to the arm-pits; and hardly were we safe on the landing of the steps, -when we heard the water gurgling in the tunnel, and knew that it must -in the narrow part be full to the roof. In a short time the flow -subsided, and we were able to go back safely, knowing that it would not -rise again that day. We were astonished, however, on emerging at Siloam, -to find the stars shining, for we had again spent five hours in the -dark, with the mud, stones, and leeches, and considered ourselves lucky -in escaping an attack of fever, which generally follows such exposure to -wet and cold in Palestine. We were rewarded by finding the place where -the two parties, working from either end of the tunnel, met nearly -half-way. - -From the fourth century to the present day the sites of Calvary and of -the Holy Sepulchre have been shown within the precincts of the Crusading -cathedral, standing where Constantine's basilica was raised. The -discovery of part of the "second wall" in 1886 shows pretty clearly that -the line which--guided by the rock-levels--I drew in 1878, nearly -coinciding with Dr. Robinson's line, is correct, and that the -traditional site was thus in the time of our Lord within the city walls. -For the last half century this view has been very generally held, but -there was no agreement as to the true site. I was enabled, however, -through the help of Dr. Chaplin, the resident physician, to investigate -the ancient Jewish tradition, still extant among the older resident -Jews, which places the site of the "House of Stoning" or place of -execution at the remarkable knoll just outside the Damascus gate, north -of the city. There are several reasons, which I have detailed in other -publications, for thinking that this hillock is the probable site of -Calvary. When General Gordon was residing at Jerusalem, he adopted this -idea very strongly, and it has thus become familiar to many in -England.[30] The bare and stony swell breaks down on the south side into -a precipice, over which, according to the Talmud, those doomed to be -stoned were thrown, and on the summit they were afterwards crucified, -according to the same account. The hillock stands conspicuous in a sort -of natural amphitheatre, being thus fitted for a spectacle seen by great -multitudes. The neighbourhood has always apparently been regarded as of -evil omen, and a Moslem writer says that men may not pass over the -plateau beside it at night for fear of evil spirits. Close to this same -spot, also, the earliest Christian tradition pointed out the scene of -the stoning of Stephen. - -When first I reached Palestine in 1872, the Survey party were at work at -Shechem, thirty miles north of Jerusalem. Sergeant Black and Sergeant -Armstrong, whose names should be specially recorded among those who -worked at the survey, because they were longest employed, and because -their ability was conspicuous in framing a plan of operations suited to -the peculiar requirements, had made good progress, with the aid of Mr. -C. F. Tyrwhitt Drake, left in charge when Captain Stewart came home ill. -They had carried the work from Jaffa to Jerusalem, and thence along the -mountains to Shechem, in six months, and the hill country of Benjamin, -which I afterwards examined, was thus surveyed before I reached -Palestine. This part of Judea, though presenting immense difficulties -to the surveyor, which had been overcome by patience and toil, did not -yield much of great interest beyond Mr. Tyrwhitt Drake's discovery of a -Jewish tomb-inscription, and the identification of several lost Hebrew -cities. The site of Bethel, famous as it is in Bible history, is only -that of a small village, on a ridge which, even for Judea, is remarkably -barren and rocky. Here truly the wanderer who dreamed of angels could -find nought save a stone for his pillow; but the long vista of the -Jericho plain, seen over the peaks and ridges of the desert of Judah, -might even now, by some modern Lot, be likened to the "garden of the -Lord," so green do its pastures look in spring, set in the stony ring of -barren hills. - -Not far thence we one day crossed the great gorge of Michmash, where was -the fortress of the Philistines that Jonathan assaulted. We were able to -lead our horses down from ledge to ledge, following the strata, to the -bottom of the valley on its south side; but on the north towered the -cliff of Bozez ("the shining"), which the Hebrew hero scaled. Here no -horse could find a footing, and climbing up to visit the hermit's caves, -I was able to judge the effort which would be necessary to scale the -whole height and then to fight at the top. No doubt the garrison must -have regarded Jonathan's feat as practically impossible. - -The ridge on which Jerusalem stands, 2500 feet above the Mediterranean, -runs southwards, gradually rising to 3000 feet in the neighbourhood of -Hebron, where the open valley of vineyards forms one of the heads of the -great Beersheba watercourse. This difficult region was surveyed in the -autumn of 1874, and many ancient sites and ruins were discovered. We -were not, however, at that time able to enter the Hebron Sanctuary, -which had never been fully explored, and which is one of the most -interesting places in Palestine. In 1882, however, I accompanied the -Princes Albert Victor and George of Wales, who, under the guidance of -Sir Charles Wilson, explored this zealously-guarded mosque, of which I -then made the only complete plan in existence. The Haram (or -"Sanctuary") at Hebron is an oblong enclosure, repeating that of the -Temple of Jerusalem on a smaller scale. It is not mentioned by early -writers, yet there can be little doubt that it must be the work of Herod -the Great, or of one of his immediate successors. It already existed in -333 A.D., and the walls are so exactly like those of the Jerusalem -Haram, that they cannot be supposed the work of the Byzantine emperors. - -The ramparts enclose a mediaeval church and a courtyard, built over an -ancient rock-cut cave, which in all ages has been regarded as the -sepulchre purchased by Abraham from the sons of Heth, where Sarah first -is said to have been buried, and afterwards Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, -Rebecca and Leah. Six cenotaphs, like Moslem tombs, covered with rich -embroidered cloths, stand in the enclosure--two inside the church (now a -mosque), two in chapels beside the porch of the same, and two in -buildings against the opposite rampart walls. It is not however -supposed, even by Moslems, that these are the real tombs; they only mark -supposed sites of tombs beneath the floor. These lower tombs, which -Benjamin of Tudela, the Jewish traveller of the twelfth century, claims -to have seen, are now inaccessible, and it is impossible to say how far -his account can be trusted.[31] In the floor of the mosque there are -two entrances closed by flagstones, which are said to lead down by -steps into the rock-cut cave. No Moslem would dare to enter this sacred -cavern, where, as they say, Isaac would await and slay them, while -Jewish legends tell that Eliezer of Damascus stands at the door to watch -the repose of Abraham asleep in the arms of Sarah. There is, however, a -hole in the floor which pierces the roof of a square chamber, lighted by -a silver lamp suspended from the mouth of the hole. - -Into this well-mouth we thrust our heads, and the lamp was lowered -almost to the floor. Here I saw clearly that in one wall of the chamber -a small square door exists, just like those of rock-cut tombs all -through Palestine. There is thus probably a real tomb under the mosque, -and the chamber is apparently an outer porch to this tomb. The floor was -covered to some depth with sheets of paper, evidently the accumulations -of many years. These papers are petitions to Abraham, which the pious -Moslems drop through the hole, and thus leave lying at the door of his -sepulchre. - -Another opportunity of so thoroughly exploring this interesting site may -not speedily occur; and so long as the mosque remains a mosque, it is -doubtful if any one will succeed in entering the tomb itself, though it -might perhaps be reached by the stairs said to exist on the south side -of the building, if permission could be obtained to force up the -flagstones.[32] - -As regards the identity of this sepulchre with that of the Patriarchs, -all that can be said is that tradition is unvarying on the subject, and -the site nowise improbable; but the Hebrews never appear to have -embalmed the dead, and if any inscriptions existed (inscriptions of -early date on Hebrew tombs being almost unknown), they would probably -belong to a very recent period. - -[Illustration: THE PLAIN OF JERICHO, AS SEEN FROM AI. - -_To face page 35._] - -In an account like the present it is difficult to follow either a -geographical or a chronological order. The geography of Palestine is, -however, very generally understood, and the regions next to each other -are here mentioned in order. The Survey was extended from a central band -along the watershed, the reason being that the plains could only be -visited, with due regard to the health and comfort of the party, in the -spring and early summer, while the mountains were our refuge in the -great heats of August and September, and in the sickly autumn, when the -climate of the lower regions becomes almost pestilential. Only once was -this system disregarded, and the result was an outbreak of virulent -fever in the camp, which threatened for a time to put an end to the -expedition. - -East of the Hebron and of the Jerusalem hills stretches the desert of -Judah, a plateau broken by ridges and ravines reaching to the tall -cliffs which rise from the shores of the Dead Sea. Beyond this desert -the plains of Jericho, through which the Jordan flows, stretch along the -north shores of the sea, and are about 1000 feet lower than the surface -of the Mediterranean. On the west of the Judean mountains there are -foot-hills (the region called Shephelah in the Bible), and west of these -again the broad plains of Sharon and of Philistia extend to the -sandhills of the Mediterranean coast, which presents no natural harbour -south of Mount Carmel. - -The Judean desert I surveyed with a very small party in the early spring -of 1875. The Jericho plains we unfortunately visited too soon in -December 1873. The Shephelah and the plain of Philistia were completed -in the spring of 1875 without any difficulty, save a small part near -Beersheba, which was finished in 1877. Beersheba itself was visited in -the autumn of 1874. These regions were all more or less wild, and -inhabited by nomadic Arabs, so that the adventures of the party were -more numerous than when our work lay near the civilised centres and -among the settled villagers. The four regions above mentioned may be -briefly mentioned in order. - -The Judean desert is without exception the wildest and most desolate -district in Syria. It seems hardly possible that man or beast can find a -living in such a land. Yet, as David found pasture for those "few poor -sheep in the wilderness," so do the desert Arabs find food for their -goats among the rocks. It is none the less a desert indeed, riven by -narrow ravines leading to deep gorges, and rising between the stony -gullies into narrow ridges of dark brown limestone, capped with gleaming -white chalk, full of cone-like hillocks and fantastic peaks. Here -sitting on the edge of the great cliffs, which drop down a sheer height -of some two thousand feet to the rock-strewn shore, gazing on the -shining waters of that salt blue lake, watching the ibex herds scudding -silently over the plateau, the tawny partridges running in the valley, -hearing the clear note of the black grackle as it soars among the rocks -where the hyrax (or coney) is hiding, I have felt the sense of true -solitude such as is rarely known elsewhere. There is no stirring of the -grass by the breeze, no rustling of leaves, no murmur of water, no sound -of life save the grackle's note or the jackal's cry, re-echoed from the -rocks. The sun beats down from a cloudless sky; the white glare of the -chalk, the smooth face of the sea, are broad stretches of colour -unbroken by variety, save where the tamarisk with its feathery leaves -makes a dark line among the boulders of the torrent course. Here really -out of the world the solitary hermits sate in the rocky cells which were -their tombs; here in the awful prison of the Marsaba monastery men are -still buried, as it were, alive, without future, without hope, without -employment, with no comradeship save that of equally embittered lives. -The chance traveller alone connects them with the world. The grackles, -to whom, on the wing, they toss the dried currants, the jackals, who -gather beneath the precipice for the daily dole of bread, these are -almost the only living things they see. Many are monks disgraced by -crime, and what wonder, too, that some are maniacs or idiots? Few sadder -scenes can be witnessed than that of a mass sung in the chapel of -Marsaba, where John of Damascus (once the minister of a Moslem Khalif) -sleeps in the odour of sanctity. - -I think it is General Gordon who has somewhere said that for a man to -understand the world he should for a time leave the life of busy cities -and think out his thoughts alone in the wilderness. Often have I thought -that could the critic leave his comfortable study and dwell for a time -in this desert of Judah, under the starry sky at night and the hot glare -of the sun by day, in a land which men once thought to have been burned -by fire, cursed, and sown with salt, and in the great stillness of a -world almost without life, he would be able better to understand what -Hebrew poets, prophets, and historians have written, and we should -perhaps not see Solomon in the garb of a German Grand Duke, or Isaiah in -the robes of an University Don. - -The north part of this desert is inhabited by scattered groups of the -Taamireh tribe, the southern part by the Jahalin Arabs. The Taamireh, or -"cultivators," are not true Arabs, but villagers who have taken to -desert life. They wear turbans, and resemble the villagers in type more -closely than the Bedu. The Jahalin, whose name means "those ignorant of -the Moslem faith," are a wild and degraded tribe, the poorer being -almost naked, while the chiefs have an evil name. I went into this -desert without either guide or interpreter, and the party depended -throughout on such knowledge of Arabic as I possessed in communicating -with natives. I was not then aware how exact are the border divisions -between nomadic tribes, and was surprised to find the Taamireh chief one -day very unwilling to follow me. As we returned home the reason became -evident. We had crossed the boundary valley into Jahalin country, and a -number of wild half-clad figures sprang up from behind the rocks on the -hillside armed with ancient matchlocks. The Sheikh's influence was -enough to prevent their robbing me, but they guarded us for some -distance to the border valley, only asking how soon I was going to cover -the land with vineyards. They believe that the Franks control the rain, -and that they once grew vines in the desert. It is perhaps a dim memory -of the days when the Crusaders had sugar-mills at Engedi, on the shores -of the Dead Sea, as mentioned in the chronicles of the twelfth century, -of which mills the ruins are still to be seen. - -At Engedi the Taamireh left us, and a few days later I rode with my -scribe to the camp of the Jahalin, where we sat down and made ourselves -guests of the chief. The Arabs were at first surly, but soon came to see -that money was to be earned, and finally asked us to recommend their -country to tourists. To those who choose to venture into this wild -corner, there is an attraction in the wonderful fortress of Masada, on -the shores of the Dead Sea, one of the most remarkable places in -Palestine, and one which has been little visited. - -Masada (now called Sebbeh) was the stronghold built by Herod the Great -which held out against the Romans after the terrible destruction of -Jerusalem by Titus in 70 A.D. A people less determined than the Romans -might well have been content to leave the surviving Jewish zealots in so -remote and inaccessible a fortress. But not so the Romans. After the -death of Bassus the procurator, his successor, Flavius Silva, in the -spring of 74 A.D., gathered his forces against this last refuge of the -fanatical robbers called Sicarii or Zealots, who were enemies alike of -Jews and Romans. The difficulty of the task was immense. Water had to be -brought by Jewish captives from a distance of eleven miles: the nearest -supplies of corn were twenty miles away; and only in spring could an -army have endured the great heats in the valleys, 1200 feet below -sea-level. The fortress is a lozenge-shaped plateau, with precipices -1500 feet high all round; walls and towers, now in ruins, surrounded it -on all sides; and while on the east a narrow path called the "Serpent" -wound up the cliffs, the only vulnerable point was on the west, where a -chalky undercliff 1000 feet high lies against the rocky walls. Opposite -this undercliff Silva placed his camp on a low hill, and round the -fortress he drew a wall like that which Titus had built round Jerusalem, -with small posts at intervals, and a second larger camp on the east. The -Romans then piled a great mound 300 feet high on the top of the -undercliff, and built a wall on the mound, from the top of which they -fought in a siege-tower plated with iron, and battered the fortress wall -with a ram. - -The besieged were not in want of food or water. There were rain-water -tanks, and corn was grown on the plateau. It is even said that the -stores of wine, oil, pulse, and dates laid in by Herod a hundred years -before were still edible, because of the dryness of the desert air. -Within the ramparts was Herod's old palace, towards the north-west part -of the plateau, and until the walls fell to the battering-ram the -courage of the Zealots was unabated. Even then they made an inner -stockade of beams and earth, and still continued their fierce fight for -freedom when this was in flames. - -But when the dawn of the Passover came, the Romans put on their armour -and shot out their bridges from the siege-tower, yet met with no -resistance, and heard no sound save that of the flames in the burning -palace: "A terrible solitude," says Josephus, "on every side, with a -fire in the place as well as perfect silence." In the night 960 persons -had been slain; first the women and children by their own husbands and -fathers, then the men each by his neighbour. Only one old woman with -five children hidden in a cavern had escaped. - -Such was the wonderful history of the fortress which we explored and -planned. From the plateau one looks down on the Roman wall which crosses -the plain and runs up the hills to south and north. One can see Silva's -camp and the guard-towers almost as he left them 1800 years ago. The -Roman mound, the wall upon it, the ruins of Herod's palace and of the -fortress walls, the towers on the cliff-side to the north, the empty -tanks, the narrow "serpent" path, all attest the truth of Josephus' -account (VII. Wars, viii., ix.), and remain as silent witnesses of one -of the most desperate struggles perhaps ever carried to success by Roman -determination, and of one of the most fanatical resistances in history. -On the east is the gleaming Sea of Salt; the dark precipices of Moab -rise beyond, and the strong towers of Crusading Kerak. On all sides are -brown precipices and tawny slopes of marl, torrent beds strewn with -boulders, and utterly barren shores. There has been nothing to efface -the evidence of the tragedy, nor was Masada ever again held as a -fortress. Yet even here the hermits found their way, and built a little -chapel from the stones of Herod's house; while in a cave--perhaps the -one in which the poor Jewish matron hid--I discovered on the dark walls -a single word, _Kuriakos_, flanked by crosses and written in mediaeval -letters--evidence of some peaceful anchorite's last rest among the -ghosts of the Zealots. - -The survey of this wilderness was completed in ten days, and the party, -having no food for beast or man, were forced to march to Hebron in one -of the great spring storms. Sleet and hail, a biting wind, and a rocky -road made this one of our most toilsome journeys, and when, half frozen, -we reached the fanatical town, we were greeted only with curses, and -owed shelter, food, clothing, and fire to the hospitality of a Jewish -family in the despised suburb to the north of the Haram. - -The desert of Judah was no doubt as much a desert in David's time as it -is now. Here he wandered with his brigand companions as a "partridge on -the mountains." Here he may have learned that the coney makes its -dwelling in the hard rock. Here, in earlier days, he tended the sheep, -descending from Bethlehem, as the village shepherds of the present day -still come down, by virtue of a compact with the lawless nomads, and -just as Nabal's sheep came down from the highlands under agreement with -the wild followers of the outlaw born to be a king. I do not know any -part of the Old Testament more instinct with life than are the early -chapters of Samuel which recount the wanderings of David. His life -should only be written by one who has followed those wanderings on the -spot, and the critic who would embue himself with a right understanding -of that ancient chronicle should first with his own eyes gaze on the -"rocks of the wild goats" and the "junipers" of the desert. - -North of the Dead Sea, the wide plain of Jericho lies beneath the -wilderness where the Jordan Valley broadens between the Moab mountains -and the western precipices. This region we first entered in the November -of 1873, and pushed the survey rapidly over the plain. Our camp was by -the clear spring of "Elisha's Fountain," well known to tourists; and -here, emerging from the glaring chalk hills and barren precipices of -Marsaba, we enjoyed greatly the greenness of the plain, the song of the -bulbuls in the thorn trees, and the murmur of the stream. Unfortunately, -this very greenness was a sign of deadly climate, especially in the -autumn months. No sooner had the first thunderstorm swept over us, -turning the Brook of Cherith (as it is traditionally called) into a -torrent ten feet deep or more, than fever suddenly attacked the party, -then numbering five Europeans and fifteen natives. Even the Nuseir -Arabs, who were our guides, lay round the tents shaking with ague; -and for a time the life of my companion, Mr. Tyrwhitt Drake, was in -danger. In fact, though his zeal and fortitude prevented his leaving the -work, he never really recovered from this terrible Jericho typhoid, and -the hardships of the following spring, which we again passed in the -Jordan Valley, proved too much for his shaken health. It is only after -the soil in such malarious regions has been purified by a winter's rain -that it is safe to remain, even for a night, in the low ground or near -water; and the premature visit to Jericho threatened at one time to -bring our small party entirely to a standstill. - -[Illustration: THE DEAD SEA (VIEW S.E. OF TAIYIBEH). - -_To face page 43._] - -The region round Jericho is well known. The tall cliff burrowed with -hermit's caves, and supposed to be the place where Christ fasted forty -days in the desert; the flat marshy valley sprinkled with alkali plants -and with lotus trees and feathery tamarisks; the eastern mountain ridge -which we afterwards explored; the strange white peak of Kurn Sartaba on -the north; the oily Dead Sea on the south, must have been seen by many -who may read these lines. In clear weather in spring, the snowy dome of -Hermon can be seen from near the mud village of Jericho, marking the -north end of the Jordan Valley; but the Lake of Tiberias is hidden even -from the higher ground near the plain. - -In this Jericho region also new discoveries were made. A solitary -tamarisk marks the site where, at least in early Christian times, it was -believed that the Gilgal camp was set up by Joshua. The surveyors -verified the existence of the name, even now known to the Jericho -peasants. Here also we copied the curious mediaeval frescoes, which still -remained on the ruined walls of two monasteries, and several hermit -caves. In the twelfth century there were many monasteries in the desert -and round Jericho, and the memory of the monks has not died out. The -Bedu point to a curious chalk hill called the "Raven's Nest" as the -"place where the Lord Jesus ascended;" and in studying the mediaeval -accounts of Palestine, I found that this very place, although the top is -below sea-level, was pointed out to Crusading pilgrims as "the exceeding -high mountain" whence, as we read in the Gospel, Christ surveyed the -kingdoms of the world. This is but one instance out of many in which the -teaching of the monks and hermits still lingers among the Moslem -population in many parts of Palestine. - -In England a fresco of the twelfth century is to us a rare and ancient -thing. In Palestine, so far back are we carried by history, that -Crusading remains rank among the latest. But the explorer has no right -to confine himself to any one period. His duty is to bring home -everything he can find, and without such exhaustive work the sifting out -of the most valuable and most ancient results cannot with safety be -undertaken. I spent several days in the hermits' caves and in the ruined -monasteries, copying such frescoes as were distinguishable, and reading -the various titles above them. In the middle of the Jericho plain lies -Kusr Hajlah, then a Crusading ruin with frescoes bearing the names of -Sylvester Pope of Rome, Sophronius of Jerusalem, and John Eleemon. By -the character of the writing I was able to fix these paintings as -twelfth-century work. When in 1881 I revisited the spot, I found that -not a single trace remained of any one of the pictures. Russian monks -from Marsaba had settled there, and had rebuilt the monastery. Every -fresco had been scraped from the walls, in order, they said, that new -and better might replace them. Judging from the existing paintings at -Marsaba, it is hardly to be expected that much advance will be made on -the quaint style of the figures which represented the Last Supper, or -the Apostles robed by angels in resurrection garments of white. I think -rather that the monks suspected that the frescoes were of Latin origin; -yet, in destroying them, they had obliterated the names of two of the -most famous Greek Patriarchs of Jerusalem; but then they also destroyed -the representation of Sylvester Pope of Rome. This single instance shows -that the systematic exploration of Palestine was undertaken none too -soon. - -Not only in monasteries and hermits' caves were these pictures painted. -On the north side of the Kelt ravine (the traditional Brook Cherith) -there is a ruined monastery of St. John of Choseboth. Here I copied many -texts and pictures; and outside the gate there is a wall of rock eighty -feet in length, once covered with very large figures, like those which I -have seen on the outer walls of Italian churches. The weather had long -since destroyed them, but at Mar Marrina, near Tripoli, I afterwards -found another cliff cemented and painted in like style. In this case the -Greeks had come after the Latins, and instead of scraping off the old -work, had begun to paint over it huge figures of the throned Christ and -of the Mother of God, beneath which--as though on a palimpsest--I was -able to copy a set of pictures representing the miracles performed by -some Latin saint or abbot.[33] - -Such are the remains preserved by the dryness of the desert air in the -vicinity of Jericho. We must now cross to the west side of the -watershed, where the country presents a very different aspect. Looking -down from the heights of the Judean mountains, you see beneath a strip -of low hills, covered in some places with brushwood, but full of -villages, and with olive yards along the valley courses and round the -stone or mud houses of the hamlets, so many of which preserve the old -names of the Book of Joshua. Beyond these foot-hills is the broad plain, -here and there rising into sandy downs, but, as a rule, brown in autumn -with rich ploughlands, and yellow in summer with ripening grain. In -spring the delicate tinge of green, the wide stretches of pink flush -from the phlox blossoms, and the great variety of flowers and flowering -shrubs, present a strong contrast to the grimness of the desert. - -The Shephelah or foot-hills form a district full of interesting sites, -and of ruins from the twelfth century A.D. back to the times of Hebrew -dominion. Here our discoveries were numerous and important, but I will -only refer to two periods of special interest--the time of the Jewish -revolt under Judas Maccabaeus, and the time of the first establishment of -the Crusading kingdom in Jerusalem. - -The history of the heroic brothers who recovered the religious freedom -of the Jews by revolting from the Greek kings of Antioch in the second -century B.C., is as easy to follow in detail on the ground as is that of -David's wanderings. I have already devoted a short volume to the -subject,[34] and have tried to show how the attacks on Jerusalem were -made successively by the Greek armies along the roads from the -north-west, the west, and the south; how Judas met the foe on each -occasion at the top of the narrow passes; how he hurled them back, as -Joshua did the Canaanites on the same battle-fields; and how not even -the elephants dismayed him. The native town of Judas, Modin--now called -Medyeh--is a little village in the foot-hills, where, however, the -reported tomb of the Maccabee and his family turned out to be merely a -Byzantine monument. The scene of the death of Judas, while he was -defending a fourth mountain pass leading from Shechem to Jerusalem, was -not known; but we have, I think, been able to identify this important -battle-field, where for a time the hopes of the national party seemed -for ever to have been crushed. - -It is an instructive fact that so long as the Greeks strove to prevail -by arms, the puritan movement was never stamped out. When at length the -native princes were allowed to reign and to coin money in the native -tongue, they became in a few generations as Greek as the Greeks -themselves, and finally as hateful to the extreme party of the orthodox -as any Greek oppressor. - -At the border between the foot-hills and the Philistine plains three -Norman castles were built to protect the kingdom of Godfrey and Baldwin -against their Egyptian enemies. A little later (in 1153 A.D.) Ascalon -was taken, and long remained the great Christian bulwark on the south. -Still later, when Richard Lion-Heart was striving to prop up the Latin -kingdom, ruined even more by vice and degeneracy than by the fierce -attacks of Saladin, the English conqueror spent many months in this -region. I had with me in Palestine the chronicle of his expedition, -written by Geoffrey de Vinsauf, which is one of the most vivid -monographs of the age. It was thus possible to trace every point in his -travels; and very few places remain, among the many mentioned in the -Philistine plains, which cannot be found on the Survey map. The lists of -property of the canons of the Holy Sepulchre, and other documents of -like kind, were compared, and thus what is to us an early chapter of our -history could be worked out on the spot in Palestine. The difficulties -and dangers of Richard's army, how they were troubled by the wind, rain, -and hail, which blew down the tents and spoiled the biscuit and the -bacon, how the flies, "which flew about like sparks of fire, and were -called cincenelles" (mosquitoes), stung the Englishmen till they looked -like lepers, and how they suffered from fever and fatigue, we could well -understand; and even of the attacks of Saracens we had some experience -when one day a party of Bedu on the war-path, mistaking us for their -enemies, charged down upon us with flying cloaks and lances fifteen feet -in length quivering like reeds. - -The walls of Ascalon, so often built, and which Richard raised again -from the foundations, we surveyed with difficulty, clambering over the -fallen masses of the towers, all of which are mentioned by name in the -chronicle--such as the Maiden's Tower, the Admiral's, the Bedouin's, and -the Bloody Tower, and Tower of Shields. Yet farther south we explored -the little fortress of Darum, which Richard rebuilt, with many others, -as garrisons against the Moslems. North of Jaffa, in the Sharon plain, -we found the oak wood through which the English in 1191 A.D. marched -down from Acre, sorely harassed by the rain of arrows on their armour. -Every river and every tower mentioned on that toilsome march are now -identified, and the fort of Habacuc, where fell the brave knight Renier -of Marun, who was, I believe, an ancestor. - -Yet earlier scenes belong to this region, which was the theatre of -Samson's exploits. In the low hills, Zoreah and Eshtaol and the valley -of Sorek were already known, but to these we added the site of the rock -Etam, where the strong man hid in a cave, which we explored. The tracing -of this topography gave us, however, experience of the great caution -which the explorer must exercise in sifting the evidence of natives. It -had been supposed that the memory of Samson's history still survived -among the peasants of Zoreah. Certainly they all were able to repeat a -garbled version of the story, and this excited the greater interest -because such tales are extremely rare in occurrence among the villagers, -though the Arabs have a fancy for wonderful legends, as we afterwards -found in Moab. I was anxious to ascertain if the Samson legend was a -truly ancient one, but soon discovered that it was quite modern. The -village lands had recently been purchased by a Christian Sheikh from -Bethlehem, and it was from him that his tenants learned the Bible story, -which they were unable to repeat without converting all the characters -into good Moslems and wicked Christians. - -In these same foot-hills lies the site of the celebrated Cave of -Adullam, on the side of the Valley of Elah, the scene of David's meeting -with Goliah. It was first discovered by M. Clermont Ganneau, whose views -were fully borne out by our researches. The cave itself is a small one, -blackened by the smoke of many fires, and scooped in the side of a low -hill, on which are remains of a former town or village. Beneath the -slope is a wide valley, which was full of corn; and the spot is marked -by a group of ancient terebinths, like those which gave the name Elah, -or "terebinth," to this important Wady. There are other caverns opposite -to the Adullam hill, and these are used as stables, while in the cave -itself we found a poor family actually living. The name is now corrupted -to the form 'Aidelmia, but the position fully agrees with the Bible -accounts, and with the distance from Eleutheropolis (now Beit Jibrin) -noted by Eusebius. - -The Philistine plain from Jaffa to Gaza is one of the best corn -districts in Palestine. It grows steadily wider to the south, and sweeps -round the base of the Hebron hills to Beersheba. The celebrated cities -of the Philistine lords are now, with the exception of Gaza, no longer -important places. Ekron and Ashdod are villages with a few cactus -hedges; Ascalon lies in ruins by the sea; Gath is so much forgotten that -its name has disappeared, and the site is still not quite certain. Gaza -is, however, a large place, with some trade, and with extensive olive -groves. Along this whole coast the sand from the high dunes, which, as -seen from the hills, form a yellow wall between the ploughlands and the -sea, is always steadily encroaching. It has covered up a great part of -the gardens within the walls of Ascalon, and has swept over the little -port of Majuma, west of Gaza; but beyond the line of its advance the -soil is everywhere fertile, and the villages are numerous. - -The Philistine plain seems never to have been long held by the Hebrews. -Joshua, Samuel, or Simon the Hasmonean may have conquered its cities, as -Richard Lion-Heart afterwards did, but the Egyptian power in Syria in -all ages has been first felt in this plain. The natives indeed, in -dress and appearance, are more like the peasantry of Egypt than they are -like the sturdy villagers of the other parts of Palestine. In times of -trouble this region is now much exposed to the attacks of the southern -Arabs. Egyptian records show us that the Philistine plain was long held -by the Pharaohs, and we have a representation of the siege of Ascalon by -Rameses II. In Hezekiah's reign we learn, from the cuneiform records, -that each of the Philistine towns had its own king, and these princes -allied themselves with Sennacherib against Jerusalem. - -These facts agree with the account of David's struggles with the -Philistines, and give the reason why Israel did not enter Palestine "by -the way of the Philistines," as probably at that time the plain was -actually garrisoned by Egyptians. - -It is clear from monumental accounts that there was a Semitic population -in Philistia at a very early period, but it is not certain that the -Philistine race was of this stock. We have Egyptian portraits of -Philistines--a beardless people wearing a peculiar sort of cap or tiara. -Many scholars believe that the Philistines were of the same stock with -the Hittites (who were a Mongolian people), and this may account for the -curious fact that the Assyrians speak of the Philistine town of Ashdod -as a "city of the Hittites." In Philistia the name of the Hittites is -also probably still preserved in the villages of Hatta and Kefr Hatta. -Among the peasantry there are several legends of the Fenish king and his -daughter, of his garden, and of the place where she used to spin. I -think it is probable that the Fenish was a Philistine, rather than a -Phoenician, legendary monarch. - -The town of Gaza, standing on a mound above its olive groves, -surrounded by the crumbling traces of its former walls, contains several -good mosques, one of which is the fine Crusading Church of St. John. -Near Gaza, on the south, is a mound called Tell 'Ajjul, "hillock of the -calf," from a legend of a phantom calf said to have been here seen by a -benighted peasant. At this place was discovered a fine statue of -Jupiter, 15 feet high, which now stands at the entrance of the -Constantinople Museum, where I drew it in 1882. This discovery reminds -us that Palestine had also its age of classic paganism, when statues -like those of Roman temples were erected. We have, indeed, an account of -the temples of Gaza, which existed as late as the fifth century, when -the Christians overthrew them and built a church. Venus had here a -statue, much adored by the women, and the Cretan Jupiter was known under -the name Marnas, which is thought to mean "our lord." It is probably the -statue of Marnas himself that has now been discovered, one of the very -few statues of any importance as yet found in Palestine. - -The Philistine plain merges on the south in the plateau called Negeb, or -"dry," in the Old Testament. This is the scene of Isaac's wanderings as -described in Genesis, where lie Gerar the city of Abimelech, and -Rehoboth and Beersheba. The region was visited late in 1874, when it was -at its driest, the spring herbage being all long since burnt up. The -Beersheba plains consist of a soft white marl, rising in low ridges, and -not unlike some parts of the Veldt or open grazing-land of Bechuanaland, -in South Africa. The Negeb still supports a considerable nomad -population, and their flocks and herds are numerous. On the east it -sinks to the Judean desert, and on the south descends by bold steps to -the Wilderness of Sinai. The view from the spurs of the Judean hills -near Dhaheriyeh (identified with Debir) is very extensive, ridge beyond -ridge of rolling down stretching to the high points on the horizon which -mark the passes by which ascents lead from the south. - -[Illustration: DESERT OF BEERSHEBA.] - -This region, though generally without water on the surface, possesses -several groups of deep and abundant wells, where the herdsmen gather to -water the flocks. Among the most renowned are the Beersheba wells, of -which there are three, each a round shaft lined with masonry; one is -dry. The principal supply is from the largest well, 12 feet 3 inches in -diameter, and 38 feet deep to the water in autumn. The smaller dry well -is 5 feet in diameter and 40 feet deep. Round these wells, which have no -parapet, rude stone troughs are placed, into which the water, drawn up -in skin bags, is poured. The water-drawing, to the sounds of Arab -shepherd songs, is one of the most picturesque of sights. It used to be -thought that the masonry was very ancient, but it only extends to a -depth of 28 feet in the largest well, and on one of the stones I found -the words, "505 ... Allah Muhammad," showing apparently that the -stonework was at least renewed in the fourteenth century A.D. - -Any student who desires really to be able to judge of the social life of -the Hebrew Patriarchs should visit the plains of Beersheba. It was here, -we are told, that Isaac passed his life. Here Abraham settled after long -wanderings through the length of Palestine. Here Jacob was born, and -hence he descended into Egypt. It is very notable that Palestine appears -in Genesis as a country already full of cities, and in which land could -only be obtained by the Hebrew immigrants by purchase from landowners -already settled--the Hivites of Shechem and the Hittites of Hebron. In -the pastoral plains of Beersheba, however, the wanderers ranged -undisturbed even by the Philistines of Gerar. So it is to the present -day. The Jordan Valley, to which Lot is related to have taken his -flocks, the desert of Judah, where David fed his sheep, the plains near -Dothan, and the pastures of Beersheba, are still the grazing-lands of -Palestine, where nomadic shepherds range, while the higher lands are -held by a settled population. Although we have no monumental records -sufficiently early to compare with the narrative of Genesis, we find -that the country presented the same aspect when the conquering Pharaohs -of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties invaded it. There were then -regions held by the nomads, and other regions full of fortresses and -open towns. - -In the history of the Patriarchs we find described a mode of life just -like that of the modern Arab. The great chief or Emir dwelt in his tent -among his followers, led them out to war, and allied himself to the -neighbouring townsmen, with whose families, however, he scorned to -intermarry. The sons of the Emir and his daughters (like Leah and -Rachel) tended the flocks and herds, and strove at the wells, where -countless beasts awaited their turn. The relation which the Hebrew -chiefs bore to the distant paternal tribe beyond the Euphrates reminds -us how Syrian Arabs still trace their descent from distant families, -with the same tribal name, far off in the Nejed. The stone memorial is -still raised by the Bedawi, as Jacob reared his stone of Bethel; and the -covenant is still sealed by the eating of bread. Still, too, the Arab -hunter brings back savoury venison to the camp, like Esau; and by the -wells of Beersheba you look northwards to the same low hills which were -before Isaac's eyes when he went forth to pray in the open field--as the -Arab still prays outside his camp--and "beheld the camels coming." In -the early morning, by the light of the rising sun, I have seen the -camels, preceded by their giant shadows, coming in troops to the wells, -guided by the shepherd-boys, whose music is the same rude pipe on which -the ancient shepherds played. I have seen, too, the dark gipsy-like -girls, with elf locks, blue robes, and tattooed faces, who tend the -sheep as Rachel and Leah (still children) tended those of Laban before -they were old enough to be restricted to the women's side of the -curtain, and to follow their mothers to the well. - -The visit to Beersheba was not without its adventures. This was the only -occasion on which a thief--of many who tried but were discovered by our -terriers--succeeded in making his way into the tents. He took with him -all our food, and we had to depend on the wild sand-grouse and plovers -for our dinner. It was during the fast of Ramadan that this journey was -undertaken, and the Moslem guides suffered greatly in consequence; for -fasting among the Moslems in Ramadan is a very serious matter, and -especially so among the primitive villagers of Judea. Not a scrap of -food, not a drop of water, not a whiff of tobacco will then pass the -lips of the strict Moslem between sunrise and sundown. I have seen the -wrath of the spectators roused when an old man of eighty washed his -mouth with water on a day of scorching east wind. We had gone down to -explore an underground tank in Hebron, and as he stooped to the water we -heard a voice shouting, "Ah! Hamzeh, God sees you!" and the unfortunate -elder rose at once in confusion. When the sun sets, a cry goes up -throughout the town or village--a shout from the men and a shrill -tremulous note from the women--for then it is lawful to break the trying -fast. Even children are induced by pious parents to keep Ramadan, and -some zealots will continue fasting for ten days beyond the prescribed -time. The Moslem year being lunar, and thus never the same year by year -in relation to the seasons, it is especially at those times when Ramadan -falls in September that this privation is most felt. - -Not that I would lead the reader to suppose that all Moslems are thus -strict in religious duty. In Islam there is as much scepticism, -indifference, outright rejection of religious belief as in Christendom; -and history reveals that this has always been so since Islam became a -religion. - -Among the antiquities of the Beersheba desert there are several rude -buildings of undressed chert blocks, which may be almost of any age. It -was, however, in the early centuries of Christianity that this region -was apparently most fully inhabited. - -The hermits who, like Hilarion, came from Egypt and settled in the Holy -Land, soon gathered disciples round them; and even against their will -monasteries rose by their cells, and a village round the monastery. -Pious pilgrims like Antoninus, not content with seeing Palestine, -ventured far into the deserts, and down to the miraculous tomb of St. -Catherine in Sinai. Thus, in the fourth century, Jerome found the land -full of monks and nuns, even in the wilderness; and stories which may -have been told to the Arabs by these eremites still linger among them. -We have early Christian accounts of Pagan rites among the natives of the -Negeb, who still in the seventh century were worshipping Venus at Elusa, -and the stone menhirs on Mount Sinai. There is no part of Syria in which -the anchorites' cells are not found, though in modern times they are -only represented by the Jericho hermits--Abyssinians and Georgians, who, -I believe, only retire to the wilderness during Lent. - -Glancing back over this sketch of exploration in Judea, I only note one -place of primary interest which has not been mentioned, namely, -Bethlehem. It is, however, familiar to every tourist, and nothing new -was added by the surveyors to what was already known concerning this -city, except that the crests which Crusading knights drew upon the -pillars of Constantine's great basilica were carefully copied. - -Bethlehem is a long white town on a ridge, with terraced olive groves. -The population is chiefly Christian, and thrives on the manufacture of -carved mother-of-pearl shells, and objects made from the bituminous -shale of the desert, which pilgrims purchase. The peculiar (and probably -very ancient) head-dress of the women, adorned with rows of silver -coins, has often been represented in illustrated works. - -The main antiquity of the place is the great basilica of Constantine, -with its thirteenth-century mosaics and wooden roof. Beneath the choir -is the traditional site of the "manger," which has been constantly shown -in the same place for nearly eighteen centuries. The church itself is -one of the oldest in the world; and Justin Martyr, in the second -century, mentions the cave. Origen also says that "there is shown in -Bethlehem the cave where He was born, and the manger in the cave" -(Against Celsus, I. li.), so that the Bethlehem cave-stable is noticed -earlier than any other site connected with New Testament history. It is -the only sacred place, as far as I know, which is mentioned before the -establishment of Christianity by Constantine, yet it is remarkable that -Jerome found it no longer in possession of the Christians. "Bethlehem," -he says, "is now overshadowed by the grove of Tammuz, who is Adonis; and -in the cave where Christ wailed as a babe the paramour of Venus now is -mourned." - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -_THE SURVEY OF SAMARIA._ - - -My first experiences of Palestine survey were from the camp at -Nablus,[35] the ancient Shechem. The method which we then employed was -very little varied throughout the whole period of our labours. The camp, -consisting of three or four tents, was pitched in some convenient -central position by a town or village. Thence we were able to ride eight -or ten miles all round, and first visited a few of the highest -hill-tops, where, when the observations with the theodolites were -complete, we built great cairns of stone. The survey was -trigonometrical, depending on two bases, one near Ramleh, east of Jaffa, -the other in the plain of Esdraelon, north of Jenin. In 1881 I measured -a third base on the Moab plateau, south of Heshbon. All these were -connected by triangulation, the stations being from five to fifteen -miles apart. The heights of these stations were also fixed by theodolite -angles, and thus the elevations above the sea of every great mountain -from Dan to Beersheba, and of those east of Jordan between the Jabbok -and the Arnon, are known within a limit of four or five feet at least. - -The triangles having been calculated in camp, the surveyors separated, -and each with his prismatic compass worked in the detail of roads, -valley beds, villages, ruins, towers, and all that is usually shown on -maps of this scale by Ordnance surveyors. He took the aneroid heights of -all important points, which I regard as reliable within ten or twenty -feet. He was invariably accompanied by a local guide, who gave the names -of the various features shown. The surveyor was never responsible for -the spelling of these names. A native scribe was employed to catalogue -them in Arabic letters, and thus the errors which might have been caused -by the difficulty of distinguishing the sounds of Arab letters were -avoided. Without such precaution it would have been impossible to make -any scientific comparison with the Hebrew names of the Old Testament. - -This work being complete and penned in, we were ready to move the camp. -There are parts of the map which I executed to assist my staff, but, as -a rule, when the triangulation was complete, I was free to spend much of -my time in exploring the important sites within reach, of which I made -special surveys on a larger scale. - -The explorer is, however, not his own master until he becomes -practically acquainted with the language of the natives; and although I -had learned French in France and Italian in Italy, the acquisition of a -Semitic tongue was only so far rendered easy, that no one who has -learned one foreign language grammatically and idiomatically is likely -to be content with any other kind of knowledge of other tongues. At the -same time, those who have had the advantage of studying foreign -languages on the spot know how much easier and more agreeable it is to -learn them, as a child learns his mother tongue, first by practice, -afterwards by the rules of the grammarian. In the East, the spoken -dialects, such as those of Arabic and Turkish, differ greatly from the -literary languages. In speaking, simplicity and brevity take the place -of the high-flown and artificial refinements of the modern grammarian. -The vernacular grammar is simplicity itself compared with the literary -style, which only schoolmasters or pedants affect in everyday speech. -Nor, indeed, is such indifference to strict grammar unknown even in our -own land, though in a less degree, in spoken as compared with written -phrase. - -At first there was only time to obtain a very superficial smattering, -for everyday uses, of the Fellah dialect, which is archaic and rude as -compared with the _Nahu_ or "correct" language; but it appeared to me -absolutely necessary, not only to understand the Arabic alphabet, but -also to become acquainted with the elements at least of grammatical -structure; and for this I found leisure during the winters, and the -summer holiday of 1873, when a native teacher could be obtained from -Damascus. When once the unfamiliar principles of Semitic grammar are -understood in one language of the small group (including Hebrew, Arabic, -and the Aramean dialects), the student should be able to learn other -tongues of the group by the aid of books; but my first lessons in Hebrew -I owe to the kind interest of a friend since dead, who devoted time to -my education in Jerusalem itself. So unlike in structure are these -tongues to either Aryan or Turanian languages, that the idiom is at -first hard to catch; and I doubt if any European, until he has lived in -the East some time, is ever likely correctly to pronounce the gutturals -of the Arabic, unless he is gifted with an ear much more sensitive than -usual. - -After many years' study of the native dialect, it appears to me that its -further investigation would be of great value to scholars. There can be -no doubt that ordinary conversation of the peasantry preserves archaisms -of sound, of idiom, and of expression which recall rather the Aramaic -spoken in Palestine in the days of Christ than the pure Arabic of -southern Arabia. The Syrian dialect (which is much less degraded than -Egyptian) is acknowledged, even in dictionaries, to have its -peculiarities. The Lebanon servants in my employ were almost unable to -understand the speech of the Beni Sakhr Arabs in the Moab desert. The -dialect of the towns differs, again, especially in pronunciation, from -that of the peasants. The convenient auxiliaries used in daily speech -are not recognised in standard grammars, and not a few familiar words of -the Fellah dialect I have been unable to discover in the standard -dictionaries of Lane and Freytag.[36] The Hebrew _goran_, "a threshing -floor," and _moreg_, "a threshing-sledge," are still words used by the -peasants, as is the Assyrian _sada_, for a "mountain," and many other -ancient words which a good Hebrew scholar will recognise. The peasantry, -in short, are not, properly speaking, Arabs, but descendants, in part at -least, of the old population to which the Phoenicians belonged, -mingled with colonists imported by the Assyrians from Aram, and with the -Nabathean and Arab tribes from the south-east. To one acquainted with -such a race, the narratives of Genesis and Samuel must always read as -though falling from the lips of a modern Syrian, speaking with the same -terse vigorous idiom in which his fathers wrote. The Fellahin have been -called "modern Canaanites," and if by this is meant descendants of the -Semitic race which the Egyptians found in Palestine before the time of -the Hebrew conquest under Joshua--akin to those whose language is -represented by the Moabite Stone, and the Phoenician texts from the -north coast--the term seems justified by what is known; but, as we shall -see a little later, there has always been another population in Syria -side by side with the Semitic, of which a few traces are yet -discoverable not far north of Shechem. - -Ancient Shechem stood very nearly on the same site occupied by the large -stone town of Nablus, in the well-watered gorge, full of gardens of -mulberry and walnut, with vineyards and olive-yards and fig trees, above -which rise the barren slopes, of Ebal on the north and Gerizim on the -south. About one and a half miles to the east, where the vale opens into -the small plain of Moreh, is the undisputed site of Jacob's Well; and -north of this, at the foot of Ebal, the little village of Askar, among -its cactus hedges, preserves the site of Sychar, mentioned in the fourth -Gospel, below which is the tomb of Joseph. - -It is curious that Josephus believed Joseph to have been buried at -Hebron, for the Book of Joshua places his tomb at Shechem. The monument -now shown is an ordinary Syrian tomb in an open-air enclosure by a -little ruined mosque. The peculiar feature consists in two pedestals -with shallow cups in their tops, placed one at the head, the other at -the foot of the grave. I have been told that both Jews and Samaritans -offer burnt-offerings at this shrine on these pillar altars, the -offerings consisting of shawls, silks, and such fabrics. The same -practice is observed by Jews annually at the tomb of the celebrated -Simeon Bar Jochai at Meirun, in Upper Galilee. The substitution of -fabrics for animal sacrifices recalls the paper figures which the -Chinese burn, representing the various sacrifices, animal or human, -which in earlier ages were burned at tombs. - -Shechem has long been a place of special interest, because it is the -last refuge of the few survivors of the old Samaritan sect, which, -according to their own records, once inhabited every part of Galilee and -Samaria, and whose synagogues down to quite recent times existed in -Damascus and Alexandria. Although almost every traveller visits their -synagogue at Nablus, it is very difficult to become intimately -acquainted with this proud and reserved people; and there are very few -persons living who have really seen the oldest of the manuscripts of the -Pentateuch which they possess. Scholars, it is true, no longer attach -the exaggerated value to this document which it was thought to possess -when first attention was called to its existence, and before science was -able to show its comparatively modern date, as indicated by the -character in which it is written. Yet this venerable roll is perhaps the -oldest copy of the Bible in the world, and until it has been read by a -competent scholar, it is impossible to say what light it may throw on -the study of the Pentateuch. - -The Samaritans, according to the latest accounts which I have been able -to obtain, number about 160 persons. I had opportunities not only of -visiting their synagogue, but of holding a long conversation with the -high priest, and questioning him concerning their traditions and -literature. They claim to know not only the real tombs of Joseph and -Joshua, and of the sons and grandsons of Aaron, sites which are now -identified, but also the burial-places of all the sons of Jacob, of -which tombs many are also revered by Moslems; but the reliability of -such traditions is not very certain. The Samaritan chronicles are not -traceable beyond the Middle Ages; but one of these (to be distinguished -from their "Book of Joshua," with its wild legends of Alexander the -Great) is a very sober work, to which successive high priests are said -to have added brief notes of the chief events of their age.[37] Of this -chronicle I made careful study, and found that, as regards its geography -at least, it is possible to obtain a very clear idea, and many -interesting notices are included of places otherwise very little known -in all parts of Palestine. This practice of extending a historic journal -from time to time is worthy the attention of students of other ancient -literatures; and although the chronicle only claims to have been started -by Eleazar ben Amran in 1149 A.D., it has been carried down to 1859 by -successive authors. This chronicle presents, as above noted, a great -contrast to their "Book of Joshua," which is full of Samaritan folk-lore -tales, and consists of two parts, one penned in 1362 A.D., and the -second in 1513 A.D. Of their copies of the Pentateuch, kept in the -Synagogue, the oldest of those usually shown dates only from 1456 A.D.; -the date of the oldest of all, called "Abishuah's Roll," is not yet -known, but it is certainly very ancient, the ink being much faded and -the parchment decayed. The fact that a Samaritan text of the sixth -century is built into a tower near the Synagogue, and preserves letters -of the peculiar character employed by this people, seems to show that -not impossibly Abishuah's Roll may be as old as the sixth or seventh -century of our era. - -The Samaritans are a fine race, above the average of Orientals in -stature, and possessing a beauty of feature and complexion very like the -best type of south European Jews. Even in the peculiar crinkle of the -hair they resemble the Jews, and there can, to my mind, be no doubt that -they are more closely allied by blood to their great rivals than they -are to any other Oriental people. It is impossible here to inquire into -the details of their history, which are very generally known, but the -inquiries made by us at various times agree with former researches in -indicating that, in many particulars, the pietists of Nablus have -preserved the letter of their law in more primitive degree than have -even the Karaites or other puritan Jewish sects which discard Talmudic -teaching. So great is their terror of defilement, that they will not -even close the eyes of their dead, and employ Moslems to prepare them -for burial. In this extreme observance they resemble the Falashas or -Abyssinian Jewish converts, who even take the sick out of their houses -before death. One very curious custom is observed when, on the eighth -day, the Samaritan boys are circumcised. An ancient hymn is sung, which -includes a prayer for a certain Roman soldier named German, because he -connived at circumcision when forbidden by the Romans, and refused to -accept any reward for so doing, asking only to be remembered in their -prayers; which desire has been respected for perhaps sixteen hundred -years. - -Shechem, the home of the Samaritans, has often, from the twelfth century -to the present day, been confounded with the city of Samaria, five miles -farther to the north-west; but at the latter site there are, I believe, -no Samaritans living. The peasant population of Palestine in this -central district differs somewhat, however, from that of either Galilee -or Judea. It was here that we found the peculiar head-dress which -recalls the "round tires like the moon" that roused the Hebrew prophet's -wrath (Isa. iii. 18). These horse-shoe head-dresses, made up of large -silver coins laid overlapping, are worn only by married women, often -with a crimson head-veil. Some of the little terra-cotta statues of -Ashtoreth which are found in Cyprus and in Phoenicia, representing a -naked goddess, have just the same crescent-shaped bonnet, and it was -perhaps originally connected with the worship of this deity, and -therefore hateful to the servant of Jehovah. - -The site of Samaria is that of a considerable town, upon an isolated -hill, with springs in the valley and olives climbing the terraced -slopes. On the summit a colonnade, probably of the age of Herod the -Great, runs round a long quadrangle, enclosing the site of the temple -built in honour of Augustus by Herodian servility; and on one side are -the ruins of the great Crusading Church of St. John, in the crypt of -which was shown his tomb. It was believed in the Middle Ages that the -head of the Baptist was here preserved. St. John had apparently two -heads, since another was shown in Damascus. - -There is no doubt that the tomb in question is an ancient Hebrew -sepulchre. Perhaps it may be that of the "Kings of Israel." At least -eleven bodies could have been here interred, and there were only -thirteen Kings of Israel between Omri and the fall of Samaria.[38] An -ancient stone door once closed this tomb, carved in panels like other -doors of tombs in Palestine belonging to an early age. One which was -found farther south was adorned with the heads of lions and bulls, like -those found in Phoenician sarcophagi. The date of these monuments is -uncertain. In Lycia, Sir Charles Fellows found doors sculptured with -exactly the same ornamental details, which may be as old at least as 500 -B.C. - -[Illustration: KURN SARTABA.] - -East of Shechem, and to the south, there are mountains more rugged than -any south of Galilee. The border of Samaria, which divided it from -Judea, ran through these mountains, following the line of the principal -valley bed. It had never been laid down with any attempt at exactness -before the Survey, but now that the position of the border towns is -correctly fixed, it becomes possible to trace it throughout. The Judean -outpost on the north-east was the extraordinary conical mountain called -Sartaba, which rises from the Jordan Valley. This little-visited peak -was thoroughly explored. On the summit a square foundation was -discovered, surrounded by an oval rampart. The cone has been -artificially cut in places, and is some 270 feet high. The remains may -be those of the fourteenth-century fortress, but the site has a much -earlier history. - -On their return from exile the Jews were accustomed to fix the first day -of each month by actual observation of the new moon, and according to -the Mishna, the announcement was made throughout the Holy Land by means -of bonfires on the mountains. One of these bonfire stations was Sartaba, -and it is not impossible that the remains of extensive ash-deposits -observed on the mountain were traces of such beacons. The practice was -open to mistake, for the Jews assert that the Samaritans used to light -fires on neighbouring heights with the malicious intention of confusing -the Jewish calendar, and making the Passover feast to fall on the wrong -day. Whether we are to credit the statement that this chain of beacons -extended even to Mesopotamia is doubtful, but the Jews certainly long -kept up intercourse with their brethren in Babylonia. - -On the south of Shechem rises the great rounded top of Gerizim, whence -the eye ranges from Gilead to the Mediterranean, and on the north to -dusky Carmel and snowy Hermon. On the south side of the mountain is Kefr -Haris, where, according to the Samaritans, Joshua was buried--a -tradition nowise discordant with the statements of the Old Testament, -and which can be traced back at least to the fourth century. Here also -the peasants show the tomb of his father, Nun. On the mountain-side, -near the summit, the Passover is still eaten, and here, as the -Samaritans say, once stood their temple. There are no remains of any -great building, but a sacred slab of rock, in which is one of those -curious "cup hollows" so frequently found in connection with prehistoric -monuments. On the west, the Sharon plain extends beyond the olive groves -of the foot-hills to the dark ruined ramparts of Caesarea--a region which -was surveyed in the spring of 1873, and many interesting ruins were then -explored. It is one of the most lawless parts of the country, and was -then but little cultivated. Scattered oak woods, sandy dunes, marshes, -and boggy streams occupy great part of its extent; and on the north is -the Crocodile River, still the dwelling of these monsters, who are not -found in other streams, but lie in the muddy river under the papyrus or -amid the reeds as comfortably as in the Nile. - -The crocodiles of this region are mentioned by many writers, from Pliny -downwards. A curious story was told in the thirteenth century, according -to which they were imported from Egypt by a lord of Caesarea, in order -that his brother might become their victim. The brothers went to bathe -in the river, but the wicked lord went in first and was eaten, while his -innocent brother escaped. - -This part of the plain of Sharon and the west side of the Esdraelon -plain are the only places in Palestine, so far as I have been able to -ascertain, where Turkoman encampments are found. In Northern Syria the -Turkoman camps are more numerous. I have visited their tents in the -plains near Kadesh on Orontes, and in the oak-dotted vale where the -Eleutherus rises. To the casual visitor they seem to be Bedu, and indeed -those in the Sharon plain have almost forgotten their original language. -We know historically that a horde of the followers of Ghazan Khan in -1295 A.D., consisting, it is said, of 18,000 tents, came down to -Damascus and settled on the coasts of Palestine. Probably the existing -Turkoman tribes are the last relics of this horde; but in this mixture -of Tartars with the Semitic race of Syria we see still surviving a -condition of population as old as the days of Abraham. It is now the -general opinion of competent scholars that the non-Semitic population -which the Egyptians in the sixteenth century B.C. found in Syria--more -especially in the north--was a Mongolic race. The monuments show that in -feature they were Mongolian and that they wore the Tartar pigtail, and -the names of their chiefs and towns tell the same tale. The Turkomans -are degraded representatives of a kindred race. The Turkish masters of -Palestine hold now the same position which the Hittite princes held in -the days of Abraham and Solomon as over-lords in a country whose -inhabitants were mainly of another race. - -The greater part of the Jordan Valley lies within the boundaries of -Samaria, and it was for this reason that Galilean Jews travelling to -Jerusalem crossed the Jordan and journeyed down the left bank to -Jericho, where they crossed again without having approached the country -of heresy. As regards the western borders of Samaria, there is less -certainty perhaps, but such information as we possess seems to show that -the limits of this province must be extended to the sea-shore.[39] -Indeed, had it been otherwise, the journey from Galilee along the coast -would always have been preferable to that along the east side of the -Jordan Valley. It must be confessed that the Samaritans possessed some -of the best land in Palestine. - -Since the greater part of the Jordan Valley thus belonged to Samaria, -the exploration of the valley may be here noticed. The survey of the -plains of Jericho has been recorded in the preceding chapter. From -Jericho in the early spring of 1874 the party proceeded northwards, and -by April, in spite of very bad weather, the work was finished within a -few miles of the Sea of Galilee. - -The total length of the valley is about a hundred miles from the Sea of -Galilee to the Dead Sea. The level of the latter Sir Charles Wilson has -determined as 1292 feet below the Mediterranean. The former, as -determined by the line of levels which, under a grant from the British -Association, I commenced in 1875, and which was completed in 1877, is -682 feet below the same datum. Thus the average fall of the river is 600 -feet in a hundred miles, but the upper part of the course is the more -rapid, falling about 400 feet in fifty miles. The width is pretty -constant along the whole course, the evaporation counterbalancing the -additional flow of the Jabbok and other affluents. The volume of water -brought down by the Jordan, and evaporated during the summer months in -the Dead Sea, makes a difference of fifteen feet between the summer and -winter surface of that sea over an area of about 400 square miles. The -flow is greatest when the snows on Hermon begin to melt, about the time -of Passover, when "Jordan overfloweth its banks all the time of -harvest;" for harvest in this deep valley is much earlier than even in -the Sharon plains. The river flows in a narrow bed between banks of -marl, and the Zor, or depressed channel on either side, averages about a -mile across, flanked by white cliffs and steep slopes fifty feet high. -In high flood this channel is at times all under water, and the river -becomes about a mile wide, but soon sinks within its natural borders. -The Zor is filled with brushwood of tamarisk, agnus-castus, and other -vegetation, and in places the river is hidden between the bushes and -cane beds. Near the fords it is seen as a brown swirling stream with a -rapid current. In the upper part of its course there are numerous fords -and small rapids. No less than forty crossing places, nearly all of -which were previously unknown, were marked by the surveyors. - -[Illustration: THE JORDAN VALLEY (ESH EL GHURAB).] - -The most interesting discovery in connection with the river was that of -the ford called 'Abarah. The name was found in one place only, and does -not recur in the ten thousand names collected during the survey. It was -applied by the Arabs to one of the chief fords leading over to Bashan, -in the vicinity of Bethshean, where the road from Galilee comes down the -tributary valley of Jezreel. 'Abarah means "ferry" or "crossing," and -there is no doubt that it is the same word which occurs in Beth Abarah, -"the house of the crossing," mentioned (John i. 28) as a place where -John preached, and where, according to the usual opinion, Christ was -Himself baptized. - -The traditional site of the Baptism, from the fourth century down to the -present day, lies much farther south, at the ford east of Jericho, where -Israel crossed from Moab to Gilgal; but the distance from this spot to -Cana of Galilee is so great, that it is impossible to reconcile this -tradition with the New Testament account. Nor is there anything in that -account which points to this southern site. The visit yearly paid by -Greek pilgrims to the traditional spot, near Justinian's old monastery -of St. John on Jordan, has often been described. In the sixth century -Antoninus speaks of the vast crowd which used there to assemble at the -Feast of Epiphany, when it was believed that Jordan yearly rolled itself -back and stood still till the baptisms were ended. "And all the men of -Alexandria who have ships, with their crews, holding baskets full of -spices and balsams, at the hour when the priest blesses the water, -before they begin to baptize, throw those baskets into the river, and -take thence holy water, with which they sprinkle their ships before they -leave port for a voyage." - -It must be confessed that these offerings to the Jordan savour of -paganism rather than of Christianity. Sennacherib, before he crossed the -river-mouths at the Persian Gulf, threw gold and silver fishes into the -water. Alexander the Great, in like manner, according to Arrian, -offered a golden goblet to the Indus. In Etruria the Lake of Ciliegeto -was found full of bronze _ex votos_, with coins and other objects, -thrown by pious visitors into the water, and other instances are known -in India. Nor is this a solitary example in which the practices of -Byzantine Christians in Palestine are intimately connected with the -older pagan rites of the country. - -There is, as before said, no strong reason for accepting this -traditional site for Bethabara. Some of the earliest MSS. of the Gospel -read Bethania for Bethabara; but Origen disputed this reading, and -Bethania is probably the later form of the Hebrew word Bashan. Bethabara -is found at least in the Codex Ephraemi (C^{2}), and Origen says that -nearly all copies of the Gospel in his time had this reading. It would -seem then probable that the scene is to be laid, not in the lower, but -in the upper part of the Jordan Valley, where the highway from Galilee -crosses over to Bashan, where, gay with flowers and carpeted with grass, -the plain, dotted with stunted palms, extends between the basalt heights -crowned by the Crusading Castle of Beauvoir and the long slopes round -Pella, the home of the early Ebionites, who fled from the destruction of -Jerusalem, and formed a quiet Christian community in the wilderness -where John had baptized. - -Few more beautiful scenes can be desired than that which the Jordan -Valley presents in spring, when the grass has grown long, and the eye -looks down from the hill on the wide stretches of varied colour which -fields of wild-flowers present. The pale pink of the phlox, of the wild -geranium and cistus, the yellow of the St. John's wort and of the -marigold, the deep red of the pheasant's-eye and anemone, the lavender -of the wild stock are mingled with white and purple clover, white -garlic and purple salvia, snapdragons, star-daisies, and the earlier -narcissus. The _retem_, or white broom--the juniper of Scripture--is -then in blossom; the long wreaths of vapour cling to the stony mountains -of Gilead, and hide its oak glades and firs. The stork pilgrims have -come from the south, bringing the spring-time, and rest their weary -wings by the marshy brooks round Bethshean, where the chorus of frogs -day and night invites their own destruction. - -But towards the south the saltness of the soil is too great for such -vegetation. For five or six miles north of the Dead Sea the marl flats -support only the low bushes of the alkali plant. Even half-way up the -valley there are salt springs and tracts of barren salt marl; and one of -our camps in the narrow gorge called Wady Maleh ("the Valley of Salt") -was placed beside a hot sulphurous spring too brackish to drink. For -several days we experienced much discomfort in this volcanic ravine, and -had to fetch water from a considerable distance. These traces of -volcanic action occur from north to south on both sides of the Jordan -Valley. Beds of lava and basalt occur both west and east of the Sea of -Galilee, and again east of the Dead Sea. Hot springs are found on either -shore of that sea, and again at the famous Baths of Gadara, and at those -of Hammath near Tiberias. Even in times long after the great fault had -rent this mighty gorge from north to south, tearing asunder the -sandstone beds, and bending down the chalk strata on the west, forming -the chain of lakes between Hermon and the Arabah of which the Dead Sea -and Sea of Galilee are the last relics, and of which we traced the -raised beaches far up the valley--long after all these convulsions, -fiery streams of lava flowed over the plains of Bashan, and reached the -shores of Tiberias, and covered the cliffs to the west with black -volcanic rocks, which form rolling downs of treeless land. Nor was this -energy spent even in late historic times, when the great earthquake of -1837 overthrew the town of Safed, and raised the temperature of the hot -springs in the valley. - -Among the curious delusions which seem destined again and again to -recover from the ridicule cast upon them by practical knowledge is the -famous fallacy of a Jordan Valley Canal. Leaving aside the question of -an expenditure to which that of the Panama Canal cannot compare, the -theorists who have proposed this wild scheme do not seem to reflect that -the whole volume of the Jordan never suffices permanently to alter the -Dead Sea level. The canal then must let in much more water than the -river. If it were possible to fill this valley to sea-level--as no doubt -it may once have been filled by Nature herself--not only would the crops -of the inhabitants be overwhelmed, with the villages of Jericho and -Delhemiyeh and the town of Tiberias, but the sea so formed would extend -to a breadth of from ten to twenty miles, covering all the villages and -corn-lands of the valley of Jezreel. It is almost incredible that this -chimera should have received serious support from influential and monied -believers in the unlimited powers of modern engineering. A very simple -calculation shows that were the sea admitted by such a canal as was -proposed in 1883, it might pour into the valley, but could never make -headway against the enormous power of evaporation in this burning gulf. -Even on the higher plateau near Damascus the rushing stream of the -Abana is unable to penetrate far into the desert, and sinks in the -marshes of the Birket 'Ateibeh.[40] - -The exploration of the valley was one of the most trying periods of the -Survey. At first a constant downpour of rain, with clouds scudding along -below sea-level, and storms of snow and hail interrupting the -observations from the hill stations, delayed our progress. Afterwards -the want of fresh water at Wady Maleh proved very trying; then the -marshy land round Bethshean brought fever into the camp; lastly, the -intense heat obliged us to work in the very early hours of dawning -light, and nearly cost me a sunstroke. - -There was also great difficulty in obtaining supplies and transport. Our -party was by this time so well organised that no time, as a rule, was -lost in changing camp. But in the valley we waited day after day in the -wet, suffering some of us from rheumatism, and unable to move the sodden -and heavy tents. Our first camp was at Wady Fusail, near the site of the -ancient Phasaelis; and here we found it almost impossible to get any of -the Bedu to stay with us. The reason, true or not, which they gave for -avoiding the place was, that it is haunted by a ghoul,--that evil and -corpse-eating demon whose haunts are shown all over Syria. More than -once, while exploring a dark cavern or descending a rock-cut tunnel, we -have heard the frightened guide shouting outside, and found him -astonished to see us emerge in safety from the ghoul's den. The ghoul -lives also in the great dolmens and in hermits' caves; but though I have -felt on one occasion, in a tunnel where it was necessary to crawl flat, -the frightened bats creeping in my hair, I have never been privileged to -see or hear a ghoul. - -The Wady Fusail ghoul, however, was the cause of much delay, and when at -last we induced the Arabs to come by daylight with camels, we found that -they never used saddles, and their camels were, indeed, almost untrained -and very small. We missed the sturdy beasts used by the peasantry, and -had very great difficulty in loading the desert dromedaries at all. - -It was a pleasure, in the times when the party was well provided with -transport, to watch the expedition on the march. The horsemen, on trusty -Arab ponies, never sick or sorry, never baffled by the stoniest -bridle-path, came first, with our breed of white terriers, which were -hardly recognised as dogs by the natives, and which often, night after -night, saved us from the depredations of determined horse-thieves. -Behind the horsemen came our own baggage-mules, carrying all that was -needful for the first founding of the new camp; behind these, again, the -camels with heavy stores swung slowly along, while the Maronites, on -their donkeys, the Bedu guides on horses and dromedaries, formed a -picturesque straggling band, which, as reviewed from a low hill, -sometimes extended over half a mile of road. It is pleasant to reflect -that, in the years we worked together, there was no dissension, no -desertion, and no grumbling in the camp. We suffered together in seasons -of sickness, but we stuck together as long as health lasted, and till -the work, was done. - -[Illustration: A CAMP IN THE JORDAN VALLEY.] - -One of the most picturesque incidents of the Survey was a night-raid -which occurred at Sulem (the ancient Shunem), where, with Sergeant -Black, I was for a few days at a detached camp. At this time the -difficulties of transport obliged us to separate from the rest of the -party, and to remain without meat, and with very little other food, for -three days. In the darkness, after a fatiguing day's work, we were -roused by the shouts of the villagers, and hastily loading our -shot-guns, we turned out to witness a skirmish with the Bedu. Whether -the raid was intended to capture our horses or to drive off cattle from -the village was uncertain; but the dogs discovered a robber just about -to cut the halters, and the hillside was for some time illumined by the -flashes from the old matchlocks of the villagers, while the war-song of -the retreating Arabs faded in the distance. Failing to surprise, the -raiders quickly gave up their enterprise, but drove off a stray cow in -the darkness. With such night-attacks we became more familiar -afterwards in the wilder parts of the Moabite deserts. - -The hardships of this campaign cost us dear. They were severe for the -strongest, and for my comrade, Mr. Tyrwhitt Drake, they were fatal. As -already stated, the terrible Jericho fever had undermined his strength; -and though he was successfully nursed through that attack, I have always -regretted that he would not hear advice, tendered with the most friendly -intention, that he should leave Palestine at least for a time. During -the months we spent in the valley he suffered constantly from ague, -asthma, and the terrible fever sores, from which no member of the party -escaped. Finally, he was almost unable to ride, and when we reached the -higher lands, rest was absolutely necessary. I left him with anxious -foreboding; and as he wished during my absence in England to make a tour -in Northern Syria, I wrote to friends at Damascus, begging them not to -let him travel alone. Hardly, however, had he reached Jerusalem when the -fever again seized him, and his grave is now marked by a simple monument -in the Protestant cemetery on Sion. There can be no doubt that he fell a -victim to his own earnest desire to continue his work after his powers -of endurance were exhausted. - -The share which he took in Palestine exploration has been fully -acknowledged in more than one publication. In many respects he was -peculiarly fitted for an explorer's work. Of tall and commanding -appearance, with a grave and reserved manner, such as most impresses the -Oriental, with a kindliness for man and beast, which made the natives -who had long served him much attached to his person, with a power of -silent endurance, which made him scorn to utter a single complaint in -the midst of trial and suffering constantly endured--especially in -frequent attacks of asthma, Mr. Drake was a pattern of that class of -Englishmen of whom we are proudest. Had he lived, his name would have -been widely known as a bold and trained explorer. I have heard a French -traveller, after talking with him, exclaim, "If we had such men among -the youths of France, it would be better for our country." I am happy to -be able to reflect that, during those three years of constant intimacy, -in the trying isolation of our camp-life, we never fell out; that our -last hand-shake was that of comrades who had suffered and worked with -single purpose; and that he trusted me to represent at home, at its -proper value, the share which he had contributed to our common work. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -_RESEARCHES IN GALILEE._ - - -The third province of Western Palestine is divided into two -regions--Upper and Lower Galilee. Lower Galilee was surveyed in 1872 and -1875. Upper Galilee was completed in 1877 under the direction of my -companion, Lieutenant Kitchener, R.E., who joined the party in the -autumn of 1875. During this year, when the field party was engaged in -Upper Galilee, I was employed in London in charge of the drawing of the -map, executed by Ordnance Survey draughtsmen, and writing the Memoirs of -the country already surveyed, consisting of five-sixths of the total -area. Upper Galilee, however, I visited in 1873, and again in 1882, and -have thus had occasion to explore almost every important site within its -limits. - -The boundaries of Lower Galilee include the great plain of Esdraelon and -the Nazareth hills, with the smaller plains to the north and east, which -stretch to the mountains of Naphtali. No part of Palestine is fuller of -interesting sites, and several important discoveries were here made, -including a synagogue in ruins on Mount Carmel, and the probable remains -of the city of Megiddo. - -Before the survey was made, Megiddo--one of the most important places in -Palestine--was supposed to be identical with the Roman city of Legio. -The reason which induced Dr. Robinson to make this suggestion seems to -have been that Megiddo is several times mentioned in the Old Testament -with Taanach, a ruined town near Legio. In other passages, however, -Megiddo is noticed with Bethshean and Ibleam, places east of the great -plain, so that the argument has no great force. There is only one place -in Palestine where a name at all like that of Megiddo exists, namely, at -the large ruin of Mujedd'a, a well-watered site at the foot of Mount -Gilboa, just where the valley of Jezreel opens into the Jordan plain -south-west of Bethshean. - -Megiddo appears as an important place very early in history. Thothmes -III. here fought a great battle against the allied Canaanites on his way -to Damascus, and has left us a catalogue of his spoils, which gives a -most vivid picture of Canaanite civilisation. Chariots of silver and -gold, precious stones, bronze armour, Phoenician arms, gold and silver -currency, statues and tables of precious metal, ivory, and cedar, are -mentioned as Canaanite trophies, with wine, incense, corn, sycamore -wood, goats and oxen, mulberries, figs, and "green wood of their fair -forests,"--perhaps referring to the oaks of Mount Tabor. Such, according -to the Egyptian monuments, were the products of Palestine in the -sixteenth century B.C., before the Hebrew invasion under Joshua. - -About two centuries later, an Egyptian traveller records how he came -down from the shores of the Sea of Galilee to the "fords of Jordan" and -to the "passage of Megiddo." In the Bible we find Megiddo to be the -place where Josiah awaited Necho, the Egyptian king, then on his way to -Carchemish, on the Euphrates. In every case this point appears to have -been that where Egyptian invaders fought for the passage of Jordan on -their way to Assyria. There is little now to be seen at Mujedd'a beyond -a mound such as marks the site of many another famous city, but the spot -is one well fitted for a great town, on account of the fine supply of -water from the springs below.[41] The site has a further interest, -because from Megiddo was named the Har-Mageddon, or "Mountain of -Megiddo," better known as Armageddon (Rev. xvi. 16)--the author of the -Apocalypse evidently referring to the old battle-field of Canaan, which -is also noticed in the Book of Zechariah (xii. 11), in connection with -the mourning of Hadadrimmon. - -Above Megiddo on the west are the barren ridges of Gilboa, where Saul -fell in battle, and between this and the Carmel range is the V-shaped -corn plain of Esdraelon. In the north-east corner of this plain is the -volcanic cone of Nebi Dhahy, and beyond this, on the north, the -mole-hill form of Tabor. Nebi Dhahy is named from a little white -saint-house on its summit, sacred to a Moslem hero, whose bones are said -to have been carried hither from the Kishon by his dog. Probably he is -to be connected with Dhahya el Kelbi (Dhahya of the Dog), who was -converted before the Battle of the Ditch, according to Moslem -chronicles. It is curious that sacred dogs occur more than once in -Palestine folk-tales, for the dog is an unclean beast to the Moslem, -while, on the other hand, to the Persians it was amongst the most sacred -of animals. The Tyrian Hercules was accompanied by a dog, and a -sculpture which perhaps represents this group is still to be seen on the -rocks not far from Tyre. - -Mount Tabor is one of the few places in Western Palestine where the oak -grows as a forest tree in abundance. There is an oak wood also west of -Nazareth, and an open forest of scattered oak trees in the Sharon plain, -but east of Jordan it is found in Mount Gilead in greater luxuriance. In -the glades of Tabor it is said that the fallow-deer still lingers, but -we never came across one of them. On Carmel, on the other hand, the -roebuck is still hunted, and this species--the existence of which in -Palestine was quite unknown before--we found to bear the name Yahmur, -which occurs in the Bible as the Hebrew word for a species of deer. I -afterwards found that the Yahmur was known to the Arabs east of Jordan, -no doubt as a denizen of the oak woods of Mount Gilead. - -[Illustration: MOUNT TABOR.] - -Tabor has been pointed out from the time when the heretical "Gospel of -the Hebrews" was penned as the site of the Transfiguration. There are -ruins of a great Crusading Church on its summit, dedicated to this -event; but the New Testament clearly points to some part of Hermon as -the site intended. This is not the only instance in which traditions, -dating back even earlier than the fourth century A.D., are in conflict -with the plain reading of the Bible narratives. - -The chain of Carmel, a region little visited by tourists, presents one -of the most picturesque districts in Galilee. At one time it seems to -have been fully populated, and traces of vineyards were discovered in -many places. The main ridge runs for fifteen miles, and rises at the -highest point 1700 feet above the Mediterranean. The north slopes are -steep, and in parts precipitous, but on the south-west long spurs run -out towards the sea. A dense brushwood of oak, mastic, and arbutus -covers the greater part of the chain; and of the former villages, only -two are now inhabited by Druze families from the north. The generally -accepted view places the scene of Elijah's sacrifice on the highest part -of the crest, still called "the place of burning," but the tradition -represented by a large monastery above the promontory which juts into -the Mediterranean, points to the opposite end of the ridge. - -The most interesting discoveries on Carmel were made in 1872, including -the ruins of a small Jewish synagogue and a tomb with a Hebrew -inscription. Inscribed tombs in Palestine are almost unknown, three of -the five as yet discovered being found by my party. That near Ain Sinia -(the ancient Jeshanah), found by Mr. Tyrwhitt Drake, has been already -noticed. The text is probably of about the first century B.C., and -includes the name of "Moses bar Eleazar ... the priest." A second was in -the Jordan Valley; the third, on the south side of Carmel, records the -name of Eleazar bar Azariah. The forms of the letters are ancient and -peculiar; the name recalls that of a very celebrated Rabbi who died in -Galilee in 135 A.D. There are many gravestones and inscribed sarcophagi -in early square Hebrew characters, both at Jerusalem and at Jaffa, but -no such archaic text has elsewhere been found on a rock-cut tomb. The -letters are rudely cut over the tomb-door, and were originally painted -red to increase their distinctness. - -[Illustration: CARMEL.] - -A very unpleasant adventure occurred to me in connection with the -exploration of the group of tombs where this inscription was found. As -before said, the region was lawless. I have been stalked by the -"club-bearing" brigand Arabs in the plains to the west, and in many of -the tombs we found skulls of recent date, often with marks of violence. -The rock cemetery near Umm ez Zeinat, to which I now refer, was -remarkable, because the tomb-doors were roughly closed with piled-up -stones. I did not pay much attention to this, or to a skeleton which I -found in one tomb, but I retreated somewhat rapidly from another when, -striking a light, I found myself kneeling in a large chamber, and -surrounded with quite fresh corpses of both sexes. As Moslems are buried -east and west, with the face to Mecca, whereas these bodies lay in -various directions on the floor, it seemed probable that they were those -of murdered persons, or of the victims of some epidemic disease. - -The Galilean synagogues are among the most interesting ruins in -Palestine. They were known before the Survey, many having being visited, -and even excavated, by Sir Charles Wilson. The Carmel example was the -only one added to the list, and was much less perfect than some examples -in Upper Galilee. Synagogues are indeed mentioned in the New Testament, -but in Palestine they seem to have become important chiefly after the -destruction of the Temple at Jerusalem. Synagogues are noted in one of -the Psalms (lxxiv. 8) in the English version, but the Hebrew word in -this passage (properly "meeting-places") is not the same usually applied -to the buildings of a later age in the Talmud. The architectural style -of the synagogues is a curious imitation of Roman architecture of the -Antonine period, and it is to this age that Jewish tradition refers the -building of the Galilean synagogues. It appears to me very doubtful if -any one of these structures was in existence in the time of Christ. The -Hebrew text which occurs on the gateway of the Kefr Bir'im synagogue is -ascribed by competent authority (from the forms of the letters) to the -second or third century of our era. The text runs in a single line under -the semi-classic mouldings of the lintel stone, consisting, as read by -Renan, of the words, "Peace be to this place, and upon all the places of -God. Joseph the Levite, the son of Levi, put up this lintel. A blessing -rest upon his work." - -It is easy for those who think only of the destruction of Jerusalem by -Titus and of the persecution of the Jews by Christian emperors to forget -how peaceful and prosperous was the life of the Galilean Rabbis in the -second century under the tolerant Antonines. After the fatal revolt of -Bar Cochebas, the Sanhedrim sat for a while at Jamnia in Philistia, but -gradually the centre was shifted to Galilee, and soon Tiberias became -the central focus of Judaism in Palestine. It was here that the Mishna -was written, and many are the famous teachers of the Talmud whose graves -were made in the Galilean mountains or on the shores of Gennesareth. To -this period of toleration it is therefore natural to attribute the -execution of works as ambitious as are the synagogues still standing in -ruins. - -One of the most curious facts connected with these buildings is the -frequent representation of animal forms. In one case I copied two -well-designed lions flanking a vase, and on Carmel a rude repetition of -the same design occurs. In other instances rams' heads and a hare are -represented in relief; yet there was perhaps no period when the commands -of the Law, which forbade the representation of the likeness of any -living thing, were more rigorously observed. In Moslem art, also, it has -always been considered impious to carve the figures of beasts and birds; -yet I have found on the walls of towns and castles representations of -lions clearly due to Moslem sculptors. In this case there is less -difficulty, because the newly converted Mongols and Turks very probably -rebelled against such restrictions, having long been accustomed to the -use of heraldic crests; but it is hard to reconcile the ornamentation of -the synagogues with the letter of the Law, so strictly enforced by the -Rabbis. - -The synagogues are long buildings, divided into walks by rows of -pillars, and having generally the entrance doors on the south; perhaps -because, as we learn from Rabbinical writers, the north side was -considered unlucky. At the doorway end of the building are generally -found two double columns, fitted to give extra support. It was suggested -to me by a gentleman, whose name unfortunately escapes my memory, that -these pillars must have been intended to carry the gallery for the -women; for it was a custom in Israel, even when the Temple was still -standing, to separate the sexes, the women being placed in an upper -balcony, where they could not be seen by the men, just as we find the -mosques of the present day to be arranged, or as the great church of St. -Sophia at Constantinople is built with spacious galleries for women. - -Perhaps the best-known spot in Galilee is the brow of the hill above -Nazareth, whence the traveller commands a view of the greater part of -the province. On the north is the high rough chain where Safed stands; -on the east, the plain where the Crusading kingdom was crushed by -Saladin; on the south, Tabor and Gilboa, and Ebal blue in the distance; -on the west, the dark outline of bushy Carmel, the round bay, and the -city of St. Jean d'Acre; in the nearer mid-distance, the great plain of -Issachar and the oak woods of Zebulon. On every side the memory of great -battles rises to the mind. By the springs of Kishon, under Tabor, Barak -defeated the iron chariots of Canaan, which sank in the boggy stream; -farther south, the Philistines defeated Saul; up the valley of Jezreel -came Jehu, driving furiously to Jezreel; and farther down the two -battles of Megiddo were fought. Round Acre the traces of Napoleon's -siege-works may still be seen; and it was at the battle of Tabor that -the simple-minded Junot won his fame, driving the Turks into the same -swamps in which the forces of Sisera perished. Near Seffurieh, on the -north, the Christian host gathered when it went forth to meet the -Moslems coming up from Tiberias on the fatal day of the battle of -Hattin. There is no region in Syria where great hosts have so frequently -met in great and decisive combats. - -When first we look at the map of a country, it is hard to realise how -few are the points where armies can meet; but the student of history and -of geography knows well that simple physical causes, ever present, so -narrow the lines of advance that famous battles constantly recur in the -same places--whether at some mountain pass, by the fords of some -considerable river, or beside the springs on which an army depends for -water. Thus not only have the battle-fields of Palestine proved to be -the same in all ages, but, even with our somewhat changed methods and -new tactics, it is certain that future battles, if they take place in -Syria, must be on the same fields, by Tabor at Megiddo, or farther -north, where the main road crosses the Euphrates, at the old -battle-field of Carchemish. - -[Illustration: NAIN.] - -There are other memories which this famous view calls up to the mind. -The little town of Nain, where the widow's son was brought out to meet -the Saviour and His followers; the long road from Shunem to the wilds of -Carmel, pursued by the mother who went to seek Elisha; the paths leading -to Cana and to Bethabarah; the many chapels which recall episodes in the -life of the Christ. These spots have all become sacred within the last -nineteen centuries, and their associations mingle strangely with those -of battle and disaster; but Galilee always holds a different place in -our minds from any other part of Palestine, because it is the cradle of -Christianity and the chief scene of the Gospel narratives. - -Of Nazareth itself there is little to be said. It was always a secluded -and unimportant place, and probably at the present day is larger and -more important than even when it was the see of a Latin bishop. The -cave-cisterns, which have been traditionally regarded for many centuries -as the "Holy House," of which part was carried by angels to Loretto, are -enclosed in a modern church on the foundations of a Byzantine chapel, -converted later into a Crusading cathedral. The Greek church farther -north, over the spring head, is the reputed site of the Annunciation, -according to the Eastern belief. Another Christian sect was busy, when I -first visited Nazareth, in consecrating a round table of rock, which -seemed to be newly hewn, but which was to be revered as the Mensa -Christi, where Jesus had once sat with His disciples. Such sites have -little claim to attention, since no hint is to be found in the Gospels -of their locality or preservation. Nor are the mediaeval legends -connected with the "Leap of our Lord," at the cliff where the road runs -up to Nazareth from the great plain, of interest, save to the student of -the curious Crusading chronicles. Antoninus, the pious pilgrim of the -time of Justinian, says that "in this city the beauty of the Hebrew -women is so great that no more beautiful women are found among the -Hebrews, and this, they say, was granted them by the Blessed Mary, who -they say was their mother." The same is said in our own times of the -Christian women of the town, and of those in Bethlehem also. Certainly -their type of beauty is very superior to that of the peasant women of -Moslem villages. The Nazareth girls are more Italian than Arab in -feature, and often very comely; but there are many ways of explaining -this besides the theory of Crusading ancestry. We must not forget that -in Syria mixed types, half Aryan, have long existed, due to Greek, or -Italian, or Frankish forefathers, and the blue eyes sometimes seen in -Syria may be due to yet later admixture of European blood. More weight -is, I think, to be given to such facts than to a comparison with blue -and green eyes in the faded pictures at Karnak, which represent the -Canaanites. The fairness of the Nazareth women is denied by Pere -Lievin's orthodox guide-book, and by the Franciscan fathers--mainly -Italians--who have monasteries at Nazareth and at Bethlehem. - -North of Nazareth lie the two sites which have at various times been -regarded as representing Cana of Galilee. It is curious that Robinson, -usually so careful, has confused them together. The one is the Christian -village of Kefr Kenna, which was certainly regarded, before the -Crusaders arrived, as the true site. Thus Antoninus places it three -miles from Sepphoris, which can only apply to Kefr Kenna. The other site -is the ruin of Kanah, four miles farther north. The distances given by -writers of the twelfth century show most clearly that this was the -supposed site in Crusading times. Robinson has twisted the earlier -traditions, making them to apply to the more distant ruin; but the -reader can measure the distances on the map for himself. This is not the -only case in which the views of the Frankish monks of the Latin kingdom -differed from the earlier traditions of the Eastern Church, but it is -hard to say which is in this case the more reliable, though the opinion -of most writers is in favour of Kefr Kenna.[42] - -The Buttauf plain is for the most part arable land, well cultivated, but -towards the north there is a pestilent swamp surrounded by reeds--whence -the name Kanah, from the "canes." Camping on the borders of this -unhealthy morass, we suffered from the inevitable fever, as well as from -the most notable mosquitoes in Palestine. The delay at this spot was, -however, unavoidable, since the line of levels had to be carried across -this plain from the Mediterranean to the Sea of Galilee, and accurate -levelling is not rapidly completed in any country. Here also we -examined, more closely than our predecessors, one of the smaller -synagogues, and I was interested to find that its dimensions were -multiples of a cubit of sixteen inches, as are also many dimensions of -the Jerusalem Temple. The researches of the great Jewish writer -Maimonides point to this length for the Jewish unit of measurement, -which was not the same as the Egyptian cubit of about twenty-one -inches--a question which is of no little importance in the study of -Jewish antiquities. - -On the east side of the Buttauf plain, not far north of the curious -cromlech now shown as the scene of "Feeding the Multitude," rises the -dark crag of the "Horns of Hattin"--a place celebrated for its -connection with the great battle in which Saladin defeated the forces of -Christendom. The story of that battle, of the fatal dissensions among -the Christians, and their lack of strategical skill, their vacillation -and rashness, forms one of the most remarkable incidents in mediaeval -history. The unhappy King Guy of Lusignan had lain with his hosts by the -fountains of Sepphoris for many months, awaiting the attack which it was -foreseen would follow the loss of the Castle of Banias and the defeat of -the Grand Master of the Templars near Tiberias. Whether through evil -fortune or because of hidden designs, the Templars seem always to have -been responsible for the great failures of the Latin kingdom. Raymond of -Tripoli gave good and disinterested advice, for though his lady was -besieged in Tiberias, he was willing to lose all, seeing that the only -chance of victory lay in the choice of a battle-field close to the -springs of Sepphoris. "Between this place and Tiberias," he said, "there -is not a drop of water. We shall all die of thirst before we get there." -But the Templars prevailed, and on the night of the 1st of July 1187, in -the hottest season of the year, the army moved out over a plain which, -east of Kefr Kenna, is entirely waterless. - -The Saracens had, therefore, the advantage, for there were several -springs behind their position. The Arab and Kurdish horsemen harassed -the heavy-armed knights and set fire to the dry grass and stubble, -which, in 1875, I saw in flames sweeping over this plain and destroying -great part of a village by our camp. There was no water for the Franks, -but a hot sun, with clouds of dust, smoke, and flames. The issue of the -day was not long doubtful, and the army melted away as the deserters -threw down their arms and begged for water from their enemies. Only 150 -knights gathered round the royal standard on the rocky Horns of Hattin, -and here the chiefs and princes of the kingdom were taken alive. The -Holy Cross was lost, and with it went the Latin kingdom. Only Raymond, -with Balian of Ibelin and his followers, were able to fight their way -from the scene of this great disaster, and thus escaped to Tyre. - -Renaud of Chatillon, the proud and treacherous lord of Kerak--his great -castle by the Dead Sea--whose misdeeds were among the chief causes of -the destruction of Crusading power, was the only prisoner whom Saladin -slew, having first offered him his life if he would become a Moslem. -Iced sherbet was ordered for King Guy in the conqueror's tent, and the -King handed the cup to Renaud. "Thou hast given him drink, not I," said -Saladin, and so pronounced the doom of a foe more feared by Islam than -any other Christian in the kingdom; for he had sailed with his men -almost to Mecca, and threatened the very centre of Mohammedan faith. - -[Illustration: THE SEA OF GALILEE.] - -From the neighbourhood of Hattin the eye glances over nearly the whole -of the Sea of Galilee, and the scene, which is unlike any other in -Palestine, is not easily forgotten. Yet familiar though it is from many -descriptions and pictures, it is difficult to bring to the mind of those -who have not seen it. The scenery has not the wild and barren grandeur -of the Dead Sea precipices, nor has it the rich wooded beauty of English -lakes. It is quiet and simple in both outline and colour, and the finest -effects depend on the passing shadow of the thunderstorm or the long -shades of the sunset. The first view is generally from the top of the -steep slope above Tiberias, with the flat plateau of the Hauran above -the cliffs to the east, and the peak of the "Hill of Bashan" in the far -distance. On the north-east are the volcanic cones of the Jaulan; on the -north-west a long slope rises to the Safed ridge. The shore is here -indented with tiny bays and strewn with black basalt stones. The cliffs -of Wady Hamam above Magdala, and those south of Tiberias on the west -shore, extending to Kerak (Taricheae) at the Jordan outlet, are among the -boldest features of the scene. The lake itself is pear-shaped, twelve -miles long and eight at its broadest measurement, east and west. The -placid waves reflect the water-worn gullies of the eastern cliffs, save -when tossed by the gusts that sweep down Wady Hamam before the heavy -thunder-showers which are here frequent in autumn. - -The shores of the Sea of Galilee had been surveyed and thoroughly -explored by Sir Charles Wilson before the Survey reached this region, -and no important discovery was added to his exhaustive account. The -sites of several important places, such as Magdala, Chorazin, Tiberias, -Taricheae, and Sinnabris, with Gamala on the east, are certainly fixed. -Hippos (now Susieh) may now be added to these, with Hammath and -Rakkath.[43] - -The three sites on the shore of the lake which are most discussed -represent three conditions of our knowledge of ancient Palestine -topography. Bethsaida is practically unknown. Capernaum is the subject -of controversy, and Chorazin is certain. In the latter case the name -survives at Kerazeh; in the other two the modern ruins do not preserve -in recognisable form the Hebrew titles. - -As regards Bethsaida, a city of that name existed at the mouth where the -Jordan entered the lake; and the point which struck me most on visiting -the ground was that this spot cannot be supposed to be the same at which -the river now opens into the Sea of Galilee. Most rivers, and especially -those like the Jordan, which flow through soft soil, have within -historic times lengthened themselves by the formation of deltas at their -mouths. There is a Jordan delta in the Dead Sea very distinctly marked, -and the north shore of the Sea of Galilee must also have been widened by -Jordan river deposits. Since the time of Ptolemy the Nile Delta has -grown considerably, and since the days of Sennacherib the Euphrates has -become nearly one hundred miles longer. For this reason Bethsaida Julias -must be sought somewhere, as placed by Robinson, near Et Tell. - -As regards Capernaum, Sir Charles Wilson has clearly shown that the site -of Tell Hum has been regarded by all the pilgrims, from the fourth -century downwards, as representing the celebrated city of the Gospels. -Yet, as we have had occasion to remark on previous pages, Christian -tradition is not invariably a safe guide; and, after reading all the -chief discussions of the question, and visiting all the sites, it seems -to me impossible to fix on Tell Hum as being the place intended by -Josephus or by the Evangelists. I think, rather, that Robinson's view is -correct, and that the ruin of Minieh not only represents Capernaum, but -preserves the contemptuous Jewish appellation for that town, "The city -of the Minai" or "heretics"--a term by which the Christians were -intended. Within the limits of this volume it is, however, impossible to -detail the reasons which have led me to this view, and which I have -fully explained in previous works. - -A very curious legend may be noticed in connection with the Sea of -Galilee. According to some Jewish and Moslem writers, the Messiah is -first to appear in the future, rising from the waters of the lake. This -idea appears to be of Persian origin. At all events, it is found in very -early Persian literature, and it is not recognisable in the Bible. In -one of the Yashts or hymns of the Zendavesta, we read of the lake in the -far east, out of which Saoshyant, the Zoroastrian Messiah, will rise in -the last days. Such recurrence of Persian legends is not uncommon, both -in the Talmud and in the Koran, which borrowed largely from the -Zoroastrian literature. - -Before entering Upper Galilee there is one famous site which should be -described, and which is very rarely visited, namely, the mountain -fortress of Gotapata, which Josephus, the celebrated historian, defended -against Vespasian and Titus for forty-seven days during the revolt in -Galilee before the fall of Jerusalem. The ruin stands on a high spur in -the mountains, north of the Buttauf plain, surrounded by deep valleys -and rugged ridges clothed with brushwood. I reached the spot by a -bridle-path from the north-wes in the autumn of 1875, and found that the -various features agreed very closely with Josephus' description, -although an exaggeration, pardonable in one who wrote at a distance and -many years later, seems to have crept into his account both of the place -and of the events. He speaks of giddy precipices where only rugged -slopes can be found, and one would certainly have expected the site to -have been larger. The hill, over half a mile to the north, where -Vespasian camped, is, however, easily recognised, and the statement that -the city was only approachable on this side agrees with fact. - -The Roman energy is well shown by the nature of the mountain up which -they dragged their heavy battering-rams and the iron casings for their -siege towers. The rocky knoll of the fortress of Gotapata is now bare of -ruins, but there are foundations of a tower on the north, where Josephus -built his wall, and cisterns (some still holding water), recalling the -straits of the besieged during the summer, due to the absence of any -supply save that from rain-water. - -No soldier reading Josephus' account can fail to see that it was penned -by one who had experienced war, and in whose memory certain awful -incidents were for ever imprinted. He remembers the terrible fire from -the catapults, the gleam of the Roman spears in the sunlight, the darts -of the Arab and Syrian auxiliary archers, the thud "which the dead -bodies made when they were dashed against the wall" (III. Wars, vii. -23). He delights in recalling his own stratagems and inventions, and has -no scruple in telling how he feared and despaired. Banks were raised in -due form by the Romans, and screens of raw hide by the defenders to -catch the stones and arrows. The spies sent by Josephus crept out in the -dusk among the woods towards the west, covered with sheep-skins, so as -to be taken when seen for straying beasts. At one time the Jewish -general meant to desert his post, but he was overcome by the entreaties -of the poor peasants, who wept and kissed his feet. The heavy armour of -the Romans proved a disadvantage against the sudden attacks of the Jews, -who sallied out even as far as their camp. The silent valleys re-echoed -the cries of the women and of the combatants. "Nor was there anything of -terror wanting." When, on the fortieth day of the siege, the trumpets of -the legions sounded a general assault, the enemy were met with streams -of boiling oil, which flowed inside the armour, and made the scaling -ladders slippery, Josephus held out yet another week, and Gotapata was -finally surprised at night by Titus himself. The caves, in one of which -Josephus hid, are still to be seen in the rock, recalling his curious -account of many hairbreadth escapes; for those who sought refuge in the -caves cast lots to kill each other, and the lot left Josephus and one -other to the last. These two alone surrendered to Nicanor, a Roman -friend of the historian's, and but for the throw of a die (if we may -trust his account) we should never have possessed that stirring story of -the wars against Rome which Josephus lived to write, and should have -depended solely on the curt and cynical chronicles of the Jew-hating -Tacitus. - -The survey of Upper Galilee was interrupted in the autumn of 1875 by an -attack on the party at Safed. This was our only serious collision with -natives, and it was due to the fanatical intolerance of the Algerine -Moslems, who formed a foreign colony in the town, and held the -unfortunate Jewish population in daily terror. - -Our relations with natives of all creeds and races had always been -excellent, and so remained afterwards. A little rigour was occasionally -necessary when my men were pelted with stones, or when the muleteers in -camp fought with knives; but our actions were always legal, and a -Turkish policeman attached to the party was employed to take offenders -before the local magistrates. There were no complaints against any of -the party; and indeed, as we spent money, employed labour, and bought -provisions at a good price, the Survey was always popular in Palestine. -But at Safed a Christian was then rarely seen, and fanaticism always -lives longest in the mountains. It is possible that some imprudent -speech of the dragoman may have enraged the Emir who attacked us. -Certainly a pistol belonging to our party was stolen, and was the -immediate cause of the quarrel; but I never expected it to become -serious until the furious Algerine attacked me with a knife. Few readers -will blame me for knocking him down, and breaking his tooth; but the -result was an attack by his followers with stones, and swords, and aged -guns. Several shots were fired at us, but no one was hit. They, however, -broke my head badly with a club, and I was defended by Lieutenant -Kitchener, while I lay for a few moments stunned. I fear that I broke -the head of the clubman afterwards even worse, but the party was never -out of hand. We were armed with shot-guns and pistols, but we never -fired a shot, and defended our tents without bloodshed until the police -arrived. The enraged Algerines threatened to kill us during the night, -but we kept watch with our guns loaded with ball-cartridge, hastily made -up, and only in the morning did we march off the field in good order. -The worst hurt was that of my groom, who was an old soldier. His head -was laid open with a sword-cut, and had to be sewn up; but he -accompanied us for several years after; and except a cook and a scribe -little accustomed to such scenes, none of the natives in our party -showed any signs of fear in face of the howling mob. - -When the Emir was afterwards tried and sentenced to eighteen months' -hard labour, he was asked how the quarrel began. He said that he was -taking an evening walk when we set upon him and beat him. It was -represented to him by the Kadi that this was scarcely credible, as we -were only fifteen in all, in a city where he had hundreds of retainers; -and to this he had no answer. It was to his own furious temper that he -owed the punishment inflicted for breaking the peace with law-abiding -explorers working by express permission of the Sultan. - -The negotiations which followed this riot were extremely tedious, and -interfered with our progress. In addition to this, I had caught a -serious attack of fever in the Buttauf marshes, and at one time the -whole expedition was down with fever in the Carmel Monastery, except -Sergeant Armstrong, who nursed us all. My health was so much shaken that -I was unfit for further field work for several years, and, indeed, was -not expected by the doctors to live through the attack of fever, -aggravated by the injuries to my head. - -The Turks at first did nothing, for the Emir was a relation of the -venerable and respected Abd-el-Kader, whose acquaintance I was happy to -have made, though this was unknown to his cousin. Afterwards they -dispatched a commission, which adjudicated in our absence, and only -inflicted nominal punishment; finally, my representations at home, -backed by the Foreign Office, led to a proper inquiry, with the result -that several of our assailants underwent terms of imprisonment, -including the Emir, Aly Agha. The Palestine Exploration Fund Committee -were paid the sum of £270 for our broken heads. - -The mountains of Upper Galilee rise to a height of 4000 feet above the -Mediterranean at Meirun, the Jewish town where a wild torchlight dance -of Jews occurs yearly round the tomb of Bar Jochai, the Cabbalist--a -ceremony which I regret never to have witnessed or to have seen fully -described. The ridges of these mountains are crowned by several -important castles, which defended the kingdom of Jerusalem against the -Sultans of Damascus. Toron (now Tibnin) was built as early as 1107 A.D., -and Belfort (now Kal'at esh Shukif) in or before 1179 A.D. The great -castle above the Jordan springs at Banias was held from 1130 to 1165, -and after its loss the line was protected along the Jordan side of -Galilee by Chateau Neuf, now Hunin, and Belvoir (Kaukab el Hawa), south -of the Sea of Galilee, with another strong fort, built in 1178 A.D., at -the Jordan bridge south of the Huleh Lake. This place William of Tyre -calls "the Ford of Jacob," and its modern name is Kasr'Atra, near the -"Bridge of Jacob's Daughters." The chain of castles ran through Gilead -to Kerak, and thence south to Montreal, which was built in 1115, and -thence to Ahamant and Taphilah; while on the south-west of the kingdom -there were many other forts, such as Blancheward, Chateau Ernuald, the -Castle of the Baths, Darum (near Gaza), Ibelin, Gibilin, and Mirabel, -all of which are marked on the map. Another similar line of strongholds -also protected the county of Tripoli against the Sultan of Aleppo, -including Mont Pelerin at Tripoli, Chastel Blanc, Krak des Chevaliers, -Mont Ferrand, Margat, and Saone, in Northern Syria. In Galilee other -castles were also built in the thirteenth century by the Teutonic Order, -who owned much property between Acre and the Sea of Galilee, acquired by -treaty with the Saracens. Among these later castles Safed was one, and -Chateau du Roi (Malia), with Chateau Judin farther west. The large -castle of Montfort (el Kurein) is also not noticed before 1229 A.D. - -[Illustration: KRAK DES CHEVALIERS (KALA'T EL HOSN).] - -M. E. Rey, the French explorer, who has specially studied Crusading -castles, points out a difference between those built by the Templars and -those built by the Hospitallers, for most of these strongholds belonged -to the great military orders, and very few were held by the King. The -Templars had eighteen castles in all, including Chateau Pelerin (now -Athlit), built in 1291 A.D. south of Carmel, and Tortosa. The -Hospitallers in the twelfth century had only five great castles, Margat, -Krak des Chevaliers, Chateau Rouge, Gibelin and Beauvoir. The Templar -castles contain polygonal chapels, like the Templum Domini or Dome of -the Rock, whence the Order was named, while the chapels in castles of -the Hospitallers are of the usual form, with nave and aisles. The latter -builders also did not generally make a donjon tower as an inner citadel, -but often had a double line of ramparts with several important towers, -as at Krak des Chevaliers, one of the finest and best preserved of the -castles, which I visited in 1881, or that at Banias, which I explored in -the following year. Krak quite recalls the Norman castles of our own -country, or the early French castles, as it towers above the hamlet on -the rugged slope. In its courtyard the whole population of that hamlet -might have taken refuge in time of war. The proud humility of the -Hospitallers is brought to mind by the text carved in Gothic letters by -the door of the chapel in the inner court-- - - Sit tibi copia - Sit sapientia - Formaque detur - Inquinat omnia - Sola superbia - Si cometetur. - -There is, however, another text on the outer wall at Krak in ornamental -Arabic characters and in another style. "In the name of God, merciful -and gracious, the rebuilding of this most favoured castle was ordered in -the reign of our master the Sultan Melek edh Dhaher, the wise, the just, -champion of the holy war, the pious, the defender of frontiers, the -victorious, the pillar of the land and of the faith, the father of -victory, Bibars." And such indeed was the history of nearly all these -castles, which Bibars took, and afterwards restored and held. The name -of that famous champion of Islam, Melek edh Dhaher, "the victorious -king," is even now not forgotten by the peasantry of Palestine. - -From the mountains of Upper Galilee you look down to the narrow -shore-line of the coast of Phoenicia. In the later Jewish times the -Holy Land was only reckoned to extend along the shore as far as Ecdippa -(ez Zib), north of Acre. From that point it passed over the spurs along -a line which I have traced in detail from the names of places mentioned -in the Talmud, leaving a broad strip of country reckoned as -Phoenician. It is very remarkable that immediately beyond this line we -begin to meet with carvings on the rocks representing human beings. One -of these near Tyre I copied in 1881, and another which I have not seen -is reported to exist near Kanah. It cannot be accidental that no such -sculptures have been found within the borders of the Holy Land, whereas -they occur in Northern Syria near Merash, and in Assyria and Asia Minor. -The explanation is, I believe, to be found in the Hebrew law which -forbade the representation of living things. - -If any carved idols of the Canaanites existed on the rocks in Palestine, -they were probably destroyed at some period or other by the pious -Hebrews or Jews. The distinction is, however, one of race, for the Arab -hates carved images as much as did the Jew, while the Turanian -Canaanites were fond of such arts, just as the Turanians of other parts -of Western Asia were the first to adorn temples and houses with -sculpture and painting. - -The moment we cross the border into Phoenicia, we also find -Phoenician inscriptions, though not of very great age. At Umm el Amed, -Renan discovered three texts, of which the longest is a dedication to -Baal Shemim, "That I may be remembered and my name good beneath the feet -of my Lord Baal of the Heavens for ever." The ruins among which these -texts were found include a city (probably the Biblical Hammon) and a -temple. Here I found sculptured sarcophagi and altars still lying on -the hill side, where the French explorers left them, and the foundations -and pillars of a Phoenician temple. - -The exploration of Tyre itself was conducted in 1874, in 1877, and in -1881. The famous city is still a fair-sized town, having a few modern -houses with tiled roofs. The population is reckoned at about 5000 souls, -half at least being Metawileh or Persian schismatics--some of the most -fanatical Moslems in Syria. It was by these new colonists that the town -was raised from its ruins in the eighteenth century. - -The old Phoenician capital stood on reefs or islands in the sea, which -together formed an area of about 200 acres. It had two ports, the -Sidonian on the north and the Egyptian on the south, each about twelve -acres in extent, or half the area of the port at Sidon. It is a curious -fact that until 1881 recent explorers have spoken of the Egyptian -harbour as no longer existing. With Lieutenant Mantell's assistance, I -was able to recover the site of this harbour, but the exploration had to -be conducted in a novel manner by swimming. There are reefs, which seem -to have been regarded as unconnected with any artificial structure, -about 200 yards from the rocky shore of the island. On reaching these, -we found that the rock had been carefully levelled, and in some places -was still covered with remains of cement and concrete. We know that the -Phoenicians used concrete at Carthage, and there was probably at one -time a wall on this reef, which was thrown down when the harbour, like -that of Acre, was filled up with stones, and thus rendered useless. We -were able with some little trouble, walking naked in the sun over the -sharp rocks, to discover the entrance to the harbour at its west end, -and I can only suppose that no one had previously done more than look -at the reefs from the shore. - -Another important discovery, which may yet lead to more valuable finds, -was the recovery of the probable site of the old cemetery on the island, -which may, I believe, exist under the present Moslem graveyard. We -squeezed through a narrow fissure in the rocks on the shore, and found -ourselves in a Phoenician tomb of the peculiar character found at both -Tyre and Sidon--a chamber at the bottom of a deep shaft from the -surface. Unfortunately this tomb has been rifled, and the sarcophagus -which it once held now lies on the ground outside the shaft. There may -be other tombs not far off of the same kind which remain to be -discovered, but excavation in a modern cemetery would present -considerable difficulties. - -Tyre was already a city on an island in the sea in the fourteenth -century B.C., as we learn from an Egyptian papyrus of that date. -Enumerating the coast towns of Beirut, Sidon, and Sarepta, the Egyptian -traveller adds, "They are nigh to another city on the sea. Tyre, the -double port, is its name; water is carried to it in boats; it is richer -in fish than in sands." The reference to the want of water is of -interest, for this has always been the weakness of Tyre, which was -somewhat later supplied by an aqueduct from the fine springs on the -shore at Ras el Ain. The joining of the island to the mainland appears -to have been first effected when Alexander the Great besieged the city -and made a causeway to it from the shore, which causeway is now -broadened by the constant drifting of the sands. The so-called "spring -of Tyre" on the causeway is fed, I believe, by the ancient aqueduct, -which we carefully traced. The work seems in great part to be probably -Roman, but I found that in one part "false arches," like those in -Etruscan and early Greek vaults, occur in this aqueduct, which can only -be attributed to the Phoenicians. The aqueduct probably existed in the -time of Shalmanezer IV., for the inhabitants in 724 B.C. dug cisterns -when the water-supply from the land was cut off. - -Although Tyre is perhaps more celebrated than any other Phoenician -city, it is from Sidon that the finest Phoenician remains as yet found -have been recovered, including the celebrated sarcophagus of -Esmunazar--the date of which is still disputed within several -centuries--and the recent large find of sarcophagi and art objects which -remain in the Constantinople Museum, unpublished and only very vaguely -described. These remains are not older, apparently, than the Greek -period, or in some cases, perhaps, of the Persian age. It is sincerely -to be hoped that good accounts of them will be soon forthcoming. - -It is still very doubtful what we mean when speaking of Phoenicians. -The alphabet and the language of the Phoenician monuments are Semitic, -and are traced perhaps as early as the time of Solomon. The -representation of the Fenekhu or Phoenicians on Egyptian pictures of -the time of Thothmes III. also presents us with a Semitic type of -bearded aquiline profile. These Semitic people were certainly the -Phoenicians known to the Greeks, and there is no good reason for -doubting the statement of Herodotus that they were emigrants from the -Persian Gulf. - -There are, however, many things in Phoenician antiquity which are not -easily explained by the aid of Semitic studies. Thus, for instance, the -gods Tammuz and Nergal were adored in Phoenicia. Even Gesenius is -unable to give a Semitic derivation for these names, and they are very -well known to be Akkadian words, meaning "The spirit of the rising sun" -and "The great lord." Both these deities were adored in Chaldea, and -their presence in Phoenicia indicates a population of like character -to the Akkadian on the shores of Palestine. Nor is this the only -indication of the kind. The Hebrew language itself contains foreign -words of the same derivation, including a good many of what are known as -"culture words," relating to architecture, agriculture, and settled -life, indicating the influence of that settled non-Semitic population -which the Hebrews found dwelling in walled cities and tilling the land -when they invaded Canaan. - -It is not possible here to enlarge on this subject, though it is one of -very great interest. No scholar who has carefully studied the early -Phoenician seals and cylinders can fail to observe how like they are -to the art of Mesopotamia, not only in general character, but in subject -and in the details of symbolism. Rude monosyllabic words constantly meet -the eye in Phoenician nomenclature, in the names of gods and in short -inscriptions on seals, which it is very difficult to explain as Semitic. -The conclusion at which it seems to me we must arrive is, that in -Phoenicia, as in other parts of Syria, there was from a very early -period a mixed population. The traders and rulers of the cities were of -a race akin to the Hebrews, and spoke a language which is only a Hebrew -dialect; but there must have been also an old element of population -existing perhaps, in this case, chiefly among the lower class, which was -quite distinct, and which belonged to that ancient and wide-spread -"Turanian" race to which the Medes, the Akkadians, and the Hittites also -belonged. It was from this race originally that the Phoenicians -acquired their knowledge of metal-work, of seal-engraving, of sculpture; -and I believe that it was from the syllabaries and older hieroglyphics -of the Hittites that they developed their great invention, the alphabet, -which they bequeathed as a practical benefit to all engaged in commerce -and literature throughout the world; for it is from the Phoenician -alphabet that every other alphabet of Europe or of Asia has sprung. - -The number of Phoenician gems with carved emblems, and of small -Phoenician pottery figures of the gods which fill our museums -contrasts in a very remarkable way with the absence of such remains in -Palestine proper. The only places where such pottery figures have been -found in the south are at Gaza and at Gezer, as far as I can ascertain. -The Jerusalem seals, generally speaking, have only an engraved name, -though a few, said to be Hebrew, have emblems like those of Phoenicia. -There is no apparent reason why these pottery images and other idols -should exist undiscovered in Palestine, for collectors are just as eager -in the south as in the north of Syria, and the tombs have been rifled -equally in all parts. In the Palestine tombs glass tear-bottles are -found, and coins occasionally occur; but the pottery statuettes are -absent. The explanation seems to be that there was a difference of -religion between the Hebrews and their neighbours; that the -Phoenicians, like the Chaldeans or Egyptians, believed in the efficacy -of such figures, symbolic of their many gods, while the Hebrews were -forbidden by the Law to make any such image. The same sort of conclusion -may, as we shall see in a later chapter, be drawn from the absence of -rude stone monuments in Palestine, such monuments being very abundant in -parts of Syria not reached by the zeal of Hezekiah and of Josiah. - -The course of our investigation now carries us into the extreme -north-east corner of the Holy Land, to Banias, under the slopes of -Hermon, where the Jordan springs forth a full-grown stream, joining the -Hasbany river, which geographically, but not historically, is the true -head-water. The fastnesses of this lofty mountain, which forms a -conspicuous background to many a view in Galilee, in Samaria, and even -in Judea, have always formed a remote and isolated region. It was here -that the men of Dan, according to the Book of Judges, came to Laish, -"unto a people that were quiet and secure, and smote them with the edge -of the sword, and burned the city with fire; and there was no deliverer -because it was far from Sidon, and they had no business with any man" -(Judges xviii. 27, 28); and in later ages this mountain was the cradle -of the Druze religion, which at one time had its missionaries in -Afghanistan and in India, as well as in Persia, Arabia, and Egypt. - -The Druze race inhabiting Hermon, and now existing in great numbers in -the Hauran, to which some of the chief families have migrated from the -Lebanon since the establishment of Christian rule in that province, -represents one of the finest elements of population in Syria. - -Tall, stalwart men, and women with features more delicate than any of -the Arab or Fellahah females, seem to belong to a Persian rather than a -Semitic race, although the language of their literature and of daily -life is Arabic.[44] It is not hard to become acquainted with Druzes of -every class, but to penetrate beneath the surface which they present to -those of other creeds is far more difficult, and our knowledge of their -creed is derived, not from any communications made by themselves, but -from the capture of their sacred books; although even these probably -only reveal the outer aspect of their belief, with one exception. - -The Druzes have long been regarded with great interest in Europe, their -bravery and ability having won for them a well-deserved fame. To me they -were the most interesting people in Syria next to the Samaritans, and -what I observed of the manners of their leaders (under very favourable -circumstances in 1873 and 1882) fully agreed with the expectations -raised by what I had read. But, on the other hand, a sort of mystery has -been conceived by some enthusiasts to surround them, which disappears -when the student compares them with other historic sects. They have been -represented as if they were Oriental disciples of Mde. Blavatsky, or -mystics claiming secrets of a supernatural nature. Those who know them -well and have been long familiar with them hold a very different -opinion, and regard them as a very practical and politic people, who may -yet play a part in the history of the Levant, and who, but for their -dissensions, would have become the dominant power in Syria, instead of -the Turks. I have had more than one Druze servant, but they do not prove -satisfactory in that character, being very independent and averse to -regular habits. Their religion allows them to acquiesce in the creed of -the dominant people, wherever they may be; thus to a Christian they -present the Christian aspect of their system, and their Moslem beliefs -to a Moslem. It seems, however, established that they have no rites, -ceremonies, or prayers of their own, and that the gatherings in their -remote chapels or _khalwehs_ are mainly for political and social -purposes. - -The accounts of the beauty of their horses, the richness of their dress, -the silver ornaments of saddles, bridles, swords, and guns, I did not -find to be exaggerated; but the curious horned head-dress, worn under -the veil by the women till quite recent times, I have never seen in use, -though such a horn, made of silver filagree-work, was once shown to me. -It is a curious and interesting fact that this head-dress was also worn -by tribes in Central Asia, on the Oxus, near the Caspian; and this -indication agrees with others to be mentioned shortly in indicating that -the original Druzes were probably emigrants from Persia, or from some -region perhaps farther east. - -The Druzes are perhaps best described as Moslem Gnostics, and the best -key to their rambling and concrete dogmas is found in a study of Gnostic -systems. They are schismatics, whose chief distinguishing tenet is a -belief that the mad Khalif Hakem, in the eleventh century, was the final -incarnation of the power of God. The appearance of this heresy in Egypt -was due to the fact that the Fatemite Khalifs in that country were of -the Ismailiyeh sect, which was of Persian origin. Other sects of similar -character were independently established in Syria (the Metawileh, the -Anseiriyeh, and the Ismailiyeh), among which the Druzes probably gained -many recruits. - -When the Moslems conquered the Persian dominions, they came in contact -with several religions and with numerous philosophies. The Zoroastrian -established faith, the Christianity of Nestorians and Sabians, the -Judaism of the great Chaldean schools, were firmly rooted in the land; -and in addition to these the Manichean system, which was, in fact, a -combination of the preceding with Buddhist scepticism, had spread on all -sides, even as far as Turkestan. Moslem mystic and philosophic sects -very quickly developed under these influences, and the Sufis represent -the adoption of Buddhist ideas by professing Moslems. - -The philosophic sects held the opinion--which is also a Buddhist -view--that the religion of the masses can never be the same as that of -leading minds. The Ismailiyeh and other Moslem societies put this belief -into practice, teaching to their disciples a series of dogmas in which -they had no personal belief. Thus, while they professed to explain a -series of incarnations of the Natek and the Asas, who were in the future -to appear on earth as Ismail and Muhammad, in secret initiation they -taught the more advanced student to discard all belief in either Koran, -or Gospel, or incarnation, and to believe only in two natures ("the -uprising one" and "the abode"), which together were, they said, the only -realities in the universe. This doctrine is closely similar to that of -the Syrian and Persian Gnostics, and to the final initiation of -Eleusinian and other mysteries, as we learn from many detailed accounts. -This simple basis enables us to thread the labyrinth of absurd -allegories which the various sects wove round their concealed -disbelief. These were, as a rule, politic dogmas, framed to bring into -the organisation men from every existing creed, and apparently to -reconcile systems which, in the eyes of the initiated, were all equally -untrue. - -The dogmas generally cited as tenets of the Druze religion are those -taught to the lowest and uninitiated class. They are known through the -seizure of sacred books by the Maronites in 1837, during Ibrahim Pasha's -wars, and again by the French in 1860. The great Orientalist De Sacy at -the earlier period was able to study at leisure the manuscripts in the -National Library at Paris, and Dr. Wortabet added to his results after -1860. - -There is no reason here to give the details of this fantastic system. -The Druze doctrines as to Christ, like those in the Koran, are clearly -of Gnostic origin. Their teaching of a paradise for the pious dead in -China, whence also Hakem is to return at the last day, and their dogma -of transmigration of souls, were no doubt learned from Bactrian -Buddhists or from Manicheans. We have already seen that more than one -link connects them with the Manichean and Buddhist Mongols of Turkestan, -though in appearance they approach nearer to Persians and Parsees. They -have celibates among them, and hermits who retire to distant _khalwehs_, -sleeping on mats, with pillows of stone, eating dry bread, and dressed -in wool, with a girdle like that of monks or of the Dervish orders; but -they are also commonly said to celebrate annual orgies, like those of -Gnostics, of Greek pagans, or of the Sakti sects in India. They have -secret emblems whereby they recognise each other, one of which is the -fig, which was also a Manichean emblem, according to Cyril of -Jerusalem. By none of these tenets or customs are they very clearly -distinguished from Anseiriyeh or Ismailiyeh heretics, the divinity of -Hakem being their true point of schism. - -There is, however, in existence a work, said to be that of Hamza, the -original Druze teacher, which admits us within the veil of initiation. -It is called the "Hidden Destruction," and it abolishes both Tawil and -Tenzil, or open and secret dogma as to the Koran. It reduces the Moslem -prayer--the Fetwa--to a cabalistic myth of planets and zodiac. It -abolishes prayer, sacrifice, tithes, fasting, pilgrimage, the holy war, -and even submission; and for these seven cardinal doctrines of Islam it -substitutes seven new laws, which represent truth according to Druze -philosophy. - - 1st, The confession of truth, save when such confession may - endanger the safety of the initiate, when silence is allowed. Thus, - too, the Buddhist is taught not to interfere with the common - beliefs of other men. - - 2d, The duty of mutual help and assistance. - - 3d, The concealed renunciation of every form of creed or dogma. - - 4th, A separation from those who live in error. - - 5th, The unity of "the Power" in all ages. - - 6th, Contentment with His will. - - 7th, Resignation to inevitable fate. - -This then, I believe, is the true system of Druze initiation. The -fantastic dogmas are but the husk of which this is the kernel. There is -no real mysticism in the system, but simply a concealed scepticism which -renounces even the most negative of religions--that of Muhammad. The -inquirer who expects to discover a secret supernaturalism among these -philosophers deceives himself, and would by them be regarded with -contempt. - -In the present chapter we have thus had occasion to refer to four -developments of Moslem religion existing in Syria side by side with the -Sunnee faith (the Metawileh, the Ismailiyeh, the Anseiriyeh, and the -Druze), and I may perhaps be pardoned a few words in addition on a -question which of late has excited interest in England, namely, the -comparative vitality of Christian and Moslem religion in lands where -both exist together. - -On this matter the views of the tourist visitor, however well stored his -mind may be with knowledge obtained from books, have little permanent -value. Nor will conversations, carried on by aid of a dragoman, with -respectable Moslem doctors, or with peasants, really enable the -new-comer to form a true opinion. Islam is not what it appears to be to -the stranger, and Moslems do not, and indeed cannot, give to such a -visitor a comprehensive view of their creed. It is necessary to live for -many years in a Moslem country, and in daily contact with Moslems of all -classes, in order really to know what they and their religion are like; -and such contact will not lead the impartial observer to form a very -high estimate of the practical results of Moslem teaching. - -In the first place, Islam can only be regarded as a general term, like -Christendom. There are in Islam as many antagonisms, as much -indifference and disbelief, as many sects mutually hateful, as much -discord and contention over abstract dogmas, as are to be found in the -West. A general reconciliation and union is as impossible in the one -case as in the other. But if we are to judge Christianity and Islam by -their declared moral standards, Islam must stand second. It is, -moreover, the most negative of faiths, distinguished by what it denies, -not by what it maintains. The enthusiasm for Moslem religion which some -writers express is but the natural reaction from that ignorant prejudice -against the "wickedness of the false prophet" which used to mark our -entire want of knowledge of Moslem belief; but this enthusiasm is also -the result of imperfect knowledge, and it dies off as the student of -Moslem life becomes more intimate with actual society in the East. - -It is true that Islam spreads with rapid strides in countries where the -Arabs are strong and where Christian teachers are weak. The conquered -are forced to adopt the creed of the conqueror, but the conversion is -not superior to the orthodoxy of Spain under the Inquisition; and the -propaganda is the same as that of the persecuting days of mediaeval -Christianity. It is surely no mark of advanced religious culture that -uniformity should be due to terror of the sword. - -Islam does (as far as I have been able to observe) absolutely nothing -for the education and raising up of the ignorant and of the poor. The -religion of the so-called Moslem peasant is the paganism of the days -before Islam was preached. He swears by Muhammad, but his real gods are -the buried saints, whose power to punish him by misfortune he dreads. He -lives in fear of the Jan, of the Ghouls, of the Kerad or "goblins;" he -prays to the holy tree; he believes in magic and in witches. No attempt -is made to educate him. He cannot read or write; he has no doctor save -the charitable European who may chance to pass by. So long as he -proclaims his belief in God and the Prophet, no one troubles himself as -to his fate. The dark places are full of cruelty, and the morality of -the peasant is generally not better than that of the African savage.[45] -The visitor, charmed by the natural dignity and courtesy of Oriental -manners, does not see more than the surface, and it is not till one -incident after another reveals the truth, that it can be recognised that -Islam has done nothing to raise the poor. In the cities usually visited -the traveller finds mosques filled with decent congregations. In the -villages there are no mosques at all. Many peasants cannot repeat the -simple Moslem prayer. They can do nothing more than light a lamp to the -_Nebi_ when child or husband are sick. They dwell in an imaginary -atmosphere of marvels, like that in which the Zulu or the Hindu peasant -passes a lifetime of superstitious fear. We have nothing like it, save -perhaps as a survival in the wilder mountain districts of Britain, where -witches are still feared. The pious doctors and fanatic Imams of Islam -have done nothing to compare to the home-missions of England. This is -not only the case in Syria; it applies equally to the whole Moslem -world. - -Among the upper class, too, there are many differences of belief and of -life. The mosque students and doctors represent, as a rule, orthodoxy of -the most conservative type. Yet even among these some survival of the -philosophy of the early Baghdad schools may exist, some tinge of the -influence of Plato and of Aristotle, which led captive for a while the -intellect of Islam. Among these, again, the passionate mysticism of the -Sufis represents an emotional condition not unknown in the West. The -Sufi gives up the riddle of existence to seek the final union with God, -which is the aim of his life. But side by side with these are men -professing Islam, yet breaking its laws, soldiers and diplomatists who -have seen the world unknown to the dweller in mosques or to the literary -professor; men also who drink wine and who neglect prayer; other men who -take bribes and grind the faces of the poor; pitiful ambitions gained by -crooked means; white turbans covering hypocrisy, and successful humbugs -decked with stars. - -There is, however, one phase of Moslem life which has no exact -counterpart in the West--a power which is often unsuspected but very -great, namely, that of the Dervish orders. The visitor who sees the -miserable mendicant in the street, who hears the frantic howls of those -performing the _zikr_, or watches the stately dance of the Mawlawiyeh, -little suspects the power which underlies these outward appearances, and -little understands the reason for that reverence which is shown, even by -Turkish officials, for the Dervish beggar. Miserable and ignorant as is -the fanatic who thrusts a sword through his arm, or devours scorpions, -charms snakes, treads on the sick babe laid before him, or bathes in -charcoal embers, he yet belongs to a wide-spread secret organisation, -and has sworn away his private judgment and liberty of action, devoting -himself to fulfil the will of one man, the distant head of his order. A -letter from such a chief will secure the active help of innumerable -associates scattered far and wide, in Turkey, in Egypt, and yet farther -afield. The power which Gnostics, Assassins, Templars, and other secret -orders used to wield is still wielded in a certain measure by the -Dervish leaders: we have only a faint reflex of such a system among -Masons. Yet it cannot be said that the Dervish orders have done much for -Islam: rather have they served to secure the aims and ambitions of -chiefs who, regarded by their ignorant followers as possessed of -marvellous powers, are yet perhaps in reality as sceptical as the Druze -initiates. By pretensions to spiritual knowledge and power they attract -the poor candidate who stands naked at the door begging for admission to -the order. By jugglery and sensational acts they captivate the -imagination of the mob. But they are careful only to admit to their real -counsels those of whose intelligence and trustworthiness they have had -long experience. The Dervishes may lead the populace in religious war, -but chiefly when certain very practical aims are seen by their leaders -to be thereby attainable. - -Such considerations, though they have led us far away from Galilee, will -perhaps be allowed as the results of practical acquaintance with Islam, -gained by six years of life in Moslem lands, and may be useful in face -of the somewhat superficial estimates of Moslem religious life which so -often appear before the public as the results of a trip to the more -frequented towns of the Levant and the talk of dragomans and renegade -Turks. I know only one point in which Islam has real advantage over -Christianity, namely, in its direct condemnation of drink. Even Islam is -unable entirely to stamp out this curse; but when we contrast the -sobriety of Palestine with the drink traffic forced on natives of South -Africa by an English-speaking race, whose Government draws a revenue -from the excise, we find that there is one great lesson to be learned in -the East, and one great evil which the voice of Muhammad has always -proclaimed as such. In all other respects--the position of women, the -condition of education among the poor, the sympathy of the upper class -with the ignorant, the love of truth, and of freedom, and of -justice--the lands where Islam is established can never be compared with -those where Christianity is purest. - -These reflections have been raised by the remembrance of days spent in -crossing over Hermon, from Banias to Hasbeya, on the road to Damascus, -or in the investigation of the ruined towns and temples on the mountain, -or in toiling to the summit, 9200 feet above the sea, where the Survey -party once spent the night, and took observations of the stars for -latitude. It is one of the wildest and most picturesque parts of Syria. -The lower slopes are of the sandstone which underlies the Lebanon and -appears on the Moab hills. Above is the hard fossiliferous limestone, -which is a base-bed in Western Palestine. Near the Druze villages great -cascades of bright green foliage deck the mountain slopes, where the -vineyards, already famous in Hebrew times, run terrace above terrace. -Clumps of pines, low thickets of oak and mastic, and hedges of wild rose -rise towards the snowy dome, where the Syrian bears are hiding, and -whence sometimes they venture down to eat the grapes. The costumes of -the Druzes, the white veils, through which one eye only of the Druze -damsels is seen, and the brightly-coloured dress of the men, are equally -picturesque; as are, too, the solitary _khalwehs_ or meeting-places -perched on cliffs remote from other habitations. - -The scenery round Banias is also of remarkable beauty. It is well known -to tourists, who generally visit it at its best. Here by the Mound of -Dan is the fine clump of oaks, a familiar resting-place, near which is -the tomb of Sheikh Merzuk, who is said to have been a dog. To the west -the path crosses four rushing brooks, which join the cascades of Banias -to form the Jordan, breaking over stony channels in a plain strewn -everywhere with blocks of black basalt, covered at times with -orange-coloured lichens. - -It was here that I discovered a group of dolmens in 1882, which had -previously been overlooked amid the many natural boulders, and which are -no doubt connected with the old worship of the region. Farther east the -town itself still preserves its great Norman wall in parts, and the rush -of the Jordan, shooting down in a foaming torrent between thickets of -low shrubs, with forest trees in groups here and there, and a few -poplars, is that of an Alpine river rather than of a Syrian stream. High -up on the east the ruins of the great castle, which was the bulwark of -Christendom against Damascus, cover a long spur on the side of Hermon. -The great cave of Pan, whence Banias takes its name, has now fallen in, -so that the full effect, which probably was to be remarked when Josephus -wrote, is lost; for the sudden bursting of the river out of the cavern -must have been very striking. A little Moslem chapel is built on the -debris, and dedicated naturally to El Khudr, the mysterious "green one," -who drank the water of life, and who represents the vivifying power of -moisture in Moslem folk-lore. On the rocks, still half legible, are the -Greek inscriptions of the days of Agrippa, one dedicating an altar to -the nymphs, another recording the name of Agrippa as archon of the -year, a third speaking of the priest of the god Pan. The name of Pan at -this place is perhaps older than the Greek age, and of Canaanite origin, -since the word as a Turanian term, meaning a "spirit," is found in many -languages of the group to which the Hittite tongue belonged. Looking -southwards over the flat Jordan plain, you see the marshy Huleh lake -shining amid its papyrus swamps. On the east are the fantastic cones of -the Jaulan volcanoes, on the west the bushy range of Naphtali, on the -north the rugged ridges of Hermon. The black camps of the Arabs are -dotted over the plain, their brown cattle wander beside the streams, and -the women in dark flowing robes are churning butter in goatskin bags -beside the "houses of hair." - -Hermon appears in all ages to have been a sacred mountain and a -religious centre. The name is thought by some to mean a "sanctuary," but -by Gesenius to mean a "mountain spur." The old Amorite name was Shenir, -of uncertain meaning, and the Sidonians called it Sirion, which is -probably a Turanian word meaning "white" or "snowy." Long after the -calves of Dan had been overthrown, and before the calf became an emblem -in the Druze _khalwehs_ on the same mountain, the Romans covered its -slopes with little temples. These have been, for the most part, visited -and described. Sir Charles Warren made careful plans of the -best-preserved examples, and nearly all of them I have explored on -different occasions. At Rukhleh, on the north-west slope, there are -remains of such a temple, which has been pulled to pieces apparently to -make a church. The Roman eagle, which one traveller in his enthusiasm -has called Hittite, is here carved in bold relief, as also at Baalbek, -and in the curious temples of the Anseireh mountains; and a great head -of the sun-god is sculptured on another stone. Here, too, occur Greek -inscriptions; one recording the adorning of the temple gates with -silver, another mentioning the Epiarch of Abila. Farther north, at Abila -itself, the ground is strewn with Greek funerary texts, and the rocks -burrowed with tombs, one of which has rude busts in low relief over the -entrance, such as we also found over Roman tombs in Gilead. - -On the top of the mountain itself there are some very curious remains. A -sort of peak has here been surrounded by an oval of cut stones carefully -laid, within which we found a quantity of ashes, apparently belonging to -some beacon or sacrificial fire once lighted on the spot. Close to this -circle is a cave hewn in the rock, measuring fifteen feet by -twenty-four, with a roof supported by a rocky pillar. Three steps lead -down into the cave, and the rock above has been levelled, perhaps as the -floor of a building. There is no historic account of the object with -which this curious cave was cut high up on the snowy summit, remote from -all inhabited spots. The Druze hermits are said to retire to Hermon, but -their place of retreat was shown to me farther down the side of the -mountain. The names of Antar and Nimrod are connected with various -buildings on Hermon, and the remains on the top are called "Castle of -the Youths" by the shepherds. It is said that a Greek inscription lies -near the circle round the highest peak. This I was unable to discover. -The rock of the peak has been cut so as to form a sunken trench with a -round shaft--perhaps for water--beside it. The object of these cuttings -is, however, obscure. - -By passing the night on the summit, I was able to witness two of the -most interesting scenes imaginable--the sunrise over the plains of -Damascus and the sunset in the sea. These I have fully described in -another work, but, as there is no other point from which such a general -view of Palestine can be gained, I may be allowed to repeat in part what -I saw. We ascended the mountain on the 9th of September, at which time -it was quite free from snow. Indeed, we could not even find snow to melt -for cooking, and had thus great difficulty in getting water. - -Beneath us, apparently quite near, lay the calm Sea of Galilee, showing -a light green among its dusky cliffs. Tabor and the Horns of Hattin -appeared to the right, and the chain of the Safed mountains as far as -the Ladder of Tyre. The gorge of the Litany River was clear, with -Belfort on its northern slope, and Tyre itself with its harbours. Carmel -formed the extreme distance on this side, about eighty miles away. - -On the east the Syrian desert stretched unbroken towards the Euphrates, -and the white houses and minarets of Damascus were set in a deep border -of green from the surrounding gardens. Farther to the south-east, as on -a map, we looked down into the craters of the Jaulan volcanoes, which -seemed no larger than the hollow cones of the ant-bear. Over the great -brown Bashan plains, so full of ruined Roman cities, of endless Greek -inscriptions, of Nabathean texts scrawled on the rocks, and of dolmen -groups yet older, we saw the great columns of the whirlwinds slowly -stalking in the autumn heat. The Druze villages were at our feet, and a -green valley with a gleaming stream. - -On the west the long ridges of the Southern Lebanon reached out to the -great level of the Mediterranean, with dark shadows in the deep ravines. -On the north is Sannin, with its cedar clumps, and grey rocky walls, and -valleys fringed with pines. The glorious flush of the Eastern sunset -bathed all this scene for a few moments, and then, while still in -sunshine ourselves, the steel-blue shadow crept over all the lower -world. The great conical shadow of Hermon crept out eastwards and -swallowed up Damascus, and stretching yet farther for seventy miles over -the desert, stood out against the thick haze on the sky itself. - -When the dawn rose, we again stood on the peak, where perhaps the old -sun-worshippers used to await the great orb, which here rises from the -desert horizon. Often in other places have I seen the first white streak -and the glory of the aurora behind mountain ranges; but here, as the red -globe appears in the mists over a boundless plain, the great shadow of -Hermon stretches far across the dim Mediterranean--a sight not often -seen by those who watch the dawn. Wherever a single peak stands out -alone, such a shadow may be seen from the summit. In Teneriffe it -stretches over the Atlantic, and the watchers on other mountains have -seen it; but in Palestine there is nowhere else such a sight or so -glorious a panorama, because nowhere else does a solitary mountain stand -up twice the height of the surrounding hills. The great peak of Monte -Viso, rising above the Italian snowy ranges, has a finer outline, but -Hermon is unlike any mountain with which I am acquainted. It appears as -the centre of every view in northern Palestine, and its snowy dome is -seen from the plains near Jaffa, and from the valley of Jericho; while -on the north its outline is equally impressive from the plains of -Coele-Syria, or from the heights of Lebanon. It is this scone which -rises in the mind of Hebrew poets in many ages, and which inspires the -Song of Songs: "Look from the top of Amana, from the top of Shenir, even -Hermon, from the lions' dens, and from the mountains of the leopards." - -[Illustration: JEBEL SANNIN (LEBANON). - -_To face page 132._] - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -_THE SURVEY OF MOAB._ - - -The survey of Western Palestine was happily complete in 1877, and the -map was out in the following year; but the Memoirs were still not half -published when, in 1881, I was again given command of a party instructed -to carry the work east of Jordan. The adventures of the fifteen months -which followed were far more exciting than any encountered west of the -river. Even in 1877, when it was thought that some trouble might arise, -the condition of affairs was really favourable, as the Turkish -Government was very cordial, and all the dangerous characters were -drafted out of the country to the war, leaving only peaceful elders, -women, and boys. But in 1881-82 there was great excitement preceding the -Alexandria massacres and the expectation of a Moslem Messiah in the year -1300 of the Hegira. In addition to this, our relations with Turkey had -altered. The new Sultan refused to prolong our firman or to allow any -exploration. The British Government served me with a notice that any -expedition I might undertake was at my own risk, and that they would not -be responsible for the consequences. We had, therefore, no support on -which to rely, and were yet expected to work in the wildest districts, -against the will of the Government of the country, and in a time of -religious and popular excitement, finally culminating in massacre. - -Arriving at Beirut in March 1881, before the assistants and the stores -had left England, I determined to fill out the time by a journey through -Northern Syria, in company with Lieutenant Mantell, R.E. The object of -the excursion, which, by hard riding, was carried through in eighteen -days, was to search for the lost city of Kadesh on Orontes. On our way -through Baalbek we made the discovery of a Greek inscription painted in -red in a chamber behind the north apse of the church built by Theodosius -in the great enclosure. It appears to me to be as old as the time of the -building of this church, and had not, I believe, been previously -noticed. - -Our farthest point was the ancient and picturesque town of Homs, whence -we returned by the valley of the Eleutherus to Tripoli, and down the -Phoenician coast. The full account of this journey I have already -given ("Heth and Moab," chaps. i. and ii.). The impression left on my -mind was that few parts of the East would now better repay scientific -exploration than Northern Syria. Excavations at Carchemish are urgently -needed. Rock-tablets and large ruins exist in the Northern Lebanon, as -yet very imperfectly explored. Round Homs there are great mounds -awaiting the spade, which probably contain Hittite and other remains of -the highest interest. Even the remains existing above-ground are as yet -little known, though De Vogue has done much for the Byzantine ruins of -this region. - -Kadesh on Orontes was the Hittite capital attacked by Rameses II., and -an Egyptian picture represents it as a walled town surrounded by the -river. Its discovery, which rewarded our labour, gave an instance of the -necessity of keeping the mind open in archaeological research, and of -avoiding preconceived theory. South of Homs is a great lake, which, in -the fourteenth century, was known as the Lake of Kadesh. A mound in this -lake was thought likely to be the site of the city. We found, however, -that the lake was artificial, being formed by a Roman dam across the -river. This agrees with the statement of a Rabbinical writer, who says -that the lake was made by Diocletian as a reservoir for the supply of -Homs, the ancient Emesa; and an aqueduct still leads from the dam to -this city. The lake, then, did not exist in the days of Rameses II. - -Camping for the night a few miles south of this lake, I, as usual, -inquired for the names of towns, ruins, &c., in the district, and to my -surprise the name _Kades_ was among them. We therefore altered our plan, -and turned aside to explore the place pointed out under this name. We -found it to be the site of an important town on the Orontes, about five -miles south of the lake, and it was afterwards discovered that previous -travellers had recovered the name, though it had escaped the map-makers. -Standing on the great mound, and observing how the Orontes washes it on -the east, while a tributary stream flows on the west and joins the river -immediately to the north, no doubt remained possible that the name -survived at a site exactly fulfilling the requirements of the Egyptian -account. Excavations at the recovered Hittite capital might lead to very -important discoveries, if thoroughly carried out. - -I was much interested also to find a considerable Turkoman population in -these plains; for the border between Turkic and Arab populations is -generally placed much farther north. This mingling of Turanian and -Semitic peoples round the old Hittite capital represents, in our own -times, just the same racial condition which we gather to have existed in -the time of Rameses II. - -It has come to be generally recognised that the Kheta or Hittites were a -Mongolic people, speaking what is called an "agglutinative" language, -which was, I believe, akin to the Turkic dialects.[46] They were thus -related to that ancient race of Chaldea and Media which, through the -labours of Sir Henry Rawlinson and of Dr. Oppert, and their disciples of -the second generation, has been so wonderfully demonstrated to have -produced the existing population of Central Asia and of the Turkish -hordes which spread over Asia Minor. The hieroglyphics found at Hamath, -a day's journey north of Emesa, are the same characters now known in -many parts of Asia Minor, and of which examples occur even in Nineveh -and at Babylon. - -Our troubles were all before us. The Wali of Syria caused us to be -privately told that he must forbid any exploration under the old firman. -The Druzes were in rebellion, and the Hauran, which I had intended first -to enter, was surrounded by a cordon which we could not pass. Moving -southwards, I found the Belka governor, who lives at Nablus, equally -firm. The word had been sent all over Syria. Moreover, the great Arab -tribes of the Belka were at war, and the Adwan had just killed a chief -of the Beni Sakhr. I soon found that we were watched by spies, and, -moreover, that the Turkish power east of Jordan had been so much -strengthened since the time when Sir Charles Warren visited Moab, that -it was very hard to find an Arab chief independent of the Turks with -whom to treat. I felt that the lives and safety of my party rested on my -decision, and that while subscribers at home were eager for results, the -question of putting my followers in peril rested on my shoulders. - -There was another consideration which also weighed with me. Imprudent -action and an open breach with the Government of the country might not -only endanger our safety and entirely stop our work, but it might also -close the doors for many years on Palestine explorers. - -After patient waiting, however, during several months, which were fully -employed in visiting places of interest only imperfectly described -before, fortune at length favoured us for a while. The quarrels of the -Arabs were settled, and I found at last a sturdy Arab chief of the old -school, regarded by the Turks as a rebel, but powerful and respected -over a large area east of Jordan, and willing to escort us. I was thus -able to carry out the wishes of those at home and to start the Eastern -Survey. It was not difficult, by leaving the greater part of my camp -standing west of Jerusalem, to give the Turkish spies the slip. A -regular treaty with Goblan, the aged Adwan chief, was signed. With -Lieutenant Mantell I crossed Jordan, and finding that no active steps -were taken by the Government, I sent for the rest of the expedition. For -two anxious months we laboured at very high pressure; and after -measuring our base-line and connecting our triangulation with that west -of the river, we worked over five hundred square miles in detail. - -I had quite hoped that, though not recognised, we might be tolerated in -the country, and I believe we might have worked still longer--for I -doubt if the Turks at all knew where we were gone--but that there was an -adverse influence of some kind at work. Whether it was the jealousy of -the Beni Sakhr, or whether some political counter-current existed, I was -unable to find out. The Beni Sakhr had certainly seemed friendly. We had -already subsidised them, and they expected us soon to work in their -country, and to pay them handsomely for escort. No means that I could -think of was neglected to interest all who could help in our peaceful -and rapid progress. Yet suddenly the whole plan was spoilt by the -extraordinary action of the Beni Sakhr chiefs. I am not aware that they -are conspicuous for devotion to Turkish interests, though certainly they -hated Goblan, with whom they had a blood-feud and whose life they -sought. Whatever their reason, they went out of their way to draw -attention to our presence. The Haj, conducted by the famous Kurdish -Pasha, Muhammad Said of Damascus, was on its way through Moab to Mecca. -To this Pasha they pointed out that English captains were measuring the -land, and he only did his duty when he at once ordered us to be stopped, -and telegraphed to Damascus, whence the news was sent to the Sultan. The -governor of the Belka was reprimanded, and he in turn came down on the -governor of Es Salt. Yet even after this we were able to extend the work -over a considerable area, and only recrossed Jordan in time to escape -from the winter storms or from being cut off by the flooding of the -river. It was in the same year that Mr. Rassam's researches in -Mesopotamia were stopped, and no important or extensive explorations -have since that date been possible in the Turkish dominions. - -We could not blame the Turks for their action. They had every reason to -be jealous and suspicious at a time when the war in Egypt was brewing, -when Cyprus had been handed over and Tunis annexed, and when Russian -political emissaries were, I believe, actually exploring Northern Syria. -It was not likely that the Sultan or his advisers would discriminate -closely between antiquarian work and political intrigue, especially as -our explorations were not likely to put much money in the treasury. It -had been my wish to go to Constantinople, and to place the matter fully -before the Sultan, before attempting to begin the work; but when I was -instructed to go to the capital, after our irregular proceedings had -been peremptorily stopped, it was with a bad grace that I was forced to -ask for regular authorisation, which, though promised, has not yet been -granted. - -In spite of all difficulties, a substantial bit of work was done--about -an eighth of the total proposed--and we came back from the desert with -our hands full of valuable results. I believe that but for the Beni -Sakhr, or their unknown instigators, we might, through Turkish -good-nature, have been allowed to work for some time longer. As it was, -I revisited Moab and Gilead next year, through the kindness of our -Royal Princes, and thus have seen nearly all the country east of Jordan -except Bashan, on which I have only looked from a distance. Finally, we -left Syria on a steamer crowded with refugees from the Alexandrian -massacres; and Lieutenant Mantell and I had hardly been six weeks in -England when we were ordered to Egypt on active service. - -Since that date I have been in two campaigns, serving on the staff at -Tell-el-Kebir, and laying down the west border of the Transvaal in South -Africa; yet I can look back on no more anxious time than the weeks we -spent in surveying Moab. Surrounded with lawless Arabs: roused almost -every night, at times, by the attacks of thieves bent on stealing the -horses on which we so much reckoned; having nothing on which to trust -but the unproved loyalty of our old guide, Sheikh Goblan, whose life was -in constant danger from his blood-foes on the south, and his liberty -from the Turks, who had often tried to catch him, on the north; placed -in opposition to the Turkish Government and disowned by the British,--we -felt that a disaster might any day occur which might endanger the lives -of brave comrades who had ventured to follow, but who certainly were -alive to the perils of our position. I write these lines not to -exaggerate those dangers, for Goblan was trusty and our relations with -the Arabs were excellent, but to show how difficult it was to carry -through even that small portion of the great task which we completed, -and how utterly impossible it was to do any more. - -The stoppage of the work was a great disappointment to us all; but I can -only feel thankful that no accident marred our success, and that the sum -banked in Syria to pay ransom in case of our being imprisoned, like Dr. -Tristram in Kerak, or kidnapped by the wild Anazeh to the east, who -could have brought many armed horsemen against our little band of -fifteen, was never called into use. - -[Illustration: MOAB MOUNTAINS FROM THE PLAIN OF SHITTIM.] - -Crossing the Jordan, and traversing the plain of Shittim, we ascended -the great sandstone spurs to camp by the Brook of Heshbon. Thence we -afterwards went south, camping in the wild ravine of Wady Jideid, inside -the curious Hadanieh circle, and again farther south, near the brink of -the gorge of Callirrhoe. A rapid countermarch, which put the Turks at -fault, took us thence northwards to Rabbath Ammon in Gilead. - -The most remarkable feature of our work was the systematic examination -of the rude stone monuments, of which we catalogued some seven hundred -in all. They were known to exist east of Jordan, but it was not, I -think, expected that they would prove more numerous in this region than -anywhere else except in Tunis; and the contrast with their absence in -Western Palestine is very remarkable.[47] - -Rude stone monuments are found in many parts of Asia, in Europe, and in -North Africa. They occur from Norway to Tunis, and from India to -Ireland, and they still present many curious problems to the -antiquarian. These questions have been complicated by the utilitarian -suggestions of writers, who ignore the folk-lore which is so closely -interwoven with the history of these remains. It appears, I think, -clear, first, that the rude stone monuments are of very high antiquity, -having probably been erected in most, if not in all cases, by the early -Turanians, who in Asia, North Africa, and Europe preceded the Aryans and -the Semites, and who are called by modern students Iberians even in our -own islands; and, secondly, that no study of these remains can be -considered complete which ignores the beliefs concerning them surviving -among the peasant populations of the regions where they occur. - -Rude stone monuments are known in Arabia, and have been found near Lake -Van and in Persia, in the Crimea and east of the Black Sea. They occur -in Greece, in Cyprus, and in Phoenicia. There is, therefore, no reason -for surprise at their discovery in Galilee, in Bashan, Gilead, and Moab. -The only curious fact is their absence in Samaria and in Judea. There -are some peculiarities, such as the occurrence of orientated avenues, -of talyots or bilithons, of single stones outside circles, and of -ring-marks on rocks, familiar in our own land, but not as yet noted in -Syria. I confine my remarks, therefore, to the Syrian remains, including -_Menhirs_, or erect stones, whether single or in groups, circles or -alignments; _Dolmens_, or monuments with a flat stone table; _Stone -Circles_, _Disc Stones_, and _Cup-hollows_, all of which are exemplified -in Moab. - -[Illustration: A DOLMEN WEST OF HESHBON.] - -It is clear that a stone may be placed on end for more than one purpose, -though that purpose is generally monumental. Some enormous stones near -'Amman, I believe, marked boundaries. Standing-stones have also been -used to record events, like the Moabite Stone or the modern gravestone. -Stones and stone pillars, or even cairns and heaps, have been used as -memorials of a visit to some shrine, and are still so used. Other erect -stones in Greece, in Chaldea, in Phoenicia, and in India are idols and -lingams, worshipped as containing a spirit. In every case the explorer -must consider the most probable reason for the erection of the stone. In -Greece such stones--afterwards sculptured as terminal figures--marked -boundaries, or were sacred emblems. Such boundary-stones occur also in -Babylonia, and sacred stones are also mentioned in Chaldean temples. -Jacob and Saul and other Hebrew heroes erected such memorials, and the -pagan Arabs bedaubed them with blood, and offered to them their babes -and daughters, and swore by them as sacred emblems. - -In some cases burial at the foot of such a stone may possibly mark a -human sacrifice, as, for instance, at Place Farm, in Wiltshire, where a -skeleton was found by a _menhir_ in the centre of a circle; but no -sepulchral remains are found by or under the majority of these -monuments. In all countries where they occur they are remarkable for a -rounded or pointed top, which resembles that of later obelisks. In India -the lingam stones are worshipped, and peasants rub against them. In some -rural districts maidens lean against them, expecting to see a future -husband. Marriages were often celebrated by such stones. The Greystone, -by the Tweed, witnessed marriages, where bride and bridegroom joined -hands through a hole in the stone. Oaths were sworn at these stones in -France to a late date; and the oath of Woden was sworn by men who joined -hands through the stone. In Sardinia great stones with holes occur at -the tombs called Giants' Graves, and also form the entrance to a circle -called _cuisses de femme_. I have never found such holed stones in -Syria, but a pair occur in Cyprus, which I think, from their size, not -likely to have belonged, as some suppose, to an oil-press. - -These standing-stones were often anointed with oil, with blood, or with -milk. Libations of milk were poured through a stone in the Western -Isles. Alexander anointed with oil the pillar on the grave of Achilles, -as Jacob anointed the stone of Bethel, or as the Arabs smeared their -_ansab_ with blood. The lingam stones in India are still anointed with -ghee, and stone circles are splashed with blood. In Aberdeenshire water -was believed to spring from a hollow in the top of a sacred stone; in -Brittany the _menhirs_ were believed to go to the river to drink. Such -monuments are also wishing-stones, such as Dhu esh Sher'a, a black stone -at Petra, or the Hajr el Mena ("stone of desire"), which we found in -Moab. To some prayers for rain have been offered. Breton _menhirs_, and -others in India and in Somersetshire, are said to represent -wedding-parties turned to stone; others in the Khassia Hills are adored -as ancestors by tribes which burn the dead. The stones of Allat, 'Azzi, -and Hobal at Taif--still shown--were once adored as deities by Arabs, as -were those of Asaf, and Naila, and Khalisah near Mecca. - -Such instances out of many which have been collected show that the idea -of a "Holy Stone" is no theorist's dream. Those who see in these -monuments only gravestones or boundary-marks have not fully studied the -facts of the case. - -One curious feature of such stones I have not seen noticed. In Gilead I -found a fallen _menhir_ with a hollow artificially made in the side, as -though to put something into the stone. At Kit's Cotty-house I found -similar holes in the side stones. At Stonehenge I found them in some -instances even larger. No doubt many other cases are known.[48] The -holes are not water-worn, but have been rubbed as though by fingers or -arms thrust constantly into the stone. They are not lewis holes, and -they were made after the stones were erected. Probably they were -enlarged, like the hole in the pillar at the Church of St. Sophia in -Constantinople, by countless visitors putting their fingers into the -same hole. - -The great alignments of Brittany and of Dartmoor are well known, though -the reason for their erection is doubtful. In Moab I found one place -where such a collection of standing-stones exists. It is called El -Mareighat, "the smeared things," and stands on the plateau north of the -great valley of Callirrhoe. There is a rude circle of _menhirs_ at the -site, with a trilithon or dolmen on one side. It surrounds a knoll on -which is a group of _menhirs_, the tallest being six feet high. To the -east is a large _menhir_, which has been hewn to a rounded head and -grooved horizontally, and between this and the circle is an alignment -consisting of several rows of shorter _menhirs_, running north and -south. The hills close by are covered with fine specimens of dolmens, -many of which I measured. - -It is impossible to regard this monument as sepulchral. The stones -stand, like many in India and elsewhere, on the bare rock. The circle -resembles many found in other lands; and the wild tribes of Western -India still sacrifice a cock at such circles, smearing the stones with -its blood; while the Khonds adore the sun in similar circles, the -tallest _menhir_ being on the east. In Mecca, the Kaabah was once -surrounded by seven such stones, which also were smeared with blood. I -believe the Mareighat circle to be an ancient temple, and the dolmen -which faces the central group on the west to be probably an altar facing -the sun rising behind the stones, while the alignments appear to consist -of memorial stones erected by visitors to the shrine--just as the Moslem -pilgrim still erects his stone _mesh-hed_ or "memorial" in the -neighbourhood of any shrine. - -What has been said of erected stones or _menhirs_ equally applies to -what are called dolmens in France, or cromlechs in England, namely, -stone tables raised on other stones. Such monuments also may have been -erected for many purposes--as huts, as tombs, and as altars. Any hasty -generalisation will certainly fail to account for every case. -Unfortunately, the great authority of the late Mr. Fergusson, and his -wide acquaintance with such subjects, have led recent writers to neglect -many important facts not mentioned in his works, and to speak of dolmens -as ancient tombs with a degree of dogmatism which shows that their own -researches have not been very widely extended. After examining seven -hundred examples of these monuments in Moab and Gilead, I have come to -the conclusion that the sepulchral theory is often quite untenable, -though we cannot deny that such rude blocks were often piled up to form -huge cists or chambers hidden beneath mounds, and intended to hold -either the corpse or the ashes of the dead. Sepulchral -chambers--dolmens, if you will--under mounds are widely found; but a -trilithon on bare rock, not so covered, is clearly unfitted for a tomb, -especially when it is not large enough to cover even the body of a -child. Moreover, the stone table is sometimes supported by flat stones -on the rock; and observers who have found bones under dolmens have not -always proved that they are original interments. Nothing is more -indestructible than an earthen mound, and in many cases in Moab it was -certain that no mound had ever covered the stones. There was nothing but -hard rock to be found, and no cairn had ever existed to fulfil the -purpose of a mound. - -Again, I say, we must turn to local superstitions in order fully to -understand the use of trilithons and dolmens. Wild as are the legends, -they preserve what was once the religion of the dolmen-building tribes. -In the Talmud we find mention of such a monument as connected with -idolatrous worship in the second century A.D., the trilithon being in -this case placed in front of a _menhir_.[49] In 1872 I found such a -monument on Gilboa, and another example has since been found in Bashan, -while a similar combination is also known in one instance in Sweden. At -the temple of Demeter in Arcadia, Pausanias mentions a trilithon called -the Petroma, by which the Greeks swore, and under which they kept a -certain sacred book, which was yearly read by a priest. At Larnaca, in -Cyprus, a dolmen is said to exist in a chapel, and in Spain one is found -in the crypt of a Church of St. Miguel in the Asturias, and another in a -hermitage.[50] The modern Arabs beyond Jordan use miniature dolmens, -generally on the west side of the circles round the graves of their -chiefs, as little tables on which to place offerings to the spirits of -the dead. - -Dolmens are also connected with the old ceremony of "passing through," -which is observed in India as well as in our own islands. St. Willibald, -in the eighth century, speaks of Christians squeezing between two -pillars in the church on Olivet; and as late as 1881 the Moslems in -Jerusalem squeezed between two pillars in the Aksa Mosque. Near Madras, -the Hindus used to crawl through the hole in a sacred rock. In Ripon -Cathedral, "threading the needle" was a similar rite. Children were also -passed through ash and oak trees, and through hoops, or dragged through -holes in the ground and under door-sills. At Craig Mady, in -Stirlingshire, the newly wedded used to crawl through a dolmen.[51] In -the Jordan Valley, near the Jabbok, and again in Bashan, dolmens exist -having a hole in the end-stone, and many are surrounded by a circle of -stones in both districts, as also were some Celtic dolmens. On the -dolmens in Ireland, called "beds of Diarmed and Grain," youths and girls -used to deposit gifts of corn and of flowers. The Cyprus girls, -according to Cesnola, in like manner visit the _menhirs_ pierced with -holes, and place in them offerings of jewellery, lighting candles before -them,--which illustrates a previous remark as to these holes in the -stones. There is a curious monument in the Jordan Valley, with a stone -hollowed into a sort of arch a yard in diameter, through which it would -be easy to crawl. From such notes it is clear that dolmens are -intimately connected with ancient superstitious practices. The crawling -through was always believed either to cure sickness or to ensure good -fortune, and the dolmen has often been used as an altar. - -After making measured drawings of about a hundred and fifty dolmens in -Moab, I was able to obtain some general results. In some cases the top -stone is raised only a foot from the ground, and in others the trilithon -is so small that it would not serve as anything but a table or seat. -Some examples on the hillsides consisted of a table stone resting on the -rock at one end, and on a single side stone at the other. In others the -table was supported by horizontal stones. In most cases it was slightly -tilted, and in very few were the stones even roughly hewn in shape. Not -only could we never find any trace of sepulture, or of a grave beneath, -but often the size precluded the idea that the dolmen could have been -either a hut or a tomb. In other cases a sort of box was formed which -could have held a body, but it was not covered by any mound. The -general purpose seemed clearly to be the production of a flat table-like -surface. - -It may, however, appear strange that if these dolmens occur in such -numbers at one site, they should be regarded as altars;[52] but we must -not forget the story of Balaam and Balak. Visiting in succession three -mountain-tops, whence the enchanter was bid to curse Israel, he -addresses Balak in each case in the words, "Build me here seven altars." -And on each of these mountains we found groups of dolmen still standing. - -A curious circumstance in connection with dolmens is that they usually -occur near springs and streams. The groups in Moab were all so placed, -just as Kit's Cotty-house stands near the Medway, or Stonehenge above -the Avon, or like the dolmen near a sacred spring in Finisterre. -_Menhirs_ also, as we have seen, are similarly connected with water and -with rain. - -There is, perhaps, a simple reason for this circumstance. Stonehenge was -near a British village, and the rude tribes which built the dolmens no -doubt, like all early migrants, settled round the natural waters of the -country. But it is also not impossible that water was required in -connection with rites at the dolmen altars. - -Another very interesting observation was the occurrence of -cup-hollows--artificial pittings, in some cases connected by well-marked -artificial ducts or channels--in the table stones of the dolmens. These -cup-hollows were, in some cases, quite as well formed as any that I have -seen in England. I found one very unmistakable example on the Holy Rock -on Mount Gerizim, where, it is said, by the Samaritans, to mark the site -of the laver in the court of the Tabernacle. - -I am not aware that any accepted theory has been formed about these -hollows;[53] but they are often found on high tops and on or near -dolmens. We must not forget that wild tribes of Asia and of Europe have -always attached great virtue to the healing power of dew, especially the -dews of spring-time. Perhaps dew may have been collected in these -hollows and used for superstitious rites. - -Two other classes of rude stone structures in Moab have still to be -mentioned. The first of these is the class of great circles with walls -made by heaps of stones piled up like cairns. These I have never found -elsewhere, though they recall the earthen mounds which form circles in -England, sometimes surrounding menhirs or dolmens, and sometimes I -believe used as meeting-places or courts of justice. A splendid specimen -occurs on a spur at Hadanieh above a great spring on the slopes near -Mount Nebo. Inside this circle, as a precaution against thieves, I set -up my whole camp and stabled my horses. Hadanieh means "sepulture," and -a small circle outside the great structure here surrounds the grave of -an Arab chief. The great circle is 250 feet across, the walls are thirty -to forty feet thick and some five feet high, and a smaller wall inside -divides the area unequally. There is an enormous cairn on the hill above -about three-quarters of a mile away on the east. - -Another circle of equal size was found by Lieutenant Mantell on the -south slope of Mount Nebo, and east of 'Amman two more about sixty feet -in diameter. Yet another occurs at Kom Yajuz, measuring 200 feet across, -and we visited two others of nearly the same size. To one of these the -name El Mahder applies, which is radically the same word as Hazor, "the -enclosure." There is nothing to show the age or object of these works, -which must have entailed considerable labour, as they are so much larger -than the circles of stones which the Arabs now build up round the graves -of their chiefs. - -The last class of monuments consists of great disc stones, which -resemble mill-stones, but are much too large to be used for such a -purpose. One of these, in the Jordan Valley, lies flat, like a mighty -cheese, by a thorn tree, and measures eleven feet across. It is called -"the dish of Abu Zeid," an Arab legendary hero, who is said to have -heaped it with rice and with a whole camel as a feast to his allies. It -weighs probably some twenty tons. Another example stands on end in a -ruined village, and is 9-1/2 feet in diameter. A third, on a prominent -hill, surrounded by dolmens, also stands up like a wheel, and is six -feet across, without any hole in the centre. - -The origin of these monuments is also very uncertain, but we must not -forget that one of the towns of Moab mentioned on the Moabite Stone and -in the Bible was called Beth Diblathaim, which means "the house of the -two discs" (or "cakes"). Mill-stones are common enough in Syrian ruins, -as are the pillars of olive-presses, but no explorer who is familiar -with these is likely to confound them with the great _menhirs_ and disc -stones which have been here described. - -Such were the monuments which we discovered and described east of -Jordan, and I have only to add a few words on the important questions of -their age and distribution. - -As regards age, these monuments--_dolmens_ and _menhirs_--were erected -apparently by a people who had little mechanical power. Very rarely are -the stones shaped, however roughly, and the dolmens are hardly ever on -hill-tops, but on slopes where they might be easily formed by dragging -the stones down-hill, and sliding the cap-stones on to their supports. -Probably the people that erected them was unable to sculpture or to -write. In other countries such monuments are of high antiquity, and -there is no reason why they should not be very ancient in Syria. - -As regards distribution, these monuments are absent in Judea and -Samaria. There is one example on Gilboa, and five or six in Upper -Galilee, one of which is called "the stone of blood." I have seen near -Jeba, north of Jerusalem, what might be a fallen dolmen, and have found -what might be cup-hollows, but more probably these were mortars scooped -in the rock in which gleanings of the fields were crushed. East of -Jordan there are such hollows, used for making gunpowder, not connected -with dolmens. The surveyors, who found so many dolmens in Moab, found -none at all south of Galilee. In Moab, Gilead, and Bashan they are more -numerous than anywhere else in Western Asia, as at present known. - -In a previous chapter I have noticed that pottery statuettes, found in -abundance in Phoenicia, are almost unknown in Palestine proper, and -have suggested the reason. The same reason holds good, perhaps, as -regards the rude stone monuments. They may very probably have once -existed, and may have been purposely destroyed. Israel was commanded to -"smash" the _menhirs_ of the Canaanites, to "upset" their altars, and to -destroy their images. These commands Josiah, the zealous king of Judah, -is recorded to have carried into practice. May not this, I would ask, be -the true reason for their disappearance? The Greeks and the Romans would -not have so acted, and dolmens still stand close to the Roman city of -'Amman. The Arabs, who left them east of Jordan, and who regard them as -"ghouls' houses," would not have destroyed them west of the river. -Josiah and Hezekiah did not penetrate beyond Jordan. At Dan many of -these monuments seem to have been purposely overthrown. It seems to me -therefore probable that the absence of such monuments, like the absence -of sculptures and of pottery images, is best explained by supposing -their destruction in the time of the reforming kings of Judah. It seems -to me also that the existing monuments, though not impossibly erected by -Nabatheans or other pagan Arabs, are very probably the surviving work of -Canaanite tribes, as are very certainly the hieroglyphic inscriptions of -Northern Syria. The age so claimed for these remains is not equal to -that of some of the monuments of Egypt and of Chaldea, which represent a -more advanced civilisation, and the presence of dolmens on the slopes -of Nebo cannot but recall the altars which Balak, king of Moab, is said -to have erected on that mountain.[54] - -The ruins of the cities of Heshbon and Medeba are those of Roman towns -with later Byzantine additions. At Medeba there was a fine church, of -which only foundations remain. Here the Jesuit Fathers claimed to have -discovered four ancient Nabathean inscriptions, which I afterwards -copied in Jerusalem; but I regret to say that learned opinion regards -these as forgeries. Such texts should be found in Moab, and Sir Charles -Warren obtained a copy of one said to exist farther south. At present, -however, the Moabite Stone is the only important inscription from this -region. It was found accidentally by a missionary, just as the Siloam -text was discovered by a Jewish boy. Even of this monument the -genuineness has been questioned by a learned writer, but his reasons -seem to be insufficient. He says that the letters are much sharper than -the water-worn surface of the stone, and hence argues that they were -carved by the forger on an old cippus. My experience in respect to a -very large number of ancient texts which I have copied is that the -letters are generally better preserved than the surface. They get filled -with mud, and are thus guarded against the weather, which wears the -surface in which they are cut. - -[Illustration: VIEW OF DEAD SEA FROM MOUNT NEBO.] - -There is one famous spot in Moab which requires special notice, namely, -Mount Nebo, whence Moses is recorded to have gazed on the Promised Land. -The celebrated "Pisgah view" has often been described, but some writers -seem to have given accounts not based on notes taken on the spot. The -value of all geographical descriptions depends on their being written -with the scene before the eyes of the writer, for memory plays strange -tricks, and in the present case accuracy is of the greatest importance. -I not only made detailed notes sitting on the ruined cairn on Nebo, but -I also drew an outline of the panorama which is preserved in my -note-book. The most important fact is that the Mediterranean Sea is not -in sight; and as the heights of Nebo and of the chief tops of the -western watershed are now certainly known within four or five feet, it -is possible to say with certainty that the Great Sea is invisible from -Nebo, because it is hidden throughout by the western watershed of Judea -and Samaria.[55] We had the advantage of being familiar with every -hill-top in sight, and, moreover, saw the view in clear weather. - -Mount Nebo is a site fixed beyond dispute. It retains the name Neba, -which applies to the highest knoll on a long spur running out west from -the plateau between Heshbon and Medeba. As already noted, there are -traces of a ring of dolmens round the knoll, and it is curious that none -of these particular examples are mentioned in any previous account of -the site, as far as I can find. Lower down on the ridge is the ruin -Siaghah, preserving the name Seath, which stands instead of Nebo in the -Targum of Onkelos. To the north are the "Springs of Moses," of which we -have perhaps an early account in the sixth century. Antoninus the -pilgrim says that certain hot springs called "Baths of Moses," where -lepers were cleansed, existed east of Jordan.[56] The plateau close to -the Nebo knoll is called "Field of Zophim" in the Bible, and the name, I -think, still survives close by in the Tal'at es Sufa, or "Ascent of -Zoph," on the north side of the spur. The view from the knoll or from -the ruin of Siaghah is much the same. It cannot compare with the -panorama from Hermon, and there are indeed several places east of Jordan -which command a finer view; but Nebo is the nearest mountain to Shittim -in the Jordan Valley, from which an extensive view is visible. - -On the east the eye is met at a distance of only two miles by the edge -of the Moab plateau, which shelves away eastward; and on the south a -long ridge closes the scene at a distance of about five miles. On the -north-east the hillocks on which Heshbon and Elealah were built stand -above the plateau, and Jebel Osh'a in Gilead appears behind, shutting -out the Sea of Galilee and Hermon. It is on the west that the scene is -most extensive, including all the Judean watershed, all Samaria and -Lower Galilee, to Tabor and Belvoir. Carmel is hidden behind Jebel -Hazkin, which is close to the Jordan Valley, and 700 feet higher than -Carmel. - -On the south-west is Yukin, the city of the Kenites, perched high above -the Jeshimon or desert of Judah, and in front of the great precipices of -that desert lies the Dead Sea, of which the northern half only is seen. -Herodium, Bethlehem, and Jerusalem are all in sight, and beneath are the -traditional tomb of Moses--in the desert of Judah--the precipice of -Quarantania, and below this the dark groves round ancient Jericho. - -North of Jerusalem is seen Nebi Samwil with the mosque over the -Crusading tomb of Samuel, and Baal Hazor with its oak clump, and Gerizim -with Ebal to the right, and the deep cleft of the Vale of Shechem -between them. Under these is the white cone of the Sartaba towering over -the Jordan Valley, and at our feet the thorn groves of the plain of -Shittim east of the river. To the north-west appear Hazkin and Tabor, as -already noticed; and the chain of Gilboa with the dim outline of -Galilean hills marks the farthest extent of the view. Seen in autumn, -the whole was singularly bare and colourless, for the green hues of -spring were absent, and the dusty valley of Jordan, with the white marl -banks near the river, contrasted with the black snake-like jungles -marking the course of the stream and of the various tributaries, such as -the waters of Nimrim. - -The view thus described appears to be in accordance with the Old -Testament account (Deut. xxxiv. 1-3), and the eastern geography of the -Pentateuch is as easy generally to trace on the ground as is the -topography of the Book of Joshua west of the river. Naphtali, Gilead, -Ephraim and Manasseh, Judah, and the Negeb, or "dry land" south of -Hebron, are all in sight, with the plains of Jericho "unto Zoar." The -only difficulty lies in the mention of Dan and of the western sea, which -are not in sight from this ridge. - -The south limit of the Adwan country and of the Survey was formed by the -magnificent gorge now called Zerka Main, the Callirrhoe of Josephus, -where are the hot baths in which the miserable Herod was bathed during -his last sickness. This valley seems to be noticed in the Pentateuch -under the name Nahaliel, "Valley of God," as one of the camping-places -of Israel. The top of the cliffs is here 2500 feet above the Dead Sea, -and the hot springs in the valley are 1600 feet above the same level. -The cliffs, 900 feet high, are precipitous for the most part, but a -winding descent leads down on the north. The scenery is magnificent. A -black basalt bastion and brown limestone walls of rock face northwards, -and on the north side are precipices of yellow, red, pink, and purple -sandstone, with gleaming chalk above and the rich green of palm groves -beneath. The hot streams flowing from the northern slopes are crusted -along their course with yellow and orange sulphur deposits, and the -hottest spring--about 140° Fahr.--has formed a breccia terrace near the -remains of the Roman baths, a hundred feet above the bed of the -torrent, which flows with cold water from springs higher up the valley. -The Arabs still bathe, or rather steam themselves, sitting over this -spring, to cure rheumatism, from which they often suffer. They have a -legend of a demon slave of Solomon who found the spring, and Dr. -Tristram mentions sacrifices at the spot, which--though I did not see -any such performed--would be in accordance with Arab custom in other -places in the deserts. - -We found a great contrast between the Arabs and the Fellahin in the -matter of folk-lore. The Fellah legends are, as a rule, of very little -interest, and most of those which we collected are to be found in the -Koran. But all the desert Arabs with whom I am acquainted are only in -name Mohammedan, and are, strictly speaking, pagans; and they are very -fond of legendary tales, so that we collected more of these in two -months east of Jordan than we got in four years west of the river. I -have devoted a chapter in a previous work to the legends which we -collected in the Adwan country, including the story of Aly and the -wishing well of Minyeh, which sprang up under his spear; of Aly and the -city of Antar; of Aly and the City of Brass. The romantic tale of Zeid -and Ghareisah, an Arab Romeo and Juliet, is connected with a rude -inscription in Wady Jideid. The story of the "Dish of Abu Zeid" has -already been mentioned; and at the ruin of Tyrus, farther north, we have -the legend of the prince, his daughter, and the black slave. At a place -near El Marighat called Hana wa Bana is localised an Arab version of -AEsop's fable of the man with an old and a young wife. This proverbial -story is, however, known all over Syria. Then again in the Jordan -Valley are shown the pits of the hero Zir, legends concerning whom are -known to the Maronites, but taken from printed story-books, which, I -believe, come from Egypt. I would here only note that within a -comparatively small district we collected from the Arabs no less than -eight folk-lore tales in a few weeks, only one of which was previously -known, and that one gathered from the Abu Nuseir Arabs at Jericho. The -Arabs showed no reserve in relating these stories as soon as they saw -that we also enjoyed them; and none of them, as far as I know, belong to -the printed tales of Egyptian collections, except that of Zir and -Hakmun. This wealth of folk-tales contrasts with the barrenness of -Fellah imagination; and though it is of course possible that something -of interest may be extracted from the Fellahin, they cannot be said to -be remarkable for their love of legendary tales. The Kalmuk Tartars, -even, are far more imaginative and poetic in their folk-lore than are -the peasants west of Jordan, and the Arabs, who produced so many poets, -even earlier than Muhammad, are intellectually a finer race than the -Fellahin. - -As above observed, the Arabs of the desert are practically pagans. They -do not pray as Moslems should do, and they are as much addicted to the -worship of the dead as the Fellahin. The graves of famous chiefs and of -dervishes, or reputed Welys, are visited by the Arabs, who there offer -small objects, such as pieces of blue pottery, old coins, berries, and -pebbles, placed on the little dolmen table on the west side of the -surrounding circle. The wives cut off their hair, and the plaited -pig-tails are hung on a string on the husband's tomb. An Arab passing by -a graveyard often kisses the tombstones. This seems to constitute their -chief religious observance. They, however, celebrate the yearly feast -while the Moslem pilgrims are at Mecca, slaying camels and eating the -flesh; but this feast was an Arab festival long before Islam, and, as -far as my experience goes, the true Arabs are ignorant of the Koran, and -have no fanatical feeling. I have never actually seen them worshipping -the sun or the moon, but they face the sunrise while visiting the tombs, -and their frequent legends of Aly agree with the fact that down to the -present century they belonged to the great faction of the Yemeni, as -opposed to the Keis faction, to which the greater part of the villagers -west of Jordan belonged. These factions represent the survival of a -political feud as old as the seventh century A.D. between the adherents -of Aly, including most of the Yemen Arabs, and the followers of the -Damascus Khalifs. The Arabs east of Jordan are thus connected with -Persia rather than with Palestine, and it was from Persia that all the -most imaginative elements in the religion of Islam came first. Persian -Muhammadism is the creed of Islam as influenced by the older creed of -the Zoroastrians. Syrian Muhammadism is the creed of Islam as influenced -by association with Christianity and Judaism. - -The tribes among which we lived were very rich in camels. The droves -were really countless, and were herded like cattle, and neither saddled -nor fitted with halters. They were kept for milk and for breeding, not -for transport, and the camel so seen east of Jordan was a different -beast to his hard-worked brother in the villages. Property in this case -depended on branding, and the brands were the tribe-marks of the owner's -tribe. I had thus an opportunity of studying at leisure the question of -tribe-marks, concerning which most extraordinary theories have been -broached, one writer regarding them as planetary signs, and another as -rough sketches of totems. Of that which (by an unlucky misnomer) is -called Totemism, I have never been able to find any traces in Syria, -though I have studied it among the Bechuanas of South Africa. The simple -fact as regards Arab tribe-marks is, that they are letters of the old -Arab alphabets of the Nejed and of Yemen. This I have been able clearly -to show in the case of every tribe-mark which we collected among the -Arabs. - -In closing this chapter, I ought to record the services of our ally, -Sheikh Goblan en Nimr. His early adventures are well known, and he was -one of the most remarkable men whom I met in Syria. He belonged to the -junior branch, but to the elder generation, of the Adwan tribe, which is -divided under two ruling families. Aly Diab, the ruling chief of the -elder branch, is a friend of the Turks, but Goblan was a sturdy and -independent leader of the free or anti-Turkish party. So strong were his -feelings on this subject, that he could hardly hear the name of Turk -with any patience. This strong feeling made him perhaps the most popular -personage beyond Jordan, and wherever we went the tribesmen received him -with marks of reverence and affection. He had earned the reputation of -being greedy and grasping, and I have no doubt he regarded every -stranger as fair prey, from whom the uttermost farthing was to be -exacted. But in spite of this greed for money, which all Arabs alike -show in dealing with travellers, Goblan was not a miser. The gold I gave -him was scattered with royal munificence, and was gone as soon as he got -it. There was very much in his character which was admirable, and yet -more that was romantic. He was a man of honour, who having once sealed -a treaty, stuck to his word, and smoothed our path when many even of his -own sons and nephews were afraid to come near us. There is no doubt that -if, instead of science, our object had been intrigue, we might without -difficulty have raised a revolt in Moab, which Goblan would have headed -with great satisfaction. At one time I think he suspected us of some -such project, and was rather disappointed that we should submit to -Turkish authority. - -In his youth Goblan received a serious sword-cut in the face from an -angry relative. The details of the story I have not heard, but it is -well known how ashamed he was of this wound, which he always hid with -his Kufeyeh shawl. He had also been guilty of murder, having run through -with his lance the owner of a fine grey mare in the desert. He was, I -believe, unaware that the man he slew was one of the Beni Sakhr chiefs, -but the consequence was a blood feud which threatened his life for many -years. Thus on the south and east he was in peril from the neighbouring -tribesmen, while on the north the Turks lay in wait. - -Some years before our visit to the country, a governor of the Belka -summoned the Adwan chiefs to Nablus, promising to make them Government -officials with salaries, recognised as his lieutenants in their own -country. Goblan counselled them not to go, and not to be tempted by such -promises. They went and Goblan stayed behind. Those who went were cast -into prison and fined, and Diab, the eldest, was so roughly handled that -his leg was broken. He came to see me as a lame old man, who had -abdicated in favour of his son, having lost all the reputation to which -Goblan, by his superior judgment of the case, attained. A Russian Grand -Duke at Jericho gave Goblan, rather later, a valuable ring, which this -same governor at Nablus found means to make him give up. These were the -personal reasons for Goblan's hate of the Turks, and it was on such -grounds that he was able and willing to help us in our exploration of -the forbidden ground. These lines can now be freely penned, for poor -Goblan is no more. His wild life--an untaught savage life, not without -its elements of greatness, of pathos, and of romance--has closed at a -ripe old age in a peaceful death. Neither by Turkish jailor nor by Arab -lance was his life ended; he died among his own people in the desert -home of his race. - -The peculiar position of the man led me into more than one adventure. -Some of our trigonometrical stations were on the border of the Beni -Sakhr country, which I had promised not to enter without their escort. -The Beni Sakhr chiefs and Goblan had met in my tents, but there he was -safe as my guest. Had we been caught, however, in their land, by a -relation of the murdered man already mentioned, Goblan would have been -slain, and I should have been placed in the dilemma of either leaving -him to his fate, or else myself becoming a blood enemy to an Arab tribe. -On such occasions, while we took angles on a high hill, Goblan sat with -his eyes fixed on the distant camp of his foes, scanning the plateau, so -that he should not be taken unawares. On another occasion, riding -somewhat in advance of my party, I suddenly saw bearing down upon me a -group of horsemen with long spears. We met and saluted, and the first -question was, "Where is Goblan?" I never made out to what tribe these -cavaliers belonged, but Goblan had vanished as though swallowed by the -earth, and not till we were far away from this spot, near his own camp, -did he reappear. - -Another day he and I went out alone to survey the borderland between the -two tribes. At one place, as I was taking angles, he came and pointed to -distant figures. "All horsemen," he said; "make haste and finish your -work." I noted my angles as fast as I could, when he again touched me. -"They are only camels," he said; "you can go on as long as you like." -However, as I got on my horse, he again pointed to the plain, where we -saw three horsemen about a mile away. There were no friendly camps near, -and so I gained experience of how an Arab acts in such a case. We rode -away quietly on the side of the hill, where we could not be seen, but -were able from time to time to look over the crest at the advancing -figures. Finally, we came to a sort of dell by a ruin, with banks all -round, and here we lay comfortably lurking, and saw the group following -the road to my camp. When they had gone some way, Goblan boldly emerged, -and we rode parallel with them in the open. The reason was soon -apparent. Though quite near, they were separated from us by one of those -great rents in the plateau which form narrow gorges many hundred feet -deep. Coming to the brink, he called across and they answered, but could -not reach us without riding round many miles; and besides this, we were -now close to a camp of Goblan's people. "It is well we did not stay," -said Goblan to me; "they are Satam and his brothers." These were the -Beni Sakhr chiefs who had been to my camp, and who sought his life. Like -David calling across the valley to Saul, Goblan stood thus within -hearing of his helpless foes, and quietly greeted them. Such is the -etiquette of Arab life. The blow may be struck when the time comes, but -to revile one another would be discourteous between foes. - -Another incident showed me Arab life in a more pleasing colour. We had -ridden through Jordan, and were resting on the bank, when a poor Arab -with his wife on a donkey came down to the river. Addressing Goblan in -that simple way in which the meanest Arab addresses the greatest chief, -he said, "Goblan! take my wife over the river." The old chief at once -complied, and ordered his son to take the woman on his horse behind him. -Rather sulkily his handsome son obeyed, and went back through the river -to the western bank. These men were the true sons of that great Arab -who, having conquered all Syria, rode into Jerusalem on his camel in the -simple garb of the desert. - -The kindly greetings which Goblan bestowed on the men he met, on the -women and children at the springs, and on the poorest of his fellows, -showed perhaps that he had learned the secret of governing others, and -his strength lay in the simplicity and steadfast constancy of his -actions. They had but one opinion in Moab, that Goblan alone represented -the freedom of earlier days. - -Tall, gaunt, with a dusky colour, one eye red and sightless, one cheek -furrowed with the sword, with a thick, straight, obstinate nose, and a -few silver locks, usually hidden, the old chief was yet at times, when -no one mentioned the Turks and the Beni Sakhr, of cheerful mien. He is -one of the few Orientals I ever met with a sense of humour, and often -laughed most heartily. He could neither write nor read, and he never -smoked tobacco. - -Peace be to his ashes; and I hope the monument which covers them is at -least equal to that which is erected in Goblan's own country to his -great rival, Fendi el Faiz, who died on his way to the Beni Sakhr -country. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -_EXPLORATIONS IN GILEAD._ - - -North of Heshbon the country rises slightly, and we enter the region -surrounding the large ruined city of 'Amman--the Rabbath Ammon of the -Bible and the Roman Philadelphia. This was the most important ruin -surveyed in Palestine, as regards its antiquarian interest, and the best -specimen of a Roman town that I visited, except the still more wonderful -ruins of Gerasa, which yield only to Baalbek and Palmyra among Syrian -capitals of the second century of our era. - -On the slopes below the plateau in this region is the still more -interesting ruin of Tyrus, the only dated Jewish building of early age -that we possess. Although it had often been visited, we were able to add -some interesting architectural details, and to correct a false -impression about the great Jewish inscription of five letters here -boldly carved on the rock. - -Tyrus, now called 'Arak el Emir, is our one relic of the Jewish -architecture of the days of Judas Maccabaeus. The priest Hyrcanus, who -fled from his brothers beyond Jordan, committed suicide at this place -(where he had lived seven years) on hearing of the approach of Antiochus -in 176 B.C. His life was one of adventure and of constant warfare -against the Arab or Nabathean tribes of the region. He first made -himself a stronghold consisting of numerous caves in two storeys, with -an open rock terrace leading to the upper tier, where, among other -chambers, he cut a great stable for his horses. We measured this stable, -and found mangers for a hundred steeds. Near this fortress he built his -great palace, which is now fallen in, except the east wall. The palace -was surrounded by a broad moat, and water was brought by an aqueduct -from the stream, which here breaks down rapidly towards the Jordan -Valley through dense bushes of oleander, which have grown to the size of -forest trees. The walls of the palace were of stones six to eight feet -in height and fifteen to twenty feet long. Only three courses were -required to reach up to the roof. The top course above a narrow frieze -was adorned at each corner by rude sculptured figures of lions, which -were carved in relief by sinking back part of the face of the stone -after it was placed in position. - -The details of some fragments of cornice are rude imitations of Greek -classic style, but the extraordinary capitals of great pillars belonging -to the interior are unlike any that I have elsewhere seen, and they most -resemble Egyptian work. They seem not to have been noticed by De Vogue, -whose work I have generally found to be very detailed and faithful. - -Whether this great palace was ever quite finished seems doubtful. A -stone which must weigh about fifty tons lies half-way between the -building and the quarry, as though left on the last day when the -building was stopped. A deliberate destruction of the walls seems also -certainly to have occurred. - -[Illustration: ALPHABETS OF WESTERN ASIA. 900 B.C. TO 500 A.D.] - -Here, then, we have an ancient dated Jewish inscription, belonging to an -age singularly deficient in monumental remains, and to a time when -the characters used in writing were slowly changing from the old Hebrew -to the later square Hebrew letters. A photograph of these boldly-cut -letters shows that some of the great authorities who have discussed it -have unfortunately started with an incorrect copy. If we compare the -letters with those of other alphabets, we find only one which properly -accounts for these forms, namely, the alphabet of the Jewish coins which -were struck in the same century in which Hyrcanus lived. The meaning of -the text is still doubtful, but its date agrees with the comparison of -the letters with those used west of Jordan in the same age. - -In spite of the scantiness of our materials, the history of writing in -Palestine is being gradually unfolded in a marvellous manner. When we -look back on the old theories which made the square Hebrew of our own -times an original alphabet, unchanged since the time of Moses, and on -the equally crude criticism which denied that writing was practised -before about 500 B.C., we become aware of the rapid advance of -knowledge. First came the Phoenician inscriptions, for a few of which -great antiquity is claimed, though the majority belong to Greek or -Persian times. Then the Moabite Stone was found, and the inhabitants of -Eastern Palestine were proved to have been acquainted with monumental -writing in the ninth century B.C. Then came the Siloam inscription, -giving almost an equal antiquity for the alphabet of Jerusalem. To these -are added several inscriptions of the second or first century B.C., and -quite a number which belong to the earliest Christian age. In this -series of alphabets we trace the same steady and gradual change which -has differentiated all known alphabets in the world. It would be -impossible now to mistake, within fairly narrow limits, the date of such -a text as that at Tyrus; and the same reasoning assures us of the age of -the important and ancient inscriptions above noticed. - -Equally valuable is the light thrown on history by the remains of the -Tyrus palace. It belongs to the period just before the revolt of Judas -Maccabaeus against the Greeks. We see how strongly the builders were -influenced by Greek art, while the sculptures of animals show that they -were not limited by the commands of the Law which forbade such -representations of living things. It is also interesting to notice that -the stones in the wall, which are much larger than those in the -Jerusalem Temple, are surrounded by a draft like that employed by Herod -the Great. This drafting was a Greek method of finishing the stone. It -occurs in the walls of the Acropolis at Athens, and it was used in the -second century A.D. by the Roman builders of Gerasa and Baalbek, the -stones in this latter case having in a few instances Greek letters for -mason's marks. There is, I believe, absolutely no foundation for the -idea that the early Phoenicians used such a finish to their stones. -Drafted stones are, it is true, used in Phoenicia, but the oldest -occur on structures of Greek character, and the latest in the Crusading -walls of Tyre. - -It was the spread of this Greek influence in Palestine which led to the -revolt of the zealous and orthodox followers of Judas Maccabaeus. The -monuments have begun to show us how strong and widely spread was this -influence. On the borders of the Egyptian delta Greek cities begin to be -known, through the admirable work of Mr. Petrie and others, which give -us remains of Greek or semi-Greek art of a time earlier than that of -which we speak. Of course the account of Naucratis in Herodotus; the -story of the flight of the Jewish high priest Onias to Egypt, and of his -opposition temple; and the account of the translation of the law into -Greek at Alexandria in the third century B.C., were all well known, as -are the chapters in the Book of Maccabees which describe the spread of -Greek manners in Jerusalem; but the discovery of existing monuments -brings this all more vividly before us; for we rightly attach a far -higher value to such contemporary evidence than we do to the modern -understanding of ancient literary works, especially when criticism -deserts its proper sphere, and begins to invent and to dogmatise. - -We know then already, from the monuments, that before the days of the -revolt under Judas all the Levantine coast was permeated by Greek -influence. Greek coins passed everywhere; Greek pottery is found along -the coast; Greek architecture penetrated even into the wilds of Gilead -beyond Jordan. The Greek kings of Antioch are said to have left no -architectural remains, yet even as far away as southern Arabia the Greek -influence extended, and down to the days of Herod the Great it remained -one of the great civilising agents in the Levant. - -At 'Amman we find remains of later civilisation--of the great age of the -Antonines, when all Syria remained for a time peaceful and prosperous; -and in this town also exists one of the most remarkable architectural -relics of the Sassanian period in Syria. The oldest remains at 'Amman -are the dolmens, of which, with other rude stone monuments, there are -some twenty in all. Next to these come the old rock-cut tombs, which, -from comparison with others, I should suppose to be of the early Hebrew -period. The Roman remains are the most important, including two -theatres, baths, a street of columns, and remains of what was once a -very great temple on the highest part of the acropolis of the city. To -this age also belong the magnificent private tombs surrounding the -city--towers of well-cut masonry filled inside with well-arranged -sarcophagi. - -No inscriptions were found on these tombs, though inscriptions occur in -'Amman. From the Greek texts which Sir C. Fellows collected in Lycia we -know that these monuments belonged to rich families in Roman times, and -that even then the Greek language predominated over Latin in Syria and -in Asia Minor. Greek texts of this age also occur at Gerasa and -elsewhere side by side with Latin inscriptions. The tomb-towers were -under the protection of the Government of the country, and an illicit -burial in any of the sarcophagi carved to await the death of the next -member of the family, was punished, not only by the curse announced -against such violation of a sepulchre, but also by a very substantial -fine levied by the state. The tomb-towers round 'Amman show us, -therefore, that several noble families must have lived in the town. - -The walls of the citadel may be of earlier date, perhaps of Greek -origin; for, according to Polybius, Antiochus the Great here besieged -Ptolemy Philopater's forces in 218 B.C. The garrison held out until a -prisoner discovered a secret communication with a water supply outside -the walls. I was not aware of this statement in Polybius when we were at -'Amman, but it explains a discovery which we then made, and I think -there can be little doubt that we found both this water supply and also -the secret passage. There is a great cavern in the hill on the north of -the citadel, evidently once used as a reservoir for water, the stream -which supplied the lower town being at some distance from the Acropolis. -In the side of this cavern, high up near the entrance, I found a very -narrow passage running away in the direction of the citadel walls. I -pursued it as far as possible, but it is choked at the end before -emerging above-ground. This cave probably contained the water supply on -which the Egyptian Greek forces depended in their struggle against the -Syrian Greek forces of Antiochus. - -To a later period belongs what I have called a Sassanian or early Arab -building. It is well known that Dr. Tristram discovered near the Haj -Road, east of Heshbon, the remains of a very fine building, which Mr. -Fergusson called the Palace of Chosroes. Whether it was really built -during the short period of Persian rule in Palestine preceding the -triumph of Islam, will probably not be settled until we have copies of -the inscriptions which remain at this palace. I regret that the sudden -stoppage of the Survey and the unfriendliness of the Beni Sakhr Arabs -made it impossible for me to obtain such copies. It is, however, beyond -dispute that the art of the Mashita palace is of Persian origin, or -influenced by Persia, and it is perhaps not Moslem work; for whereas in -the Dome of the Rock at Jerusalem the representation of animal life is -absent from the mosaics, the stone carvings of Mashita give us many such -forms in their elaborate arabesques. - -At 'Amman there is one building, and remains exist of another, which -appear very clearly to belong to about the same age with the Mashita -palace. The complete building is singularly perfect, though its -decorations are unfinished. How it ever came to be described as a -Byzantine church it is hard to understand, seeing how well known are the -features of Byzantine churches in Palestine. Moreover, there is a ruined -cathedral with two chapels at 'Amman itself which are of the Byzantine -age. - -The building in the citadel is entirely different to any church. It is a -square structure, with a central court and four deep alcoves under -arched roofs, one on each side of the court. This arrangement is exactly -that of some ruined buildings of the Sassanian age in Persia. The form -of the arches, the adornment of the walls with arcades in low relief, -and other features, are, equally with the plan, common to the 'Amman -buildings and to those of the Sassanians in Persia. - -This building may, however, have been erected by Persian architects for -one of the early Moslem Khalifs of Damascus. No birds, beasts, or other -living things occur in the rich details of its stone tracery, which I -carefully copied and measured, and of which Lieutenant Mantell took -photographs. The building is of high importance for a period of art in -the East concerning which very little as yet is known. - -It may be noticed in passing that the walls of this kiosque at 'Amman -are in a style which throws some light on the history of the Dome of the -Rock at Jerusalem. That building is pronounced by architectural -authority to be the work of the Khalif Abd el Melek, just as the Arab -chroniclers, nearly contemporary with its building, also tell us, and in -accordance with the existing inscriptions; but, as I pointed out in -1878, there are reasons for thinking that the octagonal outer wall was -built only in the ninth century A.D. The details of that wall are very -like those of the 'Amman building, and this comparison will, no doubt, -some day prove instructive, especially if we can ascertain the age of -the great Mashita palace in Moab. - -There is a very old mosque at 'Amman, with round arches and a short -minaret. Unfortunately it is without inscription (save for a later -scrawl over the door), and whether it is older than the kiosque may be -doubtful, but it shows us that the Moslems built in this town at a very -early date. From El Mukaddasy we have a Moslem account of the place as -old as the tenth century A.D. He speaks of this very mosque as being -near the market-place, and he calls the citadel "Goliah's Castle," and -apparently alludes to the kiosque as a mosque over the tomb of Uriah. -Thus the buildings we are discussing clearly existed in 985 A.D. The -town appears to have been then prosperous; living was cheap and fruit -plentiful; grain and honey are mentioned by the Moslem geographer, where -now the only cultivation is that of a few wretched gardens tilled by -Circassian exiles living in the theatre. - -The Survey was extended only a few miles north of 'Amman; the region as -far as Gerasa I saw in 1882, when accompanying their Royal Highnesses -Princes Albert Victor and George of Wales beyond Jordan. The region is -extremely picturesque, including the wooded hills of Gilead, the bare -heights of 'Ajlun, and the uplands round Gerasa. It is remarkable that -this great city beside its mountain stream seems to have been deserted -earlier than 'Amman, although the country near it now contains villages -with a settled population, whereas south of Es Salt there are now no -villages beyond Jordan, and the Circassians at 'Amman are almost the -only inhabitants who do not live in tents. To the antiquary this has -been an advantage, since Gerasa remains a purely Roman ruin, only -equalled by Palmyra. The area within the city walls at Palmyra (500 -acres) was indeed greater than that included within the walls of Jerash -(170 acres), but in some respects the architectural remains at the -latter date are even of greater importance. - -Some very interesting Greek inscriptions once belonging to the early -church in Gerasa have been copied by De Vogue, by Rev. R. B. -Girdlestone, by Sir Charles Warren, and by myself. They appear to have -gradually fallen into decay, so that my own copy is somewhat less -complete than those of the text as it existed twenty years before. The -longest of these texts is a poem in hexameter, consisting of thirteen -lines, of which the eleventh is taken from Homer,[57] and the whole is a -Homeric imitation. - -The longest inscription that I copied is not written in regular lines, -but runs on, the new line of hexameter being in one case divided from -the preceding by a well-shaped Greek cross. The forms of the letters, -which I very carefully preserved, are those used in Greek Byzantine -inscriptions. This text consisted of six lines of poetry, and is written -by a certain wrestler, Theodorus, whose soul is in the broad heaven and -his body in the earth. The longer text belonged to the church door, and -mentions the cross. It may be translated as follows, being one of the -most curious of the early Christian inscriptions in Syria:-- - - "Wonder and awe together the passer-by have encountered. - Clouds of error are gone, and now in place of the darkness - Which was aforetime here, the grace of God is around me. - And when the sound of the groans of the four-footed victims is silenced - Formerly falling here--and dire was the stench that arose, - So that the wayfaring man must stop his nostrils in passing - Yea and strive to escape the evil smell on the breezes - Now on the sweet-smelling plain the wandering travellers journey, - Lifting up as they go the palm of the right to their faces - Making the honoured sign of the cross as a deed that is holy. - And if you farther would ask this also that you may know it, - AEneas to me has given this excellent glory. - AEneas the all-wise priest, well instructed in worship." - -The reference is clearly to the establishment of the Christian ritual, -and to the abolition of sacrifices in the Pagan temple. - -These inscriptions show us that Gerasa was still inhabited in early -Byzantine times, and the church stands just south of the great heathen -temple. My visit to Jerash only lasted a day, and it was thus not -possible to explore the site very completely, but we found nine -inscriptions in all, one of which seems to be new, though unfortunately -only a fragment. - -On the stylobate of the southern temple is a very boldly carved name, -perhaps that of Pertinax, which would give a date towards the end of the -second century.[58] - -The city stood on the sides of an open mountain-valley, and through the -midst flowed a stream, which, running south, breaks in a cascade just by -the southern wall. The course is fringed with oleanders, but the hill -slopes are bare and stony, though covered, when visited, with corn. The -whole course of the city walls is traceable, the masonry lying in heaps, -having probably been thrown down by the early Arab invaders from the -south. Five gates are distinguishable at the ends of the streets, which -were regularly laid out at right angles. The main street ran parallel to -the stream on the west, and was flanked throughout, for a length of 700 -yards, by columns supporting epistylia. On the south this colonnade ends -in a peribolus, which has been supposed to be the forum, just in front -of the southern temple. Fifty-eight pillars remain in a single oval 300 -feet long, all having Roman Ionic capitals, but not all of equal height. - -We approached the city from the south, where, nearly a quarter of a mile -from the gate, the road is spanned by a Roman arch of triumph, supposed -to be not earlier than the time of Trajan. The ground on the side is -strewn in places with violated sarcophagi. On the left of the arch is -the great Naumachia basin, surrounded by seats for the spectators, and -filled by channels from the brook. On entering the town, a temple is -found immediately to the left, and behind this is a theatre with -twenty-eight tiers of seats, and capable of holding five thousand -persons. - -The street of columns from the oval forum consisted of pillars, -generally about fifteen feet high and five yards apart. It is divided -into three sections by tetrapylons where cross streets intersect. -Towards the centre of the street the Corinthian order was found, with -Ionic capitals in the northern and southern parts. Near the middle was -a basilica to the right, where, no doubt, judgments were pronounced, and -on the left a propyleum, behind which flights of steps appear to have -led up to the great temple, which stood high on the hillside, having -pillars thirty-eight feet high and six feet in diameter. North of this -temple was another theatre, with sixteen tiers of seats--not an odeum, -like the preceding, which had a stage, but probably intended only for -gladiatorial shows. So also at 'Amman an odeum with stage, quite as -complete as that of the southern theatre of Gerasa, stands close to the -larger semicircle, before which is the open area with its vomitoria. - -To the right of the street of columns, opposite the northern theatre, -and close to the stream, are well-preserved remains of the great baths -of Gerasa. In the extreme north-east part of the city, not far from a -spring is a third temple, well preserved, and by the spring itself there -seems to have been a nymphaeum with three altars. Ruins farther south, -east of the brook, are thought to represent a market-place and its -stables. There are two ancient bridges over the stream, one close to the -central basilica, and just outside the south-east gate are the ruins of -another church or chapel. It was interesting to note how the paving of -the bridge was laid diagonally (as in the opus reticulatum), and ruts -seemingly cut through it to guide the wheels of carts or of chariots. By -the basilica also are remains of four porphyry columns, and since no -such stone is found anywhere nearer than Egypt or Sinai, we see here, as -at 'Amman also and at Tyre, that great labour and expense were devoted -to the adornment of the town. I also observed some double columns like -those of the Galilean synagogues of the same age, or like the huge -granite double monolith at Tyre, probably once belonging to the temple -of Melcarth. - -The most remarkable fact concerning Gerasa is the absence of historical -notices of the city. It already existed in 78 B.C., and is mentioned by -Josephus and by Pliny. It was still a place of importance in the fourth -century, and there are allusions to the name in early Arab works and in -Crusading history. Stephen of Byzantium says that Ariston Rhetor came -thence. Origen, Jerome, and Epiphanius knew the place, and there were -bishops of the city present at some of the Councils; but beyond this we -know nothing, save that which we gather from the inscriptions still -existing. So numerous and so magnificent were the Roman cities of the -second century of our era, that even the fine buildings of a town as -large as ancient Tyre excite no particular notice. So imperfectly was it -known, that the old Roman map of the fourth century, which makes the -Hieromax flow into the Dead Sea direct, appears to put Gerasa opposite -Jericho, and the Persian Gulf immediately east of the city. Yet when we -visit the ruins, we find that granite pillars were brought from Egypt to -adorn its basilica; that its busy population (said to include -descendants of some of Alexander's soldiers) had their baths, their -theatres, their public memorials. An _AEthlophoros_, become Christian, -dedicates a church with Homeric hexameter verses, and the names of -Antoninus and perhaps of Pertinax are boldly sculptured on public -buildings. Few ruined cities so well attest the far-reaching power of -imperial Rome. - -The Crusading King Baldwin II., in 1121 A.D., made a raid into this -country, and overturned a Moslem fortress near Jerash. The Crusaders -had other outposts at Tibneh, at Salt, and on the conical hill of Rubud; -but the broad plains of the Hauran, which Baldwin III. endeavoured in -vain to conquer, were never wrested from the Sultans of Damascus. - -The road to Jordan from Gerasa passes along in sight of the distant -castle of Rubud and by the ancient village of Reimun, a well-watered -place with ancient tombs. Here, I believe, we should probably place the -celebrated Ramoth Gilead, which has, for no reason at all, been -identified with Es Salt, a town which takes its name from the old -episcopal title Saltus Hieraticus, due to the woods on the hill slopes -not far off. From Reimun the path winds down into the beautiful "Valley -of the Roebuck" (Wady Hamur), full of picturesque glades. The valley was -green with young corn when I visited it, and the stream bordered with -oleanders. On the hillsides a dense wood of oaks was topped by dark -pines on the higher part of the ridge. Lentisk, arbutus, oleaster, -formed its underwood, and here, as on Carmel, the blackbird's song may -be heard. The jay, cuckoo, hoopoe, and tomtit I also found in these -woods, with the "murmuring of innumerable doves," as in the Nazareth -oaks. - -Among the flowers which I saw in spring on the slopes of Gilead are many -of our English species. Clover, ragged-robin, red and white cistus, -clematis, crow's-foot, purple lupins, squills, the pink phlox, the red -or blue anemone, cyclamen, corn-flowers, pheasant's eye, salvia, -asphodel (both blue and yellow), vetches, wild mustard, marigold, -borage, moon-daisies, cytizus, orchids, and the white broom, Star of -Bethlehem, poppies, tulips, and buttercups, all grow in the grassy -dells. Mock orange, hawthorn, honeysuckle, and antirrhinum, the arbutus -and the lauristinus, are among its shrubs. Nowhere else in Palestine -save in the Jordan Valley have I seen such fields of flowers; but the -ravines and hill-slopes of the beautiful Sorrento scenery near Naples -both in fauna and flora very nearly approach the natural history of -Gilead. - -These scenes were among the last through which it was my lot to pass in -Syria. Hurrying back from Damascus to Jerusalem, I rejoined my -companions, and we went down to Jaffa, where we took the northern -steamer in order to escape Alexandria by a longer sea-route. Rumours had -already reached us of the massacres in Egypt, and my reports concerning -the unsettled state of the Levant I found to have been already confirmed -by the telegrams which were arriving in England when we returned. The -steamer was crowded with refugees, and it was not many weeks later that -I again stood in the familiar streets of Alexandria, and saw the city of -gutted houses, and the ruins which covered the great square with heaps -of stone and of plaster. Thus our explorations may be said to have been -continued to the last days of peace, before the Levant became the -theatre of historic events. - -There is only one district of Palestine which has not been described in -this volume, namely, the great plains of the Hauran and the volcanic -regions of the Lejah and Jaulan. Full as this region is of rude stone -monuments, of Roman towns, of Nabathean and Arab texts scrawled on the -rock, of Greek temples and Greek inscriptions, it is yet perhaps less -unknown and less interesting than the wild deserts of Moab and of Judah, -the oak woods of Gilead, the fastnesses of Hermon, the romantic -mountains of Northern Syria, which have here been described. Still it -remains a matter of regret to me that the work which was so -systematically carried out in other parts of Palestine has not yet been -extended over the whole of the Hauran plains. - -Such, then, is the present condition of exploration east of Jordan. -About a quarter of that region has been surveyed and mapped, and nearly -the whole region has been visited by modern trained explorers. Much, -however, still remains to be done in the future in this interesting -country. - -Reference has already been made in the introductory chapter to the map -made in this region by Herr G. Schumacher, a younger member of the -German colony of Haifa, which has been published by the Palestine -Exploration Fund. This map extends eastward of the Sea of Galilee for -about twenty miles, and reaches on the north to Banias, and on the south -to the region near Abila of Decapolis. An account of the country has -also been published from Herr Schumacher's notes. The curious volcanic -region of the Jaulan is included in this area, and the most interesting -discoveries, already noted, were the sites of Susieh (or Hippos) and of -Kokaba, one of the towns mentioned in connection with the ancient -Ebionite sectarians of the second century, A.D. - -The unfinished work by De Vogue remains, however, perhaps the most -important contribution to our knowledge of this region. He was the first -scientific explorer who exploded the popular fallacy of the "giant -cities of Bashan," by proving that not only were the stone towns of the -Hauran of very ordinary dimensions, but that the Greek inscriptions on -their walls showed them to have been built by Christians of the third -and later centuries, A.D. The oldest remains in Bashan are apparently -the dolmen groups discovered by Herr Schumacher, which are of the same -character with those described further south. In the early Christian -period the Ebionites flourished in Bashan, where they converted the -invading Arabs who advanced from the south; and it is even said that the -Arab king, Amr, erected monasteries as early as 180 A.D. The Graeco-Roman -buildings found in the Hauran belong chiefly to this period when the -Arab capital was at Bosrah. - -The Hauran is a great plateau stretching east to the isolated Jebel -Kuleib, which lies on the borders of the Syrian desert. This plateau -presents the chief cornfield of Palestine, and the wheat is thence -brought down for export to Acre. The population is in great measure -Druze, mixed with Arab and Circassian elements. The water supply is -chiefly from wells and cisterns, and for this reason Bashan has always -presented great difficulties to military expeditions, and the Crusaders -never effected its conquest. - -The Greek texts, pagan and Christian, here collected by Waddington, De -Vogue, and others, are very numerous, but less interesting as a rule -than are the early Arab inscriptions copied by the same explorers. The -Nabathean or North Arab texts of the Hauran range from 200 B.C. to 200 -A.D., and are of great epigraphic importance, showing a population of -the same stock then also existing in Petra. Yet further east Mr. Cyril -Graham discovered inscriptions and rude sketches executed by another -Arab stock which advanced from Yemen about the same period. Some seven -hundred of these South Arab texts are now known, and in 1877 their -relation to the alphabet of South Arabia was demonstrated by Halevy. It -was this rising tide of northward migration which a few centuries later -broke down the Roman power in Syria at the famous battle of the Yermuk -(south-east of the Sea of Galilee), when Islam triumphed over the -degenerate Byzantines. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -_NORTHERN SYRIA._ - - -Palestine proper--from Dan to Beersheba--extends only over the southern -half of the Syrian coast which runs northwards to the Bay of -Alexandretta, distant 370 miles from Gaza. Yet there is no true -geographical division which separates Palestine from Syria, and it is -only because the Land of Israel attracts our interest chiefly, that the -northern region of Lebanon and the Land of the Hittites is less -generally visited. The scenery is perhaps finer than that of Palestine, -the antiquities are more important, and the ancient history of the -region is equally interesting, though mainly traced through the -fragmentary notices of monumental records. Mention has already been made -of the ride in Northern Syria which led to our discovery of Kadesh on -Orontes, and which extended over half the length of the region. In the -following year I twice followed the coast by sea to Alexandretta, but -found no opportunity of visiting Antioch and Aleppo. The travels of Mr. -Tyrwhitt Drake in this region are published in Captain Burton's -"Unexplored Syria," and among other modern explorers De Vogue and Rey -have perhaps done most to recover all that is of greatest interest, -while valuable discoveries have been made by members of the American -Missionary Society. On the coast also the excavations of Renan at -Byblos produced important Phoenician discoveries, and the magnificent -collection of the late M. Peretie, which he kindly showed to me at -Beirut, was mainly gathered in Northern Syria. It is probable, however, -that much still awaits the explorer in this region, hidden in the great -mounds of the Buka'a, and in the truly Oriental towns on both sides of -the Lebanon. - -Northern Syria is divided into two regions by the River Eleutherus, -which rises in a hollow plain on the watershed--a saddle dividing the -Lebanon on the south from the Anseiriyeh Mountains (the old Mons -Bargylus), which runs northwards to the valley of Antioch. East of these -chains is the plateau of the Buka'a, watered towards the south by the -Litani River, but for the greater part of its length on the north by the -Orontes, which finally turns sharply to the west, entering the valley of -Antioch, and falling into the Mediterranean at Seleucia, the old port of -Antioch, south of the Bay of Alexandretta. Farther east, the -Anti-Lebanon runs out to the great bastion of Hermon, dividing the -plains of Damascus from the Buka'a; and on the north this chain sinks -into isolated white peaks, where the Buka'a broadens out, east of Homs, -into the desert of Palmyra. - -The east and west slopes of the Lebanon present a considerable contrast, -due in part to the geological formation, and in part to climatic causes. -On the west, the deep gorges in the ruddy sandstone are fringed with -umbrella pines and tangled copses, and the green of the vineyards -extends high up the slopes towards the iron-grey limestone of the upper -ridges. On the east, the barren limestone and the gleaming chalk below -are only sparsely covered with stunted trees, though olive groves occur -round the villages. This contrast is, however, not peculiar to the -Lebanon--it is notable in all parts of Palestine. The western slopes of -Gilead are clothed with oak woods, while the eastern slopes of the -Palestine hills are barren deserts. The hills of Galilee, Samaria, and -Judea west of the watershed are for the most part well covered with -copses, and in the Anti-Lebanon also the same contrast is (though to a -less degree) observable. - -The reason of this contrast is very evident. The cool and humid western -breezes blow from the Mediterranean, and all the vapour so carried -inland is caught by the western slopes. Those which face the east are, -on the other hand, exposed to the hot blast which blows from the Syrian -deserts, while they are at the same time shut out from the sea-breeze. -In the Anti-Lebanon the western slopes also are partly excluded from the -same life-giving breeze by the superior height of the Lebanon range, -while the more fertile sandstone is covered in the Anti-Lebanon by white -chalk, grey limestone, and nummulitic beds, which, as a rule, have very -little surface soil. The vine is, however, much grown on this range, and -its broken ridges present a finer sky-line than is to be found, as a -rule, in Lebanon itself. The broad valley which divides these ranges -contains some of the best corn-land in Syria, and the Orontes is one of -the brightest rivers that water this part of Asia. - -The true source of the Orontes is found west of Baalbek, but the main -supply of water is from the spring nearly thirty miles farther north, -now called 'Ain el 'Asy. The river is here invisible from the plain, -being hidden in a ravine some 300 feet deep. The pool, fringed with -willows and full of cresses, is surrounded with tawny cliffs, and the -full-grown river rushes rapidly northwards in a broad, shallow stream, -breaking over a rocky bed between barren slopes dotted with wild olives. -Above these slopes rises the grey and stony ridge of the Lebanon on the -west, while the brown Buka'a stretches on the east. After about fifteen -miles' run the river emerges again on to the plain near Riblah, and -flows by Kadesh to the long artificial lake of Homs, already noticed. -Then breaking over the Roman dam in cascades, it again sinks into a -trench in the plain, and flows by the gardens of Homs or Emesa, and so -on to the hot and unhealthy gorge near Hamath, and to the marshy plain -of El Omk, where it joins the Kara Su ("black water"), and suddenly -bends to the west. - -The limestone both on Lebanon and on Anti-Lebanon appears to be -honeycombed with great subterranean caverns, in which underground -rivers, fed by the snows of the higher ridges, flow towards the plains. -The Abana, which rises in the plain of Zebdany, west of the main ridge -of the Anti-Lebanon, springs up in a blue pool of unknown depth, where -the snow-cold water rises with great force and feeds a considerable -stream, which, when increased by the rushing fountain at 'Ain Fiji (one -of the most picturesque spots in the region), becomes the "River of -Damascus," which Naaman rightly preferred to the muddy waters of Jordan. -At Beirut, also, the Dog River rises in magnificent stalagmitic caves in -the bowels of the Lebanon, and farther north the old castle of Krak -(already noticed) looks down on a narrow valley where is the monastery -of St. George, near the cave in which rises the famous Sabbatic River, -whose intermittent flow was reckoned among the wonders of Syria by the -ancients. This river springs from a pool in the cave, and at intervals -of between four and seven days a rumbling sound is heard in the -mountains, and torrents of water flow forth from the cavern, pouring -down the valley for several hours. In the Hermon region there is another -similar phenomenon, which is, however, only to be seen in winter. The -plain near the village of Kefr Kuk is said yearly to be turned into a -lake by a torrent which rushes out of its cavern with a roaring noise -like that of the Sabbatic River. - -Josephus (VII. Wars, v. I) has given us a correct account of the rise of -the Sabbatic River, which Titus visited on his return from the Jewish -war, but Pliny has inverted the facts (H. N., xxxi. II), and supposes -the river to observe the Sabbath, flowing all the week and resting on -the seventh day. The Bordeaux pilgrim makes the same mistake. In the -Middle Ages the legend of the River Sambation became famous among the -Jews, who identified it with the Ganges, and held that the ten tribes -existed beyond its banks, and there awaited the day when, on the -appearance of the Messiah, its waters should be dried up. Thus the true -origin of the story was forgotten, and the situation of the river, -which, however, still preserves its ancient name in the modern Arabic -title, Nahr es Sebta. - -The western slopes of the Lebanon fall abruptly into the sea, and the -flat ground at the foot of the mountains is at most a narrow strip, -while the coast road often leads over the rugged stony limestone of the -promontories. There is no real harbour along the shore at all comparable -to that of Smyrna, but the Phoenicians made the most of outlying reefs -and shallow bays to construct their little ports. The harbour of Tripoli -is reckoned the best in Syria by the captains of coasting steamers. The -Bay of St. George at Beirut is subject to storms, as is also the gulf at -Alexandretta, where in winter the gusts from the mountains are often -very dangerous. At Latakia there is only an open roadstead, and Gebal or -Byblus, famous as its sailors were in early historic times, presents -only a shelving beach. - -The shore scenery is throughout of most picturesque character, not -unlike some of the South Italian coast; and the steep slopes, -pine-dotted and riven with great gorges, rise to snowy summits, often -wrapped in cloud even in summer. Near Tripoli the shore plain widens, -and the Eleutherus flows through an open sandy flat. This river, which -formed the boundary of Jewish conquest in the Hasmonean age, has often -been mistaken for the Sabbatic River. Its source is in a sort of crater -west of the Lake of Homs, a picturesque basaltic hollow plain, marshy -and dotted with oak trees. The black basalt extends westwards along the -open valley, which leads down seaward, confining Lebanon on the north; -and the pass, which has always been important in history, is commanded -by the great castle of the Knights Hospitallers, already mentioned, and -perhaps the best preserved of the Crusading strongholds. - -Into the wilder mountains of the Anseiriyeh it was not my good fortune -to be able to penetrate. The thick copses here cover remains of ancient -cities, of which but little is known. On the north the vale of Antioch -divides this ridge from the great spur of the Taurus, which rises over -the gloomy Gulf of Alexandretta. The steep mountains here spring from -the sea, and a narrow, pestilent, swampy shore lies at their feet, -making this port at the "gates of Syria" the most notoriously unhealthy -place in the Levant. Many suggestions for draining the swamp may be -found in consular reports; but the difficulty is that its level is only -a few feet above the sea, allowing no fall for any irrigatory channels. -If ever the great railway which may connect the Mediterranean with the -Persian Gulf is made, it is to be hoped that the port will be chosen at -the old harbour of Seleucia, at the mouth of the Orontes, and not in the -fever-stricken and mountain-locked bay of Issus, as the Alexandretta -Gulf was called when Alexander won on its shores the great victory over -the Persians which made him master of all Western Asia. - -The climate of the Lebanon is superior to that of Palestine on account -of the brisk mountain air, some 4000 feet above the highest points -reached by even the Galilean mountains, while the snow-fed rivers and -streams give an abundant water-supply throughout. The modern inhabitants -are a hardy and ruddy-faced people, whose cheerful independence -contrasts with the dull fatalism of the Southern peasants. Thus from the -dawn of history there has been perhaps more energy, enterprise, and -civilisation in Syria than in Palestine; and trade and art flourished in -Phoenicia and among the Hittites, while in the south the wandering -Shasu ranged over an unsettled land. In order to preserve some method in -briefly describing the early civilisation of this country, it will be -best to adopt an historic sequence, for the centres of power were -constantly changing, and a geographical treatment of the subject is -difficult. - -The earliest known notice of Northern Syria is in the time of Thothmes -III., about 1600 B.C. After the great battle of Megiddo, which laid -Palestine at his feet, the hardy Nubian advanced northwards, even beyond -Aleppo and across the Euphrates. At Karnak he has recorded the names of -218 towns in Syria and Aram which he claimed to have conquered; and from -this list we know that even as early as the seventeenth century B.C. -many famous cities of later times were already in existence, including -Hamath, Aleppo, Calchis, Circesium, Nisibis, Aradus, Carchemish, Pethor, -and Kadesh on the Orontes. - -Even earlier, however, than this time it appears that the Hittites dwelt -in Northern Syria, which is called also the "Land of the Hittites" in -the Book of Joshua. Thothmes I. is believed to have reigned about 1700 -B.C., and began his career by attacking the Hittites, who, however, at -that early period, may have extended their rule farther south. - -Seven years after the battle of Megiddo, Thothmes III. attacked Kadesh -on Orontes, and cut down the trees near it. Twice again in later -campaigns he stormed the town on his way to Mesopotamia, and carried off -silver and precious stones as tribute; but on his death the Hittites -recovered their independence, and about 1540 B.C. they became a -formidable power. The recently discovered Tell el Amarna tablets show us -that an early Babylonian conquest of Phoenicia dates from that period. -The kings of Egypt and of Mesopotamia were then in alliance, and -governors who used the cuneiform script appear even to have been posted -at Tyre and at Sidon; but the Semitic invaders were jealous of the -Hittite power, and Tunep (now Tennib) appears then, as well as later, to -have been a Hittite city. - -Two centuries passed, and Rameses II. found the Hittite power as -formidable as ever. The great battle of this period was fought near -Kadesh; and the celebrated battle picture at Abu Simbel gives us most -lively portraits of these great Mongol warriors in their chariots, and -of their walled and tower-crowned city, with its name written over it, -and its bridges over the Orontes and the smaller western stream, which -together surrounded the mound now known as Tell Nebi Mendeh. The -Egyptian advance followed the coast-line north of Beirut, where Rameses -left his bas-reliefs cut on the cliff by the Dog River, and the army -reached a town called Shabatuna, which some scholars place near the -Sabbatic River, in which case their road lay, no doubt, up the valley of -the Eleutherus, already noticed as the highway from Tripoli to Homs. -Kadesh, we learn, was on "the west bank of Hanruta" or Orontes; and the -incautious advance of the Pharaoh very nearly led to his defeat and -death. The city was, however, again taken, and the great alliance, which -included auxiliary forces from Aradus, Cyprus, Carchemish, and even from -Maeonia and Southern Asia Minor, was defeated. The Egyptian conqueror -pursued his way far north and west, and left his cartouche on Mount -Sipylus, where the old figure of the "Weeping Niobe" had already been -carved. - -[Illustration: HITTITES FROM ABU SIMBEL.] - -In this same reign we have also an incidental notice of the same region -in the celebrated "Travels of an Egyptian," which were carried as far -north as Kadesh. Speaking of the Lebanon, he says: "The sky is darkened -by the cypresses, the oaks, and the cedars, which grow to heaven. There -also are lions found, and wolves and hyenas, which the Shasu hunt." Yet -the spoils taken and tribute offered in Syria at that time abundantly -witness the civilisation of the Hittites and of the Phoenicians, whose -"holy city Gebal" is noticed in this early papyrus with Sidon, Sarepta, -and Tyre. - -Two centuries passed by, and, with the decreasing power of Egypt, the -freedom and prosperity of the independent kingdoms of Israel and of the -Hittites increased. Yet while Samuel was still a child we find Tiglath -Pileser I. hunting in the Lebanon. The account recovered from a -cuneiform tablet is of great interest, seeming to show that the Lebanon -ridge was the division between the Semitic Phoenicians on the coast -and the Mongolic Hittites along the Orontes. The broken obelisk in the -British Museum records of Tiglath Pileser that "in ships of Arvad he -rode, a porpoise in the great sea he slew, wild bulls (_rimi_) fierce -and fine he slew at the city Araziki, which is opposite to the land of -the Hittites at the foot of Lebanon." Thus the wild bull, which is -mentioned in the Bible, was still found in Syria as late as 1100 B.C. - -The foundation of our knowledge of the Hittite hieroglyphic system of -writing, which was probably in use as early as 2000 B.C., was laid by -Burckhardt's discovery of one of their monuments at Hamath. That great -traveller and observer describes a stone, now in the Constantinople -Museum, but then in a wall in the city of Hamath, as covered with -hieroglyphics which differed from those of Egypt. Yet the discovery was -without further result until the stone, with four others, was -rediscovered by the American visitor Mr. J. A. Johnson in 1870. The -further finds at Carchemish, and in Asia Minor, of similar monuments -have shown that Northern Syria possessed a written character of its own, -and that a language akin to the old speech of the Medes and Akkadians -was spoken by the Hittite chieftains as well as by their relatives, the -Lydians, Carians, and early Cappadocians. - -[Illustration: HAMATH STONE, NO. 1.] - -As we advance to the eighth century B.C., we find the power of this -Mongolic stock decreasing, while that of the Semitic race increases. -Among the most interesting discoveries of this period is that of the -general diffusion of the worship of Jehovah throughout all Syria and -Assyria. As early as 822 B.C. the names of Assyrian officials are -compounded with the divine name, and yet earlier, in 887, the name -Abijah occurs in Assyria. In the time of Sargon, Yaubidi was king of -Hamath, and the names of Joram, king of Edom, Zedekiah, king of Ascalon, -Padiah, king of Ekron,[59] tell the same tale as does the name of Joel -in a Phoenician text from Malta. The adoration of Jehovah was not -peculiar to the Hebrews, nor does the Bible state it to have been. It -was common, as early at least as the tenth century B.C., to all the -Semitic peoples of Western Asia as far east as Nineveh; for, as Malachi -wrote somewhat later, "From the rising of the sun to the going down of -the same, My name is great among the Gentiles ... saith Jehovah Sabaoth" -(Mal. i. 11). - -In spite of such community of religion, the growth of Assyria brought -troublous times on Northern Syria.[60] About 854 Assur Nazir Pal -defeated the Hittites, and advanced as far as Tyre; but a great battle -was fought on the Orontes, in which we find Ahab of Sirlai[61] leagued -with the kings of Damascus, Arvad, and Ammon--a force in all of 85,000 -men, and this league for a time stopped the Assyrian advance. In the -same long reign, however, about 842 B.C., another battle was fought near -Hermon, and Damascus was besieged and the Hauran overrun by Assyrian -armies. From that time forward the road to Palestine began to be open. -Tiglath Pileser II. advanced in 740 to Hamath, and six years later -invaded the Land of Israel and marched to Ascalon and Gaza. In 720 -Sargon takes Samaria and quells an outbreak in Hamath; and about this -time the system of deportation, which was the ordinary Assyrian policy, -led to the establishment of North Syrian, Chaldean, and Thamudite Arab -colonies in Palestine, and to the captivity of the Ten Tribes. In 717 -Carchemish fell to Sargon, and the power of the Hittites was finally -overthrown, and six years later the Assyrians were at Ashdod in -Philistia. Sennacherib followed in 701, and penetrated even to Petra in -688. Yet the internal troubles of the Assyrian Empire gave a brief -respite after his death, when a new foe appeared in the northward march -of the Arabs and Nabatheans, who raided through Eastern Palestine and -the Hauran into Northern Syria in 650 B.C. With the fall of Assyria a -period of peace followed, but a century later we find Nebuchadnezzar on -his way to Jerusalem, following the defeated Egyptians from Carchemish. - -Of this troublous history the rocks of Syria themselves give evidence. -At the mouth of the Dog River, near Beirut, where Rameses II. had -erected three bas-reliefs in honour of Ptah, Ra, and Ammon, Tiglath -Pileser I.--the hunter already noticed who also conquered the -Hittites--left his statue about 1100 B.C., and another Assyrian tablet -on this spot is thought to be even older. Four more tablets were added -later, between 885 and 681 B.C., by Assur Nazir Pal, by Shalmanezer -III., by Sennacherib, and by Esarhaddon, showing that all these -conquerors passed by Beirut. Near this group of tablets mutilated -inscriptions of Nebuchadnezzar have also been found, and quite recently, -in 1884, other inscriptions by Nebuchadnezzar have been recovered on the -eastern slope of the Lebanon not far from Kadesh. - -The Medes swept away the Babylonians, the Persians succeeded the Medes, -and the Syrians continued to preserve their own civilisation, as -witnessed by the art of Phoenicia, which throve especially in the -Persian period. The battle of Issus raised a new power in Asia, and with -the successors of Alexander a new capital arose in the valley of the -Orontes at Antioch. It is remarkable, considering the power and wealth -of these Greek monarchs, that they should have left us no monuments in -Syria, as far as is at present known. Their coins are frequently found, -and are often of great beauty, being among the earliest on which the -head of a king appears portrayed from life. During this age, even as -late as 307 B.C., the Greek kings of Cyprus were still using the -peculiar script called the Cypriote syllabary, but no trace of its use -has yet been discovered in Syria, where the simpler Phoenician -alphabet reigned supreme, while on the Greek coins of the Seleucids the -kindred Greek characters appear. - -Nor are the troublous times of the great struggle which gave Syria to -the Romans represented by monuments; but with the Antonines a great -architectural period began, when Baalbek was built, as well as many -great cities throughout Syria. It has often been supposed that the -enormous stones which form part of the outer wall at Baalbek are remains -of a Phoenician temple preceding the Roman fane, but the visitor can -satisfy himself that these huge blocks--more than sixty feet in length, -and unrivalled elsewhere in Syria--stand on Roman masonry; and we have -nothing to lead us to suppose that the Phoenicians ever used such -enormous masonry. The Baalbek Temple is indeed one of the most -certainly-dated buildings in Syria, and the Latin inscription on the -east wall, copied by Ward and Dawkins, but now almost illegible, gives -the names of Antoninus Pius and Julia Domna, who appear to have founded -the huge sanctuary in honour of the "great gods of Heliopolis." - -In the wild mountains of the Anseiriyeh other remains of the same period -have been found. Though attributed by popular tradition to Solomon, -these buildings, by the details of their architecture, and by the Roman -eagle, whose winged form occurs here as well as at both Baalbek and at -Rukhleh on Hermon, are to be ascribed to the Roman period, to which also -we must refer the curious monument near the source of the Orontes called -Kamu'at el Hirmil, on which, in bas-relief, is represented the chase of -the stag, the boar, and the bear. - -Homs, the ancient Emesa, was the birthplace of Julia Domna, the mother -and bride of emperors. This city also had a famous fane--that of the -Black Stone, which was transported to Rome. When El Mukaddasi in the -tenth century visited the city, he found a remarkable statue still -standing in the mosque--"the figure of a man in brass standing on a -fish, and the same turns to the four winds." It was regarded as a -talisman against scorpions, and was apparently a kind of weathercock. It -was perhaps to this statue that the Greek inscription which I copied in -the same mosque originally belonged, the text, when translated, reading -thus:-- - - "Image of the round earth, the king ... - The people having all, with wise mind ..." - -El Mukaddasi says that this mosque was formerly a church, and its nave -and aisles I found still clearly traceable in the later Moslem building. - -The third century saw the rise and fall of Palmyra, the great Syrian -trading city which formed the emporium of Northern Syria, connecting the -coast towns with the Euphrates by a route across the desert from its -oasis. As the bulwark of the Roman Empire against Persia, the Palmyrene -colony was allowed privileges amounting almost to independence, and -under Odenathus and his widow Zenobia it flourished until rebellion -brought down on that famous queen the heavy Roman hand. Its celebrated -buildings show how strong was the influence of Graeco-Roman art on the -Aramaic inhabitants; but its numerous inscriptions are for the most part -in the native script--a late form of the old Phoenician alphabet--and -its gods are the old Phoenician deities, though Christian heretics -found shelter at Zenobia's capital. Whether any remains of earlier ages -are to be found in the desert city is still perhaps open to inquiry, -since a very curious Aramean tablet was recovered from the vicinity by -M. Peretie. The ruins as yet known are of Zenobia's time, but tradition -points to Palmyra as the Tadmor or Tamar in the wilderness founded by -Solomon--Tamar, which is perhaps the better-authenticated reading, being -the Hebrew name ("palm tree") equivalent to the classic title Palmyra. - -In the later days of Paganism Northern Syria was very famous for its -temples--the shrine of Daphne, in its oleander thickets near Antioch; -the yet more picturesque site at the source of the Adonis River, where -stood, under a theatre of barren crags, high up on Lebanon, the shrine -of the mourning Venus; and the curious temple of the Dea Syria at -Heliopolis (the ancient Carchemish) on the Euphrates. Three statues -existed at the latter shrine, one representing the mother goddess seated -on the lion--whose image, standing on the same, has been found carved by -the Hittites--the second the father god on a bull, and the third a deity -of unknown name. Two lofty obelisks stood in the porch, and to their -summits the priests went up, and remained for seven days in converse -with the gods and never sleeping. It was perhaps the memory of this -strange rite (not, however, peculiar to Syria, but known also in India) -which led Simeon the Stylite to ascend his column four centuries later -at a site not very far west of the old temple of the Dea Syria, for the -ruins of the great monastery erected over the base of his pillar are -still to be seen at Kal'at Sima'an, between Aleppo and Turmanin. - -The temples of Daphne and Afka were famous for their licentious rites, -the temple-women who served Aphrodite in Cyprus and in Babylon here -remaining recognised until suppressed by Constantine. At Afka the statue -of Venus was represented with its hands covered by its robes, and the -lamentations which were part of the midsummer ritual were but the -survival of the old Akkadian and Phoenician "mourning for Tammuz," -which was observed even in the Temple at Jerusalem. A star was believed -to fall annually into the great pool or lake at the temple, where the -sacred river, which falls in cascades in a deep and wooded gorge, to -flow into the sea at Byblus, had its spring. The river itself was said -to run red with the blood of Adonis in spring-time, and I have crossed -it on Easter Day when it was turbid and ruddy with the rich red -sandstone soil from Lebanon. It was at this season that the -Phoenician women at Byblus used to set little papyrus cradles floating -on its stream, holding an image of the infant sun-god. - -The disciples of Simon Stylites were spread all over Syria, and even as -late as the twelfth century they sat on solitary pillars. This may -account for the single columns which are to be found standing alone in -the plains of Syria in more than one case. West of Baalbek one of these -pillars is to be seen, called "the pillar of the maidens," and there is -another not far from Acre. In the eleventh century the monastery already -mentioned, called Kal'at Sim'an, still held no less than sixty Georgian -monks, and Phocas mentions another of their establishments at St. -Gerasimus, on the banks of Jordan, in the Jericho valley, where was "a -hermit's pillar." At present the hermits are content to inhabit -inaccessible caves on the Quarantania Mountain, where the pious go to -fill the baskets which they lower down the cliff. - -In Justinian's time a perhaps more useful invention was brought to Syria -by monks from China, who introduced the silkworm. The Roman silk was -imported from the far East, but in the sixth century it began to be -manufactured in Syria and in Cyprus, and continues to be made on the -slopes of Lebanon, and even as far south as Tyre. The mulberry gardens -round Beirut are cultivated to feed the worms. Under the Crusading rule -the silks of Tripoli and Antioch were also famous. In the tenth century -El Mukaddasi speaks of the silkworms of Ascalon as renowned. - -Considering how eagerly the Christian pilgrims sought out every site of -Bible interest, it is curious that the early notices of the cedars of -Lebanon are so few. The destruction of the cedar forests, however, -began early. Assyrian and Babylonian monarchs, not less than Solomon, -appear to have sought out the Lebanon cedar-wood to adorn their palaces -and temples. Justinian could hardly get cedar enough to roof the great -Church of the Virgin which he built at Jerusalem, and in the Middle Ages -the private houses of Sidon were ceiled with cedar. The trees usually -visited at Ehden are not, however, the only survivors, for within the -last fifty years at least other groves existed, and perhaps still exist, -in the Northern Lebanon east of Tripoli. Seetzen, in 1805, found -thousands of cedars at Etnub, and the less known forests have probably -the better chance of surviving. - -Northern Syria was overrun by the Moslems before Jerusalem fell. Abu -Obeideh advanced from Damascus to Homs, Hamah, Latakia, Jibeil, Aleppo, -and Tarsus, before the Byzantine army took the field; and though he was -forced to beat a rapid retreat to the Yermuk, south-east of the Sea of -Galilee, his great victory on that river confirmed his conquests. This -Arab raid of the seventh century A.D. repeats in a curious manner the -old incursion of the Arabs in the seventh century B.C., to which -allusion has already been made. The Crusaders, in like manner, after the -fall of Antioch, followed the same route which the various Assyrian -conquerors had taken, and after passing Hamath and Homs, went down by -the Eleutherus to Tripoli, and thence south along the sea-shore by the -historic tablets of Rameses and Tiglath Pileser. - -In the twelfth century Northern Syria was divided into two great -fiefs--Beirut and Tripoli--belonging to the kingdom of Jerusalem, and -embracing all the Lebanon; while the Anseiriyeh Mountains were part of -the principality of Antioch. The Buka'a appears generally to have been -under the rule of the Turkish Sultans of Aleppo and Damascus, and the -border castles were on the eastern slopes of the Anseiriyeh chain. In -this region, also, the famous Assassins established an independent -colony, which was only subject to tribute in the times when Christian -rule was strongest. The Normans were forced in this region to enter into -treaty with the Saracen rulers, whose dread of the Tartars rendered them -long indifferent to the cause of Islam. - -Mention has already been made of the many mystic sects which dwelt in -Palestine, and more especially in Northern Syria, in the Middle Ages. -Even in the tenth century El Mukaddasi speaks of a considerable -population of Shi'ah--or Persian Moslems--in Syria, whose descendants -still survive as Metawileh, Anseiriyeh, and Ismailiyeh, the latter -representing the mediaeval Assassins or "hemp-smokers." This sect was -founded in the eleventh century, but whether the curious Paradise story, -according to which the young devotee was initiated for a few days into -the joys of the Moslem Eden, has any foundation in fact may be doubted. -It is, however, not doubtful that the influence of the Sheikh el Jebel, -or "old man of the mountain," over his disciples caused the murder of -many well-known Crusaders and Norman princes, including Conrad of -Montferrat and Raymond of Tripoli, as well as of an Egyptian Khalif and -of several Turkoman and Arab princes. In 1174 the Assassins attempted -the life of Saladin himself, and in 1172 of Prince Edward of England at -Acre. Hence came the suppression of the order by Saladin, and by the -Mongols in Persia, the original seat of the society. The Assassins owned -ten castles, according to William of Tyre, extending their sway as far -west as Tortosa. - -There were two famous places of pilgrimage in North Syria in Crusading -times. One of these was Tortosa, on the sea-coast, which the good -Joynville visited, and where was one of the pictures of the Virgin -painted by St. Luke. At that time it appears that the Mother of God was -absent in Egypt helping St. Louis (who sadly needed help), a fact which -the pious knight states to have been immediately reported to the Legate. - -The other shrine was that of Notre Dame de la Roche at Sardenay--the -present Jacobite convent of Saidnaiya ("Our Lady"), north of Damascus. -This was venerated by Christians and Moslems alike. The Jacobites were -friendly to the Normans, and were then more numerous than they now are. -They preserved the old rite of circumcision, which they received from -the early Ebionite Christians, who dwelt in the Hauran in the second -century A.D. They preserved also the old Syriac language--almost the -same spoken in Palestine in the time of Christ--and their old alphabet, -a late form of the Palmyrene. In our own time the Maronite churches of -Lebanon still contain curious pictures dating back to the Middle Ages, -with Syriac inscriptions; but the Syriac language is said only to -survive in three villages not far from Saidnaiya. - -The miraculous image at this place had a long legendary history. It was -said to be partly of wood, partly of flesh, and from its breasts -distilled a sacred oil which was used to light the lamps in the church, -and carried away to France, where it was treasured in many abbeys. In -the present age the image is not shown to the faithful, as it is said -that any who look upon it would be struck dead; but the saint is still -believed to be able to grant offspring to her adorers, and it is -reported that her chapel is filled with indecent pictures. She is, in -short, a Lucina, who no doubt traces her descent from the old Ashtoreth -of Syria, adored by Hittites and Phoenicians alike. - -It might be thought that miraculous pictures and images had ceased to -work wonders in the nineteenth century, but the Roman sect has no -monopoly of such marvels, nor is human credulity limited to any period -of time. Colonel Churchill, in 1853, was still able to report the -existence of a miraculous sweating picture of St. George in the Maronite -church at Heitat, producing a liquid eagerly purchased by Christians; -and many a survival of early Paganism may yet be traced among the -priest-ridden peasantry of the Lebanon. - -The Normans held on to their North Syrian possessions almost to the end -of the thirteenth century, and till the fall of Acre they still kept -possession of the shore towns. The success of Saladin and Bibars seems -to have led the Franks to look to a Tartar alliance as the best means of -retaining their power. It was generally believed that the Tartars--to -whom the Armenians were tributary--were Christians, and the legend of -Prester John, the Christian king of Central Asia, was eagerly accepted. -For this reason St. Louis sent Rubruquis even as far as Siberia offering -his alliance, and the plan was still in favour apparently in 1282, when -Sir Joseph de Cancy wrote his letter home to Edward I., for he says, in -describing the battle between the Egyptians and the Tartars near Homs, -that "the King of Cyprus not being yet come up, could not join the -Tartars." It appears that the Mongol princes, who were then following -the steps of their Mongol predecessors, the Hittites, were willing, in -a very politic manner, to nurse such illusions for their own purposes, -and indeed the tolerance shown to Christians, Moslems, and Buddhists by -Genghiz Khan and his descendants contrasted in a marked manner with the -zeal of the Arab and Turkish Moslems. - -There is no part of Syria where the past is more vividly recalled than -in the little-visited regions of the Northern Lebanon. Standing on the -ramparts of Kal'at el Hosn, where the great towers retain their -battlements, and the great oak door still swings in the gateway, the -traveller, as he looks down on the village which nestles at the foot of -the fortress, climbing the steep sides of the hill, might almost expect -to see the mailed knights ride forth, or the Turkoman princes advancing -under their emblazoned banners[62] from the east. At Homs the -picturesque bazaars are still girt by the black basalt walls with their -round gate-towers, which no doubt existed when, in 1281, the power of -the Mongols was broken in the plain before them, and which may have been -built before Zenghi attacked the town in 1130, by Normans or by Turkoman -princes. The influence of Europe had not visibly reached this city in -1881, when I explored its narrow lanes, and it stands amid its green -gardens by the Orontes much as it was some seven centuries ago. - -Yet, on the other hand, the Lebanon district presents us with the one -bright spot in the Turkish Empire, the freest and best governed of the -Sultan's provinces. Under the guardianship of European states, with a -Christian governor, a constitution, a taxation amounting to only a -shilling a head, a smart mounted police, and a coach-road over the -mountain, the Lebanon province has become prosperous and happy, filled -with a cheerful population, and covered with vineyards and gardens, thus -presenting a most remarkable contrast to the ill-ruled province of -Tripoli on the north and the ruined regions of Palestine on the south. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -_THE RESULTS OF EXPLORATION._ - - -I propose to conclude this volume by a slight sketch of the results -which have been gathered by exploration in Palestine. In journals or -memoirs the importance of these results is hardly to be appreciated in -their scattered form, and I find that they have certainly not yet been -grasped even by learned writers who have penned accounts of the country -quite recently in England. These results are geological, geographical, -physical, antiquarian, ethnical, and biblical, or, more widely speaking, -historical, and under these six headings they may successively be -considered. - -Geological research was not one of our principal objects, but a -knowledge of the geology of a country is indispensable, if the explorer -would rightly estimate, not only its geographical character, but the -possibilities of ancient cultivation and natural history. I was taught -the elements of geology by more than one specialist well known by name -in England, and though the studies of Lartet and others left no great -discoveries to be made, I always felt the necessity of studying the -structure and the mineralogy of every district which we visited. - -The great geological problem of Palestine had long been solved when we -entered the country. It was interesting to trace the smaller faults in -the Jordan Valley, and to discover volcanic outbreaks on Carmel which -were previously unknown; but the fact that the Dead Sea and the valley -were formed by a mighty fault 200 miles long, leaving the sandstone of -the lower beds bare on the east side, and producing violent dips in the -limestone on the west, had already been explained. Professor Hull has -since given scientific accounts of the formations south of the Dead Sea, -but Canon Tristram described the sea-beaches in the valley in 1876, -before I mentioned the existence of a very remarkable example north of -Jericho. - -What chiefly interests us from a general point of view is the relation -which geology bears to the question of the ancient fertility of the -country. Porous strata must have been porous in all historical periods, -and impervious strata impervious. The last convulsions had long given -place to the slow processes of denudation on the Palestine hills before -man existed, and though the Jordan Valley was formed after the chalk -age, the great lakes had dried up, leaving only the Sea of Galilee, -Merom, and the Dead Sea in existence when history opened. - -It seems clear, then, that the well-watered parts of Palestine now -existing are those which were so when the Old Testament was penned; that -where wells and cisterns are now used, they were then also in use; that -what is now trackless and waterless desert was so in the time of David. -The snow of Hermon is mentioned in the Bible as well as the saltness of -the Bitter Sea. Palestine is still a land of corn, wine, and oil, as of -yore, and sheep are still fed in the same pastoral regions, the same -vineyards are still famous, the corn of its plains still yields an -hundredfold. I am unable to see that in any respect, either in climate -or in natural productions, can the land have changed, excepting always -that a decrease in population has led to decreased cultivation, and that -goats and peasants have often wrought havoc among the trees. Palestine -can hardly have been more healthy in Bible times than it now is. -Plagues, famines, fever, and leprosy are mentioned in the history of the -Hebrews, and in the New Testament we find the poor stricken with -eyesore, fever, and palsy quite as much as they now are. There are still -"former and latter rains," and the rose of Sharon has not withered: the -purple iris is still royally robed: the imagery of the Song of Songs is -still easy to apply. Except in the disappearance of the lion and the -wild bull--which are also represented on Assyrian bas-reliefs, yet no -longer found in Assyria--there is no change in the fauna: the deer, the -antelope, the fox, the wolf, the hyena, and the jackal, the ostrich, and -the crocodile still survive in the wilder parts of the land, with the -great boars which delight in the marshes; the leopard lurks in the -jungles and the coney in the rocks; the wild goat leaps on the -precipices, and the wild ass in the distant eastern deserts is not -unknown. - -Considering how complete was the examination of the fauna by Canon -Tristram, it was certainly an unexpected stroke of good fortune to -discover an unknown quadruped in Palestine; but the bones of the Yahmur -deer, which we sent home from Carmel, were pronounced to belong to the -same species with the English roebuck; and we thus recover in existence -one of the species mentioned in the Pentateuch, and which furnished -venison to King Solomon's table. - -The seasons, not less than the fauna and flora of Palestine, are -unchanged. Indeed, the names of the old Aramaic months, as now -translated by aid of Assyrian, show us this uniformity, while the spoils -taken by Thothmes III. (as already noted) carry back the agricultural -prosperity of the country to a time earlier than the Exodus. The spring -brings grass and flowers; the corn ripens even in April in the Jordan -Valley, and in May on the hills; the olive harvest and the vintage -follow in the early autumn, when the threshing-floors are full of grain, -over which the old threshing-sledge of Hebrew times is still driven. -With the first rains the ploughing begins, and with January comes the -snow, with ice and hail. In one year, at Jerusalem, we had seven falls -of snow. The top of Mount Salmon was white for days, recalling the words -of the psalm; and the occasional occurrence of a sudden storm in -harvest-time also agrees with a passage in the Books of Samuel. There is -no exaggeration in the statement that Palestine is unchanged, and the -best comment on the physical incidents mentioned in the Bible is found -in the meteorological observations of Palestine explorers. - -The geographical results of the Survey are, of course, among its most -important scientific claims. The best previous maps depended on a few -observations of latitude and longitude, and on the calculation of -distances by time. Many of these distances were better known in the -fourth century than they were in 1872; for the Romans placed milestones -along their great routes, which will be found marked on the Survey maps; -and these were known to Eusebius, to Jerome, and to other travellers, -and are mentioned in the Onomasticon. On the maps sent out for my use I -not only found many omissions, but large villages were placed on the -wrong sides of valleys, and the courses of many important watercourses -were wrongly laid down. The level of the Sea of Galilee was uncertain -within three hundred feet, the fords of Jordan were unknown, and the -affluents of Jordan had not been traced. The number of important ruins -was, of course, large in districts hardly approached by former -travellers, and even on the hills near the Sharon plain villagers told -me that I was the first Frank they had ever seen, which was no doubt -true, as they rarely travel more than ten miles from home. - -Ancient geography has equally benefited by the work. The names of the -old towns and villages mentioned in the Bible remain for the most part -almost unchanged. I believe that I was able to add to future maps about -150 of these old sites west of the river and some thirty east of Jordan. -Among these may be reckoned some places of great importance for the -understanding of the Bible, such as Bethabara, Bezek, Debir, Etam, -Gilgal, Jeshanah, Kadesh, Kirjath-jearim, Luz, Megiddo, Nephtoah, -Rakkon, Sorek, the Valley of Zephathah, the important border-towns of -Dabbasheth and Ataroth Adar, with Bamoth Baal, Peor, and Nehaliel, -Minnith, Luhith, and other places beyond Jordan. These discoveries have -already found their place on the Bible Society's maps published in 1887; -and by such recovery of ancient sites it became possible to lay down the -boundaries of the tribes, and of the later divisions of Judea, Samaria, -and Galilee, with an amount of certitude before unattainable. Very -considerable changes have thus been made on the new Bible maps, which -will be seen when they are compared with the old; and the acceptation of -these results in standard works shows that the arguments by which they -were enforced were clear enough to overcome the most conservative -geographers. The fact that each name was carefully recorded in Arabic -letters made it possible to compare with the Hebrew in a scientific and -scholarly manner. The wild shots which have been made by those who -compare the English of the Bible with the English of the Palestine maps -might serve to discredit such comparisons; but when the Hebrew and the -Arabic are shown to contain the same radicals, the same gutturals, and -often the same meanings, we have a truly reliable comparison. The -scholar knows that Hazor and Hadirah are the same words, and he at once -sees the fallacy of comparing Jiphtah-el with Jefat. In the one case the -words are identical in lettering and in meaning; in the other, the -actual Arabic of Jiphthah-el is Fath Allah--a name which still survives -in the Jordan Valley. - -There are still points disputed in Palestine geography, which is for the -most part due to the meagre information which we possess. Some of these -questions of opinion may remain always unsettled, but we have now -recovered more than three-quarters of the Bible names, and are thus able -to say with confidence that the Bible topography is a genuine and actual -topography, the work of Hebrews familiar with the country, and free from -contradictions such as are presented, for instance, in the Book of Tobit -by a writer ignorant of the places of which he speaks. - -It is not only the Bible geography which has thus been explained. The -topography of Josephus, of the Talmud, of the Byzantine pilgrim writers, -of the Crusading chronicles, are equally illustrated by our maps. The -Memoirs, which give a detailed account of every hill range, stream, -spring, village, town, ruin, and large building in Palestine, also -contain notes of every statement as to topography which I was able to -gather from Jewish, Samaritan, Greek, Latin, and Norman French notices -of Palestine. Not only Josephus and the Bible, but Pliny, Strabo, the -Rabbinical writers, the Samaritan chroniclers, the Onomasticon, the -early Christian pilgrims, the Crusading and Arab chronicles, have been -put under contribution, and we can now prepare not only a map of -Canaanite Syria as known to the Egyptians or one of the Twelve Tribes or -of the Roman provinces, but a Byzantine map of fifth-century bishoprics, -or a yet fuller map of the Crusading kingdom, with its Norman and -Normanised Arab names, some of the former even of which are now -preserved. - -The Memoirs to which I refer fill three quarto volumes, full of plans -and pictures, special surveys of important places, and detailed -accounts. A volume on Jerusalem and another on special subjects are -added, and the set includes, in other volumes, Dr. Hull's geological -account, Canon Tristram's natural history, and Professor Palmer's -editing of the name lists. Yet another volume of natural history is -promised from the observations of Mr. Chichester Hart, and the volume of -my Moabite Survey has just appeared, making the ninth. It must not be -forgotten that the Survey was no mere compass sketch. It is based on a -triangulation with three carefully measured bases. All important -mountain tops are laid down within a circle having a diameter of ten -yards. All important heights are determined within five feet. The levels -of the Sea of Galilee and of the Dead Sea are known within a few inches. -The hill features are represented not by conventionalised lines, but by -actual tracing of every spur and by actual survey of every top. Whatever -disputes may arise as to the meaning of an Arabic or Hebrew word, or as -to the identification of some obscure site, there can be no dispute as -to the geographical position or the elevation of any spot shown on the -Palestine Survey, for the principles of the work are the same on which -our original Ordnance Survey in England was carried out; and although -the appliances at our command would of course not allow of the same -minute accuracy of instrumental measurement, still, on the scale of one -inch to a mile such minutiae are invisible to the eye. - -I had occasion very often to test work done some time before by my -surveyors: it always stood the test; and when we were informed from home -that a "village had been left out," I was not alarmed, for I had checked -the map by the Turkish Government list of villages under taxation, and -we found to our amusement, when the actual prismatic compass came into -our hands, with which our critic took angles at the so-called village -(which was a ruin actually shown on the map), that the instrument had no -needle, which explained why no three angles of those given to us could -be made to intersect in a single point. The survey of Jordan and the -position of points east of Jordan were subjected to severe tests by an -independent authority, with the result that our work was pronounced to -be the only accurate representation of the ground. I always felt sure -that my companions recognised their responsibility to the public, and -that the work was done in earnest by men who took pride in its being -good. Such criticisms were therefore welcome, as opportunities of -demonstrating that, as far as in us lay, our work was thorough and -conscientious. I have often been amused at the "mares' nests" which have -arisen from misunderstanding the accounts of other travellers, and then -attempting to apply to the map. Those who quote these earlier maps must -remember that we had them before us, and that if we omitted names -thereon shown, we did so after due inquiry, either because they are -wrong, or because they are at least doubtful. - -Turning to antiquarian questions, some disappointment has been expressed -that we found nothing very sensational, to compare with the Moabite -Stone for instance, or with the cuneiform tablets. It is true that we -did not bring home the ark, or the calves of Dan, or Ahab's ivory house, -or Joseph's mummy, but I doubt if this detracts from the scientific -value of our work. I was offered Samson's coffin, and a contemporary -account of the Crucifixion. I was often presented with ancient MSS. and -early pottery, but no record will be found of these wonders in the work -of the Survey. The dolmens of Moab, the true copy of the Siloam -inscription, the shekels sent home by Mr. Drake, the plan of the Hebron -Haram, are the most ancient antiquarian results we have been able to -place before the public. We have not offered Shapira Pentateuchs, or -seals of David in square Hebrew, but the drier records of decipherment -and measurement. - -As regards epigraphy, it is true that our Memoirs contain only one -Hebrew text of great antiquity, with three Hebrew tomb-inscriptions; but -these form a very substantial addition to previous materials. The number -of Greek texts scattered over the whole country and previously uncopied -is large, including the interesting text from the door of a ruined -basilica, reading, "This is the gate of the Lord; the righteous shall -enter in;" and, as mentioned previously, the twelfth-century frescoes in -the Jordan Valley, which are reproduced in their colours, have since -been completely destroyed. - -Since the finding of the Moabite Stone no discovery has been as -important as that of the Siloam inscription. The exact forms of the -letters, and the question whether these forms were exactly repeated, -were points of the greatest interest. The first copies were most -misleading in these respects, and the difficulty of copying was very -great; the earliest correct representation published in Europe was taken -from our squeezes; and it may be compared with the cast which was made -for us, and which is now in England. The text opened out a new chapter -in the history of the alphabet, and gave the first monumental evidence -of the civilisation of the Hebrews in the days of their kings. - -As regards antiquarian questions which depend on accurate survey and -levelling, the most important are those which concern Jerusalem. It is -disappointing to find that the cogency of such evidence is not always -understood, especially by scholars who have not travelled or studied -survey. Quite recently allusion has been made by one writer to -"imaginary contours" as the work of Palestine explorers; as though there -existed some kind of contours which were not imaginary. I have never -been in a country where actual contours could be found, but the accuracy -of contours depends on the accuracy and number of the levelled points -which they represent. For general purposes, sections of ground may be -recommended as better understood by laymen. In the present instance, the -accuracy of the levelling by which the lie of the rock in Jerusalem is -determined is happily beyond dispute; and the observations of the rock -surface exposed in tanks, wells, and excavations are fortunately most -numerous in just the places where they are most wanted. From these -results there is no escape for those who wish to found their theories on -facts. - -It is curious, however, to note that not even a scaled survey will -appeal in all cases to the antiquary. Plans of Jerusalem have been put -forward which reduce the size of the city to that of a gentleman's -garden--not exceeding five acres for the older town, and fifteen acres -in all. This is gravely propounded in face of the surveys of Tyre, -Caesarea, and other cities, which, though placed on restricted sites, -have an area of 100 to 200 acres each. Jerusalem, in Hebrew times, -really occupied some 200 acres, with a population of more than 10,000 -souls, even in Nehemiah's time. A modern village of 500 souls in -Palestine is larger than the "Pre-Exilic" Jerusalem of writers who put -no scale to their plans. It is not, I fear, unnecessary to point out the -importance of mastering the results of scientific survey, especially in -the case of scholars who have not been in Palestine. No amount of -literary ingenuity can destroy the actual results of measurement and -excavation, and as these become more familiar the theories which ignore -them must become obsolete. - -After surveying and planning a very large number of ruins, it became -possible to form some opinion as to comparative dates, and, from -instances where history or inscriptions furnished a clue, to obtain -starting-points of comparison in other cases. In this work I found most -assistance from the writings of De Vogue and Rey, and from Fergusson's -"Handbook of Architecture." Many fallacies thus came to be exposed, and -the discovery of pointed arches often transferred a building from the -Phoenicians to the Crusaders. The number of really ancient remains -naturally proved to be small, for we must remember that the antiquary in -Palestine ends nearly where he begins in England. A Saxon church is a -very great rarity at home. In Palestine, where we go back some three -thousand years earlier, many important ruins are six or seven centuries -older than our Saxon chapels (such as that of Bradford). In England we -point with pride to Norman Winchester. In Palestine we regard the -Crusading Cathedral of the Holy Sepulchre as quite modern. The Dome of -the Rock was the model of our Temple chapels, and so old was it when the -Temple Order was instituted, that it was confounded by the Knights with -Herod's Temple, still seven centuries older. Yet even Herod's work does -not content us in the East, where we look to find the walls built by -Solomon. Some antiquaries have failed to remember the many great -builders--Hadrian, Constantine, Justinian, the Khalifs, the Crusaders, -the later Moslems--who followed Herod and Solomon. Palestine has an -ancient history of eight centuries between the date of the Crucifixion -and the time when England became a state. This is a truism, yet it is -one which is not unfrequently forgotten. - -Among the most important results was the classification of various kinds -of rock-sepulchre in Palestine. To convince us that an ancient site has -really been discovered, it is not enough to find a ruin with the -required name. When neither inscription nor architecture gives a date, -and when no measured distances along Roman roads point to the spot, we -must often rely on the evidence of rock-cut tombs. It is not enough to -find even these, unless they are really Hebrew tombs. It was our -practice not only to record their existence, but to measure and describe -them. They fall thus into categories--Hebrew, Greek, Roman, Early -Christian, and Crusading--all rock-cut, but all presenting differences. -Some were inscribed, and served to date the class to which they -belonged. In some cases tombs of the earlier class had been enlarged -later, the inner chambers presenting different arrangements to the outer -or older. In some cases Jewish tombs were half destroyed by more recent -excavators of caves, which were thus proved not to be as old as formerly -thought. It was finally clear that tombs with _kokim_, that is, with -tunnels in the walls of the chamber running in lengthways, so that the -corpse was placed with its feet towards the chamber, were the oldest; -and that this style of sepulture was Hebrew and preceded the Greek age. -In Phoenicia similar tombs occur; but the tombs at the bottom of a -deep shaft, as in Egypt, which occur at Tyre, are unknown in Palestine, -where the entrance is in the face of a rock. - -When _kokim_ tombs occur at a ruined site, they may now be considered -good evidence of the antiquity of the place. They are found at most of -the sites which have been otherwise proved to be Hebrew towns, but their -antiquity is demonstrated by independent means. - -There are in Palestine eight great periods of building, beginning with -the rude stone or pre-historic age, and including Hebrew, Greek, Roman, -Byzantine, Arab, Crusading, and Saracenic. - -The rude stone monuments have been already noticed, and are probably the -earliest remains in the country. Hebrew remains are chiefly represented -by rock-cut tombs, rock scarps, tunnels, and pools (as at Siloam), the -great Tells or mounds beside springs and streams, and a very few -inscriptions. The wall on Ophel, found by Sir C. Warren, is probably as -old as Nehemiah, and in the extreme north we have Phoenician -sculptures, tombs, and sarcophagi of equal antiquity. The Greek age -presents several examples of native art under Greek influence, such as -the palace of Hyrcanus, and some of the Jerusalem tombs. To the earliest -Roman period belong the walls of the Jerusalem and Hebron harams, with -the temple at Siah, the colonnade at Samaria, the earliest remains at -Masada and Caesarea. Advancing to the second century of our era, we find -Syria to have been suddenly covered with Roman cities, Roman roads, -Roman temples and inscriptions, funerary and official; and this period, -to which the synagogues also belong, is one of the greatest building -ages in Palestine. The Roman work gradually gives place to the Christian -architecture of the Byzantines. Chrysostom's description of Syrian -civilisation fully agrees with the discovery of countless Greek chapels -and churches of this age, with cities, castles, and other buildings. At -Bethlehem we have one of the oldest churches in the world, the -fourth-century pillars still standing in place. The church was five -hundred years old when England became a kingdom. - -The early Arabs have left us very few buildings beyond the Dome of the -Rock at Jerusalem, the great Damascus mosque, and perhaps the buildings -beyond Jordan mentioned in the fifth chapter. They employed Persian and -Greek architects, and brought no original style of their own from the -deserts of Arabia. The Crusaders, who followed, were great builders, -civil and ecclesiastical; the country is full of their castles and of -their churches. The Italian-Gothic style was slowly modified during the -two centuries of Norman supremacy; the latest buildings being those -along the western coast, which was latest held. The nearest approach to -their architecture that I have seen is found in Palermo and in Messina; -and it was to Norman success against Islam in Sicily that the -establishment of the Latin kingdom in Syria was due. The Normans were -succeeded by the Egyptians, to whom Syria owes many of its finest -architectural monuments, dating from the fifteenth century. The Turks -have added very little of any interest to the architectural remains of -the country. - -These various epochs and styles are distinguishable by the student who -has studied dated monuments of each age. The forms of the arches, the -dressing of the masonry, the mortar even and the plaster, tell their -tale to the practised eye. Crusading work is distinguished by its -mason's marks, of which we made a large collection, and which are often -the same used about the same time in England and in Scotland. They are -neither marks of individuals, nor do they show the position intended for -the stone, but clearly they were put only on the best finished stones, -and often they are luck-marks, which, from a remote antiquity, have been -widely used in Asia and in Europe. Neither the earlier Arabs nor the -later Saracens seem to have used such marks, and they form the most -distinctive peculiarity of Crusading work in the East. - -Next in order we must consider one of the most interesting subjects -studied by the explorers, namely, that of ethnology. Very little was -really known as to the peculiarities of the natives of Syria. I find -that it is still thought in England that they are Turks, though the -number of Turks in the country south of Damascus might perhaps be -counted only by tens. For six years I carefully studied every class of -the population, and collected facts concerning race, religion, and -language, which form the most important considerations in such study, -and on which manners and customs must chiefly depend. - -The population of Palestine, though very sparse, is also very mixed. In -addition to the Moslem peasantry, who are mainly of an Aramaic stock, -and the Arabs, who are more or less of pure southern extraction, we have -to deal with native Greek Christians; with the Lebanon Maronites; with -the Druzes, Metawileh, Ismailiyeh, Anseiriyeh; with Greeks, Jews, -Samaritans, and with yet later colonies of Germans; with Italian monks -and French priests; with the annual hordes of pilgrims, Russian, -Armenian, or Georgian, and the annual inroad of European tourists. Some -European stocks, such as the Italian and German, have left their mark on -the racial types of the country. We cannot study the question of -ethnology practically on the assumption that the population is of pure -stock, and represents without mixture that existing three thousand years -ago. Not only has there been some admixture of late years, but there -have been from the dawn of history various races in Syria. The Crusaders -who married Maronite and Armenian wives originated the _Poulains_, who -remained in the land. The soldiers of Rome or of Alexander, whose -colonies were found even as far east as Gerasa, no doubt intermarried -with natives; as the Palmyrene archer of York wedded a wife of the -Catuvellauni. In the time of Christ Greek was spoken in Palestine, and -the inhabitants of Decapolis were probably in many cases of Greek -descent. The Arabs from the south were then pushing northwards to meet -the descending Aramaic stream from Palmyra. When we go back to -Nehemiah's time, we find the Jews as strangers, surrounded by a -peasantry of mixed race. Yet earlier, the Assyrians brought colonists -from the east and planted them in Samaria. When we go back to the time -of Rameses II., we already find, side by side with the Semitic -inhabitants, a race which was akin to the Medes and other ancient -Mongolic peoples of Western Asia. The "Canaanite was then in the land" -when Abraham began his migrations from the north. - -These two great stocks, Semitic and Turanian, have contended ever since -in Syria, with varying fortunes; and from the third century B.C. -downwards the Aryans also have been always present. We have seen already -how far south the Turkoman hordes pushed in Palestine, still surviving -in the plain of Sharon; and, as in all other countries, there are -gypsies in Syria, representing another element of Aryan origin from -India; while among the Druzes I believe a Persian stock is also present. - -If, therefore, ethnology is to be studied in Palestine, it must be with -these facts kept steadily before us. If peasants are to be asked to have -their heads measured, we must know something of their genealogies also. -If skulls are to be collected, we must find out what skulls they are. I -have known the skulls of peasants recently murdered to be sent home as -types of the ancient population of the country. I have read of blue eyes -attributed to the Amorites, when probably a much more recent admixture -of Aryan blood might account for this most abnormal occurrence.[63] - -Even the studies of religion or of language present less difficulty than -that of race. We are constantly reminded that race and language are not -synonymous. It is no doubt true, since a conquered people often learns -the language, and sometimes adopts the creed, of the conquerers. In -Palestine, gypsies and Turkomans talk Arabic, for it is a necessity that -the minority should speak the tongue of the majority; yet, as regards -the more important stocks in Syria, there has been no great change. The -peasantry speak almost as they spoke in Jerome's days, almost as the -Galileans spoke in the time of our Lord. The Arab tongue as spoken by -the wild Bedu of Moab was admired for its classic expressions by my -educated scribe, and was hardly understood by my Maronite servants. The -speech of townsmen differs from that of the peasantry in its sounds as -well as in its words, and the Lebanon muleteer's jargon would certainly -not be understood by an university professor of Arabic. - -As regards the Moslem religion in Syria something has already been said. -To study only one phase of Islam, as represented by educated Turks or -Circassians in a city like Cairo, which has so long been open to -European influence, will give only a partial and misleading picture of -the creed, even when the good faith of such latitudinarians is -undoubted. In Damascus, in Homs, in Hamah, in the remote villages, in -the sanctuaries of Hebron and Jerusalem, another and a very different -tone prevails. Let the student of Islam run the gauntlet of the -fanatical guards of these sanctuaries, let him be stoned for a dog and -denied a drink of water as a Kafir, and then acknowledge that the stern -prejudices of the Middle Ages are not extinct. Guarded by an English -garrison, in a country where subservience to England is a necessity, how -can he judge the real temper of Moslems? Rather should he reflect on the -ruins of Alexandria, on the dervishes who surrounded Arabi at -Tell-el-Kebir, on the curses which will meet him in Hebron or in Acre. -It is not by their words, but by their actions that Orientals, like -Westerns, must be judged; and it is not by the opinions of the most -advanced and civilised that the strength of prejudice among the many is -to be gauged. - -The ethnological study to which I devoted most of my time was that of -the Moslem peasantry and of the nomadic Arabs. "We recorded their -customs, their beliefs, their superstitious practices. We described -their dress and food, and studied the peculiarities of their dialect. We -found among them good, bad, and indifferent, honest and upright men, and -scoundrels or hypocrites. Some were intelligent and able, others were -stupid. We cannot generalise concerning them, any more than we can -generalise at home. The average standard is very low as regards -morality, truth, and intellect. Education they have none, and their -courage, though generally remarkable, is not always to be relied on. The -Arab is superior in many respects to the Fellah, but he is quite as -untruthful and as greedy. - -The feeling that is left on the mind by constant and lengthy communion -with such a peasantry is not easy to describe; they are "as sheep having -no shepherd," even as in the ancient days. What heart could fail to -pity them in their weakness and ignorance, tortured by want, by debt, -and by disease; cruelly ground down by robbers and taskmasters; torn -from their homes to fight in Balkan snows, and left to find their way -back without money or aid? I believe that in the minds of the present -Sultan and of the present Khedive a real compassion for these poor -creatures exists, though neither is able much to help them. The -gratitude expressed for very little kindness, and the good feeling -excited by common acts of justice among them, I shall not forget. There -is but one state more miserable than that in which they usually live, -and that is their condition in time of war. Whoever wins, whoever is -covered with decorations, the poor at least are certain to suffer. I -have seen them so suffer in Egypt in a campaign carried out by civilised -and merciful Englishmen, but I have only heard from them what they -underwent in the horrors of the great struggle with Russia in 1877. At -Gibeon I found a young Sheikh who alone had made his way back out of all -the conscripts taken from the village; and the peasantry in 1881 were -forced to sell themselves and their families into practical slavery to -foreign merchants, so ruined were they by the war. The horrible revenge -that they took in a village, and on a European whom I well knew, cannot -here be told. It is one of the many things beneath the surface which one -learns by living long in a country, and which cannot be appreciated by -the visitor of a season. - -As regards race and language, enough has been said; and as regards -religion, I have striven to show that the faith of mosques and Mollahs -is hardly more in sympathy with peasant superstition than it is with -the scepticism of Moslem philosophers. It was not, however, only with -the peasantry that our work brought us in contact. I have conversed with -men who traced their lineage from the companions of Omar, and with -respectable merchants and learned doctors, as well as with Fellahin. The -first step to a genuine understanding with such men is that there shall -be no pretence on your part. The Oriental sees through such things more -quickly than the European. He despises an affectation of consent on your -part, and pays you in your own coin. Even as the home-made vest of an -unhappy European disguised as a Syrian Christian was seen beneath his -_jubbeh_, and as his blue eyes betrayed him while his speech did not, so -the would-be Oriental Englishman deceives himself when he thinks he is -gaining ground with Moslems. In his own colours he is accepted on his -merits, and may claim such acquaintance as may exist between Moslem and -Christian; but the Koran forbids the making of a Christian intimacy (v. -56). "Take not Jew or Christian," says the Prophet, "for a friend." - -Few men could be more respected or more worthy of respect than the -famous Abd-el-Kader, whose acquaintance I was honoured by making. Strict -and stern as was his creed, countless Christians owed their lives to his -influence in the massacres of 1860. With him I would contrast my -so-called friend the Sheikh of the Jerusalem Haram. He belonged to the -new school, which prophesies smooth things, and cries peace where there -is no peace. A milder-mannered man I never met. He went out of his way -to propose that he should start excavations for us near the mosque, and -that he should let us see down into the Well of Souls. He never meant a -word he said. I never believed him; and I knew his object was merely to -get money on promises never to be fulfilled. Finding exactly where I -wanted to excavate, he used to see no difficulty in the way. The next -time I went to the Haram, a huge mound of earth had arisen before the -walled-up archway which he promised to open. It was the stupidity of the -Pasha, he explained (a Christian and an educated man), and he was still -anxious to do something else. He could smatter a little English, and -could ask for a copy of the Gospels. From such a man I could fancy the -words to come easily that "Moslems and Christians were just the same;" -but among all Muhammadans of Syria I despised no one else so heartily. - -It is not the Moslem only who takes the measure of your foot in the -East. I have heard the dragoman, who is so obsequious and respectful, -describe the peculiarities of his convoy in their absence with -considerable humour. There have been well-known prelates of Oriental -Churches whose "printing-press funds" have not been visibly devoted to -the benefit of their flocks. As long as the Turk is thought to be stupid -and the Eastern believed to be eager for our teaching, he possesses the -great advantage of being undervalued. The Turks have not allowed -railways to be made, but they have adopted the electric telegraph; they -have stopped explorations, but they are careful to collect antiquities -having a saleable value. The Syrians have not adopted hard hats or -French bonnets, but they buy lucifer-matches, and they use guns and -gunpowder. They, like the Caffres, have keenly observed the manners of -Europe, and have adopted only what seemed to them practical -improvements. It is difficult to convey the results of experience in -words. We go out to other countries supposing that we can carry all -before us. We come home after a time to doubt whether in all respects -our civilisation is superior to that of peoples who in Asia were the -heirs of an ancient culture when we were painted with woad. If we are -ignorant at first of the manners and beliefs of Eastern lands, the shock -to our prejudices must be very great; but I cannot believe that long -acquaintance with Moslem life can fail to dispel the charm of our first -contact with the dignity and courtesy of the East. - -There is another important question bound up with Palestine exploration -on which a few words may be here permitted, namely, the relation which -it bears to the study of the Bible. There is hardly a historic chapter -which I was not able to read with the scene of the events recorded -before my eyes; there is not a poetic line in the Old Testament which is -not more vividly brought home by a memory of Eastern scenery and life. -The conditions under which we study the Bible at home are most peculiar. -We read it in translation, and in a country which has little or nothing -in common with the home of Hebrew prophets or of Galilean disciples. We -learn, as a rule, hardly a word of the original language, and while we -never feel that Dante or Goethe are known to those who read translations -and who have never been in Italy or in Germany, we regard the Bible as -intelligible to every reader. Not that the translation is other than the -most wonderful in existence--except Luther's--and not that Englishmen -were ignorant of the Holy Land in the days when it was first rendered -from the original. Queen Elizabeth had her fleet on the Euphrates and -her consuls in the Levant; Maundrell was chaplain at Aleppo in 1697, and -addressed the record of his travels to the Bishop of Rochester. Not, -again, that such familiar names as those of the roebuck and the -fallow-deer are misnomers, or that "green pastures" are unknown in -Palestine, but because the average reader who has not seen the East -cannot but colour that which he reads with the colouring of familiar -scenes. - -It is not only the uncritical reader to whom this applies: the literary -critic is no better off. I have studied much that has been written by -Colenso, by Ewald, by Kuenen, and by Wellhausen; but there is perhaps -only one critic of eminence to whom the East is familiar, and in whose -eyes the antiquarian discoveries of explorers seem to have primary -value, namely, Renan; and the tone of those authors who write without -practical and long experience of the East at once betrays their -deficiency. Their criticism smells of the lamp, not of the desert; and -the arguments which seem so strong in their eyes have often little force -in those of an Oriental traveller. - -It has always been the fate of genius to be criticised by narrower -minds. The Book of Job, for instance, is a work which cannot be truly -appreciated anywhere but in the desert. It breathes the desert air, it -tells of desert beasts and plants, of the pastoral patriarch with his -flocks and herds, of the Chaldean raiders from the east, of the -whirlwind, the frost, and the stars. Here you read of the broom still -burned for charcoal--"sharp arrows of the mighty with coals of juniper." -In Job you hear the poet speak of the "eyelids of the dawn." "The ghosts -tremble beneath the waters, even the inhabitants thereof." The stork and -the ostrich, the wild ass and the ibex on the cliffs, are familiar to -his memory. Of his critics he asks a question which may puzzle them -yet: "Knowest thou the time when the wild goats of the rock bring forth? -or canst thou mark when the hinds do calve? Canst thou number the months -that they fulfil? or knowest thou the time when they bring forth?" Even -after criticising the language and dividing out the "documents," I fear -it is to the Arab hunter that the most learned Hebraist in England must -go for the answer. - -The Song of Solomon is another Hebrew book which is equally full of -Eastern colour. The vineyards of Lebanon, the secret places in the -"stairs" of the rocks where the wild dove hides, the roes on the -mountains, are among its images. Over the Moab plateau you may see the -dawn stretching her wings as Joel beheld her, and from the mountains of -Judah you may see her sinking in the "uttermost parts of the sea," as -the Psalmist describes. Surely in the days of a "modern theory of the -Pentateuch," it is not amiss that we should at times be reminded that -the Hebrews knew better their own land, and even their own history, than -strangers in a remote and very different clime, in the midst of a very -different civilisation and theory of life, and at a time separated by -some twenty-five centuries from that which is studied. - -Every fact that is collected in the East serves better to explain the -Bible and more and more to control critical views. Surely those who -write of "peasant proprietors" in Solomon's days cannot be aware that -individual property in agricultural land has never been an Eastern -tenure. As in India, in Russia, or among Bechuana tribes, so also in -Palestine to the present day, the lands are held on "village tenure." -If Isaiah's writings were ever circulated as "broad-sheets," I would ask -who read them in a country where only a few scribes here and there had -acquired the great art of writing? - -The tenth chapter of Genesis has been put on one side, as though -unworthy of scientific notice, by those who have assumed that there was -only one stock and only one language in Syria and Chaldea. Now that the -monuments tell us of other races and other languages, its distinctions -become valuable, and serve to guide scientific research; while the full -elucidation of its geography has only been attained by the painful -travels of explorers. In this way, also, we are now able to restore, bit -by bit, the topography of Palestine as described in the Bible. It is -found easy to recognise the most important towns, to trace the borders -of the tribes, and to explain the scene of David's wanderings or of -Gideon's pursuit. In the peasant's mouth you may still hear the old -language almost unchanged, with its terse idiom, its vigorous wording, -and its naturally religious tone. It is not the language of the -grammatical pedant that comes from his lips, but the mother-tongue of -earlier days. - -In all things founded on actual knowledge of the land, the labours of -the explorers have added materially to the knowledge of the Bible. The -seasons, the climate, the fauna and flora, the crops, the native customs -and speech, the remains of Hebrew architecture, art, engineering, and -monumental writing, have been described. Even as regards the question of -transmission of ancient documents and the method of their preservation, -some new hints have been collected. - -It seems to me impossible for any one familiar with Oriental ideas to -accept the ordinary theory of edited "documents," which German -scholarship has taken as its datum, since Astruc's discovery of parallel -passages in Genesis. Nor is it correct for critics to speak of the -modern "theory of the Pentateuch." There is more than one such theory, -and their respective upholders are not in accord. If we take such a work -as the Book of Kings, it seems to me that light is thrown on the method -of its construction by the practice of the Samaritan high priests, who, -as already explained, have continued their very sober chronicle from -1149 A.D. to 1859 A.D. by successive additions, and a knowledge of the -documentary history of the Talmud or of the Zendavesta shows us that in -Asia it is with the "commentator," and not with the "editor," that we -have to deal--with sacred books preserved by loving care and reverence, -not with a modern literature to be compared with our daily press. - -I have been led to make these remarks, not through any want of respect -for English scholarship and erudition, but because we are now entering -on a new epoch of scientific study, and because the great importance of -the change wrought by the increase of our actual knowledge is at times -not recognised. We no longer depend on literature alone. We have actual -monuments before our eyes. We have inscriptions, coins, seals, statues, -chased metal-work, and pottery; we have collected measurements of tombs, -walls, synagogues, and reliable photographs of every famous place. We -have accounts of race, language, custom, and tradition, not hastily -gathered, but the results of sifting and repeated inquiry. From such -materials facts totally unexpected have been brought to light. Fifteen -years ago no one knew that in Syria there was a system of hieroglyphics -quite distinct from any other.[64] Forty years ago no scholar suspected -the early civilisation of a forgotten Turanian race in Chaldea, whose -language was recovered by the genius of Sir Henry Rawlinson. Now it is -generally admitted by the few who have turned their attention to the -matter that an old Mongolic people ruled over the Semitic dwellers in -Palestine before the time of the Exodus. But this discovery has as yet -found its way into no critical work on the Bible, save one hasty -attempt to show that it contradicts Genesis. It is evident that in the -future, when the subject is more fully understood, it must modify many -conclusions previously supposed final. The Hebrew language itself was -not perfectly understood until the knowledge of Assyrian had been -sufficiently advanced to permit of comparison. Even now further steps -are possible, and are being cautiously taken, by scholars familiar with -the Akkadian, which show beyond dispute how words foreign to the Hebrew -language, but proper to the Turanian speech of Western Asia, have found -a place even in the earliest books of the Old Testament. This fact, only -dimly suspected by Gesenius, has been brought to light entirely by -monumental research. - -Even in the nineteenth century, then, we are only beginning to -understand the Bible from its historical and natural point of view. New -maps, new dictionaries, new handbooks have already been found requisite -to keep pace with the advance of knowledge due to exploration; and even -these cannot pretend to be final or complete presentments of all that it -is possible to know. - -I may conclude, then, by a few words concerning the work which still -remains to be done, which should be in two directions--excavation and -the study of native life. - -As regards excavation, there is very much to be done. At Caesarea, at -Herodium, at Jerusalem itself, at Samaria probably, at Gerasa, and -Baalbek, there are secrets hidden still beneath the soil. The great -Hittite Tells near Homs ought all to be examined by digging. The ruins -of Carchemish have only been scratched over. Lebanon and Amanus are as -yet but little known. New hieroglyphic texts may be expected from -Northern Syria, and the Siloam inscription cannot be unique. -Unfortunately the state of the East is very unfavourable to the -antiquarian; but it must not be supposed that exploration is complete -while fields as yet hardly worked exist all along the eastern shores of -the Mediterranean. - -As regards ethnological study, there is also much yet to be done. This -can only properly be undertaken by residents. The observations of a -stranger are not reliable. The inquirer must know the personal -characters of those with whom he deals, and must be able to select those -whose statements are worth recording. The peasantry especially should be -studied, and their confidence will not be given to any save those with -whom they are intimate. - -The best ethnological information that I collected in Syria came from a -respected German resident among the Samaritans, who was known to all the -townsmen of Shechem as "the Father of Peace." The object of those -interested in such study should be to organise inquiries from -sympathetic residents. The linguistic studies of Mr. C. Landberg at -Sidon have been the most important of recent additions to our knowledge -of the language, proverbs, and customs of the Syrian peasantry.[65] - -A complete Fellah vocabulary should be collected in Syria. The vulgar -pronunciation should be preserved, the vulgar idiom and grammatical -blunders. A great many archaic words which are not in lexicons would -thus be unearthed, just as we find valuable survivals in the dialects of -our own provinces. To this vocabulary every legend, song, proverb, or -mythical tale that can be gathered should be added, and every custom -noted. The charms and amulets worn, the burial, birth, and marriage -rites, the common oaths and salutations, the peasant ideas of etiquette -and ceremony, every one of these has an unknown scientific value. Some -attempt has already been made by the Palestine Exploration Fund to start -such an inquiry; and until peace reigns and confidence is restored on -the Sultan's dominions, no more useful method of increasing our -knowledge can be devised. - -I will take leave, then, of my readers in the words of the old knight -whose work in Palestine has not yet been proved to be other than an -account of his own travels:-- - -"And forasmuch as it is long time past that there was no general passage -or voyage over the sea, and many men desiring to hear speak of the Holy -Land and have thereof great solace and comfort, ... I shall devise you -some part of things that are there, when time shall be as it shall best -come to my mind; ... for I have oftentimes passed and ridden the way -with good company of many gentles. God be thanked!" - - - - - -APPENDICES. - - - - -I. - -NOTE ON THE RESULTS OF EXCAVATION. - - -The most celebrated of the controversies connected with Palestine refer -to the site of the Temple of Herod and to that of the Holy Sepulchre. I -have given an estimate of the results of exploration as affecting both -subjects in various works, but since their publication other writers -(not the majority) have in some cases reverted to the views which were -held before exploration commenced, and which were deduced from literary -researches. - -The latest work on the subject (Professor Hayter Lewis' "The Holy Places -of Jerusalem," Murray, 1888), very fully supports the views which I have -advocated for the last ten years. - -As regards these questions, it is clear that we are now in a position to -study them from monumental evidence, which is safer and more convincing -than any argument drawn from literary studies. The views now more -generally adopted depend almost entirely on the consideration of such -monumental evidence, and on study of the rock rather than on the vague -and brief accounts of ancient writers. - -As regards the Temple, the excavations have proved to us that a great -building exists on the site having masonry of the same general -character on its east, west, and south walls. The difference in finish -of the ancient stones in some parts may most probably be supposed not to -indicate any difference of date, but to be due to the work being in some -places intended to be seen and in other cases hidden under earth. There -is no evidence that any of this masonry is as old as Solomon. It -resembles the work at Arak el Emir (second century B.C.), and the Greek -style of the Acropolis (sixth century B.C.), and the Roman masonry of -Baalbek (second century A.D.). The masons' marks found by Sir C. Warren, -and resembling Phoenician or Aramean letters, do not necessitate the -idea that these stones are of Solomon's age. The old alphabet was still -but little changed in Herod's days. - -Various scholars have taken Josephus' statement, that the Temple was a -stadium square--a statement made, writing in Rome, by an author whose -measurements are often self-contradictory[66]--and have thus sought to -confine Herod's Temple to an area 600 feet square in the south-west -angle of the Haram. To this theory, which originated with the late Mr. -Fergusson, several objections seem to me fatal. - -(1.) Josephus, whom they quote, also says that the town-wall of -Jerusalem on Ophel, south of the Temple, joined the _eastern_ cloister -of the Temple (Wars, V. iv. 2). This wall Sir Charles Warren discovered -joining the east wall of the Haram. Thus, according to Josephus himself, -the south-east angle of the present Haram was the south-east angle of -Herod's Temple. - -(2.) No walls such as are required by these theorists are known inside -the Haram, nor is there any break in the south wall at the point where -they suppose the S.E. angle to have been. - -(3.) There is also the statement by Josephus that the Temple was on the -top of the hill, and I have shown by sections published in the _Builder_ -(January 25, 1879), that according to their theory foundations of -between thirty and ninety feet are inevitably necessary to carry down to -the known levels of the rock the heavy base of the great central fane. -Writers who treat only of the plan without taking this practical -builder's objection into consideration may not admit the strength of -this argument, but to those who have themselves built it should have -force, and no ingenuity can escape from the necessity of such -foundations. In the same paper I have shown that a plan, placing the -Holy House on the present Sakhrah rock, necessitates only three or four -feet of foundation in all parts of the Temple area. (See further -Conder's "Handbook to the Bible," pp. 359-385, and "Tent Work in -Palestine," vol. i. chap, xii., for full details as to the levels). - -(4.) The site of Antonia, as described by Josephus, most plainly agrees -with the present rock at the north-west corner of the Haram. Such a site -for Antonia cannot be reconciled with the theory confining the Temple to -a small portion of the Haram. - -(5.) These scholars also ignore the very important and detailed account -in the Talmud, which cannot be reconciled with the small area in -question. This account dates from only about half a century after the -time of Josephus, a time when the ruins of the Temple might still be -traceable and known to the author. The account gives us every -measurement, enabling us to make a plan, and by aid of the number of -steps stated--in agreement with Josephus--to calculate the levels of the -various courts. My plan, based on these measurements, occurs in the -books above quoted and in the Jerusalem volume of the "Memoirs of -Western Palestine." By this restoration we are able to account for the -great passages north of the Dome of the Rock, and can identify the gates -mentioned in the Talmud with existing gateways. - -The theory in question seems to me, therefore, to strain the meaning of -one particular statement and to ignore several others equally important -by the same author. It declines to accept the outcome of exploration in -the recovery of the Ophel wall; and it supposes walls and a rock scarp -to exist where no traces are found of such walls and where such a scarp -is impossible. It must, therefore, be regarded as the survival of -earlier opinion, which will in time give place to the facts clearly -indicated by excavation. - -As regards the site of the Holy Sepulchre, Mr. Fergusson's theory may be -considered defunct. Professor Hayter Lewis has taken up the argument -which I attempted in 1878, and has added further details of -architectural criticism. He agrees with others in accepting the historic -accounts contained in inscriptions and in Arab chronicles which -attribute the Dome of the Rock to Abd el Melek, and he accepts my three -propositions:--1st, That older material was re-used in the structure; -2nd, That the outer walls are attributable to the restoration of the -building in the ninth century; 3rd, That the Dome of the Chain was the -model of the Dome of the Rock. These three propositions were argued in -1878 ("Tent Work in Palestine"). - -It is now generally agreed that Constantine's basilica of the Holy -Sepulchre stood on the present site of the church, and there are, of -course, many who regard Constantine's site as of necessity the true one, -while other writers have adopted the theory to which I drew attention in -1878, placing Calvary at the present Jeremiah's Grotto. The main -argument against the traditional site is that it must have been within -the "second wall," which was then the outer wall on the north, whereas -we learn from the Epistle that "Christ suffered without the gate" (Heb. -xiii. 12). It is certain that the position is suspiciously central. Some -have tried to draw the second wall so as to exclude the church. The -recovery of the rock sections shows how impossible is the line they -propose, which is drawn in a valley commanded from outside. The west end -of the second wall was discovered in 1886 within a few feet of the point -shown as probable on my plan of 1878, and I believe this discovery to be -the death-blow to the claims of the traditional site. - - - - -II. - -INDEX OF OLD TESTAMENT SITES IDENTIFIED IN PALESTINE. - - -_Abana_ (River), Nahr Barada, flows past Damascus, 33° 32' N., 36° 20' E. - -_Abdon_, 'Abdeh, north of Akka, 33° 3' N., 35° 9' E. - -_Abel Beth Maachah_, Abl, west of Banias, 33° 15' N., 35° 34' E. - -_Abel Maim_, same as preceding. - -[+]_Abel Meholah_, 'Ain Helweh, 32° 20' N., 35° 30' E. - -_Abel Shittim_, Ghor es Seiseban, 31° 50' N., 35° 35' E. - -[+]_Abez_, El Beidah, 32° 43' N., 35° 9' E. - -_Accho_, 'Akka, 32° 45' N., 35° 4' E. - -[+]_Achshaph_, Kefr Yasif, 32° 57' N., 35° 10' E. - -[+]_Achzib_, 'Ain Kezbeh, 31° 41-1/2' N., 35° E. - -_Achzib_, ez Zib, 33° 3' N., 35° 6' E. - -_Adadah_, 'Ad'adah, 31° 13' N., 39° 13' E. - -_Adam_, ed Damieh, 32° 6' N., 35° 32' E. - -_Adamah_, ed Damieh, 32° 45' N., 35° 27' E. - -[+]_Adami_, Admah, 32° 38' N., 33° 32' E. - -_Adasa_, 'Adasah, 31° 51' N., 35° 12' E. - -_Adida_, Haditheh, 31° 58' N., 34° 57' E. - -_Adoraim_, Dura, 31° 31' N., 35° 1' E. - -_Adullam_, 'Aid-el-Ma, 31° 40' N., 35° E. - -_Adummim_, Tal'at ed Dumm, 31° 49' N., 35° 21' E. - -_Ahlab_, El Jish, 33° 1' N., 35° 26' E. - -[+]_Ai_, Haiyan, 31° 55' N., 35° 16' E. - -_Ajalon_, Yalo, 31° 51' N., 35° 1' E. - -_Alemeth_, 'Almit, 31° 50' N., 35° 16' E. - -_Almon_, same as preceding. - -[+]_Amad_, El 'Amud, 33° 2' N., 35° 8' E. - -_Anab_, 'Anab, 31° 24' N., 34° 56' E. - -_Anaharath_, En N'aurah, 32° 37' N., 35° 23' E. - -_Ananiah_, Beit Hannina, 31° 50' N., 35° 12' E. - -_Anathoth_, 'Anata, 31° 49' N., 35° 15' E. - -[+]_Anem_, 'Anin, 32° 20' N., 35° 10' E. - -[+]_Aner_, perhaps Ellar, 32° 22' N., 35° 6' E. - -_Anim_, El Ghuwein, 31° 21' N., 35° 4' E. - -_Aphek_, Fik, 32° 47' N., 35° 42' E. - -_Ar of Moab_, Rabba, 31° 57' N., 35° 56' E. - -[+]_Arab_, Er Rabiyeh, 31° 26' N., 35° 1' E. - -_Arad_, Tell 'Arad, 31° 17' N., 35° 7' E. - -_Arbela_, Irbid, 32° 49' N., 35° 28' E. - -[+]_Archi_, 'Ain 'Arik, 31° 55' N., 35° 8' E. - -_Argob_ (district), El Lejja, 33° N., 36° 20' E. - -_Arnon_ (River), Wady Mojib, 31° 28' N., 35° 34' E. - -_Aroer_, 'Ar'air, 31° 27' N., 35° 51' E. - -_Aroer_, 'Ar'arah, 31° 8' N., 35° E. - -_Ascalon_, 'Askalan, 31° 40' N., 34° 33' E. - -_Ashdod_, Esdud, 31° 45' N., 34° 39' E. - -_Ashdoth Pisgah_, 'Ayun Musa, 31° 45' N., 35° 45' E. - -_Ashteroth Karnaim_, Tell 'Ashterah, 32° 49' N., 36° E. - -_Ataroth_, 'Attarus, 31° 35' N., 35° 42' E. - -[+]_Ataroth Adar_, Ed Darieh, 31° 54' N., 35° 4' E. - -_Azmaveth_, Hizmeh, 31° 50' N., 35° 16' E. - - -[+]_Baalath_, Bel'ain, 31° 56' N., 35° 4' E. - -_Baal Hazor_, Tell 'Asur, 31° 59' N., 35° 16' E. - -_Baal Meon_, Tell M'ain, 31° 40' N., 35° 44' E. - -[+]_Baal Shalisha_, Kefr Thilth, 32° 24' N., 35° 2' E. - -_Bahurim_, probably 'Almit, _see_ Alemeth, 31° 50' N., 35° 16' E. - -[+]_Bamoth Baal_, probably el Maslubiyeh, 31° 43' N., 35° 42' E. - -_Bath Zacharias_, Beit Skaria, 31° 40' N., 35° 7' E. - -_Beeroth_, Bireh, 31° 54' N., 35° 13' E. - -_Beersheba_, Bir es Seb'a, 31° 14' N., 34° 47' E. - -_Bene Berak_, Ibn Ibrak, 32° 2' N., 34° 49' E. - -_Berachah_ (valley), Wady 'Arrub, 31° 39' N., 35° 8' E. - -_Beten_, El B'aneh, 32° 56' N., 35° 16' E. - -_Beth Eked_, Beit Kad, 32° 28' N., 35° 21' E. - -_Beth Anath_, 'Ainitha, 33° 8' N., 35° 26' E. - -_Beth Anoth_, Beit 'Ainun, 31° 34' N., 35° 7' E. - -_Beth Aram_, Tell Rameh, 31° 49' N., 35° 38' E. - -_Beth Dagon_, Beit Dejan, 32° N., 34° 50' E. - -[+]_Beth Dagon_, Tell D'auk, 32° 42' N., 35° 7' E. - -_Bethel_, Beitin, 31° 56' N., 35° 14' E. - -_Beth Emek_, 'Amka, 32° 58' N., 35° 10' E. - -[+]_Beth Gamul_, Jemail, 31° 30' N., 35° 55' E. - -[+]_Beth Haccerem_, 'Ain Karim, 31° 46' N., 35° 10' E. - -_Beth Hoglah_, 'Ain Hajlah, 31° 49' N., 35° 30' E. - -_Beth Horon_, Upper, Beit 'Ur el Foka, 31° 54' N., 35° 6' E. - -_Beth Horon_, Nether, Beit 'Ur et Tahta, 31° 54' N., 35° 5' E. - -_Beth Jeshimoth_, 'Ain Suweimeh, 31° 46' N., 35° 36' E. - -_Bethlehem of Judah_, Beit Lahm, 31° 41' N., 35° 12' E. - -_Bethlehem_, Beit Lahm, 32° 44' N., 35° 11' E. - -_Beth Meon_ and _Beth Baal Meon_ (_see_ Baal Meon), 31° 40' N., 35° 44' E. - -_Beth Nimrah_, Tell Nimrin, 31° 54' N., 35° 37' E. - -[+]_Beth Peor_, el Mareighat, 31° 39' N., 35° 42' E. - -_Bethshean_, Beisan, 32° 30' N., 35° 30' E. - -_Beth Shemesh_, 'Ain Shems, 31° 45' N., 34° 58' E. - -[+]_Beth Shemesh_, 'Ain esh Shemstyeh, 32° 23' N., 35° 31' E. - -[+]_Beth Shemesh_, Shemsin, 32° 58' N., 35° 26' E. - -_Beth Shitta_, Shutta, 32° 33' N., 35° 25' E. - -_Beth Tappuah_, Tuffuh, 31° 33' N., 35° 2' E. - -_Beth Zur_, Beit Sur, 31° 35' N., 35° 6' E. - -[+]_Bethulia_, Mithilia, 32° 23' N., 35° 17' E. - -[+]_Bezek_, Ibzik, 32° 22' N., 35° 24' E. - -_Bozrah_ or _Bezer_, el Buseirah, 30° 50' N., 35° 37' E. - - -_Cabul_, Kabul, 32° 52' N., 35° 12' E. - -_Cain_, Yukin, 31° 30' N., 35° 9' E. - -_Carmel of Judah_, Kurmul, 31° 26' N., 35° 8' E. - -_Carmel_ (Mount), Jebel Kurmul, 32° 45' N., 35° E. - -_Cedron_, Katrah, 31° 49' N., 34° 46' E. - -[+]_Charashim_ (Valley), valley near Hirshah, 31° 50' N., 35° 2' E. - -_Chephar Haammonai_, Kefr'Aua, 31° 58' N., 35° 15' E. - -_Chephirah_, Kefireh, 31° 50' N., 35° 6' E. - -_Chesalon_, Kesla, 31° 47' N., 35° 3' E. - -_Chesulloth_, Iksal, 32° 41' N., 35° 19' E. - -[+]_Chezib_ (_see_ Achzib), 'Ain Kezbeh, 31° 41' N., 35° E. - -_Chisloth Tabor_, _see_ Chesulloth. - -[+]_Choba_, El Mekhubby, 32° 21' N., 31° 25' E. - -[+]_Chozeba_, Kueiziba, 31° 36' N., 35° 8' E. - -[+]_Chusi_, Kuzah, 32° 8' N., 35° 15' E. - - -[+]_Dabbasheth_, Dabsheh, 33° N., 35° 16' E. - -_Daberath_, Deburieh, 32° 42' N., 35° 22' E. - -_Dan_, Tell el Kady, 33° 15' N., 35° 39' E. - -_Danjaan_, Danian, 33° 6' N., 35° 8' E. - -[+]_Dannah_, probably Idhna, 31° 34' N., 34° 58' E. - -[+]_Debir_, Edh Dhaheriyeh, 31° 25' N., 34° 58' E. - -[+]_Debir_, probably Thoghret ed Debr, 31° 49' N., 35° 21' E. - -_Dibon_, Dhiban, 31° 29' N., 35° 48' E. - -[+]_Dimon_ (Waters of), probably Umm Deineh, 31° 30' N., 35° 50' E. - -_Docus_, 'Ain Duk, 31° 54' N., 35° 25' E. - -_Dor_, usually placed at Tantura, 32° 36' N., 34° 55' E. - -_Dothan_, Tell Dothan, 32° 25' N., 35° 17' E. - -_Dumah_, Ed Domeh, 31° 26' N., 34° 59' E. - - -_Ebal_ (Mount), Jebel Eslamiyeh, 32° 15' N., 35° 16' E. - -_Edrei_, Ed Dr'ah, 32° 40' N., 36° 5' E. - -[+]_Edrei_, Y'ater, 33° 9' N., 33° 20' E. - -_Eglon_, 'Ajlan, 31° 34' N., 34° 43' E. - -_Ekrebel_, 'Akrabeh, 32° 8' N., 35° 20' E. - -_Ekron_, 'Aker, 31° 51' N., 34° 48' E. - -_Elah_ (Valley), Wady es Sunt, 31° 42' N., 34° 55' E. - -_Elealah_, El 'Al, 31° 49' N., 35° 49' E. - -[+]_Eleasa_, Il'asa, 31° 54' N., 35° 6' E. - -[+]_Eleph_, Lifta, 31° 48' N., 35° 11' E. - -_Elon Beth Hanan_, Beit 'Anan, 31° 51' N., 35° 6' E. - -_Eltekeh_, probably Beit Likia, 31° 52' N., 35° 4' E. - -_Emmaus Nicopolis_, 'Amwas, 31° 51' N., 34° 59' E. - -_Endor_, Endor, 32° 38' N., 35° 23' E. - -_Engannim_, Jenin, 32° 28' N., 35° 18' E. - -_Engannim_, Umm Jina, 31° 45' N., 34° 57' E. - -_En-Gedi_, 'Ain Jidy, 31° 28' N., 35° 23' E. - -[+]_En-Haddah_, Kefr 'Adan, 32° 29' N., 35° 15' E. - -_En-Hazor_, Hazireh, 33° 7' N., 35° 21' E. - -_En Rimmon_, Umm er Rumamin, 31° 22' N., 34° 51' E. - -_En Rogel_, 'Ain Umm ed Deraj, 31° 46-1/2' N., 35° 14' E. - -_En Shemesh_, 'Ain Haud, 31° 47' N., 35° 16' E. - -[+]_En Tappuah_, probably Yasuf, 32° 7' N., 35° 14' E. - -_Ephraim_, probably Taiyibeh, 31° 57' N., 35° 18' E. - -_Ephrata_, _see_ Bethlehem. - -[+]_Eshean_, probably Es Simia, 31° 26' N., 35° 2' E. - -_Eshtaol_, Eshu'a, 31° 47' N., 35° E. - -_Eshtemoa_, Es Semu'a, 31° 24' N., 35° 4' E. - -[+]_Etam_, 'Aitun, 31° 29' N., 34° 55' E. - -[+]_Etam_, 'Ain 'Atan, 31° 41' N., 35° 10' E. - -[+]_Etam_ (Rock), Beit 'Atab, 31° 44' N., 35° 3' E. - -[+]_Ether_, probably El 'Atr, 31° 37' N., 34° 52' E. - - -[+]_Gallim_, perhaps Beit Jala, 31° 43' N., 35° 11' E. - -_Gath_, probably Tell es Safi, 31° 42' N., 34° 50' E. - -_Gaza_, Ghuzzeh, 31° 30' N., 34° 27' E. - -_Geba_ (_Gibeah of Saul_), Jeb'a, 31° 52' N., 35° 15' E. - -_Geba_, Jeb'a, 32° 20' N., 35° 13' E. - -[+]_Gederah_ (of Judah), Jedireh, 31° 50' N., 34° 57' E. - -[+]_Gederah_ (of Benjamin), Jedireh, 31° 52' N., 35° 11' E. - -_Gederoth_, probably Katrah, 31° 49' N., 34° 46' E. - -_Gedor_, Jedur, 31° 38' N., 35° 5' E. - -_Gerar_, Umm el Jerrar, 31° 24' N., 34° 26' E. - -_Gerizim_ (Mount), Jebel et Tor, 32° 12' N., 35° 16' E. - -_Gezer_, Tell Jezer, 31° 51' N., 34° 55' E. - -[+]_Gibbethon_, Kibbieh, 31° 59' N., 35° E. - -[+]_Gibeah_ (of Judah), Jeb'a, 31° 51' N., 35° 4' E. - -_Gibeah_ (of Benjamin), Jebi'a, 31° 48' N., 35° 5' E. - -[+]_Gibeah Phinehas_, Awertah, 32° 10' N., 35° 17' E. - -_Gibeon_, El Jib, 31° 51' N., 35° 11' E. - -_Gihon_ (Upper), same as En Rogel, which see. - -_Gilboa_ (Mount), Jelbon, 32° 28' N., 35° 25' E. - -_Gilgal_, Jiljulieh, 31° 51' N., 35° 29' E. - -_Gilgal_, Jiljilia, 32° 2' N., 35° 13' E. - -_Gilgal of the Goim_, Jiljulieh, 32° 10' N., 34° 56' E. - -[+]_Giloh_, probably Jala, 31° 37' N., 35° 4' E. - -_Gimzo_, Jimzu, 31° 56' N., 34° 56' E. - -_Gittah Hepher_, El Mesh-hed, 32° 44' N., 35° 19' E. - - -[+]_Hachilah_ (Hill), Dhahret el Kolah, 31° 28' N., 35° 13' E. - -_Hammath_, El Hammam, 32° 46' N., 35° 33' E. - -_Hammon_, 'Ain Hamul, 33° 7' N., 35° 10' E. - -_Hammon_ or _Hamoth Dor_, same as Hammath. - -[+]_Hannathon_, Kefr 'Anan, 32° 55' N., 35° 25' E. - -[+]_Haphraim_, Farriyeh, 32° 37' N., 35° 7' E. - -[+]_Hareth_, Kharas, 31° 37' N., 35° 2' E. - -_Harod_ (Well), generally placed at 'Ain Jalud, 32° 33' N., 35° 21' E. - -_Harosheth_, El Harathiyeh, 32° 43' N., 35° 6' E. - -[+]_Haruph_, probably Kharuf, 31° 38' N., 35° E. - -[+]_Hazar Susah_, perhaps Susin, 31° 23' N., 34° 20' E. - -_Hazezon Tamar_, the same as Engedi. - -_Hazor_, near _Jebel Hadireh_, 33° 4' N., 35° 29' E. - -_Hazor_ (of Benjamin), Hazzur, 31° 50' N., 35° 11' E. - -_Hebron_, El Khulil, 31° 32' N., 35° 6' E. - -_Heleph_, probably Beit Lif, 33° 8' N., 35° 20' E. - -_Helkath_, Yerka, 32° 57' N., 35° 12' E. - -_Helkath Huzzurim_, probably Wady el 'Askar, 31° 52' N., 35° 11' E. - -_Hermon_, Jebel esh Sheikh, 33° 24' N., 35° 47' E. - -_Heshbon_, Hesban, 31° 48' N., 35° 48' E. - -[+]_Hezron_, probably Jebel Hadireh, 30° 51' N., 34° 50' E. - -_Hinnom_ (Valley), Wady Rababeh, 31° 46-1/2' N., 35° 13-1/4' E. - -[+]_Holon_, perhaps Beit 'Alam, 31° 35' N., 34° 47' E. - -[+]_Horem_, Harah, 33° 10' N., 35° 41' N. - -_Hormah_, _see_ Zephath. - -[+]_Horonaim_ (ascent), probably Wady el Ghueir, 31° 46' N., 35° 38' E. - -[+]_Hosah_, El 'Ezilyah, 33° 11' N., 35° 15' E. - -_Hukkok_, Yakuk, 32° 53' N., 35° 28' E. - - -_Ibleam_, Yebla, 32° 34' N., 35° 28' E. - -[+]_Ijon_, El Khiam, 33° 19' N., 35° 36' E. - -_Ir Nahash_, possibly Deir Nakhkhas, 31° 37' N., 34° 55' E. - -_Iron_, Yarun, 33° 5' N., 35° 25' E. - -[+]_Irpeel_, Ra-fat, 31° 53' N., 35° 11' E. - -_Ir-Shemesh_, same as Beth Shemesh ('Ain Shems). - - -_Jabbok_ (River), Wady Zerka, 32° N., 35° 32' E. - -_Jabneel_, Yebnah, 31° 51' N., 34° 44' E. - -[+]_Jabneel_, Yemma, 32° 42' N., 35° 30' E. - -_Jamnia_, same as Jabneel (Yebnah). - -_Janoah_, Yanuh, 31° 16' N., 35° 18' E. - -_Janohah_, Yanun, 32° 10' N., 35° 21' E. - -[+]_Janum_, Beni Naim, 31° 31' N., 35° 9' E. - -_Japhia_, Yafa, 32° 41' N., 35° 16' E. - -_Japho_, Yafa, 32° 3' N., 34° 45' E. - -_Jarmuth_, El Yermuk, 31° 43' N. - -[+]_Jarmuth_, Rameh, 32° 21' N., 35° 10' E. - -_Jattir_, 'Attir, 31° 22' N., 35° E. - -[+]_Jazer_, Beit Zer'ah, 31° 50' N., 35° 51' E. - -[+]_Jearim_ (Mount), see Kirjath Jearim. - -_Jebus_, see Jerusalem. - -_Jehosaphat_ (Valley), Wady Sitti Miriam, 31° 46-3/4' N., 35° 14' E. - -_Jehud_, El Yehudiyeh, 32° 2' N., 34° 53' E. - -_Jericho_, 'Ain es Sultan, near Eriha, 31° 51' N., 35° 27' E. - -_Jerusalem_, El Kuds esh Sherif, 31° 47' N., 35° 14' E. - -[+]_Jeshanah_, 'Ain Sinia, 31° 58' N., 35° 17' E. - -_Jeshimon_, the desert west of Dead Sea. - -[+]_Jeshua_, S'aweh, 31° 22' N., 34° 59' E. - -[+]_Jethlah_, perhaps Beit Tul, 31° 49' N., 35° 4' E. - -_Jezreel_, Zer'in, 32° 33' N., 35° 19' E. - -_Jogbehah_, El Jubeihah, 32° 1' N., 35° 52' E. - -_Jokneam_, Tell Keimun, 32° 40' N., 35° 6' E. - -[+]_Joktheel_ (of Judah), perhaps Kutlaneh, 31° 50' N., 34° 53' E. - -_Joppa_, _see_ Japho. - -_Jordan_ (River), Esh Sheri'ah, 31° 46' N., 35° 32' E. - -_Juttah_, Yuttah, 31° 27' N., 35° 5' E. - - -_Kanah_, Kana, 33° 12' N., 35° 18' E. - -_Kanah_ (River), Wady Kanah, 32° 8' N., 35° E. - -[+]_Kedesh_ (of Issachar), Tell Abu Kadeis, 32° 33' N., 35° 13' E. - -[+]_Kedesh_ (Judges iv. II), Kadish, 32° 44' N., 35° 32' E. - -_Kedesh Naphtali_, Kades, 33° 7' N., 35° 31' E. - -_Keilah_, Kila, 31° 37' N., 35° E. - -_Kenath Nobah_, Kanawat, 32° 45' N., 36° 33' E. - -_Kerioth Hezron_, perhaps El Kureitein, 31° 21' N., 35° 7' E. - -_Kidron_ (Valley), Wady en Nar, 31° 46' N., 35° 14' E. - -_Kir_ (of Moab), Kerak, 31° 10' N., 35° 45' E. - -_Kiriathaim_, El Kureiyat, 31° 32' N., 35° 43' E. - -[+]_Kirjath_, Kuriet el 'Anab, 31° 49' N., 35° 6' E. - -_Kirjath Arba_, _see_ Hebron. - -_Kirjath Baal_ or _Kirjath Jearim_, 'Erma, 31° 46' N., 35° 2' E. - -_Kishon_ (River), Nahr el Mukutt'a, 32° 49' N., 35° 2' E. - - -_Ladder of Tyrus_, Ras en Nakurah, 33° 7' N., 35° 6' E. - -[+]_Lachish_, perhaps Tell el Hesy, 31° 32' N., 34° 43' E. - -[+]_Lahmam_, probably El Lahm, 31° 34' N., 34° 53' E. - -_Laish_, same as Dan. - -[+]_Lasharon_, Sarona, 32° 43' N., 35° 28' E. - -_Lebonah_, El Lubban, 32° 4' N., 35° 14' E. - -_Lod_, Ludd, 31° 57' N., 34° 54' E. - -[+]_Luhith_ (ascent), Tal'at el Heith, 31° 45' N., 35° 44' E. - -_Luz_, the same as Bethel. - -[+]_Luz_, El Luweiziyeh, 33° 17' N., 35° 37' E. - - -_Maaleh Acrabbim_, the slope west of south end of Dead Sea, 31° N., -35° 23' E. - -[+]_Maarath_, Beit Ummar, 31° 37' N., 35° 6' E. - -_Machpelah_ (Cave), the cave under the Hebron Haram. - -[+]_Madmannah_, Umm Deimneh, 31° 22' N., 34° 56' E. - -[+]_Madmen_, perhaps Umm Deineh, 31° 36' N., 35° 56' E. - -[+]_Madon_, Madin, 32° 48' N., 35° 27' E. - -[+]_Mahaneh Dan_, Wady el Mutluk, 31° 47' N., 34° 59' E. - -_Makkedah_, probably El Mughar, 31° 55' N., 34° 55' E. - -_Mamre_, near Hebron, 31° 32' N., 35° 6' E. - -[+]_Manahath_, Malhah, 31° 46' N., 35° 11' E. - -_Maon_, M'ain, 31° 25' N., 35° 8' E. - -[+]_Maralah_, M'alul, 32° 42' N., 35° 14' E. - -_Mareshah_, Mer'ash, 31° 45' N., 34° 55' E. - -[+]_Mearah_, El Mogheiriyeh, 33° 37' N., 35° 27' E. - -_Medeba_, Madeba, 31° 42' N., 35° 48' E. - -[+]_Megiddo_, Mujedd'a, 32° 28' N., 35° 28' E. - -_Mejarkon_ ("yellow water"), probably Nahr el 'Aujah, 32° 6' N., -34° 46' E. - -[+]_Mekonah_, probably Mekenna, 31° 46' N., 34° 51' E. - -_Merom_ (Waters of), Baheiret el Huleh, 33° 4' N., 35° 37' E. - -[+]_Meronoth_, Marrina, 31° 38' N., 35° 7' E. - -_Michmash_, Mukhmas, 31° 53' N., 35° 17' E. - -_Michmethah_, probably Sahel el Mukhnah, 32° 21' N., 35° 16' E. - -_Migdal-El_, Mujeidel, 33° 14' N., 35° 21' E. - -_Migdal Gad_, perhaps Mejdel, 31° 40' N., 34° 35' E. - -[+]_Minnith_, perhaps Minyeh, 31° 40' N., 35° 39' E. - -[+]_Mishal_, probably in Wady M'aisleh. - -_Misrephoth Maim_, Surafend, 33° 27' N., 35° 16' E. - -[+]_Mizpah_ (or Galeed), probably Suf, 32° 19' N., 35° 52' E. - -[+]_Mizpeh_, perhaps Sh'afat, 31° 49' N., 35° 13' E. - -[+]_Mochmur_ (Brook), Wady el Ahmar, 32° 8' N., 35° 20' E. - -_Modin_, El Medyeh, 31° 56' N., 34° 59' E. - -[+]_Mozah_, Beit Mizzeh, 31° 49' N., 35° 9' E. - - -_Naamah_, Naaneh, 31° 52' N., 34° 52' E. - -[+]_Naarath_, probably El 'Aujah et Tahtani, 31° 57' N., 35° 28' E. - -[+]_Nahallal_, 'Ain Mahil, 32° 43' N., 35° 21' E. - -[+]_Nehaliel_ (Valley), probably Wady Zerka M'ain, 31° 36' N., 35° 34' E. - -[+]_Nasor_ (Plain), Merj el Ha[d.]ireh, 33° 6' N., 35° 35' E. - -_Neballat_, Beit Nebala, 31° 59' N., 34° 57' E. - -_Nebo_ (Mount), Jebel Neba, 31° 46' N., 35° 45' E. - -[+]_Nebo_ (Ezra xi. 29; Neh. vii. 33), perhaps Nuba, 31° 37' N., 35° 2' E. - -[+]_Neiel_, probably Y'anin, 32° 54' N., 35° 12' E. - -[+]_Nekeb_, probably Seiyadeh, 32° 44' N., 35° 31' E. - -_Nephtoah_ (Waters of), 'Ain 'Atan, 31° 41' N., 35° 10' E. - -_Netophah_, Umm Toba, 31° 44' N., 35° 14' E. - -_Nezib_, Beit Nusib, 31° 36' N., 34° 59' E. - -_Nimrah_, Nimrim, Tell Nimrin, 31° 54' N., 35° 37' E. - -_Nobah_, same as Kenath. - - -_Olivet_ (Mount), Jebel ez Zeit, 31° 47' N., 35° 14-1/2' E. - -_Oho_, Kefr 'Ana, 32° 1' N., 34° 47' E. - -_Ophel_, the spur south of the Haram at Jerusalem, 31° 46-1/2' N., -35° 13-3/4' E. - -_Ophni_, probably Jufna, 51° 58' N., 35° 12' E. - -_Ophrah_ (of Benjamin), same as Ephraim. - -[+]_Ophrah_ (of Manasseh), probably Fer'ata, 32° 11' N., 35° 10' E. - - -_Parah_, Farah, 31° 50' N., 35° 18' E. - -[+]_Penuel_, probably Jebel Osh'a, 32° 5' N., 35° 42' E. - -[+]_Peor_ (Cliff of), probably the peak above 'Ain Minyeh, 31° 40' N., -35° 40' E. - -[+]_Pirathon_, probably Fer'on, 32° 17' N., 35° 1' E. - -_Pisgah_ (Mount), Ras Siaghah, 31° 46' N., 35° 43' E. - -_Ptolemais_, same as Accho. - - -[+]_Rabbah_ (of Judah), Rubba, 31° 40' N., 34° 58' E. - -_Rabbath Ammon_, 'Amman, 31° 57' N., 35° 56' E. - -[+]_Rabbith_, Raba, 32° 23' N., 35° 23' E. - -_Rakkath_, the same as Tiberias. - -[+]_Rakkon_, Tell er Rakkeit, 32° 8' N., 34° 47' E. - -_Ramah_ (of Benjamin), Er Ram, 31° 51' N., 35° 14' E. - -_Ramah_ (of Naphtali), Er Rameh, 32° 57' N., 35° 22' E. - -[+]_Ramah_ (of Asher), Ramia, 33° 7' N, 35° 18' E. - -[+]_Ramath Mizpeh_, perhaps Remtheh, 32° 37' N., 35° 59' E. - -[+]_Ramoth_, Er Rameh, 32° 21' N., 35° 10' E. - -_Ramoth Gilead_, Reimun, 32° 16' N., 35° 50' E. - -_Raphon_, Rafeh, 32° 36' N., 1' E. - -_Rehoboth_, Er Ruheibeh, 31° N., 34° 34' E. - -[+]_Remeth_, the same as Ramoth. - -_Remmon_ (of Zebulon), Rummaneh, 32° 47' N., 35° 18' E. - -_Rephaim_ (Valley), El Bukei'a, south of Jerusalem, 31° 46' N., 35° 12' E. - -_Rimmon_ (of Simeon), Umm er Rumamin, 31° 22' N., 34° 51' E. - -_Rimmon_ (Rock), Rummon, 31° 56' N., 35° 18' E. - -_River of Egypt_, Wady el 'Arish, 31° 8' N., 33° 50' E. - - -_Salchah_, Salkhad, 32° 31' N., 36° 39' E. - -_Salem_ (1), same as Jerusalem. - -_Salem_ (2) (Gen. xiv. 18), Salim, 32° 13' N., 35° 19' E. - -[+]_Salt_ (City of), Tell el Milh ("salt hill"), 31° 13' N., 35° 1' E. - -_Salt Sea_, the Dead Sea, 31° 30' N., 35° 30' E. - -_Samaria_, Sebustieh, 32° 17' N., 35° 11' E. - -_Saphir_, Es Suafir, 31° 42' N., 34° 42' E. - -[+]_Sarid_, probably Tell Shadud, 32° 40' N., 35° 14' E. - -_Seythopolis_, the same as Bethshean. - -[+]_Secacah_, perhaps the ruin called Sikkeh (or Dikkeh), - 31° 44' N., 35° 15' E. - -[+]_Sechu_, Shuweikeh, 31° 53' N., 35° 12' E. - -_Seir_ (Mount), the mountains of Petra, 30° 15' N., 35° 22' E. - -_Sela_, Petra, now Wady Musa, 30° 18' N., 35° 27' E. - -[+]_Sela-ham-Mahlekoth_, Wady Malaky, 31° 25' N., 35° 8' E. - -[+]_Seneh_ (Rock), south bank of Wady Suweinit. - -_Senir_, same as Hermon. - -_Sephelah_, the low hills east of Philistia, 31° 45' N., 34° 55' E. - -_Shaalabbin_, Selbit, 31° 52' N., 34° 59' E. - -[+]_Shaaraim_, perhaps S'aireh, 31° 44' N., 35° 1' E. - -_Shalem_ (Gen. xxxiii. 18), same as Salem (2). - -[+]_Shamir_, probably Somerah, 31° 25' N., 34° 56' E. - -_Sharon_ (Plain), north of Joppa, 32° 30' N., 35° E. - -[+]_Sharuhen_, Tell esh Sheri'ah, 31° 23' N., 34° 41' E. - -_Sheba_, perhaps Tell es Seb'a, 31° 14' N., 34° 50' E. - -_Shechem_, Nablus, 32° 13' N., 35° 15' E. - -[+]_Shihon_, 'Ayun esh Sh'ain, 32° 43' N., 35° 20' E. - -_Shihor Libnath_, Nahr Namein, 32° 40' N., 35° 5' E. - -_Shiloh_, Seilun, 32° 3' N., 35° 17' E. - -_Shimron_, Semunieh, 32° 42' N., 35° 12' E. - -_Shittim_, _see_ Abel Shittim. - -_Shunem_, Solam, 32° 36' N., 35° 20' E. - -[+]_Sibmah_, Sumia, 31° 49' N., 35° 40' E. - -_Sidon_, Saida, 33° 34' N., 35° 22' E. - -_Siloah_, Birket Silwan, 31° 46-1/4' N., 35° 13-3/4' E. - -_Sion_, the south-west hill of Jerusalem, used in poetry - for Jerusalem, or for the Temple Hill, 31° 46-1/2' N., 35° 13-1/2' E. - -_Sirah_ (Well), 'Ain Sarah, 31° 33' N., 35° 6' E. - -_Sirion_, same as Hermon. - -_Socoh_ (in the valley), Shuweikeh, 31° 11' N., 34° 58' E. - -_Socoh_ (in the mountains), Shuweikeh, 31° 24' N., 35° E. - -_Sorek_ (Valley), Wady Surar, 31° 56' N., 34° 42' E. - -_Succoth_, Tell Der'ala, 32° 5' N., 35° 34' E. - - -_Taanach_, T'annuk, 32° 31' N., 35° 13' E. - -_Taanath Shiloh_, T'ana, 32° 11' N., 35° 22' E. - -_Tabor_ (Mount), Jebel et Tor, 32° 41' N., 35° 23' E. - -_Tappuah_ (of Judah), Tuffuh, 31° 32' N., 35° 2-1/2' E. - -_Tekoa_, Teku'a, 31° 36' N., 35° 12' E. - -_Thebez_, Tubas, 32° 19' N., 35° 22' E. - -[+]_Thimnathah_, probably Tibneh, 32° N., 35° 6' E. - -_Timnah_, Tibneh, 31° 44' N., 34° 56' E. - -[+]_Timnah_ (of Judah), Tibna, 31° 42' N., 35° 3' E. - -[+]_Timnath Heres_, Kefr Haris, 32° 7' N., 35° 9' E. - -[+]_Tiphsah_ (2 Kings xv. 16), probably Tafsah, 32° 10' N., 35° 10' E. - -[+]_Tirzah_, Teiasir, 32° 20' N., 35° 23' E. - -[+]_Tob_ (Land), near Taiyibeh, 32° 35' N., 35° 42' E. - -_Tyre_, Es Sur, 33° 16' N., 35° 12' E. - - -_Umma_, probably 'Alma, 33° 6' N., 35° 11' E. - -_Uzzen Sherah_, Beit Sira, 31° 53' N., 35° 2' E. - - -[+]_Zaanaim_ (Plain), Bessum, 32° 44' N., 35° 29' E. - -[+]_Zalmon_ (Mount), perhaps Jebel Eslamiyeh (Ebal), 32° 10' N., 35° 14' E. - -_Zanoah_ (1), Zanu'a, 31° 43' N., 35° E. - -_Zanoah_ (2), Zanuta, 31° 22' N., 34° 59' E. - -_Zaphon_ (_Amathi_), probably El Hammeh, 32° 41' N., 35° 40' E. - -_Zared_ or _Zered_ (Valley), Wady el Hesy, 31° 5' N., 35° 28' E. - -_Zarephath_, Surafend, 33° 27' N., 35° 19' E. - -[+]_Zareth Shahar_, perhaps Zara, 31° 36' N., 35° 35' E. - -[+]_Zebulun_ (Josh. xix. 27), probably Neby Sebelan, 33° 1' N., 35° 20' E. - -_Zemaraim_, Es Sumrah, 31° 54' N., 35° 29' E. - -_Zephath_, probably the pass Es Sufa, 30° 55' N., 35° 5' E. - -[+]_Zephathath_ (Valley), Wady Safieh, 31° 37' N., 34° 55' E. - -[+]_Zereda_, Surdah, 31° 57' N., 35° 12' E. - -_Ziddim_, Hattin, 32° 48' N., 35° 27' E. - -_Ziklag_, probably 'Asluj, 31° 3' N., 34° 45' E. - -[+]_Zior_, Si'air, 31° 35' N., 35° 8' E. - -_Ziph_, Tell ez Zif, 31° 29' N., 35° 8' E. - -_Ziz_ (Cliff of), Wady Hasasah, 31° 28' N., 35° 23' E. - -[+]_Zoar_, Tell esh Shaghur, 31° 49' N., 35° 40' E. - -_Zoheleth_ (stone), Zahweileh, 31° 46-1/2' N., 35° 14' E. - -[+]_Zophim_ (Field of), Tal'at es Safa, 31° 45' N., 35° 46' E. - -_Zorah_, Sur'ah, 31° 47' N., 34° 59' E. - -Out of these 422 names of towns, valleys, mountains, streams, and -springs in Palestine mentioned in the Old Testament, and now identified -on the ground, those marked [+], which amount to 144 in all, were -discovered by the present author. The more important are described in -the text, with the reasons for their identification. - - - - -III. - -INDEX OF NEW TESTAMENT SITES IDENTIFIED IN PALESTINE. - - -_Abilene_, region near Abila, 33° 38' N., 36° 5' E. - -_Aceldama_, supposed to be Hakk ed Dumm, 30° 46' N., 35° 13-1/2' E. - -_AEnon_, Ainun, 32° 11' N., 35° 21' E. - -_Antipatris_, Ras el 'Ain, 32° 7' N., 34° 55' E. - -_Azotus_, Esdud (Ashdod), 31° 45' N., 34° 39' E. - - -[+]_Bethabara_, Makhadet 'Abarah, 32° 32' N., 35° 33' E. - -_Bethany_, El 'Aziriyeh, 31° 46' N., 35° 15' E. - -_Bethesda_ (Pool), probably 'Ain Umm ed Deraj (En Rogel). - -_Bethlehem_, Beit Lahm, 32° 42' N., 35° 11' E. - -_Bethphage_, perhaps Kefr et Tor on Olivet, 31° 47' N., 35° 15' E. - -_Bethsaida_, probably Ed Dikkeh, 32° 55' N., 35° 47' E. - - -_Caesarea_, Kaisarieh, 32° 30' N., 34° 53' E. - -_Caesarea Philippi_, Banias, 32° 18' N., 35° 41' E. - -_Calvary_, _see_ Golgotha. - -_Cana of Galilee_, Kefr Kenna, 33° 45' N., 35° 20' E. - -_Capernaum_, probably Khurbet Minyeh, 32° 52' N., 35° 32' E. - -_Cedron_ (Brook), Wady en Nar (Kidron), 31° 46' N., 35° 14' E. - -_Chorazin_, Kerazeh, 32° 55' N., 35° 34' E. - - -_Damascus_, Dimeshk esh Sham, 33° 32' N., 36° 18' E. - -_Decapolis_, a region south-east of Sea of Galilee. - -[+]_Emmaus_, probably Khamasah, 31° 43' N., 35° 6' E. - -_Ephraim_, probably Taiyibeh, 31° 57' N., 35° 18' E. - - -_Gaza_, Ghuzzeh, 31° 30' N., 34° 27' E. - -_Gennesaret_ (Lake), Bahr Tubariya, 32° 45' N., 35° 35' E. - -[+]_Golgotha_, Hill of Jeremiah's Grotto, 31° 47-1/4' N., 35° 13-1/2' E. - - -_Jacob's Well_, Bir Y'akub, 32° 13' N., 35° 17' E. - -_Jericho_, near Tullul Abu el 'Aleik, 31° 52' N., 35° 25' E. - -_Jerusalem_, El Kuds, 31° 47' N., 35° 13-1/2' E. - -_Joppa_, Yafa, 32° 3' N., 34° 45' E. - -_Jordan_, Esh Sheri'ah, 31° 46' N., 35° 33' E. - - -_Lydda_, Ludd, 31° 57' N., 34° 54' E. - - -_Magdala_, Mejdel, 32° 50' N., 35° 31' E. - - -_Nain_, Nein, 32° 38' N., 35° 20' E. - -_Nazareth_, En Nasrah, 32° 42' N., 35° 18' E. - - -_Olivet_ (Mount), Jebel ez Zeit, 31° 47' N., 35° 14-1/2' E. - - -_Ptolemais_, 'Akka, 32° 45' N., 35° 4' E. - - -_Salim_, Salim, 32° 13' N., 35° 19' E. - -_Samaria_, Sebustieh, 32° 17' N., 35° 11' E. - -_Sarepta_, Surafend, 33° 27' N., 35° 17' E. - -_Saron_, plain north of Jaffa, 32° 30' N., 35° E. - -_Sidon_, Saida, 33° 34' N., 35° 22' E. - -_Siloam_, Silwan, 31° 46-1/2' N., 35° 14' E. - -_Siloam_ (Pool), Birket Silwan, west of Siloam village. - -_Sychar_, 'Askar, 32° 13' N., 35° 17' E. - -_Sychem_, Nablus, 32° 13' N., 35° 17' E. - - -_Tiberias_, Tubariya, 32° 47' N., 35° 32' E. - -_Tyre_, Es Sur, 33° 16' N., 35° 11' E. - -The more important of these 47 sites are noticed in the text. - - - - -INDEX. - -The Roman numerals refer to the Maps upon which the localities mentioned -will be found. - -Latitudes and Longitudes are merely approximate. - - - Abana, river (33° 32' N. 36° 20' E.), 78, 193. I. - - Abarah, ford (32° 32' N. 35° 33' E.), 74. I. - - Abd el Kader, 234. - - Abila (Abilene) (32° 32' N. 35° 33' E.), 130, 187. I. - - Abu Muin Nasir, 8. - - Abu Zeid, dish of, 154. - - Acre (32° 55' N. 38° 5' E.), 92. I. - - Adonis, river (34° 5' N. 35° 40' E.), 205. V. - - Adullam, cave of (31° 40' N. 35° E.), 49. I. - - Adwan Arabs (32° N. 35° 40' E.), 161, 162, 165. - - Afka (34° 8' N. 35° 52' E.), 206. - - Agriculture in Palestine, 217. - - Ahamant, Crus. castle, 107. - - Ai (31° 5' N. 35° 17' E.)., I. - - Aid el Mia (anc. Adullam) (31° 40' N. 35° E.), 50. I. - - Ain el Asy (Aasi) (34° 2' N. 36° 5' E.), 192. VII. - - Ajlun (32' 20 N. 35° 45' E.), 179. - - Aleppo (36° 10' N. 37° 10' E.), 13. - - Alexandretta (36° 33' N. 36° 10' E.), 190, 195. - - Alphabets, ancient, 173, 203. - - Aly Agha, Emir, 104. - - Amman. _See_ Rabbath Ammon. - - Anderson, Major, 19. - - Anazeh Arabs (32° 30' N. 36° 30' E.), 141. VII. - - Anseiriyeh, mounts of the (35° N. 36° 20' E.), 191. - - Anti-Lebanon, 192. I. - - Antioch (36° 11' N. 36° 10' E.), 191, 203. - - Antoninus Martyr, 5, 94. - - Arabs, mode of life, 55; - legends, 162; - customs, 163; - religion, 164; - blood-feuds, 167. - - Arculphus, bishop, 6. - - Architecture, epochs of, 226. - - Armageddon (Megiddo) (32° 28' N. 35° 27' E.), 85. - - Armstrong, Mr. George, 29, 106. - - Ascalon (31° 39' N. 34° 33' E.), 47, 48, 50, 51. I. - - Ashdod (31° 45' N. 34° 39' E.), 50, 202. I. - - Assassins, sect of the, 209. - - Azotus, same as Ashdod. - - - Baalbek (34° N. 36° 10' E.), 135, 192, 203. I. - - Baal Hazor (31° 59' N. 35° 16' E.), 160. I. - - Bamoth Baal (31° 43' N. 35° 42' E.), 156. - - Banias (31° 15' N. 35° 41' E.), 13, 97, 107, 116, 127. I., VI. - - Bar Simson, Rabbi, 10. - - Bartlett, Mr., 16. - - Bashan (32° 45' N. 36° 15' E.), 77, 131, 187. I., IV. - - Beaufort. _See_ Belfort. - - Beauvoir (Belvoir) (32° 33' N. 35° 30' E.), 76, 108. VI. - - Bedu, plural of bedawi = Arab (nomad). - - Beersheba (31° 14' N. 34° 47' E.), 32, 36, 52, 53. I. - - Beirut (33° 55' N. 35° 30' E.), 135, 195. I. - - Belfort (Beaufort) (33° 20' N. 35° 31' E.), 107. VI. - - Belka, El (31° 45' N. 35° 45' E.), 137. VII. - - Belvoir (Beauvoir) (32° 35' N. 35° 30' E.), 107, 108. VI. - - Beni Sakhr Arabs (31° 30' N. 35° 45' E.), 139. VII. - - Benjamin, country of (31° 50' N. 35° 15' E.), 31. IV. - - Benjamin of Tudela, 10, 33. - - Bernard the Wise's visit to Palestine, 7. - - Beth Abarah (32° 32' N. 35° 33' E.), 74. I. - - Beth Diblathaim (in Southern Moab), 154. - - Bethel (31° 56' N. 35° 14' E.), 32. I. - - Bethesda, pool of, east of Jerusalem, 25, 26. - - Bethlehem (31° 41' N. 35° 12' E.), 42, 57. I. - - Bethsaida (or Julias) (32° 55' N. 35° 37' E.), 100 - - Bethshean (32° 30' N. 35° 30' E.), 74. I. - - Biblical critics, 237. - - Birim, Kefr (33° 3' N. 34° 56' E.), 90. - - Black, Serjeant, 31. - - Blancheward (Blanchegarde) (31° 42' N. 34° 50' E.), 107. VI. - - Bongars, 9. - - Bordeaux pilgrim, 3. - - Bosrah (32° 33' N. 36° 27' E.), 188. I. - - Bozez, cliff of (31° 52' N. 35° 17' E.), 32. - - Brocquiere, Sir B. de la, 13. - - Buckingham, 15. - - Bukaa (El Bekaa) (33° 45' N. 35° 50' E.), 191. I. - - Burckhardt, 15. - - Buttauf, plain of (32° 50' N. 35° 20' E.), 96. I. - - Byblos (34° 5' N. 35° 40' E.), 191, 195, 199. - - - Caesarea (32° 30' N. 34° 53' E.), 70. I. - - Callirhoe (31° 36' N. 35° 40' E.), 143, 161. I. - - Calvary, its site, 30. I., inset. - - Cana of Galilee (33° 45' N. 35° 20' E.), 74, 95. I. - - Capernaum (32° 52' N. 35° 32' E.), 101. I. - - Carchemish (36° 50' N. 38° E.), 84, 135, 206. - - Carmel, Mount (32° 45' N. 35° E.), 35, 86, 87. I. - - Cartulary of Holy Sep. Ch., 10. - - Cedron, _See_ Kedron. - - Chaplin, Dr., 30. - - Chastel Blanc, 107. - - Chateau du Roi (32° 54' N. 35° 10' E.), 107. - - Chateau neuf (33° 11' N. 35° 32' E.), 107. VI. - - Chateau Pelerin (32° 42' N. 34° 56' E.), 108. - - Chateau rouge, 108. - - Cherith, brook of (31° 50' N. 35° 20' E.), 42. I. - - Chorazin (32° 55' N. 35° 34' E.), 100. I. - - Chosroes, palace of, at Mashita (31° 45' N. 36° 5' E.), 177. I. - - Churchill, Colonel, 211. - - Crocodile River (32° 33' N. 34° 54' E.), 70. I. - - Cromlechs near Heshbon, 144. - - Crusaders' castles, 106. - - - Damascus (33° 32' N. 36° 18' E.), 131. I. - - Dan (33° 15' N. 35° 39' E.), 128. I. - - Daniel, Abbot, 9. - - Darum (31° 23' N. 34° 20' E.), 47, 107. VI. - - Dead Sea (31° 60' N. 35° 30' E.), 43. I. - - Debir (31° 25' N. 34° 58' E.), 53. I. - - Deer ("Yahmur"), 216. - - Dervish orders, 125. - - Dog River (Nahr el Kelb), (33° 58' N. 35° 35' E.), 193. I. - - Dolmens, 128, 150. - - Dothan (32° 24' N. 35° 17' E.), 54. I. - - Drake, C. F. Tyrwhitt, 31, 32, 73, 81, 88. - - Druzes, 116. - - - Ebal, mount (32° 15' N. 35° 16' E.), 63. I. - - Ecdippa (33° 5' N. 35° 6' E.), 110. V. - - Ekron (31° 51' N. 34° 48' E.), I. - - Elah, valley of (31° 42' N. 34° 55' E.), 49. I. - - Eleutheropolis (31° 37' N. 34° 54' E.), 50. V. - - Eleutherus river (34° 38' N. 35° 58' E.), 71, 135, 191. V. - - Elisha's Fountain near Jericho (31° 52' N. 35° 26' E.), 42. - - Elusa (31° 3' N. 34° 40' E.), 57. I. - - Emesa or Hemesa, mod. Homs (34° 43' N. 36° 40' E.), 13, - 135, 136, 204, 212. V. - - Engedi (31° 28' N. 35° 23' E.), 38. I. - - En Rogel (Virgin's Fountain), (31° 46' N. 35° 14' E.), 26. - - Ernuald, chateau (31° 22' N. 35° 5' E.), 107. - - Ernoul, chronicle, 11. - - Esdraelon or Jezreel, plain (32° 33' N. 35° 19' E.), 71, 86. I. - - Eshtaol (31° 47' N. 35° E.), 49. - - Etam, rock (31° 44' N. 35° 3' E.), 49. - - Esh el Ghurab, in Jordan valley, 73. - - Ethnology of Palestine, 228. - - Eusebius, Onomasticon, 3. - - - Fabri, Felix, 14. - - Fellahin of Palestine, 61. - - Fergusson, Mr., 177. - - Fusail, Wady (Phasaelis), (32° 5' N. 35° 30' E.), 79. - - - Gadara (32° 41' N. 35° 42' E.), 77. I. - - Galilee, Sea of (32° 50' N. 35° 35' E.), 98. I. - - Gamala (32° 45' N. 35° 33' E.), 100. - - Ganneau, Clermont, 49. - - Gath (31° 42' N. 34° 50' E.), 50. I. - - Gaza (31° 30' N. 34° 27' E.), 50, 51, 115. I. - - Gebal or Byblos, 199. - - Genesis, Book of, 239. - - Geological notes, 77, 214. - - Gerar (31° 24' N. 34° 26' E.), 52. I. - - Gerasa (32° 17' N. 35° 55' E.), 179. I. - - Gerizim, Mount (32° 12' N. 35° 16' E.), 63, 70, 173. I. - - Gezer (31° 51' N. 34° 55' E.), 115. - - Gibeon (31° 51' N. 35° 11' E.), 233. I. - - Gibilin, castle (31° 37' N. 34° 55' E.), 107, 108. - - Gilboa (32° 28' N. 35° 25' E.), 85. I. - - Gilead (32° 15' N. 35° 45' E.), 171. IV. - - Gilgal (51° 51' N. 35° 29' E.), 43. I. - - Girdlestone, Rev. R. B., 180. - - Goblan en Nimr, Sheikh, 138, 141, 165. - - Golgotha. _See_ Calvary. - - Gordon, General, 30, 37. - - Gotapata (32° 50' N. 35° 17' E.), 102. V. - - Graham, Cyril, 188. - - Greeks in Palestine, 8, 174. - - Guthe, Dr., 27. - - - Hadanieh (31° 45' N. 35° 45' S.), 153. - - Hamam, Wady (32° 50' N. 35° 30' E.), 99. - - Hamath (35° 8' N. 36° 42' E.), 137, 200. - - Hammath (32° 46' N. 35° 33' E.), 77, 100. I. - - Hammon (33° 7' N. 35° 10' E.), 110. - - Haris, Kefr (32° 7' N. 35° 9' E.), 70. - - Hasbany, river, Upper Jordan (33° 20' N. 35° 35' E.), 116. I. - - Hasbeya (33° 25' N. 35° 40' E.), 127. I. - - Hatta (32° 7' N. 34° 57' E.), 51. - - Hattin (32° 48' N. 35° 25' E.), 92, 96. VI. - - Hauran (32° 45' N. 35° 25' E.), 188. I. - - Hebron (31° 32' N. 35° 6' E.), 32, 41. I. - - Heitat, 211. - - Heliopolis. _See_ Baalbek. - - Hermon (33° 24' N. 35° 47' E.), 73, 116, 127, 129. I. - - Heshbon (31° 48' N. 35° 48' E.), 141, 157. - - Hezekiah's "waterworks" at Jerusalem, 26, 28. I., inset. - - Hieroglyphics, Hittite, 240. - - Hieromax. _See_ Jabbok. - - Hippos, mod. Susieh (32° 43' N. 35° 37' E.), 20, 100, 187. I. - - Hittites, 51, 54, 115, 135, 197, 198 (portraits), 241. - - Hivites of Shechem, 54. - - Homs, anc. Emesa (34° 43' N. 36° 40' E.), 13, 135, 136, 204, 212. VI. - - Hospitallers, their castles, 108. - - Huleh, lake (33° 4' N. 35° 37' E.), 107, 129. I. - - Hull, Prof., 20, 215, 220. - - - Ibelin, castle (31° 52' N. 34° 44' E.), 107. VI. - - Inscriptions, early, 173, 180, 186, 188, 199, 202. - _See_ also Moabite stone, Siloam. - - Irby and Mangles, 15. - - Islam in Palestine, 122, 231. - - Ismailiyeh, sect of the, 119. - - - Jabbok or Hieromax (32° N. 35° 32' E.), 72. I. - - Jacob's ford (33° 1' N. 35° 37' E.), 107. VI. - - Jacob's Well (32° 13' N. 35° 17' E.), 63. - - Jaffa (32° 3' N. 34° 45' E.), 22. I. - - Jahalin Arabs (31° 10' N. 35° 15' E.), 38. VII. - - Jamnia (31° 51' N. 34° 44' E.), 90, I. - - Jaulan (32° 55' N. 35° 45' E.), 99, 186. I. - - Jeba (31° 51' N. 35° 45' E.), 155. - - Jenin (32° 28' N. 35° 18' E.), 15. I. - - Jericho (31° 52' N. 35° 27' E.), 35, 42. I. - - Jerusalem (31° 47' N. 35° 14' E.), 21; - Temple of Herod, 24, 246; - Antonia citadel, 25; - Holy Sepulchre, 243; - Bethesda, 25. I., inset. - - Jeshanah (31° 58' N. 35° 17' E.), 88. - - Jeshimon or desert of Judah (q.v.). - - Jezreel or Esdraelon (32° 33' N. 35° 19' E.), 71, 74, 86, 88, 92. I. - - Jideid, Wady (31° 45' N. 35° 45' E.), 142. - - Job, Book of, 237. - - Johnson, J. A., 200. - - Joinville, 12. - - Jordan (source, 33° 27' N. 35° 42' E.), 71, 116. - - Jordan valley canal, 77. - - Josephus, the historian, 2, 102, 193, 246. - - Joshua's tomb, (32° 7' N. 35° 9' E.), 70. - - Judah, desert of, or Jeshimon (31° 30' N. 35° 18' E.), 35, 41, 160. I. - - Judas Maccabaeus, 46. - - Julias. _See_ Bethsaida. - - - Kadesh (34° 28' N. 36° 30' E.), 71, 135, 198. IV. - - Kanah village (33° 12' N. 35° 18' E.), 110. I. - - Kedron. _See_ Kidron. - - Kefr (Arabic) = village. _See_ Kefr Haris, &c. - - Kelt or Cherith, brook (31° 50' N. 35° 20' E.), 42, 45. I. - - Kerak, anc. Tarichaea (32° 43' N. 35° 34' E.)., 99. V. - - Kerak, anc. Kir Moab (31° 10' N. 35° 45' E.).[, 41. I. - - Kheta. _See_ Hittites. - - Kidron, brook (31° 46' N. 35° 14' E.), 26. I., inset. - - Kir Moab. _See_ Kerak. - - Kishon, river, (32° 49' N. 35° 2' E.), 92. I. - - Kitchener, Lieut., 83, 105. - - Kokaba (33° 26' N. 36° 10' E.), 20, 187. I. - - Kom Yajuz (32° 2' N. 35° 56' E.), 154. - - Krak des Chevaliers, mod. Kala't el Hosn (34° 45' N. - 36° 17' E.), 107, 108, 109, 193, 212. VI. - - Kud, Kefr (32° 35' N. 35° 10' E.), 15. - - Kuleib or Kleb, Jebel (32° 36' N. 36° 37' E.), 188. I. - - Kurn Sartaba. _See_ Sartaba. - - Kusr Hajlah (31° 48' N. 35° 28' E.), 44. - - - Landberg, Mr. C., 243. - - Languages of Palestine, 60. - - Latakia (35° 30' N. 35° 48' E.) - - Litani, river (33° 20' N. 35° 15' E.), 131, 191. I. - - Lebanon, 131, 191. I.; - cedars of, 208. - - Legends, Arab, 162. - - Legio (32° 35' N. 35° 10' E.), 84. V. - - Lejah (33° 5' N. 35° 20' E.), 186. I. - - Lewis, Prof. Hayter, 245, 247. - - Lynch, 16. - - - Magdala (32° 50' N. 35° 31' E.), 91, 100. I. - - Maimonides, 96. - - Majuma (31° 31' N. 34° 25' E.), 50. V. - - Maleh, Wady (32° 22' N. 35° 33' E.), 76, 78. - - Mandeville, Sir John, 13. - - Mantell, Lieut., 27, 111, 135, 138, 154. - - Mareighat, el (31° 39' N. 35° 42' E.), 147. - - Margat, castle (35° 9' N. 35° 58' E.), 108. - - Mar Marrina, near Tripolis, on coast, 45. - - Maronites, 120. - - Marsaba monastery (St. Saba), (31° 42' N. 35° 20' E.), 37. VI. - - Masada (mod. Sebbeh), (31° 19' N. 35° 22' E.), (siege by the Romans), 39. I. - - Mashita (palace of Chosroes), (31° 45' N. 36° 5' E.), 177. I. - - Maundrell, 15. - - Medeba (31° 42' N. 35° 48' E.), 157. I. - - Megiddo (mod. Mujedda), (32° 28' N. 35° 28' E.), 83, 85. I. - - Meirun (in Galilee), (33° N. 35° 27' E.), 106. - - Mejr ed Din, 14. - - Merash (N. Syria), (37° 33' N. 36° 53' E.), 110. - - Michmash (31° 53' N. 35° 17' E.), 32. I. - - Mirabel, castle (32° 7' N. 34° 55' E.), 107. VI. - - Moab (31° 20' N. 35° 43' E.), 134. I. - - Moabite stone, 145, 157. - - Modin (mod. Medyeh), (31° 56' N. 34° 59' E.), 47. - - Mont Ferrand (34° 53' N. 36° 25' E.), 107. - - Montfort (mod. el Kurein), (33° 3' N. 35° 12' E.), 107. VI. - - Montreal (30° 27' N. 35° 37' E.), 107. - - Moreh, plain of (E. of Shechem), 63. - - - Nablus (anc. Shechem), (32° 13' N. 35° 15' E.), 59. I. - - Nain, view of (32° 38' N. 35° 20' E.), 93. I. - - Naphtali, mts. of (33° N. 35° 30' E.), 83. IV. - - Nazareth (32° 42' N. 35° 18' E.), 94. I. - - Nebi Dhahy (32° 37' N. 35° 20' E.), 86. - - Nebi Samwil (31° 50' N. 35° 10' E.), 160. I. - - Nebo, Mount (31° 46' N. 35° 45' E.), 154, 157. I. - - Negeb, plain (31° N. 34° 45' E.), 52. I. - - Nehaliel (mod Zerka Main), (31° 36' N. 35° 34' E.), 161. I. - - Neubauer, 100. - - Nuseir Arabs (32° N. 35° 30' E.), 42. VII. - - - Orontes, river (mouth 36° 3' N. 36° E.), 191. - - Ortelius, map of, 14. - - Osha, Jebel (32° 5' N. 35° 42' E.), 160. I. - - - Palestine Exploration Fund, 19, 23. - - Palmer, Prof., 220. - - Palmyra (34° 40' N. 38° 5' E.), 205. - - Paula's Travels, 4. - - Pelerin, Mont (near Tripolis), 107. - - Pella (32° 29' N. 35° 37' E.), 76. I. - - Peretie, M., 191. - - Petra (30° 16' N. 35° 33' E.), 146. - - Peutinger's Table, 4. - - Phasaelis (mod. Fusail), (32° 5' N. 35° 30' E.), 79. I. - - Philadelphia (mod. Amman), 171. I. - - Philistia (31° 30' N. 34° 30' E.), 35, 36, 50. IV. - - Phoenicia, 109. - - Phoenician Antiquities, 118. - - Phocas, John, 9. - - Pisgah (31° 46' N. 35° 43' E.), 154. I. - - Poloner, John, 14. - - Porter, 16. - - "Poulains," 229. - - Procopius (in Palestine), 5. - - Ptolemy's map of Palestine, 2. - - - Quarantania (31° 52' N. 35° 22' E.), - 160. VII. - - - Rabbath Ammon (mod. Amman), (31° 57' N. 35° 56' E.), 143, 154, 171, 175. I. - - Rakkath (32° 47' N. 35° 32' E.), 100. - - Ramadan, fast, 56. - - Ramoth Gilead (32° 16' N. 35° 50' E.), 185. I. - - Rawlinson, Sir Henry, 241. - - Raymond of Tripolis, 97. - - Rehoboth (30° 59' N. 34° 34' E.), 52. I. - - Reimun (32° 16' N. 35° 50' E.), 185. I. - - Renan, M., 110, 191. - - Renaud of Chatillon, 98. - - Rey, M. E., 107, 109. - - Richard Lion-heart, 11, 47. - - Robinson, Dr. (portrait), 16, 27, 30, 95, 101. - - Rubud (32° 22' N. 35° 38' E.), 185. VI. - - Russian monastery at Kusr Hajleh (31° 48' N. 35° 28' E.), 44. - - - Sabbatic river (34° 40' N. 36° 20' E.), 192, 193. - - Saewulf's pilgrimage, 9. - - Safed (32° 58' N. 35° 30' E.), 77, 92, 104. I. - - St. John of Chozeboth (31° 50' N. 35° 32' E.), 45. V. - - Salt, es (32° 2' N. 35° 44' E.), 185. I. - - Samaria (32° 17' N. 35° 11' E.), 59, 67. I. - - Samaritans, sect of, 64. - - Sambation. _See_ Sabbatic. - - Samson's exploits, 49. - - Sannin, Jebel (33° 58' N. 35° 50' E.), 132. I. - - Sanuto, Marino, 12. - - Saone (castle in N. Syria), 107. - - Sartaba, Kurn (or Surtubeh), (32° 7' N. 35° 26' E.), 43, 68, 69. I. - - Sardenay (33° 42' N. 36° 20' E.), 210. VI. - - Saron. _See_ Sharon. - - Saulcy, M. de, 16. - - Sayce, Professor, 27. - - Schick, Konrad, 20. - - Schumacher, G., 20, 100, 187. - - Seetzen, 15. - - Seffurieh (32° 45' N. 35° 16' E.), 92. I. - - Seleucia (36° 9' N. 35° 57' E.), 191, 196. - - Sepphoris (mod. Seffurieh), 92, 97. V. - - Sepulchres and tombs, 176, 225. - - Shabatuna, Hittite city near Sabbatic river, 198. - - Sharon, plain of (32° 30' N. 34° 55' E.), 35, 48, 70. I. - - Shechem (mod. Nablus), (32° 13' N. 35° 15' E.), 31, 59, 63, 64. I. - - Shems-ed-din el Mukkadasi, 7. - - Shephelah (31° 40' N. 34° 55' E.), 35, 36, 46. I. - - Shittim, plain of (31° 50' N. 35° 35' E.), 141. I. - - Shunem (32° 36' N. 35° 20' E.), 93. I. - - Sidon (33° 34' N. 35° 22' E.), 113. I. - - Siloam (31° 46' N. 35° 14' E.), pool, 27; - inscription, 26, 28. I., inset. - - Simon the Stylite, 207. - - Sinnabris (32° 44' N. 35° 33' E.), 100. V. - - Sipylus, Mount, North of Homs, 198. - - Solomon, Song of, 238. - - Sorek, Valley of (31° 56' N. 34° 42' E.), 49. I. - - Stewart, Capt., 31. - - Stone monuments, 106, 128, 143, 150, 175; - comp. Dolmen, Cromlech. - - Survey work, 59, 80. - - Susieh. _See_ Hippos. - - Sychar (mod. Askar), 32° 13' N. 35° 17' E.), 63. I. - - - Taamireh tribe (31° 35' N. 35° 15' E.), 38. VII. - - Taanach (32° 31' N. 35° 13' E.), 84. IV. - - Tabor, Mount (32° 41' N. 35° 23' E.), 85, 86, 87. - - Tadmor (Palmyra), (34° 40' N. 38° 5' E.), 205. - - Taphilah (Tophel), (30° 50' N. 35° 37' E.), 107. I. - - Taricheoe, mod. Kerak (32° 43' N. 35° 34' E.), 100. V. - - Taiyibeh (31° 57' N. 35° 18' E.). - - Templars, Knight, 97; - their castles, 107. - - Theodorus on Palestine, 5. - - Thomson, 16. - - Tiberias or Rakkath (32° 47' N. 35° 32' E.), 90, 97, 100. I. - - Tibneh (32° 30' N. 35° 45' E.), 185. I. - - Tobler, 15. - - Tombs, ancient, 176, 225. - - Toron, now Tibnin (33° 10' N. 35° 20' E.), 106. VI. - - Tortosa (34° 54' N. 35° 53' E.), 210; - castle 108. - - Tripoli (34° 27' N. 35° 40' E.), 194. V., VI., VII. - - Tristram, Dr., 162, 177, 216, 220. - - Tunep, mod. Tennib, 197. - - Turkomans in Palestine, 71, 136. - - Tyre (33° 16' N. 35° 12' E.), 111. I. - - Tyrus, mod. Arak el Emir (31° 52' N. 35° 43' E.), 171. V. - - - Umm el Amed (33° 8' N. 35° 9' E.), 110. - - Umm ez Zeinat (32° 39' N. 35° 4' E.), 89. - - - Velde, Van de, 16. - - Vinsauf, Geoffrey de, 11, 47. - - Vogue, M. de, 9, 16 172, 180, 187, 190. - - Volcanic action, 77. - - Volcanic outbreaks on Carmel, 215. - - - Waddington, 17. - - Warren, Sir C., 18, 23, 24, 27, 138, 180. - - William of Tyre, 8. - - Willibald, St., 6. - - Wilson, Sir C. W., 17, 23, 27, 33, 72, 100, 102. - - - Yermuk, river (32° 38' N. 35° 34' E.), 189. I. - - Yukin of the Kenites (31° 30' N. 35° 9' E.), 160. - - - Zerka Main (anc. Callirhoe), 160. - - Zophim, field of (31° 45' N. 35° 46' E.), 159. - - Zoreah, Zareah or Zorah (31° 47' N. 34° 59' E.), 49. - -[Illustration: PALESTINE. - -PHYSICAL.] - -[Illustration: PALESTINE. - -GEOLOGICAL.] - -[Illustration: PALESTINE as divided among the TWELVE TRIBES.] - -[Illustration: PALESTINE in the Beginning of the CHRISTIAN ERA.] - -[Illustration: The Kingdom of JERUSALEM Shewing the Fiefs. About 1187 -A.D.] - -[Illustration: MODERN PALESTINE Shewing TURKISH PROVINCES.] - - * * * * * - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] The latitudes and longitudes given by Ptolemy (see Reland's -_Palestina Illustrata_, p. 456-466) are not reliable. Those nearest the -coast are the most correct; those farther east are very wild. The little -sketch given above sufficiently illustrates this. - -[2] Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, No. V., translated by Aubrey -Stewart, M.A., annotated by Sir C. W. Wilson. - -[3] Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, No. II., translated by Aubrey -Stewart, M.A., 1887. - -[4] See the Latin edition of Tobler. These are not yet published in -English translation. - -[5] Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, No. III., annotated by Professor -Hayter Lewis. - -[6] Ibid., No. I., translated by Aubrey Stewart, M.A., annotated by Sir -C. W. Wilson. - -[7] Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, No. X., translated and annotated -by Rev. J. R. Macpherson, B.D. - -[8] See Early Travels in Palestine, Bohn's Series. - -[9] See Early Travels in Palestine, Bohn's Series. - -[10] Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, No. IV., "El Mukaddasi," -translated by Mr. Guy Le Strange, 1886; No. IX., "Nasir i Khusrau," by -the same translator, 1888. - -[11] These works, with Jaques de Vitray (1220 A.D.) and Marino Sanuto -(1321 A.D.), I studied in the great collection of Latin Chronicles, also -containing William of Tyre, by Bongars, called _Gesta Dei per Francos_, -Hanover, 1611. - -[12] See Early Travels in Palestine, Bohn's Series. - -[13] Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, No. VI., annotated by Sir C. W. -Wilson. - -[14] Fetellus in Latin is given by De Vogue, _Eglises de la Terre -Sainte_, p. 410. This account was republished by Leo Allatius, under the -name of Eugesippus, in the thirteenth century. He dates it 1040, but the -true date appears to be 1151-57 A.D. - -[15] See the Latin version, Tobler's edition. Neither are yet published -in English. - -[16] Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, No. XI., translated by Aubrey -Stewart, M.A. This, like Fetellus, was recovered in MS. by Leo Allatius. - -[17] _Cartulaire de l'Eglise du S.S. de Jerusalem_, E. de Rosiere, -Paris, 1849. - -[18] See E. Rey's _Colonies Franques de Syrie_, Paris, 1883. The work, -however, remains to be further perfected by aid of the Survey map. I -find some 700 places mentioned in all in Western Palestine. - -[19] Early Travels in Palestine, Bohn's Series. - -[20] E. Carmoly, _Itineraires de La Terre Sainte_, Paris, 1847. - -[21] Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, No. VIII., translated from the -old French (edition of Societe de l'Orient Latin), by Major Conder, and -annotated by him with map of Jerusalem in 1187 A.D. - -[22] See Chronicles of the Crusades, Bohn's Series, for both these -works. Other accounts of the thirteenth century, which, however, are -less valuable, are those by Willibrand of Oldenburgh, Tetmar, Epiphanius -of Hagiopolis, and Brocardus. - -[23] Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, No. VII. - -[24] For these two, see Early Travels in Palestine, Bonn's Series. - -[25] See the Latin text, Tobler's edition. - -[26] The best and most recent translations are by Mr. Guy Le Strange. - -[27] Early Travels in Palestine, Bonn's Series. - -[28] Memoirs of the Survey of Western Palestine, Jerusalem volume. Tent -Work in Palestine, vol. i. chaps. xi., xii. See also Conder's Handbook -to the Bible, Part II. chaps. vii., viii. Palestine Pilgrims' Text -Society's publications; and Picturesque Palestine (edited by Sir C. W. -Wilson.) - -[29] For those who are unfamiliar with the methods of professional -surveyors, it is perhaps well here to state distinctly that the -professional opinion as to the level of the rock throughout the city and -the Temple area does not depend on "imaginary contours," but on a large -number of observations of level. The rock base of the mountains is fixed -in seventy-five places throughout the Temple area, and in more than 120 -other places in the city by excavations, where it is not seen on the -surface. In some of the most important parts long sections were visible -in the great reservoirs recently excavated. On the little Ophel spur -alone fifty such measurements were taken by Sir Charles Warren, besides -the 200 above mentioned. There is thus no doubt in the mind of any one -who knows these facts as to the position of the hills and depth and -width of the ancient valleys; and the imaginary gully which some -theorists have drawn on their maps to suit the requirements of their -version of Josephus' account has decidedly no existence. - -The south-east corner of the Temple was the most important to fix, in -view of conflicting theories. It was at this corner that the Ophel wall -joined the "eastern cloister of the Temple" (Josephus, V. Wars, iv. 2). -Sir Charles Warren found this wall joining the east wall of the Haram at -the present south-east angle of the Haram, and thus appears to have set -the question at rest, if Josephus' account is to be received. This -question is fully treated in Conder's Handbook to the Bible, pp. -366-368, third edition. - -[30] The Jewish tradition was first published in "Tent Work in -Palestine" in 1878. The account of this question, given by Mr. L. -Oliphant in "Haifa," is abstracted from my later paper in the Jerusalem -volume of the Survey Memoirs, published in 1881, and again in 1883, -where I have given the Talmudic passages in full. Many other writers -have also copied my account since. - -[31] See Early Travels in Palestine, Bohn's Series, p. 86. - -[32] See the full account in the Memoirs of the Survey, vol. iii. - -[33] Something of the kind, but better drawn, exists on the walls of the -Lady Chapel at Winchester, the work, I believe, of Flemish artists of -the fifteenth century, representing the miracles of the Virgin. Those at -Mar Marrina are probably not later than the thirteenth century. - -[34] Judas Maccabaeus. Marcus Ward, 1879. - -[35] This is usually written Nablous, but the accent is on the first -syllable. - -[36] I have published a paper on this subject in the Palestine -Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement for July 1889. - -[37] See Memoirs of Palestine Survey, Vol. Special Papers. This -chronicle was edited and published by Dr. Neubauer in 1869. The -Samaritan Book of Joshua was published by Juynboll in 1848. - -[38] The following are the Kings said in the Book of Kings to have been -buried at Samaria:--Omri, Ahab, Ahaziah (probably), Jehu, Jehoahaz, -Joash, Jeroboam II., Menahem (probably). - -[39] Conder's Handbook to the Bible (3rd edit.), p. 310. - -[40] The fallacy of this scheme I pointed out in a well known magazine -in 1883. My arguments are also reproduced by Mr. L. Oliphant in "Haifa." - -[41] The details of this discovery are recorded in the "Memoirs of the -Survey," vol. ii. pp. 90-99. - -[42] The question is worked out in detail in the Survey Memoirs. See my -note, vol. i. p. 367, and cf. p. 392. The Crusaders called Kefr Kenna -the Casale Robert, from its owner. - -[43] Sinnabris I recovered, in 1872, from a list of ruins kindly -prepared by a resident. It was afterwards fixed by the surveyors. The -identity of Hippos and Susieh was suggested by Dr. Neubauer in 1868, and -the site has been recently discovered by Herr Schumacher. - -[44] The Druzes took from the older Ismailiyeh sect the words _Natek_ -and _Asas_, which are not Semitic words. They represent the two powers -in Nature. The first might be connected with the Mongol word _Natagai_ -for the chief deity, and the latter with the word _Asa_ for "god" in the -same language. - -[45] The immorality of the Palestine peasantry, though hidden by their -decent manners, is, I have been assured by respectable residents, very -great. Their vengeance on women who have gone astray is often very -savage. I have visited a cavern in the Judean hills with a deep pit in -it, down which such unfortunate women used to be thrown, and I believe -there is another in the Lebanon. - -[46] This theory I put forward in 1883. The late Dr. Birch held the same -view. Dr. Isaac Taylor in 1887 published his belief that the Hittites -were Mongolians. Mr. G. Bertin, the Akkadian scholar, favours the same -conclusion. At the British Association, 1888, Professor Sayce admitted -that the general opinion favoured this view. - -[47] See "Heth and Moab," chaps, vii., viii. - -[48] An antiquary familiar with Indian and British stone monuments, -writing from Edinburgh, tells me that "cups and smoothed sloping hollows -are common enough in Keltic standing-stones. The best I have seen," he -adds, "are the two on the _menhirs_ east and west of the Frodart parish -church, Strathpeffer. I think they were swearing-holes, in which the -vower placed his fingers, for they are worn as smooth as glass." - -[49] See a detailed note, Pal. Expl. Quarterly Statement, January 1885. - -[50] This curious connection between churches and rude stone monuments, -also remarked in Britain and in France, is no doubt explained by Pope -Gregory's letter (Greg. Pap. Epist., xi. 71), advising the early -missionaries not to suppress the rites and sanctuaries of the Saxons, -but to reconsecrate them to Christian use. - -[51] The practice has also been noted at Kerlescant in Brittany, at -Rollrich, and at Ardmore. There is a similar rite in China of "passing -the door" to cure sickness. In Cornwall, the Men-an-tol, or -"holed-stone," near Morvah, is a stone ring two feet in diameter, -flanked by two _menhirs_ in a line which passes through the -hole.--Dymond, Journal, Brit. Arch. Assoc, June 30, 1877. - -[52] The following are the principal groups which I drew and measured:-- - - El Maslubiyeh, south of Nebo 150 examples. - El Mareighat, farther south 150 " - El Kurmiyeh, west of Heshbon 50 " - Tell Mataba' and neighbourhood 300 " - Amman, in Mount Gilead 20 " - -In some cases rows of these monuments exist almost touching each other -on the hillsides. - -[53] The Rev. E. B. Savage, writing to me from the Isle of Man, says, -"These cup-hollows are used to the present day in remote parts of Norway -for making offerings to the spirits of the departed, such as lard, -honey, butter, &c." - -[54] One of these places visited by Balaam was called Bamoth Baal, and -appears to be a hill now covered with dolmens. The word _Bamah_ (plural -_Bamoth_) is rendered "high place," and is sometimes connected with -sepulture (Ezek. xliii. 7; Isaiah liii. 9). Gesenius compares the Greek -_B[=o]mos_, a sepulchral mound or an altar. On the Moabite Stone the word -occurs as meaning the stone itself. It seems probable, therefore, that -the Bamoth were rude stone monuments. - -[55] The height of Mount Nebo is 2643.8 feet above the Mediterranean. -The western watershed is from 3000 to 2500 feet above the same level. - -[56] Sir C. Wilson, however, places these in the Jordan Valley. - -[57] Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, September 1870, -October 1882, April 1883. I find that my copy supplies a few words not -in the earlier copies, and is deficient in some letters previously -visible. - -[58] The letters are Greek capitals, written on the stylobate of the -southern temple. Pertinax was a Piedmontese. He was prefect of a cohort -in Syria during the Parthian war, when he may very well have visited -Gerasa. He was afterwards consular legate of Syria, and Emperor from 1st -January to 29th March 193 A.D. - -[59] See Schrader, Cuneiform Inscriptions and Old Testament, pp. 25 and -50. Pinches' Proc. Bib. Arch. Soc, November 1885. - -[60] See George Smith's Account. Quarterly Statement Pal. Expl. Fund, -October 1872. - -[61] The confusion of chronology, due to the hasty identification of -this prince with Ahab of Israel, has led scholars of late to replace -Sirlai in the Lebanon. - -[62] The Turkic princes used armorial bearings before they came into use -in Europe. - -[63] Native Syrians state that the Metawileh (who are of Persian origin) -are usually blue-eyed. They inhabit Upper Galilee and the hills east of -Sidon. - -[64] The so-called "Hittite" system. The monuments in this character as -yet found _in situ_ occur in Armenia, Asia Minor, and Northern Syria. -The most southerly sculpture of the kind yet known was discovered in a -mound near Damascus excavated by Sir C. W. Wilson. The earliest found -examples were five stones at Hamath, one of which Buckhardt saw. Other -examples were discovered at Aleppo, and by George Smith at Carchemish. -The system as at present known includes about 130 signs, some fifty of -which are very frequently repeated. There is no doubt that these read -(like the early Akkadian texts) in lines with syllables arranged in -columns. Some of the emblems resemble those found in the earliest -examples of other Asiatic systems (Egyptian, Akkadian, and Old Chinese), -and by analogy it is probable that each emblem represents a word--noun, -verb, or other grammatical form. My reasons for supposing the language -to be a Turkic or Mongolic dialect are simple. 1st, The names of -Hittites and Hittite cities known to us appear to be in such a dialect; -2nd, the short bilingual agrees with this view; and 3rd, the commonest -signs (of which we know the sound through later hieratic forms) can be -shown to represent common Mongolic words, such as pronouns and -case-endings, &c. Many other suggestions have been made for comparing -with Hebrew, Georgian, Armenian, and Egyptian, but in no case has it -been shown that these languages supply a key to the sounds or to the -bilingual. Take, for instance, the Hittite royal title _Tarku_. It -exists only in the Turanian languages--Turkic _Tarkan_, Mongol _Dargo_, -Cossack _Turughna_, Etruscan _Tarchu_ and _Tarquin_, all meaning "a -chief." The number of words which I have so compared now amounts to a -hundred in all, and I believe it places the character of the language on -a sound and scientific basis.--See Journal Anthropological Institute, -August 1889. - -[65] Proverbes et Dictons du Peuple Arabe, vol. i. Saida. Carlo -Landberg. Leyden, 1883. - -[66] As an example of the inexactitude of Josephus' measurements, I may -instance the length which he gives for the Samaria colonnade (Ant., XV. -viii. 5). He gives 20 furlongs or 12,000 feet, the real length being -5500 feet. Again, he says that the harbour at Caesarea equalled the -Piraeus (Ant., XV. ix. 6). The Piraeus was twenty times as large as the -Caesarea harbour. He makes the third wall of Jerusalem 8000 yards long, -yet he gives the total circuit of the city as 6600 yards long in the -same account (Wars, V. iv. 3). He places Gabaoth Saule four miles from -Jerusalem in one passage (Wars, V. ii. 1), and nearly double that -distance in another (Wars, II. xix. 1), the real distance being 5-1/2 -miles. It has long been known that the chronological calculations of -Josephus do not agree together, either through his own inaccuracy or -through the corruptions of copyists (see the foundation of the Temple in -the eighteenth year of Herod, Ant., XV. xi. 1; or in the fifteenth, -Wars, I. xxi. 1), and the comparisons which Josephus gives between -Jewish and Greek weights in eight different passages do not agree in any -one instance. The historian wrote in Rome in 75 and 93 A.D. Such is the -accuracy of the author whom a critic like Dr. Robertson Smith is -disposed to quote against the results of actual measurements of walls -and rock, which are exact within the decimal of a foot. The general -statements of Josephus are very valuable, but his measurements are quite -unreliable. - - - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Palestine, by Claude Reignier Conder - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PALESTINE *** - -***** This file should be named 43588.txt or 43588.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/5/8/43588/ - -Produced by Heiko Evermann, Chuck and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was -created from images of public domain material made available -by the University of Toronto Libraries -(http://link.library.utoronto.ca/booksonline/).) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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