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diff --git a/43433-tei/43433-tei.tei b/43433-tei/43433-tei.tei new file mode 100644 index 0000000..57a408a --- /dev/null +++ b/43433-tei/43433-tei.tei @@ -0,0 +1,36176 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?> + +<!DOCTYPE TEI.2 SYSTEM "http://www.gutenberg.org/tei/marcello/0.4/dtd/pgtei.dtd" [ + +<!ENTITY u5 "http://www.tei-c.org/Lite/"> + +]> + +<TEI.2 lang="en"> +<teiHeader> + <fileDesc> + <titleStmt> + <title>The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion (Third Edition, Vol. 11 of 12)</title> + <title type="sub">Balder the Beautiful, Vol. 2 of 2.</title> + <author><name reg="Frazer, James George">James George Frazer</name></author> + </titleStmt> + <editionStmt> + <edition n="3">Edition 3</edition> + </editionStmt> + <publicationStmt> + <publisher>Project Gutenberg</publisher> + <date>July 9, 2013</date> + <idno type="etext-no">43433</idno> + <availability> + <p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and + with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it + away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg + License online at www.gutenberg.org/license</p> + </availability> + </publicationStmt> + <sourceDesc> + <bibl> + Created electronically. + </bibl> + </sourceDesc> + </fileDesc> + <encodingDesc> + </encodingDesc> + <profileDesc> + <langUsage> + <language id="en"></language> + <language id="sa"></language> + <language id="la"></language> + <language id="de"></language> + <language id="fr"></language> + <language id="ar"></language> + <language id="sv"></language> + <language id="gv"></language> + <language id="el"></language> + <language id="nl"></language> + <language id="kw"></language> + <language id="zh"></language> + <language id="cy"></language> + <language id="es"></language> + <language id="it"></language> + <language id="gd"></language> + </langUsage> + </profileDesc> + <revisionDesc> + <change> + <date value="2013-08-09">July 9, 2013</date> + <respStmt> + <name> + Produced by David Edwards, David King, and the Online + Distributed Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. + (This file was produced from images generously + made available by The Internet Archive.) + </name> + </respStmt> + <item>Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1</item> + </change> + </revisionDesc> +</teiHeader> + +<pgExtensions> + <pgStyleSheet> + .boxed { x-class: boxed } + .shaded { x-class: shaded } + .rules { x-class: rules; rules: all } + .indent { margin-left: 2 } + .bold { font-weight: bold } + .italic { font-style: italic } + .smallcaps { font-variant: small-caps } + </pgStyleSheet> + + <pgCharMap formats="txt.iso-8859-1"> + <char id="U0x2014"> + <charName>mdash</charName> + <desc>EM DASH</desc> + <mapping>--</mapping> + </char> + <char id="U0x2003"> + <charName>emsp</charName> + <desc>EM SPACE</desc> + <mapping> </mapping> + </char> + <char id="U0x2026"> + <charName>hellip</charName> + <desc>HORIZONTAL ELLIPSIS</desc> + <mapping>...</mapping> + </char> + </pgCharMap> +</pgExtensions> + +<text lang="en"> + <front> + <div> + <divGen type="pgheader" /> + </div> + <div> + <divGen type="encodingDesc" /> + </div> + + <div rend="page-break-before: always"> + <p rend="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center">The Golden Bough</p> + <p rend="font-size: x-large; text-align: center">A Study in Magic and Religion</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">By</p> + <p rend="font-size: x-large; text-align: center">James George Frazer, D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D.</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">Professor of Social Anthropology in the University of Liverpool</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Vol. XI. of XII.</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Part VII: Balder the Beautiful.</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">The Fire-Festivals of Europe and the Doctrine of the External Soul.</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Vol. 2 of 2.</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">New York and London</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">MacMillan and Co.</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">1913</p> + </div> + <div rend="page-break-before: always"> + <head>Contents</head> + <divGen type="toc" /> + </div> + + </front> +<body> + +<div> +<p rend='text-align: center'> +<figure url='images/cover.jpg' rend='width: 40%'> +<figDesc>Cover Art</figDesc> +</figure> +</p> +<p> +[Transcriber's Note: The above cover image was produced by the submitter at +Distributed Proofreaders, and is being placed into the public domain.] +</p> +</div> + +<pb n='001'/><anchor id='Pg001'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter VI. Fire-Festivals in Other Lands.</head> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='1. The Fire-walk.'/> +<head>§ 1. The Fire-walk.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Bonfires at +the Pongol +festival in +Southern +India.</note> +At first sight the interpretation of the European fire customs +as charms for making sunshine is confirmed by a parallel +custom observed by the Hindoos of Southern India at the +Pongol or Feast of Ingathering. The festival is celebrated +in the early part of January, when, according to Hindoo +astrologers, the sun enters the tropic of Capricorn, and the +chief event of the festival coincides with the passage of the +sun. For some days previously the boys gather heaps of +sticks, straw, dead leaves, and everything that will burn. On +the morning of the first day of the festival the heaps are +fired. Every street and lane has its bonfire. The young +folk leap over the flames or pile on fresh fuel. This fire is +an offering to Sûrya, the sun-god, or to Agni, the deity of +fire; it <q>wakes him from his sleep, calling on him again to +gladden the earth with his light and heat.</q><note place='foot'>Ch. E. Gover, <q>The Pongol +Festival in Southern India,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Royal Asiatic Society</hi>, N.S., v. +(1870) pp. 96 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> If this is +indeed the explanation which the people themselves give of +the festival, it seems decisive in favour of the solar explanation +of the fires; for to say that the fires waken the sun-god +from his sleep is only a metaphorical or mythical way +of saying that they actually help to rekindle the sun's light +and heat. But the hesitation which the writer indicates +between the two distinct deities of sun and fire seems to +prove that he is merely giving his own interpretation of +the rite, not reporting the views of the celebrants. If +<pb n='002'/><anchor id='Pg002'/> +that is so, the expression of his opinion has no claim to +authority. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Bonfires at +the Holi +festival in +Northern +India. +The village +priest +expected +to pass +through +the fire. +Leaping +over the +ashes of +the fire to +get rid of +disease.</note> +A festival of Northern India which presents points of +resemblance to the popular European celebrations which we +have been considering is the Holi. This is a village festival +held in early spring at the full moon of the month Phalgun. +Large bonfires are lit and young people dance round them. +The people believe that the fires prevent blight, and that +the ashes cure disease. At Barsana the local village priest +is expected to pass through the Holi bonfire, which, in the +opinion of the faithful, cannot burn him. Indeed he holds +his land rent-free simply on the score of his being fire-proof. +On one occasion when the priest disappointed the expectant +crowd by merely jumping over the outermost verge of the +smouldering ashes and then bolting into his cell, they +threatened to deprive him of his benefice if he did not discharge +his spiritual functions better when the next Holi +season came round. Another feature of the festival which +has, or once had, its counterpart in the corresponding +European ceremonies is the unchecked profligacy which +prevails among the Hindoos at this time.<note place='foot'>W. Crooke, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Religion and +Folk-lore of Northern India</hi> (Westminster, +1896), ii. 314 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Captain +G. R. Hearn, <q>Passing through the +Fire at Phalon,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Man</hi>, v. (1905) pp. +154 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> On the custom of walking +through fire, or rather over a furnace, +see Andrew Lang, <hi rend='italic'>Modern Mythology</hi> +(London, 1897), pp. 148-175; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +in <hi rend='italic'>Athenaeum</hi>, 26th August and 14th +October, 1899; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, in <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, xii. +(1901) pp. 452-455; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, in <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, +xiv. (1903) pp. 87-89. Mr. Lang was +the first to call attention to the wide +prevalence of the rite in many parts of +the world.</note> In Kumaon, a +district of North-West India, at the foot of the Himalayas, +each clan celebrates the Holi festival by cutting down a tree, +which is thereupon stripped of its leaves, decked with shreds of +cloth, and burnt at some convenient place in the quarter of +the town inhabited by the clan. Some of the songs sung +on this occasion are of a ribald character. The people leap +over the ashes of the fire, believing that they thus rid themselves +of itch and other diseases of the skin. While the +trees are burning, each clan tries to carry off strips of cloth +from the tree of another clan, and success in the attempt is +thought to ensure good luck. In Gwalior large heaps of +cow-dung are burnt instead of trees. Among the Marwaris +the festival is celebrated by the women with obscene songs +<pb n='003'/><anchor id='Pg003'/> +and gestures. A monstrous and disgusting image of a +certain Nathuram, who is said to have been a notorious +profligate, is set up in a bazaar and then smashed with blows +of shoes and bludgeons while the bonfire of cow-dung is +blazing. No household can be without an image of Nathuram, +and on the night when the bride first visits her husband, the +image of this disreputable personage is placed beside her +couch. Barren women and mothers whose children have +died look to Nathuram for deliverance from their troubles.<note place='foot'>Pandit Janardan Joshi, in <hi rend='italic'>North +Indian Notes and Queries</hi>, iii. pp. 92 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +§ 199 (September, 1893); W. Crooke, +<hi rend='italic'>Popular Religion and Folk-lore of +Northern India</hi> (Westminster, 1896), +ii. 318 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Various stories are told to account for the origin of the Holi +festival. According to one legend it was instituted in order +to get rid of a troublesome demon (<foreign lang='sa' rend='italic'>rákshasí</foreign>). The people +were directed to kindle a bonfire and circumambulate it, +singing and uttering fearlessly whatever might come into +their minds. Appalled by these vociferations, by the +oblations to fire, and by the laughter of the children, the +demon was to be destroyed.<note place='foot'>E. T. Atkinson, <q>Notes on the +History of Religion in the Himalayas of +the N.W. Provinces,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Asiatic Society of Bengal</hi>, liii. Part i. +(Calcutta, 1884) p. 60. Compare +W. Crooke, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Religion and Folk-lore +of Northern India</hi> (Westminster, +1896), ii. 313 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Vernal +festival +of fire in +China. Ceremony +to ensure +an abundant +year. Walking +through +the fire. Ashes of +the fire +mixed with +the fodder +of the +cattle.</note> +In the Chinese province of Fo-Kien we also meet with +a vernal festival of fire which may be compared to the fire-festivals +of Europe. The ceremony, according to an eminent +authority, is a solar festival in honour of the renewal of +vegetation and of the vernal warmth. It falls in April, on +the thirteenth day of the third month in the Chinese calendar, +and is doubtless connected with the ancient custom of +renewing the fire, which, as we saw, used to be observed in +China at this season.<note place='foot'>See above, vol. i. pp. 136 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The chief performers in the ceremony +are labourers, who refrain from women for seven days, +and fast for three days before the festival. During these +days they are taught in the temple how to discharge the +difficult and dangerous duty which is to be laid upon +them. On the eve of the festival an enormous brazier +of charcoal, sometimes twenty feet wide, is prepared in +front of the temple of the Great God, the protector of life. +At sunrise next morning the brazier is lighted and kept +<pb n='004'/><anchor id='Pg004'/> +burning by fresh supplies of fuel. A Taoist priest throws a +mixture of salt and rice on the fire to conjure the flames and +ensure an abundant year. Further, two exorcists, barefooted +and followed by two peasants, traverse the fire again and +again till it is somewhat beaten down. Meantime the procession +is forming in the temple. The image of the god of the +temple is placed in a sedan-chair, resplendent with red paint +and gilding, and is carried forth by a score or more of barefooted +peasants. On the shafts of the sedan-chair, behind the +image, stands a magician with a dagger stuck through the upper +parts of his arms and grasping in each hand a great sword, +with which he essays to deal himself violent blows on the back; +however, the strokes as they descend are mostly parried by +peasants, who walk behind him and interpose bamboo rods +between his back and the swords. Wild music now strikes +up, and under the excitement caused by its stirring strains +the procession passes thrice across the furnace. At their +third passage the performers are followed by other peasants +carrying the utensils of the temple; and the rustic mob, +electrified by the frenzied spectacle, falls in behind. Strange +as it may seem, burns are comparatively rare. Inured from +infancy to walking barefoot, the peasants can step with +impunity over the glowing charcoal, provided they plant +their feet squarely and do not stumble; for usage has so +hardened their soles that the skin is converted into a sort of +leathery or horny substance which is almost callous to heat. +But sometimes, when they slip and a hot coal touches the +sides of their feet or ankles, they may be seen to pull a wry +face and jump out of the furnace amid the laughter of the +spectators. When this part of the ceremony is over, the +procession defiles round the village, and the priests distribute +to every family a leaf of yellow paper inscribed with a magic +character, which is thereupon glued over the door of the +house. The peasants carry off the charred embers from the +furnace, pound them to ashes, and mix the ashes with the +fodder of their cattle, believing that it fattens them. However, +the Chinese Government disapproves of these performances, +and next morning a number of the performers may +generally be seen in the hands of the police, laid face downwards +on the ground and receiving a sound castigation on a +<pb n='005'/><anchor id='Pg005'/> +part of their person which is probably more sensitive than +the soles of their feet.<note place='foot'>G. Schlegel, <hi rend='italic'>Uranographie Chinoise</hi> +(The Hague and Leyden, 1875), pp. 143 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>La fête de fouler le feu +célébrée en Chine et par les Chinois +à Java,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Internationales Archiv für +Ethnographie</hi>, ix. (1896) pp. 193-195. +Compare J. J. M. de Groot, <hi rend='italic'>The +Religious System of China</hi>, vi. (Leyden, +1910) pp. 1292 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> According to +Professor Schlegel, the connexion +between this festival and the old custom +of solemnly extinguishing and relighting +the fire in spring is unquestionable.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Passage of +the image +of the deity +through +the fire. +Passage +of inspired +men +through +the fire in +India.</note> +In this last festival the essential feature of the ceremony +appears to be the passage of the image of the deity across +the fire; it may be compared to the passage of the straw +effigy of Kupalo across the midsummer bonfire in Russia.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Dying God</hi>, p. 262.</note> +As we shall see presently, such customs may perhaps be +interpreted as magical rites designed to produce light and +warmth by subjecting the deity himself to the heat +and glow of the furnace; and where, as at Barsana, +priests or sorcerers have been accustomed in the discharge +of their functions to walk through or over fire, they have +sometimes done so as the living representatives or embodiments +of deities, spirits, or other supernatural beings. Some +confirmation of this view is furnished by the beliefs and +practices of the Dosadhs, a low Indian caste in Behar and +Chota Nagpur. On the fifth, tenth, and full-moon days of +three months in the year, the priest walks over a narrow +trench filled with smouldering wood ashes, and is supposed +thus to be inspired by the tribal god Rahu, who becomes +incarnate in him for a time. Full of the spirit and also, it +is surmised, of drink, the man of god then mounts a bamboo +platform, where he sings hymns and distributes to the crowd +leaves of <foreign rend='italic'>tulsi</foreign>, which cure incurable diseases, and flowers +which cause barren women to become happy mothers. The +service winds up with a feast lasting far into the night, at +which the line that divides religious fervour from drunken +revelry cannot always be drawn with absolute precision.<note place='foot'>(Sir) H. H. Risley, <hi rend='italic'>Tribes and +Castes of Bengal, Ethnographic Glossary</hi> +(Calcutta, 1891-1892), i. 255 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +Compare W. Crooke, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Religion +and Folk-lore of Northern India</hi> (Westminster, +1896), i. 19; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Tribes and +Castes of the North-Western Provinces +and Oudh</hi> (Calcutta, 1896), ii. 355. +According to Sir Herbert Risley, the +trench filled with smouldering ashes is +so narrow (only a span and a quarter +wide) <q>that very little dexterity would +enable a man to walk with his feet on +either edge, so as not to touch the +smouldering ashes at the bottom.</q></note> +Similarly the Bhuiyas, a Dravidian tribe of Mirzapur, worship +<pb n='006'/><anchor id='Pg006'/> +their tribal hero Bir by walking over a short trench filled with +fire, and they say that the man who is possessed by the hero +does not feel any pain in the soles of his feet.<note place='foot'>W. Crooke, <hi rend='italic'>Tribes and Castes of +the North-Western Provinces and Oudh</hi>, +ii. 82.</note> Ceremonies +of this sort used to be observed in most districts of the Madras +Presidency, sometimes in discharge of vows made in time of +sickness or distress, sometimes periodically in honour of a +deity. Where the ceremony was observed periodically, it +generally occurred in March or June, which are the months of +the vernal equinox and the summer solstice respectively. A +narrow trench, sometimes twenty yards long and half a foot +deep, was filled with small sticks and twigs, mostly of tamarind, +which were kindled and kept burning till they sank into a +mass of glowing embers. Along this the devotees, often fifty +or sixty in succession, walked, ran, or leaped barefoot. In +1854 the Madras Government instituted an enquiry into +the custom, but found that it was not attended by danger +or instances of injury sufficient to call for governmental +interference.<note place='foot'>M. J. Walhouse, <q>Passing through +the Fire,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, vii. +(1878) pp. 126 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare J. A. +Dubois, <hi rend='italic'>Mœurs, Institutions et Cérémonies +des Peuples de l'Inde</hi> (Paris, +1825), ii. 373; E. Thurston, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnographic +Notes in Southern India</hi> +(Madras, 1906), pp. 471-486; G. F. +D'Penha, in <hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, xxxi. +(1902) p. 392; <q>Fire-walking in +Ganjam,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Madras Government Museum +Bulletin</hi>, vol. iv. No. 3 (Madras, 1903), +pp. 214-216. At Akka timanhully, +one of the many villages which help to +make up the town of Bangalore in +Southern India, one woman at least +from every house is expected to walk +through the fire at the village festival. +Captain J. S. F. Mackenzie witnessed +the ceremony in 1873. A trench, four +feet long by two feet wide, was filled +with live embers. The priest walked +through it thrice, and the women afterwards +passed through it in batches. +Capt. Mackenzie remarks: <q>From the +description one reads of walking through +fire, I expected something sensational. +Nothing could be more tame than the +ceremony we saw performed; in which +there never was nor ever could be the +slightest danger to life. Some young +girl, whose soles were tender, might +next morning find that she had a blister, +but this would be the extent of harm +she could receive.</q> See Captain J. S. F. +Mackenzie, <q>The Village Feast,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Indian +Antiquary</hi>, iii. (1874) pp. 6-9. But +to fall on the hot embers might result +in injuries which would prove fatal, +and such an accident is known to have +occurred at a village in Bengal. See +H. J. Stokes, <q>Walking through Fire,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, ii. (1873) pp. 190 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +At Afkanbour, five days' march from +Delhi, the Arab traveller Ibn Batutah +saw a troop of fakirs dancing and even +rolling on the glowing embers of a wood +fire. See <hi rend='italic'>Voyages d'Ibn Batoutah</hi> +(Paris, 1853-1858), ii. 6 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, iii. 439.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Hindoo +fire-festival +in +honour of +Darma +Rajah and +Draupadi. Worshippers +walking +through +the fire.</note> +The French traveller Sonnerat has described how, in the +eighteenth century, the Hindoos celebrated a fire-festival of +this sort in honour of the god Darma Rajah and his wife +<pb n='007'/><anchor id='Pg007'/> +Drobedé (Draupadi). The festival lasted eighteen days, during +which all who had vowed to take part in it were bound to +fast, to practise continence, to sleep on the ground without +a mat, and to walk on a furnace. On the eighteenth day +the images of Darma Rajah and his spouse were carried in +procession to the furnace, and the performers followed +dancing, their heads crowned with flowers and their bodies +smeared with saffron. The furnace consisted of a trench +about forty feet long, filled with hot embers. When the +images had been carried thrice round it, the worshippers +walked over the embers, faster or slower, according to the +degree of their religious fervour, some carrying their children +in their arms, others brandishing spears, swords, and standards. +This part of the ceremony being over, the bystanders +hastened to rub their foreheads with ashes from the furnace, +and to beg from the performers the flowers which they had +worn in their hair; and such as obtained them preserved +the flowers carefully. The rite was performed in honour of +the goddess Drobedé (Draupadi), the heroine of the great +Indian epic, the <hi rend='italic'>Mahabharata</hi>. For she married five brothers +all at once; every year she left one of her husbands to betake +herself to another, but before doing so she had to purify herself +by fire. There was no fixed date for the celebration of +the rite, but it could only be held in one of the first three +months of the year.<note place='foot'>Sonnerat, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage aux Indes orientales et à la Chine</hi> (Paris, 1782), i. +247 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In some villages the ceremony is performed +annually; in others, which cannot afford the expense +every year, it is observed either at longer intervals, perhaps +once in three, seven, ten, or twelve years, or only in special +emergencies, such as the outbreak of smallpox, cholera, or +plague. Anybody but a pariah or other person of very low +degree may take part in the ceremony in fulfilment of a vow. +For example, if a man suffers from some chronic malady, he +may vow to Draupadi that, should he be healed of his disease, +he will walk over the fire at her festival. As a preparation +for the solemnity he sleeps in the temple and observes a fast. +The celebration of the rite in any village is believed to protect +the cattle and the crops and to guard the inhabitants from +dangers of all kinds. When it is over, many people carry +<pb n='008'/><anchor id='Pg008'/> +home the holy ashes of the fire as a talisman which will drive +away devils and demons.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Madras Government Museum, +Bulletin</hi>, vol. iv. No. 1 (Madras, +1901), pp. 55-59; E. Thurston, +<hi rend='italic'>Ethnographic Notes in Southern India</hi> +(Madras, 1906), pp. 471-474. One +of the places where the fire-festival +in honour of Draupadi takes place +annually is the Allandur Temple, at +St. Thomas's Mount, near Madras. +Compare <q>Fire-walking Ceremony at +the Dharmaraja Festival,</q> <hi rend='italic'>The Quarterly +Journal of the Mythic Society</hi>, +vol. ii. No. 1 (October, 1910), pp. +29-32.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Fire-festival +of the +Badagas in +Southern +India. +Sacred fire +made by +friction. +Walking +through +the fire. +Cattle +driven over +the hot +embers. The fire-walk +preceded +by a +libation of +milk and +followed by +ploughing +and +sowing.</note> +The Badagas, an agricultural tribe of the Neilgherry Hills +in Southern India, annually celebrate a festival of fire in various +parts of their country. For example, at Nidugala the +festival is held with much ceremony in the month of January. +Omens are taken by boiling two pots of milk side by side +on two hearths. If the milk overflows uniformly on all sides, +the crops will be abundant for all the villages; but if it flows +over on one side only, the harvest will be good for villages +on that side only. The sacred fire is made by friction, a +vertical stick of <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Rhodomyrtus tomentosus</foreign> being twirled by +means of a cord in a socket let into a thick bough of <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Debregeasia +velutina</foreign>. With this holy flame a heap of wood of +two sorts, the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Eugenia Jambolana</foreign> and <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Phyllanthus Emblica</foreign>, is +kindled, and the hot embers are spread over a fire-pit about +five yards long and three yards broad. When all is ready, +the priest ties bells on his legs and approaches the fire-pit, +carrying milk freshly drawn from a cow which has calved +for the first time, and also bearing flowers of <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Rhododendron +arboreum</foreign>, <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Leucas aspera</foreign>, or jasmine. After doing obeisance, +he throws the flowers on the embers and then pours some of +the milk over them. If the omens are propitious, that is, if +the flowers remain for a few seconds unscorched and the milk +does not hiss when it falls on the embers, the priest walks +boldly over the embers and is followed by a crowd of celebrants, +who before they submit to the ordeal count the hairs +on their feet. If any of the hairs are found to be singed +after the passage through the fire-pit, it is an ill omen. +Sometimes the Badagas drive their cattle, which have recovered +from sickness, over the hot embers in performance +of a vow.<note place='foot'>E. Thurston, <hi rend='italic'>Castes and Tribes +of Southern India</hi> (Madras, 1909), i. +98 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnographic Notes in +Southern India</hi> (Madras, 1906), pp. +476 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> At Melur, another place of the Badagas in the +<pb n='009'/><anchor id='Pg009'/> +Neilgherry Hills, three, five, or seven men are chosen to walk +through the fire at the festival; and before they perform the +ceremony they pour into an adjacent stream milk from cows +which have calved for the first time during the year. A +general feast follows the performance of the rite, and next +day the land is ploughed and sown for the first time that +season. At Jakkaneri, another place of the Badagas in the +Neilgherry Hills, the passage through the fire at the festival +<q>seems to have originally had some connection with agricultural +prospects, as a young bull is made to go partly +across the fire-pit before the other devotees, and the owners +of young cows which have had their first calves during the +year take precedence of others in the ceremony, and bring +offerings of milk, which are sprinkled over the burning +embers.</q><note place='foot'>E. Thurston, <hi rend='italic'>Castes and Tribes +of Southern India</hi> (Madras, 1909), i. +100 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> According to another account the ceremony +among the Badagas was performed every second year at a +harvest festival, and the performers were a set of degenerate +Brahmans called Haruvarus, who <q>used to walk on burning +coals with bare feet, pretending that the god they worshipped +could allay the heat and make fire like cold water to them. +As they only remained a few seconds, however, on the coals, +it was impossible that they could receive much injury.</q><note place='foot'>F. Metz, <hi rend='italic'>The Tribes inhabiting +the Neilgherry Hills</hi>, Second Edition +(Mangalore, 1864), p. 55.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The fire-walk +in +Japan.</note> +In Japan the fire-walk is performed as a religious rite +twice a year at a temple in the Kanda quarter of Tokio. +One of the performances takes place in September. It was +witnessed in the year 1903 by the wife of an American naval +officer, who has described it. In a court of the temple a bed +of charcoal about six yards long, two yards wide, and two +feet deep was laid down and covered with a deep layer of +straw. Being ignited, the straw blazed up, and when the +flames had died down the bed of hot charcoal was fanned +by attendants into a red glow. Priests dressed in robes of +white cotton then walked round the fire, striking sparks from +flint and steel and carrying trays full of salt. When mats +had been laid down at the two ends of the fire and salt +poured on them, the priests rubbed their bare feet twice in +the salt and then walked calmly down the middle of the fire. +<pb n='010'/><anchor id='Pg010'/> +They were followed by a number of people, including some +boys and a woman with a baby in her arms. <q>The Shintoists +claim that, having been perfectly purified by their prayers +and ceremonies, no evil has any power over them. Fire they +regard as the very spirit of evil; so twice a year, I believe, +they go through this fire-walking as a kind of <q>outward and +visible sign of inward spiritual grace.</q></q><note place='foot'><q>A Japanese Fire-walk,</q> <hi rend='italic'>American +Anthropologist</hi>, New Series, v. (1903) +pp. 377-380. The ceremony has been +described to me by two eye-witnesses, +Mr. Ernest Foxwell of St. John's +College, Cambridge, and Miss E. P. +Hughes, formerly Principal of the +Teachers' Training College, Cambridge. +Mr. Foxwell examined the +feet of the performers both before +and after their passage through the +fire and found no hurt. The heat +was so great that the sweat ran down +him as he stood near the bed of glowing +charcoal. He cannot explain the +immunity of the performers. He informs +me that the American writer +Percival Lowell walked in the fire +and was burned so severely that he +was laid up in bed for three weeks; +while on the other hand a Scotch +engineer named Hillhouse passed over +the hot charcoal unscathed. Several +of Miss Hughes's Japanese pupils also +went through the ordeal with impunity, +but one of them burned a toe. Both +before and after walking through the +fire the people dipped their feet in a +white stuff which Miss Hughes was +told was salt. Compare W. G. Aston, +<hi rend='italic'>Shinto</hi> (London, 1905), p. 348: <q>At +the present day plunging the hand into +boiling water, walking barefoot over a +bed of live coals, and climbing a ladder +formed of sword-blades set edge upwards +are practised, not by way of +ordeal, but to excite the awe and +stimulate the piety of the ignorant +spectators.</q></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The fire-walk +in +Fiji, +Tahiti, +the Marquesas +Islands, +and +Trinidad.</note> +In the island of Mbengga, one of the Fijian archipelago, +once every year a dracaena, which grows in profusion on +the grassy hillsides, becomes fit to yield the sugar of which +its fibrous root is full. To render the roots edible it is +necessary to bake them among hot stones for four days. A +great pit is dug and filled with great stones and blazing +logs, and when the flames have died down and the stones +are at white heat, the oven is ready to receive the roots. +At this moment the members of a certain clan called Na +Ivilankata, favoured of the gods, leap into the oven and +walk unharmed upon the hot stones, which would scorch +the feet of any other persons. On one occasion when the +ceremony was witnessed by Europeans fifteen men of the +clan, dressed in garlands and fringes, walked unscathed +through the furnace, where tongues of fire played among +the hot stones. The pit was about nineteen feet wide and +the men marched round it, planting their feet squarely and +firmly on each stone. When they emerged from the pit, +<pb n='011'/><anchor id='Pg011'/> +the feet of several were examined and shewed no trace +of scorching; even the anklets of dried tree-fern leaves +which they wore on their legs were unburnt. The immunity +thus enjoyed by members of the clan in the fiery furnace is +explained by a legend that in former days a chief of the +clan, named Tui Nkualita, received for himself and his +descendants this remarkable privilege from a certain god, +whom the chief had accidentally dragged out of a deep +pool of water by the hair of his head.<note place='foot'>Basil Thomson, <hi rend='italic'>South Sea Yarns</hi> +(Edinburgh and London, 1894), pp. +195-207. Compare F. Arthur Jackson, +<q>A Fijian Legend of the Origin +of the <foreign rend='italic'>Vilavilairevo</foreign> or Fire Ceremony,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Polynesian +Society</hi>, vol. iii. No. 2 (June, 1894), +pp. 72-75; R. Fulton, <q>An Account +of the Fiji Fire-walking Ceremony, +or <foreign rend='italic'>Vilavilairevo</foreign>, with a probable +explanation of the mystery,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Transactions and Proceedings of the +New Zealand Institute</hi>, xxxv. (1902) +pp. 187-201; Lieutenant Vernon H. +Haggard, in <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, xiv. (1903) pp. +88 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> A similar ceremony +of walking through fire, or rather over a furnace +of hot charcoal or hot stones, has also been observed in +Tahiti,<note place='foot'>S. P. Langley, <q>The Fire-walk +Ceremony in Tahiti,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Report of the +Smithsonian Institution for 1901</hi> +(Washington, 1902), pp. 539-544; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, in <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, xiv. (1901) pp. 446-452; +<q>More about Fire-walking,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Polynesian Society</hi>, vol. +x. No. 1 (March, 1901), pp. 53 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +In his <hi rend='italic'>Modern Mythology</hi> (pp. 162-165) +Andrew Lang quotes from <hi rend='italic'>The +Polynesian Society's Journal</hi>, vol. ii. +No. 2, pp. 105-108, an account of the +fire-walk by Miss Tenira Henry, which +seems to refer to Raiatea, one of the +Tahitian group of islands.</note> the Marquesas Islands,<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Annales de l'Association de la +Propagation de la Foi</hi>, lxix. (1897) +pp. 130-133. But in the ceremony +here described the chief performer +was a native of Huahine, one of the +Tahitian group of islands. The wood +burned in the furnace was hibiscus +and native chestnut (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Inocarpus edulis</foreign>). +Before stepping on the hot stones the +principal performer beat the edge of +the furnace twice or thrice with <foreign rend='italic'>ti</foreign> +leaves (dracaena).</note> and by Hindoo coolies in +the West Indian island of Trinidad;<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Les Missions Catholiques</hi>, x. (1878) +pp. 141 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. Lang, <hi rend='italic'>Modern Mythology</hi>, +p. 167, quoting Mr. Henry R. +St. Clair.</note> but the eye-witnesses +who have described the rite, as it is observed in these islands, +have said little or nothing as to its meaning and purpose, +their whole attention having been apparently concentrated on +the heat of the furnace and the state of the performers' legs +before and after passing through it. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Hottentot +custom of +driving +their sheep +through +fire and +smoke.</note> +<q>Another grand custom of the Hottentots, which they +likewise term <foreign rend='italic'>andersmaken</foreign>, is the driving their sheep at +certain times through the fire. Early in the day appointed +by a kraal for the observance of this custom, the women +<pb n='012'/><anchor id='Pg012'/> +milk all their cows, and set the whole produce before their +husbands. 'Tis a strict rule at those times that the women +neither taste, nor suffer their children to touch, a drop of it. +The whole quantity is sacred to the men, who drink it all up +before they address themselves to the business of the fire. +Having consumed the milk, some go and bring the sheep +together to the place where the fire is to be lighted, while +others repair to the place to light it. The fire is made of +chips and dry twigs and thinly spread into a long square. +Upon the coming up of the sheep, the fire, scattered into this +figure, is covered with green twigs to raise a great smoak; +and a number of men range themselves closely on both sides +of it, making a lane for the sheep to pass through, and extending +themselves to a good distance beyond the fire on the +side where the sheep are to enter. Things being in this +posture, the sheep are driven into the lane close up to the +fire, which now smoaks in the thickest clouds. The foremost +boggle, and being forced forward by the press behind, seek +their escape by attempting breaches in the ranks. The men +stand close and firm, and whoop and goad them forward; +when a few hands, planted at the front of the fire, catch three +or four of the foremost sheep by the head, and drag them +through, and bring them round into the sight of the rest; +which sometimes upon this, the whooping and goading +continuing, follow with a tantivy, jumping and pouring +themselves through the fire and smoak with a mighty +clattering and fury. At other times they are not so tractable, +but put the Hottentots to the trouble of dragging +numbers of them through; and sometimes, in a great press +and fright, sturdily attacking the ranks, they make a breach +and escape. This is a very mortifying event at all times, +the Hottentots, upon whatever account, looking upon it as a +heavy disgrace and a very ill omen into the bargain. But +when their labours here are attended with such success, that +the sheep pass readily through or over the fire, 'tis hardly +in the power of language to describe them in all the sallies +of their joy.</q> The writer who thus describes the custom had +great difficulty in extracting an explanation of it from the +Hottentots. At last one of them informed him that their +country was much infested by wild dogs, which made terrible +<pb n='013'/><anchor id='Pg013'/> +havoc among the cattle, worrying the animals to death even +when they did not devour them. <q>Now we have it,</q> he said, +<q>from our ancestors, that if sheep are driven through the fire, +as we say, that is, through a thick smoak, the wild dogs will +not be fond of attacking them while the scent of the smoak +remains upon their fleeces. We therefore from time to time, +for the security of our flocks, perform this <foreign rend='italic'>andersmaken</foreign>.</q><note place='foot'>Peter Kolben, <hi rend='italic'>The Present State +of the Cape of Good Hope</hi>, Second +Edition (London, 1738), i. 129-133.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Fire +applied to +sick cattle +by the +Nandi and +Zulus.</note> +When disease breaks out in a herd of the Nandi, a +pastoral tribe of British East Africa, a large bonfire is made +with the wood of a certain tree (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Olea chrysophilla</foreign>), and +brushwood of two sorts of shrubs is thrown on the top. +Then the sick herd is driven to the fire, and while the +animals are standing near it, a sheep big with young is +brought to them and anointed with milk by an elder, after +which it is strangled by two men belonging to clans that +may intermarry. The intestines are then inspected, and if +the omens prove favourable, the meat is roasted and eaten; +moreover rings are made out of the skin and worn by the +cattle-owners. After the meat has been eaten, the herd is +driven round the fire, and milk is poured on each beast.<note place='foot'>A. C. Hollis, <hi rend='italic'>The Nandi</hi> (Oxford, +1909), pp. 45 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +When their cattle are sick, the Zulus of Natal will collect +their herds in a kraal, where a medicine-man kindles a fire, +burns medicine in it, and so fumigates the cattle with the +medicated smoke. Afterwards he sprinkles the herd with a +decoction, and, taking some melted fat of the dead oxen in +his mouth, squirts it on a fire-brand and holds the brand to +each animal in succession.<note place='foot'>Rev. Joseph Shooter, <hi rend='italic'>The Kafirs +of Natal</hi> (London, 1857), p. 35.</note> Such a custom is probably +equivalent to the Hottentot and European practice of driving +cattle through a fire. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Indians of +Yucatan +walk over +hot embers +in order to +avert +calamities.</note> +Among the Indians of Yucatan the year which was +marked in their calendar by the sign of <foreign rend='italic'>Cauac</foreign> was reputed +to be very unlucky; they thought that in the course of it the +death-rate would be high, the maize crops would be withered +up by the extreme heat of the sun, and what remained of +the harvest would be devoured by swarms of ants and birds. +To avert these calamities they used to erect a great pyre of +<pb n='014'/><anchor id='Pg014'/> +wood, to which most persons contributed a faggot. Having +danced about it during the day, they set fire to it at night-fall, +and when the flames had died down, they spread out +the red embers and walked or ran barefoot over them, some +of them escaping unsmirched by the flames, but others +burning themselves more or less severely. In this way they +hoped to conjure away the evils that threatened them, and +to undo the sinister omens of the year.<note place='foot'>Diego de Landa, <hi rend='italic'>Relation des +choses de Yucatan</hi> (Paris, 1864), pp. +231, 233.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The fire-walk +in +antiquity, +at Castabala +in +Cappadocia +and +at Mount +Soracte +near Rome.</note> +Similar rites were performed at more than one place +in classical antiquity. At Castabala, in Cappadocia, the +priestesses of an Asiatic goddess, whom the Greeks called +Artemis Perasia, used to walk barefoot through a furnace of +hot charcoal and take no harm.<note place='foot'>Strabo, xii. 2. 7, p. 537. Compare +<hi rend='italic'>Adonis, Attis, Osiris</hi>, Second +Edition, pp. 89, 134 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Again, at the foot of +Mount Soracte, in Italy, there was a sanctuary of a goddess +Feronia, where once a year the men of certain families +walked barefoot, but unscathed, over the glowing embers +and ashes of a great fire of pinewood in presence of a vast +multitude, who had assembled from all the country round +about to pay their devotions to the deity or to ply their +business at the fair. The families from whom the performers +of the rite were drawn went by the name of Hirpi Sorani, +or <q>Soranian Wolves</q>; and in consideration of the services +which they rendered the state by walking through the fire, +they were exempted, by a special decree of the senate, from +military service and all public burdens. In the discharge of +their sacred function, if we can trust the testimony of Strabo, +they were believed to be inspired by the goddess Feronia. +The ceremony certainly took place in her sanctuary, which +was held in the highest reverence alike by Latins and Sabines; +but according to Virgil and Pliny the rite was performed +in honour of the god of the mountain, whom they call by +the Greek name of Apollo, but whose real name appears +to have been Soranus.<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> vii. 19; Virgil, +<hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> xi. 784 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> with the comment +of Servius; Strabo, v. 2. 9, p. 226; +Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <hi rend='italic'>Antiquit. +Rom.</hi> iii. 32. From a reference to the +custom in Silius Italicus (v. 175 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>) +it seems that the men passed thrice +through the furnace holding the entrails +of the sacrificial victims in their +hands. The learned but sceptical +Varro attributed their immunity in the +fire to a drug with which they took +care to anoint the soles of their feet +before they planted them in the +furnace. See Varro, cited by Servius, +on Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> xi. 787. The whole +subject has been treated by W. Mannhardt +(<hi rend='italic'>Antike Wald- und Feldkulte</hi>, +Berlin, 1877, pp. 327 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>), who compares +the rites of these <q>Soranian +Wolves</q> with the ceremonies performed +by the brotherhood of the +Green Wolf at Jumièges in Normandy. +See above, vol. i. pp. 185 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> If Soranus was a sun-god, as his +<pb n='015'/><anchor id='Pg015'/> +name has by some been thought to indicate,<note place='foot'>L. Preller (<hi rend='italic'>Römische Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi> +i. 268), following G. Curtius, would +connect the first syllable of Soranus and +Soracte with the Latin <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>sol</foreign>, <q>sun.</q> +However, this etymology appears to +be at the best very doubtful. My +friend Prof. J. H. Moulton doubts +whether <foreign rend='italic'>Soranus</foreign> can be connected +with <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>sol</foreign>; he tells me that the interchange +of <hi rend='italic'>l</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>r</hi> is rare. He would +rather connect <foreign rend='italic'>Soracte</foreign> with the Greek +ὕραξ, <q>a shrew-mouse.</q> In that case +Apollo Soranus might be the equivalent +of the Greek Apollo Smintheus, <q>the +Mouse Apollo.</q> Professor R. S. Conway +also writes to me (11th November +1902) that <foreign rend='italic'>Soranus</foreign> and <foreign rend='italic'>Soracte</foreign> <q>have +nothing to do with <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>sol</foreign>; <hi rend='italic'>r</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>l</hi> are +not confused in Italic.</q></note> we might perhaps +conclude that the passage of his priests through the fire was +a magical ceremony designed to procure a due supply of +light and warmth for the earth by mimicking the sun's +passage across the firmament. For so priceless a service, +rendered at some personal risk, it would be natural that the +magicians should be handsomely rewarded by a grateful +country, and that they should be released from the common +obligations of earth in order the better to devote themselves +to their celestial mission. The neighbouring towns paid the +first-fruits of their harvest as tribute to the shrine, and +loaded it besides with offerings of gold and silver, of which, +however, it was swept clean by Hannibal when he hung +with his dusky army, like a storm-cloud about to break, +within sight of the sentinels on the walls of Rome.<note place='foot'>Livy, xxvi. 11. About this time +the Carthaginian army encamped only +three miles from Rome, and Hannibal +in person, at the head of two thousand +cavalry, rode close up to the walls and +leisurely reconnoitered them. See +Livy, xxvi. 10; Polybius, ix. 5-7.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='2. The Meaning of the Fire-walk.'/> +<head>§ 2. The Meaning of the Fire-walk.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Little +evidence +to shew +that the +fire-walk +is a sun-charm.</note> +The foregoing customs, observed in many different parts +of the world, present at least a superficial resemblance to the +modern European practices of leaping over fires and driving +cattle through them; and we naturally ask whether it is not +possible to discover a general explanation which will include +them all. We have seen that two general theories have been +proposed to account for the European practices; according +to one theory the customs in question are sun-charms, +<pb n='016'/><anchor id='Pg016'/> +according to the other they are purifications. Let us see +how the two rival theories fit the other facts which we have +just passed in review. To take the solar theory first, it is +supported, first, by a statement that the fires at the Pongol +festival in Southern India are intended to wake the sun-god +or the fire-god from his sleep;<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref>.</note> and, second, by the etymology +which connects Soranus, the god of Soracte, with the +sun.<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>.</note> But for reasons which have already been given, +neither of these arguments carries much weight; and apart +from them there appears to be nothing in the foregoing +customs to suggest that they are sun-charms. Nay, some +of the customs appear hardly reconcilable with such a view. +For it is to be observed that the fire-walk is frequently +practised in India and other tropical countries, where as a +rule people would more naturally wish to abate than to +increase the fierce heat of the sun. In Yucatan certainly +the intention of kindling the bonfires cannot possibly have +been to fan the solar flames, since one of the principal evils +which the bonfires were designed to remedy was precisely +the excessive heat of the sun, which had withered up the +maize crops.<note place='foot'>Above, pp. <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Thus the solar theory is not strongly supported +by any of the facts which we are considering, and it +is actually inconsistent with some of them. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>On the +other hand +there is +much to +be said for +the view +that the +fire-walk +is a form +of purification, +the +flames +being +thought +either to +burn up +or repel +the powers +of evil. Custom of +stepping +over fire +for the purpose +of +getting rid +of a ghost. Widows +fumigated +to free +them from +their +husbands' +ghosts.</note> +Not so with the purificatory theory. It is obviously +applicable to some of the facts, and apparently consistent +with them all. Thus we have seen that sick men make a +vow to walk over the fire, and that sick cattle are driven +over it. In such cases clearly the intention is to cleanse the +suffering man or beast from the infection of disease, and +thereby to restore him or it to health; and the fire is supposed +to effect this salutary end, either by burning up the powers +of evil or by interposing an insurmountable barrier between +them and the sufferer. For it is to be remembered that +evils which civilized men regard as impersonal are often +conceived by uncivilized man in the personal shape of +witches and wizards, of ghosts and hobgoblins; so that +measures which we should consider as simple disinfectants +the savage looks upon as obstacles opportunely presented to +<pb n='017'/><anchor id='Pg017'/> +the attacks of demons or other uncanny beings. Now of +all such obstacles fire seems generally to be thought the +most effective; hence in passing through or leaping over it +our primitive philosopher often imagines that he is not so +much annihilating his spiritual foe as merely giving him the +slip; the ghostly pursuer shrinks back appalled at the flames +through which his intended victim, driven to desperation by +his fears, has safely passed before him. This interpretation +of the ceremony is confirmed, first, by the observation that +in India the ashes of the bonfire are used as a talisman against +devils and demons;<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, compare p. <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>.</note> and, second, by the employment of +the ceremony for the avowed purpose of escaping from +the pursuit of a troublesome ghost. For example, in +China <q>they believe that a beheaded man wanders about a +headless spectre in the World of Shades. Such spectres are +frequently to be seen in walled towns, especially in the +neighbourhood of places of execution. Here they often +visit the people with disease and disaster, causing a considerable +depreciation in the value of the houses around such +scenes. Whenever an execution takes place, the people fire +crackers to frighten the headless ghost away from the spot; +and the mandarin who has superintended the bloody work, +on entering the gate of his mansion, has himself carried in +his sedan chair over a fire lighted on the pavement, lest the +headless apparition should enter there along with him; for +disembodied spirits are afraid of fire.</q><note place='foot'>J. J. M. de Groot, <hi rend='italic'>The Religious +System of China</hi>, i. (Leyden, 1892), +p. 355; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> vi. (Leyden, 1910) p. +942.</note> For a like reason +Chinese mourners after a funeral, and persons who have paid +a visit of condolence to a house of death, often purify themselves +by stepping over a fire of straw;<note place='foot'>Rev. J. H. Gray, <hi rend='italic'>China</hi> (London, +1878), i. 287, 305; J. J. M. de Groot, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 32, vi. 942.</note> the purification, we +cannot doubt, consists simply in shaking off the ghost who +is supposed to dog their steps. Similarly at a coroner's +inquest in China the mandarin and his subordinates hold +pocket handkerchiefs or towels to their mouths and noses +while they are inspecting the corpse, no doubt to hinder the +ghost from insinuating himself into their bodies by these +apertures; and when they have discharged their dangerous +<pb n='018'/><anchor id='Pg018'/> +duty, they purify themselves by passing through a small fire +of straw kindled on the pavement before they enter their +sedan-chairs to return home, while at the same time the +crowd of idlers, who have gathered about the door, assist in +keeping the ghost at bay by a liberal discharge of crackers. +The same double process of purification, or rather of repelling +the ghost, by means of fire and crackers is repeated at the gate +of the mandarin's residence when the procession defiles into +it.<note place='foot'>J. J. M. de Groot, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 137, +vi. 942.</note> Among some of the Tartars it used to be customary +for all persons returning from a burial to leap over a fire +made for the purpose, <q>in order that the dead man might +not follow them; for apparently in their opinion he would +be afraid of the fire.</q><note place='foot'>J. G. Gmelin, <hi rend='italic'>Reise durch Sibirien</hi> +(Göttingen, 1751-1752), i. 333.</note> <q>The Yakuts bury their dead as a +rule on the day of the death, and in order not to take the +demon of death home with them, they kindle fires on the +way back from the burial and jump over them in the belief +that the demon of death, who dreads fire, will not follow +them, and that in this way they will be freed from the +persecutions of the hated demon of death.</q><note place='foot'>W. L. Priklonski, <q>Ueber das +Schamenthum bei den Jakuten,</q> in A. +Bastian's <hi rend='italic'>Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde</hi> +(Berlin, 1888), i. 219. +Compare Vasilij Priklonski, <q>Todtengebräuche +der Jakuten,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lix. +(1891) p. 85.</note> In Sikkhim, +when members of the Khambu caste have buried a corpse, +all persons present at the burial <q>adjourn to a stream +for a bath of purification, and, on re-entering the house, +have to tread on a bit of burning cloth, to prevent the +evil spirits who attend at funerals from following them in.</q><note place='foot'>J. A. H. Louis, <hi rend='italic'>The Gates of +Thibet</hi> (Calcutta, 1894), p. 116.</note> +Among the Fans of West Africa, <q>when the mourning +is over, the wives of the deceased must pass over a small +lighted brazier in the middle of the village, then they sit +down while some leaves are still burning under their feet; +their heads are shaved, and from that moment they are +purified from the mourning—perhaps we should translate: +<q>delivered from the ghost of their husband</q>—and may be +divided among the heirs.</q><note place='foot'>E. Allegret, <q>Les Idées religieuses +des Fañ (Afrique Occidentale),</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Revue de l'Histoire des Religions</hi>, l. +(1904) p. 220.</note> At Agweh, on the Slave Coast +of West Africa, a widow used to remain shut up for six +<pb n='019'/><anchor id='Pg019'/> +months in the room where her husband was buried; at the +end of the time a fire was lighted on the floor, and red +peppers strewn in it, until in the pungent fumes the widow +was nearly stifled.<note place='foot'>A. B. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>The Ewe-speaking +Peoples of the Slave Coast of West +Africa</hi> (London, 1890), p. 160.</note> No doubt the intention was to rid her +of her husband's ghost in order that she might mingle again +in the world with safety to herself and others. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Hence it +seems +probable +that the +chief use +of the fire +in the fire-festivals +of +Europe +was to +destroy or +repel the +witches, to +whose +maleficent +arts the +people +ascribed +most of +their +troubles.</note> +On the analogy of these customs, in which the purpose +of the passage through the fire appears to be unmistakable, +we may suppose that the motive of the rite is similar at the +popular festivals of Europe and the like observances in +other lands. In every case the ritual appears to be explained +in a simple and natural way by the supposition that the +performers believe themselves to be freed from certain evils, +actual or threatened, through the beneficent agency of fire, +which either burns up and destroys the noxious things or +at all events repels and keeps them at bay. Indeed this +belief, or at least this hope, is definitely expressed by +some of the people who leap across the bonfires: they +imagine that all ills are burnt up and consumed in the +flames, or that they leave their sins, or at all events their +fleas, behind them on the far side of the fire.<note place='foot'>Above, pp. 162, 163, 211, 212, +214, 215, 217.</note> But we may +conjecture that originally all the evils from which the people +thus thought to deliver themselves were conceived by them +to be caused by personal beings, such as ghosts and demons +or witches and warlocks, and that the fires were kindled +for the sole purpose of burning or banning these noxious +creatures. Of these evil powers witches and warlocks +appear to have been the most dreaded by our European +peasantry; and it is therefore significant that the fires kindled +on these occasions are often expressly alleged to burn the +witches,<note place='foot'>See the references above, vol. i. +p. 342 note 2.</note> that effigies of witches are not uncommonly consumed +in them,<note place='foot'>See the references above, vol. i. +p. 342 note 3.</note> and that two of the great periodic fire-festivals +of the year, namely May Day and Midsummer Eve, +coincide with the seasons when witches are believed to be +most active and mischievous, and when accordingly many +other precautions are taken against them.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, ii. 52 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 127; <hi rend='italic'>The +Scapegoat</hi>, pp. 157 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> Compare +R. Kühnau, <hi rend='italic'>Schlesische Sagen</hi> (Berlin, +1910-1913), iii. p. 69, No. 1428: +<q>In the county of Glatz the people +believe that on Walpurgis Night +(the Eve of May Day) the witches +under cover of the darkness seek to +harm men in all sorts of ways. To +guard themselves against them the +people set small birch trees in front +of the house-door on the previous day, +and are of opinion that the witches +must count all the leaves on these +little trees before they can get into +the house. While they are still at +this laborious task, the day dawns and +the dreaded guests must retire to their +own realm</q>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, iii. p. 39, No. 1394: +<q>On St. John's Night (between the +23rd and 24th of June) the witches again +busily bestir themselves to force their +way into the houses of men and the +stalls of cattle. People stick small +twigs of oak in the windows and doors +of the houses and cattle-stalls to keep +out the witches. This is done in the +neighbourhood of Patschkau and generally +in the districts of Frankenstein, +Münsterberg, Grottkau, and Neisse. In +the same regions they hang garlands, +composed of oak leaves intertwined with +flowers, at the windows. The garland +must be woven in the house itself and +may not be carried over any threshold; +it must be hung out of the window +on a nail, which is inserted there.</q> +Similar evidence might be multiplied +almost indefinitely.</note> Thus if witchcraft, +<pb n='020'/><anchor id='Pg020'/> +as a great part of mankind has believed, is the fertile +source of almost all the calamities that afflict our species, and +if the surest means of frustrating witchcraft is fire, then it +follows as clearly as day follows night that to jump over a +fire must be a sovereign panacea for practically all the ills that +flesh is heir to. We can now, perhaps, fully understand why +festivals of fire played so prominent a part in the religion +or superstition of our heathen forefathers; the observance of +such festivals flowed directly from their overmastering fear +of witchcraft and from their theory as to the best way of +combating that dreadful evil. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='021'/><anchor id='Pg021'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter VII. The Burning of Human Beings in the Fires.</head> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='1. The Burning of Effigies in the Fires.'/> +<head>§ 1. The Burning of Effigies in the Fires.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The effigies +burnt in +the fires +probably +represent +witches.</note> +We have still to ask, What is the meaning of burning +effigies in the fire at these festivals? After the preceding +investigation the answer to the question seems obvious. As +the fires are often alleged to be kindled for the purpose of +burning the witches, and as the effigy burnt in them is +sometimes called <q>the Witch,</q> we might naturally be disposed +to conclude that all the effigies consumed in the flames +on these occasions represent witches or warlocks, and that +the custom of burning them is merely a substitute for burning +the wicked men and women themselves, since on the +principle of homoeopathic or imitative magic you practically +destroy the witch herself in destroying her effigy. On the +whole this explanation of the burning of straw figures in +human shape at the festivals appears to be the most +probable. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Possibly +some of +the effigies +burnt in +the fires +represent +tree-spirits +or spirits of +vegetation.</note> +Yet it may be that this explanation does not apply to +all the cases, and that certain of them may admit and even +require another interpretation, in favour of which I formerly +argued as follows:—<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Golden Bough</hi>, Second Edition (London, 1900), ii. 314-316.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<q rend='pre'>It remains to ask, What is the meaning of burning an +effigy in these bonfires? The effigies so burned, as I have +already remarked, can hardly be separated from the effigies +of Death which are burned or otherwise destroyed in spring; +and grounds have been already given for regarding the so-called +effigies of Death as really representatives of the tree-spirit +<pb n='022'/><anchor id='Pg022'/> +or spirit of vegetation.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Dying God</hi>, pp. 249 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Are the other effigies, which +are burned in the spring and midsummer bonfires, susceptible +of the same explanation? It would seem so. For just as +the fragments of the so-called Death are stuck in the fields +to make the crops grow, so the charred embers of the figure +burned in the spring bonfires are sometimes laid on the +fields in the belief that they will keep vermin from the crop.<note place='foot'>Above, vol. i. p. 117, compare +pp. 143, 144.</note> +Again, the rule that the last married bride must leap over +the fire in which the straw-man is burned on Shrove Tuesday, +is probably intended to make her fruitful.<note place='foot'>See above, vol. i. p. 120.</note> But, as we have +seen, the power of blessing women with offspring is a special +attribute of tree-spirits;<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, ii. 56 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> it is therefore a fair presumption +that the burning effigy over which the bride must leap is a +representative of the fertilizing tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation. +This character of the effigy, as representative of the +spirit of vegetation, is almost unmistakable when the figure is +composed of an unthreshed sheaf of corn or is covered from +head to foot with flowers.<note place='foot'>Above, vol. i. pp. 120, 167.</note> Again, it is to be noted that, +instead of a puppet, trees, either living or felled, are sometimes +burned both in the spring and midsummer bonfires.<note place='foot'>Above, vol. i. pp. 115 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 116, +142, 173 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 185, 191, 192, 193, 209.</note> +Now, considering the frequency with which the tree-spirit is +represented in human shape, it is hardly rash to suppose that +when sometimes a tree and sometimes an effigy is burned in +these fires, the effigy and the tree are regarded as equivalent +to each other, each being a representative of the tree-spirit. +This, again, is confirmed by observing, first, that sometimes the +effigy which is to be burned is carried about simultaneously +with a May-tree, the former being carried by the boys, the +latter by the girls;<note place='foot'>Above, vol. i. p. 120.</note> and, second, that the effigy is sometimes +tied to a living tree and burned with it.<note place='foot'>Above, vol. i. p. 116. But the +effigy is called the Witch.</note> In these cases, we +can scarcely doubt, the tree-spirit is represented, as we have +found it represented before, in duplicate, both by the tree and +by the effigy. That the true character of the effigy as a +representative of the beneficent spirit of vegetation should +sometimes be forgotten, is natural. The custom of burning +<pb n='023'/><anchor id='Pg023'/> +a beneficent god is too foreign to later modes of thought to +escape misinterpretation. Naturally enough the people who +continued to burn his image came in time to identify it as +the effigy of persons, whom, on various grounds, they regarded +with aversion, such as Judas Iscariot, Luther, and a witch.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Reasons +for burning +effigies of +the spirit of +vegetation +or for +passing +them +through +the fire.</note> +<q>The general reasons for killing a god or his representative +have been examined in the preceding chapter.<note place='foot'>The chapter has since been expanded +into the four volumes of <hi rend='italic'>The +Dying God</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Spirits of the Corn and of +the Wild</hi>, and <hi rend='italic'>The Scapegoat</hi>.</note> +But when the god happens to be a deity of vegetation, +there are special reasons why he should die by fire. For +light and heat are necessary to vegetable growth; and, on +the principle of sympathetic magic, by subjecting the +personal representative of vegetation to their influence, +you secure a supply of these necessaries for trees and crops. +In other words, by burning the spirit of vegetation in a fire +which represents the sun, you make sure that, for a time +at least, vegetation shall have plenty of sun. It may be +objected that, if the intention is simply to secure enough +sunshine for vegetation, this end would be better attained, on +the principles of sympathetic magic, by merely passing the +representative of vegetation through the fire instead of +burning him. In point of fact this is sometimes done. In +Russia, as we have seen, the straw figure of Kupalo is not +burned in the midsummer fire, but merely carried backwards +and forwards across it.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Dying God</hi>, p. 262.</note> But, for the reasons already given, +it is necessary that the god should die; so next day Kupalo +is stripped of her ornaments and thrown into a stream. In +this Russian custom, therefore, the passage of the image +through the fire is a sun-charm pure and simple; the killing +of the god is a separate act, and the mode of killing him—by +drowning—is probably a rain-charm. But usually people +have not thought it necessary to draw this fine distinction; +for the various reasons already assigned, it is advantageous, +they think, to expose the god of vegetation to a considerable +degree of heat, and it is also advantageous to kill him, and +they combine these advantages in a rough-and-ready way by +burning him.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +custom of +passing +images of +gods or +their living +representatives +through +the fires +may be +simply a +form of +purification.</note> +On the foregoing argument, which I do not now find very +cogent, I would remark that we must distinguish the cases in +<pb n='024'/><anchor id='Pg024'/> +which an effigy or an image is burnt in the fire from the +cases in which it is simply carried through or over it. We +have seen that in the Chinese festival of fire the image of the +god is carried thrice by bearers over the glowing furnace. +Here the motive for subjecting a god to the heat of the +furnace must surely be the same as the motive for subjecting +his worshippers to the same ordeal; and if the motive +in the case of the worshippers is purificatory, it is probably +the same in the case of the deity. In other words we may +suppose that the image of a god is periodically carried +over a furnace in order to purify him from the taint of +corruption, the spells of magicians, or any other evil influences +that might impair or impede his divine energies. +The same theory would explain the custom of obliging the +priest ceremonially to pass through the fire; the custom +need not be a mitigation of an older practice of burning +him in the flames, it may only be a purification designed to +enable him the better to discharge his sacred duties as +representative of the deity in the coming year. Similarly, +when the rite is obligatory, not on the people as a whole, +but only on certain persons chosen for the purpose,<note place='foot'>Above, pp. <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>.</note> we may +suppose that these persons act as representatives of the +entire community, which thus passes through the fire by +deputy and consequently participates in all the benefits +which are believed to accrue from the purificatory character +of the rite.<note place='foot'>Among the Klings of Southern +India the ceremony of walking over a +bed of red-hot ashes is performed by a +few chosen individuals, who are prepared +for the rite by a devil-doctor or +medicine-man. The eye-witness who +describes the ceremony adds: <q>As I +understood it, they took on themselves +and expiated the sins of the Kling +community for the past year.</q> See +the letter of Stephen Ponder, quoted +by Andrew Lang, <hi rend='italic'>Modern Mythology</hi> +(London, 1897), p. 160.</note> In both cases, therefore, if my interpretation of +them is correct, the passage over or through a fire is not a +substitute for human sacrifice; it is nothing but a stringent +form of purification. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='2. The Burning of Men and Animals in the Fires.'/> +<head>§ 2. The Burning of Men and Animals in the Fires.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Yet at some +of the fire-festivals +the +pretence of +burning +live persons +in the fires +points to a +former +custom of +human +sacrifice.</note> +Yet in the popular customs connected with the fire-festivals +of Europe there are certain features which appear to +<pb n='025'/><anchor id='Pg025'/> +point to a former practice of human sacrifice. We have +seen reasons for believing that in Europe living persons +have often acted as representatives of the tree-spirit and +corn-spirit and have suffered death as such.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Dying God</hi>, pp. 205 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; +<hi rend='italic'>Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild</hi>, i. +216 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> There is no +reason, therefore, why they should not have been burned, if +any special advantages were likely to be attained by putting +them to death in that way. The consideration of human suffering +is not one which enters into the calculations of primitive +man. Now, in the fire-festivals which we are discussing, the +pretence of burning people is sometimes carried so far that it +seems reasonable to regard it as a mitigated survival of an +older custom of actually burning them. Thus in Aachen, as +we saw, the man clad in peas-straw acts so cleverly that the +children really believe he is being burned.<note place='foot'>Above, vol. i. p. 120.</note> At Jumièges in +Normandy the man clad all in green, who bore the title of +the Green Wolf, was pursued by his comrades, and when +they caught him they feigned to fling him upon the mid-summer +bonfire.<note place='foot'>Above, vol. i. p. 186.</note> Similarly at the Beltane fires in Scotland +the pretended victim was seized, and a show made of throwing +him into the flames, and for some time afterwards +people affected to speak of him as dead.<note place='foot'>Above, vol. i. p. 148.</note> Again, in the +Hallowe'en bonfires of north-eastern Scotland we may +perhaps detect a similar pretence in the custom observed by +a lad of lying down as close to the fire as possible and +allowing the other lads to leap over him.<note place='foot'>Above, vol. i. p. 233.</note> The titular king +at Aix, who reigned for a year and danced the first dance +round the midsummer bonfire,<note place='foot'>Above, vol. i. p. 194.</note> may perhaps in days of old +have discharged the less agreeable duty of serving as fuel +for that fire which in later times he only kindled. In the +following customs Mannhardt is probably right in recognizing +traces of an old custom of burning a leaf-clad representative +of the spirit of vegetation. At Wolfeck, in Austria, on Midsummer +Day, a boy completely clad in green fir branches +goes from house to house, accompanied by a noisy crew, +collecting wood for the bonfire. As he gets the wood he +sings— +</p> + +<pb n='026'/><anchor id='Pg026'/> + +<quote rend='display'> +<lg> +<l><q rend='pre'><hi rend='italic'>Forest trees I want,</hi></q></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>No sour milk for me,</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>But beer and wine,</hi></l> +<l><q rend='post'><hi rend='italic'>So can the wood-man be jolly and gay.</hi></q><note place='foot'>W. Mannhardt, <hi rend='italic'>Baumkultus</hi>, p. +524.</note></l> +</lg> +</quote> + +<p> +In some parts of Bavaria, also, the boys who go from house +to house collecting fuel for the midsummer bonfire envelop +one of their number from head to foot in green branches of +firs, and lead him by a rope through the whole village.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde +des Königreichs Bayern</hi> (Munich, 1860-1867), +iii. 956; W. Mannhardt, +<hi rend='italic'>Baumkultus</hi>, p. 524. In the neighbourhood +of Breitenbrunn the lad who +collects fuel at this season has his face +blackened and is called <q>the Charcoal +Man</q> (<hi rend='italic'>Bavaria</hi>, etc., ii. 261).</note> At +Moosheim, in Wurtemberg, the festival of St. John's Fire +usually lasted for fourteen days, ending on the second +Sunday after Midsummer Day. On this last day the bonfire +was left in charge of the children, while the older people +retired to a wood. Here they encased a young fellow in +leaves and twigs, who, thus disguised, went to the fire, +scattered it, and trod it out. All the people present fled at +the sight of him.<note place='foot'>A. Birlinger, <hi rend='italic'>Volksthümliches aus +Schwaben</hi> (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), +ii. 121 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, § 146; W. Mannhardt, +<hi rend='italic'>Baumkultus</hi>, pp. 524 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>In pagan +Europe the +water as +well as the +fire seems +to have +claimed +its human +victim on +Midsummer +Day. Custom of +throwing a +man and a +tree into +the water +on St. +John's Day.</note> +In this connexion it is worth while to note that in pagan +Europe the water as well as the fire seems to have claimed +its human victim on Midsummer Day. Some German rivers, +such as the Saale and the Spree, are believed still to require +their victim on that day; hence people are careful not to bathe +at this perilous season. Where the beautiful Neckar flows, +between vine-clad and wooded hills, under the majestic ruins +of Heidelberg castle, the spirit of the river seeks to drown +three persons, one on Midsummer Eve, one on Midsummer +Day, and one on the day after. On these nights, if you hear +a shriek as of a drowning man or woman from the water, +beware of running to the rescue; for it is only the water-fairy +shrieking to lure you to your doom. Many a fisherman +of the Elbe knows better than to launch his boat and trust +himself to the treacherous river on Midsummer Day. And +Samland fishermen will not go to sea at this season, because +they are aware that the sea is then hollow and demands +a victim. In the neighbourhood of the Lake of Constance +<pb n='027'/><anchor id='Pg027'/> +the Swabian peasants say that on St. John's Day the Angel +or St. John must have a swimmer and a climber; hence no +one will climb a tree or bathe even in a brook on that day.<note place='foot'>E. Meier, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Sagen, Sitten +und Gebräuche aus Schwaben</hi> (Stuttgart, +1852), pp. 428 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, §§ 120, 122; +O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, +<hi rend='italic'>Das festliche Jahr</hi> (Leipsic, 1863), p. +194; J. A. E. Köhler, <hi rend='italic'>Volksbrauch, +Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte +Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande</hi> (Leipsic, +1867), p. 176; J. V. Grohmann, +<hi rend='italic'>Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen +und Mähren</hi> (Prague and Leipsic, +1864), p. 49, § 311; W. J. A. Tettau +und J. D. H. Temme, <hi rend='italic'>Die Volkssagen +Ost-preussens, Litthauens und West-preussens</hi> +(Berlin, 1837), pp. 277 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +K. Haupt, <hi rend='italic'>Sagenbuch der Lausitz</hi> +(Leipsic, 1862-1863), i. 48; R. Eisel, +<hi rend='italic'>Sagenbuch des Voigtlandes</hi> (Gera, 1871), +p. 31, Nr. 62.</note> +According to others, St. John will have three dead men on +his day; one of them must die by water, one by a fall, and +one by lightning; therefore old-fashioned people warn their +children not to climb or bathe, and are very careful themselves +not to run into any kind of danger on Midsummer +Day.<note place='foot'>Montanus, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutschen Volksfeste, +Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube</hi> +(Iserlohn, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), p. 34.</note> So in some parts of Switzerland people are warned +against bathing on St. John's Night, because the saint's day +demands its victims. Thus in the Emmenthal they say, +<q>This day will have three persons; one must perish in the +air, one in the fire, and the third in the water.</q> At Schaffhausen +the saying runs, <q>St. John the Baptist must have a +runner, must have a swimmer, must have a climber.</q> That +is the reason why you should not climb cherry-trees on the +saint's day, lest you should fall down and break your valuable +neck.<note place='foot'>E. Hoffmann-Krayer, <hi rend='italic'>Feste und +Bräuche des Schweizervolkes</hi> (Zurich, +1913), p. 163.</note> In Cologne the saint is more exacting; on his day +he requires no less than fourteen dead men; seven of them +must be swimmers and seven climbers.<note place='foot'>E. H. Meyer, <hi rend='italic'>Badisches Volksleben</hi> +(Strasburg, 1900), p. 507.</note> Accordingly when +we find that, in one of the districts where a belief of this +sort prevails, it used to be customary to throw a person into +the water on Midsummer Day, we can hardly help concluding +that this was only a modification of an older custom of +actually drowning a human being in the river at that time. +In Voigtland it was formerly the practice to set up a fine +May tree, adorned with all kinds of things, on St. John's +Day. The people danced round it, and when the lads had +fetched down the things with which it was tricked out, +the tree was thrown into the water. But before this was +<pb n='028'/><anchor id='Pg028'/> +done, they sought out somebody whom they treated in the +same manner, and the victim of this horseplay was called +<q>the John.</q> The brawls and disorders, which such a custom +naturally provoked, led to the suppression of the whole +ceremony.<note place='foot'>J. A. E. Köhler, <hi rend='italic'>loc. cit.</hi> Tacitus +tells us that the image of the goddess +Nerthus, her vestments, and chariot +were washed in a certain lake, and +that immediately afterwards the slaves +who ministered to the goddess were +swallowed by the lake (<hi rend='italic'>Germania</hi>, 40). +The statement may perhaps be understood +to mean that the slaves were +drowned as a sacrifice to the deity. +Certainly we know from Tacitus +(<hi rend='italic'>Germania</hi>, 9 and 39) that the ancient +Germans offered human sacrifices.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Loaves and +flowers +thrown +into the +water on +St. John's +Day, perhaps +as +substitutes +for human +beings.</note> +At Rotenburg on the Neckar they throw a loaf of +bread into the water on St. John's Day; were this offering +not made, the river would grow angry and take away a man.<note place='foot'>E. Meier, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Sagen, Sitten +und Gebräuche aus Schwaben</hi> (Stuttgart, +1852), p. 429, § 121.</note> +Clearly, therefore, the loaf is regarded as a substitute which +the spirit of the river consents to accept instead of a human +victim. Elsewhere the water-sprite is content with flowers. +Thus in Bohemia people sometimes cast garlands into water +on Midsummer Eve; and if the water-sprite pulls one of +them down, it is a sign that the person who threw the +garland in will die.<note place='foot'>O. Frh. von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, +<hi rend='italic'>Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen</hi> (Prague, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), p. 311.</note> In the villages of Hesse the girl who +first comes to the well early on the morning of Midsummer +Day, places on the mouth of the well a gay garland composed +of many sorts of flowers which she has culled from +the fields and meadows. Sometimes a number of such +garlands are twined together to form a crown, with which +the well is decked. At Fulda, in addition to the flowery +decoration of the wells, the neighbours choose a Lord of +the Wells and announce his election by sending him a great +nosegay of flowers; his house, too, is decorated with green +boughs, and children walk in procession to it. He goes +from house to house collecting materials for a feast, of +which the neighbours partake on the following Sunday.<note place='foot'>Karl Lynker, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Sagen und +Sitten in hessischen Gauen</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Cassel +and Göttingen, 1860), pp. 253, 254, +§§ 335, 336.</note> +What the other duties of the Lord of the Wells may be, we +are not told. We may conjecture that in old days he had +to see to it that the spirits of the water received their dues +from men and maidens on that important day. +</p> + +<pb n='029'/><anchor id='Pg029'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Midsummer +Day +deemed +unlucky +and +dangerous.</note> +The belief that the spirits of the water exact a human +life on Midsummer Day may partly explain why that +day is regarded by some people as unlucky. At Neuburg, +in Baden, people who meet on Midsummer Day +bid each other beware.<note place='foot'>E. H. Meyer, <hi rend='italic'>Badisches Volksleben</hi> +(Strasburg, 1900), p. 506.</note> Sicilian mothers on that ominous +day warn their little sons not to go out of the house, +or, if they do go out, not to stray far, not to walk on +solitary unfrequented paths, to avoid horses and carriages +and persons with firearms, and not to dare to swim; in +short they bid them be on their guard at every turn. The +Sicilian writer who tells us this adds: <q>This I know and +sadly remember ever since the year 1848, when, not yet +seven years old, I beheld in the dusk of the evening on St. +John's Day some women of my acquaintance bringing back +in their arms my little brother, who had gone to play in a +garden near our house, and there had found his death, my +poor Francesco! In their simplicity the women who strove +to console my inconsolable mother, driven distracted by the +dreadful blow, kept repeating that St. John must have his +due, that on that day he must be appeased. <q>Who knows,</q> +said they, <q>how many other mothers are weeping now for +other little sons forlorn!</q></q><note place='foot'>Giuseppe Pitrè, <hi rend='italic'>Spettacoli e Feste +Popolari Siciliane</hi> (Palermo, 1881), p. +313.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>In Europe +people +used to +bathe on +Midsummer +Eve or +Midsummer +Day, +because +water was +thought to +acquire +wonderful +medicinal +virtues at +that time.</note> +Yet curiously enough, though the water-spirits call for +human victims on Midsummer Eve or Midsummer Day, +water in general is supposed at that season to acquire +certain wonderful medicinal virtues, so that he who bathes +in it then or drinks of it is not only healed of all his infirmities +but will be well and hearty throughout the year. +Hence in many parts of Europe, from Sweden in the north +to Sicily in the south, and from Ireland and Spain in the +west to Esthonia in the east it used to be customary for +men, women, and children to bathe in crowds in rivers, the +sea, or springs on Midsummer Eve or Midsummer Day, +hoping thus to fortify themselves for the next twelve months. +The usual time for taking the bath was the night which +intervenes between Midsummer Eve and Midsummer Day;<note place='foot'>J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> +i. 489 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, iii. 487; A. Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>Der +deutsche Volksaberglaube</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Berlin, +1869), p. 77 § 92; O. Freiherr von +Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, <hi rend='italic'>Das festliche +Jahr</hi> (Leipsic, 1863), p. 193; F. J. +Vonbun, <hi rend='italic'>Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie</hi> +(Chur, 1862), p. 133; P. Drechsler, +<hi rend='italic'>Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in +Schlesien</hi> (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 143 +§ 161; Karl Haupt, <hi rend='italic'>Sagenbuch der +Lausitz</hi> (Leipsic, 1862-1863), i. 248, +No. 303; F. J. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Aus dem +inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten</hi> +(St. Petersburg, 1876), p. 415; L. +Lloyd, <hi rend='italic'>Peasant Life in Sweden</hi> (London, +1870), pp. 261 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Paul Sébillot, <hi rend='italic'>Le +Folk-lore de France</hi> (Paris, 1904-1907), +ii. 160 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, +<hi rend='italic'>British Popular Customs</hi> (London, +1876), pp. 322 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 329 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> For more +evidence, see above, vol. i. pp. 193, 194, +205 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 208, 210, 216; <hi rend='italic'>Adonis, Attis, +Osiris</hi>, Second Edition, pp. 204 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +<pb n='030'/><anchor id='Pg030'/> +but in Belgium the hour was noon on Midsummer Day. +It was a curious sight, we are told, to see the banks of +a river lined with naked children waiting for the first +stroke of noon to plunge into the healing water. The dip +was supposed to have a remarkable effect in strengthening +the legs. People who were ashamed to bathe in public +used to have cans of water brought to their houses from the +river at midday, and then performed their ablutions in the +privacy of their chambers. Nor did they throw away the +precious fluid; on the contrary they bottled it up and kept +it as a sort of elixir for use throughout the year. It was +thought never to grow foul and to be as blessed as holy water +fetched from a church, which we may well believe. Hence +it served to guard the house against a thunder-storm; when +the clouds were heavy and threatening, all you had to do +was to take the palm branches (that is, the twigs of box-wood) +which were blessed on Palm Sunday, dip them in +the midsummer water, and burn them. That averted the +tempest.<note place='foot'>Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, +<hi rend='italic'>Calendrier Belge</hi> (Brussels, 1861-1862), +i. 420 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; E. Monseur, <hi rend='italic'>Le +Folklore Wallon</hi> (Brussels, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), p. +130; P. Sébillot, <hi rend='italic'>Le Folk-lore de +France</hi>, ii. 374 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In the Swiss canton of Lucerne a bath on Midsummer +Eve is thought to be especially wholesome, though +in other parts of Switzerland, as we saw, bathing at that +season is accounted dangerous.<note place='foot'>E. Hoffmann-Krayer, <hi rend='italic'>Feste und +Bräuche des Schweizervolkes</hi> (Zurich, +1913), p. 163. See above, p. 27.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Similar +customs +and beliefs +as to water +at Midsummer +in +Morocco.</note> +Nor are such customs and beliefs confined to the +Christian peoples of Europe; they are shared also by the +Mohammedan peoples of Morocco. There, too, on Midsummer +Day all water is thought to be endowed with such +marvellous virtue that it not only heals but prevents sickness +for the rest of the year; hence men, women, and +children bathe in the sea, in rivers, or in their houses at +<pb n='031'/><anchor id='Pg031'/> +that time for the sake of their health. In Fez and other places +on this day people pour or squirt water over each other in the +streets or from the house-tops, so that the streets become +almost as muddy as after a fall of rain. More than that, in +the Andjra they bathe their animals also; horses, mules, +donkeys, cattle, sheep, and goats, all must participate in the +miraculous benefits of midsummer water.<note place='foot'>E. Westermarck, <q>Midsummer +Customs in Morocco,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, xvi. +(1905) pp. 31 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Ceremonies and +Beliefs connected with Agriculture, +certain Dates of the Solar Year, and +the Weather in Morocco</hi> (Helsingfors, +1913), pp. 84-86; E. Doutté, <hi rend='italic'>Magie +et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord</hi> +(Algiers, 1908), pp. 567 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> See also +above, vol. i. p. 216.</note> The rite forms +part of that old heathen celebration of Midsummer which +appears to have been common to the peoples on both sides +of the Mediterranean;<note place='foot'>See above, vol. i. pp. 213-219.</note> and as the aim of bathing in the +midsummer water is undoubtedly purification, it is reasonable +to assign the same motive for the custom of leaping over +the midsummer bonfire. On the other hand some people in +Morocco, like some people in Europe, think that water on +Midsummer Day is unclean or dangerous. A Berber told +Dr. Westermarck that water is haunted on Midsummer +Day, and that people therefore avoid bathing in it and keep +animals from drinking of it. And among the Beni Ahsen +persons who swim in the river on that day are careful, before +plunging into the water, to throw burning straw into it as an +offering, in order that the spirits may not harm them.<note place='foot'>E. Westermarck, <hi rend='italic'>Ceremonies and +Beliefs connected with Agriculture, +certain Dates of the Solar Year, and +the Weather in Morocco</hi> (Helsingfors, +1913), pp. 94 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The +parallelism between the rites of water and fire at this season +is certainly in favour of interpreting both in the same way;<note place='foot'>This has been rightly pointed out +by Dr. Edward Westermarck (<q>Midsummer +Customs in Morocco,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, +xvi. (1905) p. 46).</note> +and the traces of human sacrifice which we have detected in +the rite of water may therefore be allowed to strengthen the +inference of a similar sacrifice in the rite of fire. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Human +sacrifices +by fire +among the +ancient +Gauls. Men and +animals +enclosed +in great wicker-work +images +and burnt +alive.</note> +But it seems possible to go farther than this. Of human +sacrifices offered on these occasions the most unequivocal +traces, as we have seen, are those which, about a hundred +years ago, still lingered at the Beltane fires in the Highlands +of Scotland, that is, among a Celtic people who, +situated in a remote corner of Europe and almost completely +<pb n='032'/><anchor id='Pg032'/> +isolated from foreign influence, had till then +conserved their old heathenism better perhaps than any +other people in the West of Europe. It is significant, therefore, +that human sacrifices by fire are known, on unquestionable +evidence, to have been systematically practised by the +Celts. The earliest description of these sacrifices has been +bequeathed to us by Julius Caesar. As conqueror of the +hitherto independent Celts of Gaul, Caesar had ample +opportunity of observing the national Celtic religion and +manners, while these were still fresh and crisp from the +native mint and had not yet been fused in the melting-pot +of Roman civilization. With his own notes Caesar appears +to have incorporated the observations of a Greek explorer, by +name Posidonius, who travelled in Gaul about fifty years +before Caesar carried the Roman arms to the English +Channel. The Greek geographer Strabo and the historian +Diodorus seem also to have derived their descriptions of +the Celtic sacrifices from the work of Posidonius, but independently +of each other, and of Caesar, for each of the +three derivative accounts contain some details which are not +to be found in either of the others. By combining them, +therefore, we can restore the original account of Posidonius +with some probability, and thus obtain a picture of the +sacrifices offered by the Celts of Gaul at the close of the +second century before our era.<note place='foot'>Caesar, <hi rend='italic'>Bell. Gall.</hi> vi. 15; Strabo, +iv. 4. 5, p. 198; Diodorus Siculus, v. +32. See W. Mannhardt, <hi rend='italic'>Baumkultus</hi>, +pp. 525 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> The following seem to have +been the main outlines of the custom. Condemned criminals +were reserved by the Celts in order to be sacrificed to the gods +at a great festival which took place once in every five years. +The more there were of such victims, the greater was believed +to be the fertility of the land.<note place='foot'>Strabo, iv. 4. 4, p. 197: τὰς δὲ +φονικὰς δίκας μάλιστα τούτοις [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> the +Druids] ἐπετέτραπτο δικάζειν, ὅταν τε +φορὰ τούτων ᾖ, φορὰν καὶ τῆς χώρας νομίζουσιν +ὑπάρχειν. On this passage see +W. Mannhardt, <hi rend='italic'>Baumkultus</hi>, pp. 529 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; and below, pp. 42 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> If there were not enough +criminals to furnish victims, captives taken in war were +immolated to supply the deficiency. When the time came the +victims were sacrificed by the Druids or priests. Some they +shot down with arrows, some they impaled, and some they +burned alive in the following manner. Colossal images of +<pb n='033'/><anchor id='Pg033'/> +wicker-work or of wood and grass were constructed; these +were filled with live men, cattle, and animals of other kinds; +fire was then applied to the images, and they were burned +with their living contents. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>As the +fertility +of the land +was supposed +to +depend on +these +sacrifices, +Mannhardt +interpreted +the victims +as representatives +of tree-spirits +or +spirits of +vegetation.</note> +Such were the great festivals held once every five years. +But besides these quinquennial festivals, celebrated on so +grand a scale, and with, apparently, so large an expenditure +of human life, it seems reasonable to suppose that festivals +of the same sort, only on a lesser scale, were held annually, +and that from these annual festivals are lineally descended +some at least of the fire-festivals which, with their traces of +human sacrifices, are still celebrated year by year in many +parts of Europe. The gigantic images constructed of osiers +or covered with grass in which the Druids enclosed their +victims remind us of the leafy framework in which the human +representative of the tree-spirit is still so often encased.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, ii. 80 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +Hence, seeing that the fertility of the land was apparently +supposed to depend upon the due performance of these +sacrifices, Mannhardt interpreted the Celtic victims, cased in +osiers and grass, as representatives of the tree-spirit or +spirit of vegetation. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Wicker-work +giants at +popular +festivals +in modern +Europe. +The giant +at Douay +on July the +seventh. The giants +at Dunkirk +on Midsummer +Day.</note> +These wicker giants of the Druids seem to have had +till lately their representatives at the spring and midsummer +festivals of modern Europe. At Douay, down +to the early part of the nineteenth century, a procession +took place annually on the Sunday nearest to the seventh +of July. The great feature of the procession was a +colossal figure, some twenty or thirty feet high, made of +osiers, and called <q>the giant,</q> which was moved through +the streets by means of rollers and ropes worked by +men who were enclosed within the effigy. The wooden +head of the giant is said to have been carved and +painted by Rubens. The figure was armed as a knight +with lance and sword, helmet and shield. Behind him +marched his wife and his three children, all constructed of +osiers on the same principle, but on a smaller scale.<note place='foot'>Madame Clément, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire des +fêtes civiles et religieuses du département +du Nord</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Cambrai, 1836), pp. +193-200; A. de Nore, <hi rend='italic'>Coutumes, Mythes +et Traditions des Provinces de France</hi>, +(Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 323 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +F. W. Fairholt, <hi rend='italic'>Gog and Magog, the +Giants in Guildhall, their real and +legendary History</hi> (London, 1859), pp. +78-87; W. Mannhardt, <hi rend='italic'>Baumkultus</hi>, +p. 523, note. It is said that the giantess +made her first appearance in 1665, and +that the children were not added to the +show till the end of the seventeenth +century. In the eighteenth century the +procession took place on the third +Sunday in June, which must always +have been within about a week of +Midsummer Day (H. Gaidoz, <q>Le dieu +gaulois du soleil et le symbolisme de +la roue,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Revue Archéologique</hi>, iii. +série iv. 32 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>).</note> At +<pb n='034'/><anchor id='Pg034'/> +Dunkirk the procession of the giants took place on Midsummer +Day, the twenty-fourth of June. The festival, +which was known as the Follies of Dunkirk, attracted such +multitudes of spectators, that the inns and private houses +could not lodge them all, and many had to sleep in cellars +or in the streets. In 1755 an eye-witness estimated that +the number of onlookers was not less than forty thousand, +without counting the inhabitants of the town. The streets +through which the procession took its way were lined with +double ranks of soldiers, and the houses crammed with +spectators from top to bottom. High mass was celebrated in +the principal church and then the procession got under weigh. +First came the guilds or brotherhoods, the members walking +two and two with great waxen tapers, lighted, in their hands. +They were followed by the friars and the secular priests, and +then came the Abbot, magnificently attired, with the Host +borne before him by a venerable old man. When these +were past, the real <q>Follies of Dunkirk</q> began. They consisted +of pageants of various sorts wheeled through the streets +in cars. These appear to have varied somewhat from year +to year; but if we may judge from the processions of 1755 +and 1757, both of which have been described by eye-witnesses, +a standing show was a car decked with foliage and branches +to imitate a wood, and carrying a number of men dressed in +leaves or in green scaly skins, who squirted water on the +people from pewter syringes. An English spectator has +compared these maskers to the Green Men of our own country +on May Day. Last of all came the giant and giantess. +The giant was a huge figure of wicker-work, occasionally as +much as forty-five feet high, dressed in a long blue robe with +gold stripes, which reached to his feet, concealing the dozen +or more men who made it dance and bob its head to the +spectators. This colossal effigy went by the name of Papa +<pb n='035'/><anchor id='Pg035'/> +Reuss, and carried in its pocket a bouncing infant of Brobdingnagian +proportions, who kept bawling <q>Papa! papa!</q> +in a voice of thunder, only pausing from time to time to +devour the victuals which were handed out to him from the +windows. The rear was brought up by the daughter of the +giant, constructed, like her sire, of wicker-work, and little, if +at all, inferior to him in size. She wore a rose-coloured robe, +with a gold watch as large as a warming pan at her side: +her breast glittered with jewels: her complexion was high, +and her eyes and head turned with as easy a grace as the +men inside could contrive to impart to their motions. The +procession came to an end with the revolution of 1789, and +has never been revived. The giant himself indeed, who had +won the affections of the townspeople, survived his ancient +glory for a little while and made shift to appear in public a +few times more at the Carnival and other festal occasions; +but his days were numbered, and within fifty years even his +memory had seemingly perished.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Gentleman's Magazine</hi>, xxix. +(1759), pp. 263-265; Madame Clément, +<hi rend='italic'>Histoire des fêtes civiles et religieuses +du département du Nord</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> pp. 169-175; +A. de Nore, <hi rend='italic'>Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions +des Provinces de France</hi>, pp. 328-332. +Compare John Milner, <hi rend='italic'>The +History, Civil and Ecclesiastical, and +Survey of the Antiquities of Winchester</hi> +(Winchester, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), i. 8 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +note 6; John Brand, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Antiquities +of Great Britain</hi> (London, 1882-1883), +i. 325 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; James Logan, <hi rend='italic'>The +Scottish Gael or Celtic Manners</hi>, edited +by Rev. Alex. Stewart (Inverness, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), +ii. 358. According to the writer in <hi rend='italic'>The +Gentleman's Magazine</hi> the name of the +procession was the Cor-mass.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Wicker-work +giants in +Brabant +and +Flanders.</note> +Most towns and even villages of Brabant and Flanders +have, or used to have, similar wicker giants which were +annually led about to the delight of the populace, who +loved these grotesque figures, spoke of them with patriotic +enthusiasm, and never wearied of gazing at them. The +name by which the giants went was Reuzes, and a special +song called the Reuze song was sung in the Flemish dialect +while they were making their triumphal progress through +the streets. The most celebrated of these monstrous effigies +were those of Antwerp and Wetteren. At Ypres a whole +family of giants contributed to the public hilarity at the +Carnival. At Cassel and Hazebrouch, in the French department +of Nord, the giants made their annual appearance +on Shrove Tuesday.<note place='foot'>Madame Clément, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire des +fêtes civiles et religieuses</hi>, etc., <hi rend='italic'>de la Belgique +méridionale</hi>, etc. (Avesnes, 1846), +p. 252; Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, +<hi rend='italic'>Calendrier Belge</hi> (Brussels, +1861-1862), i. 123-126. We may +conjecture that the Flemish <foreign rend='italic'>Reuze</foreign>, like +the <foreign rend='italic'>Reuss</foreign> of Dunkirk, is only another +form of the German <foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>Riese</foreign>, <q>giant.</q></note> At Antwerp the giant was so big +<pb n='036'/><anchor id='Pg036'/> +that no gate in the city was large enough to let him +go through; hence he could not visit his brother giants +in neighbouring towns, as the other Belgian giants used +to do on solemn occasions. He was designed in 1534 +by Peter van Aelst, painter to the Emperor Charles the +Fifth, and is still preserved with other colossal figures +in a large hall at Antwerp.<note place='foot'>F. W. Fairholt, <hi rend='italic'>Gog and Magog, +the Giants in Guildhall, their real and +legendary History</hi> (London, 1859), pp. +64-78. For the loan of this work and +of the one cited in the next note I have +to thank Mrs. Wherry, of St. Peter's +Terrace, Cambridge.</note> At Ath, in the Belgian +province of Hainaut, the popular procession of the giants +took place annually in August down to the year 1869 at +least. For three days the colossal effigies of Goliath and +his wife, of Samson and an Archer (<foreign rend='italic'>Tirant</foreign>), together with +a two-headed eagle, were led about the streets on the +shoulders of twenty bearers concealed under the flowing +drapery of the giants, to the great delight of the townspeople +and a crowd of strangers who assembled to witness +the pageant. The custom can be traced back by documentary +evidence to the middle of the fifteenth century; +but it appears that the practice of giving Goliath a wife +dates only from the year 1715. Their nuptials were solemnized +every year on the eve of the festival in the church of +St. Julien, whither the two huge figures were escorted by the +magistrates in procession.<note place='foot'>E. Fourdin, <q>La foire d'Ath,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Annales du Cercle Archéologique de +Mons</hi>, ix. (Mons, 1869) pp. 7, 8, 12, +36 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The history of the festival has +been carefully investigated, with the +help of documents by M. Fourdin. +According to him, the procession was +religious in its origin and took its rise +from a pestilence which desolated +Hainaut in 1215 (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 1 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>). +He thinks that the effigies of giants +were not introduced into the procession +till between 1450 and 1460 (<hi rend='italic'>op. +cit.</hi> p. 8).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Midsummer +giants in +England.</note> +In England artificial giants seem to have been a +standing feature of the midsummer festival. A writer of +the sixteenth century speaks of <q>Midsommer pageants in +London, where to make the people wonder, are set forth +great and uglie gyants marching as if they were alive, and +armed at all points, but within they are stuffed full of +browne paper and tow, which the shrewd boyes, underpeering, +<pb n='037'/><anchor id='Pg037'/> +do guilefully discover, and turne to a greate derision.</q><note place='foot'>George Puttenham, <hi rend='italic'>The Arte of +English Poesie</hi> (London, 1811, reprint +of the original edition of London, +1589), book iii. chapter vi. p. 128. +On the history of the English giants +and their relation to those of the +continent, see F. W. Fairholt, <hi rend='italic'>Gog +and Magog, the Giants in Guildhall, +their real and legendary History</hi> +(London, 1859).</note> +At Chester the annual pageant on Midsummer Eve included +the effigies of four giants, with animals, hobby-horses, and +other figures. An officious mayor of the town suppressed +the giants in 1599, but they were restored by another mayor +in 1601. Under the Commonwealth the pageant was discontinued, +and the giants and beasts were destroyed; but +after the restoration of Charles II. the old ceremony was +revived on the old date, new effigies being constructed to +replace those which had fallen victims to Roundhead bigotry. +The accounts preserve a record not only of the hoops, buckram, +tinfoil, gold and silver leaf, paint, glue, and paste which +went to make up these gorgeous figures; they also mention +the arsenic which was mixed with the paste in order to preserve +the poor giants from being eaten alive by the rats.<note place='foot'>Joseph Strutt, <hi rend='italic'>The Sports and +Pastimes of the People of England</hi>, +New Edition, by W. Hone (London, +1834), pp. xliii.-xlv.; F. W. Fairholt, +<hi rend='italic'>Gog and Magog, the Giants in Guildhall</hi> +(London, 1859), pp. 52-59.</note> +At Coventry the accounts of the Cappers' and Drapers' +Companies in the sixteenth century shed light on the giants +which there also were carried about the town at Midsummer; +from some of the entries it appears that the giant's wife +figured beside the giant.<note place='foot'>F. W. Fairholt, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 59-61.</note> At Burford, in Oxfordshire, Midsummer +Eve used to be celebrated with great jollity by the +carrying of a giant and a dragon up and down the town. +The last survivor of these perambulating English giants +dragged out a miserable existence at Salisbury, where an +antiquary found him mouldering to decay in the neglected +hall of the Tailors' Company about the year 1844. His +bodily framework was of lath and hoop like the one which +used to be worn by Jack-in-the-Green on May Day. The +drapery, which concealed the bearer, was of coloured chintz, +bordered with red and purple, and trimmed with yellow +fringe. His head was modelled in paste-board and adorned +with a gold-laced cocked hat: his flowing locks were of +tow; and in his big right hand he brandished a branch of +<pb n='038'/><anchor id='Pg038'/> +artificial laurel. In the days of his glory he promenaded +about the streets, dancing clumsily and attended by two +men grotesquely attired, who kept a watchful eye on his +movements and checked by the wooden sword and club +which they carried any incipient tendency to lose his balance +and topple over in an undignified manner, which would have +exposed to the derision of the populace the mystery of his +inner man. The learned called him St. Christopher, the +vulgar simply the giant.<note place='foot'>F. W. Fairholt, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 61-63.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Wicker-work +giants +burnt at or +near Midsummer.</note> +In these cases the giants only figure in the processions. +But sometimes they were burned in the summer +bonfires. Thus the people of the Rue aux Ours in Paris +used annually to make a great wicker-work figure, dressed +as a soldier, which they promenaded up and down the +streets for several days, and solemnly burned on the third +of July, the crowd of spectators singing <hi rend='italic'>Salve Regina</hi>. +A personage who bore the title of king presided over the +ceremony with a lighted torch in his hand. The burning +fragments of the image were scattered among the people, +who eagerly scrambled for them. The custom was abolished +in 1743.<note place='foot'>Felix Liebrecht, <hi rend='italic'>Des Gervasius von +Tilbury Otia Imperialia</hi> (Hanover, +1856), pp. 212 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. de Nore, <hi rend='italic'>Coutumes, +Mythes, et Traditions des Provinces de +France</hi>, pp. 354 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; W. Mannhardt, +<hi rend='italic'>Baumkultus</hi>, p. 514.</note> In Brie, Isle de France, a wicker-work giant, +eighteen feet high, was annually burned on Midsummer +Eve.<note place='foot'>W. Mannhardt, <hi rend='italic'>Baumkultus</hi>, pp. +514, 523.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Animals +burnt in +the Midsummer +bonfires. Serpents +formerly +burnt in +the Midsummer +fire at +Luchon. +Cats +formerly +burnt in +the Midsummer, +Easter, and +Lenten +bonfires.</note> +Again, the Druidical custom of burning live animals, +enclosed in wicker-work, has its counterpart at the spring and +midsummer festivals. At Luchon in the Pyrenees on Midsummer +Eve <q>a hollow column, composed of strong wicker-work, +is raised to the height of about sixty feet in the centre +of the principal suburb, and interlaced with green foliage up +to the very top; while the most beautiful flowers and shrubs +procurable are artistically arranged in groups below, so as to +form a sort of background to the scene. The column is +then filled with combustible materials, ready for ignition. +At an appointed hour—about 8 <hi rend='smallcaps'>p.m.</hi>—a grand procession, +composed of the clergy, followed by young men and maidens +in holiday attire, pour forth from the town chanting hymns, +<pb n='039'/><anchor id='Pg039'/> +and take up their position around the column. Meanwhile, +bonfires are lit, with beautiful effect, in the surrounding hills. +As many living serpents as could be collected are now thrown +into the column, which is set on fire at the base by means +of torches, armed with which about fifty boys and men +dance around with frantic gestures. The serpents, to avoid +the flames, wriggle their way to the top, whence they are +seen lashing out laterally until finally obliged to drop, their +struggles for life giving rise to enthusiastic delight among +the surrounding spectators. This is a favourite annual ceremony +for the inhabitants of Luchon and its neighbourhood, +and local tradition assigns it to a heathen origin.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Athenaeum</hi>, 24th July 1869, p. +115; W. Mannhardt, <hi rend='italic'>Baumkultus</hi>, +pp. 515 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> From a later account we +learn that about the year 1890 the +custom of lighting a bonfire and dancing +round it was still observed at Bagnères +de Luchon on Midsummer Eve, but the +practice of burning live serpents in it +had been discontinued. The fire was +kindled by a priest. See <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, xii. +(1901) pp. 315-317.</note> In the +midsummer fires formerly kindled on the Place de Grève at +Paris it was the custom to burn a basket, barrel, or sack full +of live cats, which was hung from a tall mast in the midst of +the bonfire; sometimes a fox was burned. The people +collected the embers and ashes of the fire and took them +home, believing that they brought good luck. The French +kings often witnessed these spectacles and even lit the bonfire +with their own hands. In 1648 Louis the Fourteenth, +crowned with a wreath of roses and carrying a bunch of +roses in his hand, kindled the fire, danced at it and partook +of the banquet afterwards in the town hall. But this was +the last occasion when a monarch presided at the midsummer +bonfire in Paris.<note place='foot'>A. Breuil, <q>Du culte de St.-Jean +Baptiste,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mémoires de la Société des +Antiquaires de Picardie</hi>, viii. (1845) +pp. 187 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Collin de Plancy, <hi rend='italic'>Dictionnaire +Infernal</hi> (Paris, 1825-1826), iii. +40; A. de Nore, <hi rend='italic'>Coutumes, Mythes +et Traditions des Provinces de France</hi>, +pp. 355 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; J. W. Wolf, <hi rend='italic'>Beiträge zur +deutschen Mythologie</hi> (Göttingen and +Leipsic, 1852-1857), ii. 388; E. +Cortet, <hi rend='italic'>Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses</hi> +(Paris, 1867), pp. 213 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Laisnel de +la Salle, <hi rend='italic'>Croyances et Légendes du +Centre de la France</hi> (Paris, 1875), i. +82; W. Mannhardt, <hi rend='italic'>Baumkultus</hi>, p. +515.</note> At Metz midsummer fires were lighted +with great pomp on the esplanade, and a dozen cats, enclosed +in wicker-cages, were burned alive in them, to the +amusement of the people.<note place='foot'>Tessier, in <hi rend='italic'>Mémoires et Dissertations +publiés par la Société Royale des +Antiquaires de France</hi>, v. (1823) p. +388; W. Mannhardt, <hi rend='italic'>Baumkultus</hi>, +p. 515.</note> Similarly at Gap, in the department +<pb n='040'/><anchor id='Pg040'/> +of the High Alps, cats used to be roasted over the +midsummer bonfire.<note place='foot'>Alexandre Bertrand, <hi rend='italic'>La Religion +des Gaulois</hi> (Paris, 1897), p. 407.</note> In Russia a white cock was sometimes +burned in the midsummer bonfire;<note place='foot'>J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> +i. 519; W. Mannhardt, <hi rend='italic'>Baumkultus</hi>, +p. 515.</note> in Meissen or +Thuringia a horse's head used to be thrown into it.<note place='foot'>W. Mannhardt, <hi rend='italic'>Baumkultus</hi>, p. +515; Montanus, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutschen Volksfesten, +Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube</hi> +(Iserlohn, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), p. 34.</note> Sometimes +animals are burned in the spring bonfires. In the +Vosges cats were burned on Shrove Tuesday; in Alsace +they were thrown into the Easter bonfire.<note place='foot'>W. Mannhardt, <hi rend='italic'>Baumkultus</hi>, p. +515.</note> In the department +of the Ardennes cats were flung into the bonfires +kindled on the first Sunday in Lent; sometimes, by a +refinement of cruelty, they were hung over the fire from +the end of a pole and roasted alive. <q>The cat, which +represented the devil, could never suffer enough.</q> While +the creatures were perishing in the flames, the shepherds +guarded their flocks and forced them to leap over the fire, +esteeming this an infallible means of preserving them from +disease and witchcraft.<note place='foot'>A. Meyrac, <hi rend='italic'>Traditions, Coutumes, +Légendes, et Contes des Ardenness</hi> +(Charleville, 1890), p. 68.</note> We have seen that squirrels were +sometimes burned in the Easter fire.<note place='foot'>Above, vol. i. p. 142.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Thus the +sacrificial +rites of the +ancient +Gauls have +their +counterparts +in +the popular +festivals of +modern +Europe.</note> +Thus it appears that the sacrificial rites of the Celts of +ancient Gaul can be traced in the popular festivals of modern +Europe. Naturally it is in France, or rather in the wider +area comprised within the limits of ancient Gaul, that these +rites have left the clearest traces in the customs of burning +giants of wicker-work and animals enclosed in wicker-work +or baskets. These customs, it will have been remarked, are +generally observed at or about midsummer. From this we +may infer that the original rites of which these are the degenerate +successors were solemnized at midsummer. This +inference harmonizes with the conclusion suggested by a +general survey of European folk-custom, that the midsummer +festival must on the whole have been the most widely diffused +and the most solemn of all the yearly festivals celebrated by +the primitive Aryans in Europe. At the same time we +must bear in mind that among the British Celts the chief +fire-festivals of the year appear certainly to have been those +<pb n='041'/><anchor id='Pg041'/> +of Beltane (May Day) and Hallowe'en (the last day of +October); and this suggests a doubt whether the Celts of +Gaul also may not have celebrated their principal rites of +fire, including their burnt sacrifices of men and animals, at +the beginning of May or the beginning of November rather +than at Midsummer. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The men, +women, +and +animals +burnt at +these +festivals +were +perhaps +thought to +be witches +or wizards +in disguise.</note> +We have still to ask, What is the meaning of such +sacrifices? Why were men and animals burnt to death at +these festivals? If we are right in interpreting the modern +European fire-festivals as attempts to break the power of +witchcraft by burning or banning the witches and warlocks, +it seems to follow that we must explain the human sacrifices +of the Celts in the same manner; that is, we must suppose +that the men whom the Druids burnt in wicker-work images +were condemned to death on the ground that they were +witches or wizards, and that the mode of execution by fire +was chosen because, as we have seen, burning alive is +deemed the surest mode of getting rid of these noxious +and dangerous beings. The same explanation would apply +to the cattle and wild animals of many kinds which the +Celts burned along with the men.<note place='foot'>Strabo, iv. 4. 5, p. 198, καὶ ἄλλα +δὲ ἀνθρωποθυσιῶν εἴδη λέγεται; καὶ +γὰρ κατετόξευόν τινας καὶ ἀνεσταύρουν ἐν +τοῖς ἱεροῖς καὶ κατασκευάσαντες κολοσσὸν +χόρτου καὶ ξύλων, ἐμβαλόντες εἰς τοῦτον +βοσκήματα καὶ θηρία παντοῖα καὶ ἀνθρώπους +ὡλοκαύτουν.</note> They, too, we may +conjecture, were supposed to be either under the spell +of witchcraft or actually to be the witches and wizards, +who had transformed themselves into animals for the +purpose of prosecuting their infernal plots against the welfare +of their fellow creatures. This conjecture is confirmed by +the observation that the victims most commonly burned +in modern bonfires have been cats, and that cats are precisely +the animals into which, with the possible exception +of hares, witches were most usually supposed to transform +themselves. Again, we have seen that serpents and foxes +used sometimes to be burnt in the midsummer fires;<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>.</note> +and Welsh and German witches are reported to have +assumed the form both of foxes and serpents.<note place='foot'>Marie Trevelyan, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore and +Folk-stories of Wales</hi> (London, 1909), +pp. 214, 301 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Ulrich Jahn, <hi rend='italic'>Hexenwesen +und Zauberei in Pommern</hi> +(Breslau, 1886), p. 7; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Volkssagen +aus Pommern und Rügen</hi> (Stettin, +1886), p. 353, No. 446.</note> In short, +<pb n='042'/><anchor id='Pg042'/> +when we remember the great variety of animals whose forms +witches can assume at pleasure,<note place='foot'>See above, vol. i. p. 315 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1.</note> it seems easy on this hypothesis +to account for the variety of living creatures that have +been burnt at festivals both in ancient Gaul and modern +Europe; all these victims, we may surmise, were doomed to +the flames, not because they were animals, but because they +were believed to be witches who had taken the shape of +animals for their nefarious purposes. One advantage of +explaining the ancient Celtic sacrifices in this way is that it +introduces, as it were, a harmony and consistency into the +treatment which Europe has meted out to witches from +the earliest times down to about two centuries ago, when +the growing influence of rationalism discredited the belief +in witchcraft and put a stop to the custom of burning +witches. On this view the Christian Church in its dealings +with the black art merely carried out the traditional policy +of Druidism, and it might be a nice question to decide +which of the two, in pursuance of that policy, exterminated +the larger number of innocent men and women.<note place='foot'>The treatment of magic and witchcraft +by the Christian Church is described +by W. E. H. Lecky, <hi rend='italic'>History +of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit +of Rationalism in Europe</hi>, New Edition +(London, 1882), i. 1 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> Four hundred +witches were burned at one time +in the great square of Toulouse (W. E. +H. Lecky, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 38). Writing at +the beginning of the eighteenth century +Addison observes: <q>Before I leave +Switzerland I cannot but observe, that +the notion of witchcraft reigns very +much in this country. I have often +been tired with accounts of this nature +from very sensible men, who are most +of them furnished with matters of fact +which have happened, as they pretend, +within the compass of their own knowledge. +It is certain there have been +many executions on this account, as in +the canton of Berne there were some +put to death during my stay at Geneva. +The people are so universally infatuated +with the notion, that if a cow +falls sick, it is ten to one but an old +woman is clapt up in prison for it, and +if the poor creature chance to think +herself a witch, the whole country is +for hanging her up without mercy.</q> +See <hi rend='italic'>The Works of Joseph Addison</hi>, +with notes by R. Hurd, D.D. (London, +1811), vol. ii., <q>Remarks on several +Parts of Italy,</q> p. 196.</note> Be that +as it may, we can now perhaps understand why the Druids +believed that the more persons they sentenced to death, the +greater would be the fertility of the land.<note place='foot'>Strabo, iv. 4. 4, p. 197. See +the passage quoted above, p. <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>, +note 2.</note> To a modern +reader the connexion at first sight may not be obvious +between the activity of the hangman and the productivity +of the earth. But a little reflection may satisfy him that +when the criminals who perish at the stake or on the +<pb n='043'/><anchor id='Pg043'/> +gallows are witches, whose delight it is to blight the crops +of the farmer or to lay them low under storms of hail, the +execution of these wretches is really calculated to ensure +an abundant harvest by removing one of the principal +causes which paralyze the efforts and blast the hopes of the +husbandman. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Mannhardt +thought +that the +men and +animals +whom the +Druids +burned in +wickerwork +images +represented +spirits of +vegetation, +and that the +burning of +them was a +charm to +secure a +supply of +sunshine +for the +crops.</note> +The Druidical sacrifices which we are considering were +explained in a different way by W. Mannhardt. He supposed +that the men whom the Druids burned in wickerwork +images represented the spirits of vegetation, and accordingly +that the custom of burning them was a magical ceremony +intended to secure the necessary sunshine for the crops. +Similarly, he seems to have inclined to the view that the +animals which used to be burnt in the bonfires represented +the corn-spirit,<note place='foot'>W. Mannhardt, <hi rend='italic'>Baumkultus</hi>, pp. +532-534.</note> which, as we saw in an earlier part of this +work, is often supposed to assume the shape of an animal.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild</hi>, +i. 270-305.</note> +This theory is no doubt tenable, and the great authority of +W. Mannhardt entitles it to careful consideration. I adopted +it in former editions of this book; but on reconsideration it +seems to me on the whole to be less probable than the theory +that the men and animals burnt in the fires perished in the +character of witches. This latter view is strongly supported +by the testimony of the people who celebrate the fire-festivals, +since a popular name for the custom of kindling the fires is +<q>burning the witches,</q> effigies of witches are sometimes +consumed in the flames, and the fires, their embers, or their +ashes are supposed to furnish protection against witchcraft. +On the other hand there is little to shew that the effigies +or the animals burnt in the fires are regarded by the +people as representatives of the vegetation-spirit, and that +the bonfires are sun-charms. With regard to serpents in +particular, which used to be burnt in the midsummer fire at +Luchon, I am not aware of any certain evidence that in +Europe snakes have been regarded as embodiments of the +tree-spirit or corn-spirit,<note place='foot'>Some of the serpents worshipped +by the old Prussians lived in hollow +oaks, and as oaks were sacred among +the Prussians, the serpents may possibly +have been regarded as genii of the +trees. See Simon Grunau, <hi rend='italic'>Preussischer +Chronik</hi>, herausgegeben von Dr. M. +Perlbach, i. (Leipsic, 1876) p. 89; +Christophor Hartknoch, <hi rend='italic'>Alt und Neues +Preussen</hi> (Frankfort and Leipsic, +1684), pp. 143, 163. Serpents played +an important part in the worship of +Demeter, but we can hardly assume +that they were regarded as embodiments +of the goddess. See <hi rend='italic'>Spirits of +the Corn and of the Wild</hi>, ii. 17 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> though in other parts of the world +<pb n='044'/><anchor id='Pg044'/> +the conception appears to be not unknown.<note place='foot'>For example, in China the spirits +of plants are thought to assume the form +of snakes oftener than that of any other +animal. Chinese literature abounds with +stories illustrative of such transformations. +See J. J. M. de Groot, <hi rend='italic'>The Religious +System of China</hi>, iv. (Leyden, +1901) pp. 283-286. In Siam the spirit +of the <foreign rend='italic'>takhien</foreign> tree is said to appear +sometimes in the shape of a serpent +and sometimes in that of a woman. +See Adolph Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die Voelker des +Oestlichen Asien</hi>, iii. (Jena, 1867) p. +251. The vipers that haunted the +balsam trees in Arabia were regarded +by the Arabs as sacred to the trees +(Pausanias, ix. 28. 4); and once in +Arabia, when a wood hitherto untouched +by man was burned down to +make room for the plough, certain +white snakes flew out of it with loud +lamentations. No doubt they were +supposed to be the dispossessed spirits +of the trees. See J. Wellhausen, +<hi rend='italic'>Reste Arabischen Heidentums</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Berlin, +1897), pp. 108 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Whereas +the popular faith in the transformation of witches into +animals is so general and deeply rooted, and the fear of +these uncanny beings is so strong, that it seems safer to +suppose that the cats and other animals which were burnt in +the fire suffered death as embodiments of witches than that +they perished as representatives of vegetation-spirits. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='045'/><anchor id='Pg045'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter VIII. The Magic Flowers of Midsummer Eve.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>It is a +common +belief in +Europe +that plants +acquire +certain +magical, +but +transient, +virtues on +Midsummer +Eve. +Magical +plants +culled on +Midsummer +Eve (St. +John's Eve) +or Midsummer +Day (St. +John's +Day) in +France. St. John's +herb.</note> +A feature of the great midsummer festival remains to be +considered, which may perhaps help to clear up the doubt +as to the meaning of the fire-ceremonies and their relation +to Druidism. For in France and England, the countries +where the sway of the Druids is known to have been most +firmly established, Midsummer Eve is still the time for +culling certain magic plants, whose evanescent virtue can +be secured at this mystic season alone. Indeed all over +Europe antique fancies of the same sort have lingered about +Midsummer Eve, imparting to it a fragrance of the past, +like withered rose leaves that, found by chance in the pages +of an old volume, still smell of departed summers. Thus in +Saintonge and Aunis, two of the ancient provinces of Western +France, we read that <q>of all the festivals for which the merry +bells ring out there is not one which has given rise to a +greater number of superstitious practices than the festival of +St. John the Baptist. The Eve of St. John was the day of +all days for gathering the wonderful herbs by means of which +you could combat fever, cure a host of diseases, and guard +yourself against sorcerers and their spells. But in order to +attain these results two conditions had to be observed; first, +you must be fasting when you gathered the herbs, and +second, you must cull them before the sun rose. If these +conditions were not fulfilled, the plants had no special virtue.</q><note place='foot'>J. L. M. Noguès, <hi rend='italic'>Les mœurs +d'autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis</hi> +(Saintes, 1891), p. 71. Amongst the +superstitious practices denounced by +the French writer J. B. Thiers in the +seventeenth century was <q>the gathering +of certain herbs between the Eve +of St. John and the Eve of St. Peter +and keeping them in a bottle to heal +certain maladies.</q> See J. B. Thiers, +<hi rend='italic'>Traité des Superstitions</hi> (Paris, 1679), +p. 321.</note> +<pb n='046'/><anchor id='Pg046'/> +In the neighbouring province of Perigord the person who +gathered the magic herbs before sunrise at this season had +to walk backwards, to mutter some mystic words, and to +perform certain ceremonies. The plants thus collected were +carefully kept as an infallible cure for fever; placed above +beds and the doors of houses and of cattle-sheds they protected +man and beast from disease, witchcraft, and accident.<note place='foot'>A. de Nore, <hi rend='italic'>Coutumes, Mythes et +Traditions des Provinces de France</hi> +(Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 150 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +In Normandy a belief in the marvellous properties of herbs +and plants, of flowers and seeds and leaves gathered, with +certain traditional rites, on the Eve or the Day of St. John +has remained part of the peasant's creed to this day. Thus +he fancies that seeds of vegetables and plants, which have +been collected on St. John's Eve, will keep better than +others, and that flowers plucked that day will never fade.<note place='foot'>Jules Lecœur, <hi rend='italic'>Esquisses du Bocage +Normand</hi> (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), +ii. 8, 244; Amélie Bosquet, +<hi rend='italic'>La Normandie romanesque et merveilleuse</hi> +(Paris and Rouen, 1845), p. +294.</note> +Indeed so widespread in France used to be the faith in the +magic virtue of herbs culled on that day that there is a +French proverb <q>to employ all the herbs of St. John in an +affair,</q> meaning <q>to leave no stone unturned.</q><note place='foot'>De la Loubere, <hi rend='italic'>Du Royaume de +Siam</hi> (Amsterdam, 1691), i. 202. +The writer here mentions an Italian +mode of divination practised on Midsummer +Eve. People washed their +feet in wine and threw the wine out +of the window. After that, the first +words they heard spoken by passers-by +were deemed oracular.</note> In the +early years of the nineteenth century a traveller reported +that at Marseilles, <q>on the Eve of St. John, the Place de +Noailles and the course are cleaned. From three o'clock +in the morning the country-people flock thither, and by +six o'clock the whole place is covered with a considerable +quantity of flowers and herbs, aromatic or otherwise. The +folk attribute superstitious virtues to these plants; they are +persuaded that if they have been gathered the same day before +sunrise they are fitted to heal many ailments. People buy +them emulously to give away in presents and to fill the +house with.</q><note place='foot'>Aubin-Louis Millin, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage dans +les Départements du Midi de la France</hi> +(Paris, 1807-1811), iii. 344 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> On the Eve of St. John (Midsummer Eve), +before sunset, the peasants of Perche still gather the herb +called St. John's herb. It is a creeping plant, very aromatic, +with small flowers of a violet blue. Other scented flowers +<pb n='047'/><anchor id='Pg047'/> +are added, and out of the posies they make floral crosses +and crowns, which they hang up over the doors of houses +and stables. Such floral decorations are sold like the box-wood +on Palm Sunday, and the withered wreaths are kept +from year to year. If an animal dies, it may be a cow, they +carefully clean the byre or the stable, make a pile of these +faded garlands, and set them on fire, having previously closed +up all the openings and interstices, so that the whole place +is thoroughly fumigated. This is thought to eradicate the +germs of disease from the byre or stable.<note place='foot'>Alexandre Bertrand, <hi rend='italic'>La Religion +des Gaulois</hi> (Paris, 1897), p. 124. In +French the name of St. John's herb +(<foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>herbe de la Saint-Jean</foreign>) is usually given +to <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>millepertius</foreign>, that is, St. John's wort, +which is quite a different flower. See +below, pp. <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> But <q>St. John's +herb</q> may well be a general term +which in different places is applied to +different plants.</note> At Nellingen, +near Saaralben, in Lorraine the hedge doctors collect their +store of simples between eleven o'clock and noon on Midsummer +Day; and on that day nut-water is brewed from +nuts that have been picked on the stroke of noon. Such +water is a panacea for all ailments.<note place='foot'>Bruno Stehle, <q>Aberglauben, +Sitten und Gebräuche in Lothringen,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lix. (1891) p. 379.</note> In the Vosges +Mountains they say that wizards have but one day in the +year, and but one hour in that day, to find and cull the +baleful herbs which they use in their black art. That day +is the Eve of St. John, and that hour is the time when the +church bells are ringing the noonday Angelus. Hence in +many villages they say that the bells ought not to ring at +noon on that day.<note place='foot'>L. F. Sauvé, <hi rend='italic'>Le Folk-lore des +Hautes-Vosges</hi> (Paris, 1889), pp. 168 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Magical +plants +culled on +Midsummer +Eve or +Midsummer +Day in the +Tyrol and +Germany.</note> +In the Tyrol also they think that the witching hour +is when the <hi rend='italic'>Ave Maria</hi> bell is ringing on Midsummer +Eve, for then the witches go forth to gather the noxious +plants whereby they raise thunderstorms. Therefore in +many districts the bells ring for a shorter time than usual +that evening;<note place='foot'>I. V. Zingerle, <q>Wald, Bäume, +Kräuter,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie +und Sittenkunde</hi>, i. (1853) +pp. 332 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Sitten, Bräuche und +Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Innsbruck, +1871), p. 158, §§ 1345, 1348.</note> at Folgareit the sexton used to steal quietly +into the church, and when the clock struck three he contented +himself with giving a few pulls to the smallest of the bells.<note place='foot'>Christian Schneller, <hi rend='italic'>Märchen und +Sagen aus Wälschtirol</hi> (Innsbruck, +1867), p. 237, § 24.</note> +<pb n='048'/><anchor id='Pg048'/> +At Rengen, in the Eifel Mountains, the sexton rings the +church bell for an hour on the afternoon of Midsummer Day. +As soon as the bell begins to ring, the children run out into the +meadows, gather flowers, and weave them into garlands which +they throw on the roofs of the houses and buildings. There the +garlands remain till the wind blows them away. It is believed +that they protect the houses against fire and thunderstorms.<note place='foot'>J. H. Schmitz, <hi rend='italic'>Sitten und Bräuche, +Lieder, Sprüchwörter und Räthsel des +Eifler Volkes</hi> (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 40.</note> +At Niederehe, in the Eifel Mountains, on Midsummer Day +little children used to make wreaths and posies out of <q>St. +John's flowers and Maiden-flax</q> and throw them on the +roofs. Some time afterwards, when the wild gooseberries +were ripe, all the children would gather round an old +woman on a Sunday afternoon, and taking the now withered +wreaths and posies with them march out of the village, +praying while they walked. Wreaths and posies were then +thrown in a heap and kindled, whereupon the children +snatched them up, still burning, and ran and fumigated the +wild gooseberry bushes with the smoke. Then they returned +with the old woman to the village, knelt down before her, +and received her blessing. From that time the children +were free to pick and eat the wild gooseberries.<note place='foot'>J. H. Schmitz, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 42.</note> In the +Mark of Brandenburg the peasants gather all sorts of +simples on Midsummer Day, because they are of opinion +that the drugs produce their medicinal effect only if they +have been culled at that time. Many of these plants, +especially roots, must be dug up at midnight and in silence.<note place='foot'>A. Kuhn, <hi rend='italic'>Märkische Sagen und +Märchen</hi> (Berlin, 1843), p. 330.</note> +In Mecklenburg not merely is a special healing virtue ascribed +to simples collected on Midsummer Day; the very smoke of +such plants, if they are burned in the fire, is believed to protect +a house against thunder and lightning, and to still the +raging of the storm.<note place='foot'>K. Bartsch, <hi rend='italic'>Sagen, Märchen und +Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg</hi> (Vienna, +1879-1880), ii. p. 287, § 1436.</note> The Wends of the Spreewald twine +wreaths of herbs and flowers at midsummer, and hang them +up in their rooms; and when any one gets a fright he will +lay some of the leaves and blossoms on hot coals and fumigate +himself with the smoke.<note place='foot'>W. von Schulenburg, <hi rend='italic'>Wendische +Volkssagen und Gebräuche aus dem +Spreewald</hi> (Leipsic, 1880), p. 254.</note> In Eastern Prussia, some +<pb n='049'/><anchor id='Pg049'/> +two hundred years ago, it used to be customary on Midsummer +Day to make up a bunch of herbs of various sorts +and fasten it to a pole, which was then put up over the gate +or door through which the corn would be brought in at +harvest. Such a pole was called Kaupole, and it remained +in its place till the crops had been reaped and garnered. +Then the bunch of herbs was taken down; part of it was +put with the corn in the barn to keep rats and mice from +the grain, and part was kept as a remedy for diseases of all +sorts.<note place='foot'>M. Prätorius, <hi rend='italic'>Deliciae Prussicae</hi> +(Berlin, 1871), pp. 24 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Kaupole is +probably identical in name with Kupole +or Kupalo, as to whom see <hi rend='italic'>The Dying +God</hi>, pp. 261 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Magical +plants +culled on +Midsummer +Eve (St. +John's Eve) +or Midsummer +Day in +Austria and +Russia.</note> +The Germans of West Bohemia collect simples on St. +John's Night, because they believe the healing virtue of the +plants to be especially powerful at that time.<note place='foot'>Alois John, <hi rend='italic'>Sitte, Brauch und +Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen</hi> +(Prague, 1905), p. 86.</note> The theory +and practice of the Huzuls in the Carpathian Mountains are +similar; they imagine that the plants gathered on that night +are not only medicinal but possess the power of restraining +the witches; some say that the herbs should be plucked in +twelve gardens or meadows.<note place='foot'>R. F. Kaindl, <hi rend='italic'>Die Huzulen</hi> +(Vienna, 1894), pp. 78, 90, 93, 105; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Zauberglaube bei den Huzulen,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lxxvi. (1899) p. 256.</note> Among the simples which the +Czechs and Moravians of Silesia cull at this season are +dandelions, ribwort, and the bloom of the lime-tree.<note place='foot'>Dr. F. Tetzner, <q>Die Tschechen +und Mährer in Schlesien,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, +lxxviii. (1900) p. 340.</note> The +Esthonians of the island of Oesel gather St. John's herbs +(<foreign rend='italic'>Jani rohhud</foreign>) on St. John's Day, tie them up in bunches, and +hang them up about the houses to prevent evil spirits from +entering. A subsidiary use of the plants is to cure diseases; +gathered at that time they have a greater medical value than +if they were collected at any other season. Everybody does +not choose exactly the same sorts of plants; some gather +more and some less, but in the collection St. John's wort +(<foreign rend='italic'>Jani rohhi</foreign>, <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Hypericum perforatum</foreign>) should never be wanting.<note place='foot'>J. B. Holzmayer, <q>Osiliana,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen +Gesellschaft</hi>, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, +1872), p. 62.</note> +A writer of the early part of the seventeenth century informs +us that the Livonians, among whom he lived, were impressed +with a belief in the great and marvellous properties possessed +<pb n='050'/><anchor id='Pg050'/> +by simples which had been culled on Midsummer Day. Such +simples, they thought, were sure remedies for fever and for +sickness and pestilence in man and beast; but if gathered +one day too late they lost all their virtue.<note place='foot'>P. Einhorn, <q>Wiederlegunge der +Abgötterey: der ander (<hi rend='italic'>sic</hi>) Theil,</q> +printed at Riga in 1627, and reprinted +in <hi rend='italic'>Scriptores rerum Livonicarum</hi>, ii. +(Riga and Leipsic, 1848) pp. 651 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among the +Letts of the Baltic provinces of Russia girls and women go +about on Midsummer Day crowned with wreaths of aromatic +plants, which are afterwards hung up for good luck in the +houses. The plants are also dried and given to cows to eat, +because they are supposed to help the animals to calve.<note place='foot'>J. G. Kohl, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutsch-russischen +Ostseeprovinzen</hi> (Dresden and Leipsic, +1841), ii. 26.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Magical +plants +culled on +St. John's +Eve or St. +John's Day +among the +South +Slavs, in +Macedonia, +and +Bolivia.</note> +In Bulgaria St. John's Day is the special season for +culling simples. On this day, too, Bulgarian girls gather +nosegays of a certain white flower, throw them into a vessel +of water, and place the vessel under a rose-tree in bloom. +Here it remains all night. Next morning they set it in the +courtyard and dance singing round it. An old woman then +takes the flowers out of the vessel, and the girls wash themselves +with the water, praying that God would grant them +health throughout the year. After that the old woman +restores her nosegay to each girl and promises her a rich +husband.<note place='foot'>A. Strausz, <hi rend='italic'>Die Bulgaren</hi> (Leipsic, +1898), pp. 348, 386.</note> Among the South Slavs generally on St. John's +Eve it is the custom for girls to gather white flowers in the +meadows and to place them in a sieve or behind the rafters. +A flower is assigned to each member of the household: next +morning the flowers are inspected; and he or she whose +flower is fresh will be well the whole year, but he or she +whose flower is faded will be sickly or die. Garlands are +then woven out of the flowers and laid on roofs, folds, and +beehives.<note place='foot'>F. S. Krauss, <hi rend='italic'>Volksglaube und +religiöser Brauch der Südslaven</hi> (Münster +i. W., 1890), p. 34.</note> In some parts of Macedonia on St. John's Eve +the peasants are wont to festoon their cottages and gird their +own waists with wreaths of what they call St. John's flower; +it is the blossom of a creeping plant which resembles honeysuckle.<note place='foot'>G. F. Abbott, <hi rend='italic'>Macedonian Folk-lore</hi> +(Cambridge, 1903), pp. 54, 58.</note> +Similar notions as to the magical virtue which +plants acquire at midsummer have been transported by +Europeans to the New World. At La Paz in Bolivia people +<pb n='051'/><anchor id='Pg051'/> +believe that flowers of mint (<foreign rend='italic'>Yerba buena</foreign>) gathered before +sunrise on St. John's Day foretell an endless felicity to such +as are so lucky as to find them.<note place='foot'>H. A. Weddell, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage dans le +Nord de la Bolivie et dans les parties +voisines du Pérou</hi> (Paris and London, +1853), p. 181.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Magical +plants +culled at +Midsummer +among the +Mohammedans +of +Morocco.</note> +Nor is the superstition confined to Europe and to people +of European descent. In Morocco also the Mohammedans +are of opinion that certain plants, such as penny-royal, marjoram, +and the oleander, acquire a special magic virtue +(<foreign lang='ar' rend='italic'>baraka</foreign>) when they are gathered shortly before midsummer. +Hence the people collect these plants at this season and +preserve them for magical or medical purposes. For example, +branches of oleander are brought into the houses +before midsummer and kept under the roof as a charm +against the evil eye; but while the branches are being +brought in they may not touch the ground, else they +would lose their marvellous properties. Cases of sickness +caused by the evil eye are cured by fumigating the +patients with the smoke of these boughs. The greatest +efficacy is ascribed to <q>the sultan of the oleander,</q> which is +a stalk with four pairs of leaves clustered round it. Such +a stalk is always endowed with magical virtue, but that +virtue is greatest when the stalk has been cut just before +midsummer. Arab women in the Hiaina district of Morocco +gather <foreign rend='italic'>Daphne gnidium</foreign> on Midsummer Day, dry it in the +sun, and make it into a powder which, mixed with water, +they daub on the heads of their little children to protect +them from sunstroke and vermin and to make their hair +grow well. Indeed such marvellous powers do these Arabs +attribute to plants at this mystic season that a barren +woman will walk naked about a vegetable garden on Midsummer +Night in the hope of conceiving a child through the +fertilizing influence of the vegetables.<note place='foot'>W. Westermarck, <q>Midsummer +Customs in Morocco,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, xvi. +(1905) p. 35; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Ceremonies and +Beliefs connected with Agriculture, +certain Dates of the Solar Year, and +the Weather in Morocco</hi> (Helsingfors, +1913), pp. 88 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Seven +different +sorts of +magical +plants +gathered +at Midsummer. Nine +different +sorts of +plants +gathered +at Midsummer. +Dreams +of love on +flowers +at Midsummer +Eve. +Love's +watery +mirror +at Midsummer +Eve.</note> +Sometimes in order to produce the desired effect it is +deemed necessary that seven or nine different sorts of plants +should be gathered at this mystic season. Norman peasants, +who wish to fortify themselves for the toil of harvest, will +<pb n='052'/><anchor id='Pg052'/> +sometimes go out at dawn on St. John's Day and pull seven +kinds of plants, which they afterwards eat in their soup as a +means of imparting strength and suppleness to their limbs in +the harvest field.<note place='foot'>J. Lecœur, <hi rend='italic'>Esquisses du Bocage +Normand</hi> (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), +ii. 9.</note> In Mecklenburg maidens are wont to +gather seven sorts of flowers at noon on Midsummer Eve. +These they weave into garlands, and sleep with them under +their pillows. Then they are sure to dream of the men who +will marry them.<note place='foot'>K. Bartsch, <hi rend='italic'>Sagen, Märchen und +Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg</hi> (Vienna, +1879-1890), ii. 285.</note> But the flowers on which youthful lovers +dream at Midsummer Eve are oftener nine in number. Thus +in Voigtland nine different kinds of flowers are twined into +a garland at the hour of noon, but they may not enter the +dwelling by the door in the usual way; they must be passed +through the window, or, if they come in at the door, they +must be thrown, not carried, into the house. Sleeping on +them that night you will dream of your future wife or future +husband.<note place='foot'>J. A. E. Köhler, <hi rend='italic'>Volksbrauch, +Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte +Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande</hi> (Leipsic, +1867), p. 376.</note> The Bohemian maid, who gathers nine kinds of +flowers on which to dream of love at Midsummer Eve, takes +care to wrap her hand in a white cloth, and afterwards to +wash it in dew; and when she brings her garland home she +must speak no word to any soul she meets by the way, for +then all the magic virtue of the flowers would be gone.<note place='foot'>O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, +<hi rend='italic'>Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen</hi> +(Prague, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), p. 312.</note> +Other Bohemian girls look into the book of fate at this +season after a different fashion. They twine their hair with +wreaths made of nine sorts of leaves, and go, when the stars +of the summer night are twinkling in the sky, to a brook +that flows beside a tree. There, gazing on the stream, the +girl beholds, beside the broken reflections of the tree and the +stars, the watery image of her future lord.<note place='foot'>Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, <hi rend='italic'>loc. cit.</hi></note> So in Masuren +maidens gather nosegays of wild flowers in silence on Midsummer +Eve. At the midnight hour each girl takes the +nosegay and a glass of water, and when she has spoken +certain words she sees her lover mirrored in the water.<note place='foot'>M. Töppen, <hi rend='italic'>Aberglauben aus Masuren</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Danzig, 1867), p. 72.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Garlands +of flowers +of nine +sorts +gathered +at Midsummer +and used +in divination +and +medicine.</note> +Sometimes Bohemian damsels make a different use of +their midsummer garlands twined of nine sorts of flowers. +<pb n='053'/><anchor id='Pg053'/> +They lie down with the garland laid as a pillow under their +right ear, and a hollow voice, swooning from underground, +proclaims their destiny.<note place='foot'>Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, <hi rend='italic'>loc. cit.</hi></note> Yet another mode of consulting the +oracle by means of these same garlands is to throw them +backwards and in silence upon a tree at the hour of noon, +just when the flowers have been gathered. For every time +that the wreath is thrown without sticking to the branches +of the tree the girl will have a year to wait before she weds. +This mode of divination is practised in Voigtland,<note place='foot'>J. A. E. Köhler, <hi rend='italic'>Volksbrauch</hi>, etc., +<hi rend='italic'>im Voigtlande</hi>, p. 376.</note> East +Prussia,<note place='foot'>C. Lemke, <hi rend='italic'>Volksthümliches in +Ostpreussen</hi> (Mohrungen, 1884-1887), +i. 20.</note> Silesia,<note place='foot'>P. Drechsler, <hi rend='italic'>Sitte, Brauch und +Volksglaube in Schlesien</hi> (Leipsic, +1903-1906), i. 144 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Belgium,<note place='foot'>Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, +<hi rend='italic'>Calendrier Belge</hi> (Brussels, 1861-1862), +i. 423.</note> and Wales,<note place='foot'>Marie Trevelyan, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore and +Folk-stories of Wales</hi> (London, 1909), +p. 252.</note> and the same thing +is done in Masuren, although we are not told that there the +wreaths must be composed of nine sorts of flowers.<note place='foot'>M. Töppen, <hi rend='italic'>Aberglauben aus Masuren</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +p. 72.</note> However, +in Masuren chaplets of nine kinds of herbs are gathered on +St. John's Eve and put to a more prosaic use than that of +presaging the course of true love. They are carefully preserved, +and the people brew a sort of tea from them, which +they administer as a remedy for many ailments; or they keep +the chaplets under their pillows till they are dry, and thereupon +dose their sick cattle with them.<note place='foot'>M. Töppen, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 71.</note> In Esthonia the +virtues popularly ascribed to wreaths of this sort are many +and various. These wreaths, composed of nine kinds of +herbs culled on the Eve or the Day of St. John, are sometimes +inserted in the roof or hung up on the walls of the +house, and each of them receives the name of one of the +inmates. If the plants which have been thus dedicated to +a girl happen to take root and grow in the chinks and +crannies, she will soon wed; if they have been dedicated to +an older person and wither away, that person will die. The +people also give them as medicine to cattle at the time when +the animals are driven forth to pasture; or they fumigate +the beasts with the smoke of the herbs, which are burnt +along with shavings from the wooden threshold. Bunches +of the plants are also hung about the house to keep off evil +<pb n='054'/><anchor id='Pg054'/> +spirits, and maidens lay them under their pillows to dream +on.<note place='foot'>A. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Aus dem inneren +und äussern Leben der Ehsten</hi> (St. +Petersburg, 1876), pp. 362 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In Sweden the <q>Midsummer Brooms,</q> made up of nine +sorts of flowers gathered on Midsummer Eve, are put to +nearly the same uses. Fathers of families hang up such +<q>brooms</q> to the rafters, one for each inmate of the house; +and he or she whose broom (<foreign lang='sv' rend='italic'>quast</foreign>) is the first to wither will +be the first to die. Girls also dream of their future husbands +with these bunches of flowers under their pillows. A +decoction made from the flowers is, moreover, a panacea for +all disorders, and if a bunch of them be hung up in the +cattle shed, the Troll cannot enter to bewitch the beasts.<note place='foot'>L. Lloyd, <hi rend='italic'>Peasant Life in Sweden</hi> +(London, 1870), pp. 267 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +The Germans of Moravia think that nine kinds of herbs +gathered on St. John's Night (Midsummer Eve) are a remedy +for fever;<note place='foot'>Willibald Müller, <hi rend='italic'>Beiträge zur +Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren</hi> +(Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), p. 264.</note> and some of the Wends attribute a curative +virtue in general to such plants.<note place='foot'>W. von Schulenburg, <hi rend='italic'>Wendisches +Volksthum</hi> (Berlin, 1882), p. 145.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>St. John's +wort (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Hypericum +perforatum</foreign>) +gathered +for magical +purposes +at Midsummer. St. John's +blood on +St. John's +Day.</note> +Of the flowers which it has been customary to gather for +purposes of magic or divination at midsummer none perhaps +is so widely popular as St. John's wort (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Hypericum perforatum</foreign>). +The reason for associating this particular plant +with the great summer festival is perhaps not far to seek, for +the flower blooms about Midsummer Day, and with its bright +yellow petals and masses of golden stamens it might well +pass for a tiny copy on earth of the great sun which reaches +its culminating point in heaven at this season. Gathered on +Midsummer Eve, or on Midsummer Day before sunrise, the +blossoms are hung on doorways and windows to preserve the +house against thunder, witches, and evil spirits; and various +healing properties are attributed to the different species of +the plant. In the Tyrol they say that if you put St. John's +wort in your shoe before sunrise on Midsummer Day you +may walk as far as you please without growing weary. In +Scotland people carried it about their persons as an amulet +against witchcraft. On the lower Rhine children twine +chaplets of St. John's wort on the morning of Midsummer +Day, and throw them on the roofs of the houses. Here, too, +the people who danced round the midsummer bonfires used +<pb n='055'/><anchor id='Pg055'/> +to wear wreaths of these yellow flowers in their hair, and to +deck the images of the saints at wayside shrines with the +blossoms. Sometimes they flung the flowers into the +bonfires. In Sicily they dip St. John's wort in oil, and so +apply it as a balm for every wound. During the Middle +Ages the power which the plant notoriously possesses of +banning devils won for it the name of <foreign rend='italic'>fuga daemonum</foreign>; and +before witches and wizards were stretched on the rack or +otherwise tortured, the flower used to be administered to +them as a means of wringing the truth from their lips.<note place='foot'>Montanus, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutschen Volksfeste, +Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube</hi> +(Iserlohn, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), p. 145; A. +Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>Der deutsche Volksaberglaube</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Berlin, 1869), p. 100, § 134; I. V. +Zingerle, <q>Wald, Bäume, Kräuter,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und +Sittenkunde</hi>, i. (1853) p. 329; A. +Schlossar, <q>Volksmeinung und Volksaberglaube +aus der deutschen Steiermark,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Germania</hi>, N.R., xxiv. (1891) +p. 387; E. Meier, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Sagen, +Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben</hi> +(Stuttgart, 1852), p. 428; J. Brand, +<hi rend='italic'>Popular Antiquities of Great Britain</hi> +(London, 1882-1883), i. 307, 312; +T. F. Thiselton Dyer, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore of +Plants</hi> (London, 1889), pp. 62, 286; +Rev. Hilderic Friend, <hi rend='italic'>Flowers and +Flower Lore</hi>, Third Edition (London, +1886), pp. 147, 149, 150, 540; G. +Finamore, <hi rend='italic'>Credenze, Usi e Costumi +Abruzzesi</hi> (Palermo, 1890), pp. 161 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; G. Pitrè, <hi rend='italic'>Spettacoli e Feste Popolari +Siciliane</hi> (Palermo, 1881), p. 309. One +authority lays down the rule that you +should gather the plant fasting and in +silence (J. Brand, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 312). +According to Sowerby, the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Hypericum +perforatum</foreign> flowers in England about +July and August (<hi rend='italic'>English Botany</hi>, vol. +v. London, 1796, p. 295). We should +remember, however, that in the old +calendar Midsummer Day fell twelve +days later than at present. The reform +of the calendar probably put many old +floral superstitions out of joint.</note> In +North Wales people used to fix sprigs of St. John's wort +over their doors, and sometimes over their windows, <q>in +order to purify their houses, and by that means drive away +all fiends and evil spirits.</q><note place='foot'>Bingley, <hi rend='italic'>Tour round North Wales</hi> +(1800), ii. 237, quoted by T. F. +Thiselton Dyer, <hi rend='italic'>British Popular Customs</hi> +(London, 1876), p. 320. Compare +Marie Trevelyan, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore and +Folk-stories of Wales</hi> (London, 1909), +p. 251: <q>St. John's, or Midsummer +Day, was an important festival. St. +John's wort, gathered at noon on that +day, was considered good for several +complaints. The old saying went that +if anybody dug the devil's bit at midnight +on the eve of St. John, the roots +were then good for driving the devil +and witches away.</q> Apparently by <q>the +devil's bit</q> we are to understand St. +John's wort.</note> In Saintonge and Aunis the +flowers served to detect the presence of sorcerers, for if one +of these pestilent fellows entered a house, the bunches of St. +John's wort, which had been gathered on Midsummer Eve +and hung on the walls, immediately dropped their yellow +heads as if they had suddenly faded.<note place='foot'>J. L. M. Noguès, <hi rend='italic'>Les mœurs +d'autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis</hi> +(Saintes, 1891), pp. 71 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> However, the Germans +<pb n='056'/><anchor id='Pg056'/> +of Western Bohemia think that witches, far from dreading +St. John's wort, actually seek the plant on St. John's Eve.<note place='foot'>Alois John, <hi rend='italic'>Sitte, Brauch und +Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen</hi> +(Prague, 1905), p. 84. They call the +plant <q>witch's herb</q> (<foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>Hexenkraut</foreign>).</note> +Further, the edges of the calyx and petals of St. John's wort, +as well as their external surface, are marked with dark purple +spots and lines, which, if squeezed, yield a red essential oil +soluble in spirits.<note place='foot'>James Sowerby, <hi rend='italic'>English Botany</hi>, +vol. v. (London, 1796), p. 295.</note> German peasants believe that this red +oil is the blood of St. John,<note place='foot'>Montanus, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutschen Volksfeste, +Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube</hi> +(Iserlohn, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), p. 35.</note> and this may be why the plant +is supposed to heal all sorts of wounds.<note place='foot'>T. F. Thiselton Dyer, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore of +Plants</hi> (London, 1889), p. 286; K. +Bartsch, <hi rend='italic'>Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche +aus Mecklenburg</hi>, ii. p. 291, § 1450<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>. +The Germans of Bohemia ascribe +wonderful virtues to the red juice extracted +from the yellow flowers of St. +John's wort (W. Müller, <hi rend='italic'>Beiträge zur +Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren</hi>, +Vienna and Olmütz, 1893, p. 264).</note> In Mecklenburg +they say that if you pull up St. John's wort at noon on +Midsummer Day you will find at the root a bead of red +juice called St. John's blood; smear this blood on your shirt +just over your heart, and no mad dog will bite you.<note place='foot'>K. Bartsch, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. p. 286, § +1433. The blood is also a preservative +against many diseases (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. +p. 290, § 1444).</note> In the +Mark of Brandenburg the same blood, procured in the same +manner and rubbed on the barrel of a gun, will make every +shot from that gun to hit the mark.<note place='foot'>A. Kuhn, <hi rend='italic'>Märkische Sagen und +Märchen</hi> (Berlin, 1843), p. 387, § 105.</note> According to others, +St. John's blood is found at noon on St. John's Day, and +only then, adhering in the form of beads to the root of a +weed called knawel, which grows in sandy soil. But some +people say that these beads of red juice are not really the +blood of the martyred saint, but only insects resembling the +cochineal or kermes-berry.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Die gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>5</hi> +(Chemnitz, 1759), pp. 246 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Montanus, +<hi rend='italic'>Die deutschen Volksfesten, Volksbräuche +und deutscher Volksglaube</hi>, p. +147.</note> <q>About Hanover I have often +observed devout Roman Catholics going on the morning of +St. John's day to neighbouring sandhills, gathering on the +roots of herbs a certain insect (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Coccus Polonica</foreign>) looking +like drops of blood, and thought by them to be created +on purpose to keep alive the remembrance of the foul +murder of St. John the Baptist, and only to be met with +on the morning of the day set apart for him by the +Church. I believe the life of this insect is very ephemeral, +<pb n='057'/><anchor id='Pg057'/> +but by no means restricted to the twenty-fourth of +June.</q><note place='foot'>Berthold Seeman, <hi rend='italic'>Viti, An Account +of a Government Mission to the +Vitian or Fijian Islands in the years +1860-61</hi> (Cambridge, 1862), p. 63.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Mouse-ear +hawkweed +(<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Hieracium +pilosella</foreign>) +gathered +for magical +purposes +at Midsummer.</note> +Yet another plant whose root has been thought to +yield the blood of St. John is the mouse-ear hawkweed +(<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Hieracium pilosella</foreign>), which grows very commonly in dry +exposed places, such as gravelly banks, sunny lawns, and +the tops of park walls. <q>It blossoms from May to the +end of July, presenting its elegant sulphur-coloured flowers +to the noontide sun, while the surrounding herbage, and even +its own foliage, is withered and burnt up</q>;<note place='foot'>James Sowerby, <hi rend='italic'>English Botany</hi>, +vol. xvi. (London, 1803) p. 1093.</note> and these round +yellow flowers may be likened not inaptly to the disc of the +great luminary whose light they love. At Hildesheim, in +Germany, people used to dig up hawkweed, especially on the +Gallows' Hill, when the clocks were striking noon on +Midsummer Day; and the blood of St. John, which they +found at the roots, was carefully preserved in quills for good +luck. A little of it smeared secretly on the clothes was sure +to make the wearer fortunate in the market that day.<note place='foot'>K. Seifart, <hi rend='italic'>Sagen, Märchen, +Schwänke und Gebräuche aus Stadt +und Stift Hildesheim</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Hildesheim, +1889), p. 177, § 12.</note> +According to some the plant ought to be dug up with a gold +coin.<note place='foot'>C. L. Rochholz, <hi rend='italic'>Deutscher Glaube +und Brauch</hi> (Berlin, 1867), i. 9.</note> Near Gablonz, in Bohemia, it used to be customary +to make a bed of St. John's flowers, as they were called, on +St. John's Eve, and in the night the saint himself came and +laid his head on the bed; next morning you could see the +print of his head on the flowers, which derived a healing +virtue from his blessed touch, and were mixed with the +fodder of sick cattle to make them whole.<note place='foot'>J. V. Grohmann, <hi rend='italic'>Aberglauben und +Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren</hi> +(Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 98, § +681.</note> But whether +these St. John's flowers were the mouse-ear hawkweed or +not is doubtful.<note place='foot'>A. Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>Der deutsche Volksaberglaube</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Berlin, 1869), p. 100, § +134.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Mountain +arnica +gathered +for magical +purposes +at Midsummer.</note> +More commonly in Germany the name of St. John's +flowers (<foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>Johannisblumen</foreign>) appears to be given to the +mountain arnica. In Voigtland the mountain arnica if +plucked on St. John's Eve and stuck in the fields, laid under +<pb n='058'/><anchor id='Pg058'/> +the roof, or hung on the wall, is believed to protect house +and fields from lightning and hail.<note place='foot'>J. A. E. Köhler, <hi rend='italic'>Volksbrauch, +Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte +Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande</hi> (Leipsic, +1867), p. 376. The belief and practice +are similar at Grün, near Asch, in +Western Bohemia. See Alois John, +<hi rend='italic'>Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im +deutschen Westböhmen</hi> (Prague, 1905), +p. 84.</note> So in some parts of +Bavaria they think that no thunderstorm can harm a house +which has a blossom of mountain arnica in the window or +the roof, and in the Tyrol the same flower fastened to the +door will render the dwelling fire-proof. But it is needless +to remark that the flower, which takes its popular name +from St. John, will be no protection against either fire or +thunder unless it has been culled on the saint's own day.<note place='foot'>F. Panzer, <hi rend='italic'>Beitrag zur deutschen +Mythologie</hi> (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. +299; <hi rend='italic'>Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde +des Königreichs Bayern</hi>, iii. (Munich, +1865), p. 342; I. V. Zingerle, <hi rend='italic'>Sitten, +Bräuche und Meinungen des Tiroler +Volkes</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Innsbruck, 1871), p. 160, § +1363.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Mugwort +(<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Artemisia +vulgaris</foreign>) +gathered +for magical +purposes +at Midsummer. Mugwort +in China +and Japan.</note> +Another plant which possesses wondrous virtues, if only +it be gathered on the Eve or the Day of St. John, is +mugwort (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Artemisia vulgaris</foreign>). Hence in France it goes +by the name of the herb of St. John.<note place='foot'>J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> +ii. 1013; A. de Gubernatis, <hi rend='italic'>Mythologie +des Plantes</hi> (Paris, 1878-1882), i. 189 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Rev. Hilderic Friend, <hi rend='italic'>Flowers and +Flower Lore</hi>, Third Edition (London, +1886), p. 75. In England mugwort is +very common in waste ground, hedges, +and the borders of fields. It flowers +throughout August and later. The root +is woody and perennial. The smooth +stems, three or four feet high, are erect, +branched, and leafy, and marked by +many longitudinal purplish ribs. The +pinnatified leaves alternate on the +stalk; they are smooth and dark green +above, cottony and very white below. +The flowers are in simple leafy spikes +or clusters; the florets are purplish, +furnished with five stamens and five +awl-shaped female flowers, which constitute +the radius. The whole plant +has a weak aromatic scent and a slightly +bitter flavour. Its medical virtues are +of no importance. See James Sowerby, +<hi rend='italic'>English Botany</hi>, xiv. (London, 1802) +p. 978. Altogether it is not easy to +see why such an inconspicuous and insignificant +flower should play so large +a part in popular superstition. Mugwort +(<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Artemisia vulgaris</foreign>) is not to be +confounded with wormwood (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Artemisia +absinthium</foreign>), which is quite a different +flower in appearance, though it belongs +to the same genus. Wormwood is +common in England, flowering about +August. The flowers are in clusters, +each of them broad, hemispherical, and +drooping, with a buff-coloured disc. +The whole plant is of a pale whitish +green and clothed with a short silky +down. It is remarkable for its intense +bitterness united to a peculiar strong +aromatic odour. It is often used to +keep insects from clothes and furniture, +and as a medicine is one of the most +active bitters. See James Sowerby, +<hi rend='italic'>English Botany</hi>, vol. xviii. (London, +1804) p. 1230.</note> Near Péronne, in the +French department of Somme, people used to go out fasting +before sunrise on St. John's Day to cull the plant; put +among the wheat in the barn it protected the corn against +<pb n='059'/><anchor id='Pg059'/> +mice. In Artois people carried bunches of mugwort, or wore +it round their body;<note place='foot'>Breuil, <q>Du culte de St.-Jean-Baptiste,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Mémoires de la Société des +Antiquaires de Picardie</hi>, viii. (1845) +p. 224, note 1, quoting the curé of +Manancourt, near Péronne.</note> in Poitou they still wear girdles of +mugwort or hemp when they warm their backs at the midsummer +fire as a preservative against backache at harvest;<note place='foot'>L. Pineau, <hi rend='italic'>Le folk-lore du Poitou</hi> +(Paris, 1892), p. 499.</note> +and the custom of wearing girdles of mugwort on the Eve +or Day of St. John has caused the plant to be popularly +known in Germany and Bohemia as St. John's girdle. In +Bohemia such girdles are believed to protect the wearer for +the whole year against ghosts, magic, misfortune, and sickness. +People also weave garlands of the plant and look +through them at the midsummer bonfire or put them on their +heads; and by doing so they ensure that their heads will +not ache nor their eyes smart all that year. Another +Bohemian practice is to make a decoction of mugwort which +has been gathered on St. John's Day; then, when your cow +is bewitched and will yield no milk, you have only to wash +the animal thrice with the decoction and the spell will be +broken.<note place='foot'>J. V. Grohmann, <hi rend='italic'>Aberglauben und +Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren</hi> +(Prague and Leipsic, 1864), pp. 90 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +§§ 635-637.</note> In Germany, people used to crown their heads or +gird their bodies with mugwort, which they afterwards threw +into the midsummer bonfire, pronouncing certain rhymes +and believing that they thus rid themselves of all their ill-luck.<note place='foot'>F. Panzer, <hi rend='italic'>Beitrag zur deutschen +Mythologie</hi>, i. p. 249, § 283; J. +Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> ii. 1013; +I. V. Zingerle, in <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für +deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde</hi>, +i. (1853) p. 331. and <hi rend='italic'>ib.</hi> iv. (1859) +p. 42 (quoting a work of the seventeenth +century); F. J. Vonbun, <hi rend='italic'>Beiträge +zur deutschen Mythologie</hi> (Chur, 1862), +p. 133, note 1. See also above, vol. i. +pp. 162, 163, 165, 174, 177.</note> +Sometimes wreaths or girdles of mugwort were kept +in houses, cattle-sheds, and sheep-folds throughout the year.<note place='foot'>A. de Gubernatis, <hi rend='italic'>Mythologie der +Plantes</hi> (Paris, 1878-1882), i. 190, +quoting Du Cange.</note> +In Normandy such wreaths are a protection against thunder +and thieves;<note place='foot'>A. de Nore, <hi rend='italic'>Coutumes, Mythes et +Traditions des Provinces de France</hi> +(Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 262.</note> and stalks of mugwort hinder witches from +laying their spells on the butter.<note place='foot'>Jules Lecœur, <hi rend='italic'>Esquisses du Bocage +Normand</hi> (Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1886), +ii. 8.</note> In the Isle of Man on +Midsummer Eve people gathered <foreign lang='gv' rend='italic'>barran fealoin</foreign> or mugwort +<q>as a preventive against the influence of witchcraft</q>;<note place='foot'>Joseph Train, <hi rend='italic'>Historical and Statistical +Account of the Isle of Man</hi> (Douglas, +Isle of Man, 1845), ii. 120.</note> in +<pb n='060'/><anchor id='Pg060'/> +Belgium bunches of mugwort gathered on St. John's Day or +Eve and hung on the doors of stables and houses are believed +to bring good luck and to furnish a protection against +sorcery.<note place='foot'>Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, +<hi rend='italic'>Calendrier Belge</hi> (Brussels, 1861-1862), +i. 422.</note> It is curious to find that in China a similar use is, +or was formerly, made of mugwort at the same season of the +year. In an old Chinese calendar we read that <q>on the +fifth day of the fifth month the four classes of the people +gambol in the herbage, and have competitive games with +plants of all kinds. They pluck mugwort and make dolls +of it, which they suspend over their gates and doors, +in order to expel poisonous airs or influences.</q><note place='foot'>J. J. M. de Groot, <hi rend='italic'>The Religious +System of China</hi>, vi. (Leyden, 1910) +p. 1079, compare p. 947.</note> On this +custom Professor J. J. M. de Groot observes: <q>Notice +that the plant owed its efficacy to the time when it +was plucked: a day denoting the midsummer festival, +when light and fire of the universe are in their +apogee.</q><note place='foot'>J. J. M. de Groot, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> vi. 947.</note> On account of this valuable property mugwort +is used by Chinese surgeons in cautery.<note place='foot'>J. J. M. de Groot, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> vi. 946 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Ainos of +Japan employ bunches of mugwort in exorcisms, <q>because +it is thought that demons of disease dislike the smell and +flavour of this herb.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. John Batchelor, <hi rend='italic'>The Ainu +and their Folk-lore</hi> (London, 1901), p. +318, compare pp. 315 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 329, 370, +372.</note> It is an old German belief that he +who carries mugwort in his shoes will not grow weary.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie +und Sittenkunde</hi>, iv. (1859) p. 42; +Montanus, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutschen Volksfeste</hi>, +p. 141. The German name of mugwort +(<foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>Beifuss</foreign>) is said to be derived +from this superstition.</note> In +Mecklenburg, they say that if you will dig up a plant of +mugwort at noon on Midsummer Day, you will find under +the root a burning coal, which vanishes away as soon as the +church bells have ceased to ring. If you find the coal and +carry it off in silence, it will prove a remedy for all sorts of +maladies.<note place='foot'>K. Bartsch, <hi rend='italic'>Sagen, Märchen, und +Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg</hi> (Vienna, +1879-1880), ii. 290, § 1445.</note> According to another German superstition, such +a coal will turn to gold.<note place='foot'>Montanus, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutschen Volksfeste</hi>, +p. 141.</note> English writers record the popular +belief that a rare coal is to be found under the root of mugwort +at a single hour of a single day in the year, namely, at +noon or midnight on Midsummer Eve, and that this coal will +<pb n='061'/><anchor id='Pg061'/> +protect him who carries it on his person from plague, carbuncle, +lightning, fever, and ague.<note place='foot'>J. Brand, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Antiquities of +Great Britain</hi> (London, 1882-1883), +i. 334 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, quoting Lupton, Thomas +Hill, and Paul Barbette. A precisely +similar belief is recorded with regard +to wormwood (<foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>armoise</foreign>) by the French +writer J. B. Thiers, who adds that +only small children and virgins could +find the wonderful coal. See J. B. +Thiers, <hi rend='italic'>Traité des Superstitions</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>5</hi> (Paris, +1741), i. 300. In Annam people think +that wormwood puts demons to flight; +hence they hang up bunches of its +leaves in their houses at the New Year. +See Paul Giran, <hi rend='italic'>Magie et Religion +Annamites</hi> (Paris, 1912), p. 118, +compare pp. 185, 256.</note> In Eastern Prussia, on +St. John's Eve, people can foretell a marriage by means of +mugwort; they bend two stalks of the growing plant outward, +and then observe whether the stalks, after straightening +themselves again, incline towards each other or not.<note place='foot'>C. Lemke, <hi rend='italic'>Volksthümliches in Ostpreussen</hi> +(Mohrungen, 1884-1887), i. +21. As to mugwort (German <foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>Beifuss</foreign>, +French <foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>armoise</foreign>), see further A. de +Gubernatis, <hi rend='italic'>Mythologie des Plantes</hi>, ii. +16 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> +iii. 356 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Orpine +(<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Sedum +telephium</foreign>) +used in +divination +at Midsummer.</note> +A similar mode of divination has been practised both in +England and in Germany with the orpine (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Sedum telephium</foreign>), +a plant which grows on a gravelly or chalky soil about +hedges, the borders of fields, and on bushy hills. It flowers +in August, and the blossoms consist of dense clustered tufts +of crimson or purple petals; sometimes, but rarely, the +flowers are white.<note place='foot'>James Sowerby, <hi rend='italic'>English Botany</hi>, +vol. xix. (London, 1804) p. 1319.</note> In England the plant is popularly +known as Midsummer Men, because people used to plant +slips of them in pairs on Midsummer Eve, one slip standing +for a young man and the other for a young woman. If the +plants, as they grew up, bent towards each other, the couple +would marry; if either of them withered, he or she whom it +represented would die.<note place='foot'>John Aubrey, <hi rend='italic'>Remains of Gentilisme +and Judaisme</hi> (London, 1881), pp. +25 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; J. Brand, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Antiquities +of Great Britain</hi> (London, 1882-1883), +i. 329 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Rev. Hilderic Friend, +<hi rend='italic'>Flowers and Flower Lore</hi>, Third Edition +(London, 1886), p. 136; D. H. +Moutray Read, <q>Hampshire Folk-lore,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, xxii. (1911) p. 325. +Compare J. Sowerby, <hi rend='italic'>English Botany</hi>, +vol. xix. (London, 1804), p. 1319: +<q>Like all succulent plants this is very +tenacious of life, and will keep growing +long after it has been torn from its +native spot. The country people in +Norfolk sometimes hang it up in their +cottages, judging by its vigour of the +health of some absent friend.</q> It +seems that in England the course of +love has sometimes been divined by +means of sprigs of red sage placed in a +basin of rose-water on Midsummer Eve +(J. Brand, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 333).</note> In Masuren, Westphalia, and Switzerland +the method of forecasting the future by means of the +orpine is precisely the same.<note place='foot'>M. Töppen, <hi rend='italic'>Aberglauben aus +Masuren</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Danzig, 1867), pp. 71 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +A. Kuhn, <hi rend='italic'>Sagen, Gebräuche und +Märchen aus Westfalen</hi> (Leipsic, 1859), +ii. 176, § 487; E. Hoffmann-Krayer, +<hi rend='italic'>Feste und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes</hi> +(Zurich, 1913), p. 163. In Switzerland +the species employed for this purpose +on Midsummer day is <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Sedum reflexum</foreign>. +The custom is reported from the +Emmenthal. In Germany a root of +orpine, dug up on St. John's morning +and hung between the shoulders, +is sometimes thought to be a cure for +hemorrhoids (Montanus, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutschen +Volksfeste</hi>, p. 145). Perhaps the <q>oblong, +tapering, fleshy, white lumps</q> of +the roots (J. Sowerby, <hi rend='italic'>English Botany</hi>, +vol. xix. London, 1804, p. 1319) are +thought to bear some likeness to the +hemorrhoids, and to heal them on +the principle that the remedy should +resemble the disease.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='062'/><anchor id='Pg062'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Vervain +gathered +for magical +purposes +at Midsummer. +Magical +virtue of +four-leaved +clover +on Midsummer +Eve.</note> +Another plant which popular superstition has often +associated with the summer solstice is vervain.<note place='foot'>See above, vol. i. pp. 162, 163, +165. In England vervain (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Verbena +officinalis</foreign>) grows not uncommonly by +road sides, in dry sunny pastures, and +in waste places about villages. It +flowers in July. The flowers are small +and sessile, the corolla of a very pale +lilac hue, its tube enclosing the four +short curved stamens. The root of +the plant, worn by a string round the +neck, is an old superstitious medicine +for scrofulous disorders. See James +Sowerby, <hi rend='italic'>English Botany</hi>, vol. xi. +(London, 1800) p. 767.</note> In some +parts of Spain people gather vervain after sunset on Midsummer +Eve, and wash their faces next morning in the +water in which the plants have been allowed to steep overnight.<note place='foot'>Dr. Otero Acevado, in <hi rend='italic'>Le Temps</hi>, +September 1898. See above, vol. i. +p. 208, note 1.</note> +In Belgium vervain is gathered on St. John's Day +and worn as a safeguard against rupture.<note place='foot'>Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, +<hi rend='italic'>Calendrier Belge</hi> (Brussels, 1861-1862), +i. 422.</note> In Normandy +the peasants cull vervain on the Day or the Eve of St. John, +believing that, besides its medical properties, it possesses at +this season the power of protecting the house from thunder +and lightning, from sorcerers, demons, and thieves.<note place='foot'>A. de Nore, <hi rend='italic'>Coutumes, Mythes et +Traditions des Provinces de France</hi>, p. +262; Amélie Bosquet, <hi rend='italic'>La Normandie +romanesque et merveilleuse</hi>, p. 294; +J. Lecœur, <hi rend='italic'>Esquisses du Bocage Normand</hi>, +i. 287, ii. 8. In Saintonge and +Aunis the plant was gathered on Midsummer +Eve for the purpose of evoking +or exorcising spirits (J. L. M. Noguès, +<hi rend='italic'>Les mœurs d'autrefois en Saintonge et +en Aunis</hi>, p. 72).</note> Bohemian +poachers wash their guns with a decoction of vervain and +southernwood, which they have gathered naked before sunrise +on Midsummer Day; guns which have been thus treated +never miss the mark.<note place='foot'>J. V. Grohmann, <hi rend='italic'>Aberglauben und +Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren</hi>, +p. 207, § 1437.</note> In our own country vervain used to +be sought for its magical virtues on Midsummer Eve.<note place='foot'>A. Kuhn, <hi rend='italic'>Sagen, Gebräuche und +Märchen aus Westfalen</hi> (Leipsic, 1859), +ii. 177, citing Chambers, <hi rend='italic'>Edinburgh +Journal</hi>, 2nd July 1842.</note> In +the Tyrol they think that he who finds a four-leaved clover +while the vesper-bell is ringing on Midsummer Eve can work +<pb n='063'/><anchor id='Pg063'/> +magic from that time forth.<note place='foot'>I. V. Zingerle, <hi rend='italic'>Sitten, Bräuche +und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Innsbruck, 1871), p. 107, § 919.</note> People in Berry say that the +four-leaved clover is endowed with all its marvellous virtues +only when it has been plucked by a virgin on the night of +Midsummer Eve.<note place='foot'>Laisnel de la Salle, <hi rend='italic'>Croyances et +Légendes du Centre de la France</hi> (Paris, +1875), i. 288.</note> In Saintonge and Aunis the four-leaved +clover, if it be found on the Eve of St. John, brings good +luck at play;<note place='foot'>J. L. M. Noguès, <hi rend='italic'>Les mœurs +d'autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis</hi>, +pp. 71 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> in Belgium it brings a girl a husband.<note place='foot'>Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, +<hi rend='italic'>Calendrier Belge</hi>, i. 423.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Camomile +gathered +for magical +purposes +at Midsummer.</note> +At Kirchvers, in Hesse, people run out to the fields at +noon on Midsummer Day to gather camomile; for the +flowers, plucked at the moment when the sun is at the +highest point of his course, are supposed to possess the +medicinal qualities of the plant in the highest degree. In +heathen times the camomile flower, with its healing qualities, +its yellow calix and white stamens, is said to have been +sacred to the kindly and shining Balder and to have borne +his name, being called <hi rend='italic'>Balders-brâ</hi>, that is, Balder's eyelashes.<note place='foot'>W. Kolbe, <hi rend='italic'>Hessische Volks-Sitten +und Gebräuche</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Marburg, 1888), p. +72; Sophus Bugge, <hi rend='italic'>Studien über die +Entstehung der nordischen Götter- und +Heldensagen</hi> (Munich, 1889), pp. 35, +295 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Fr. Kauffmann, <hi rend='italic'>Balder</hi> (Strasburg, +1902), pp. 45, 61. The flowers +of common camomile (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Anthemis nobilis</foreign>) +are white with a yellow disk, which in +time becomes conical. The whole +plant is intensely bitter, with a peculiar +but agreeable smell. As a medicine +it is useful for stomachic troubles. In +England it does not generally grow +wild. See James Sowerby, <hi rend='italic'>English +Botany</hi>, vol. xiv. (London, 1802) p. +980.</note> +In Westphalia, also, the belief prevails that camomile +is most potent as a drug when it has been gathered on +Midsummer Day;<note place='foot'>A. Kuhn, <hi rend='italic'>Sagen, Gebräuche und +Märchen aus Westfalen</hi> (Leipsic, 1859), +ii. 177, § 488.</note> in Masuren the plant must always be +one of the nine different kinds of plants that are culled on +Midsummer Eve to form wreaths, and tea brewed from the +flower is a remedy for many sorts of maladies.<note place='foot'>M. Töppen, <hi rend='italic'>Aberglauben aus Masuren</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Danzig, 1867), p. 71.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Mullein +(<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Verbascum</foreign>) +gathered +for magical +purposes +at Midsummer.</note> +Thuringian peasants hold that if the root of the yellow +mullein (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Verbascum</foreign>) has been dug up in silence with a ducat at +midnight on Midsummer Eve, and is worn in a piece of linen +next to the skin, it will preserve the wearer from epilepsy.<note place='foot'>A. Witzschel, <hi rend='italic'>Sagen, Sitten und +Gebräuche aus Thüringen</hi> (Vienna, +1878), p. 289, § 139.</note> +In Prussia girls go out into the fields on Midsummer Day, +gather mullein, and hang it up over their beds. The girl +<pb n='064'/><anchor id='Pg064'/> +whose flower is the first to wither will be the first to die.<note place='foot'>W. J. A. von Tettau und J. D. +H. Temme, <hi rend='italic'>Volkssagen Ostpreussens, +Litthauens und Westpreussens</hi> (Berlin, +1837), p. 283.</note> +Perhaps the bright yellow flowers of mullein, clustering +round the stem like lighted candles, may partly account for +the association of the plant with the summer solstice. In +Germany great mullein (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Verbascum thapsus</foreign>) is called the +King's Candle; in England it is popularly known as High +Taper. The yellow, hoary mullein (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Verbascum pulverulentum</foreign>) +<q>forms a golden pyramid a yard high, of many hundreds of +flowers, and is one of the most magnificent of British herbaceous +plants.</q><note place='foot'>James Sowerby, <hi rend='italic'>English Botany</hi>, +vol. vii. (London, 1798), p. 487. As +to great mullein or high taper, see <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +vol. viii. (London, 1799), p. 549.</note> We may trace a relation between mullein +and the sun in the Prussian custom of bending the flower, +after sunset, towards the point where the sun will rise, and +praying at the same time that a sick person or a sick beast +may be restored to health.<note place='foot'>Tettau und Temme, <hi rend='italic'>loc. cit.</hi> As +to mullein at Midsummer, see also +above, vol. i. pp. 190, 191.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Seeds of +fir-cones, +wild +thyme, +elder-flowers, +and purple +loosestrife +gathered +for magical +purposes +at Midsummer.</note> +In Bohemia poachers fancy that they can render themselves +invulnerable by swallowing the seed from a fir-cone +which they have found growing upwards before sunrise on +the morning of St. John's Day.<note place='foot'>J. V. Grohmann, <hi rend='italic'>Aberglauben und +Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren</hi>, +p. 205, § 1426.</note> Again, wild thyme +gathered on Midsummer Day is used in Bohemia to +fumigate the trees on Christmas Eve in order that they +may grow well;<note place='foot'>J. V. Grohmann, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 93, +§ 648.</note> in Voigtland a tea brewed from wild +thyme which has been pulled at noon on Midsummer +Day is given to women in childbed.<note place='foot'>J. A. E. Köhler, <hi rend='italic'>Volksbrauch, +Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte +Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande</hi> (Leipsic, +1867), p. 377.</note> The Germans of +Western Bohemia brew a tea or wine from elder-flowers, +but they say that the brew has no medicinal virtue unless +the flowers have been gathered on Midsummer Eve. They +do say, too, that whenever you see an elder-tree, you should +take off your hat.<note place='foot'>Alois John, <hi rend='italic'>Sitte, Brauch und +Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen</hi> +(Prague, 1905), p. 84.</note> In the Tyrol dwarf-elder serves to detect +witchcraft in cattle, provided of course that the shrub has +been pulled up or the branches broken on Midsummer Day.<note place='foot'>J. N. Ritter von Alpenburg, +<hi rend='italic'>Mythen und Sagen Tirols</hi> (Zurich, +1857), p. 397.</note> +<pb n='065'/><anchor id='Pg065'/> +Russian peasants regard the plant known as purple loosestrife +(<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Lythrum salicaria</foreign>) with respect and even fear. Wizards make +much use of it. They dig the root up on St. John's morning, +at break of day, without the use of iron tools; and they +believe that by means of the root, as well as of the blossom, +they can subdue evil spirits and make them serviceable, and +also drive away witches and the demons that guard treasures.<note place='foot'>C. Russwurm, <q>Aberglaube aus +Russland,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für deutsche +Mythologie und Sittenkunde</hi>, iv. (1859) +pp. 153 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The purple loosestrife is +one of our most showy English wild +plants. In July and August it may be +seen flowering on the banks of rivers, +ponds, and ditches. The separate +flowers are in axillary whorls, which +together form a loose spike of a reddish +variable purple. See James +Sowerby, <hi rend='italic'>English Botany</hi>, vol. xv. +(London, 1802) p. 1061.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Magical +properties +attributed +to fern seed +at Midsummer.</note> +More famous, however, than these are the marvellous +properties which popular superstition in many parts of +Europe has attributed to the fern at this season. At +midnight on Midsummer Eve the plant is supposed to +bloom and soon afterwards to seed; and whoever catches +the bloom or the seed is thereby endowed with supernatural +knowledge and miraculous powers; above all, he knows +where treasures lie hidden in the ground, and he can render +himself invisible at will by putting the seed in his shoe. +But great precautions must be observed in procuring the +wondrous bloom or seed, which else quickly vanishes like +dew on sand or mist in the air. The seeker must neither +touch it with his hand nor let it touch the ground; he +spreads a white cloth under the plant, and the blossom or +the seed falls into it. Beliefs of this sort concerning fern-seed +have prevailed, with trifling variations of detail, in +England, France, Germany, Austria, Italy, and Russia.<note place='foot'>J. Brand, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Antiquities</hi>, i. +314 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Hilderic Friend, <hi rend='italic'>Flowers +and Flower Lore</hi>, Third Edition (London, +1886), pp. 60, 78, 150, 279-283; +Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. +Jackson, <hi rend='italic'>Shropshire Folk-lore</hi> (London, +1883), p. 242; Marie Trevelyan, +<hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales</hi> +(London, 1909), pp. 89 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; J. B. +Thiers, <hi rend='italic'>Traité des Superstitions</hi> (Paris, +1679), p. 314; J. Lecœur, <hi rend='italic'>Esquisses +du Bocage Normand</hi>, i. 290; P. +Sébillot, <hi rend='italic'>Coutumes populaires de la +Haute-Bretagne</hi> (Paris, 1886), p. 217; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Traditions et Superstitions de la +Haute-Bretagne</hi> (Paris, 1882), ii. 336; +A. Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>Der deutsche Volksaberglaube</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Berlin, 1869), pp. 94 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, § 123; F. J. Vonbun, <hi rend='italic'>Beiträge +zur deutschen Mythologie</hi> (Chur, +1862), pp. 133 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Montanus, <hi rend='italic'>Die +deutschen Volksfesten</hi>, p. 144; K. +Bartsch, <hi rend='italic'>Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche +aus Mecklenburg</hi>, ii. 288, +§ 1437; M. Töppen, <hi rend='italic'>Aberglauben +aus Masuren</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> p. 72; A. Schlossar, +<q>Volksmeinung und Volksaberglaube +aus der deutschen Steiermark,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Germania</hi>, +N.R., xxiv. (1891) p. 387; +Theodor Vernaleken, <hi rend='italic'>Mythen und +Bräuche des Volkes in Oesterreich</hi> +(Vienna, 1859), p. 309; J. N. Ritter +von Alpenburg, <hi rend='italic'>Mythen und Sagen +Tirols</hi> (Zurich, 1857), pp. 407 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +I. V. Zingerle, <hi rend='italic'>Sitten, Bräuche und +Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Innsbruck, +1871), p. 103, § 882, p. 158, +§ 1350; Christian Schneller, <hi rend='italic'>Märchen +und Sagen aus Wälschtirol</hi> (Innsbruck, +1867), p. 237; J. V. Grohmann, +<hi rend='italic'>Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen +und Mähren</hi>, p. 97, §§ 673-677; +Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, <hi rend='italic'>Fest-Kalendar +aus Böhmen</hi> (Prague, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), pp. 311 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; W. Müller, <hi rend='italic'>Beiträge zur Volkskunde +der Deutschen in Mähren</hi> +(Vienna and Olmutz, 1893), p. 265; +R. F. Kaindl, <hi rend='italic'>Die Huzulen</hi> (Vienna, +1894), p. 106; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Zauberglaube +bei den Huzulen,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lxxvi. +(1899) p. 275; P. Drechsler, <hi rend='italic'>Sitte, +Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien</hi> +(Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 142, § 159; +G. Finamore, <hi rend='italic'>Credenze, Usi e Costumi +Abruzzesi</hi> (Palermo, 1890), p. 161; +C. Russwurm, <q>Aberglaube in Russland,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie +und Sittenkunde</hi>, iv. (1859) pp. +152 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. de Gubernatis, <hi rend='italic'>Mythologie +des Plantes</hi> (Paris, 1878-1882), ii. 144 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> The practice of gathering ferns +or fern seed on the Eve of St. John was +forbidden by the synod of Ferrara in +1612. See J. B. Thiers, <hi rend='italic'>Traité des +Superstitions</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>5</hi> (Paris, 1741), i. 299 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> In a South Slavonian story we +read how a cowherd understood the +language of animals, because fern-seed +accidentally fell into his shoe on Midsummer +Day (F. S. Krauss, <hi rend='italic'>Sagen und +Märchen der Südslaven</hi>, Leipsic, 1883-1884, +ii. 424 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, No. 159). On +this subject I may refer to my article, +<q>The Language of Animals,</q> <hi rend='italic'>The +Archaeological Review</hi>, i. (1888) pp. +164 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> In +<pb n='066'/><anchor id='Pg066'/> +Bohemia the magic bloom is said to be golden, and to glow +or sparkle like fire.<note place='foot'>J. V. Grohmann, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 97, +§§ 673, 675.</note> In Russia, they say that at dead of +night on Midsummer Eve the plant puts forth buds like +glowing coals, which on the stroke of twelve burst open +with a clap like thunder and light up everything near and +far.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie +und Sittenkunde</hi>, iv. (1859) pp. 152 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. de Gubernatis, <hi rend='italic'>Mythologie des +Plantes</hi>, ii. 146.</note> In the Azores they say that the fern only blooms at +midnight on St. John's Eve, and that no one ever sees the +flower because the fairies instantly carry it off. But if any +one, watching till it opens, throws a cloth over it, and then, +when the magic hour has passed, burns the blossoms carefully, +the ashes will serve as a mirror in which you can read +the fate of absent friends; if your friends are well and +happy, the ashes will resume the shape of a lovely flower; +but if they are unhappy or dead, the ashes will remain cold +and lifeless.<note place='foot'>M. Longworth Dames and E. Seemann, +<q>Folk-lore of the Azores,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, xiv. (1903) pp. 142 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In Thuringia people think that he who has +on his person or in his house the male fern (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Aspidium filix +mas</foreign>) cannot be bewitched. They call it St. John's root +(<foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>Johanniswurzel</foreign>), and say that it blooms thrice in the year, +on Christmas Eve, Easter Eve, and the day of St. John the +Baptist; it should be dug up when the sun enters the sign +<pb n='067'/><anchor id='Pg067'/> +of the lion. Armed with this powerful implement you can +detect a sorcerer at any gathering, it may be a wedding +feast or what not. All you have to do is to put the root +under the tablecloth unseen by the rest of the company, +and, if there should be a sorcerer among them, he will turn +as pale as death and get up and go away. Fear and horror +come over him when the fern-root is under the tablecloth. +And when oxen, horses, or other domestic cattle are bewitched +by wicked people, you need only take the root +at full moon, soak it in water, and sprinkle the cattle with +the water, or rub them down with a cloth that has been +steeped in it, and witchcraft will have no more power over +the animals.<note place='foot'>August Witzschel, <hi rend='italic'>Sagen, Sitten +und Gebräuche aus Thüringen</hi> (Vienna, +1878), p. 275, § 82.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Branches +of hazel cut +at Midsummer +to +serve as +divining-rods.</note> +Once more, people have fancied that if they cut a branch +of hazel on Midsummer Eve it would serve them as a divining +rod to discover treasures and water. This belief has +existed in Moravia, Mecklenburg, and apparently in Scotland.<note place='foot'>W. Müller, <hi rend='italic'>Beiträge zur Volkskunde +der Deutschen in Mähren</hi> (Vienna +and Olmutz, 1893), p. 265; K. Bartsch, +<hi rend='italic'>Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus +Mecklenburg</hi>, ii. p. 285, § 1431, p. +288, § 1439; J. Napier, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore, or +Superstitious Beliefs in the West of +Scotland</hi> (Paisley, 1879), p. 125.</note> +In the Mark of Brandenburg, they say that if you +would procure the mystic wand you must go to the hazel +by night on Midsummer Eve, walking backwards, and when +you have come to the bush you must silently put your +hands between your legs and cut a fork-shaped stick; that +stick will be the divining-rod, and, as such, will detect +treasures buried in the ground. If you have any doubt +as to the quality of the wand, you have only to hold it in +water; for in that case your true divining-rod will squeak +like a pig, but your spurious one will not.<note place='foot'>A. Kuhn, <hi rend='italic'>Märkische Sagen und +Märchen</hi> (Berlin, 1843), p. 330. As +to the divining-rod in general, see A. +Kuhn, <hi rend='italic'>Die Herabkunft des Feuers und +des Göttertranks</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Gütersloh, 1886), +pp. 181 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche +Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> ii. 813 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; S. Baring-Gould, +<hi rend='italic'>Curious Myths of the Middle +Ages</hi> (London, 1884), pp. 55 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> +Kuhn plausibly suggests that the forked +shape of the divining-rod is a rude +representation of the human form. He +compares the shape and magic properties +of mandragora.</note> In Bavaria they +say that the divining-rod should be cut from a hazel bush +between eleven and twelve on St. John's Night, and that by +means of it you can discover not only veins of metal and +<pb n='068'/><anchor id='Pg068'/> +underground springs, but also thieves and murderers and +unknown ways. In cutting it you should say, <q>God greet +thee, thou noble twig! With God the Father I seek thee, +with God the Son I find thee, with the might of God the +Holy Ghost I break thee. I adjure thee, rod and sprig, by +the power of the Highest that thou shew me what I order, +and that as sure and clear as Mary the Mother of God was +a pure virgin when she bare our Lord Jesus, in the name of +God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost, +Amen!</q><note place='foot'>F. Panzer, <hi rend='italic'>Beitrag zur deutschen +Mythologie</hi> (Munich, 1848-1855), i. +296 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In Berlin and the neighbourhood they say that +every seventh year there grows a wonderful branch on a +hazel bush, and that branch is the divining-rod. Only an +innocent child, born on a Sunday and nursed in the true +faith, can find it on St. John's Night; to him then all the +treasures of the earth lie open.<note place='foot'>E. Krause, <q>Abergläubische +Kuren und sonstiger Aberglaube in +Berlin und nächster Umgebung,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift +für Ethnologie</hi>, xv. (1883) p. +89.</note> In the Tyrol the divining-rod +ought to be cut at new moon, but may be cut either on +St. John's Day or on Twelfth Night. Having got it you +baptize it in the name of one of the Three Holy Kings +according to the purpose for which you intend to use it: if +the rod is to discover gold, you name it Caspar; if it is to +reveal silver, you call it Balthasar; and if it is to point out +hidden springs of water, you dub it Melchior.<note place='foot'>J. N. Ritter von Alpenburg, +<hi rend='italic'>Mythen und Sagen Tirols</hi> (Zurich, +1857), p. 393.</note> In Lechrain +the divining-rod is a yearling shoot of hazel with two +branches; a good time for cutting it is new moon, and if +the sun is rising, so much the better. As for the day of +the year, you may take your choice between St. John's +Day, Twelfth Night, and Shrove Tuesday. If cut with +the proper form of words, the rod will as usual discover +underground springs and hidden treasures.<note place='foot'>Karl Freiherr von Leoprechting, +<hi rend='italic'>Aus dem Lechrain</hi> (Munich, 1855), +p. 98. Some people in Swabia say +that the hazel branch which is to +serve as a divining-rod should be cut +at midnight on Good Friday, and +that it should be laid on the altar +and mass said over it. If that is +done, we are told that a Protestant +can use it to quite as good effect as a +Catholic. See E. Meier, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche +Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus +Schwaben</hi> (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 244 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, No. 268. Some of the Wends of +the Spreewald agree that the divining-rod +should be made of hazel-wood, +and they say that it ought to +be wrapt in swaddling-bands, laid on +a white plate, and baptized on Easter +Saturday. Many of them, however, +think that it should be made of <q>yellow +willow.</q> See Wilibald von +Schulenburg, <hi rend='italic'>Wendische Volkssagen +und Gebräuche aus dem Spreewald</hi> +(Leipsic, 1880), pp. 204 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> A remarkable +property of the hazel in the +opinion of Bavarian peasants is that it +is never struck by lightning; this immunity +it has enjoyed ever since the +day when it protected the Mother of +God against a thunderstorm on her +flight into Egypt. See <hi rend='italic'>Bavaria, Landes- +und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern</hi>, +i. (Munich, 1860) p. 371.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='069'/><anchor id='Pg069'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The divining-rod +in +Sweden +obtained +on Midsummer +Eve.</note> +Midsummer Eve is also the favourite time for procuring +the divining-rod in Sweden. Some say that it should then +be cut from a mistletoe bough.<note place='foot'>J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> +iii. 289, referring to Dybeck's <hi rend='italic'>Runa</hi>, +1844, p. 22, and 1845, p. 80.</note> However, other people in +Sweden are of opinion that the divining-rod (<foreign lang='sv' rend='italic'>Slag ruta</foreign>) +which is obtained on Midsummer Eve ought to be compounded +out of four different kinds of wood, to wit, mistletoe, +mountain-ash, the aspen, and another; and they say +that the mountain-ash which is employed for this purpose +should, like the mistletoe, be a parasite growing from the +hollow root of a fallen tree, whither the seed was carried by +a bird or wafted by the wind. Armed with this fourfold +implement of power the treasure-seeker proceeds at sundown +to the spot where he expects to find hidden wealth; there +he lays the rod on the ground in perfect silence, and when +it lies directly over treasure, it will begin to hop about as if +it were alive.<note place='foot'>L. Lloyd, <hi rend='italic'>Peasant Life in Sweden</hi> +(London, 1870), pp. 266 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +mythical +springwort +supposed +to bloom +on Midsummer +Eve.</note> +A mystical plant which to some extent serves the same +purpose as the divining-rod is the springwort, which is sometimes +supposed to be caper-spurge (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Euphorbia lathyris</foreign>). In +the Harz Mountains they say that many years ago there +was a wondrous flower called springwort or Johnswort, which +was as rare as it was marvellous. It bloomed only on St. +John's Night (some say under a fern) between the hours of +eleven and twelve; but when the last stroke of twelve was +struck, the flower vanished away. Only in mountainous +regions, where many noble metals reposed in the bosom of +the earth, was the flower seen now and then in lonely +meadows among the hills. The spirits of the hills wished +by means of it to shew to men where their treasures were to +be found. The flower itself was yellow and shone like a +lamp in the darkness of night. It never stood still, but kept +<pb n='070'/><anchor id='Pg070'/> +hopping constantly to and fro. It was also afraid of men and +fled before them, and no man ever yet plucked it unless he +had been set apart by Providence for the task. To him +who was lucky enough to cull it the flower revealed all +the treasures of the earth, and it made him rich, oh so rich +and so happy!<note place='foot'>Heinrich Pröhle, <hi rend='italic'>Harzsagen</hi> (Leipsic, +1859), i. 99, No. 23.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Another +way of +catching +the springwort. The white +bloom of +chicory.</note> +However, the usual account given of the springwort is +somewhat different. They say that the way to procure it is +this. You mark a hollow in a tree where a green or black +woodpecker has built its nest and hatched its young; you +plug up the hole with a wooden wedge; then you hide +behind the tree and wait. The woodpecker meantime has +flown away but very soon returns with the springwort in its +bill. It flutters up to the tree-trunk holding the springwort +to the wedge, which at once, as if struck by a hammer, jumps +out with a bang. Now is your chance. You rush from +your concealment, you raise a loud cry, and in its fright the +bird opens its bill and drops the springwort. Quick as +thought you reach out a red or white cloth, with which you +have taken care to provide yourself, and catch the magic +flower as it falls. The treasure is now yours. Before its +marvellous power all doors and locks fly open; it can make +the bearer of it invisible; and neither steel nor lead can +wound the man who carries it in the right-hand pocket of +his coat. That is why people in Swabia say of a thief who +cannot be caught, <q>He must surely have a springwort.</q><note place='foot'>J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> +ii. 812 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, iii. 289; A. Kuhn, <hi rend='italic'>Die +Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Gütersloh, 1886), pp. 188-193; +Walter K. Kelly, <hi rend='italic'>Curiosities of +Indo-European Tradition and Folk-lore</hi> +(London, 1863), pp. 174-178; J. +F. L. Woeste, <hi rend='italic'>Volksüberlieferungen in +der Grafschaft Mark</hi> (Iserlohn, 1848), +p. 44; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, +<hi rend='italic'>Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche</hi> +(Leipsic, 1848), p. 459, No. +444; Ernst Meier, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Sagen, +Sitten und Gebräuche aus Schwaben</hi> +(Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 240 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, No. +265; C. Russwurm, <q>Aberglaube in +Russland,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für deutsche +Mythologie und Sittenkunde</hi>, iv. (Göttingen, +1859) p. 153; J. V. Grohmann, +<hi rend='italic'>Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus +Böhmen und Mähren</hi> (Prague and +Leipsic, 1864), p. 88, No. 623; Paul +Drechsler, <hi rend='italic'>Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube +in Schlesien</hi> (Leipsic, 1903-1906), +ii. 207 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> In Swabia some +people say that the bird which brings +the springwort is not the woodpecker +but the hoopoe (E. Meier, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +p. 240). Others associate the springwort +with other birds. See H. Pröhle, +<hi rend='italic'>Harzsagen</hi> (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 116, No. +308; A. Kuhn, <hi rend='italic'>Die Herabkunft des +Feuers</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> p. 190. It is from its power +of springing or bursting open all doors +and locks that the springwort derives +its name (German <foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>Springwurzel</foreign>).</note> +<pb n='071'/><anchor id='Pg071'/> +The superstition which associates the springwort with the +woodpecker is very ancient, for it is recorded by Pliny. It +was a vulgar belief, he tells us, that if a shepherd plugged +up a woodpecker's nest in the hollow of a tree with a +wedge, the bird would bring a herb which caused the wedge +to slip out of the hole; Trebius indeed affirmed that the +wedge leaped out with a bang, however hard and fast you +might have driven it into the tree.<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> x. 40.</note> Another flower which +possesses the same remarkable power of bursting open all +doors and locks is chicory, provided always that you cut +the flower with a piece of gold at noon or midnight on St. +James's Day, the twenty-fifth of July. But in cutting it +you must be perfectly silent; if you utter a sound, it is all +up with you. There was a man who was just about to cut +the flower of the chicory, when he looked up and saw a +millstone hovering over his head. He fled for his life and +fortunately escaped; but had he so much as opened his lips, +the millstone would have dropped on him and crushed him +as flat as a pancake. However, it is only a rare white +variety of the chicory flower which can act as a picklock; +the common bright blue flower is perfectly useless for the +purpose.<note place='foot'>Ernst Meier, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Sagen, Sitten +und Gebräuche aus Schwaben</hi> (Stuttgart, +1852), pp. 238 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, No. 264.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +magical +virtues +ascribed +to plants +at Midsummer +may be +thought to +be derived +from the +sun, then +at the +height of +his power +and glory. Hence it +is possible +that the +Midsummer +bonfires +stand in +direct +relation to +the sun.</note> +Many more examples might perhaps be cited of the +marvellous virtues which certain plants have been supposed +to acquire at the summer solstice, but the foregoing instances +may suffice to prove that the superstition is widely spread, +deeply rooted, and therefore probably very ancient in Europe. +Why should plants be thought to be endowed with these +wonderful properties on the longest day more than on any other +day of the year? It seems difficult or impossible to explain +such a belief except on the supposition that in some mystic +way the plants catch from the sun, then at the full height of +his power and glory, some fleeting effluence of radiant light +and heat, which invests them for a time with powers above +the ordinary for the healing of diseases and the unmasking +and baffling of all the evil things that threaten the life of man. +That the supposition is not purely hypothetical will appear +from a folk-tale, to be noticed later on, in which the magic +<pb n='072'/><anchor id='Pg072'/> +bloom of the fern is directly derived from the sun at noon on +Midsummer Day. And if the magic flowers of Midsummer +Eve thus stand in direct relation to the sun, which many of +them resemble in shape and colour, blooming in the meadows +like little yellow suns fallen from the blue sky, does it +not become probable that the bonfires kindled at the +same time are the artificial, as the flowers are the natural, +imitations of the great celestial fire then blazing in all its +strength? At least analogy seems to favour the inference and +so far to support Mannhardt's theory, that the bonfires kindled +at the popular festivals of Europe, especially at the summer +solstice, are intended to reinforce the waning or waxing fires +of the sun. Thus if in our enquiry into these fire-festivals +the scales of judgment are loaded with the adverse theories of +Mannhardt and Westermarck, we may say that the weight, +light as it is, of the magic flowers of Midsummer Eve seems to +incline the trembling balance back to the side of Mannhardt. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>This consideration +tends to +bring us +back to +an intermediate +position +between +the rival +theories of +Mannhardt +and +Westermarck.</note> +Nor is it, perhaps, an argument against Mannhardt's view +that the midsummer flowers and plants are so often employed +as talismans to break the spells of witchcraft.<note place='foot'>See above, pp. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>.</note> For granted +that employment, which is undeniable, we have still to +explain it, and that we can hardly do except by reference to +the midsummer sun. And what is here said of the midsummer +flowers applies equally to the midsummer bonfires. +They too are used to destroy the charms of witches and warlocks; +but if they can do so, may it not be in part because +fires at midsummer are thought to burn with fiercer fury than +at other times by sympathy with the fiercer fervour of the +sun? This consideration would bring us back to an intermediate +position between the opposing theories, namely, to +the view that while the purely destructive aspect of fire is +generally the most prominent and apparently the most important +at these festivals, we must not overlook the additional +force which by virtue of homoeopathic or imitative magic the +bonfires may be supposed both to derive from and to impart +to the sun, especially at the moment of the summer solstice +when his strength is greatest and begins to decline, and when +accordingly he can at once give and receive help to the +greatest advantage. +</p> + +<pb n='073'/><anchor id='Pg073'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Miscellaneous +examples +of the +baleful +activity +of witches +at Midsummer +and of the +precautions +which it is +necessary +to take +against +them at +that time. +Witches +in Voigtland. The +witches' +Sabbath in +Prussia on +Walpurgis +Night and +Midsummer +Eve. +Midsummer +Eve a +witching +time +among the +South +Slavs.</note> +To conclude this part of our subject it may not be amiss +to illustrate by a few more miscellaneous examples the belief +that Midsummer Eve is one of the great days of the year in +which witches and warlocks pursue their nefarious calling; +indeed in this respect Midsummer Eve perhaps stands second +only to the famous Walpurgis Night (the Eve of May Day). +For instance, in the neighbourhood of Lierre, in Belgium, the +people think that on the night of Midsummer Eve all witches +and warlocks must repair to a certain field which is indicated +to them beforehand. There they hold their infernal Sabbath +and are passed in review by a hellish magician, who bestows +on them fresh powers. That is why old women are most +careful, before going to bed on that night, to stop up doors +and windows and every other opening in order to bar out the +witches and warlocks, who but for this sage precaution might +steal into the house and make the first trial of their new +powers on the unfortunate inmates.<note place='foot'>Le Baron de Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, +<hi rend='italic'>Calendrier Belge</hi> (Brussels, 1861-1862), +i. 423 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> At Rottenburg, in +Swabia, people thought that the devil and the witches could +do much harm on Midsummer Eve; so they made fast +their shutters and bunged up even the chinks and crannies, +for wherever air can penetrate, there the devil and witches +can worm their way in. All night long, too, from nine in +the evening till break of day, the church bells rang to disturb +the dreadful beings at their evil work, since there is perhaps +no better means of putting the whole devilish crew to flight +than the sound of church bells.<note place='foot'>Anton Birlinger, <hi rend='italic'>Völksthumliches +aus Schwaben</hi>, Freiburg im Breisgau, +(1861-1862), i. 278, § 437.</note> Down to the second half +of the nineteenth century the belief in witches was still +widespread in Voigtland, a bleak mountainous region of +Central Germany. It was especially on the Eve of May +Day (Walpurgis), St. Thomas's Day, St. John's Day, and +Christmas Eve, as well as on Mondays, that they were +dreaded. Then they would come into a neighbour's house +to beg, borrow, or steal something, no matter what; but +woe to the poor wretch who suffered them to carry away +so much as a chip or splinter of wood; for they would +certainly use it to his undoing. On these witching nights +the witches rode to their Sabbath on baking-forks and the +<pb n='074'/><anchor id='Pg074'/> +dashers of churns; but if when they were hurtling through +the darkness any one standing below addressed one of +the witches by name, she would die within the year. To +counteract and undo the spells which witches cast on man +and beast, people resorted to all kinds of measures. Thus +on the before-mentioned days folk made three crosses on the +doors of the byres or guarded them by hanging up St. John's +wort, marjoram, or other equally powerful talismans. Very +often, too, the village youth would carry the war into the +enemy's quarters by marching out in a body, cracking whips, +firing guns, waving burning besoms, shouting and making an +uproar, all for the purpose of frightening and driving away +the witches.<note place='foot'>Robert Eisel, <hi rend='italic'>Sagenbuch des Voigtlandes</hi> +(Gera, 1871), p. 210, Nr. 551.</note> In Prussia witches and warlocks used regularly +to assemble twice a year on Walpurgis Night and the Eve +of St. John. The places where they held their infernal +Sabbath were various; for example, one was Pogdanzig, in +the district of Schlochau. They generally rode on a baking-fork, +but often on a black three-legged horse, and they took +their departure up the chimney with the words, <q>Up and +away and nowhere to stop!</q> When they were all gathered +on the Blocksberg or Mount of the Witches, they held high +revelry, feasting first and then dancing on a tight rope +lefthanded-wise to the inspiring strains which an old warlock +drew from a drum and a pig's head.<note place='foot'>W. J. A. von Tettau und J. D. H. +Temme, <hi rend='italic'>Die Volkssagen Ostpreussens, +Litthauens und Westpreussens</hi> (Berlin, +1837), pp. 263 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The South Slavs +believe that on the night of Midsummer Eve a witch will +slink up to the fence of the farmyard and say, <q>The cheese +to me, the lard to me, the butter to me, the milk to me, but +the cowhide to thee!</q> After that the cow will perish +miserably and you will be obliged to bury the flesh and sell +the hide. To prevent this disaster the thing to do is to go +out into the meadows very early on Midsummer morning +while the dew is on the grass, collect a quantity of dew in a +waterproof mantle, carry it home, and having tethered your +cow wash her down with the dew. After that you have +only to place a milkpail under her udders and to milk away +as hard as you can; the amount of milk that you will +extract from that cow's dugs is quite surprising. Again, the +<pb n='075'/><anchor id='Pg075'/> +Slovenians about Görz and the Croats of Istria believe that +on the same night the witches wage pitched battles with +baptized folk, attacking them fiercely with broken stakes of +palings and stumps of trees. It is therefore a wise precaution +to grub up all the stumps in autumn and carry them +home, so that the witches may be weaponless on St. John's +Night. If the stumps are too heavy to be grubbed up, it +is well to ram them down tighter into the earth, for then +the witches will not be able to pull them up.<note place='foot'>F. S. Krauss, <hi rend='italic'>Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Südslaven</hi> (Münster +i. W., 1890), p. 128.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='076'/><anchor id='Pg076'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter IX. Balder and the Mistletoe.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Relation +of the fire-festivals +to +the myth +of Balder.</note> +The reader may remember that the preceding account of +the popular fire-festivals of Europe was suggested by the +myth of the Norse god Balder, who is said to have been +slain by a branch of mistletoe and burnt in a great fire. We +have now to enquire how far the customs which have been +passed in review help to shed light on the myth. In this +enquiry it may be convenient to begin with the mistletoe, +the instrument of Balder's death. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Veneration +of the +Druids +for the +mistletoe.</note> +From time immemorial the mistletoe has been the +object of superstitious veneration in Europe. It was +worshipped by the Druids, as we learn from a famous +passage of Pliny. After enumerating the different kinds of +mistletoe, he proceeds: <q>In treating of this subject, the +admiration in which the mistletoe is held throughout Gaul +ought not to pass unnoticed. The Druids, for so they call +their wizards, esteem nothing more sacred than the mistletoe +and the tree on which it grows, provided only that the tree is +an oak. But apart from this they choose oak-woods for their +sacred groves and perform no sacred rites without oak-leaves; +so that the very name of Druids may be regarded as a Greek +appellation derived from their worship of the oak.<note place='foot'>Pliny derives the name Druid from +the Greek <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>drus</foreign>, <q>oak.</q> He did not +know that the Celtic word for oak was +the same (<foreign rend='italic'>daur</foreign>), and that therefore +Druid, in the sense of priest of the oak, +might be genuine Celtic, not borrowed +from the Greek. This etymology is +accepted by some modern scholars. See +G. Curtius, <hi rend='italic'>Grundzüge der Griechischen +Etymologie</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>5</hi> (Leipsic, 1879), pp. 238 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. Vaniček, <hi rend='italic'>Griechisch-Lateinisch +Etymologisches Wörterbuch</hi> (Leipsic, +1877), pp. 368 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; (Sir) John Rhys, +<hi rend='italic'>Celtic Heathendom</hi> (London and Edinburgh, +1888), pp. 221 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> However, +this derivation is disputed by other +scholars, who prefer to derive the +name from a word meaning knowledge or wisdom, so that Druid would +mean <q>wizard</q> or <q>magician.</q> See +J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> +iii. 305; Otto Schrader, <hi rend='italic'>Reallexikon +der Indogermanischen Altertumskunde</hi> +(Strasburg, 1901), pp. 638 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; H. +D'Arbois de Jubainville, <hi rend='italic'>Les Druides +et les Dieux Celtiques à forme d'animaux</hi> +(Paris, 1906), pp. 1, 11, 83 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> +The last-mentioned scholar formerly +held that the etymology of Druid was +unknown. See his <hi rend='italic'>Cours de Littérature +Celtique</hi>, i. (Paris, 1883) pp. 117-127.</note> For +<pb n='077'/><anchor id='Pg077'/> +they believe that whatever grows on these trees is sent from +heaven, and is a sign that the tree has been chosen by the +god himself. The mistletoe is very rarely to be met with; +but when it is found, they gather it with solemn ceremony. +This they do above all on the sixth day of the moon, from +whence they date the beginnings of their months, of their +years, and of their thirty years' cycle, because by the sixth +day the moon has plenty of vigour and has not run half its +course. After due preparations have been made for a +sacrifice and a feast under the tree, they hail it as the +universal healer and bring to the spot two white bulls, +whose horns have never been bound before. A priest clad +in a white robe climbs the tree and with a golden sickle +cuts the mistletoe, which is caught in a white cloth. Then +they sacrifice the victims, praying that God may make his +own gift to prosper with those upon whom he has bestowed +it. They believe that a potion prepared from mistletoe will +make barren animals to bring forth, and that the plant is a +remedy against all poison. So much of men's religion is +commonly concerned with trifles.</q><note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xvi. 249-251. +In the first edition of this book I understood +Pliny to say that the Druidical +ceremony of cutting the mistletoe fell +in the sixth month, that is, in June; +and hence I argued that it probably +formed part of the midsummer festival. +But in accordance with Latin usage the +words of Pliny (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>sexta luna</foreign>, literally +<q>sixth moon</q>) can only mean <q>the +sixth day of the month.</q> I have to +thank my friend Mr. W. Warde Fowler +for courteously pointing out my mistake +to me. Compare my note in the +<hi rend='italic'>Athenaeum</hi>, November 21st, 1891, p. +687. I also misunderstood Pliny's +words, <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>et saeculi post tricesimum +annum, quia jam virium abunde habeat +nec sit sui dimidia</foreign>,</q> applying them +to the tree instead of to the moon, to +which they really refer. After <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>saeculi</foreign> we +must understand <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>principium</foreign> from the +preceding <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>principia</foreign>. With the thirty +years' cycle of the Druids we may +compare the sixty years' cycle of the +Boeotian festival of the Great Daedala +(Pausanias, ix. 3. 5; see <hi rend='italic'>The Magic +Art and the Evolution of Kings</hi>, ii. +140 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>), which, like the Druidical rite +in question, was essentially a worship, +or perhaps rather a conjuration, of the +sacred oak. Whether any deeper +affinity, based on common Aryan +descent, may be traced between the +Boeotian and the Druidical ceremony, +I do not pretend to determine. In +India a cycle of sixty years, based on +the sidereal revolution of Jupiter, has +long been in use. The sidereal revolution +of Jupiter is accomplished in +approximately twelve solar years (more +exactly 11 years and 315 days), so that +five of its revolutions make a period of +approximately sixty years. It seems, +further, that in India a much older cycle +of sixty lunar years was recognized. +See Christian Lassen, <hi rend='italic'>Indische Alter-thumskunde</hi>, +i.<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Leipsic, 1867), pp. +988 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Prof. F. Kielhorn (Göttingen), +<q>The Sixty-year Cycle of +Jupiter,</q> <hi rend='italic'>The Indian Antiquary</hi>, xviii. +(1889) pp. 193-209; J. F. Fleet, <q>A +New System of the Sixty-year Cycle of +Jupiter,</q> <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> pp. 221-224. In Tibet +the use of a sixty-years' cycle has been +borrowed from India. See W. Woodville +Rockhill, <q>Tibet,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Royal Asiatic Society for 1891</hi> (London, +1891), p. 207 note 1.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='078'/><anchor id='Pg078'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Medical +and +magical +virtues +ascribed to +mistletoe in +ancient +Italy.</note> +In another passage Pliny tells us that in medicine the +mistletoe which grows on an oak was esteemed the most +efficacious, and that its efficacy was by some superstitious +people supposed to be increased if the plant was gathered +on the first day of the moon without the use of iron, and if +when gathered it was not allowed to touch the earth; oak-mistletoe +thus obtained was deemed a cure for epilepsy; +carried about by women it assisted them to conceive; and +it healed ulcers most effectually, if only the sufferer chewed +a piece of the plant and laid another piece on the sore.<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xxiv. 11 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Yet, again, he says that mistletoe was supposed, like +vinegar and an egg, to be an excellent means of extinguishing +a fire.<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xxxiii. 94.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Agreement +between +the Druids +and the +ancient +Italians as +to the valuable +properties +of +mistletoe.</note> +If in these latter passages Pliny refers, as he apparently +does, to the beliefs current among his contemporaries in +Italy, it will follow that the Druids and the Italians were to +some extent agreed as to the valuable properties possessed +by mistletoe which grows on an oak; both of them deemed +it an effectual remedy for a number of ailments, and both of +them ascribed to it a quickening virtue, the Druids believing +that a potion prepared from mistletoe would fertilize barren +cattle, and the Italians holding that a piece of mistletoe +carried about by a woman would help her to conceive a +child. Further, both peoples thought that if the plant were +to exert its medicinal properties it must be gathered in a +certain way and at a certain time. It might not be cut +with iron, hence the Druids cut it with gold; and it might +not touch the earth, hence the Druids caught it in a white +cloth. In choosing the time for gathering the plant, both +peoples were determined by observation of the moon; only +they differed as to the particular day of the moon, the +Italians preferring the first, and the Druids the sixth. +</p> + +<pb n='079'/><anchor id='Pg079'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Similar +beliefs as +to mistletoe +among the +Ainos of +Japan.</note> +With these beliefs of the ancient Gauls and Italians as +to the wonderful medicinal properties of mistletoe we may +compare the similar beliefs of the modern Ainos of Japan. +We read that they, <q>like many nations of the Northern +origin, hold the mistletoe in peculiar veneration. They +look upon it as a medicine, good in almost every disease, +and it is sometimes taken in food and at others separately +as a decoction. The leaves are used in preference to the +berries, the latter being of too sticky a nature for general +purposes.... But many, too, suppose this plant to have +the power of making the gardens bear plentifully. When +used for this purpose, the leaves are cut up into fine pieces, +and, after having been prayed over, are sown with the millet +and other seeds, a little also being eaten with the food. +Barren women have also been known to eat the mistletoe, +in order to be made to bear children. That mistletoe +which grows upon the willow is supposed to have the +greatest efficacy. This is because the willow is looked upon +by them as being an especially sacred tree.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. John Batchelor, <hi rend='italic'>The Ainu +and their Folk-lore</hi> (London, 1901), p. +222.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Similar +beliefs as +to mistletoe +among the +Torres +Straits +Islanders +and the +Walos of +Senegambia. These +beliefs +perhaps +originate +in a notion +that the +mistletoe +has fallen +from +heaven.</note> +Thus the Ainos agree with the Druids in regarding +mistletoe as a cure for almost every disease, and they agree +with the ancient Italians that applied to women it helps +them to bear children. A similar belief as to the fertilizing +influence of mistletoe, or of similar plants, upon women is +entertained by the natives of Mabuiag, an island in Torres +Straits. These savages imagine that twins can be produced +<q>by the pregnant woman touching or breaking a branch of +a loranthaceous plant (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Viscum sp.</foreign>, probably <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>V. orientale</foreign>) +parasitic on a tree, <foreign rend='italic'>mader</foreign>. The wood of this tree is much +esteemed for making digging sticks and as firewood, no +twin-producing properties are inherent in it, nor is it regarded +as being infected with the properties of its twin-producing +parasite.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological +Expedition to Torres Straits</hi>, +v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 198 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Again, the Druidical notion that the +mistletoe was an <q>all-healer</q> or panacea may be compared +with a notion entertained by the Walos of Senegambia. +These people <q>have much veneration for a sort of mistletoe, +which they call <foreign rend='italic'>tob</foreign>; they carry leaves of it on their persons +<pb n='080'/><anchor id='Pg080'/> +when they go to war as a preservative against wounds, just +as if the leaves were real talismans (<foreign rend='italic'>gris-gris</foreign>).</q> The French +writer who records this practice adds: <q>Is it not very +curious that the mistletoe should be in this part of Africa +what it was in the superstitions of the Gauls? This prejudice, +common to the two countries, may have the same +origin; blacks and whites will doubtless have seen, each of +them for themselves, something supernatural in a plant +which grows and flourishes without having roots in the earth. +May they not have believed, in fact, that it was a plant +fallen from the sky, a gift of the divinity?</q><note place='foot'>M. le baron Roger (ancien Gouverneur +de la Colonie française du Sénégal), +<q>Notice sur le Gouvernement, +les Mœurs, et les Superstitions des +Nègres du pays de Walo,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de +la Société de Géographie</hi>, viii. (Paris, +1827) pp. 357 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Such a +notion +would +explain +the ritual +used in +cutting +mistletoe +and other +parasites.</note> +This suggestion as to the origin of the superstition is +strongly confirmed by the Druidical belief, reported by Pliny, +that whatever grew on an oak was sent from heaven and +was a sign that the tree had been chosen by the god himself.<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>.</note> +Such a belief explains why the Druids cut the +mistletoe, not with a common knife, but with a golden sickle,<note place='foot'><p>Compare <hi rend='italic'>The Times</hi>, 2nd April, +1901, p. 9: <q>The Tunis correspondent +of the <hi rend='italic'>Temps</hi> reports that in the course +of certain operations in the Belvedere +Park in Tunis the workmen discovered +a huge circle of enormous stumps of +trees ranged round an immense square +stone showing signs of artistic chisel +work. In the neighbourhood were +found a sort of bronze trough containing +a gold sickle in perfect preservation, +and a sarcophagus containing a +skeleton. About the forehead of the +skeleton was a gold band, having in +the centre the image of the sun, accompanied +by hieratic signs, which are provisionally +interpreted as the monogram +of Teutates. The discovery of such +remains in North Africa has created a +sensation.</q> As to the Celtic god Teutates +and the human sacrifices offered +to him, see Lucan, <hi rend='italic'>Pharsalia</hi>, i. +444 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>: +</p> +<p> +<q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Et quibus immitis placatur sanguine diro<lb/> +Teutates horrensque feris altaribus Hesus.</foreign></q> +</p> +<p> +Compare (Sir) John Rhys, <hi rend='italic'>Celtic +Heathendom</hi> (London and Edinburgh, +1888), pp. 44 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 232. Branches of +the sacred olive at Olympia, which +were to form the victors' crowns, had +to be cut with a golden sickle by a boy +whose parents were both alive. See +the Scholiast on Pindar, <hi rend='italic'>Olymp.</hi> iii. +60, p. 102, ed. Aug. Boeck (Leipsic, +1819). In Assyrian ritual it was laid +down that, before felling a sacred tamarisk +to make magical images out of the +wood, the magician should pray to the +sun-god Shamash and touch the tree +with a golden axe. See C. Fossey, +<hi rend='italic'>La Magie Assyrienne</hi> (Paris, 1902), +pp. 132 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Some of the ancients +thought that the root of the marsh-mallow, +which was used in medicine, +should be dug up with gold and then +preserved from contact with the ground +(Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xx. 29). At the +great horse-sacrifice in ancient India it +was prescribed by ritual that the horse +should be slain by a golden knife, +because <q>gold is light</q> and <q>by +means of the golden light the sacrificer +also goes to the heavenly world.</q> See +<hi rend='italic'>The Satapatha-Brâhmana</hi>, translated +by Julius Eggeling, Part v. (Oxford, +1900) p. 303 (<hi rend='italic'>Sacred Books of the +East</hi>, vol. xliv.). It has been a rule of +superstition both in ancient and modern +times that certain plants, to which +medical or magical virtues were attributed, +should not be cut with iron. +See the fragment of Sophocles's <hi rend='italic'>Root-cutters</hi>, +quoted by Macrobius, <hi rend='italic'>Saturn</hi>. +v. 19. 9 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> iv. 513 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +Ovid, <hi rend='italic'>Metamorph.</hi> vii. 227; Pliny, +<hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xxiv. 68, 103, 176; and +above, p. 65 (as to purple loosestrife +in Russia). On the objection to the +use of iron in such cases compare F. +Liebrecht, <hi rend='italic'>Des Gervasius von Tilbury +Otia Imperialia</hi> (Hanover, 1856), pp. +102 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>Taboo and the Perils of the +Soul</hi>, pp. 225 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></p></note> +and why, when cut, it was not suffered to touch the earth; +<pb n='081'/><anchor id='Pg081'/> +probably they thought that the celestial plant would have +been profaned and its marvellous virtue lost by contact with +the ground. With the ritual observed by the Druids in +cutting the mistletoe we may compare the ritual which in +Cambodia is prescribed in a similar case. They say that +when you see an orchid growing as a parasite on a tamarind +tree, you should dress in white, take a new earthenware pot, +then climb the tree at noon, break off the plant, put it in the +pot, and let the pot fall to the ground. After that you +make in the pot a decoction which confers the gift of invulnerability.<note place='foot'>Étienne Aymonier, <q>Notes sur les +Coutumes et Croyances Superstitieuses +des Cambodgiens,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Cochinchine Française, +Excursions et Reconnaissance</hi> +No. 16 (Saigon, 1883), p. 136.</note> +Thus just as in Africa the leaves of one parasitic +plant are supposed to render the wearer invulnerable, so in +Cambodia a decoction made from another parasitic plant is +considered to render the same service to such as make use of +it, whether by drinking or washing. We may conjecture +that in both places the notion of invulnerability is suggested +by the position of the plant, which, occupying a place of +comparative security above the ground, appears to promise +to its fortunate possessor a similar security from some of +the ills that beset the life of man on earth. We have +already met with many examples of the store which the +primitive mind sets on such vantage grounds.<note place='foot'>See above, vol. i. pp. 2 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +ancient +beliefs and +practices +concerning +mistletoe +have their +analogies +in modern +European +folk-lore.</note> +Whatever may be the origin of these beliefs and +practices concerning the mistletoe, certain it is that some +of them have their analogies in the folk-lore of modern +European peasants. For example, it is laid down as a +rule in various parts of Europe that mistletoe may not be +cut in the ordinary way but must be shot or knocked down +with stones from the tree on which it is growing. Thus, in +<pb n='082'/><anchor id='Pg082'/> +the Swiss canton of Aargau <q>all parasitic plants are +esteemed in a certain sense holy by the country folk, but +most particularly so the mistletoe growing on an oak. +They ascribe great powers to it, but shrink from cutting it +off in the usual manner. Instead of that they procure it +in the following manner. When the sun is in Sagittarius +and the moon is on the wane, on the first, third, or fourth +day before the new moon, one ought to shoot down with an +arrow the mistletoe of an oak and to catch it with the left +hand as it falls. Such mistletoe is a remedy for every +ailment of children.</q><note place='foot'>Ernst Meier, <q>Über Pflanzen und +Kräuter,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie +und Sittenkunde</hi>, i. (Göttingen, +1853), pp. 443 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The sun enters +the sign of Sagittarius about November +22nd.</note> Here among the Swiss peasants, as +among the Druids of old, special virtue is ascribed to +mistletoe which grows on an oak: it may not be cut in the +usual way: it must be caught as it falls to the ground; and it +is esteemed a panacea for all diseases, at least of children. In +Sweden, also, it is a popular superstition that if mistletoe is +to possess its peculiar virtue, it must either be shot down out +of the oak or knocked down with stones.<note place='foot'>J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> +iii. 533, referring to Dybeck, <hi rend='italic'>Runa</hi>, +1845, p. 80.</note> Similarly, <q>so late +as the early part of the nineteenth century, people in Wales +believed that for the mistletoe to have any power, it must be +shot or struck down with stones off the tree where it grew.</q><note place='foot'>Marie Trevelyan, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore and +Folk-stories of Wales</hi> (London, 1909), +p. 87.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Medicinal +virtues +ascribed +to mistletoe +by ancients +and +moderns. Mistletoe +as a cure +for epilepsy.</note> +Again, in respect of the healing virtues of mistletoe the +opinion of modern peasants, and even of the learned, has +to some extent agreed with that of the ancients. The +Druids appear to have called the plant, or perhaps the oak +on which it grew, the <q>all-healer</q>;<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xvi. 250, +<q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Omnia sanantem appellantes suo +vocabulo</foreign>.</q> See above, p. <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>.</note> and <q>all-healer</q> is said +to be still a name of the mistletoe in the modern Celtic +speech of Brittany, Wales, Ireland, and Scotland.<note place='foot'>J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> +ii. 1009: <q><foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>Sonst aber wird das welsche</foreign> +olhiach, <foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>bretagn.</foreign> ollyiach, <foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>ir.</foreign> uileiceach, +<foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>gal.</foreign> uileice, <foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>d. i. allheiland</foreign>, <foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>von</foreign> +ol, uile universalis, <foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>als benennung des +mistels angegeben</foreign>.</q> My lamented +friend, the late R. A. Neil of Pembroke +College, Cambridge, pointed +out to me that in N. M'Alpine's <hi rend='italic'>Gaelic +Dictionary</hi> (Seventh Edition, Edinburgh +and London, 1877, p. 432) the +Gaelic word for mistletoe is given as +<foreign lang='gd' rend='italic'>an t' uil</foreign>, which, Mr. Neil told me, +means <q>all-healer.</q></note> On St. +John's morning (Midsummer morning) peasants of Piedmont +<pb n='083'/><anchor id='Pg083'/> +and Lombardy go out to search the oak-leaves for the <q>oil +of St. John,</q> which is supposed to heal all wounds made +with cutting instruments.<note place='foot'>A. de Gubernatis, <hi rend='italic'>La Mythologie +des Plantes</hi> (Paris, 1878-1882), ii. 73.</note> Originally, perhaps, the <q>oil of +St. John</q> was simply the mistletoe, or a decoction made +from it. For in Holstein the mistletoe, especially oak-mistletoe, +is still regarded as a panacea for green wounds +and as a sure charm to secure success in hunting;<note place='foot'>Rev. Hilderic Friend, <hi rend='italic'>Flowers and +Flower Lore</hi>, Third Edition (London, +1886), p. 378. Compare A. Kuhn, <hi rend='italic'>Die +Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Gütersloh, 1886), p. 206, referring +to Keysler, <hi rend='italic'>Antiq. Sept.</hi> p. 308.</note> and at +Lacaune, in the south of France, the old Druidical belief in +the mistletoe as an antidote to all poisons still survives +among the peasantry; they apply the plant to the stomach +of the sufferer or give him a decoction of it to drink.<note place='foot'>A. de Nore, <hi rend='italic'>Coutumes, Mythes et +Traditions des Provinces de France</hi> +(Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 102 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +The local name for mistletoe here is <foreign rend='italic'>besq</foreign>, +which may be derived from the Latin +<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>viscum</foreign>.</note> +Again, the ancient belief that mistletoe is a cure for epilepsy +has survived in modern times not only among the ignorant +but among the learned. Thus in Sweden persons afflicted +with the falling sickness think they can ward off attacks of +the malady by carrying about with them a knife which has +a handle of oak mistletoe;<note place='foot'>A. Kuhn, <hi rend='italic'>Die Herabkunft des +Feuers und des Göttertranks</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Gütersloh, +1886), p. 205; Walter K. Kelly, +<hi rend='italic'>Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition +and Folk-lore</hi> (London, 1863), p. 186.</note> and in Germany for a similar +purpose pieces of mistletoe used to be hung round the +necks of children.<note place='foot'><q>Einige Notizen aus einem alten +Kräuterbuche,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für deutsche +Mythologie und Sittenkunde</hi>, iv. (Göttingen, +1859) pp. 41 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In the French province of Bourbonnais +a popular remedy for epilepsy is a decoction of mistletoe +which has been gathered on an oak on St. John's Day and +boiled with rye-flour.<note place='foot'>Francis Pérot, <q>Prières, Invocations, +Formules Sacrées, Incantations +en Bourbonnais,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Revue des Traditions +Populaires</hi>, xviii. (1903) p. 299.</note> So at Bottesford in Lincolnshire a +decoction of mistletoe is supposed to be a palliative for this +terrible disease.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>County Folk-lore</hi>, v. <hi rend='italic'>Lincolnshire</hi>, +collected by Mrs. Gutch and Mabel +Peacock (London, 1908), p. 120.</note> Indeed mistletoe was recommended as a +remedy for the falling sickness by high medical authorities +in England and Holland down to the eighteenth century.<note place='foot'>Prof. P. J. Veth, <q>De Leer der +Signatuur, iii. De Mistel en de Riembloem,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Internationales Archiv für +Ethnographie</hi>, vii. (1894) p. 111. +He names Ray in England (about +1700), Boerhaave in Holland (about +1720), and Van Swieten, a pupil of +Boerhaave's (about 1745).</note> +<pb n='084'/><anchor id='Pg084'/> +At Kirton-in-Lindsey, in Lincolnshire, it is thought that +St. Vitus's dance may be cured by the water in which +mistletoe berries have been boiled.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>County Folk-lore</hi>, vol. v. <hi rend='italic'>Lincolnshire</hi>, +collected by Mrs. Gutch and +Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), p. +120.</note> In the Scotch shires +of Elgin and Moray, down to the second half of the +eighteenth century, at the full moon of March people used +to cut withes of mistletoe or ivy, make circles of them, keep +them all the year, and profess to cure hectics and other +troubles by means of them.<note place='foot'>Rev. Mr. Shaw, Minister of Elgin, +quoted by Thomas Pennant in his +<q>Tour in Scotland, 1769,</q> printed in +J. Pinkerton's <hi rend='italic'>Voyages and Travels</hi>, +iii. (London, 1809) p. 136; J. Brand, +<hi rend='italic'>Popular Antiquities of Great Britain</hi> +(London, 1882-1883), iii. 151.</note> In Sweden, apparently, for +other complaints a sprig of mistletoe is hung round the +patient's neck or a ring of it is worn on his finger.<note place='foot'>Walter K. Kelly, <hi rend='italic'>Curiosities of +Indo-European Tradition and Folk-lore</hi> +(London, 1863), p. 186.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +medicinal +virtues +ascribed +to mistletoe +seem to be +mythical, +being +fanciful +inferences +from the +parasitic +nature of +the plant.</note> +However, the opinion of the medical profession as to +the curative virtues of mistletoe has undergone a radical +alteration. Whereas the Druids thought that mistletoe +cured everything, modern doctors appear to think that it +cures nothing.<note place='foot'>On this point Prof. P. J. Veth +(<q>De Leer der Signatuur,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Internationales +Archiv für Ethnographie</hi>, vii. +(1894) p. 112) quotes Cauvet, <hi rend='italic'>Eléments +d'Histoire naturelle medicale</hi>, +ii. 290: <q><foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>La famille des Loranthacées +ne nous offre aucun intéret.</foreign></q></note> If they are right, we must conclude that +the ancient and widespread faith in the medicinal virtue of +mistletoe is a pure superstition based on nothing better than +the fanciful inferences which ignorance has drawn from the +parasitic nature of the plant, its position high up on the branch +of a tree seeming to protect it from the dangers to which +plants and animals are subject on the surface of the ground. +From this point of view we can perhaps understand why +mistletoe has so long and so persistently been prescribed as +a cure for the falling sickness. As mistletoe cannot fall to +the ground because it is rooted on the branch of a tree high +above the earth, it seems to follow as a necessary consequence +that an epileptic patient cannot possibly fall down +in a fit so long as he carries a piece of mistletoe in his +pocket or a decoction of mistletoe in his stomach. Such +a train of reasoning would probably be regarded even now +as cogent by a large portion of the human species. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +belief that +mistletoe +extinguishes +fire seems +based on a +fancy that +it falls on +the tree in +a flash of +lightning.</note> +Again the ancient Italian opinion that mistletoe extinguishes +<pb n='085'/><anchor id='Pg085'/> +fire appears to be shared by Swedish peasants, +who hang up bunches of oak-mistletoe on the ceilings of +their rooms as a protection against harm in general and +conflagration in particular.<note place='foot'>A. Kuhn, <hi rend='italic'>Die Herabkunft des +Feuers und des Göttertranks</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Gütersloh, +1886), p. 205, referring to Dybeck, +<hi rend='italic'>Runa</hi>, 1845, p. 80.</note> A hint as to the way in +which mistletoe comes to be possessed of this property is +furnished by the epithet <q>thunder-besom,</q> which people of +the Aargau canton in Switzerland apply to the plant.<note place='foot'>A. Kuhn, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 204, referring +to Rochholz, <hi rend='italic'>Schweizersagen aus d. +Aargau</hi>, ii. 202.</note> For +a thunder-besom is a shaggy, bushy excrescence on branches +of trees, which is popularly believed to be produced by a +flash of lightning;<note place='foot'>J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> +i. 153.</note> hence in Bohemia a thunder-besom +burnt in the fire protects the house against being struck by +a thunder-bolt.<note place='foot'>J. V. Grohmann, <hi rend='italic'>Aberglauben und +Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren</hi> +(Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 37, +§ 218. In Upper Bavaria the mistletoe +is burned for this purpose along with +the so-called palm-branches which +were consecrated on Palm Sunday. +See <hi rend='italic'>Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde +des Königreichs Bayern</hi>, i. (Munich, +1860), p. 371.</note> Being itself a product of lightning it +naturally serves, on homoeopathic principles, as a protection +against lightning, in fact as a kind of lightning-conductor. +Hence the fire which mistletoe in Sweden is designed +especially to avert from houses may be fire kindled by +lightning; though no doubt the plant is equally effective +against conflagration in general. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Other +wonderful +properties +ascribed to +mistletoe; +in particular +it is +thought +to be a +protection +against +witchcraft.</note> +Again, mistletoe acts as a master-key as well as a +lightning-conductor; for it is said to open all locks.<note place='foot'>A. Kuhn, <hi rend='italic'>Die Herabkunft des +Feuers und des Göttertranks</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> p. 206, +referring to Albertus Magnus, p. 155; +Prof. P. J. Veth, <q>De Leer der +Signatuur,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Internationales Archiv für +Ethnographie</hi>, vii. (1904) p. 111.</note> However, +in the Tyrol it can only exert this power <q>under +certain circumstances,</q> which are not specified.<note place='foot'>J. N. Ritter von Alpenburg, +<hi rend='italic'>Mythen und Sagen Tirols</hi> (Zurich, +1857), p. 398.</note> But perhaps +the most precious of all the virtues of mistletoe is that +it affords efficient protection against sorcery and witchcraft.<note place='foot'>A. Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>Der deutsche Volksaberglaube</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Berlin, 1869), p. 97, § +128; Prof. P. J. Veth, <q>De Leer der +Signatuur,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Internationales Archiv für +Ethnographie</hi>, vii. (1894) p. 111.</note> +That, no doubt, is the reason why in Austria a twig of +mistletoe is laid on the threshold as a preventive of nightmare;<note place='foot'>A. Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 267, § +419.</note> +and it may be the reason why in the north of +<pb n='086'/><anchor id='Pg086'/> +England they say that if you wish your dairy to thrive you +should give your bunch of mistletoe to the first cow that +calves after New Year's Day,<note place='foot'>W. Henderson, <hi rend='italic'>Notes on the Folk-lore +of the Northern Counties of England +and the Borders</hi> (London, 1879), +p. 114.</note> for it is well known that +nothing is so fatal to milk and butter as witchcraft. +Similarly in Wales, for the sake of ensuring good luck to +the dairy, people used to give a branch of mistletoe to the +first cow that gave birth to a calf after the first hour of +the New Year; and in rural districts of Wales, where +mistletoe abounded, there was always a profusion of it in +the farmhouses. When mistletoe was scarce, Welsh +farmers used to say, <q>No mistletoe, no luck</q>; but if there +was a fine crop of mistletoe, they expected a fine crop of +corn.<note place='foot'>Marie Trevelyan, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore and +Folk-stories of Wales</hi> (London, 1909), +p. 88.</note> In Sweden mistletoe is diligently sought after on +St. John's Eve, the people <q>believing it to be, in a high +degree, possessed of mystic qualities; and that if a sprig of +it be attached to the ceiling of the dwelling-house, the +horse's stall, or the cow's crib, the Troll will then be powerless +to injure either man or beast.</q><note place='foot'>L. Lloyd, <hi rend='italic'>Peasant Life in Sweden</hi> +(London, 1870), p. 269.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>A favourite +time for +gathering +mistletoe +is Midsummer +Eve.</note> +With regard to the time when the mistletoe should be +gathered opinions have varied. The Druids gathered it +above all on the sixth day of the moon, the ancient Italians +apparently on the first day of the moon.<note place='foot'>Above, pp. <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>.</note> In modern times +some have preferred the full moon of March and others the +waning moon of winter when the sun is in Sagittarius.<note place='foot'>Above, pp. <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>.</note> +But the favourite time would seem to be Midsummer Eve +or Midsummer Day. We have seen that both in France +and Sweden special virtues are ascribed to mistletoe gathered +at Midsummer.<note place='foot'>Above, pp. <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>.</note> The rule in Sweden is that <q>mistletoe +must be cut on the night of Midsummer Eve when sun and +moon stand in the sign of their might.</q><note place='foot'>J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> +iii. 353, referring to Dybeck, <hi rend='italic'>Runa</hi>, +1844, p. 22.</note> Again, in Wales +it was believed that a sprig of mistletoe gathered on St. +John's Eve (Midsummer Eve), or at any time before the +berries appeared, would induce dreams of omen, both good +<pb n='087'/><anchor id='Pg087'/> +and bad, if it were placed under the pillow of the sleeper.<note place='foot'>Marie Trevelyan, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore and +Folk-stories of Wales</hi> (London, 1909), +p. 88.</note> +Thus mistletoe is one of the many plants whose magical +or medicinal virtues are believed to culminate with the +culmination of the sun on the longest day of the year. +Hence it seems reasonable to conjecture that in the eyes of +the Druids, also, who revered the plant so highly, the sacred +mistletoe may have acquired a double portion of its mystic +qualities at the solstice in June, and that accordingly they +may have regularly cut it with solemn ceremony on Midsummer +Eve. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The two +main incidents +of +Balder's +myth, +namely the +pulling +of the +mistletoe +and the +lighting of +the bonfire, +are reproduced +in +the great +Midsummer +celebration +of Scandinavia.</note> +Be that as it may, certain it is that the mistletoe, the +instrument of Balder's death, has been regularly gathered +for the sake of its mystic qualities on Midsummer Eve in +Scandinavia, Balder's home.<note place='foot'>See above, p. <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>.</note> The plant is found commonly +growing on pear-trees, oaks, and other trees in thick damp +woods throughout the more temperate parts of Sweden.<note place='foot'>G. Wahlenberg, <hi rend='italic'>Flora Suecica</hi> +(Upsala, 1824-1826), ii. No. 1143 +<hi rend='italic'>Viscum album</hi>, pp. 649 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>: <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Hab. in +sylvarum densiorum et humidiorum +arboribus frondosis, ut Pyris, Quercu, +Fago etc. per Sueciam temperatiorem +passim</foreign>.</q></note> +Thus one of the two main incidents of Balder's myth is reproduced +in the great midsummer festival of Scandinavia. +But the other main incident of the myth, the burning of +Balder's body on a pyre, has also its counterpart in the +bonfires which still blaze, or blazed till lately, in Denmark, +Norway, and Sweden on Midsummer Eve.<note place='foot'>Above, vol. i. pp. 171 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> It does not +appear, indeed, that any effigy is burned in these bonfires; +but the burning of an effigy is a feature which might +easily drop out after its meaning was forgotten. And +the name of Balder's balefires (<foreign lang='sv' rend='italic'>Balder's Bălar</foreign>), by which +these midsummer fires were formerly known in Sweden,<note place='foot'>L. Lloyd, <hi rend='italic'>Peasant Life in Sweden</hi> +(London, 1870), p. 259.</note> +puts their connexion with Balder beyond the reach of +doubt, and makes it probable that in former times either +a living representative or an effigy of Balder was annually +burned in them. Midsummer was the season sacred to +Balder, and the Swedish poet Tegner, in placing the burning +of Balder at midsummer,<note place='foot'>J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> +iii. 78, who adds, <q><foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>Mahnen die Johannisfeuer +an Baldrs Leichenbrand?</foreign></q> This +pregnant hint perhaps contains in germ +the solution of the whole myth.</note> may very well have followed an +<pb n='088'/><anchor id='Pg088'/> +old tradition that the summer solstice was the time when +the good god came to his untimely end. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Hence the +myth of +Balder was +probably +the explanation +given of a +similar rite.</note> +Thus it has been shewn that the leading incidents of +the Balder myth have their counterparts in those fire-festivals +of our European peasantry which undoubtedly date from a +time long prior to the introduction of Christianity. The +pretence of throwing the victim chosen by lot into the +Beltane fire,<note place='foot'>Above, vol. i. p. 148.</note> and the similar treatment of the man, the future +Green Wolf, at the midsummer bonfire in Normandy,<note place='foot'>Above, vol. i. p. 186.</note> may +naturally be interpreted as traces of an older custom of +actually burning human beings on these occasions; and the +green dress of the Green Wolf, coupled with the leafy +envelope of the young fellow who trod out the midsummer +fire at Moosheim,<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref>.</note> seems to hint that the persons who +perished at these festivals did so in the character of tree-spirits +or deities of vegetation. From all this we may +reasonably infer that in the Balder myth on the one hand, +and the fire-festivals and custom of gathering mistletoe on +the other hand, we have, as it were, the two broken and +dissevered halves of an original whole. In other words, we +may assume with some degree of probability that the myth +of Balder's death was not merely a myth, that is, a description +of physical phenomena in imagery borrowed from +human life, but that it was at the same time the story +which people told to explain why they annually burned a +human representative of the god and cut the mistletoe +with solemn ceremony. If I am right, the story of Balder's +tragic end formed, so to say, the text of the sacred drama +which was acted year by year as a magical rite to cause the +sun to shine, trees to grow, crops to thrive, and to guard +man and beast from the baleful arts of fairies and trolls, of +witches and warlocks. The tale belonged, in short, to that +class of nature myths which are meant to be supplemented +by ritual; here, as so often, myth stood to magic in the +relation of theory to practice. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>If a human +representative +of a +tree-spirit +was burned +in the bonfires, what +kind of tree +did he +represent? +The +oak the +principal +sacred tree +of the +Aryans.</note> +But if the victims—the human Balders—who died by +fire, whether in spring or at midsummer, were put to death +as living embodiments of tree-spirits or deities of vegetation, +it would seem that Balder himself must have been a tree-spirit +<pb n='089'/><anchor id='Pg089'/> +or deity of vegetation. It becomes desirable, therefore, +to determine, if we can, the particular kind of tree or trees, +of which a personal representative was burned at the fire-festivals. +For we may be quite sure that it was not as +a representative of vegetation in general that the victim +suffered death. The idea of vegetation in general is too +abstract to be primitive. Most probably the victim at first +represented a particular kind of sacred tree. Now of all +European trees none has such claims as the oak to be +considered as pre-eminently the sacred tree of the Aryans. +Its worship is attested for all the great branches of the +Aryan stock in Europe. We have seen that it was not only +the sacred tree, but the principal object of worship of both +Celts and Lithuanians.<note place='foot'>As to the worship of the oak in +Europe, see <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the +Evolution of Kings</hi>, ii. 349 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> Compare +P. Wagler, <hi rend='italic'>Die Eiche in alter +und neuer Zeit</hi>, in two parts (Wurzen, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>, and Berlin, 1891).</note> The roving Celts appear to have +carried their worship of the oak with them even to Asia; +for in the heart of Asia Minor the Galatian senate met in +a place which bore the pure Celtic name of Drynemetum or +<q>temple of the oak.</q><note place='foot'>Strabo, xii. 5.1, p. 567. The name +is a compound of <foreign rend='italic'>dryu</foreign>, <q>oak,</q> and +<foreign rend='italic'>nemed</foreign>, <q>temple</q> (H. F. Tozer, <hi rend='italic'>Selections +from Strabo</hi>, Oxford, 1893, p. +284). We know from Jerome (<hi rend='italic'>Commentar. +in Epist. ad Galat.</hi> book ii. +praef.) that the Galatians retained +their native Celtic speech as late as +the fourth century of our era.</note> Among the Slavs the oak seems to +have been the sacred tree of the great god Perun.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, ii. 365.</note> According +to Grimm, the oak ranked first among the holy trees of +the Germans. It is certainly known to have been adored +by them in the age of heathendom, and traces of its worship +have survived in various parts of Germany almost to the +present day.<note place='foot'>J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> +i. 55 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 58 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. 542, iii. 187 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +P. Wagler, <hi rend='italic'>Die Eiche in alter und +neuer Zeit</hi> (Berlin, 1891), pp. 40 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; +<hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution of +Kings</hi>, ii. 363 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 371.</note> Among the ancient Italians the oak was +sacred above all other trees.<note place='foot'>L. Preller, <hi rend='italic'>Römische Mythologie</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi> +(Berlin, 1881-1883), i. 108.</note> The image of Jupiter on the +Capitol at Rome seems to have been originally nothing but +a natural oak-tree.<note place='foot'>Livy, i. 10. Compare C. Bötticher, +<hi rend='italic'>Der Baumkultus der Hellenen</hi> +(Berlin, 1856), pp. 133 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> At Dodona, perhaps the oldest of all +Greek sanctuaries, Zeus was worshipped as immanent in the +sacred oak, and the rustling of its leaves in the wind was +<pb n='090'/><anchor id='Pg090'/> +his voice.<note place='foot'>C. Bötticher, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 111 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; +L. Preller, <hi rend='italic'>Griechische Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> ed. +C. Robert, i. (Berlin, 1894) pp. 122 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; P. Wagler, <hi rend='italic'>Die Eiche in alter +und neuer Zeit</hi> (Berlin, 1891), pp. 2 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> It is noteworthy that at Olympia +the only wood that might be used in +sacrificing to Zeus was the white poplar +(Pausanias, v. 14. 2). But it is probable +that herein Zeus, who was an +intruder at Olympia, merely accepted +an old local custom which, long before +his arrival, had been observed in the +worship of Pelops (Pausanias, v. 13. 3).</note> If, then, the great god of both Greeks and +Romans was represented in some of his oldest shrines under +the form of an oak, and if the oak was the principal object +of worship of Celts, Germans, and Lithuanians, we may +certainly conclude that this tree was venerated by the +Aryans in common before the dispersion; and that their +primitive home must have lain in a land which was clothed +with forests of oak.<note place='foot'>Without hazarding an opinion on +the vexed question of the cradle of +the Aryans, I may observe that in +various parts of Europe the oak seems +to have been formerly more common +than it is now. See the evidence +collected in <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the +Evolution of Kings</hi>, ii. 349 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Hence the +tree represented +by +the human +victim who +was burnt +at the fire-festivals +was probably +the +oak.</note> +Now, considering the primitive character and remarkable +similarity of the fire-festivals observed by all the branches of +the Aryan race in Europe, we may infer that these festivals +form part of the common stock of religious observances which +the various peoples carried with them in their wanderings +from their old home. But, if I am right, an essential feature +of those primitive fire-festivals was the burning of a man who +represented the tree-spirit. In view, then, of the place occupied +by the oak in the religion of the Aryans, the presumption is +that the tree so represented at the fire-festivals must originally +have been the oak. So far as the Celts and Lithuanians are +concerned, this conclusion will perhaps hardly be contested. +But both for them and for the Germans it is confirmed by +a remarkable piece of religious conservatism. The most +primitive method known to man of producing fire is by +rubbing two pieces of wood against each other till they +ignite; and we have seen that this method is still used in +Europe for kindling sacred fires such as the need-fire, and +that most probably it was formerly resorted to at all the +fire-festivals under discussion. Now it is sometimes required +that the need-fire, or other sacred fire, should be made by the +friction of a particular kind of wood; and when the kind +of wood is prescribed, whether among Celts, Germans, or +<pb n='091'/><anchor id='Pg091'/> +Slavs, that wood appears to be generally the oak.<note place='foot'>However, some exceptions to the +rule are recorded. See above, vol. i. pp. +169, 278 (oak and fir), 220 (plane and +birch), 281, 283, 286 (limewood), 282 +(poplar and fir), 286 (cornel-tree), 291 +(birch or other hard wood), 278, 280 +(nine kinds of wood). According to +Montanus, the need-fire, Easter, and +Midsummer fires were kindled by the +friction of oak and limewood. See +Montanus, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutschen Volksfeste, +Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube</hi> +(Iserlohn, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), p. 159. But elsewhere +(pp. 33 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 127) the same +writer says that the need-fire and Midsummer +fires were produced by the +friction of oak and fir-wood.</note> Thus +we have seen that amongst the Slavs of Masuren the new +fire for the village is made on Midsummer Day by causing +a wheel to revolve rapidly round an axle of oak till the +axle takes fire.<note place='foot'>Above, vol. i. p. 177.</note> When the perpetual fire which the ancient +Slavs used to maintain chanced to go out, it was rekindled +by the friction of a piece of oak-wood, which had been +previously heated by being struck with a grey (not a red) +stone.<note place='foot'>M. Prätorius, <hi rend='italic'>Deliciae Prussicae</hi>, +herausgegeben von Dr. William Pierson +(Berlin, 1871), pp. 19 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> W. R. S. +Ralston says (on what authority I do +not know) that if the fire maintained +in honour of the Lithuanian god +Perkunas went out, it was rekindled +by sparks struck from a stone which +the image of the god held in his hand +(<hi rend='italic'>Songs of the Russian People</hi>, London, +1872, p. 88).</note> In Germany and the Highlands of Scotland the need-fire +was regularly, and in Russia and among the South Slavs +it was sometimes, kindled by the friction of oak-wood;<note place='foot'>See above, vol. i. pp. 148, 271, +272, 274, 275, 276, 281, 289, 294.</note> and +both in Wales and the Highlands of Scotland the Beltane +fires were lighted by similar means.<note place='foot'>Above, vol. i. pp. 148, 155.</note> Now, if the sacred +fire was regularly kindled by the friction of oak-wood, we +may infer that originally the fire was also fed with the same +material. In point of fact, it appears that the perpetual fire +of Vesta at Rome was fed with oak-wood,<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, ii. 186.</note> and that oak-wood +was the fuel consumed in the perpetual fire which +burned under the sacred oak at the great Lithuanian +sanctuary of Romove.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, ii. 366. However, sacred +fires of other wood than oak are +not unknown among Aryan peoples. +Thus at Olympia white poplar was the +wood burnt in sacrifices to Zeus (above, +p. 90 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>); at Delphi the perpetual +fire was fed with pinewood (Plutarch, +<hi rend='italic'>De EI apud Delphos</hi>, 2), and it was +over the glowing embers of pinewood +that the Soranian Wolves walked at +Soracte (above, p. <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>).</note> Further, that oak-wood was formerly +the fuel burned in the midsummer fires may perhaps be +inferred from the custom, said to be still observed by +peasants in many mountain districts of Germany, of making +<pb n='092'/><anchor id='Pg092'/> +up the cottage fire on Midsummer Day with a heavy block +of oak-wood. The block is so arranged that it smoulders +slowly and is not finally reduced to charcoal till the expiry +of a year. Then upon next Midsummer Day the charred +embers of the old log are removed to make room for the +new one, and are mixed with the seed-corn or scattered +about the garden. This is believed to guard the food +cooked on the hearth from witchcraft, to preserve the luck +of the house, to promote the growth of the crops, and to +preserve them from blight and vermin.<note place='foot'>Montanus, <hi rend='italic'>Diedeutschen Volksfeste, +Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube</hi> +(Iserlohn, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), pp. 127, 159. The +log is called in German <hi rend='italic'>Sckarholz</hi>. +The custom appears to have prevailed +particularly in Westphalia, about Sieg +and Lahn. Compare Montanus, <hi rend='italic'>op. +cit.</hi> p. 12, as to the similar custom at +Christmas. The use of the <foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>Scharholz</foreign> +is reported to be found also in Niederlausitz +and among the neighbouring +Saxons. See Paul Wagler, <hi rend='italic'>Die Eiche +in alter und neuer Zeit</hi> (Berlin, 1891), +pp. 86 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Thus the custom +is almost exactly parallel to that of the Yule-log, which in +parts of Germany, France, England, Servia, and other +Slavonic lands was commonly of oak-wood.<note place='foot'>Above, vol. i. pp. 248, 250, 251, +257, 258, 260, 263. Elsewhere the +Yule log has been made of fir, beech, +holly, yew, crab-tree, or olive. See +above, vol. i. pp. 249, 257, 263.</note> At the Boeotian +festival of the Daedala, the analogy of which to the spring +and midsummer festivals of modern Europe has been already +pointed out, the great feature was the felling and burning +of an oak.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, ii. 140 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The general conclusion is, that at those periodic +or occasional ceremonies the ancient Aryans both kindled +and fed the fire with the sacred oak-wood.<note place='foot'>A curious use of an oak-wood fire +to detect a criminal is reported from +Germany. If a man has been found +murdered and his murderer is unknown, +you are recommended to proceed as +follows. You kindle a fire of dry oak-wood, +you pour some of the blood from +the wounds on the fire, and you change +the poor man's shoes, putting the right +shoe on the left foot, and <hi rend='italic'>vice versa</hi>. +As soon as that is done, the murderer +is struck blind and mad, so that he +fancies he is riding up to the throat in +water; labouring under this delusion +he returns to the corpse, when you can +apprehend him and deliver him up to +the arm of justice with the greatest ease. +See Montanus, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 159 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>If the +human +victims +burnt at +the fire-festival +represented +the oak, +the reason +for pulling +the mistletoe +may +have been +a belief +that the +life of the +oak was +in the +mistletoe, +and that +the tree +could not +perish +either by +fire or +water so +long as the +mistletoe +remained +intact +among its +boughs.</note> +But if at these solemn rites the fire was regularly made +of oak-wood, it follows that any man who was burned in it +as a personification of the tree-spirit could have represented +no tree but the oak. The sacred oak was thus burned in +duplicate; the wood of the tree was consumed in the fire, +and along with it was consumed a living man as a personification +<pb n='093'/><anchor id='Pg093'/> +of the oak-spirit. The conclusion thus drawn for +the European Aryans in general is confirmed in its special +application to the Scandinavians by the relation in which +amongst them the mistletoe appears to have stood to the +burning of the victim in the midsummer fire. We have +seen that among Scandinavians it has been customary to +gather the mistletoe at midsummer. But so far as appears +on the face of this custom, there is nothing to connect it +with the midsummer fires in which human victims or effigies +of them were burned. Even if the fire, as seems probable, +was originally always made with oak-wood, why should it +have been necessary to pull the mistletoe? The last link +between the midsummer customs of gathering the mistletoe +and lighting the bonfires is supplied by Balder's myth, which +can hardly be disjoined from the customs in question. The +myth suggests that a vital connexion may once have been +believed to subsist between the mistletoe and the human +representative of the oak who was burned in the fire. According +to the myth, Balder could be killed by nothing in heaven +or earth except the mistletoe; and so long as the mistletoe +remained on the oak, he was not only immortal but invulnerable. +Now, if we suppose that Balder was the oak, the +origin of the myth becomes intelligible. The mistletoe was +viewed as the seat of life of the oak, and so long as it was +uninjured nothing could kill or even wound the oak. The +conception of the mistletoe as the seat of life of the oak +would naturally be suggested to primitive people by the +observation that while the oak is deciduous, the mistletoe +which grows on it is evergreen. In winter the sight of its +fresh foliage among the bare branches must have been hailed +by the worshippers of the tree as a sign that the divine life +which had ceased to animate the branches yet survived in +the mistletoe, as the heart of a sleeper still beats when his +body is motionless. Hence when the god had to be killed—when +the sacred tree had to be burnt—it was necessary to +begin by breaking off the mistletoe. For so long as the +mistletoe remained intact, the oak (so people might think) +was invulnerable; all the blows of their knives and axes +would glance harmless from its surface. But once tear from +the oak its sacred heart—the mistletoe—and the tree nodded +<pb n='094'/><anchor id='Pg094'/> +to its fall. And when in later times the spirit of the oak +came to be represented by a living man, it was logically +necessary to suppose that, like the tree he personated, he +could neither be killed nor wounded so long as the mistletoe +remained uninjured. The pulling of the mistletoe was thus +at once the signal and the cause of his death. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Ancient +Italian +belief that +mistletoe +could not +be destroyed +by fire or +water.</note> +On this view the invulnerable Balder is neither more nor +less than a personification of a mistletoe-bearing oak. The +interpretation is confirmed by what seems to have been an +ancient Italian belief, that the mistletoe can be destroyed +neither by fire nor water;<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xiii. 119: +<q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Alexander Cornelius arborem leonem +appellavit ex qua facta esset Argo, +similem robori viscum ferenti, quae +neque aqua neque igni possit corrumpi, +sicuti nec viscum, nulli alii cognitam, +quod equidem sciam.</foreign></q> Here the tree +out of which the ship Argo was made +is said to have been destructible neither +by fire nor water; and as the tree is +compared to a mistletoe-bearing oak, +and the mistletoe itself is said to be indestructible +by fire and water, it seems +to follow that the same indestructibility +may have been believed to attach +to the oak which bore the mistletoe, +so long at least as the mistletoe +remained rooted on the boughs.</note> for if the parasite is thus deemed +indestructible, it might easily be supposed to communicate +its own indestructibility to the tree on which it grows, so +long as the two remain in conjunction. Or to put the same +idea in mythical form we might tell how the kindly god of +the oak had his life securely deposited in the imperishable +mistletoe which grew among the branches; how accordingly +so long as the mistletoe kept its place there, the deity himself +remained invulnerable; and how at last a cunning foe, +let into the secret of the god's invulnerability, tore the mistletoe +from the oak, thereby killing the oak-god and afterwards +burning his body in a fire which could have made no impression +on him so long as the incombustible parasite retained +its seat among the boughs. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Conception +of a being +whose life +is outside +himself.</note> +But since the idea of a being whose life is thus, in a +sense, outside himself, must be strange to many readers, and +has, indeed, not yet been recognized in its full bearing on +primitive superstition, it will be worth while to illustrate it +by examples drawn both from story and custom. The +result will be to shew that, in assuming this idea as the +explanation of Balder's relation to the mistletoe, I assume +a principle which is deeply engraved on the mind of primitive +man. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='095'/><anchor id='Pg095'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter X. The Eternal Soul in Folk-Tales.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Belief that +a man's +soul may +be deposited +for +safety in a +secure +place outside +his +body, and +that so long +as it +remains +there intact +he himself +is invulnerable +and +immortal.</note> +In a former part of this work we saw that, in the opinion of +primitive people, the soul may temporarily absent itself from +the body without causing death.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Taboo and the Perils of the Soul</hi>, pp. 26 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Such temporary absences +of the soul are often believed to involve considerable risk, +since the wandering soul is liable to a variety of mishaps at +the hands of enemies, and so forth. But there is another +aspect to this power of disengaging the soul from the body. +If only the safety of the soul can be ensured during its +absence, there is no reason why the soul should not continue +absent for an indefinite time; indeed a man may, on a pure +calculation of personal safety, desire that his soul should +never return to his body. Unable to conceive of life +abstractly as a <q>permanent possibility of sensation</q> or a +<q>continuous adjustment of internal arrangements to external +relations,</q> the savage thinks of it as a concrete material +thing of a definite bulk, capable of being seen and handled, +kept in a box or jar, and liable to be bruised, fractured, or +smashed in pieces. It is not needful that the life, so conceived, +should be in the man; it may be absent from his +body and still continue to animate him by virtue of a sort +of sympathy or action at a distance. So long as this object +which he calls his life or soul remains unharmed, the man +is well; if it is injured, he suffers; if it is destroyed, he +dies. Or, to put it otherwise, when a man is ill or dies, the +fact is explained by saying that the material object called +his life or soul, whether it be in his body or out of it, has +either sustained injury or been destroyed. But there may +<pb n='096'/><anchor id='Pg096'/> +be circumstances in which, if the life or soul remains in the +man, it stands a greater chance of sustaining injury than if +it were stowed away in some safe and secret place. Accordingly, +in such circumstances, primitive man takes his soul +out of his body and deposits it for security in some snug +spot, intending to replace it in his body when the danger is +past. Or if he should discover some place of absolute +security, he may be content to leave his soul there permanently. +The advantage of this is that, so long as the +soul remains unharmed in the place where he has deposited +it, the man himself is immortal; nothing can kill his body, +since his life is not in it. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>This belief +is illustrated +by +folk-tales +told by +many +peoples.</note> +Evidence of this primitive belief is furnished by a class +of folk-tales of which the Norse story of <q>The giant who had +no heart in his body</q> is perhaps the best-known example. +Stories of this kind are widely diffused over the world, and +from their number and the variety of incident and of details +in which the leading idea is embodied, we may infer that +the conception of an external soul is one which has had a +powerful hold on the minds of men at an early stage of +history. For folk-tales are a faithful reflection of the world +as it appeared to the primitive mind; and we may be sure +that any idea which commonly occurs in them, however +absurd it may seem to us, must once have been an ordinary +article of belief. This assurance, so far as it concerns the +supposed power of disengaging the soul from the body for a +longer or shorter time, is amply corroborated by a comparison +of the folk-tales in question with the actual beliefs +and practices of savages. To this we shall return after some +specimens of the tales have been given. The specimens will +be selected with a view of illustrating both the characteristic +features and the wide diffusion of this class of tales.<note place='foot'>A number of the following examples +were collected by Mr. E. Clodd in his +paper, <q>The Philosophy of Punchkin,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore Journal</hi>, ii. (1884) pp. 288-303; +and again in his <hi rend='italic'>Myths and +Dreams</hi> (London, 1885), pp. 188-198. +The subject of the external soul, both in +folk-tales and in custom, has been well +handled by G. A. Wilken in his two +papers, <q>De betrekking tusschen menschen- +dieren- en plantenleven naar het +volksgeloof,</q> <hi rend='italic'>De Indische Gids</hi>, November +1884, pp. 595-612, and <q>De +Simsonsage,</q> <hi rend='italic'>De Gids</hi>, 1888, No. 5. +In <q>De Simsonsage</q> Wilken has +reproduced, to a great extent in the +same words, most of the evidence cited +by him in <q>De betrekking,</q> yet without +referring to that paper. When I +wrote this book in 1889-1890 I was +unacquainted with <q>De betrekking,</q> +but used with advantage <q>De Simsonsage,</q> +a copy of it having been kindly +sent me by the author. I am the +more anxious to express my obligations +to <q>De Simsonsage,</q> because I have +had little occasion to refer to it, most +of the original authorities cited by the +author being either in my own library +or easily accessible to me in Cambridge. +It would be a convenience to anthropologists +if Wilken's valuable papers, +dispersed as they are in various Dutch +periodicals which are seldom to be met +with in England, were collected and +published together. After the appearance +of my first anthropological essay +in 1885, Professor Wilken entered into +correspondence with me, and thenceforward +sent me copies of his papers as +they appeared; but of his papers published +before that date I have not a +complete set. (Note to the Second +Edition.) The wish expressed in the +foregoing note has now been happily +fulfilled. Wilken's many scattered +papers have been collected and published +in a form which leaves nothing +to be desired (<hi rend='italic'>De verspreide Geschriften +van Prof. Dr. G. A. Wilken</hi>, verzameld +door Mr. F. D. E. van Ossenbruggen, +in four volumes, The Hague, 1912). +The two papers <q>De betrekking</q> and +<q>De Simsonsage</q> are reprinted in the +third volume, pp. 289-309 and pp. +551-579. The subject of the external +soul in relation to Balder has been +fully illustrated and discussed by Professor +F. Kauffmann in his <hi rend='italic'>Balder, +Mythus und Sage</hi> (Strasburg, 1902), +pp. 136 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> Amongst the first to +collect examples of the external soul in +folk-tales was the learned Dr. Reinhold +Köhler (in <hi rend='italic'>Orient und Occident</hi>, ii., +Göttingen, 1864, pp. 100-103; reprinted +with additional references in the writer's +<hi rend='italic'>Kleinere Schriften</hi>, i., Weimar, 1898, +pp. 158-161). Many versions of the +tale were also cited by W. R. S. +Ralston (<hi rend='italic'>Russian Folk-tales</hi>, London, +1873, pp. 109 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>). (Note to the +Third Edition.)</note> +</p> + +<pb n='097'/><anchor id='Pg097'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Stories of +an external +soul +common +among +Aryan +peoples. +The external +soul in +Hindoo +stories. +Punchkin +and the +parrot. The ogre +whose soul +was in a +bird.</note> +In the first place, the story of the external soul is told, +in various forms, by all Aryan peoples from Hindoostan to +the Hebrides. A very common form of it is this: A +warlock, giant, or other fairyland being is invulnerable and +immortal because he keeps his soul hidden far away in +some secret place; but a fair princess, whom he holds +enthralled in his enchanted castle, wiles his secret from him +and reveals it to the hero, who seeks out the warlock's soul, +heart, life, or death (as it is variously called), and, by destroying +it, simultaneously kills the warlock. Thus a Hindoo +story tells how a magician called Punchkin held a queen +captive for twelve years, and would fain marry her, but she +would not have him. At last the queen's son came to +rescue her, and the two plotted together to kill Punchkin. +So the queen spoke the magician fair, and pretended that +she had at last made up her mind to marry him. <q>And +do tell me,</q> she said, <q>are you quite immortal? Can death +never touch you? And are you too great an enchanter +ever to feel human suffering?</q> <q>It is true,</q> he said, <q>that +I am not as others. Far, far away, hundreds of thousands +<pb n='098'/><anchor id='Pg098'/> +of miles from this, there lies a desolate country covered +with thick jungle. In the midst of the jungle grows a +circle of palm trees, and in the centre of the circle stand +six chattees full of water, piled one above another: below +the sixth chattee is a small cage, which contains a little +green parrot;—on the life of the parrot depends my life;—and +if the parrot is killed I must die. It is, however,</q> he +added, <q>impossible that the parrot should sustain any +injury, both on account of the inaccessibility of the country, +and because, by my appointment, many thousand genii +surround the palm trees, and kill all who approach the +place.</q> But the queen's young son overcame all difficulties, +and got possession of the parrot. He brought it to the +door of the magician's palace, and began playing with it. +Punchkin, the magician, saw him, and, coming out, tried to +persuade the boy to give him the parrot. <q>Give me my +parrot!</q> cried Punchkin. Then the boy took hold of the +parrot and tore off one of his wings; and as he did so the +magician's right arm fell off. Punchkin then stretched out +his left arm, crying, <q>Give me my parrot!</q> The prince +pulled off the parrot's second wing, and the magician's left +arm tumbled off. <q>Give me my parrot!</q> cried he, and fell +on his knees. The prince pulled off the parrot's right leg, +the magician's right leg fell off; the prince pulled off the +parrot's left leg, down fell the magician's left. Nothing +remained of him except the trunk and the head; but +still he rolled his eyes, and cried, <q>Give me my parrot!</q> +<q>Take your parrot, then,</q> cried the boy; and with that he +wrung the bird's neck, and threw it at the magician; and, +as he did so, Punchkin's head twisted round, and, with a +fearful groan, he died!<note place='foot'>Mary Frere, <hi rend='italic'>Old Deccan Days</hi>, Third Edition (London, 1881), pp. +12-16.</note> In another Hindoo tale an ogre +is asked by his daughter, <q>Papa, where do you keep your +soul?</q> <q>Sixteen miles away from this place,</q> he said, <q>is +a tree. Round the tree are tigers, and bears, and scorpions, +and snakes; on the top of the tree is a very great fat +snake; on his head is a little cage; in the cage is a bird; +and my soul is in that bird.</q> The end of the ogre is like +that of the magician in the previous tale. As the bird's +<pb n='099'/><anchor id='Pg099'/> +wings and legs are torn off, the ogre's arms and legs drop +off; and when its neck is wrung he falls down dead.<note place='foot'>Maive Stokes, <hi rend='italic'>Indian Fairy Tales</hi> +(London, 1880), pp. 58-60. For +similar Hindoo stories, see <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, pp. +187 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Lai Behari Day, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-tales of +Bengal</hi> (London, 1883), pp. 121 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +F. A. Steel and R. C. Temple, <hi rend='italic'>Wide-awake +Stories</hi> (Bombay and London, +1884), pp. 58-60.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +princess +whose soul +was in a +golden +necklace. +The prince +whose soul +was in a +fish.</note> +In another Hindoo story a princess called Sodewa Bai +was born with a golden necklace about her neck, and the +astrologer told her parents, <q>This is no common child; the +necklace of gold about her neck contains your daughter's +soul; let it therefore be guarded with the utmost care; for +if it were taken off, and worn by another person, she would +die.</q> So her mother caused it to be firmly fastened round +the child's neck, and, as soon as the child was old enough to +understand, she told her its value, and warned her never to +let it be taken off. In course of time Sodewa Bai was +married to a prince who had another wife living. The +first wife, jealous of her young rival, persuaded a negress to +steal from Sodewa Bai the golden necklace which contained +her soul. The negress did so, and, as soon as she put the +necklace round her own neck, Sodewa Bai died. All day +long the negress used to wear the necklace; but late at +night, on going to bed, she would take it off and put it by +till morning; and whenever she took it off, Sodewa Bai's +soul returned to her and she lived. But when morning +came, and the negress put on the necklace, Sodewa Bai +died again. At last the prince discovered the treachery of +his elder wife and restored the golden necklace to Sodewa +Bai.<note place='foot'>Mary Frere, <hi rend='italic'>Old Deccan Days</hi>, +pp. 239 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> In another Hindoo story a holy mendicant tells a +queen that she will bear a son, adding, <q>As enemies will +try to take away the life of your son, I may as well tell you +that the life of the boy will be bound up in the life of a big +<foreign rend='italic'>boal</foreign> fish which is in your tank, in front of the palace. In +the heart of the fish is a small box of wood, in the box is a +necklace of gold, that necklace is the life of your son.</q> +The boy was born and received the name of Dalim. His +mother was the Suo or younger queen. But the Duo or +elder queen hated the child, and learning the secret of his +life, she caused the <foreign rend='italic'>boal</foreign> fish, with which his life was bound +up, to be caught. Dalim was playing near the tank at the +<pb n='100'/><anchor id='Pg100'/> +time, but <q>the moment the <foreign rend='italic'>boal</foreign> fish was caught in the net, +that moment Dalim felt unwell; and when the fish was +brought up to land, Dalim fell down on the ground, and +made as if he was about to breathe his last. He was +immediately taken into his mother's room, and the king was +astonished on hearing of the sudden illness of his son and +heir. The fish was by the order of the physician taken into +the room of the Duo queen, and as it lay on the floor +striking its fins on the ground, Dalim in his mother's room +was given up for lost. When the fish was cut open, a +casket was found in it; and in the casket lay a necklace of +gold. The moment the necklace was worn by the queen, +that very moment Dalim died in his mother's room.</q> The +queen used to put off the necklace every night, and whenever +she did so, the boy came to life again. But every +morning when the queen put on the necklace, he died again.<note place='foot'>Lal Behari Day, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-tales of Bengal</hi>, +pp. 1 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> For similar stories of +necklaces, see Mary Frere, <hi rend='italic'>Old Deccan +Days</hi>, pp. 233 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; F. A. Steel and +R. C. Temple, <hi rend='italic'>Wide-awake Stories</hi>, +pp. 83 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Cashmeer +stories of +ogres +whose lives +were in +cocks, a +pigeon, +a starling, +a spinning-wheel, +and +a pillar. Cashmeer +and +Bengalee +stories of +ogres +whose lives +were in +bees.</note> +In a Cashmeer story a lad visits an old ogress, pretending +to be her grandson, the son of her daughter who had +married a king. So the old ogress took him into her confidence +and shewed him seven cocks, a spinning wheel, a +pigeon, and a starling. <q>These seven cocks,</q> said she, +<q>contain the lives of your seven uncles, who are away for a +few days. Only as long as the cocks live can your uncles +hope to live; no power can hurt them as long as the seven +cocks are safe and sound. The spinning-wheel contains my +life; if it is broken, I too shall be broken, and must die; but +otherwise I shall live on for ever. The pigeon contains your +grandfather's life, and the starling your mother's; as long as +these live, nothing can harm your grandfather or your +mother.</q> So the lad killed the seven cocks and the pigeon +and the starling, and smashed the spinning-wheel; and at +the moment he did so the ogres and ogresses perished.<note place='foot'>J. H. Knowles, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-tales of Kashmir</hi>, +Second Edition (London, 1893), +pp. 49 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In +another story from Cashmeer an ogre cannot die unless a +particular pillar in the verandah of his palace be broken. +Learning the secret, a prince struck the pillar again and +again till it was broken in pieces. And it was as if each +<pb n='101'/><anchor id='Pg101'/> +stroke had fallen on the ogre, for he howled lamentably and +shook like an aspen every time the prince hit the pillar, +until at last, when the pillar fell down, the ogre also fell +down and gave up the ghost.<note place='foot'>J. H. Knowles, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 134.</note> In another Cashmeer tale +an ogre is represented as laughing very heartily at the idea +that he might possibly die. He said that <q>he should never +die. No power could oppose him; no years could age him; +he should remain ever strong and ever young, for the thing +wherein his life dwelt was most difficult to obtain.</q> It was +in a queen bee, which was in a honeycomb on a tree. But +the bees in the honeycomb were many and fierce, and it was +only at the greatest risk that any one could catch the queen. +However, the hero achieved the enterprise and crushed the +queen bee; and immediately the ogre fell stone dead to the +ground, so that the whole land trembled with the shock.<note place='foot'>J. H. Knowles, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 382 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +In some Bengalee tales the life of a whole tribe of ogres is +described as concentrated in two bees. The secret was thus +revealed by an old ogress to a captive princess who pretended +to fear lest the ogress should die. <q>Know, foolish +girl,</q> said the ogress, <q>that we ogres never die. We are not +naturally immortal, but our life depends on a secret which +no human being can unravel. Let me tell you what it is, +that you may be comforted. You know yonder tank; there +is in the middle of it a crystal pillar, on the top of which in +deep waters are two bees. If any human being can dive into +the waters, and bring up to land the two bees from the pillar +in one breath, and destroy them so that not a drop of their +blood falls to the ground, then we ogres shall certainly die; +but if a single drop of blood falls to the ground, then from it +will start up a thousand ogres. But what human being will +find out this secret, or, finding it, will be able to achieve the +feat? You need not, therefore, darling, be sad; I am practically +immortal.</q> As usual, the princess reveals the secret +to the hero, who kills the bees, and that same moment all +the ogres drop down dead, each on the spot where he +happened to be standing.<note place='foot'>Lal Behari Day, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-tales of Bengal</hi>, +pp. 85 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, pp. 253 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, i. (1872) p. +117. For an Indian story in which a +giant's life is in five black bees, see +W. A. Clouston, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Tales and +Fictions</hi> (Edinburgh and London, +1887), i. 350.</note> In another Bengalee story it is +<pb n='102'/><anchor id='Pg102'/> +said that all the ogres dwell in Ceylon, and that all their +lives are in a single lemon. A boy cuts the lemon in pieces, +and all the ogres die.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, i. (1872), p. +171.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul in +a Siamese +or Cambodian +story. +Indian +stories of +a tree and +a barley +plant that +were life-tokens.</note> +In a Siamese or Cambodian story, probably derived from +India, we are told that Thossakan or Ravana, the King of +Ceylon, was able by magic art to take his soul out of his +body and leave it in a box at home, while he went to the +wars. Thus he was invulnerable in battle. When he was +about to give battle to Rama, he deposited his soul with a +hermit called Fire-eye, who was to keep it safe for him. So +in the fight Rama was astounded to see that his arrows +struck the king without wounding him. But one of Rama's +allies, knowing the secret of the king's invulnerability, transformed +himself by magic into the likeness of the king, and +going to the hermit asked back his soul. On receiving it +he soared up into the air and flew to Rama, brandishing the +box and squeezing it so hard that all the breath left the +King of Ceylon's body, and he died.<note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die Voelker des oestlichen +Asien</hi>, iv. (Jena, 1868) pp. +304 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In a Bengalee story +a prince going into a far country planted with his own hands +a tree in the courtyard of his father's palace, and said to his +parents, <q>This tree is my life. When you see the tree green +and fresh, then know that it is well with me; when you see +the tree fade in some parts, then know that I am in an ill +case; and when you see the whole tree fade, then know that +I am dead and gone.</q><note place='foot'>Lal Behari Day, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-tales of Bengal</hi>, +p. 189.</note> In another Indian tale a prince, +setting forth on his travels, left behind him a barley plant, +with instructions that it should be carefully tended and +watched; for if it flourished, he would be alive and well, but +if it drooped, then some mischance was about to happen to +him. And so it fell out. For the prince was beheaded, +and as his head rolled off, the barley plant snapped in two +and the ear of barley fell to the ground.<note place='foot'>F. A. Steel and R. C. Temple, +<hi rend='italic'>Wide-awake Stories</hi> (Bombay and London, +1884), pp. 52, 64. In the Indian +<hi rend='italic'>Jataka</hi> there is a tale (book ii. No. +208) which relates how Buddha in the +form of a monkey deceived a crocodile +by pretending that monkeys kept their +hearts in figs growing on a tree. See +<hi rend='italic'>The Jataka or Stories of the Buddha's +former Births</hi> translated from the Pali +by various hands, vol. ii. translated by +W. H. D. Rouse (Cambridge, 1895), +pp. 111 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In the legend of +<pb n='103'/><anchor id='Pg103'/> +the origin of Gilgit there figures a fairy king whose soul is +in the snows and who can only perish by fire.<note place='foot'>G. W. Leitner, <hi rend='italic'>The Languages +and Races of Dardistan</hi>, Third Edition +(Lahore, 1878), p. 9.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul +in Greek +stories. +Meleager +and the +firebrand. +Nisus and +his purple +or golden +hair. +Pterelaus +and his +golden +hair. +Modern +Greek +parallels. The external +soul +in doves.</note> +In Greek tales, ancient and modern, the idea of an +external soul is not uncommon. When Meleager was seven +days old, the Fates appeared to his mother and told her +that Meleager would die when the brand which was blazing +on the hearth had burnt down. So his mother snatched the +brand from the fire and kept it in a box. But in after-years, +being enraged at her son for slaying her brothers, she burnt +the brand in the fire and Meleager expired in agonies, as if +flames were preying on his vitals.<note place='foot'>Apollodorus, <hi rend='italic'>Bibliotheca</hi>, i. 8; +Diodorus Siculus, iv. 34; Pausanias, +x. 31. 4; Aeschylus, <hi rend='italic'>Choeph.</hi> 604 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Antoninus Liberalis, <hi rend='italic'>Transform.</hi> +ii.; Dio Chrysostom, <hi rend='italic'>Or.</hi> lxvii. vol. ii. +p. 231, ed. L. Dindorf (Leipsic, 1857); +Hyginus, <hi rend='italic'>Fab.</hi> 171, 174; Ovid, <hi rend='italic'>Metam.</hi> +viii. 445 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> In his play on this +theme Euripides made the life of Meleager +to depend on an olive-leaf which +his mother had given birth to along +with the babe. See J. Malalas, <hi rend='italic'>Chronographia</hi>, +vi. pp. 165 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> ed. L. Dindorf +(Bonn, 1831); J. Tzetzes, <hi rend='italic'>Scholia on +Lycophron</hi>, 492 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> (vol. ii. pp. 646 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +ed. Chr. G. Müller, Leipsic, 1811); G. +Knaack, <q>Zur Meleagersage,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Rheinisches +Museum</hi>, N. F. xlix. (1894) pp. +310-313.</note> Again, Nisus King of +Megara had a purple or golden hair on the middle of his +head, and it was fated that whenever the hair was pulled out +the king should die. When Megara was besieged by the +Cretans, the king's daughter Scylla fell in love with Minos, +their king, and pulled out the fatal hair from her father's +head. So he died.<note place='foot'>Apollodorus, <hi rend='italic'>Bibliotheca</hi>, iii. 15. +8; Aeschylus, <hi rend='italic'>Choeph.</hi> 612 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Pausanias, +i. 19. 4; <hi rend='italic'>Ciris</hi>, 116 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; +Ovid, <hi rend='italic'>Metam.</hi> viii. 8 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> According +to J. Tzetzes (<hi rend='italic'>Schol. on Lycophron</hi>, +650) not the life but the strength of +Nisus was in his golden hair; when it +was pulled out, he became weak and +was slain by Minos. According to +Hyginus (<hi rend='italic'>Fab.</hi> 198) Nisus was destined +to reign only so long as he kept the +purple lock on his head.</note> Similarly Poseidon made Pterelaus +immortal by giving him a golden hair on his head. But +when Taphos, the home of Pterelaus, was besieged by +Amphitryo, the daughter of Pterelaus fell in love with +Amphitryo and killed her father by plucking out the golden +hair with which his life was bound up.<note place='foot'>Apollodorus, <hi rend='italic'>Bibliotheca</hi>, ii. 4. 5 +and 7.</note> In a modern Greek +folk-tale a man's strength lies in three golden hairs on his +head. When his mother pulls them out, he grows weak and +timid and is slain by his enemies.<note place='foot'>J. G. von Hahn, <hi rend='italic'>Griechische und +albanesische Märchen</hi> (Leipsic, 1864), +i. 217; a similar story, <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> ii. 282.</note> Another Greek story, in +which we may perhaps detect a reminiscence of Nisus and +<pb n='104'/><anchor id='Pg104'/> +Scylla, relates how a certain king, who was the strongest man +of his time, had three long hairs on his breast. But when +he went to war with another king, and his own treacherous +wife had cut off the three hairs, he became the weakest of +men.<note place='foot'>B. Schmidt, <hi rend='italic'>Griechische Märchen, +Sagen und Volkslieder</hi> (Leipsic, 1877), +pp. 91 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The same writer found in +the island of Zacynthus a belief that the +whole strength of the ancient Greeks +resided in three hairs on their breasts, +and that it vanished whenever these +hairs were cut; but if the hairs were +allowed to grow again, their strength +returned (B. Schmidt, <hi rend='italic'>Das Volksleben +der Neugriechen</hi>, Leipsic, 1871, p. +206). The Biblical story of Samson +and Delilah (Judges xvi.) implies a +belief of the same sort, as G. A. Wilken +abundantly shewed in his paper, <q>De +Simsonsage,</q> <hi rend='italic'>De Gids</hi>, 1888, No. 5 +(reprinted in his <hi rend='italic'>Verspreide Geschriften</hi>, +The Hague, 1912, vol. iii. pp. 551-579).</note> In another modern Greek story the life of an enchanter +is bound up with three doves which are in the belly +of a wild boar. When the first dove is killed, the magician +grows sick; when the second is killed, he grows very sick; +and when the third is killed, he dies.<note place='foot'>J. G. von Hahn, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 215 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In another Greek +story of the same sort an ogre's strength is in three singing +birds which are in a wild boar. The hero kills two of the +birds, and then coming to the ogre's house finds him lying +on the ground in great pain. He shews the third bird to +the ogre, who begs that the hero will either let it fly away +or give it to him to eat. But the hero wrings the bird's +neck, and the ogre dies on the spot.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Ibid.</hi> ii. 275 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Similar stories, +<hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> ii. 204, 294 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> In an Albanian +story a monster's strength is in three +pigeons, which are in a hare, which is +in the silver tusk of a wild boar. When +the boar is killed, the monster feels ill; +when the hare is cut open, he can +hardly stand on his feet; when the +three pigeons are killed, he expires. +See Aug. Dozon, <hi rend='italic'>Contes albanais</hi> (Paris, +1881), pp. 132 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In a variant of the +latter story the monster's strength is in two doves, and when +the hero kills one of them, the monster cries out, <q>Ah, woe +is me! Half my life is gone. Something must have +happened to one of the doves.</q> When the second dove is +killed, he dies.<note place='foot'>J. G. von Hahn, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 260 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> In another Greek story the incidents of the +three golden hairs and three doves are artificially combined. +A monster has on his head three golden hairs which open +the door of a chamber in which are three doves: when the +first dove is killed, the monster grows sick; when the second +is killed, he grows worse; and when the third is killed, he +dies.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Ibid.</hi> i. 187.</note> In another Greek tale an old man's strength is in a +<pb n='105'/><anchor id='Pg105'/> +ten-headed serpent. When the serpent's heads are being +cut off, he feels unwell; and when the last head is struck off, +he expires.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Ibid.</hi> ii. 23 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In another Greek story a dervish tells a queen +that she will have three sons, that at the birth of each she +must plant a pumpkin in the garden, and that in the fruit +borne by the pumpkins will reside the strength of the +children. In due time the infants are born and the pumpkins +planted. As the children grow up, the pumpkins grow +with them. One morning the eldest son feels sick, and on +going into the garden they find that the largest pumpkin is +gone. Next night the second son keeps watch in a summer-house +in the garden. At midnight a negro appears and cuts +the second pumpkin. At once the boy's strength goes out +of him, and he is unable to pursue the negro. The +youngest son, however, succeeds in slaying the negro and +recovering the lost pumpkins.<note place='foot'>Émile Legrand, <hi rend='italic'>Contes populaires +grecs</hi> (Paris, 1881), pp. 191 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul +in Italian +stories. +Silvia's son. +The dragon +twin. +The soul in +a gem.</note> +Ancient Italian legend furnishes a close parallel to the +Greek story of Meleager. Silvia, the young wife of Septimius +Marcellus, had a child by the god Mars. The god +gave her a spear, with which he said that the fate of the +child would be bound up. When the boy grew up he +quarrelled with his maternal uncles and slew them. So in +revenge his mother burned the spear on which his life depended.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Parallela</hi>, 26. In both +the Greek and Italian stories the subject +of quarrel between nephew and +uncles is the skin of a boar, which the +nephew presented to his lady-love and +which his uncles took from her.</note> +In one of the stories of the <hi rend='italic'>Pentamerone</hi> a certain +queen has a twin brother, a dragon. The astrologers declared +at her birth that she would live just as long as the +dragon and no longer, the death of the one involving the death +of the other. If the dragon were killed, the only way to +restore the queen to life would be to smear her temples, breast, +pulses, and nostrils with the blood of the dragon.<note place='foot'>G. Basile, <hi rend='italic'>Pentamerone</hi>, übertragen +von Felix Liebrecht (Breslau, 1846), ii. +60 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In a +modern Roman version of <q>Aladdin and the Wonderful +Lamp,</q> the magician tells the princess, whom he holds captive +in a floating rock in mid-ocean, that he will never die. The +princess reports this to the prince her husband, who has +come to rescue her. The prince replies, <q>It is impossible +<pb n='106'/><anchor id='Pg106'/> +but that there should be some one thing or other that is +fatal to him; ask him what that one fatal thing is.</q> So +the princess asked the magician, and he told her that in +the wood was a hydra with seven heads; in the middle +head of the hydra was a leveret, in the head of the leveret +was a bird, in the bird's head was a precious stone, and if +this stone were put under his pillow he would die. The +prince procured the stone, and the princess laid it under +the magician's pillow. No sooner did the enchanter lay his +head on the pillow than he gave three terrible yells, turned +himself round and round three times, and died.<note place='foot'>R. H. Busk, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore of Rome</hi> (London, 1874), pp. 164 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Italian +story of a +wicked +fairy whose +death was +in an egg. A sorcerer +Body-without-Soul +whose +death was +in an egg.</note> +Another Italian tale sets forth how a great cloud, +which was really a fairy, used to receive a young girl +as tribute every year from a certain city; and the inhabitants +had to give the girls up, for if they did not, +the cloud would throw things at them and kill them all. +One year it fell to the lot of the king's daughter to be +handed over to the cloud, and they took her in procession, +to the roll of muffled drums, and attended by her +weeping father and mother, to the top of a mountain, and +left her sitting in a chair there all alone. Then the fairy +cloud came down on the top of the mountain, set the +princess in her lap, and began to suck her blood out of her +little finger; for it was on the blood of girls that this wicked +fairy lived. When the poor princess was faint with the loss +of blood and lay like a log, the cloud carried her away +up to her fairy palace in the sky. But a brave youth had +seen all that happened from behind a bush, and no sooner +did the fairy spirit away the princess to her palace than he +turned himself into an eagle and flew after them. He +lighted on a tree just outside the palace, and looking in +at the window he beheld a room full of young girls all in +bed; for these were the victims of former years whom the +fairy cloud had half killed by sucking their blood; yet they +called her mamma. When the fairy went away and left the +girls, the brave young man had food drawn up for them by +ropes, and he told them to ask the fairy how she might be +killed and what was to become of them when she died. It +was a delicate question, but the fairy answered it, saying, <q>I +<pb n='107'/><anchor id='Pg107'/> +shall never die.</q> However, when the girls pressed her, she +took them out on a terrace and said, <q>Do you see that +mountain far off there? On that mountain is a tigress +with seven heads. If you wish me to die, a lion must fight +that tigress and tear off all seven of her heads. In her body +is an egg, and if any one hits me with it in the middle of +my forehead, I shall die; but if that egg falls into my +hands, the tigress will come to life again, resume her seven +heads, and I shall live.</q> When the young girls heard this +they pretended to be glad and said, <q>Good! certainly our +mamma can never die,</q> but naturally they were discouraged. +However, when she went away again, they told it all to the +young man, and he bade them have no fear. Away he went +to the mountain, turned himself into a lion, and fought the +tigress. Meantime the fairy came home, saying, <q>Alas! I +feel ill!</q> For six days the fight went on, the young man +tearing off one of the tigress's heads each day, and each day +the strength of the fairy kept ebbing away. Then after +allowing himself two days' rest the hero tore off the seventh +head and secured the egg, but not till it had rolled into the +sea and been brought back to him by a friendly dog-fish. +When he returned to the fairy with the egg in his hand, she +begged and prayed him to give it her, but he made her first +restore the young girls to health and send them away in +handsome carriages. When she had done so, he struck her +on the forehead with the egg, and she fell down dead.<note place='foot'>T. F. Crane, <hi rend='italic'>Italian Popular +Tales</hi> (London, 1885), pp. 31-34. +The hero had acquired the power of +turning himself into an eagle, a lion, +and an ant from three creatures of +these sorts whose quarrel about their +shares in a dead ass he had composed. +This incident occurs in other tales of the +same type. See below, note 2 and pp. +<ref target='Pg120'>120</ref> with note 2, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref> with note 1.</note> +Similarly in a story from the western Riviera a sorcerer +called Body-without-Soul can only be killed by means of an +egg which is in an eagle, which is in a dog, which is in a +lion; and the egg must be broken on the sorcerer's forehead. +The hero, who achieves the adventure, has received the +power of changing himself into a lion, a dog, an eagle, and an +ant from four creatures of these sorts among whom he had +fairly divided the carcase of a dead ass.<note place='foot'>J. B. Andrews, <hi rend='italic'>Contes Ligures</hi> +(Paris, 1892), No. 46, pp. 213 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> +In a parallel Sicilian story the hero +Beppino slays a sorcerer in the same +manner after he had received from an +eagle, a lion, and an ant the same +gift of transformation in return for the +same service. See G. Pitrè, <hi rend='italic'>Fiabe, +Novelle e Racconti popolari Siciliani</hi>, +ii. (Palermo, 1875) p. 215; and for +another Sicilian parallel, Laura Gonzenbach, +<hi rend='italic'>Sicilianische Märchen</hi> (Leipsic, +1870), No. 6, pp. 34-38.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='108'/><anchor id='Pg108'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul in +Slavonic +stories. +Russian +story of +Koshchei +the +Deathless, +whose +death was +in an egg.</note> +Stories of the same sort are current among Slavonic +peoples. In some of them, as in the biblical story of +Samson and Delilah, the warlock is questioned by a +treacherous woman as to the place where his strength +resides or his life or death is stowed away; and his suspicions +being roused by her curiosity, he at first puts her off +with false answers, but is at last beguiled into telling her +the truth, thereby incurring his doom through her treachery. +Thus a Russian story tells how a certain warlock called +Kashtshei or Koshchei the Deathless carried off a princess +and kept her prisoner in his golden castle. However, a +prince made up to her one day as she was walking alone +and disconsolate in the castle garden, and cheered by the +prospect of escaping with him she went to the warlock and +coaxed him with false and flattering words, saying, <q>My +dearest friend, tell me, I pray you, will you never die?</q> +<q>Certainly not,</q> says he. <q>Well,</q> says she, <q>and where is +your death? is it in your dwelling?</q> <q>To be sure it is,</q> +says he, <q>it is in the broom under the threshold.</q> Thereupon +the princess seized the broom and threw it on the fire, +but although the broom burned, the deathless Koshchei remained +alive; indeed not so much as a hair of him was singed. +Balked in her first attempt, the artful hussy pouted and said, +<q>You do not love me true, for you have not told me where +your death is; yet I am not angry, but love you with all +my heart.</q> With these fawning words she besought the +warlock to tell her truly where his death was. So he +laughed and said, <q>Why do you wish to know? Well +then, out of love I will tell you where it lies. In a certain +field there stand three green oaks, and under the roots of +the largest oak is a worm, and if ever this worm is found +and crushed, that instant I shall die.</q> When the princess +heard these words, she went straight to her lover and told +him all; and he searched till he found the oaks and dug up +the worm and crushed it. Then he hurried to the warlock's +castle, but only to learn from the princess that the warlock +<pb n='109'/><anchor id='Pg109'/> +was still alive. Then she fell to wheedling and coaxing +Koshchei once more, and this time, overcome by her wiles, +he opened his heart to her and told her the truth. <q>My +death,</q> said he, <q>is far from here and hard to find, on the +wide ocean. In that sea is an island, and on the island there +grows a green oak, and beneath the oak is an iron chest, and +in the chest is a small basket, and in the basket is a hare, +and in the hare is a duck, and in the duck is an egg; and +he who finds the egg and breaks it, kills me at the same +time.</q> The prince naturally procured the fateful egg and +with it in his hands he confronted the deathless warlock. +The monster would have killed him, but the prince began to +squeeze the egg. At that the warlock shrieked with pain, +and turning to the false princess, who stood by smirking +and smiling, <q>Was it not out of love for you,</q> said he, +<q>that I told you where my death was? And is this the +return you make to me?</q> With that he grabbed at his +sword, which hung from a peg on the wall; but before he +could reach it, the prince had crushed the egg, and sure +enough the deathless warlock found his death at the same +moment.<note place='foot'>Anton Dietrich, <hi rend='italic'>Russian Popular Tales</hi> (London, 1857), pp. 21-24.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Other +versions of +the story of +Koshchei +the +Deathless. Death in +the blue +rose-tree.</note> +In another version of the same story, when the cunning +warlock deceives the traitress by telling her that his +death is in the broom, she gilds the broom, and at supper +the warlock sees it shining under the threshold and asks her +sharply, <q>What's that?</q> <q>Oh,</q> says she, <q>you see how I +honour you.</q> <q>Simpleton!</q> says he, <q>I was joking. My +death is out there fastened to the oak fence.</q> So next day +when the warlock was out, the prince came and gilded the +whole fence; and in the evening when the warlock was at +supper he looked out of the window and saw the fence +glittering like gold. <q>And pray what may that be?</q> said +he to the princess. <q>You see,</q> said she, <q>how I respect +you. If you are dear to me, dear too is your death. That +is why I have gilded the fence in which your death resides.</q> +The speech pleased the warlock, and in the fulness of his +heart he revealed to her the fatal secret of the egg. When +the prince, with the help of some friendly animals, obtained +possession of the egg, he put it in his bosom and repaired to +<pb n='110'/><anchor id='Pg110'/> +the warlock's house. The warlock himself was sitting at the +window in a very gloomy frame of mind; and when the +prince appeared and shewed him the egg, the light grew +dim in the warlock's eyes and he became all of a sudden +very meek and mild. But when the prince began to play +with the egg and to throw it from one hand to the other, the +deathless Koshchei staggered from one corner of the room +to the other, and when the prince broke the egg, Koshchei +the Deathless fell down and died.<note place='foot'>Jeremiah Curtin, <hi rend='italic'>Myths and Folk-tales +of the Russians, Western Slavs, +and Magyars</hi> (London, 1891), pp. +119-122. Compare W. R. S. Ralston, +<hi rend='italic'>Russian Folk-tales</hi> (London, 1873), +pp. 100-105.</note> <q>In one of the descriptions +of Koshchei's death, he is said to be killed by a blow +on the forehead inflicted by the mysterious egg—that last +link in the magic chain by which his life is darkly bound. +In another version of the same story, but told of a snake, the +fatal blow is struck by a small stone found in the yolk of an +egg, which is inside a duck, which is inside a hare, which is +inside a stone, which is on an island.</q><note place='foot'>W. R. S. Ralston, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 109.</note> In another Russian +story the death of an enchantress is in a blue rose-tree in a +blue forest. Prince Ivan uproots the rose-tree, whereupon +the enchantress straightway sickens. He brings the rose-tree +to her house and finds her at the point of death. Then +he throws it into the cellar, crying, <q>Behold her death!</q> +and at once the whole building shakes, <q>and becomes an +island, on which are people who had been sitting in Hell, +and who offer up thanks to Prince Ivan.</q><note place='foot'>W. R. S. Ralston, <hi rend='italic'>Russian Folk-tales</hi>, +pp. 113 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In another +Russian story a prince is grievously tormented by a witch +who has got hold of his heart, and keeps it seething in a +magic cauldron.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Id.</hi>, p. 114.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul in +Bohemian +and +Servian +stories. +True Steel, +whose +strength +was in +a bird.</note> +In a Bohemian tale a warlock's strength lies in an egg +which is in a duck, which is in a stag, which is under a tree. +A seer finds the egg and sucks it. Then the warlock grows +as weak as a child, <q>for all his strength had passed into the +seer.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Id.</hi>, p. 110.</note> A Servian story relates how a certain warlock called +True Steel carried off a prince's wife and kept her shut up +in his cave. But the prince contrived to get speech of her +and told her that she must persuade True Steel to reveal to +<pb n='111'/><anchor id='Pg111'/> +her where his strength lay. So when True Steel came home, +the prince's wife said to him, <q>Tell me, now, where is your +great strength?</q> He answered, <q>My wife, my strength is +in my sword.</q> Then she began to pray and turned to his +sword. When True Steel saw that, he laughed and said, +<q>O foolish woman! my strength is not in my sword, but in +my bow and arrows.</q> Then she turned towards the bow and +arrows and prayed. But True Steel said, <q>I see, my wife, +you have a clever teacher who has taught you to find out +where my strength lies. I could almost say that your +husband is living, and it is he who teaches you.</q> But +she assured him that nobody had taught her. When she +found he had deceived her again, she waited for some days +and then asked him again about the secret of his strength. +He answered, <q>Since you think so much of my strength, I +will tell you truly where it is. Far away from here there +is a very high mountain; in the mountain there is a fox; in +the fox there is a heart; in the heart there is a bird, and in +this bird is my strength. It is no easy task, however, to +catch the fox, for she can transform herself into a multitude +of creatures.</q> So next day, when True Steel went forth +from the cave, the prince came and learned from his wife +the true secret of the warlock's strength. So away he hied +to the mountain, and there, though the fox, or rather the +vixen, turned herself into various shapes, he managed with +the help of certain friendly eagles, falcons, and dragons, +to catch and kill her. Then he took out the fox's heart, and +out of the heart he took the bird and burned it in a great +fire. At that very moment True Steel fell down dead.<note place='foot'>Madam Csedomille Mijatovies, +<hi rend='italic'>Serbian Folk-lore</hi>, edited by the Rev. +W. Denton (London, 1874), pp. 167-172; +F. S. Krauss, <hi rend='italic'>Sagen und Märchen +der Südslaven</hi> (Leipsic, 1883-1884), +i. 164-169.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Servian +story of the +dragon of +the water-mill +whose +strength +was in a +pigeon. The fight +with the +dragon.</note> +In another Servian story we read how a dragon resided in +a water-mill and ate up two king's sons, one after the other. +The third son went out to seek his brothers, and coming to +the water-mill he found nobody in it but an old woman. +She revealed to him the dreadful character of the being +that kept the mill, and how he had devoured the prince's +two elder brothers, and she implored him to go away home +before the same fate should overtake him. But he was both +<pb n='112'/><anchor id='Pg112'/> +brave and cunning, and he said to her, <q>Listen well to what +I am going to say to you. Ask the dragon whither he goes +and where his strength is; then kiss all that place where he +tells you his strength is, as if from love, till you find it out, +and afterwards tell me when I come.</q> So when the dragon +came in, the old woman began to question him, <q>Where in +God's name have you been? Whither do you go so far? +You will never tell me whither you go.</q> The dragon +replied, <q>Well, my dear old woman, I do go far.</q> Then +the old woman coaxed him, saying, <q>And why do you go +so far? Tell me where your strength is. If I knew where +your strength is, I don't know what I should do for love; I +would kiss all that place.</q> Thereupon the dragon smiled +and said to her, <q>Yonder is my strength, in that fireplace.</q> +Then the old woman began to fondle and kiss the fireplace; +and the dragon on seeing it burst into a laugh. <q>Silly old +woman,</q> he said, <q>my strength is not there. It is in the +tree-fungus in front of the house.</q> Then the old woman +began to fondle and kiss the tree; but the dragon laughed +again and said to her, <q>Away, old woman! my strength is +not there.</q> <q>Then where is it?</q> asked the old woman. +<q>My strength,</q> said he, <q>is a long way off, and you cannot +go thither. Far in another kingdom under the king's city is +a lake; in the lake is a dragon; in the dragon is a boar; in +the boar is a pigeon, and in the pigeon is my strength.</q> The +murder was now out; so next morning when the dragon went +away from the mill to attend to his usual business of eating +people up, the prince came to the old woman and she let him +into the secret of the dragon's strength. The prince accordingly +set off to find the lake in the far country and the other +dragon that lived in it. He found them both at last; the lake +was a still and lonely water surrounded by green meadows, +where flocks of sheep nibbled the sweet lush grass. The +hero tucked up his hose and his sleeves, and wading out +into the lake called aloud on the dragon to come forth +and fight. Soon the monster emerged from the water, +slimy and dripping, his scaly back glistening in the morning +sun. The two grappled and wrestled from morning to +afternoon of a long summer day. What with the heat of +the weather and the violence of his exertions the dragon +<pb n='113'/><anchor id='Pg113'/> +was quite exhausted, and said, <q>Let me go, prince, that I +may moisten my parched head in the lake and toss +you to the sky.</q> But the prince sternly refused; so +the dragon relaxed his grip and sank under the water, +which bubbled and gurgled over the place where he +plunged into the depths. When he had disappeared and +the ripples had subsided on the surface, you would never +have suspected that under that calm water, reflecting the +green banks, the white, straying sheep, the blue sky, and the +fleecy gold-flecked clouds of a summer evening, there lurked +so ferocious and dangerous a monster. Next day the combat +was renewed with the very same result. But on the +third day the hero, fortified by a kiss from the fair daughter +of the king of the land, tossed the dragon high in air, and +when the monster fell with a most tremendous thud on the +water he burst into little bits. Out of the pieces sprang a +boar which ran away as fast as it could lay legs to the +ground. But the prince sent sheep-dogs after it which +caught it up and rent it in pieces. Out of the pieces sprang +a pigeon; but the prince let loose a falcon, which stooped +on the pigeon, seized it in its talons, and brought it to the +prince. In the pigeon was the life of the dragon who kept +the mill, so before inflicting on the monster the doom he +so richly merited, the prince questioned him as to the fate +of his two elder brothers who had perished at the hands, or +rather under the claws and fangs, of the dragon. Having +ascertained how to restore them to life and to release a +multitude of other victims whom the dragon kept prisoners +in a vault under the water-mill, the prince wrung the pigeon's +neck, and that of course was the end of the dragon and his +unscrupulous career.<note place='foot'>A. H. Wratislaw, <hi rend='italic'>Sixty Folk-tales from exclusively Slavonic Sources</hi> (London, +1889), pp. 224-231.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul +in a +Lithuanian +story. +The Soulless +King +whose soul +was in a +duck's egg. The Soulless +King. +The water +of life. The soul +in the +duck's egg.</note> +A Lithuanian story relates how a prince married a princess +and got with her a kingdom to boot. She gave him the keys +of the castle and told him he might enter every chamber +except one small room, of which the key had a bit of twine +tied to it. But one day, having nothing to do, he amused +himself by rummaging in all the rooms of the castle, and +amongst the rest he went into the little forbidden chamber. +<pb n='114'/><anchor id='Pg114'/> +In it he found twelve heads and a man hanging on the +hook of the door. The man said to the prince, <q>Oblige me +by fetching me a glass of beer.</q> The prince fetched it and +the man drank it. Then the man said to the prince, <q>Oblige +me by releasing me from the hook.</q> The prince released +him. Now the man was a king without a soul, and he at +once availed himself of his liberty to come to an understanding +with the coachman of the castle, and between them they +put the prince's wife in the coach and drove off with her. +The prince rode after them and coming up with the coach +called out, <q>Halt, Soulless King! Step out and fight!</q> +The King stepped out and the fight began. In a trice the +King had sliced the buttons off the prince's coat and pinked +him in the side. Then he stepped into the coach and drove off. +The prince rode after him again, and when he came up with +the coach he called out, <q>Halt, Soulless King! Step out +and fight!</q> The King stepped out and they fought again, +and again the King sliced off the prince's buttons and pinked +him in the side. Then, after carefully wiping and sheathing +his sword, he said to his discomfited adversary, <q>Now look +here. I let you off the first time for the sake of the glass of +beer you gave me, and I let you off the second time because +you let me down from that infernal hook; but if you fight +me a third time, by Gad I'll make mince meat of you.</q> +Then he stepped into the coach, told the coachman to +drive on, jerked up the coach window with a bang, and +drove away like anything. But the prince galloped after +him and coming up with the coach for the third time he +called out, <q>Halt, Soulless King! Step out and fight!</q> +The King did step out, and at it the two of them went, tooth +and nail. But the prince had no chance. Before he knew +where he was, the King ran him through the body, whisked +off his head, and left him lying a heap of raw mince beside +the road. His wife, or rather his widow, said to the King, +<q>Let me gather up the fragments that remain.</q> The King +said, <q>Certainly.</q> So she made up the mince into a neat +parcel, deposited it on the front seat of the coach, and away +they drove to the King's castle. Well to cut a long story +short, a brother-in-law of the deceased prince sent a hawk to +fetch the water of life; the hawk brought it in his beak; +<pb n='115'/><anchor id='Pg115'/> +the brother-in-law poured the water on the fragments of the +prince, and the prince came to life again at once safe and +sound. Then he went to the King's castle and played on a +little pipe, and his wife heard it in the castle and said, <q>That +is how my husband used to play, whom the King cut in bits.</q> +So she went out to the gate and said to him, <q>Are you my +husband?</q> <q>That I am,</q> said he, and he told her to find +out from the King where he kept his soul and then to come +and tell him. So she went to the King and said to him, +<q>Where my husband's soul is, there must mine be too.</q> +The King was touched by this artless expression of her love, +and he replied, <q>My soul is in yonder lake. In that lake +lies a stone; in that stone is a hare; in the hare is a duck, +in the duck is an egg, and in the egg is my soul.</q> So the +queen went and told her former husband, the prince, and gave +him plenty of money and food for the journey, and off he set +for the lake. But when he came to the lake, he did not +know in which part of it the stone was; so he roamed about +the banks, and he was hungry, for he had eaten up all the +food. Then he met a dog, and the dog said to him, <q>Don't +shoot me dead. I will be a mighty helper to you in your +time of need.</q> So he let the dog live and went on his way. +Next he saw a tree with two hawks on it, an old one and a +young one, and he climbed up the tree to catch the young +one. But the old hawk said to him, <q>Don't take my young +one. He will be a mighty helper to you in your time of +need.</q> So the prince climbed down the tree and went on +his way. Then he saw a huge crab and wished to break off +one of his claws for something to eat, but the crab said to +him, <q>Don't break off my claw. It will be a mighty helper +to you in your time of need.</q> So he left the crab alone and +went on his way. And he came to people and got them to +fish up the stone for him from the lake and to bring it to him +on the bank. And there he broke the stone in two and out +of the stone jumped a hare. But the dog seized the hare +and tore him, and out of the hare flew a duck. The young +hawk pounced on the duck and rent it, and out of the duck +fell an egg, and the egg rolled into the lake. But the crab +fetched the egg out of the lake and brought it to the prince. +Then the King fell ill. So the prince went to the King and +<pb n='116'/><anchor id='Pg116'/> +said, <q>You killed me. Now I will kill you.</q> <q>Don't,</q> said +the King. <q>I will,</q> said the prince. With that he threw +the egg on the ground, and the King fell out of the bed as +dead as a stone. So the prince went home with his wife and +very happy they were, you may take my word for it.<note place='foot'>A. Leskien und K. Brugmann, +<hi rend='italic'>Litauische Volkslieder und Märchen</hi> +(Strasburg, 1882), pp. 423-430; compare +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, pp. 569-571.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul in +Teutonic +stories. +Transylvanian +story of a +witch +whose life +was in a +light. +German +story of +Soulless +the +cannibal, +whose +soul was +in a box. The +helpful +animals.</note> +Amongst peoples of the Teutonic stock stories of the +external soul are not wanting. In a tale told by the Saxons +of Transylvania it is said that a young man shot at a witch +again and again. The bullets went clean through her but +did her no harm, and she only laughed and mocked at him. +<q>Silly earthworm,</q> she cried, <q>shoot as much as you like. +It does me no harm. For know that my life resides not in +me but far, far away. In a mountain is a pond, on the pond +swims a duck, in the duck is an egg, in the egg burns a +light, that light is my life. If you could put out that light, +my life would be at an end. But that can never, never be.</q> +However, the young man got hold of the egg, smashed it, +and put out the light, and with it the witch's life went out +also.<note place='foot'>Josef Haltrich, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Volksmärchen +aus dem Sachsenlande in +Siebenbürgen</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> (Vienna, 1885), No. 34 +(No. 33 of the first edition), pp. 149 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In this last story, as in many other stories of the same +type, the hero achieves his adventure by the help of certain +grateful animals whom he had met and done a service +to on his travels. The same incident occurs in another +German tale of this class which runs thus. Once upon a +time there was a young fellow called Body-without-Soul, or, +for short, Soulless, and he was a cannibal who would eat +nothing but young girls. Now it was a custom in that +country that the girls drew lots every year, and the one on +whom the lot fell was handed over to Soulless. In time it +happened that the lot fell on the king's daughter. The king +was exceedingly sorry, but what could he do? Law was +law, and had to be obeyed. So they took the princess to +the castle where Soulless resided; and he shut her up in the +larder and fattened her for his dinner. But a brave soldier +undertook to rescue her, and off he set for the cannibal's +castle. Well, as he trudged along, what should he see but +a fly, an eagle, a bear, and a lion sitting in a field by the +side of the road, and quarrelling about their shares in a +<pb n='117'/><anchor id='Pg117'/> +dead horse. So he divided the carcase fairly between them, +and as a reward the fly and the eagle bestowed on him the +power of changing himself at will into either of their shapes. +That evening he made himself into an eagle, and flew +up a high tree; there he looked about, but could see nothing +but trees. Next morning he flew on till he came to a great +castle, and at the gate was a big black board with these +words chalked up on it: <q>Mr. Soulless lives here.</q> When +the soldier read that he was glad, and changed himself into +a fly, and flew buzzing from window to window, looking in +at every one till he came to the one where the fair princess +sat a prisoner. He introduced himself at once and said, <q>I +am come to free you, but first you must learn where the soul +of Soulless really is.</q> <q>I don't know,</q> replied the princess, +<q>but I will ask.</q> So after much coaxing and entreaty she +learned that the soul of Soulless was in a box, and that the +box was on a rock in the middle of the Red Sea. When +the soldier heard that, he turned himself into an eagle again, +flew to the Red Sea, and came back with the soul of +Soulless in the box. Arrived at the castle he knocked and +banged at the door as if the house was on fire. Soulless +did not know what was the matter, and he came down and +opened the door himself. When he saw the soldier standing +at it, I can assure you he was in a towering rage. <q>What +do you mean,</q> he roared, <q>by knocking at my door like +that? I'll gobble you up on the spot, skin and hair and all.</q> +But the soldier laughed in his face. <q>You'd better not do +that,</q> said he, <q>for here I've got your soul in the box.</q> When +the cannibal heard that, all his courage went down into the +calves of his legs, and he begged and entreated the soldier +to give him his soul. But the soldier would not hear of it; +he opened the box, took out the soul, and flung it over his +head; and that same instant down fell the cannibal, dead as +a door-nail.<note place='foot'>J. W. Wolf, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Märchen und Sagen</hi> (Leipsic, 1845), No. 20, pp. 87-93.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>German +story of +flowers that +were life-tokens.</note> +Another German story, which embodies the notion of +the external soul in a somewhat different form, tells how +once upon a time a certain king had three sons and a +daughter, and for each of the king's four children there +grew a flower in the king's garden, which was a life-flower; +<pb n='118'/><anchor id='Pg118'/> +for it bloomed and flourished so long as the child lived, but +drooped and withered away when the child died. Now the +time came when the king's daughter married a rich man +and went to live with him far away. But it was not long +before her flower withered in the king's garden. So the +eldest brother went forth to visit his brother-in-law and comfort +him in his bereavement. But when he came to his +brother-in-law's castle he saw the corpse of his murdered +sister weltering on the ramparts. And his wicked brother-in-law +set before him boiled human hands and feet for his +dinner. And when the king's son refused to eat of them, +his brother-in-law led him through many chambers to a +murder-hole, where were all sorts of implements of murder, +but especially a gallows, a wheel, and a pot of blood. Here +he said to the prince, <q>You must die, but you may choose +your kind of death.</q> The prince chose to die on the +gallows; and die he did even as he had said. So the +eldest son's flower withered in the king's garden, and the +second son went forth to learn the fate of his brother +and sister. But it fared with him no better than with his +elder brother, for he too died on the gallows in the murder-hole +of his wicked brother-in-law's castle, and his flower also +withered away in the king's garden at home. Now when +the youngest son was also come to his brother-in-law's castle +and saw the corpse of his murdered sister weltering on the +ramparts, and the bodies of his two murdered brothers dangling +from the gallows in the murder-hole, he said that for his +part he had a fancy to die by the wheel, but he was not +quite sure how the thing was done, and would his brother-in-law +kindly shew him? <q>Oh, it's quite easy,</q> said his +brother-in-law, <q>you just put your head in, so,</q> and with +that he popped his head through the middle of the wheel. +<q>Just so,</q> said the king's youngest son, and he gave the +wheel a twirl, and as it spun round and round, the wicked +brother-in-law died a painful death, which he richly deserved. +And when he was quite dead, the murdered brothers and +sister came to life again, and their withered flowers bloomed +afresh in the king's garden.<note place='foot'>L. Strackerjan, <hi rend='italic'>Aberglaube und +Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg</hi> +(Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 306-308, +§ 622. In this story the flowers are +rather life-tokens than external souls. +The life-token has been carefully +studied by Mr. E. S. Hartland in the +second volume of his learned work +<hi rend='italic'>The Legend of Perseus</hi> (London, 1895).</note> +</p> + +<pb n='119'/><anchor id='Pg119'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The warlock +in +the wood, +whose +heart was +in a bird.</note> +In another German story an old warlock lives with a +damsel all alone in the midst of a vast and gloomy +wood. She fears that being old he may die and leave +her alone in the forest. But he reassures her. <q>Dear +child,</q> he said, <q>I cannot die, and I have no heart in my +breast.</q> But she importuned him to tell her where his +heart was. So he said, <q>Far, far from here in an unknown +and lonesome land stands a great church. The church is +well secured with iron doors, and round about it flows a +broad deep moat. In the church flies a bird and in the bird +is my heart. So long as the bird lives, I live. It cannot +die of itself, and no one can catch it; therefore I cannot die, +and you need have no anxiety.</q> However the young man, +whose bride the damsel was to have been before the warlock +spirited her away, contrived to reach the church and catch +the bird. He brought it to the damsel, who stowed him and +it away under the warlock's bed. Soon the old warlock +came home. He was ailing, and said so. The girl wept +and said, <q>Alas, daddy is dying; he has a heart in his +breast after all.</q> <q>Child,</q> replied the warlock, <q>hold your +tongue. I <emph>can't</emph> die. It will soon pass over.</q> At that the +young man under the bed gave the bird a gentle squeeze; +and as he did so, the old warlock felt very unwell and sat +down. Then the young man gripped the bird tighter, and +the warlock fell senseless from his chair. <q>Now squeeze +him dead,</q> cried the damsel. Her lover obeyed, and when +the bird was dead, the old warlock also lay dead on the +floor.<note place='foot'>K. Müllenhoff, <hi rend='italic'>Sagen, Märchen und +Lieder der Herzogthümer Schleswig +Holstein und Lauenburg</hi> (Kiel, 1845), +pp. 404 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul in +Norse +stories. +The giant +whose +heart was +in a duck's +egg.</note> +In the Norse tale of <q>the giant who had no heart in his +body,</q> the giant tells the captive princess, <q>Far, far away in +a lake lies an island, on that island stands a church, in that +church is a well, in that well swims a duck, in that duck +there is an egg, and in that egg there lies my heart.</q> The +hero of the tale, with the help of some animals to whom +he had been kind, obtains the egg and squeezes it, at which +<pb n='120'/><anchor id='Pg120'/> +the giant screams piteously and begs for his life. But the +hero breaks the egg in pieces and the giant at once bursts.<note place='foot'>P. Chr. Asbjörnsen og J. Moe, +<hi rend='italic'>Norske Folke-Eventyr</hi> (Christiania, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), No. 36, pp. 174-180; G. W. +Dasent, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Tales from the Norse</hi> +(Edinburgh, 1859), pp. 55 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +In another Norse story a hill-ogre tells the captive princess +that she will never be able to return home unless she finds +the grain of sand which lies under the ninth tongue of +the ninth head of a certain dragon; but if that grain of +sand were to come over the rock in which the ogres +live, they would all burst <q>and the rock itself would +become a gilded palace, and the lake green meadows.</q> +The hero finds the grain of sand and takes it to the +top of the high rock in which the ogres live. So all the +ogres burst and the rest falls out as one of the ogres had +foretold.<note place='foot'>P. Chr. Asbjörnsen, <hi rend='italic'>Norske Folke-Eventyr</hi>, +Ny Samling (Christiania, +1871), No. 70, pp. 35-40; G. W. +Dasent, <hi rend='italic'>Tales from the Fjeld</hi> (London, +1874), pp. 223-230 (<q>Boots and the +Beasts</q>). As in other tales of this +type, it is said that the hero found +three animals (a lion, a falcon, and an +ant) quarrelling over a dead horse, and +received from them the power of transforming +himself into animals of these +species as a reward for dividing the +carcase fairly among them.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul in +Danish +stories. +The warlock +whose +heart was +in a duck's +egg. +The +helpful +animals.</note> +In a Danish tale a warlock carries off a princess to +his wondrous subterranean palace; and when she anxiously +enquires how long he is likely to live, he assures her +that he will certainly survive her. <q>No man,</q> he says, +<q>can rob me of my life, for it is in my heart, and my +heart is not here; it is in safer keeping.</q> She urges +him to tell her where it is, so he says: <q>Very far from +here, in a land that is called Poland, there is a great lake, +and in the lake is a dragon, and in the dragon is a hare, +and in the hare is a duck, and in the duck is an egg, +and in the egg is my heart. It is in good keeping, +you may trust me. Nobody is likely to stumble upon it.</q> +However, the hero of the tale, who is also the husband +of the kidnapped princess, has fortunately received the +power of turning himself at will into a bear, a dog, an ant, +or a falcon as a reward for having divided the carcase of a +deer impartially between four animals of these species; and +availing himself of this useful art he not only makes his way +into the warlock's enchanted palace but also secures the egg +on which the enchanter's life depends. No sooner has he +<pb n='121'/><anchor id='Pg121'/> +smashed the egg on the enchanter's ugly face than that +miscreant drops down as dead as a herring.<note place='foot'>Svend Grundtvig, <hi rend='italic'>Dänische Volksmärchen</hi>, +übersetzt von A. Strodtmann, +Zweite Sammlung (Leipsic, 1879), +pp. 194-218.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Danish +story +of the +magician +whose +heart was +in a fish. The +magician's +heart.</note> +Another Danish story tells how a lad went out into the +world to look for service. He met a man, who hired him for +three years and said he would give him a bushel of money for +the first year, two bushels of money for the second, and three +bushels of money for the third. The lad was well content, as +you may believe, to get such good wages. But the man was a +magician, and it was not long before he turned the lad into +a hare, by pronouncing over him some strange words. For +a whole year the lad scoured the woods in the shape of a +hare, and there was not a sportsman in all the country +round about that had not a shot at him. But not one of +them could hit him. At the end of the year the magician +spoke some other words over him and turned him back +into human form and gave him the bushel of money. But +then the magician mumbled some other words, and the lad +was turned into a raven and flew up into the sky. Again +all the marksmen of the neighbourhood pointed their guns +at him and banged away; but they only wasted powder and +shot, for not one of them could hit him. At the end of the +year the magician changed him back into a man and gave +him two bushelfuls of money. But soon after he changed +him into a fish, and in the form of a fish the young man +jumped into the brook and swam down into the sea. There +at the bottom of the ocean he saw a most beautiful +castle all of glass and in it a lovely girl all alone. Round +and round the castle he swam, looking into all the rooms +and admiring everything. At last he remembered the +words the magician had spoken when he turned him back +into a man, and by repeating them he was at once transformed +into a stripling again. He walked into the glass +castle and introduced himself to the girl, and though at first +she was nearly frightened to death, she was soon very glad +to have him with her. From her he learned that she was +no other than the daughter of the magician, who kept her +there for safety at the bottom of the sea. The two now +laid their heads together, and she told him what to do. +<pb n='122'/><anchor id='Pg122'/> +There was a certain king who owed her father money and +had not the wherewithal to pay; and if he did not pay +by such and such a day, his head was to be cut off. So the +young man was to take service with the king, offer him the +bushels of money which he had earned in the service of the +magician, and go with him to the magician to pay his debt. +But he was to dress up as the court Fool so that the +magician would not know him, and in that character he was +to indulge in horse-play, smashing windows and so on, till +the magician would fall into such a rage that though the +king had paid his debt to the last farthing he would nevertheless +be condemned to instant execution unless he could +answer the magician's questions. The questions would be +these, <q>Where is my daughter?</q> <q>Would you know her +if you saw her?</q> Now the magician would cause a whole +line of phantom women to pass by, so that the young +man would not be able to tell which of them was the +sorcerer's daughter; but when her turn came to pass by she +would give him a nudge as a sign, and so he would know +her. Then the magician would ask, <q>And where is my +heart?</q> And the young man was to say, <q>In a fish.</q> +And the magician would ask, <q>Would you know the fish if +you saw it?</q> And he would cause all sorts of fishes to +pass by, and the young man would have to say in which of +them was the heart of the magician. He would never be +able of himself to tell in which of them it was, but the girl +would stand beside him, and when the right fish passed by, +she would nudge him and he was to catch it and rip it up, +and the magician would ask him no more questions. Everything +turned out exactly as she had said. The king paid +his debt to the last farthing; but the young man disguised +as the court Fool cut such capers and smashed so many +glass windows and doors that the heaps of broken glass +were something frightful to contemplate. So there was +nothing for it but that the king, who was of course responsible +for the pranks of his Fool, should either answer the +magician's questions or die the death. While they were +getting the axe and the block ready in the courtyard, the +trembling king was interrogated by the stern magician. +<q>Where is my daughter?</q> asked the sorcerer. Here the +<pb n='123'/><anchor id='Pg123'/> +court Fool cut in and said, <q>She is at the bottom of the sea.</q> +<q>Would you know her if you saw her?</q> enquired the +magician. <q>To be sure I would,</q> answered the Fool. So +the magician caused a whole regiment of girls to defile +before him, one after the other; but they were mere +phantoms and apparitions. Almost the last of all came the +magician's daughter, and when she passed the young man +she pinched his arm so hard that he almost shrieked with +pain. However, he dissembled his agony and putting his +arm round her waist held her fast. The magician now +played his last trump. <q>Where is my heart?</q> said he. +<q>In a fish,</q> said the Fool. <q>Would you know the fish if +you saw it?</q> asked the magician. <q>To be sure I would,</q> +answered the Fool. Then all the fishes of the sea swam +past, and when the right one came last of all, the girl +nudged her lover; he seized the fish, and with one stroke of +his knife slit it from end to end. Out tumbled the magician's +heart; the young man seized it and cut it in two, and at the +same moment the magician fell dead.<note place='foot'>Svend Grundtvig, <hi rend='italic'>Dänische Volksmärchen</hi>, übersetzt von Willibald Leo +(Leipsic, 1878), pp. 29-45.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul in +Icelandic +stories. +The king's +son in the +cave of the +giantesses +whose +life was +in an egg. The swans' +song. The life-egg. +An Icelandic +parallel to +Meleager.</note> +In Iceland they say that once a king's son was out +hunting in a wood with the courtiers, when the mist came +down so thick that his companions lost sight of the prince, +and though they searched the woods till evening they could +not find him. At the news the king was inconsolable, and +taking to his bed caused proclamation to be made that he +who could find and bring back his lost son should have half +the kingdom. Now an old man and his old wife lived +together in a wretched hut, and they had a daughter. She +resolved to seek the lost prince and get the promised reward. +So her parents gave her food for the journey and a pair of +new shoes, and off she set. Well, she walked and better +walked for days, and at last she came towards evening to a +cave and going into it she saw two beds. One of them was +covered with a cloth of silver and the other with a cloth of +gold; and in the bed with the golden coverlet was the king's +son fast asleep. She tried to wake him, but all in vain. +Then she noticed some runes carved on the bedsteads, but +she could not read them. So she went back to the mouth +<pb n='124'/><anchor id='Pg124'/> +of the cave and hid behind the door. Hardly had she time +to conceal herself when she heard a loud noise and saw two +giantesses, two great hulking louts they were, stride into the +cave. No sooner were they in than one said to the other, +<q>Ugh, what a smell of human flesh in our cave!</q> But the +other thought the smell might come from the king's son. +They went up to the bed where he was sleeping, and calling +two swans, which the girl had not perceived in the dim light +of the cave, they said:— +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<lg> +<l><q rend='pre'><hi rend='italic'>Sing, sing, my swans,</hi></q></l> +<l><q rend='post'><hi rend='italic'>That the king's son may wake.</hi></q></l> +</lg> +</quote> + +<p> +So the swans sang and the king's son awoke. The younger +of the two hags offered him food, but he refused it; then +she asked him, if he would marry her, but he said <q>No, +certainly not.</q> Then she shrieked and said to the swans:— +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<lg> +<l><q rend='pre'><hi rend='italic'>Sing, sing, my swans,</hi></q></l> +<l><q rend='post'><hi rend='italic'>That the king's son may sleep.</hi></q></l> +</lg> +</quote> + +<p> +The swans sang and the king's son fell fast asleep. Then +the two giantesses lay down in the bed with the silver coverlet +and slept till break of day. When they woke in the morning, +they wakened the prince and offered him food again, but +he again refused it; and the younger hag again asked him +if he would have her to wife, but he would not hear of it. +So they put him to sleep again to the singing of the swans +and left the cave. When they were gone a while, the girl +came forth from her hiding-place and waked the king's son +to the song of the swans, and he was glad to see her and to +get the news. She told him that, when the hag asked him +again to marry her, he must say, <q>Yes, but you must first +tell me what is written on the beds, and what you do by day.</q> +So when it drew to evening, the girl hid herself again, and +soon the giantesses came, lit a fire in the cave, and cooked at +it the game they had brought with them. And the younger +hag wakened the king's son and asked him if he would have +something to eat. This time he said <q>Yes.</q> And when he +had finished his supper, the giantess asked him if he would +have her to wife. <q>That I will,</q> said he, <q>but first you must +tell me what the runes mean that are carved on the bed.</q> +She said that they meant:— +</p> + +<pb n='125'/><anchor id='Pg125'/> + +<quote rend='display'> +<lg> +<l><q rend='pre'><hi rend='italic'>Run, run, my little bed,</hi></q></l> +<l><q rend='post'><hi rend='italic'>Run whither I will.</hi></q></l> +</lg> +</quote> + +<p> +He said he was very glad to know it, but she must also tell +him what they did all day long out there in the wood. The +hag told him that they hunted beasts and birds, and that +between whiles they sat down under an oak and threw +their life-egg from one to the other, but they had to be +careful, for if the egg were to break, they would both die. +The king's son thanked her kindly, but next morning when +the giantess asked him to go with them to the wood he said +that he would rather stay at home. So away went the +giantesses by themselves, after they had lulled him to sleep +to the singing of the swans. But hardly were their backs +turned when out came the girl and wakened the prince and +told him to take his spear, and they would pursue the +giantesses, and when they were throwing their life-egg to +each other he was to hurl his spear at it and smash it to bits. +<q>But if you miss,</q> said she, <q>it is as much as your life +is worth.</q> So they came to the oak in the wood, and there +they heard a loud laugh, and the king's son climbed up the +tree, and there under the oak were the two giantesses, and +one of them had a golden egg in her hand and threw it to +the other. Just then the king's son hurled his spear and hit +the egg so that it burst. At the same time the two hags fell +dead to the ground and the slaver dribbled out of their +mouths.<note place='foot'>J. C. Poestion, <hi rend='italic'>Isländische Märchen</hi> +(Vienna, 1884), No. vii. pp. 49-55. +The same story is told with +minor variations by Konrad Maurer in +his <hi rend='italic'>Isländische Volkssagen der Gegenwart</hi> +(Leipsic, 1860), pp. 277-280. +In his version a giant and giantess, +brother and sister, have their life in +one stone, which they throw backwards +and forwards to each other; +when the stone is caught and broken +by the heroine, the giant and giantess +at once expire. The tale was told to +Maurer when he was crossing an arm +of the sea in a small boat; and the +waves ran so high and broke into the +boat so that he could not write the +story down at the time but had to +trust to his memory in recording it +afterwards.</note> In an Icelandic parallel to the story of Meleager +the spae-wives or sibyls come and foretell the high destiny +of the infant Gestr as he lies in his cradle. Two candles were +burning beside the child, and the youngest of the spae-wives, +conceiving herself slighted, cried out, <q>I foretell that the +child shall live no longer than this candle burns.</q> Whereupon +the chief sibyl put out the candle and gave it to Gestr's +<pb n='126'/><anchor id='Pg126'/> +mother to keep, charging her not to light it again until her +son should wish to die. Gestr lived three hundred years; +then he kindled the candle and expired.<note place='foot'>W. Mannhardt, <hi rend='italic'>Germanische Mythen</hi> +(Berlin, 1858), p. 592; John +Jamieson, <hi rend='italic'>Etymological Dictionary of +the Scottish Language</hi>, New Edition, +revised by J. Longmuir and D. +Donaldson (Paisley, 1879-1882), iv. +869, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Yule.</q></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul +in Celtic +stories. +The giant +whose soul +was in a +duck's egg.</note> +The conception of the external soul meets us also in +Celtic stories. Thus a tale, told by a blind fiddler in the +island of Islay, relates how a giant carried off a king's wife +and his two horses and kept them in his den. But the horses +attacked the giant and mauled him so that he could hardly +crawl. He said to the queen, <q>If I myself had my soul to +keep, those horses would have killed me long ago.</q> <q>And +where, my dear,</q> said she, <q>is thy soul? By the books I +will take care of it.</q> <q>It is in the Bonnach stone,</q> said he. +So on the morrow when the giant went out, the queen set +the Bonnach stone in order exceedingly. In the dusk of the +evening the giant came back, and he said to the queen, +<q>What made thee set the Bonnach stone in order like that?</q> +<q>Because thy soul is in it,</q> quoth she. <q>I perceive,</q> said +he, <q>that if thou didst know where my soul is, thou wouldst +give it much respect.</q> <q>That I would,</q> said she. <q>It is +not there,</q> said he, <q>my soul is; it is in the threshold.</q> On +the morrow she set the threshold in order finely, and when +the giant returned, he asked her, <q>What brought thee to set +the threshold in order like that?</q> <q>Because thy soul is in +it,</q> said she. <q>I perceive,</q> said he, <q>that if thou knewest +where my soul is, thou wouldst take care of it.</q> <q>That I +would,</q> said she. <q>It is not there that my soul is,</q> said he. +<q>There is a great flagstone under the threshold. There is a +wether under the flag. There is a duck in the wether's belly, +and an egg in the belly of the duck, and it is in the egg that +my soul is.</q> On the morrow when the giant was gone, they +raised the flagstone and out came the wether. They opened +the wether and out came the duck. They split the duck, +and out came the egg. And the queen took the egg and +crushed it in her hands, and at that very moment the giant, +who was coming home in the dusk, fell down dead.<note place='foot'>J. F. Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Tales of +the West Highlands</hi>, New Edition +(Paisley and London, 1890), i. 7-11.</note> In +another Celtic tale, a sea beast has carried off a king's +<pb n='127'/><anchor id='Pg127'/> +daughter, and an old smith declares that there is no way of +killing the beast but one. <q>In the island that is in the +midst of the loch is Eillid Chaisfhion—the white-footed +hind, of the slenderest legs, and the swiftest step, and though +she should be caught, there would spring a hoodie out of +her, and though the hoodie should be caught, there would +spring a trout out of her, but there is an egg in the mouth +of the trout, and the soul of the beast is in the egg, and if +the egg breaks, the beast is dead.</q> As usual the egg is +broken and the beast dies.<note place='foot'>J. F. Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Tales of +the West Highlands</hi>, New Edition, +i. 80 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The herdsman +of +Cruachan +and the +helpful +animals. The simple +giant and +the wily +woman.</note> +In these Celtic tales the helpful animals reappear and +assist the hero in achieving the adventure, though for the +sake of brevity I have omitted to describe the parts they +play in the plot. They figure also in an Argyleshire story, +which seems however to be of Irish origin; for the Cruachan +of which we hear in it is not the rugged and lofty mountain +Ben Cruachan which towers above the beautiful Loch Awe, +but Roscommon Cruachan near Belanagare, the ancient +palace of the kings of Connaught, long famous in Irish +tradition.<note place='foot'>Compare <hi rend='italic'>Taboo and the Perils of +Soul</hi>, p. 12.</note> The story relates how a big giant, King of +Sorcha, stole away the wife and the shaggy dun filly of the +herdsman or king of Cruachan. So the herdsman baked a +bannock to take with him by the way, and set off in quest +of his wife and the filly. He went for a long, long time, +till at last his soles were blackened and his cheeks were +sunken, the yellow-headed birds were going to rest at the +roots of the bushes and the tops of the thickets, and the +dark clouds of night were coming and the clouds of day +were departing; and he saw a house far from him, but +though it was far from him he did not take long to reach it. +He went in, and sat in the upper end of the house, but there +was no one within; and the fire was newly kindled, the +house newly swept, and the bed newly made; and who +came in but the hawk of Glencuaich, and she said to him, +<q>Are you here, young son of Cruachan?</q> <q>I am,</q> said +he. The hawk said to him, <q>Do you know who was here +last night?</q> <q>I do not,</q> said he. <q>There were here,</q> +<pb n='128'/><anchor id='Pg128'/> +said she, <q>the big giant, King of Sorcha, your wife, and the +shaggy dun filly; and the giant was threatening terribly +that if he could get hold of you he would take the head off +you.</q> <q>I well believe it,</q> said he. Then she gave him +food and drink, and sent him to bed. She rose in the +morning, made breakfast for him, and baked a bannock for +him to take with him on his journey. And he went away +and travelled all day, and in the evening he came to another +house and went in, and was entertained by the green-headed +duck, who told him that the giant had rested there the night +before with the wife and shaggy dun filly of the herdsman +of Cruachan. And next day the herdsman journeyed again, +and at evening he came to another house and went in and +was entertained by the fox of the scrubwood, who told him +just what the hawk of Glencuaich and the green-headed +duck had told him before. Next day the same thing +happened, only it was the brown otter of the burn that +entertained him at evening in a house where the fire was +newly kindled, the floor newly swept, and the bed newly +made. And next morning when he awoke, the first +thing he saw was the hawk of Glencuaich, the green-headed +duck, the fox of the scrubwood, and the brown otter of the +burn all dancing together on the floor. They made breakfast +for him, and partook of it all together, and said to him, +<q>Should you be at any time in straits, think of us, and we +will help you.</q> Well, that very evening he came to the +cave where the giant lived, and who was there before him +but his own wife? She gave him food and hid him under +clothes at the upper end of the cave. And when the giant +came home he sniffed about and said, <q>The smell of a +stranger is in the cave.</q> But she said no, it was only a +little bird she had roasted. <q>And I wish you would tell +me,</q> said she, <q>where you keep your life, that I might take +good care of it.</q> <q>It is in a grey stone over there,</q> said +he. So next day when he went away, she took the grey +stone and dressed it well, and placed it in the upper end of +the cave. When the giant came home in the evening he +said to her, <q>What is it that you have dressed there?</q> +<q>Your own life,</q> said she, <q>and we must be careful of it.</q> +<q>I perceive that you are very fond of me, but it is not +<pb n='129'/><anchor id='Pg129'/> +there,</q> said he. <q>Where is it?</q> said she. <q>It is in a grey +sheep on yonder hillside,</q> said he. On the morrow, when +he went away, she got the grey sheep, dressed it well, and +placed it in the upper end of the cave. When he came +home in the evening he said, <q>What is it that you have +dressed there?</q> <q>Your own life, my love,</q> said she. <q>It +is not there as yet,</q> said he. <q>Well!</q> said she, <q>you are +putting me to great trouble taking care of it, and you have +not told me the truth these two times.</q> He then said, <q>I +think that I may tell it to you now. My life is below the +feet of the big horse in the stable. There is a place down +there in which there is a small lake. Over the lake are +seven grey hides, and over the hides are seven sods from +the heath, and under all these are seven oak planks. There +is a trout in the lake, and a duck in the belly of the trout, +an egg in the belly of the duck, and a thorn of blackthorn +inside of the egg, and till that thorn is chewed small I +cannot be killed. Whenever the seven grey hides, the seven +sods from the heath, and the seven oak planks are touched +I shall feel it wherever I shall be. I have an axe above +the door, and unless all these are cut through with one blow +of it the lake will not be reached; and when it will be +reached I shall feel it.</q> Next day, when the giant had +gone out hunting on the hill, the herdsman of Cruachan +contrived, with the help of the friendly animals—the hawk, +the duck, the fox, and the otter—to get possession of the +fateful thorn and to chew it before the giant could reach +him; and no sooner had he done so than the giant dropped +stark and stiff, a corpse.<note place='foot'>Rev. D. MacInnes, <hi rend='italic'>Folk and Hero Tales</hi> (London, 1890), pp. 103-121.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Argyleshire +story +of the +Bare-Stripping +Hangman +whose soul +was in a +duck's egg.</note> +Another Argyleshire story relates how a certain giant, +who lived in the Black Corrie of Ben Breck, carried off three +daughters of a king, one after the other, at intervals of seven +years. The bereaved monarch sent champions to rescue his +lost daughters, but though they surprised the giant in his +sleep and cut off his head, it was all to no purpose; for as +fast as they cut it off he put it on again and made after them +as if nothing had happened. So the champions fled away +before him as fast as they could lay legs to the ground, and +the more agile of them escaped, but the shorter-winded he +<pb n='130'/><anchor id='Pg130'/> +caught, bared them to the skin, and hanged them on hooks +against the turrets of his castle. So he went by the name +of the Bare-Stripping Hangman. Now this amiable man +had announced his intention of coming to fetch away the +fourth and last of the king's daughters, when another seven +years should be up. The time was drawing near, and the +king, with the natural instincts of a father, was in great +tribulation, when as good luck would have it a son of the +king of Ireland, by name Alastir, arrived in the king's castle +and undertook to find out where the Bare-Stripping Hangman +had hidden his soul. To cut a long story short, the +artful Hangman had hidden his soul in an egg, which was +in the belly of a duck, which was in the belly of a salmon, +which was in the belly of a swift-footed hind of the cliffs. +The prince wormed the secret from a little old man, and +by the help of a dog, a brown otter, and a falcon he contrived +to extract the egg from its various envelopes and +crushed it to bits between his hands and knees. So when +he came to the giant's castle he found the Bare-Stripping +Hangman lying dead on the floor.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Macdougall, <hi rend='italic'>Folk and +Hero Tales</hi> (London, 1891), pp. 76 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> +(<hi rend='italic'>Waifs and Strays of Celtic Tradition</hi>, +No. iii.).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Highland +story of +Headless +Hugh.</note> +Another Highland story sets forth how Hugh, prince of +Lochlin, was long held captive by a giant who lived in a +cave overlooking the Sound of Mull. At last, after he had +spent many years of captivity in that dismal cave, it came +to pass that one night the giant and his wife had a great +dispute, and Hugh overheard their talk, and learned that the +giant's soul was in a precious gem which he always wore on +his forehead. So the prince watched his opportunity, seized +the gem, and having no means of escape or concealment, +hastily swallowed it. Like lightning from the clouds, the +giant's sword flashed from its scabbard and flew between +Hugh's head and his body to intercept the gem before it +could descend into the prince's stomach. But it was too +late; and the giant fell down, sword in hand, and expired +without a gasp. Hugh had now lost his head, it is true, +but having the giant's soul in his body he felt none the +worse for the accident. So he buckled the giant's sword at +his side, mounted the grey filly, swifter than the east wind, +<pb n='131'/><anchor id='Pg131'/> +that never had a bridle, and rode home. But the want of +his head made a painful impression on his friends; indeed +they maintained that he was a ghost and shut the door +in his face, so now he wanders for ever in shades of +darkness, riding the grey filly fleeter than the wind. On +stormy nights, when the wind howls about the gables and +among the trees, you may see him galloping along the +shore of the sea <q>between wave and sand.</q> Many a +naughty little boy, who would not go quietly to bed, has +been carried off by Headless Hugh on his grey filly and +never seen again.<note place='foot'>Rev. James Macdonald, <hi rend='italic'>Religion +and Myth</hi> (London, 1893), pp. 187 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +The writer tells us that in his youth a +certain old Betty Miles used to terrify +him with this tale. For the tradition +of Headless Hugh, who seems to have +been the only son of Hector, first chief +of Lochbuy, in the fourteenth century, +see J. G. Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>Witchcraft and +Second Sight in the Highlands and +Islands of Scotland</hi> (Glasgow, 1902), +pp. III <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> India also has its stories +of headless horsemen. See W. Crooke, +<hi rend='italic'>Popular Religion and Folk-lore of +Northern India</hi> (London, 1896), i. 256 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The Mackays +the +descendants +of +the seal.</note> +In Sutherlandshire at the present day there is a sept of +Mackays known as <q>the descendants of the seal,</q> who +claim to be sprung from a mermaid, and the story they tell +in explanation of their claim involves the notion of the +external soul. They say that the laird of Borgie used to go +down to the rocks under his castle to bathe. One day he +saw a mermaid close in shore, combing her hair and swimming +about, as if she were anxious to land. After watching +her for a time, he noticed her cowl on the rocks beside him, +and knowing that she could not go to sea without it, he +carried the cowl up to the castle in the hope that she would +follow him. She did so, but he refused to give up the cowl +and detained the sea-maiden herself and made her his wife. +To this she consented with great reluctance, and told him that +her life was bound up with the cowl, and that if it rotted or was +destroyed she would instantly die. So the cowl was placed +for safety in the middle of a great hay-stack, and there it +lay for years. One unhappy day, when the laird was from +home, the servants were working among the hay and found +the cowl. Not knowing what it was, they shewed it to the +lady of the house. The sight revived memories of her old +life in the depths of the sea, so she took the cowl, and +leaving her child in its cot, plunged into the sea and never +<pb n='132'/><anchor id='Pg132'/> +came home to Borgie any more. Only sometimes she +would swim close in shore to see her boy, and then she +wept because he was not of her own kind that she might +take him to sea with her. The boy grew to be a man, and +his descendants are famous swimmers. They cannot drown, +and to this day they are known in the neighbourhood as +<foreign lang='gd' rend='italic'>Sliochd an roin</foreign>, that is, <q>the descendants of the seal.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. James Macdonald, <hi rend='italic'>Religion +and Myth</hi>, pp. 191 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, from information +furnished by the Rev. A. Mackay. +In North Uist there is a sept known as +<q>the MacCodrums of the seals.</q> and +a precisely similar legend is told to +explain their descent from seals. See +J. G. Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>Superstitions of the +Highlands and Islands of Scotland</hi> +(Glasgow, 1900), p. 284.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul +in Irish +and Breton +stories. +The giant +and the +egg. +The +helpful +animals. +Body-without-Soul. The +helpful +animals. +The giant +whose life +was in a +box-tree.</note> +In an Irish story we read how a giant kept a beautiful +damsel a prisoner in his castle on the top of a hill, which +was white with the bones of the champions who had tried +in vain to rescue the fair captive. At last the hero, after +hewing and slashing at the giant all to no purpose, discovered +that the only way to kill him was to rub a mole on +the giant's right breast with a certain egg, which was in a +duck, which was in a chest, which lay locked and bound at +the bottom of the sea. With the help of some obliging +salmon, rams, and eagles, the hero as usual made himself +master of the precious egg and slew the giant by merely +striking it against the mole on his right breast.<note place='foot'>Jeremiah Curtin, <hi rend='italic'>Myths and Folk-tales +of Ireland</hi> (London, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), pp. 71 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Similarly +in a Breton story there figures a giant whom neither fire nor +water nor steel can harm. He tells his seventh wife, whom +he has just married after murdering all her predecessors, <q>I +am immortal, and no one can hurt me unless he crushes on +my breast an egg, which is in a pigeon, which is in the +belly of a hare; this hare is in the belly of a wolf, and this +wolf is in the belly of my brother, who dwells a thousand +leagues from here. So I am quite easy on that score.</q> A +soldier, the hero of the tale, had been of service to an ant, +a wolf, and a sea-bird, who in return bestowed on him the +power of turning himself into an ant, a wolf, or a sea-bird +at will. By means of this magical power the soldier contrived +to obtain the egg and crush it on the breast of the +giant, who immediately expired.<note place='foot'>P. Sébillot, <hi rend='italic'>Contes populaires de +la Haute-Bretagne</hi> (Paris, 1885), pp. +63 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Another Breton story +tells of a giant who was called Body-without-Soul because +<pb n='133'/><anchor id='Pg133'/> +his life did not reside in his body. He himself dwelt in +a beautiful castle which hung between heaven and earth, +suspended by four golden chains; but his life was in an egg, +and the egg was in a dove, and the dove was in a hare, and +the hare was in a wolf, and the wolf was in an iron chest at +the bottom of the sea. In his castle in the air he kept +prisoner a beauteous princess whom he had swooped down +upon and carried off in a magic chariot. But her lover +turned himself into an ant and so climbed up one of the +golden chains into the enchanted castle, for he had done a +kindness to the king and queen of ants, and they rewarded +him by transforming him into an ant in his time of need. +When he had learned from the captive princess the secret of +the giant's life, he procured the chest from the bottom of the +sea by the help of the king of fishes, whom he had also +obliged; and opening the chest he killed first the wolf, then +the hare, and then the dove, and at the death of each animal +the giant grew weaker and weaker as if he had lost a limb. +In the stomach of the dove the hero found the egg on which +the giant's life depended, and when he came with it to the +castle he found Body-without-Soul stretched on his bed at +the point of death. So he dashed the egg against the +giant's forehead, the egg broke, and the giant straightway +expired.<note place='foot'>F. M. Luzel, <hi rend='italic'>Contes populaires de +Basse-Bretagne</hi> (Paris, 1887), i. 435-449. +Compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Veillées Bretonnes</hi> +(Morlaix, 1879), pp. 133 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> For two +other French stories of the same type, +taken down in Lorraine, see E. Cosquin, +<hi rend='italic'>Contes populaires de Lorraine</hi> (Paris, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), Nos. 15 and 50 (vol. i. pp. 166 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, vol. ii. pp. 128 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>). In both +of them there figures a miraculous beast +which can only be slain by breaking a +certain egg against its head; but we are +not told that the life of the beast was +in the egg. In both of them also the +hero receives from three animals, whose +dispute about the carcase of a dead +beast he has settled, the power of +changing himself into animals of the +same sort. See the remarks and comparisons +of the learned editor, Monsieur +E. Cosquin, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 170 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> In another Breton tale the life of a giant resides +in an old box-tree which grows in his castle garden; and to +kill him it is necessary to sever the tap-root of the tree at a +single blow of an axe without injuring any of the lesser +roots. This task the hero, as usual, successfully accomplishes, +and at the same moment the giant drops dead.<note place='foot'>F. M. Luzel, <hi rend='italic'>Veillées Bretonnes</hi> +pp. 127 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul +in stories +of non-Aryan +peoples. +The ancient +Egyptian +story of +the Two +Brothers. The heart +in the +flower of +the Acacia.</note> +The notion of an external soul has now been traced in +folk-tales told by Aryan peoples from India to Brittany and +<pb n='134'/><anchor id='Pg134'/> +the Hebrides. We have still to shew that the same idea occurs +commonly in the popular stories of peoples who do not belong +to the Aryan stock. In the first place it appears in the ancient +Egyptian story of <q>The Two Brothers.</q> This story was +written down in the reign of Rameses II., about 1300 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> +It is therefore older than our present redaction of Homer, +and far older than the Bible. The outline of the story, +so far as it concerns us here, is as follows. Once upon +a time there were two brethren; the name of the elder was +Anpu and the name of the younger was Bata. Now Anpu +had a house and a wife, and his younger brother dwelt with +him as his servant. It was Anpu who made the garments, +and every morning when it grew light he drove the kine +afield. As he walked behind them they used to say to +him, <q>The grass is good in such and such a place,</q> and he +heard what they said and led them to the good pasture that +they desired. So his kine grew very sleek and multiplied +greatly. One day when the two brothers were at work in +the field the elder brother said to the younger, <q>Run and +fetch seed from the village.</q> So the younger brother ran +and said to the wife of his elder brother, <q>Give me seed +that I may run to the field, for my brother sent me saying, +Tarry not.</q> She said, <q>Go to the barn and take as much as +thou wouldst.</q> He went and filled a jar full of wheat and +barley, and came forth bearing it on his shoulders. When +the woman saw him her heart went out to him, and she laid +hold of him and said, <q>Come, let us rest an hour together.</q> +But he said, <q>Thou art to me as a mother, and my brother +is to me as a father.</q> So he would not hearken to her, but +took the load on his back and went away to the field. In +the evening, when the elder brother was returning from the +field, his wife feared for what she had said. So she took +soot and made herself as one who had been beaten. And +when her husband came home, she said, <q>When thy younger +brother came to fetch seed, he said to me, Come, let us rest +an hour together. But I would not, and he beat me.</q> +Then the elder brother became like a panther of the south; +he sharpened his knife and stood behind the door of the +cow-house. And when the sun set and the younger brother +came laden with all the herbs of the field, as was his wont +<pb n='135'/><anchor id='Pg135'/> +every day, the cow that walked in front of the herd said to +him, <q>Behold, thine elder brother stands with a knife to kill +thee. Flee before him.</q> When he heard what the cow +said, he looked under the door of the cow-house and saw +the feet of his elder brother standing behind the door, his +knife in his hand. So he fled and his brother pursued him +with the knife. But the younger brother cried for help to +the Sun, and the Sun heard him and caused a great water +to spring up between him and his elder brother, and the +water was full of crocodiles. The two brothers stood, the +one on the one side of the water and the other on the other, +and the younger brother told the elder brother all that had +befallen. So the elder brother repented him of what he +had done and he lifted up his voice and wept. But he +could not come at the farther bank by reason of the +crocodiles. His younger brother called to him and said, +<q>Go home and tend the cattle thyself. For I will dwell no +more in the place where thou art. I will go to the Valley +of the Acacia. But this is what thou shalt do for me. +Thou shalt come and care for me, if evil befalls me, for I +will enchant my heart and place it on the top of the flower +of the Acacia; and if they cut the Acacia and my heart +falls to the ground, thou shalt come and seek it, and when +thou hast found it thou shalt lay it in a vessel of fresh +water. Then I shall come to life again. But this is the +sign that evil has befallen me; the pot of beer in thine hand +shall bubble.</q> So he went away to the Valley of the +Acacia, but his brother returned home with dust on his head +and slew his wife and cast her to the dogs. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Bata in the +Valley of +the Acacia. How Bata +died and +was +brought to +life again.</note> +For many days afterwards the younger brother dwelt +alone in the Valley of the Acacia. By day he hunted the +beasts of the field, but at evening he came and laid him +down under the Acacia, on the top of whose flower was his +heart. And many days after that he built himself a house +in the Valley of the Acacia. But the gods were grieved +for him; and the Sun said to Khnumu, <q>Make a wife for +Bata, that he may not dwell alone.</q> So Khnumu made +him a woman to dwell with him, who was perfect in her +limbs more than any woman on earth, for all the gods were +in her. So she dwelt with him. But one day a lock of +<pb n='136'/><anchor id='Pg136'/> +her hair fell into the river and floated down to the land +of Egypt, to the house of Pharaoh's washerwomen. The +fragrance of the lock perfumed Pharaoh's raiment, and the +washerwomen were blamed, for it was said, <q>An odour of +perfume in the garments of Pharaoh!</q> So the heart of +Pharaoh's chief washerman was weary of the complaints +that were made every day, and he went to the wharf, and +there in the water he spied the lock of hair. He sent one +down into the river to fetch it, and, because it smelt sweetly, +he took it to Pharaoh. Then Pharaoh's magicians were +sent for and they said, <q>This lock of hair belongs to a +daughter of the Sun, who has in her the essence of all the +gods. Let messengers go forth to all foreign lands to seek +her.</q> So the woman was brought from the Valley of the +Acacia with chariots and archers and much people, and all +the land of Egypt rejoiced at her coming, and Pharaoh loved +her. But when they asked her of her husband, she said to +Pharaoh, <q>Let them cut down the Acacia and let them +destroy it.</q> So men were sent with tools to cut down the +Acacia. They came to it and cut the flower upon which +was the heart of Bata; and he fell down dead in that evil +hour. But the next day, when the earth grew light and +the elder brother of Bata was entered into his house and +had sat down, they brought him a pot of beer and it +bubbled, and they gave him a jug of wine and it grew +turbid. Then he took his staff and his sandals and hied +him to the Valley of the Acacia, and there he found his +younger brother lying dead in his house. So he sought +for the heart of his brother under the Acacia. For three +years he sought in vain, but in the fourth year he found it +in the berry of the Acacia. So he threw the heart into a +cup of fresh water. And when it was night and the heart +had sucked in much water, Bata shook in all his limbs and +revived. Then he drank the cup of water in which his +heart was, and his heart went into its place, and he lived as +before.<note place='foot'>(Sir) Gaston Maspero, <hi rend='italic'>Contes +populaires de l'Égypte ancienne</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi> (Paris, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), pp. 1 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; W. M. Flinders +Petrie, <hi rend='italic'>Egyptian Tales</hi>, Second Series +(London, 1895), pp. 36 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Alfred +Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Altägyptische Sagen und +Märchen</hi> (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 58-77. +Compare W. Mannhardt, <q>Das +älteste Märchen,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für +deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde</hi>, +iv. (1859) pp. 232-259. The manuscript +of the story, which is now in the +British Museum, belonged to an Egyptian +prince, who was afterwards King +Seti II. and reigned about the year +1300 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> It is beautifully written +and in almost perfect condition.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='137'/><anchor id='Pg137'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul in +Arabian +stories. +The jinnee +and the +sparrow. The ogress +and the +bottle.</note> +In the <hi rend='italic'>Arabian Nights</hi> we read how Seyf el-Mulook, +after wandering for four months over mountains and hills +and deserts, came to a lofty palace in which he found the +lovely daughter of the King of India sitting alone on a +golden couch in a hall spread with silken carpets. She tells +him that she is held captive by a jinnee, who had swooped +down on her and carried her off while she was disporting +herself with her female slaves in a tank in the great garden +of her father the king. Seyf el-Mulook then offers to smite +the jinnee with the sword and slay him. <q>But,</q> she replied, +<q>thou canst not slay him unless thou kill his soul.</q> <q>And +in what place,</q> said he, <q>is his soul?</q> She answered, <q>I +asked him respecting it many times; but he would not +confess to me its place. It happened, however, that I urged +him, one day, and he was enraged against me, and said to +me, <q>How often wilt thou ask me respecting my soul? +What is the reason of thy question respecting my soul?</q> +So I answered him, <q>O Hátim, there remaineth to me no one +but thee, excepting God; and I, as long as I live, would +not cease to hold thy soul in my embrace; and if I do not +take care of thy soul, and put it in the midst of my eye, +how can I live after thee? If I knew thy soul, I would +take care of it as of my right eye.</q> And thereupon he said +to me, <q>When I was born, the astrologers declared that the +destruction of my soul would be effected by the hand of one +of the sons of the human kings. I therefore took my soul, +and put it into the crop of a sparrow, and I imprisoned the +sparrow in a little box, and put this into another small box, +and this I put within seven other small boxes, and I put +these within seven chests, and the chests I put into a coffer +of marble within the verge of this circumambient ocean; for +this part is remote from the countries of mankind, and none +of mankind can gain access to it.</q></q> But Seyf el-Mulook got +possession of the sparrow and strangled it, and the jinnee +fell upon the ground a heap of black ashes.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Thousand and One Nights, +commonly called, in England, The +Arabian Nights' Entertainments</hi>, translated +by E. W. Lane (London, 1839-1841), +iii. 339-345.</note> In a modern +<pb n='138'/><anchor id='Pg138'/> +Arabian tale a king marries an ogress, who puts out the +eyes of the king's forty wives. One of the blinded queens +gives birth to a son whom she names Mohammed the Prudent. +But the ogress queen hated him and compassed his death. +So she sent him on an errand to the house of her kinsfolk +the ogres. In the house of the ogres he saw some things +hanging from the roof, and on asking a female slave what +they were, she said, <q>That is the bottle which contains the +life of my lady the queen, and the other bottle beside it +contains the eyes of the queens whom my mistress blinded.</q> +A little afterwards he spied a beetle and rose to kill it. +<q>Don't kill it,</q> cried the slave, <q>for that is my life.</q> But +Mohammed the Prudent watched the beetle till it entered +a chink in the wall; and when the female slave had fallen +asleep, he killed the beetle in its hole, and so the slave died. +Then Mohammed took down the two bottles and carried +them home to his father's palace. There he presented himself +before the ogress queen and said, <q>See, I have your life +in my hand, but I will not kill you till you have replaced +the eyes which you took from the forty queens.</q> The ogress +did as she was bid, and then Mohammed the Prudent said, +<q>There, take your life.</q> But the bottle slipped from his +hand and fell, the life of the ogress escaped from it, and she +died.<note place='foot'>G. Spitta-Bey, <hi rend='italic'>Contes arabes +modernes</hi> (Leyden and Paris, 1883), +No. 2, pp. 12 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> The story in its +main outlines is identical with the +Cashmeer story of <q>The Ogress Queen</q> +(J. H. Knowles, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-tales of Kashmir</hi>, +pp. 42 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>) and the Bengalee story of +<q>The Boy whom Seven Mothers +Suckled</q> (Lal Behari Day, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-tales +of Bengal</hi>, pp. 117 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>Indian Antiquary</hi>, +i. 170 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>). In another Arabian +story the life of a witch is bound up +with a phial; when it is broken, she +dies (W. A. Clouston, <hi rend='italic'>A Group of +Eastern Romances and Stories</hi>, Privately +printed, 1889, p. 30). A similar incident +occurs in a Cashmeer story +(J. H. Knowles, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 73). In the +Arabian story mentioned in the text, +the hero, by a genuine touch of local +colour, is made to drink the milk of +an ogress's breasts and hence is regarded +by her as her son. The same incident +occurs in Kabyle and Berber tales. +See J. Rivière, <hi rend='italic'>Contes populaires de la +Kabylie du Djurdjura</hi> (Paris, 1882), +p. 239; R. Basset, <hi rend='italic'>Nouveaux Contes +Berbères</hi> (Paris, 1897), p. 128, with +the editor's note, pp. 339 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> In a +Mongolian story a king refuses to kill +a lad because he has unwittingly partaken +of a cake kneaded with the milk +of the lad's mother (B. Jülg, <hi rend='italic'>Mongolische +Märchen-Sammlung, die neun +Märchen des Siddhi-Kür</hi>, Innsbruck, +1868, p. 183). Compare W. Robertson +Smith, <hi rend='italic'>Kinship and Marriage in +Early Arabia</hi>, New Edition (London, +1903), p. 176; and for the same mode +of creating kinship among other races, +see A. d'Abbadie, <hi rend='italic'>Douze ans dans la +Haute Ethiopie</hi> (Paris, 1868), pp. 272 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +Tausch, <q>Notices of the Circassians,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</hi>, +i. (1834) p. 104; J. Biddulph, <hi rend='italic'>Tribes +of the Hindoo Koosh</hi> (London, 1880), +pp. 77, 83 (compare G. W. Leitner, +<hi rend='italic'>Languages and Races of Dardistan</hi>, +Lahore, 1878, p. 34); Denzil C. J. +Ibbetson, <hi rend='italic'>Settlement Report of the +Panipat, Tahsil, and Karnal Parganah +of the Karnal District</hi> (Allahabad, +1883), p. 101; J. Moura, <hi rend='italic'>Le Royaume +du Cambodge</hi> (Paris, 1883), i. 427; F. S. +Krauss, <hi rend='italic'>Sitte und Brauch der Südslaven</hi> +(Vienna, 1885), p. 14; J. H. Weeks, +<hi rend='italic'>Among Congo Cannibals</hi> (London, +1913), p. 132. When the Masai of +East Africa make peace with an enemy, +each tribe brings a cow with a calf and +a woman with a baby. The two cows +are exchanged, and the enemy's child +is suckled at the breast of the Masai +woman, and the Masai baby is suckled +at the breast of the woman belonging +to the enemy. See A. C. Hollis, <hi rend='italic'>The +Masai</hi> (Oxford, 1905), pp. 321 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<pb n='139'/><anchor id='Pg139'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul +in Basque, +Kabyle, +and +Magyar +stories.</note> +A Basque story, which closely resembles some of the +stories told among Aryan peoples, relates how a monster—a +Body-without-Soul—detains a princess in captivity, and is +questioned by her as to how he might be slain. With some +reluctance he tells her, <q>You must kill a terrible wolf which +is in the forest, and inside him is a fox, in the fox is a +pigeon; this pigeon has an egg in his head, and whoever +should strike me on the forehead with this egg would kill +me.</q> The hero of the story, by name Malbrouk, has learned, +in the usual way, the art of turning himself at will into +a wolf, an ant, a hawk, or a dog, and on the strength of +this accomplishment he kills the animals, one after the +other, and extracts the precious egg from the pigeon's +head. When the wolf is killed, the monster feels it and says +despondently, <q>I do not know if anything is going to happen +to me. I am much afraid of it.</q> When the fox and the +pigeon have been killed, he cries that it is all over with him, +that they have taken the egg out of the pigeon, and that he +knows not what is to become of him. Finally the princess +strikes the monster on the forehead with the egg, and he falls +a corpse.<note place='foot'>W. Webster, <hi rend='italic'>Basque Legends</hi> +(London, 1877), pp. 80 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; J. Vinson, +<hi rend='italic'>Le folk-lore du pays Basque</hi> (Paris, +1883), pp. 84 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> As so often in tales +of this type, the hero is said to have +received his wonderful powers of metamorphosis +from animals whom he found +quarrelling about their shares in a dead +beast.</note> In a Kabyle story an ogre declares that his fate +is far away in an egg, which is in a pigeon, which is in a +camel, which is in the sea. The hero procures the egg and +crushes it between his hands, and the ogre dies.<note place='foot'>J. Rivière, <hi rend='italic'>Contes populaires de la +Kabylie du Djurdjura</hi> (Paris, 1882), +p. 191.</note> In a +Magyar folk-tale, an old witch detains a young prince called +Ambrose in the bowels of the earth. At last she confided +<pb n='140'/><anchor id='Pg140'/> +to him that she kept a wild boar in a silken meadow, and if +it were killed, they would find a hare inside, and inside the +hare a pigeon, and inside the pigeon a small box, and inside +the box one black and one shining beetle: the shining beetle +held her life, and the black one held her power; if these two +beetles died, then her life would come to an end also. When +the old hag went out, Ambrose killed the wild boar, and took +out the hare; from the hare he took the pigeon, from the +pigeon the box, and from the box the two beetles; he killed +the black beetle, but kept the shining one alive. So the +witch's power left her immediately, and when she came home, +she had to take to her bed. Having learned from her how +to escape from his prison to the upper air, Ambrose killed +the shining beetle, and the old hag's spirit left her at once.<note place='foot'>W. H. Jones and L. L. Kropf, +<hi rend='italic'>The Folk-tales of the Magyar</hi> (London, +1889), pp. 205 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +In another Hungarian story the safety of the Dwarf-king +resides in a golden cockchafer, inside a golden cock, inside +a golden sheep, inside a golden stag, in the ninety-ninth +island. The hero overcomes all these golden animals and +so recovers his bride, whom the Dwarf-king had carried off.<note place='foot'>R. H. Busk, <hi rend='italic'>The Folk-lore of Rome</hi> +(London, 1874), p. 168.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul +in a Lapp +story. +The giant +whose life +was in a +hen's egg. The +helpful +animals.</note> +A Lapp story tells of a giant who slew a man and took +away his wife. When the man's son grew up, he tried to +rescue his mother and kill the giant, but fire and sword were +powerless to harm the monster; it seemed as if he had no +life in his body. <q>Dear mother,</q> at last enquired the son, +<q>don't you know where the giant has hidden away his life?</q> +The mother did not know, but promised to ask. So one +day, when the giant chanced to be in a good humour, +she asked him where he kept his life. He said to her, +<q>Out yonder on a burning sea is an island, in the island is +a barrel, in the barrel is a sheep, in the sheep is a hen, in the +hen is an egg, and in the egg is my life.</q> When the woman's +son heard this, he hired a bear, a wolf, a hawk, and a diver-bird +and set off in a boat to sail to the island in the burning sea. +He sat with the hawk and the diver-bird under an iron tent in +the middle of the boat, and he set the bear and the wolf to +row. That is why to this day the bear's hair is dark brown +and the wolf has dark-brown spots; for as they sat at the +<pb n='141'/><anchor id='Pg141'/> +oars without any screen they were naturally scorched by +the tossing tongues of flame on the burning sea. However, +they made their way over the fiery billows to the island, and +there they found the barrel. In a trice the bear had knocked +the bottom out of it with his claws, and forth sprang a sheep. +But the wolf soon pulled the sheep down and rent it in pieces. +From out the sheep flew a hen, but the hawk stooped on it and +tore it with his talons. In the hen was an egg, which dropped +into the sea and sank; but the diver-bird dived after it. +Twice he dived after it in vain and came up to the surface +gasping and spluttering; but the third time he brought up +the egg and handed it to the young man. Great was the +young man's joy. At once he kindled a great bonfire on +the shore, threw the egg into it, and rowed away back across +the sea. On landing he went away straight to the giant's +abode, and found the monster burning, just as he had left the +egg burning on the island. <q>Fool that I was,</q> lamented +the dying giant, <q>to betray my life to a wicked old woman,</q> +and with that he snatched at an iron tube through which in +happier days he had been wont to suck the blood of his +human victims. But the woman was too subtle for him, for +she had taken the precaution of inserting one end of the +tube in the glowing embers of the hearth; and so, when the +giant sucked hard at the other end, he imbibed only fire and +ashes. Thus he burned inside as well as outside, and when +the fire went out the giant's life went out with it.<note place='foot'>F. Liebrecht, <q>Lappländische +Märchen,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Germania</hi>, N.R., iii. (1870) +pp. 174 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; F. C. Poestion, <hi rend='italic'>Lappländische +Märchen</hi> (Vienna, 1886), +No. 20, pp. 81 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul in +Samoyed +and +Kalmuck +stories.</note> +A Samoyed story tells how seven warlocks killed a certain +man's mother and carried off his sister, whom they kept to +serve them. Every night when they came home the seven +warlocks used to take out their hearts and place them in a +dish which the woman hung on the tent-poles. But the +wife of the man whom they had wronged stole the hearts of +the warlocks while they slept, and took them to her husband. +By break of day he went with the hearts to the warlocks, +and found them at the point of death. They all begged for +their hearts; but he threw six of their hearts to the ground, +and six of the warlocks died. The seventh and eldest warlock +<pb n='142'/><anchor id='Pg142'/> +begged hard for his heart and the man said, <q>You +killed my mother. Make her alive again, and I will give +you back your heart.</q> The warlock said to his wife, <q>Go +to the place where the dead woman lies. You will find a +bag there. Bring it to me. The woman's spirit is in the +bag.</q> So his wife brought the bag; and the warlock said +to the man, <q>Go to your dead mother, shake the bag and +let the spirit breathe over her bones; so she will come to life +again.</q> The man did as he was bid, and his mother was +restored to life. Then he hurled the seventh heart to the +ground, and the seventh warlock died.<note place='foot'>A. Castren, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnologische Vorlesungen +über die altaischen Völker</hi> (St. +Petersburg, 1857), pp. 173 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> In a Kalmuck tale +we read how a certain khan challenged a wise man to shew +his skill by stealing a precious stone on which the khan's life +depended. The sage contrived to purloin the talisman +while the khan and his guards slept; but not content with +this he gave a further proof of his dexterity by bonneting +the slumbering potentate with a bladder. This was too +much for the khan. Next morning he informed the sage +that he could overlook everything else, but that the indignity +of being bonneted with a bladder was more than he could +stand; and he ordered his facetious friend to instant execution. +Pained at this exhibition of royal ingratitude, the +sage dashed to the ground the talisman which he still held +in his hand; and at the same instant blood flowed from the +nostrils of the khan, and he gave up the ghost.<note place='foot'>B. Jülg, <hi rend='italic'>Kalmückische Märchen</hi> +(Leipsic, 1866), No. 12, pp. 58 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul +in Tartar +poems.</note> +In a Tartar poem two heroes named Ak Molot and +Bulat engage in mortal combat. Ak Molot pierces his foe +through and through with an arrow, grapples with him, and +dashes him to the ground, but all in vain, Bulat could not +die. At last when the combat has lasted three years, a +friend of Ak Molot sees a golden casket hanging by a white +thread from the sky, and bethinks him that perhaps this +casket contains Bulat's soul. So he shot through the white +thread with an arrow, and down fell the casket. He opened +it, and in the casket sat ten white birds, and one of the birds +was Bulat's soul. Bulat wept when he saw that his soul was +found in the casket. But one after the other the birds were +<pb n='143'/><anchor id='Pg143'/> +killed, and then Ak Molot easily slew his foe.<note place='foot'>Anton Schiefner, <hi rend='italic'>Heldensagen der +Minussinschen Tataren</hi> (St. Petersburg, +1859), pp. 172-176.</note> In another +Tartar poem, two brothers going to fight two other brothers +take out their souls and hide them in the form of a white +herb with six stalks in a deep pit. But one of their foes +sees them doing so and digs up their souls, which he puts +into a golden ram's horn, and then sticks the ram's horn in +his quiver. The two warriors whose souls have thus been +stolen know that they have no chance of victory, and accordingly +make peace with their enemies.<note place='foot'>A. Schiefner, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 108-112.</note> In another Tartar +poem a terrible demon sets all the gods and heroes at defiance. +At last a valiant youth fights the demon, binds him hand +and foot, and slices him with his sword. But still the demon +is not slain. So the youth asked him, <q>Tell me, where is +your soul hidden? For if your soul had been hidden in your +body, you must have been dead long ago.</q> The demon +replied, <q>On the saddle of my horse is a bag. In the bag +is a serpent with twelve heads. In the serpent is my soul. +When you have killed the serpent, you have killed me also.</q> +So the youth took the saddle-bag from the horse and killed +the twelve-headed serpent, whereupon the demon expired.<note place='foot'>A. Schiefner, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 360-364; +A. Castren, <hi rend='italic'>Vorlesungen über die +finnische Mythologie</hi> (St. Petersburg, +1857), pp. 186 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +In another Tartar poem a hero called Kök Chan deposits +with a maiden a golden ring, in which is half his strength. +Afterwards when Kök Chan is wrestling long with a hero +and cannot kill him, a woman drops into his mouth the ring +which contains half his strength. Thus inspired with fresh +force he slays his enemy.<note place='foot'>A. Schiefner, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 189-193. +In another Tartar poem (Schiefner, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 390 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>) a boy's soul is shut +up by his enemies in a box. While +the soul is in the box, the boy is dead; +when it is taken out, he is restored to +life. In the same poem (p. 384) the +soul of a horse is kept shut up in a +box, because it is feared the owner of +the horse will become the greatest +hero on earth. But these cases are, +to some extent, the converse of those +in the text.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul in a +Mongolian +story and +Tartar +poems.</note> +In a Mongolian story the hero Joro gets the better of +his enemy the lama Tschoridong in the following way. The +lama, who is an enchanter, sends out his soul in the form of +a wasp to sting Joro's eyes. But Joro catches the wasp in +his hand, and by alternately shutting and opening his hand +<pb n='144'/><anchor id='Pg144'/> +he causes the lama alternately to lose and recover consciousness.<note place='foot'>Schott, <q>Ueber die Sage von +Geser-Chan,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Abhandlungen der königlichen +Akademie der Wissenschaften zu +Berlin</hi>, 1851, p. 269.</note> +In a Tartar poem two youths cut open the body of +an old witch and tear out her bowels, but all to no purpose, +she still lives. On being asked where her soul is, she +answers that it is in the middle of her shoe-sole in the form +of a seven-headed speckled snake. So one of the youths +slices her shoe-sole with his sword, takes out the speckled +snake, and cuts off its seven heads. Then the witch dies.<note place='foot'>W. Radloff, <hi rend='italic'>Proben der Volkslitteratur +der türkischen Stämme Süd-Sibiriens</hi>, +ii. (St. Petersburg, 1868), +pp. 237 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Another Tartar poem describes how the hero Kartaga +grappled with the Swan-woman. Long they wrestled. +Moons waxed and waned and still they wrestled; years +came and went, and still the struggle went on. But the +piebald horse and the black horse knew that the Swan-woman's +soul was not in her. Under the black earth flow +nine seas; where the seas meet and form one, the sea comes +to the surface of the earth. At the mouth of the nine seas +rises a rock of copper; it rises to the surface of the ground, +it rises up between heaven and earth, this rock of copper. +At the foot of the copper rock is a black chest, in the black +chest is a golden casket, and in the golden casket is the soul +of the Swan-woman. Seven little birds are the soul of the +Swan-woman; if the birds are killed the Swan-woman will +die straightway. So the horses ran to the foot of the copper +rock, opened the black chest, and brought back the golden +casket. Then the piebald horse turned himself into a bald-headed +man, opened the golden casket, and cut off the heads +of the seven birds. So the Swan-woman died.<note place='foot'>W. Radloff, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 531 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> In a Tartar +story a chief called Tash Kan is asked where his soul is. +He answers that there are seven great poplars, and under +the poplars a golden well; seven <foreign rend='italic'>Maralen</foreign> (?) come to drink +the water of the well, and the belly of one of them trails on the +ground; in this <foreign rend='italic'>Maral</foreign> is a golden box, in the golden box +is a silver box, in the silver box are seven quails, the head +of one of the quails is golden and its tail silver; that quail +is Tash Kan's soul. The hero of the story gets possession +of the seven quails and wrings the necks of six of them. +<pb n='145'/><anchor id='Pg145'/> +Then Tash Kan comes running and begs the hero to let +his soul go free. But the hero wrings the last quail's neck, +and Tash Kan drops dead.<note place='foot'>W. Radloff, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> iv. (St. Petersburg, +1872) pp. 88 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In another Tartar poem the hero, +pursuing his sister who has driven away his cattle, is warned +to desist from the pursuit because his sister has carried away +his soul in a golden sword and a golden arrow, and if he +pursues her she will kill him by throwing the golden sword +or shooting the golden arrow at him.<note place='foot'>W. Radloff, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. (St. Petersburg, +1866) pp. 345 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul in +a Chinese +story.</note> +A modern Chinese story tells how an habitual criminal used +to take his soul out of his own body for the purpose of evading +the righteous punishment of his crimes. This bad man lived +in Khien (Kwei-cheu), and the sentences that had been passed +on him formed a pile as high as a hill. The mandarins had +flogged him to death with sticks and flung his mangled +corpse into the river, but three days afterwards the scoundrel +got his soul back again, and on the fifth day he resumed +his career of villainy as if nothing had happened. The thing +occurred again and again, till at last it reached the ears of +the Governor of the province, who flew into a violent passion +and proposed to the Governor-General to have the rascal +beheaded. And beheaded he was; but in three days the +wretch was alive again with no trace of decapitation about +him except a slender red thread round his neck. And now, +like a giant refreshed, he began a fresh series of enormities. +He even went so far as to beat his own mother. This was +more than she could bear, and she brought the matter before +the magistrate. She produced in court a vase and said, +<q>In this vase my refractory son has hidden his soul. Whenever +he was conscious of having committed a serious crime, +or a misdeed of the most heinous kind, he remained at +home, took his soul out of his body, purified it, and put it +in the vase. Then the authorities only punished or executed +his body of flesh and blood, and not his soul. With his +soul, refined by a long process, he then cured his freshly +mutilated body, which thus became able in three days to +recommence in the old way. Now, however, his crimes +have reached a climax, for he has beaten me, an old woman, +and I cannot bear it. I pray you, smash this vase, and +<pb n='146'/><anchor id='Pg146'/> +scatter his soul by fanning it away with a windwheel; and if +then you castigate his body anew, it is probable that bad +son of mine will really die.</q> The mandarin took the hint. +He had the rogue cudgelled to death, and when they +examined the corpse they found that decay had set in within +ten days.<note place='foot'>J. J. M. de Groot, <hi rend='italic'>The Religious System of China</hi>, iv. (Leyden, 1901) +pp. 105 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul in +a story told +by the +Khasis +of Assam.</note> +The Khasis of Assam tell of a certain Kyllong, king of +Madur, who pursued his conquests on a remarkable principle. +He needed few or no soldiers, because he himself was a very +strong man and nobody could kill him permanently; they +could, it is true, put him to death, but then he came to life +again immediately. The king of Synteng, who was much +afraid of him, once chopped him in pieces and threw the +severed hands and feet far away, thinking thus to get rid of +him for good and all; but it was to no purpose. The very +next morning Kyllong came to life again and stalked about +as brisk as ever. So the king of Synteng was very anxious +to learn how his rival contrived thus to rise from the dead; +and he hit on a plan for worming out the secret. He chose +the fairest girl of the whole country, clad her in royal robes, +put jewels of gold and silver upon her, and said, <q>All these +will I give thee and more besides, if thou canst obtain for me +King Kyllong's secret, and canst inform me how he brings +himself to life again after being killed.</q> So he sent the girl +to the slave-market in King Kyllong's country; and the +king saw and loved her and took her to wife. So she +caressed him and coaxed him to tell her his secret, and in +a fatal hour he was beguiled into revealing it. He said, +<q>My life depends upon these things. I must bathe every +day and must wash my entrails. After that, I take my +food, and there is no one on earth who can kill me unless +he obtains possession of my entrails. Thus my life hangs +only on my entrails.</q> His treacherous wife at once sent +word to the king of Synteng, who caused men to lie in wait +while Kyllong was bathing. As usual, Kyllong had laid his +entrails on one side of the bathing-place, while he disported +himself in the water, intending afterwards to wash them +and replace them in his body. But before he could do so, +<pb n='147'/><anchor id='Pg147'/> +one of the liers-in-wait had seized the entrails and killed +him. The entrails he cut in pieces and gave to the dogs +to eat. That was the end of King Kyllong. He was never +able to come to life again; his country was conquered, and +the members of the royal family were scattered far and +wide. Seven generations have passed since then.<note place='foot'>Major P. R. T. Gurdon, <hi rend='italic'>The Khasis</hi> (London, 1907), pp. 181-184.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul in +a Malay +poem. +Bidasari +and the +golden fish.</note> +A Malay poem relates how once upon a time in the city +of Indrapoora there was a certain merchant who was rich +and prosperous, but he had no children. One day as he +walked with his wife by the river they found a baby girl, +fair as an angel. So they adopted the child and called her +Bidasari. The merchant caused a golden fish to be made, +and into this fish he transferred the soul of his adopted +daughter. Then he put the golden fish in a golden box full +of water, and hid it in a pond in the midst of his garden. +In time the girl grew to be a lovely woman. Now the +King of Indrapoora had a fair young queen, who lived in +fear that the king might take to himself a second wife. So, +hearing of the charms of Bidasari, the queen resolved to put +her out of the way. She lured the girl to the palace and +tortured her cruelly; but Bidasari could not die, because her +soul was not in her. At last she could stand the torture no +longer and said to the queen, <q>If you wish me to die, you +must bring the box which is in the pond in my father's +garden.</q> So the box was brought and opened, and there +was the golden fish in the water. The girl said, <q>My soul +is in that fish. In the morning you must take the fish out +of the water, and in the evening you must put it back into +the water. Do not let the fish lie about, but bind it round +your neck. If you do this, I shall soon die.</q> So the queen +took the fish out of the box and fastened it round her neck; +and no sooner had she done so, than Bidasari fell into a +swoon. But in the evening, when the fish was put back +into the water, Bidasari came to herself again. Seeing that +she thus had the girl in her power, the queen sent her home +to her adopted parents. To save her from further persecution +her parents resolved to remove their daughter from the +city. So in a lonely and desolate spot they built a house +and brought Bidasari thither. There she dwelt alone, undergoing +<pb n='148'/><anchor id='Pg148'/> +vicissitudes that corresponded with the vicissitudes +of the golden fish in which was her soul. All day long, +while the fish was out of the water, she remained unconscious; +but in the evening, when the fish was put into +the water, she revived. One day the king was out hunting, +and coming to the house where Bidasari lay unconscious, +was smitten with her beauty. He tried to waken her, but +in vain. Next day, towards evening, he repeated his visit, +but still found her unconscious. However, when darkness +fell, she came to herself and told the king the secret of her +life. So the king returned to the palace, took the fish from +the queen, and put it in water. Immediately Bidasari +revived, and the king took her to wife.<note place='foot'>G. A. Wilken, <q>De betrekking +tusschen menschen- dieren- en plantenleven +naar het volksgeloof,</q> <hi rend='italic'>De Indische +Gids</hi>, November 1884, pp. 600-602; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>De Simsonsage,</q> <hi rend='italic'>De Gids</hi>, 1888, +No. 5, pp. 6 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> (of the separate reprint); +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Verspreide Geschriften</hi> (The +Hague, 1912), iii. 296-298, 559-561. +Compare L. de Backer, <hi rend='italic'>L'Archipel +Indien</hi> (Paris, 1874), pp. 144-149. +The Malay text of the long poem was +published with a Dutch translation and +notes by W. R. van Hoëvell (<q>Sjaïr +Bidasari, een oorspronkelijk Maleisch +Gedicht, uitgegeven en van eene Vertaling +en Aanteekeningen voorzien,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch +Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen</hi>, +xix. (Batavia, 1843) pp. 1-421).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul in +a story told +in Nias.</note> +Another story of an external soul comes from Nias, an +island to the west of Sumatra. Once on a time a chief was +captured by his enemies, who tried to put him to death but +failed. Water would not drown him nor fire burn him nor +steel pierce him. At last his wife revealed the secret. On +his head he had a hair as hard as a copper wire; and with +this wire his life was bound up. So the hair was plucked +out, and with it his spirit fled.<note place='foot'>J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. +von Rosenberg, <q>Verslag omtrent het +eiland Nias,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Verhandelingen van het +Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten +en Wetenschappen</hi>, xxx. (Batavia, 1863) +p. 111; H. Sundermann, <q>Die Insel +Nias,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift</hi>, +xi. (1884) p. 453; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Die Insel Nias +und die Mission daselbst</hi> (Barmen, +1905), p. 71. Compare E. Modigliani, +<hi rend='italic'>Un Viaggio a Nías</hi> (Milan, 1890), +p. 339.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul in +a Hausa +story. +The king +whose life +was in a +box. The helpful +animals.</note> +A Hausa story from Northern Nigeria closely resembles +some of the European tales which we have noticed; for it +contains not only the incident of the external soul, but also +the incident of the helpful animals, by whose assistance the +hero is able to slay the Soulless King and obtain possession +of the kingdom. The story runs thus. A certain man and +his wife had four daughters born to them in succession, but +<pb n='149'/><anchor id='Pg149'/> +every one of the baby girls mysteriously disappeared on the +day when she was to be weaned; so the parents fell under the +suspicion of having devoured them. Last of all there was +born to them a son, who to avoid accidents was left to wean +himself. One day, as he grew up, the son received a magic +lotion from an old woman, who told him to rub his eyes with +it. He did so, and immediately he saw a large house and +entering it he found his eldest sister married to a bull. She +bade him welcome and so did her husband the bull; and +when he went away, the bull very kindly presented him with +a lock of his hair as a keepsake. In like manner the lad +discovered his other three sisters, who were living in wedlock +with a ram, a dog, and a hawk respectively. All of them +welcomed him and from the ram, the dog, and the hawk he +received tokens of regard in the shape of hair or feathers. +Then he returned home and told his parents of his adventure +and how he had found his sisters alive and married. Next +day he went to a far city, where he made love to the Queen +and persuaded her to plot with him against the life of the +King her husband. So she coaxed the King to shew his +affection for her by <q>taking his own life, and joining it to +hers.</q> The unsuspecting husband, as usual, fell into the +trap set for him by his treacherous wife. He confided to +her the secret of his life. <q>My life,</q> said he, <q>is behind the +city, behind the city in a thicket. In this thicket there is a +lake; in the lake is a rock; in the rock is a gazelle; in the +gazelle is a dove; and in the dove is a small box.</q> The +Queen divulged the secret to her lover, who kindled a fire +behind the city and threw into it the hair and feathers which +he had received from the friendly animals, his brothers-in-law. +Immediately the animals themselves appeared and readily +gave their help in the enterprise. The bull drank up the +lake; the ram broke up the rock; the dog caught the +gazelle; the hawk captured the dove. So the youth +extracted the precious box from the dove and repaired to the +palace, where he found the King already dead. His Majesty +had been ailing from the moment when the young man left +the city, and he grew steadily worse with every fresh success +of the adventurer who was to supplant him. So the hero +became King and married the false Queen; and his sisters' +<pb n='150'/><anchor id='Pg150'/> +husbands were changed from animals into men and received +subordinate posts in the government. The hero's parents, +too, came to live in the city over which he reigned.<note place='foot'>Major A. J. N. Tremearne, <hi rend='italic'>Hausa +Superstitions and Customs</hi> (London, +1913), pp. 131 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The original Hausa +text of the story appears to be printed +in Major Edgar's <hi rend='italic'>Litafi na Tatsuniyoyi +na Hausa</hi> (ii. 27), to which Major +Tremearne refers (p. 9).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul in +a South +Nigerian +story. +The external +soul in +a story +told by the +Ba-Ronga +of South +Africa. +The Clan +of the Cat.</note> +A West African story from Southern Nigeria relates +how a king kept his soul in a little brown bird, which perched +on a tall tree beside the gate of the palace. The king's life +was so bound up with that of the bird that whoever should +kill the bird would simultaneously kill the king and succeed +to the kingdom. The secret was betrayed by the queen to +her lover, who shot the bird with an arrow and thereby slew +the king and ascended the vacant throne.<note place='foot'>Major A. G. Leonard, <hi rend='italic'>The Lower +Niger and its Tribes</hi> (London, 1906), +pp. 319-321.</note> A tale told by +the Ba-Ronga of South Africa sets forth how the lives of a +whole family were contained in one cat. When a girl of the +family, named Titishan, married a husband, she begged her +parents to let her take the precious cat with her to her new +home. But they refused, saying, <q>You know that our life is +attached to it</q>; and they offered to give her an antelope or +even an elephant instead of it. But nothing would satisfy +her but the cat. So at last she carried it off with her and +shut it up in a place where nobody saw it; even her husband +knew nothing about it. One day, when she went to work +in the fields, the cat escaped from its place of concealment, +entered the hut, put on the warlike trappings of the husband, +and danced and sang. Some children, attracted by the noise, +discovered the cat at its antics, and when they expressed +their astonishment, the animal only capered the more and +insulted them besides. So they went to the owner and said, +<q>There is somebody dancing in your house, and he insulted +us.</q> <q>Hold your tongues,</q> said he, <q>I'll soon put a stop to +your lies.</q> So he went and hid behind the door and peeped +in, and there sure enough was the cat prancing about and +singing. He fired at it, and the animal dropped down dead. +At the same moment his wife fell to the ground in the field +where she was at work; said she, <q>I have been killed at +home.</q> But she had strength enough left to ask her husband +to go with her to her parents' village, taking with him the +<pb n='151'/><anchor id='Pg151'/> +dead cat wrapt up in a mat. All her relatives assembled, +and bitterly they reproached her for having insisted on taking +the animal with her to her husband's village. As soon as +the mat was unrolled and they saw the dead cat, they all +fell down lifeless one after the other. So the Clan of the +Cat was destroyed; and the bereaved husband closed the +gate of the village with a branch, and returned home, and +told his friends how in killing the cat he had killed the whole +clan, because their lives depended on the life of the cat. In +another Ronga story the lives of a whole clan are attached +to a buffalo, which a girl of the clan in like manner insists +on taking with her.<note place='foot'>Henri A. Junod, <hi rend='italic'>Les Chants et les +Contes des Ba-ronga</hi> (Lausanne, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), +pp. 253-256; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>The Life of a South +African Tribe</hi> (Neuchatel, 1912-1913), +i. 338 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul in +stories told +by the +North +American +Indians. The ogress +whose life +was in a +hemlock +branch.</note> +Ideas of the same sort meet us in stories told by the +North American Indians. Thus in one Indian tale the hero +pounds his enemy to pieces, but cannot kill him because his +heart is not in his body. At last the champion learns that +his foe's heart is in the sky, at the western side of the noonday +sun; so he reaches up, seizes the heart, and crushes it, +and straightway his enemy expires. In another Indian myth +there figures a personage Winter whose song brings frost +and snow, but his heart is hidden away at a distance. +However, his foe finds the heart and burns it, and so the +Snow-maker perishes.<note place='foot'>J. Curtin, <hi rend='italic'>Myths and Folk-tales of +the Russians, Western Slavs, and +Magyars</hi> (London, 1891), p. 551. +The writer does not mention his +authorities.</note> A Pawnee story relates how a +wounded warrior was carried off by bears, who healed him +of his hurts. When the Indian was about to return to his +village, the old he-bear said to him, <q>I shall look after you. +I shall give you a part of myself. If I am killed, you +shall be killed. If I grow old, you shall be old.</q> And the +bear gave him a cap of bearskin, and at parting he put his +arms round the Indian and hugged him, and put his mouth +against the man's mouth and held the man's hands in his +paws. The Indian who told the tale conjectured that when +the man died, the old bear died also.<note place='foot'>G. B. Grinnell, <hi rend='italic'>Pawnee Hero +Stories and Folk-tales</hi> (New York, +1889), pp. 121 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <q>The Bear Man.</q></note> The Navajoes tell of +a certain mythical being called <q>the Maiden that becomes a +<pb n='152'/><anchor id='Pg152'/> +Bear,</q> who learned the art of turning herself into a bear from +the prairie wolf. She was a great warrior and quite +invulnerable; for when she went to war she took out her +vital organs and hid them, so that no one could kill her; +and when the battle was over she put the organs back in +their places again.<note place='foot'>Washington Matthews, <q>The +Mountain Chant: a Navajo Ceremony,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of +Ethnology</hi> (Washington, 1887), pp. +406 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Kwakiutl Indians of British +Columbia tell of an ogress, who could not be killed because +her life was in a hemlock branch. A brave boy met her in +the woods, smashed her head with a stone, scattered her +brains, broke her bones, and threw them into the water. +Then, thinking he had disposed of the ogress, he went into +her house. There he saw a woman rooted to the floor, who +warned him, saying, <q>Now do not stay long. I know that +you have tried to kill the ogress. It is the fourth time that +somebody has tried to kill her. She never dies; she has +nearly come to life. There in that covered hemlock branch +is her life. Go there, and as soon as you see her enter, +shoot her life. Then she will be dead.</q> Hardly had she +finished speaking when sure enough in came the ogress, +singing as she walked:— +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<lg> +<l><q rend='pre'><hi rend='italic'>I have the magical treasure,</hi></q></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>I have the supernatural power,</hi></l> +<l><q rend='post'><hi rend='italic'>I can return to life.</hi></q></l> +</lg> +</quote> + +<p> +Such was her song. But the boy shot at her life, and she +fell dead to the floor.<note place='foot'>Franz Boas, <q>The Social Organization +and the Secret Societies of the +Kwakiutl Indians,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Report of the +United States National Museum for +1895</hi> (Washington, 1897), p. 373.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='153'/><anchor id='Pg153'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter XI. The External Soul in Folk-Custom.</head> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='1. The External Soul in Inanimate Things.'/> +<head>§ 1. The External Soul in Inanimate Things.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The external +soul +in folk-custom.</note> +Thus the idea that the soul may be deposited for a longer +or shorter time in some place of security outside the body, +or at all events in the hair, is found in the popular tales of +many races. It remains to shew that the idea is not a +mere figment devised to adorn a tale, but is a real article of +primitive faith, which has given rise to a corresponding set +of customs. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The soul +removed +from the +body as a +precaution +in seasons +of danger. +Souls of +people +collected +in a bag +at a house-warming. Soul of a +woman put +in a chopping-knife +at childbirth.</note> +We have seen that in the tales the hero, as a preparation +for battle, sometimes removes his soul from his body, in +order that his body may be invulnerable and immortal in +the combat. With a like intention the savage removes his +soul from his body on various occasions of real or imaginary +peril. Thus among the people of Minahassa in Celebes, +when a family moves into a new house, a priest collects the +souls of the whole family in a bag, and afterwards restores +them to their owners, because the moment of entering a new +house is supposed to be fraught with supernatural danger.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Taboo and the Perils of the Soul</hi>, pp. 63 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +In Southern Celebes, when a woman is brought to bed, the +messenger who fetches the doctor or the midwife always +carries with him something made of iron, such as a chopping-knife, +which he delivers to the doctor. The doctor must +keep the thing in his house till the confinement is over, when +he gives it back, receiving a fixed sum of money for doing so. +The chopping-knife, or whatever it is, represents the woman's +soul, which at this critical time is believed to be safer out of +<pb n='154'/><anchor id='Pg154'/> +her body than in it. Hence the doctor must take great +care of the object; for were it lost, the woman's soul would +assuredly, they think, be lost with it.<note place='foot'>B. F. Matthes, <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de +Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes</hi> (The +Hague, 1875), p. 54.</note> But in Celebes the +convenience of occasionally depositing the soul in some +external object is apparently not limited to human beings. +The Alfoors, or Toradjas, who inhabit the central district of +that island, and among whose industries the working of +iron occupies a foremost place, attribute to the metal a soul +which would be apt to desert its body under the blows of +the hammer, if some means were not found to detain it. +Accordingly in every smithy of Poso—for that is the name +of the country of these people—you may see hanging up +a bundle of wooden instruments, such as chopping-knives, +swords, spear-heads, and so forth. This bundle goes by the +name of <foreign rend='italic'>lamoa</foreign>, which is the general word for <q>gods,</q> and in +it the soul of the iron that is being wrought in the smithy +is, according to one account, supposed to reside. <q>If we +did not hang the <foreign rend='italic'>lamoa</foreign> over the anvil,</q> they say, <q>the iron +would flow away and be unworkable,</q> on account of the +absence of the soul.<note place='foot'>A. C. Kruijt, <q>Een en ander aangaande +het geestelijk en maatschappelijk +leven van den Poso-Alfoer,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche +Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, xxxix. +(1895) pp. 23 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Van Paloppo +naar Posso,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege +het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xlii. (1898) p. 72. As to the +<foreign rend='italic'>lamoa</foreign> in general, see A. C. Kruijt, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> xl. (1896) pp. 10 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> However, according to another interpretation +these wooden models are substitutes offered to the +gods in room of the iron, whose soul the covetous deities +might otherwise abstract for their own use, thus making the +metal unmalleable.<note place='foot'>A. C. Kruijt, <q>Het koppensnellen +der Toradja's van Midden-Celebes, +en zijne beteekenis,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Verslagen +en Mededeelingen der koninklijke +Akademie der Wetenschappen</hi>, Afdeeling +Letterkunde, iv. Reeks, iii. (Amsterdam, +1899) pp. 201 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<q>Het ijzer in Midden-Celebes,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen +tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde +van Nederlandsch- Indië</hi>, liii. +(1901) pp. 156 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Both the interpretations +in the text appear to be +inferences drawn by Mr. Kruijt from +the statement of the natives, that, if +they did not hang up these wooden +models in the smithy, <q>the iron would +flow away and be unworkable</q> (<q><foreign lang='nl' rend='italic'>zou +het ijzer vervloeien en onbewerkbaar +worden</foreign></q>).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Soul of a +child put +for safety +in an empty +coco-nut +or a bag. Souls of +people in +ornaments, +horns, a +column, +and so +forth. The souls +of Egyptian +kings +in portrait +statues. +A man's +life bound +up with the +fire in his +lodge.</note> +Among the Dyaks of Pinoeh, a district of South-Eastern +Borneo, when a child is born, a medicine-man is sent for, +who conjures the soul of the infant into half a coco-nut, +<pb n='155'/><anchor id='Pg155'/> +which he thereupon covers with a cloth and places on a +square platter or charger suspended by cords from the roof. +This ceremony he repeats at every new moon for a year.<note place='foot'>A. H. B. Agerbeek, <q>Enkele +gebruiken van de Dajaksche bevolking +der Pinoehlanden,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor +Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, +li. (1909) pp. 447 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +The intention of the ceremony is not explained by the +writer who describes it, but we may conjecture that it is to +place the soul of the child in a safer place than its own frail +little body. This conjecture is confirmed by the reason +assigned for a similar custom observed elsewhere in the +Indian Archipelago. In the Kei Islands, when there is a +newly-born child in a house, an empty coco-nut, split and +spliced together again, may sometimes be seen hanging +beside a rough wooden image of an ancestor. The soul of +the infant is believed to be temporarily deposited in the +coco-nut in order that it may be safe from the attacks of +evil spirits; but when the child grows bigger and stronger, +the soul will take up its permanent abode in its own body. +Similarly among the Esquimaux of Alaska, when a child is +sick, the medicine-man will sometimes extract its soul from +its body and place it for safe-keeping in an amulet, which +for further security he deposits in his own medicine-bag. <note place='foot'>J. A. Jacobsen, <hi rend='italic'>Reisen in die +Inselwelt des Banda-Meeres</hi> (Berlin, +1896), p. 199.</note> +It seems probable that many amulets have been similarly +regarded as soul-boxes, that is, as safes in which the souls +of the owners are kept for greater security.<note place='foot'>In a long list of female ornaments +the prophet Isaiah mentions (iii. 20) +<q>houses of the soul</q> +(בת הנפש) or (שפנה תב), +which modern scholars suppose to have been +perfume boxes, as the Revised English +Version translates the phrase. The +name, literally translated <q>houses of +the soul,</q> suggests that these trinkets +were amulets of the kind mentioned in +the text. See my article, <q>Folk-lore +in the Old Testament,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Anthropological +Essays presented to E. B. Tylor</hi> +(Oxford, 1907), pp. 148 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> In +ancient Egyptian tombs there are often +found plaques or palettes of schist +bearing traces of paint; some of them +are decorated with engravings of animals +or historical scenes, others are +modelled in the shape of animals of +various sorts, such as antelopes, hippopotamuses, +birds, tortoises, and fish. +As a rule only one such plaque is +found in a tomb, and it lies near the +hands of the mummy. It has been +conjectured by M. Jean Capart that +these plaques are amulets or soul-boxes, +in which the external souls of +the dead were supposed to be preserved. +See Jean Capart, <hi rend='italic'>Les Palettes +en schiste de L'Égypte primitive</hi> (Brussels, +1908), pp. 5 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 19 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> +(separate reprint from the <hi rend='italic'>Revue des +Questions Scientifiques</hi>, avril, 1908). +For a full description of these plaques +or palettes, see Jean Capart, <hi rend='italic'>Les Débuts +de l'Art en Égypte</hi> (Brussels, 1904), +pp. 76 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 221 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> An old +<pb n='156'/><anchor id='Pg156'/> +Mang'anje woman in the West Shire district of British +Central Africa used to wear round her neck an ivory ornament, +hollow, and about three inches long, which she called +her life or soul (<foreign rend='italic'>moyo wanga</foreign>). Naturally, she would not +part with it; a planter tried to buy it of her, but in vain.<note place='foot'>Miss Alice Werner, in a letter to +the author, dated 25th September +1899. Miss Werner knew the old +woman. Compare <hi rend='italic'>Contemporary Review</hi>, +lxx. (July-December 1896), p. 389, +where Miss Werner describes the +ornament as a rounded peg, tapering +to a point, with a neck or notch at +the top.</note> +When Mr. James Macdonald was one day sitting in the house +of a Hlubi chief, awaiting the appearance of that great man, +who was busy decorating his person, a native pointed to a +pair of magnificent ox-horns, and said, <q>Ntame has his soul +in these horns.</q> The horns were those of an animal which +had been sacrificed, and they were held sacred. A magician +had fastened them to the roof to protect the house and its +inmates from the thunder-bolt. <q>The idea,</q> adds Mr. +Macdonald, <q>is in no way foreign to South African thought. +A man's soul there may dwell in the roof of his house, in a +tree, by a spring of water, or on some mountain scaur.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. James Macdonald, <hi rend='italic'>Religion +and Myth</hi> (London, 1893), p. 190. +Compare Dudley Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>The Essential +Kafir</hi> (London, 1904), p. 83: <q>The +natives occasionally fix ox-horns in +their roofs and say that the spirit of +the chief lives in these horns and protects +the hut; these horns also protect +the hut from lightning, though not in +virtue of their spiritual connections. +(They are also used simply as ornaments.)</q> +No doubt amulets often +degenerate into ornaments.</note> +Among the natives of the Gazelle Peninsula in New Britain +there is a secret society which goes by the name of Ingniet +or Ingiet. On his entrance into it every man receives a stone +in the shape either of a human being or of an animal, and +henceforth his soul is believed to be knit up in a manner +with the stone. If it breaks, it is an evil omen for him; +they say that the thunder has struck the stone and that he +who owns it will soon die. If nevertheless the man survives +the breaking of his soul-stone, they say that it was not a +proper soul-stone and he gets a new one instead.<note place='foot'>R. Thurnwald, <q>Im Bismarckarchipel +und auf den Salomo-inseln,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</hi>, xlii. (1910) +p. 136. As to the Ingniet, Ingiet, or +Iniet Society see P. A. Kleintitschen, +<hi rend='italic'>Die Küstenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel</hi> +(Hiltrup bei Münster, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), +pp. 354 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; R. Parkinson, <hi rend='italic'>Dreissig +Jahre in der Südsee</hi> (Stuttgart, 1907), +pp. 598 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> The +emperor Romanus Lecapenus was once informed by an +astronomer that the life of Simeon, prince of Bulgaria, was +<pb n='157'/><anchor id='Pg157'/> +bound up with a certain column in Constantinople, so that +if the capital of the column were removed, Simeon would +immediately die. The emperor took the hint and removed +the capital, and at the same hour, as the emperor learned by +enquiry, Simeon died of heart disease in Bulgaria.<note place='foot'>G. Cedrenus, <hi rend='italic'>Historiarum Compendium</hi>, +p. 625B, vol. ii. p. 308, ed. +Im. Bekker (Bonn, 1838-1839).</note> The +deified kings of ancient Egypt appear to have enjoyed the +privilege of depositing their spiritual doubles or souls (<foreign rend='italic'>ka</foreign>) +during their lifetime in a number of portrait statues, properly +fourteen for each king, which stood in the chamber of +adoration (<foreign rend='italic'>pa douaït</foreign>) of the temple and were revered as the +equivalents or representatives of the monarchs themselves.<note place='foot'>Alexandre Moret, <hi rend='italic'>Du caractère +religieux de la Royauté Pharaonique</hi> +(Paris, 1902), pp. 224 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> As to the +Egyptian doctrine of the spiritual +double or soul (<foreign rend='italic'>ka</foreign>), see A. Wiedemann, +<hi rend='italic'>The Ancient Egyptian Doctrine +of the Immortality of the Soul</hi> (London, +1895), pp. 10 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Die +ägyptische Religion</hi> (Berlin, 1905), +p. 88; A. Moret, <hi rend='italic'>Mystères Égyptiens</hi> +(Paris, 1913), pp. 199 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +Among the Karens of Burma <q>the knife with which the +navel string is cut is carefully preserved for the child. The +life of the child is supposed to be in some way connected +with it, for, if lost or destroyed, it is said the child will not +be long lived.</q><note place='foot'>F. Mason, <q>Physical Character of +the Karens,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Asiatic +Society of Bengal</hi>, 1866, Part ii. No. 1, +p. 9.</note> Among the Shawnee Indians of North +America it once happened that an eminent man was favoured +with a special revelation by the Great Spirit. Wisely refusing +to hide the sacred light of revelation under a bushel, he +generously communicated a few sparks of the illumination +to John Tanner, a white man who lived for many years as an +Indian among the Indians. <q>Henceforth,</q> said the inspired +sage, <q>the fire must never be suffered to go out in your +lodge. Summer and winter, day and night, in the storm, +or when it is calm, you must remember that the life in your +body, and the fire in your lodge, are the same, and of the +same date. If you suffer your fire to be extinguished, at +that moment your life will be at its end.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>A Narrative of the Captivity and +Adventures of John Tanner, during +Thirty Years' Residence among the +Indians</hi>, prepared for the press by +Edwin James, M.D. (London, 1830), +pp. 155 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The passage has been +already quoted by Sir John Lubbock +(Lord Avebury) in his <hi rend='italic'>Origin of Civilisation</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> +(London, 1882), p. 241.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Strength +of people +supposed +to reside in +their hair.</note> +Again, we have seen that in folk-tales a man's soul or +<pb n='158'/><anchor id='Pg158'/> +strength is sometimes represented as bound up with his hair, +and that when his hair is cut off he dies or grows weak. +So the natives of Amboyna used to think that their strength +was in their hair and would desert them if it were shorn. +A criminal under torture in a Dutch Court of that island +persisted in denying his guilt till his hair was cut off, when +he immediately confessed. One man, who was tried for +murder, endured without flinching the utmost ingenuity of +his torturers till he saw the surgeon standing with a pair of +shears. On asking what this was for, and being told that +it was to cut his hair, he begged they would not do it, and +made a clean breast. In subsequent cases, when torture +failed to wring a confession from a prisoner, the Dutch +authorities made a practice of cutting off his hair.<note place='foot'>François Valentijn, <hi rend='italic'>Oud en Nieuw +Oost-Indiën</hi> (Dordrecht and Amsterdam, +1724-1726), ii. 143 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; G. A. +Wilken, <q>De Simsonsage,</q> <hi rend='italic'>De Gids</hi>, +1888, No. 5, pp. 15 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> (of the separate +reprint); <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Verspreide Geschriften</hi> +(The Hague, 1912), iii. 569 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In +Ceram it is still believed that if young people have their hair +cut they will be weakened and enervated thereby.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>De sluik- en +kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en +Papua</hi> (The Hague, 1886), p. 137.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Witches +and +wizards +shaved to +deprive +them of +their +power.</note> +Here in Europe it used to be thought that the maleficent +powers of witches and wizards resided in their hair, and that +nothing could make any impression on these miscreants so +long as they kept their hair on. Hence in France it was +customary to shave the whole bodies of persons charged with +sorcery before handing them over to the torturer. Millaeus +witnessed the torture of some persons at Toulouse, from +whom no confession could be wrung until they were stripped +and completely shaven, when they readily acknowledged the +truth of the charge. A woman also, who apparently led a +pious life, was put to the torture on suspicion of witchcraft, +and bore her agonies with incredible constancy, until complete +depilation drove her to admit her guilt. The noted +inquisitor Sprenger contented himself with shaving the head +of the suspected witch or wizard; but his more thorough-going +colleague Cumanus shaved the whole bodies of forty-one +women before committing them all to the flames. He +had high authority for this rigorous scrutiny, since Satan +himself, in a sermon preached from the pulpit of North +Berwick church, comforted his many servants by assuring +<pb n='159'/><anchor id='Pg159'/> +them that no harm could befall them <q>sa lang as their hair +wes on, and sould newir latt ane teir fall fra thair ene.</q><note place='foot'>J. G. Dalyell, <hi rend='italic'>The darker Superstitions +of Scotland</hi> (Edinburgh, 1834), +pp. 637-639; C. de Mensignac, <hi rend='italic'>Recherches +ethnographiques sur la Salive +et le Crachat</hi> (Bordeaux, 1892), p. 49 +note.</note> +Similarly in Bastar, a province of India, <q>if a man is adjudged +guilty of witchcraft, he is beaten by the crowd, his +hair is shaved, the hair being supposed to constitute his +power of mischief, his front teeth are knocked out, in order, +it is said, to prevent him from muttering incantations.... +Women suspected of sorcery have to undergo the same +ordeal; if found guilty, the same punishment is awarded, +and after being shaved, their hair is attached to a tree in +some public place.</q><note place='foot'>W. Crooke, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Religion and +Folk-lore of Northern India</hi> (Westminster, +1896), ii. 281.</note> So among the Bhils of India, when +a woman was convicted of witchcraft and had been subjected +to various forms of persuasion, such as hanging head downwards +from a tree and having pepper put into her eyes, a +lock of hair was cut from her head and buried in the ground, +<q>that the last link between her and her former powers of mischief +might be broken.</q><note place='foot'>W. Crooke, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 281 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In like manner among the Aztecs +of Mexico, when wizards and witches <q>had done their evil +deeds, and the time came to put an end to their detestable +life, some one laid hold of them and cropped the hair on the +crown of their heads, which took from them all their power +of sorcery and enchantment, and then it was that by death +they put an end to their odious existence.</q><note place='foot'>B. de Sahagun, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire des choses +de la Nouvelle Espagne</hi>, traduite par +D. Journdanet et R. Siméon (Paris, +1880), p. 274.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='2. The External Soul in Plants.'/> +<head>§ 2. The External Soul in Plants.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Life of a +person +supposed +to be bound +up with +that of a +tree or +plant. Birth-trees +in Africa.</note> +Further it has been shewn that in folk-tales the life of +a person is sometimes so bound up with the life of a plant +that the withering of the plant will immediately follow or be +followed by the death of the person.<note place='foot'>Above, pp. <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +<ref target='Pg135'>135</ref>, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>.</note> Similarly among the +natives of the Pennefather River in Queensland, when a +visiter has made himself very agreeable and taken his +departure, an effigy of him about three or four feet long is +cut on some soft tree, such as the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Canarium australasicum</foreign>, +<pb n='160'/><anchor id='Pg160'/> +so as to face in the direction taken by the popular stranger. +Afterwards from observing the state of the tree the natives +infer the corresponding state of their absent friend, whose +illness or death are apparently supposed to be portended by +the fall of the leaves or of the tree.<note place='foot'>Walter E. Roth, <hi rend='italic'>North Queensland +Ethnography, Bulletin, No. 5, +Superstition, Magic, and Medicine</hi> +(Brisbane, 1903), p. 27.</note> In Uganda, when a +new royal enclosure with its numerous houses was built for +a new king, barkcloth trees used to be planted at the main +entrance by priests of each principal deity and offerings were +laid under each tree for its particular god. Thenceforth +<q>the trees were carefully guarded and tended, because it was +believed that as they grew and flourished, so the king's life +and power would increase.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi> +(London, 1911), p. 202.</note> Among the M'Bengas in +Western Africa, about the Gaboon, when two children are +born on the same day, the people plant two trees of the +same kind and dance round them. The life of each of the +children is believed to be bound up with the life of one of +the trees; and if the tree dies or is thrown down, they are +sure that the child will soon die.<note place='foot'>G. Duloup, <q>Huit jours chez les +M'Bengas,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Revue d'Ethnographie</hi>, ii. +(1883), p. 223; compare P. Barret, +<hi rend='italic'>L'Afrique Occidentale</hi> (Paris, 1888), +ii. 173.</note> In Sierra Leone also it is +customary at the birth of a child to plant a shoot of a <foreign rend='italic'>malep</foreign>-tree, +and they think that the tree will grow with the child +and be its god. If a tree which has been thus planted withers +away, the people consult a sorcerer on the subject.<note place='foot'>Fr. Kunstmann, <q>Valentin Ferdinand's +Beschreibung der Serra Leoa,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Abhandlungen der histor. Classe der +könig. Bayer. Akad. der Wissenschaften</hi>, +ix. (1866) pp. 131 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among +the Wajagga of German East Africa, when a child is born, +it is usual to plant a cultivated plant of some sort behind +the house. The plant is thenceforth carefully tended, for +they believe that were it to wither away the child would die. +When the navel-string drops from the infant, it is buried +under the plant. The species of birth-plant varies with the +clan; members of one clan, for example, plant a particular +sort of banana, members of another clan plant a sugar-cane, +and so on.<note place='foot'>Bruno Gutmann, <q>Feldbausitten +und Wachstumsbräuche der Wadschagga,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</hi>, +xlv. (1913), p. 496.</note> Among the Swahili of East Africa, when a +child is born, the afterbirth and navel-string are buried in +<pb n='161'/><anchor id='Pg161'/> +the courtyard and a mark is made on the spot. Seven +days afterwards, the hair of the child is shaved and +deposited, along with the clippings of its nails, in the +same place. Then over all these relics of the infant's +person a coco-nut is planted. As the tree grows up from +the nut, the child likes to point it out to his playfellows +and tell them, <q>This coco-nut palm is my navel.</q> In +planting the coco-nut the parents say, <q>May God cause our +child to grow up, that he or she may one day enjoy the +coco-nut milk of the tree which we plant here.</q><note place='foot'>C. Velten, <hi rend='italic'>Sitten und Gebräuche +der Suaheli</hi> (Göttingen, 1903), pp. +8 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> In Java it is customary to plant +a tree, for example, a coco-nut palm, +at the birth of a child, and when he +grows up he reckons his age by the +age of the tree. See <hi rend='italic'>Annales de la +Propagation de la Foi</hi>, iii. (Lyons and +Paris, 1830) pp. 400 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Though +it is not expressly affirmed, we may perhaps assume that +such a birth-tree is supposed to stand in a sympathetic +relation with the life of the person. In the Cameroons, also, +the life of a person is believed to be sympathetically bound +up with that of a tree.<note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutsche Expedition +an der Loango-Küste</hi> (Jena, 1874-1875), +i. 165.</note> The chief of Old Town in Calabar +kept his soul in a sacred grove near a spring of water. +When some Europeans, in frolic or ignorance, cut down part +of the grove, the spirit was most indignant and threatened +the perpetrators of the deed, according to the king, with all +manner of evil.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Macdonald, <hi rend='italic'>Religion and +Myth</hi> (London, 1893), p. 178.</note> Among the Fans of the French Congo, +when a chief's son is born, the remains of the navel-string +are buried under a sacred fig-tree, and <q>thenceforth great +importance is attached to the growth of the tree; it is strictly +forbidden to touch it. Any attempt on the tree would be +considered as an attack on the human being himself.</q><note place='foot'>H. Trilles, <hi rend='italic'>Le Totémisme chez les +Fân</hi> (Münster i. W., 1912), p. 570.</note> +Among the Boloki of the Upper Congo a family has a plant +with red leaves (called <foreign rend='italic'>nkungu</foreign>) for its totem. When a +woman of the family is with child for the first time, one of +the totemic plants is planted near the hearth outside the +house and is never destroyed, otherwise it is believed that +the child would be born thin and weak and would remain +puny and sickly. <q>The healthy life of the children and +family is bound up with the healthiness and life of the totem +<pb n='162'/><anchor id='Pg162'/> +tree as respected and preserved by the family.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. John H. Weeks, <hi rend='italic'>Among +Congo Cannibals</hi> (London, 1913), p. +295.</note> Among +the Baganda of Central Africa a child's afterbirth was called +the second child and was believed to be animated by a spirit, +which at once became a ghost. The afterbirth was usually +buried at the root of a banana tree, and afterwards the tree +was carefully guarded by old women, who prevented any +one from going near it; they tied ropes of fibre from tree +to tree to isolate it, and all the child's excretions were +thrown into this enclosure. When the fruit ripened, it was +cut by the old woman in charge. The reason for guarding +the tree thus carefully was a belief that if any stranger were +to eat of the fruit of the tree or to drink beer brewed from +it, he would carry off with him the ghost of the child's afterbirth, +which had been buried at the root of the banana-tree, +and the living child would then die in order to follow its +twin ghost. Whereas a grandparent of the child, by eating +the fruit or drinking the beer, averted this catastrophe and +ensured the health of the child.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi> +(London, 1911), pp. 52, 54 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare +<hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, i. 295 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; and for other +examples of burying the afterbirth or +navel-string at the foot of a tree or +planting a young tree over these remains, +see <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, pp. 182 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> In +Kiziba, a district to the west of Lake +Victoria Nyanza, the afterbirth is +similarly regarded as a sort of human +being. Hence when twins are born +the people speak of four children +instead of two, reckoning the two +afterbirths as two children. See H. +Rehse, <hi rend='italic'>Kiziba, Land und Leute</hi> (Stuttgart, +1910), p. 117. The conception +of the afterbirth and navel-string as +spiritual doubles of the child with +whom they are born is held very firmly +by the Kooboos, a primitive tribe of +Sumatra. We are told that among +these people <q>a great vital power is +ascribed to the navel-string and afterbirth; +because they are looked upon +as brother or sister of the infant, and +though their bodies have not come to +perfection, yet their soul and spirit are +just as normal as those of the child +and indeed have even reached a much +higher stage of development. The +navel-string (<foreign rend='italic'>oeri</foreign>) and afterbirth (<foreign rend='italic'>tĕm-boeni</foreign>) +visit the man who was born with +them thrice a day and thrice by night +till his death, or they hover near him +(<q><foreign lang='nl' rend='italic'>zweven voorbij hem heen</foreign></q>). They +are the good spirits, a sort of guardian +angels of the man who came into the +world with them and who lives on +earth; they are said to guard him from +all evil. Hence it is that the Kooboo +always thinks of his navel-string and +afterbirth (<foreign rend='italic'>oeri-tĕmboeni</foreign>) before he goes +to sleep or to work, or undertakes a +journey, and so on. Merely to think +of them is enough; there is no need to +invoke them, or to ask them anything, +or to entreat them. By not thinking +of them a man deprives himself of their +good care.</q> Immediately after the +birth the navel-string and afterbirth +are buried in the ground close by the +spot where the birth took place; and +a ceremony is performed over it, for +were the ceremony omitted, the navel-string +and afterbirth, <q>instead of being +a good spirit for the newly born child, +might become an evil spirit for him +and visit him with all sorts of calamities +out of spite for this neglect.</q> The +nature of the ceremony performed over +the spot is not described by our +authority. The navel-string and afterbirth +are often regarded by the Kooboos +as one; their names are always +mentioned together. See G. J. van +Dongen, <q>De Koeboe in de Onderafdeeling +Koeboe-streken der Residentie +Palembang,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de Taal- +Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, +lxiii. (1910) pp. 229 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among the Wakondyo, +<pb n='163'/><anchor id='Pg163'/> +at the north-western corner of Lake Albert Nyanza, it is +customary to bury the afterbirth at the foot of a young +banana-tree, and the fruit of this particular tree may be +eaten by no one but the woman who assisted at the birth.<note place='foot'>Franz Stuhlmann, <hi rend='italic'>Mit Emin +Pascha ins Herz von Afrika</hi> (Berlin, +1894), p. 653.</note> +The reason for the custom is not mentioned, but probably, +as among the Baganda, the life of the child is supposed to +be bound up with the life of the tree, since the afterbirth, +regarded as a spiritual double of the infant, has been buried +at the root of the tree. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Birth-trees +among the +Papuans, +Maoris, +Fijians, +Dyaks, +and others.</note> +Some of the Papuans unite the life of a new-born child +sympathetically with that of a tree by driving a pebble into +the bark of the tree. This is supposed to give them complete +mastery over the child's life; if the tree is cut down, +the child will die.<note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Ein Besuch in San +Salvador</hi> (Bremen, 1859), pp. 103 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Der Mensch in der Geschichte</hi> +(Leipsic, 1860), iii. 193.</note> After a birth the Maoris used to bury +the navel-string in a sacred place and plant a young sapling +over it. As the tree grew, it was a <foreign rend='italic'>tohu oranga</foreign> or sign of +life for the child; if it flourished, the child would prosper; +if it withered and died, the parents augured the worst for +their child.<note place='foot'>R. Taylor, <hi rend='italic'>Te Ika a Maui, or +New Zealand and its Inhabitants</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(London, 1870), p. 184; Dumont +D'Urville, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage autour du monde et +à la recherche de La Pérouse sur la +corvette Astrolabe</hi>, ii. 444.</note> In the Chatham Islands, when the child of a +leading man received its name, it was customary to plant +a tree, <q>the growth of which was to be as the growth of the +child,</q> and during the planting priests chanted a spell.<note place='foot'>W. T. L. Travers, <q>Notes of the +traditions and manners and customs of +the Mori-oris,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Transactions and Proceedings +of the New Zealand Institute</hi>, +ix. (1876) p. 22.</note> In +some parts of Fiji the navel-string of a male child is planted +together with a coco-nut or the slip of a breadfruit-tree, and +the child's life is supposed to be intimately connected with +that of the tree.<note place='foot'>The late Rev. Lorimer Fison, in a +letter to me dated May 29th, 1901. +Compare <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the +Evolution of Kings</hi>, i. 184.</note> With certain Malayo-Siamese families of +<pb n='164'/><anchor id='Pg164'/> +the Patani States it is customary to bury the afterbirth +under a banana-tree, and the condition of the tree is afterwards +regarded as ominous of the child's fate for good or +evil.<note place='foot'>N. Annandale, <q>Customs of the +Malayo-Siamese,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Fasciculi Malayenses</hi>, +Anthropology, part ii. (a) (May, +1904), p. 5.</note> In Southern Celebes, when a child is born, a coco-nut +is planted and watered with the water in which the afterbirth +and navel-string have been washed. As it grows up, +the tree is called the <q>contemporary</q> of the child.<note place='foot'>B. F. Matthes, <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de +Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes</hi> (The +Hague, 1875), p. 59.</note> So in +Bali a coco-palm is planted at the birth of a child. It is +believed to grow up equally with the child, and is called its +<q>life-plant.</q><note place='foot'>R. van Eck, <q>Schetsen van het +eiland Bali,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch +Indië</hi>, N.S., ix. (1880) pp. +417 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> On certain occasions the Dyaks of Borneo +plant a palm-tree, which is believed to be a complete index +of their fate. If it flourishes, they reckon on good fortune; +but if it withers or dies, they expect misfortune.<note place='foot'>G. A. Wilken, <q>De Simsonsage,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>De Gids</hi>, 1888, No. 5, p. 26 (of the +separate reprint); <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Verspreide Geschriften</hi> +(The Hague, 1912), iii. 562.</note> Amongst +the Dyaks of Landak and Tajan, districts of Dutch +Borneo, it is customary to plant a fruit-tree for a child, +and henceforth in the popular belief the fate of the child +is bound up with that of the tree. If the tree shoots up +rapidly, it will go well with the child; but if the tree is +dwarfed or shrivelled, nothing but misfortune can be expected +for its human counterpart.<note place='foot'>M. C. Schadee, <q>Het familieleven +en familierecht der Dajaks van +Landak en Tajan,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de +Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van +Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, lxiii. (1910) p. +416.</note> According to another +account, at the naming of children and certain other festivals +the Dyaks are wont to set a <foreign rend='italic'>sawang</foreign>-plant, roots and all, +before a priestess; and when the festival is over, the plant +is replaced in the ground. Such a plant becomes thenceforth +a sort of prophetic index for the person in whose +honour the festival was held. If the plant thrives, the +man will be fortunate; if it fades or perishes, some evil +will befall him.<note place='foot'>F. Grabowsky, <q>Die Theogenie +der Dajaken auf Borneo,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Internationales +Archiv für Ethnographie</hi>, v. +(1892) p. 133.</note> The Dyaks also believe that at the birth +of every person on earth a flower grows up in the spirit +world and leads a life parallel to his. If the flower flourishes, +<pb n='165'/><anchor id='Pg165'/> +the man enjoys good health, but if it droops, so does he. +Hence when he has dreamed bad dreams or has felt unwell +for several days, he infers that his flower in the other world +is neglected or sickly, and accordingly he employs a medicine-man +to tend the precious plant, weed the soil, and sweep it +up, in order that the earthly and unearthly life may prosper +once more.<note place='foot'>J. Perham, <q>Manangism in +Borneo,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Straits Branch +of the Royal Asiatic Society</hi>, No. 19 +(Singapore, 1887), p. 97; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, in H. +Ling Roth, <hi rend='italic'>The Natives of Sarawak +and British North Borneo</hi> (London, +1896), i. 278.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Birth-trees +in Europe. +Marriage +oaks. +Trees with +which the +fate of +families or +individuals +is thought +to be +bound up. The Edgewell +oak. +The old +tree at +Howth +Castle. +The oak +of the +Guelphs.</note> +It is said that there are still families in Russia, Germany, +England, France, and Italy who are accustomed to plant a +tree at the birth of a child. The tree, it is hoped, will grow +with the child, and it is tended with special care.<note place='foot'>Angelo de Gubernatis, <hi rend='italic'>Mythologie +des Plantes</hi> (Paris, 1878-1882), i. pp. +xxviii. <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The +custom is still pretty general in the canton of Aargau in +Switzerland; an apple-tree is planted for a boy and a pear-tree +for a girl, and the people think that the child will +flourish or dwindle with the tree.<note place='foot'>W. Mannhardt, <hi rend='italic'>Baumkultus</hi>, p. +50; H. Ploss, <hi rend='italic'>Das Kind</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Leipsic, +1884), i. 79.</note> In Mecklenburg the +afterbirth is thrown out at the foot of a young tree, and the +child is then believed to grow with the tree.<note place='foot'>K. Bartsch, <hi rend='italic'>Sagen, Märchen und +Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg</hi> (Vienna, +1879-1880), ii. p. 43, § 63.</note> In Bosnia, +when the children of a family have died one after the other, +the hair of the next child is cut with some ceremony by a +stranger, and the mother carries the shorn tresses into the +garden, where she ties them to a fine young tree, in order +that her child may grow and flourish like the tree.<note place='foot'>F. S. Krauss, <q>Haarschurgodschaft +bei den Südslaven,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Internationales +Archiv für Ethnographie</hi>, vii. +(1894) p. 193.</note> At +Muskau, in Lausitz, it used to be customary for bride and +bridegroom on the morning of their wedding-day to plant +a pair of young oaks side by side, and as each of the trees +flourished or withered, so the good luck of the person who +planted it was believed to wax or wane.<note place='foot'>Karl Haupt, <hi rend='italic'>Sagenbuch der Lausitz</hi> +(Leipsic, 1862-1863), ii. 129, No. +207.</note> On a promontory +in Lake Keitele, in Finland, there used to stand an old fir-tree, +which according to tradition had been planted by the +first colonists to serve as a symbol or token of their fortune. +First-fruits of the harvest used to be offered to the tree +<pb n='166'/><anchor id='Pg166'/> +before any one would taste of the new crop; and whenever +a branch fell, it was deemed a sign that some one would die. +More and more the crown of the tree withered away, and in +the same proportion the family whose ancestors had planted +the fir dwindled away, till only one old woman was left. +At last the tree fell, and soon afterwards the old woman +departed this life.<note place='foot'><q>Heilige Haine und Bäume der +Finnen,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lix. (1891) p. 350. +Compare K. Rhamm, <q>Der heidenische +Gottesdienst des finnischen +Stammes,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lxvii. (1891) p. +344.</note> When Lord Byron first visited his +ancestral estate of Newstead <q>he planted, it seems, a young +oak in some part of the grounds, and had an idea that as <emph>it</emph> +flourished so should <emph>he</emph>.</q><note place='foot'>Thomas Moore, <hi rend='italic'>Life of Lord +Byron</hi>, i. 101 (i. 148, in the collected +edition of Byron's works, London, +1832-1833).</note> On a day when the cloud that +settled on the later years of Sir Walter Scott lifted a little, +and he heard that <hi rend='italic'>Woodstock</hi> had sold for over eight thousand +pounds, he wrote in his journal: <q>I have a curious fancy; +I will go set two or three acorns, and judge by their success +in growing whether I shall succeed in clearing my way or +not.</q><note place='foot'>J. G. Lockhart, <hi rend='italic'>Life of Sir Walter +Scott</hi> (First Edition), vi. 283 (viii. 317, +Second Edition, Edinburgh, 1839).</note> Near the Castle of Dalhousie, not far from Edinburgh, +there grows an oak-tree, called the Edgewell Tree, +which is popularly believed to be linked to the fate of the +family by a mysterious tie; for they say that when one of the +family dies, or is about to die, a branch falls from the Edgewell +Tree. Thus, on seeing a great bough drop from the +tree on a quiet, still day in July 1874, an old forester +exclaimed, <q>The laird's deid noo!</q> and soon after news +came that Fox Maule, eleventh Earl of Dalhousie, was +dead.<note place='foot'>Sir Walter Scott's <hi rend='italic'>Journal</hi> (First +Edition, Edinburgh, 1890), ii. 282, +with the editor's note.</note> At Howth Castle in Ireland there is an old tree +with which the fortunes of the St. Lawrence family are +supposed to be connected. The branches of the tree are +propped on strong supports, for tradition runs that when the +tree falls the direct line of the Earls of Howth will become +extinct.<note place='foot'>Letter of Miss A. H. Singleton to +me, dated Rathmagle House, Abbey +Leix, Ireland, 24th February, 1904.</note> On the old road from Hanover to Osnabrück, at +the village of Oster-Kappeln, there used to stand an ancient +oak, which put out its last green shoot in the year 1849. The +<pb n='167'/><anchor id='Pg167'/> +tree was conjecturally supposed to be contemporary with +the Guelphs; and in the year 1866, so fatal for the house +of Hanover, on a calm summer afternoon, without any +visible cause, the veteran suddenly fell with a crash and lay +stretched across the highroad. The peasants regarded its +fall as an ill omen for the reigning family, and when King +George V. heard of it he gave orders that the giant trunk +should be set up again, and it was done with much trouble +and at great expense, the stump being supported in position +by iron chains clamped to the neighbouring trees. But the +king's efforts to prop the falling fortunes of his house were +vain; a few months after the fall of the oak Hanover +formed part of the Prussian monarchy.<note place='foot'>P. Wagler, <hi rend='italic'>Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit</hi>, ii. (Berlin, 1891) pp. +85 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The Life-tree +of the +Manchu +dynasty.</note> +In the midst of the <q>Forbidden City</q> at Peking there +is a tiny private garden, where the emperors of the now +fallen Manchu dynasty used to take the air and refresh +themselves after the cares of state. In accordance with +Chinese taste the garden is a labyrinth of artificial rockeries, +waterfalls, grottoes, and kiosks, in which everything is as +unlike nature as art can make it. The trees in particular +(<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Arbor vitae</foreign>), the principal ornament of the garden, exhibit +the last refinement of the gardener's skill, being clipped and +distorted into a variety of grotesque shapes. Only one of +the trees remained intact and had been spared these deformations +for centuries. Far from being stunted by the axe +or the shears, the tree was carefully tended and encouraged +to shoot up to its full height. <q>It was the <q>Life-tree of the +Dynasty,</q> and according to legend the prosperity or fall of +the present dynasty went hand in hand with the welfare or +death of the tree. Certainly, if we accept the tradition, the +days of the present reigning house must be numbered, for +all the care and attention lavished on the tree have been +for some years in vain. A glance at our illustration shews +the tree as it still surpasses all its fellows in height and size; +but it owes its pre-eminence only to the many artificial +props which hold it up. In reality the <q>Life-tree of the +Dynasty</q> is dying, and might fall over night, if one of its +artificial props were suddenly to give way. For the +<pb n='168'/><anchor id='Pg168'/> +superstitious Chinese—and superstitious they certainly are—it +is a very, very evil omen.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Die Woche</hi>, Berlin, 31 August, +1901, p. 3, with an illustration shewing +the garden and the tree.</note> Some twelve years have +passed since this passage was written, and in the interval +the omen has been fulfilled—the Manchu dynasty has +fallen. We may conjecture that the old tree in the quaint +old garden has fallen too. So vain are all human efforts to +arrest the decay of royal houses by underpropping trees on +which nature herself has passed a sentence of death. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +myrtle-trees +of the +patricians +and +plebeians +at Rome. +The oak +of the +Vespasian +family.</note> +At Rome in the ancient sanctuary of Quirinus there +grew two old myrtle-trees, one named the Patrician and +the other the Plebeian. For many years, so long as the +patricians were in the ascendant, their myrtle-tree flourished +and spread its branches abroad, while the myrtle of the +plebeians was shrivelled and shrunken; but from the time +of the Marsian war, when the power of the nobles declined, +their myrtle in like manner drooped and withered, +whereas that of the popular party held up its head and +grew strong.<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Natur. Hist.</hi> xv. 120 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Thrice when Vespasia was with child, an +old oak in the garden of the Flavian family near Rome +suddenly put forth branches. The first branch was puny +and soon withered away, and the girl who was born accordingly +died within the year; the second branch was +long and sturdy; and the third was like a tree. So on the +third occasion the happy father reported to his mother that +a future emperor was born to her as a grandchild. The old +lady only laughed to think that at her age she should keep +her wits about her, while her son had lost his; yet the omen +of the oak came true, for the grandson was afterwards the +emperor Vespasian.<note place='foot'>Suetonius, <hi rend='italic'>Divus Vespasianus</hi>, 5.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Life of +persons +supposed +to be +bound up +with that +of the cleft +trees +through +which in +their youth +they were +passed as +a cure for +rupture. +In England +ruptured +children +are passed +through +cleft ash-trees.</note> +In England children are sometimes passed through a +cleft ash-tree as a cure for rupture or rickets, and thenceforward +a sympathetic connexion is supposed to exist +between them and the tree. An ash-tree which had been +used for this purpose grew at the edge of Shirley Heath, +on the road from Hockly House to Birmingham. <q>Thomas +Chillingworth, son of the owner of an adjoining farm, +now about thirty-four, was, when an infant of a year old, +<pb n='169'/><anchor id='Pg169'/> +passed through a similar tree, now perfectly sound, which he +preserves with so much care that he will not suffer a single +branch to be touched, for it is believed the life of the +patient depends on the life of the tree, and the moment that +it is cut down, be the patient ever so distant, the rupture +returns, and a mortification ensues, and terminates in death, +as was the case in a man driving a waggon on the very +road in question.</q> <q>It is not uncommon, however,</q> adds the +writer, <q>for persons to survive for a time the felling of the +tree.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Gentleman's Magazine</hi>, 1804, +p. 909; John Brand, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Antiquities +of Great Britain</hi> (London, 1882-1883), +iii. 289.</note> The ordinary mode of effecting the cure is to split +a young ash-sapling longitudinally for a few feet and pass +the child, naked, either three times or three times three +through the fissure at sunrise. In the West of England it +is said that the passage should be <q>against the sun.</q> As +soon as the ceremony has been performed, the tree is bound +tightly up and the fissure plastered over with mud or clay. +The belief is that just as the cleft in the tree closes up, so +the rupture in the child's body will be healed; but that if +the rift in the tree remains open, the rupture in the child +will remain too, and if the tree were to die, the death of the +child would surely follow.<note place='foot'>Gilbert White, <hi rend='italic'>The Natural History +of Selborne</hi>, Part II. Letter 28 +(Edinburgh, 1829), pp. 239 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +Francis Grose, <hi rend='italic'>A Provincial Glossary</hi> +(London, 1811), p. 290; J. Brand, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> iii. 287-292; R. Hunt, <hi rend='italic'>Popular +Romances of the West of England</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi> +(London, 1881), pp. 415, 421; W. G. +Black, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-medicine</hi> (London, 1883), +pp. 67 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; W. Wollaston Groome, +<q>Suffolk Leechcraft,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, vi. +(1895) pp. 123 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; E. S. Hartland, +in <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, vii. (1896) pp. 303-306; +<hi rend='italic'>County Folk-lore, Suffolk</hi>, edited by +Lady E. C. Gurdon (London, 1893) +pp. 26-28; Beatrix A. Wherry, <q>Miscellaneous +Notes from Monmouthshire,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, xvi. (1905) p. 65; +Marie Trevelyan, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore and Folk-stories +of Wales</hi> (London, 1909), p. +320. Sometimes the tree was an oak +instead of an ash (M. Trevelyan, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi>). +To ensure the success of the cure +various additional precautions are sometimes +recommended, as that the ash +should be a maiden, that is a tree that +has never been topped or cut; that the +split should be made east and west; +that the child should be passed into +the tree by a maiden and taken out on +the other side by a boy; that the child +should always be passed through head +foremost (but according to others feet +foremost), and so forth. In Surrey we +hear of a holly-tree being used instead +of an ash (<hi rend='italic'>Notes and Queries</hi>, Sixth +Series, xi. Jan.-Jun. 1885, p. 46).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +practice +in Sussex.</note> +Down to the second half of the nineteenth century +the remedy was still in common use at Fittleworth and +many other places in Sussex. The account of the +<pb n='170'/><anchor id='Pg170'/> +Sussex practice and belief is notable because it brings +out very clearly the sympathetic relation supposed to +exist between the ruptured child and the tree through +which it has been passed. We are told that the patient +<q>must be passed nine times every morning on nine successive +days at sunrise through a cleft in a sapling ash-tree, which +has been so far given up by the owner of it to the parents +of the child, as that there is an understanding it shall not +be cut down during the life of the infant who is to be +passed through it. The sapling must be sound at heart, +and the cleft must be made with an axe. The child on +being carried to the tree must be attended by nine persons, +each of whom must pass it through the cleft from west to +east. On the ninth morning the solemn ceremony is concluded +by binding the tree lightly with a cord, and it is +supposed that as the cleft closes the health of the child will +improve. In the neighbourhood of Petworth some cleft +ash-trees may be seen, through which children have very +recently been passed. I may add, that only a few weeks +since, a person who had lately purchased an ash-tree standing +in this parish, intending to cut it down, was told by the +father of a child, who had some time before been passed +through it, that the infirmity would be sure to return upon +his son if it were felled. Whereupon the good man said, he +knew that such would be the case; and therefore he would +not fell it for the world.</q><note place='foot'><q>Some West Sussex superstitions +lingering in 1868, collected by +Charlotte Latham, at Fittleworth,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore Record</hi>, i. (1878) pp. 40 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Sick +children +passed +through +cleft trees, +especially +oaks, as a +cure in +Germany, +France, +Denmark, +Sweden, +and Greece.</note> +A similar cure for various diseases, but especially +for rupture and rickets, has been commonly practised in +other parts of Europe, as Germany, France, Denmark, and +Sweden; but in these countries the tree employed for the +purpose is usually not an ash but an oak; sometimes a +willow-tree is allowed or even prescribed instead. With +these exceptions the practice and the belief are nearly the +same on the Continent as in England: a young oak is split +longitudinally and the two sides held forcibly apart while +the sick child is passed through the cleft; then the +opening in the tree is closed, and bound up, and it is +believed that as the cleft in the tree heals by the parts +<pb n='171'/><anchor id='Pg171'/> +growing together again, so the rupture in the child +will be simultaneously cured. It is often laid down that +the ceremony must be performed in the strictest silence; +sometimes the time prescribed is before sunrise, and sometimes +the child must be passed thrice through the cleft.<note place='foot'>For the custom in Germany and +Austria, see J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche +Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> ii. 975 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. Wuttke, +<hi rend='italic'>Der deutsche Volksaberglaube</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Berlin, +1869), p. 317, § 503; A. Kuhn und +W. Schwartz, <hi rend='italic'>Nord-deutsche Sagen, +Märchen und Gebräuche</hi> (Leipsic, +1848), pp. 443 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; J. F. L. Woeste, +<hi rend='italic'>Volksüberlieferungen in der Grafschaft +Mark</hi> (Iserlohn, 1848), p. 54; E. Meier, +<hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche +aus Schwaben</hi> (Stuttgart, 1852), p. +390, § 56; F. Panzer, <hi rend='italic'>Beitrag zur +deutschen Mythologie</hi> (Munich, 1848-1855), +ii. 301; <hi rend='italic'>Bavaria, Landes- und +Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern</hi>, +ii. (Munich, 1863) p. 255; J. A. E. +Köhler, <hi rend='italic'>Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, +Sagen und andre alte Ueberlieferungen +im Voigtlande</hi> (Leipsic, 1867), pp. 415 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; L. Strackerjan, <hi rend='italic'>Aberglaube und +Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg</hi> +(Oldenburg, 1867), i. 72 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, § 88; +K. Bartsch, <hi rend='italic'>Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche +aus Mecklenburg</hi> (Vienna, 1879-1880), +ii. 290 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, § 1447; J. Haltrich, +<hi rend='italic'>Zur Volkskunde der Siebenbürger +Sachsen</hi> (Vienna, 1885), p. 264; P. +Wagler, <hi rend='italic'>Die Eiche in alter und neuer +Zeit</hi>, i. (Wurzen, 1891) pp. 21-23. As +to the custom in France, see Marcellus, +<hi rend='italic'>De medicamentis</hi>, xxxiii. 26 (where the +tree is a cherry); J. B. Thiers, <hi rend='italic'>Traité +des Superstitions</hi> (Paris, 1679), pp. 333 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. de Nore, <hi rend='italic'>Coutumes, Mythes et +Traditions des Provinces de France</hi> +(Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 231; L. J. B. +Bérenger-Féraud, in <hi rend='italic'>Bullétins de la +Société d'Anthropologie de Paris</hi>, iv. +série, i. (1890) pp. 895-902; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Superstitions +et Survivances</hi> (Paris, 1896), i. +523 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> As to the custom in Denmark +and Sweden, see J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche +Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> ii. 976; H. F. Feilberg, +<q>Zwieselbäume nebst verwandtem +Aberglauben in Skandinavien,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift +des Vereins für Volkskunde</hi>, +vii. (1897) pp. 42 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> In Mecklenburg +it is sometimes required that the +tree should have been split by lightning +(K. Bartsch, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi>). The whole subject +of passing sick people through narrow +apertures as a mode of cure has been +well handled in an elegant little monograph +(<hi rend='italic'>Un Vieux Rite médical</hi>, Paris, +1892) by Monsieur H. Gaidoz, who +rightly rejects the theory that all +such passages are symbols of a new +birth. But I cannot agree with +him in thinking that the essence +of the rite consists in the transference +of the disease from the person to +the tree; rather, it seems to me, the +primary idea is that of interposing an +impassable barrier between a fugitive +and his pursuing foe, though no doubt +the enemy thus left behind is apparently +supposed to adhere to the further side +of the obstacle (whether tree, stone, or +what not) through which he cannot +pass. However, the sympathetic relation +supposed to exist between the +sufferer and the tree through which he +has been passed certainly favours the +view that he has left some portion of +himself attached to the tree. But in +this as in many similar cases, the ideas +in the minds of the persons who +practise the custom are probably vague, +confused, and inconsistent; and we need +not attempt to define them precisely. +Compare also R. Andree, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnographische +Parallelen und Vergleiche</hi> +(Stuttgart, 1878), pp. 31 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; E. S. +Hartland, <hi rend='italic'>The Legend of Perseus</hi> +(London, 1894-1896), ii. 146 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +L. J. B. Bérenger-Féraud, <hi rend='italic'>Superstitions +et Survivances</hi> (Paris, 1896), i. 523-540.</note> In +Oldenburg and Mecklenburg they say that the cure should +be performed on St. John's Eve (Midsummer Eve) by three +men named John, who assist each other in holding the split +<pb n='172'/><anchor id='Pg172'/> +oak-sapling open and passing the child through it.<note place='foot'>L. Strackerjan, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi>; K. Bartsch, +<hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi></note> Some +people, however, prefer Good Friday or Christmas Eve as the +season for the performance of the ceremony.<note place='foot'>E. Meier, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>Bavaria, Landes- +und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern</hi>, +ii. 255; A. Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi></note> In Denmark +copper coins are laid as an offering at the foot of the tree +through which sick persons have been passed; and threads, +ribbons, or bandages which have been worn by the sufferers +are tied to a branch of the tree.<note place='foot'>H. F. Feilberg, <q>Zwieselbäume +nebst verwandtem Aberglauben in +Skandinavien,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift des Vereins +für Volkskunde</hi>, vii. (1897) p. 44.</note> In the Greek island of +Ceos, when a child is sickly, the parents carry it out into the +country <q>and the father selects a young oak; this they split +up from the root, then the father is assisted by another man +in holding the tree open whilst the mother passes the child +three times through, and then they bind up the tree well, +cover it all over with manure, and carefully water it for +forty days. In the same fashion they bind up the child for +a like period, and after the lapse of this time they expect +that it will be quite well.</q><note place='foot'>J. Theodore Bent, <hi rend='italic'>The Cyclades</hi> +(London, 1885), pp. 457 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Sympathetic +relation +thought +to exist +between +the child +and the tree +through +which it +has been +passed. +The disease +is apparently +thought +to be left +behind on +the farther +side of the +cleft tree.</note> +In Mecklenburg, as in England, the sympathetic relation +thus established between the tree and the child is so close +that if the tree is cut down the child will die.<note place='foot'>H. Ploss, <hi rend='italic'>Das Kind</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Leipsic, +1884), ii. 221.</note> In the +island of Rügen people believe that when a person who has +been thus cured of rupture dies, his soul passes into the +same oak-tree through which his body was passed in his +youth.<note place='foot'>R. Baier, <q>Beiträge von der Insel +Rügen,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie +und Sittenkunde</hi>, ii. (1855) +p. 141.</note> Thus it seems that in ridding himself of the +disease the sufferer is supposed to transfer a certain vital +part of his person to the tree so that it is impossible to injure +the tree without at the same time injuring the man; and in +Rügen this partial union is thought to be completed by the +transmigration of the man's soul at death into the tree. +Apparently the disease is conceived as something physical, +which clings to the patient but can be stripped off him and +left behind on the farther side of the narrow aperture +through which he has forced his way; when the aperture is +closed by the natural growth of the tree, the door is as it +<pb n='173'/><anchor id='Pg173'/> +were shut against the disease, which is then unable to +pursue and overtake the sufferer. Hence the idea at the +root of the custom is not so much that the patient has +transferred his ailment to the tree, as that the tree forms an +impervious barrier between him and the malady which had +hitherto afflicted him. This interpretation is confirmed by +the following parallels. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Creeping +through +cleft trees +to get rid +of spirits +in Armenia +and Nias. Among the +Bella Coola +Indians +mourners +creep +through +cleft trees +to get rid of +the ghost.</note> +In those parts of Armenia which are covered with +forests, many great and ancient trees are revered as sacred +and receive marks of homage. The people burn lights +before them, fumigate them with incense, sacrifice cocks and +wethers to them, and creep through holes in their trunks or +push lean and sickly children through them <q>in order to put +a stop to the influence of evil spirits.</q><note place='foot'>Manuk Abeghian, <hi rend='italic'>Der armenische Volksglaube</hi> (Leipsic, 1899), p. 58.</note> Apparently, they +think that evil spirits cannot creep through the cleft in the +holy tree, and therefore that the sick who have effected the +passage are safe from their demoniacal pursuers. The same +conception of a fissure in a tree as an obstacle placed in the +path of pursuing spirits meets us in a number of savage +customs. Thus in the island of Nias, when a man is in +training for the priesthood, he has to be introduced to the +various spirits between whom and mankind it will be his +office to mediate. A priest takes him to an open window, +and while the drums are beating points out to him the great +spirit in the sun who calls away men to himself through +death; for it is needful that the future priest should know +him from whose grasp he will often be expected to wrest the +sick and dying. In the evening twilight he is led to the +graves and shewn the envious spirits of the dead, who also +are ever drawing away the living to their own shadowy +world. Next day he is conducted to a river and shewn the +spirit of the waters; and finally they take him up to a +mountain and exhibit to him the spirits of the mountains, +who have diverse shapes, some appearing like swine, others +like buffaloes, others like goats, and others again like men +with long hair on their bodies. When he has seen all this, +his education is complete, but on his return from the +mountain the new priest may not at once enter his own +house. For the people think that, were he to do so, the +<pb n='174'/><anchor id='Pg174'/> +dangerous spirits by whom he is still environed would stay +in the house and visit both the family and the pigs with +sickness. Accordingly he betakes himself to other villages +and passes several nights there, hoping that the spirits will +leave him and settle on the friends who receive him into +their houses; but naturally he does not reveal the intention +of his visits to his hosts. Lastly, before he enters his own +dwelling, he looks out for some young tree by the way, +splits it down the middle, and then creeps through the +fissure, in the belief that any spirit which may still be +clinging to him will thus be left sticking to the tree.<note place='foot'>Fr. Kramer, <q>Der Götzendienst +der Niasser,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische +Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, xxxiii. +(1890) pp. 478-480; H. Sundermann, +<hi rend='italic'>Die Insel Nias und die Mission daselbst</hi> +(Barmen, 1905), pp. 81-83. According +to the latter writer the intention of +passing through the cleft stick is <q>to +strip off from himself (<foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>von zich +abzustreifen</foreign>) the last spirit that may +have followed him.</q> The notion that +the sun causes death by drawing away +the souls of the living is Indian. See +<hi rend='italic'>The Satapatha Brâhmana</hi>, ii. 3. 3. +7-8, translated by Julius Eggeling, +Part I. (Oxford, 1882) p. 343 (<hi rend='italic'>Sacred +Books of the East</hi>, vol. xii.): <q>Now +yonder burning (sun) doubtless is no +other than Death; and because he is +Death, therefore the creatures that are +on this side of him die. But those +that are on the other side of him are +the gods, and they are therefore immortal.... +And the breath of whomsoever +he (the sun) wishes he takes and +rises, and that one dies.</q></note> Again, +among the Bilqula or Bella Coola Indians of British Columbia +<q>the bed of a mourner must be protected against the ghost +of the deceased. His male relatives stick a thorn-bush into +the ground at each corner of their beds. After four days +these are thrown into the water. Mourners must rise early +and go into the woods, where they stick four thorn-bushes +into the ground, at the corners of a square, in which they +cleanse themselves by rubbing their bodies with cedar +branches. They also swim in ponds. After swimming +they cleave four small trees and creep through the clefts, +following the course of the sun. This they do on four subsequent +mornings, cleaving new trees every day. Mourners +cut their hair short. The hair that has been cut off is +burnt. If they should not observe these regulations, it is +believed that they would dream of the deceased.</q><note place='foot'>Fr. Boas, in <hi rend='italic'>Seventh Report on +the North-Western Tribes of Canada</hi>, +p. 13 (separate reprint from the <hi rend='italic'>Report +of the British Association</hi>, Cardiff meeting, +1891). The Shuswap Indians +of the same region also fence their +beds against ghosts with a hedge of +thorn bushes. See <hi rend='italic'>Taboo and the +Perils of the Soul</hi>, p. 142.</note> To the +savage, who fails to distinguish the visions of sleep from the +<pb n='175'/><anchor id='Pg175'/> +appearances of waking life, the apparition of a dead man in +a dream is equivalent to the actual presence of the ghost; +and accordingly he seeks to keep off the spiritual intruder, +just as he might a creature of flesh and blood, by fencing +his bed with thorn-bushes. Similarly the practice of creeping +through four cleft trees is clearly an attempt to shake +off the clinging ghost and leave it adhering to the trees, just +as in Nias the future priest hopes to rid himself in like +manner of the dangerous spirits who have dogged his steps +from the mountains and the graves. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +Madangs +of Borneo +creep +through a +cleft stick +after a +funeral in +order to +rid themselves +of +the ghost.</note> +This interpretation of the custom is strongly confirmed +by a funeral ceremony which Dr. Charles Hose witnessed +at the chief village of the Madangs, a tribe of Kayans +who occupy a hitherto unexplored district in the heart +of Borneo. <q>Just across the river from where we were +sitting,</q> says Dr. Hose, <q>was the graveyard, and there I +witnessed a funeral procession as the day was drawing to a +close. The coffin, which was a wooden box made from a +tree-trunk, was decorated with red and black patterns in +circles, with two small wooden figures of men placed at either +end; it was lashed with rattans to a long pole, and by this +means was lifted to the shoulders of the bearers, who +numbered thirteen in all, and who then carried it to the +burying-ground. After the mourners had all passed over +to the graveyard, a man quickly cut a couple of small sticks, +each five feet long and about an inch in diameter. One of +these he split almost the whole way down, and forced the +unsplit end into the ground, when the upper part opened +like a V, leaving sufficient room for each person to pass +through. He next split the top of the other stick, and, +placing another short stick in the cleft, made a cross, which +he also forced into the ground. The funeral procession +climbed the mound on which the cemetery was situated, +passing through the V of the cleft stick in single file. As +soon as the coffin had been placed on the stage erected for +the purpose, the people commenced their return, following +on one another's heels as quickly as possible, each spitting +out the words, <q><foreign rend='italic'>Pit balli krat balli jat tesip bertatip!</foreign></q> (<q>Keep +back, and close out all things evil, and sickness</q>) as they +passed through the V-shaped stick. The whole party having +<pb n='176'/><anchor id='Pg176'/> +left the graveyard, the gate was closed by the simple process +of tying the cleft ends of the stick together, and a few words +were then said to the cross-stick, which they call <foreign rend='italic'>ngring</foreign>, or +the wall that separates the living from the dead. All who +had taken part in the ceremony then went and bathed before +returning to their homes, rubbing their skins with rough +pebbles, the old Mosaic idea of the uncleanness of the dead, +as mentioned in Numbers (chap. xix.), evidently finding a +place among their religious beliefs. It is apparently a great +relief to their minds to think that they can shut out the +spirit of the deceased. They believe that the spirit of the +dead is not aware that life has left the body until a short +time after the coffin has been taken to the graveyard, and +then not until the spirit has had leisure to notice the clothes, +weapons, and other articles belonging to its earthly estate, +which are placed with the coffin. But before this takes +place the gate has been closed.</q><note place='foot'>C. Hose, <q>In the heart of Borneo,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>The Geographical Journal</hi>, xvi. (1900) +pp. 45 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare C. Hose and W. +McDougall, <hi rend='italic'>The Pagan Tribes of +Borneo</hi> (London, 1912), ii. 36 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +where, after describing the ceremony +of passing through the cloven stick, the +writers add: <q>In this way the Kayans +symbolically prevent any of the uncanny +influences of the graveyard +following the party back to the house; +though they do not seem to be clear as +to whether it is the ghosts of the dead, +or the <foreign rend='italic'>Toh</foreign> of the neighbourhood, or +those which may have contributed to +his death, against whom these precautions +are taken.</q></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The cleft +stick or +tree +through +which a +person +passes is a +barrier to +part him +from a +dangerous +foe; the +closing of +the cleft is +like shutting +the +door in the +face of a +pursuer. +But combined +with +this in the +case of +ruptured +patients +seems to be +the idea +that the +rupture +heals sympathetically +as the +cleft in the +tree closes. +Analogous +Roman +cure for +dislocation.</note> +Here the words uttered by the mourners in passing +through the cloven stick shew clearly that they believe the +stick to act as a barrier or fence, on the further side of +which they leave behind the ghost or other dangerous spirit +whose successful pursuit might entail sickness and death on +the survivors. Thus the passage of these Madang mourners +through the cleft stick is strictly analogous to the passage +of ruptured English children through a cleft ash-tree. Both +are simply ways of leaving an evil thing behind. Similarly +the subsequent binding up of the cloven stick in Borneo is +analogous to the binding up of the cloven ash-tree in England. +Both are ways of barricading the road against the +evil which is dogging your steps; having passed through +the doorway you slam the door in the face of your pursuer. +Yet it seems probable that the intention of binding up the +cleft in a tree through which a ruptured patient has been +<pb n='177'/><anchor id='Pg177'/> +passed is not merely that of shutting the door on the malady +conceived as a personal being; combined with this idea is +perhaps the notion that in virtue of the law of magical homoeopathy +the rupture in the body of the sufferer will close up +exactly in the same measure as the cleft in the tree closes up +through the force of bandages and of natural growth. That +this shade of meaning attaches to the custom is rendered +probable by a comparison of an ancient Roman cure for +dislocation, which has been preserved for us by the grave +authority of the elder Cato. He recommended that a green +reed, four or five feet long, should be taken, split down the +middle, and held by two men to the dislocated bones while +a curious and now unintelligible spell was recited; then, +when the spell had been recited and the aperture in the reed +had closed, the reed was to be tied to the dislocated limb, +and a perfect cure might be expected. Apparently it was +supposed that just as the two sides of the split reed came +together and coalesced after being held apart, so the dislocated +bones would come together and fit into their proper places.<note place='foot'>Cato, <hi rend='italic'>De agri cultura</hi>, 159 (pp. +106 sq. ed. H. Keil, Leipsic, 1884): +<q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Luxum siquod est, hac cantione sanum +fiet. Harundinem prende tibi viridem +P. III. aut quinque longam, mediam +diffinde, et duo homines teneant ad +coxendices. Incipe cantare in alio s. f. +moetas vaeta daries dardaries asiadarides +una petes, usque dum coeant. +Motas vaeta daries dardares astataries +dissunapiter, usque dum coeant. Ferrum +insuper jactato. Ubi coierint et +altera alteram tetigerint, id manu prehende +et dextera sinistra praecide, ad +luxum aut ad fracturam alliga, sanum +fiet.</foreign></q> The passage is obscure and perhaps +corrupt. It is not clear whether +<q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>usque dum coeant</foreign></q> and <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>ubi coierint</foreign></q> +refer to the drawing together of the +bones or of the split portions of the +reed, but apparently the reference is +to the reed. The charm is referred to +by Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi>, xvii. 267: +<q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Quippe cum averti grandines carmine +credant plerique, cujus verba inserere +non equidem serio ausim, quamquam a +Catone proditis contra luxata membra +jungenda harundinum fissurae.</foreign></q> Compare +J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> +i. 186, ii. 1031 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Other +examples +of creeping +through +narrow +openings +after a +death.</note> +But the usual idea in passing through a narrow aperture +as a cure or preventive of evil would seem to be +simply that of giving the slip to a dangerous pursuer. With +this intention, doubtless, the savage Thays of Tonquin +repair after a burial to the banks of a stream and there +creep through a triangle formed by leaning two reeds +against each other, while the sorcerer souses them with dirty +water. All the relations of the deceased must wash their +garments in the stream before they return home, and they +may not set foot in the house till they have shorn their hair +<pb n='178'/><anchor id='Pg178'/> +at the foot of the ladder. Afterwards the sorcerer comes +and sprinkles the whole house with water for the purpose of +expelling evil spirits.<note place='foot'>Pinabel, <q>Notes sur quelques +peuplades dépendant du Tong-King,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de la Société de Géographie</hi>, +Septième Série, v. (Paris, 1884) p. +430; A. Bourlet, <q>Funérailles chez +les Thay,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Anthropos</hi>, viii. (1913) p. +45.</note> Here again we cannot doubt that +the creeping through the triangle of reeds is intended to +rid the mourners of the troublesome ghost. So when the +Kamtchatkans had disposed of a corpse after their usual +fashion by throwing it to the dogs to be devoured, they +purified themselves as follows. They went into the forest +and cut various roots which they bent into rings, and through +these rings they crept twice. Afterwards they carried the +rings back to the forest and flung them away westward. +The Koryaks, a people of the same region, burn their dead +and hold a festival in honour of the departed a year after +the death. At this festival, which takes place on the spot +where the corpse was burned, or, if that is too far off, on a +neighbouring height, they sacrifice two young reindeer which +have never been in harness, and the sorcerer sticks a great +many reindeer horns in the earth, believing that thereby +he is dispatching a whole herd of these animals to their +deceased friend in the other world. Then they all hasten +home, and purify themselves by passing between two poles +planted in the ground, while the sorcerer strikes them with +a stick and adjures death not to carry them off.<note place='foot'>S. Krascheninnikow, <hi rend='italic'>Beschreibung +des Landes Kamtschatka</hi> (Lemgo, +1766), pp. 268, 282.</note> The +Tokoelawi in the interior of Central Celebes hold a great +sacrificial festival on the eighth day after the death of a man +or the ninth day after the death of a woman. When the +guests return homewards after the festival they pass under +two poles placed in a slanting direction against each other, +and they may not look round at the house where the death +occurred. <q>In this way they take a final leave of the soul +of the deceased. Afterwards no more sacrifices are offered +to the soul.</q><note place='foot'>N. Adriani en Alb. C. Kruijt, +<q>Van Posso naar Parigi, Sigi en +Lindoe,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege het +Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xlii. (1898) p. 502. The poles are of +a certain plant or tree called <foreign rend='italic'>bomba</foreign>.</note> Among the Toboengkoe, another tribe in the +interior of Central Celebes, when a man buries his wife, he +goes to the grave by a different road from that along which +<pb n='179'/><anchor id='Pg179'/> +the corpse is carried; and on certain days afterwards he +bathes, and on returning from the bath must pass through +a teepee-shaped erection, which is formed by splitting a pole up +the middle and separating the two split pieces except at the +top. <q>This he must do in order that his second wife, if he +has one, may not soon die.</q><note place='foot'>Alb. C. Kruijt, <q>Eenige ethnografische +aanteekeningen omtrent de +Toboengkoe en de Tomori,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen +van wege het Nederlandsche +Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, xliv. (1900) p. +223.</note> Here the notion probably is +that the jealous ghost of the dead wife seeks to avenge herself +on her living rival by carrying off her soul with her to +deadland. Hence to prevent this catastrophe the husband +tries to evade the ghost, first by going to the grave along a +different path, and second by passing under a cleft stick, +through which as usual the spirit cannot follow him. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The intention +of the +custom +probably is +to escape +from the +ghost of +the dead.</note> +In the light of the foregoing customs, as well as of a multitude +of ceremonies observed for a similar purpose in all parts +of the world,<note place='foot'>For examples of these ceremonies +I may refer to my article, <q>On certain +burial customs as illustrative of the +primitive theory of the soul,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xv. +(1886) pp. 64 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> we may safely assume that when people creep +through rings after a death or pass between poles after a +sacrifice to the dead, their intention simply is to interpose +a barrier between themselves and the ghost; they make +their way through a narrow pass or aperture through which +they hope that the ghost will not be able to follow them. +To put it otherwise, they conceive that the spirit of the dead +is sticking to them like a burr, and that like a burr it may +be rubbed or scraped off and left adhering to the sides of +the opening through which they have squeezed themselves. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Passing +through +an archway +in order +to escape +from +demons. Crawling +under an +arch of +bramble +as a cure +for various +maladies. +Crawling +under +arches +of various +sorts as +a cure or +preventive +of sickness.</note> +Similarly, when a pestilence is raging among the Koryaks, +they kill a dog, wind its guts about two poles, and pass +between the poles,<note place='foot'>S. Krascheninnikow, <hi rend='italic'>Beschreibung +des Landes Kamtschatka</hi> (Lemgo, 1766), +pp. 277 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> doubtless for the sake of giving the slip +to the demon of the plague in the same way that they give +the slip to the ghost. When the Kayans of Borneo have +been dogged by an evil spirit on a journey and are nearing +their destination, they fashion a small archway of boughs, +light a fire under it, and pass in single file under the archway +and over the fire, spitting into the fire as they pass. By +this ceremony, we are told, <q>they thoroughly exorcise the +<pb n='180'/><anchor id='Pg180'/> +evil spirits and emerge on the other side free from all baleful +influences.</q><note place='foot'>W. H. Furness, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore in +Borneo, a Sketch</hi>, p. 28 (Wallingford, +Pennsylvania, 1899, privately +printed). Compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>The Home-life +of Borneo Head-hunters</hi> (Philadelphia, +1902), p. 28: <q>Here a halt +for final purification was made. An +arch of boughs about five feet high was +erected on the beach, and beneath it a +fire was kindled, and then Tama Bulan, +holding a young chicken, which he +waved and brushed over every portion +of the arch, invoked all evil spirits +which had been accompanying us, and +forbade them to follow us further +through the fire. The fowl was then +killed, its blood smeared all over the +archway and sprinkled in the fire; +then, led by Tama Bulan, the whole +party filed under the arch, and as they +stepped over the fire each one spat in +it vociferously and immediately took +his place in the boats.</q></note> Here, to make assurance doubly sure, a fire as +well as an archway is interposed between the travellers and +the dreadful beings who are walking unseen behind. To crawl +under a bramble which has formed an arch by sending down +a second root into the ground, is an English and Welsh cure +for whooping-cough, rheumatism, boils, and other complaints. +In some parts of the west of England they say that to get rid +of boils the thing to do is to crawl through such a natural arch +nine times against the sun; but in Devonshire the patient +should creep through the arch thrice with the sun, that is +from east to west. When a child is passed through it for +whooping-cough, the operators ought to say: +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<lg> +<l><q rend='pre'><hi rend='italic'>In bramble, out cough,</hi></q></l> +<l><q rend='post'><hi rend='italic'>Here I leave the whooping-cough.</hi></q><note place='foot'>T. F. Thiselton Dyer, <hi rend='italic'>English +Folk-lore</hi> (London, 1884), pp. 171 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +W. G. Black, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-medicine</hi> (London, +1883), p. 70; R. Hunt, <hi rend='italic'>Popular +Romances of the West of England</hi>, +Third Edition (London, 1881), pp. +412, 415; Marie Trevelyan, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore +and Folk-stories of Wales</hi> (London, +1909), p. 320.</note></l> +</lg> +</quote> + +<p> +In Perigord and other parts of France the same cure is +employed for boils.<note place='foot'>A. de Nore, <hi rend='italic'>Coutumes, Mythes et +Traditions des Provinces de France</hi> +(Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 152; H. +Gaidoz, <hi rend='italic'>Un Vieux Rite médical</hi> (Paris, +1892), pp. 7 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In Bulgaria, when a person suffers from +a congenital malady such as scrofula, a popular cure is to +take him to a neighbouring village and there make him creep +naked thrice through an arch, which is formed by inserting +the lower ends of two vine branches in the ground and joining +their upper ends together. When he has done so, he hangs +his clothes on a tree, and dons other garments. On his way +home the patient must also crawl under a ploughshare, +which is held high enough to let him pass.<note place='foot'>A. Strausz, <hi rend='italic'>Die Bulgaren</hi> (Leipsic, +1898), p. 414.</note> Further, when +<pb n='181'/><anchor id='Pg181'/> +whooping-cough is prevalent in a Bulgarian village, an old +woman will scrape the earth from under the root of a willow-tree. +Then all the children of the village creep through the +opening thus made, and a thread from the garment of each +of them is hung on the willow. Adults sometimes go through +the same ceremony after recovering from a dangerous illness.<note place='foot'>A. Strausz, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 404. As +to the Bulgarian custom of creeping +through a tunnel in a time of epidemic, +see above, vol. i. pp. 282-284.</note> +Similarly, when sickness is rife among some of the villages +to the east of Lake Nyassa, the inhabitants crawl through +an arch formed by bending a wand and inserting the two +ends in the ground. By way of further precaution they +wash themselves on the spot with medicine and water, and +then bury the medicine and the evil influence together in +the earth. The same ceremony is resorted to as a means of +keeping off evil spirits, wild beasts, and enemies.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Last Journals of David Livingstone +in Central Africa</hi> (London, 1874), +i. 60.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Custom in +Uganda of +causing a +sick man +to pass +through a +cleft stick +or a narrow +opening in +the doorway.</note> +In Uganda <q>sometimes a medicine-man directed a sick +man to provide an animal, promising that he would come and +transfer the sickness to the animal. The medicine-man would +then select a plantain-tree near the house, kill the animal by it, +and anoint the sick man with its blood, on his forehead, on +each side of his chest, and on his legs above the knees. The +plantain-tree selected had to be one that was about to bear +fruit, and the medicine-man would split the stem from near +the top to near the bottom, leaving a few inches not split +both at the top and at the bottom; the split stem would be +held open so that the sick man could step through it, and in +doing so he would leave his clothing at the plantain-tree, and +would run into the house without looking back. When he +entered the house, new clothes would be given him to wear. +The plantain, the clothing, and meat would be carried away +by the medicine-man, who would deposit the plantain-tree on +waste land, but would take the meat and clothing for himself. +Sometimes the medicine-man would kill the animal near the +hut, lay a stout stick across the threshold, and narrow the +doorway by partially filling it with branches of trees; he +would then put some of the blood on either side of the narrow +entrance, and some on the stick across the threshold, and +<pb n='182'/><anchor id='Pg182'/> +would also anoint with it the sick man, who would be taken +outside for the purpose. The patient would then re-enter +the house, letting his clothing fall off, as he passed through +the doorway. The medicine-man would carry away the +branches, the stick, the clothing, and the meat. The +branches and the stick he would cast upon waste land, +but the meat and the clothing he would keep for himself.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi> +(London, 1911), p. 343. Compare +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Notes on the Manners and +Customs of the Baganda,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxxi. +(1901) p. 126; id., <q>Further Notes +on the Manners and Customs of the +Baganda,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxxii. (1902) pp. +42 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Here the notion of transferring the sickness to the animal is +plainly combined with, we may almost say overshadowed by +the notion that the ailment is left behind adhering to the +cleft plantain-stem or to the stick and branches of the narrow +opening through which the patient has made his way. That +obviously is why the plantain-stem or the stick and branches +are thrown away on waste land, lest they should infect other +people with the sickness which has been transferred to them. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Similar +custom +practised +by the Kai +of New +Guinea +and the +Looboos +of Sumatra +for the +purpose +of giving +the slip to +spiritual +pursuers.</note> +The Kai of German New Guinea attribute sickness to the +agency either of ghosts or of sorcerers, but suspicion always +falls at first on ghosts, who are deemed even worse than the +sorcerers. To cure a sick man they will sometimes cleave a +stick in the middle, leaving the two ends intact, and then oblige +the sufferer to insert his head through the cleft. After that +they stroke his whole body with the stick from head to foot. +<q>The stick with the soul-stuff of the ghosts is then hurled +away or otherwise destroyed, whereupon the sick man is +supposed to recover.</q><note place='foot'>Ch. Keysser, <q>Aus dem Leben +der Kaileute,</q> in R. Neuhauss's +<hi rend='italic'>Deutsch Neu-Guinea</hi>, iii. (Berlin, 1911) +pp. 141 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Here the ghosts who cause the sickness +are clearly supposed to be scraped from the patient's +body by means of the cleft stick, and to be thrown away or +destroyed with the implement. The Looboos, a primitive +tribe in the Mandailing district of Sumatra, stand in great +fear of the wandering spirits of the dead (<foreign rend='italic'>soemangots</foreign>). But +<q>they know all sorts of means of protecting themselves +against the unwelcome visits of the spirits. For example, +if a man has lost his way in the forest, he thinks that this +is the work of such a spirit (<foreign rend='italic'>soemangot</foreign>), who dogs the +<pb n='183'/><anchor id='Pg183'/> +wanderer and bedims his sight. So in order to throw the +malignant spirit off the track he takes a rattan and splits it +through the middle. By bending the rattan an opening is +made, through which he creeps. After that the rattan is +quickly stretched and the opening closes. By this procedure +the spirit (so they think) cannot find the opening +again and so cannot further follow his victim.</q><note place='foot'>J. Kreemer, <q>De Loeboes in +Mandailing,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en +Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie</hi>, +lxvi. (1912) p. 327.</note> Here +therefore, the passage through a cleft stick is conceived in +the clearest way as an escape from a spiritual pursuer, and +the closing of the aperture when the fugitive has passed +through it is nothing but the slamming of the door in the +face of his invisible foe. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Passing +through +cleft sticks +in connexion +with +puberty +and circumcision.</note> +A similar significance is probably to be attached to +other cases of ceremonially passing through a cleft stick +even where the intention of the rite is not expressly alleged. +Thus among the Ovambo of German South-West Africa +young women who have become marriageable perform a +variety of ceremonies; among other things they dance in +the large and the small cattle-kraal. On quitting the +large cattle-kraal after the dance, and on entering and +quitting the small cattle-kraal, they are obliged to pass, one +after the other, through the fork of a cleft stick, of which +the two sides are held wide open by an old man.<note place='foot'>Hermann Tönjes, <hi rend='italic'>Ovamboland, +Land, Leute, Mission</hi> (Berlin, 1911), +pp. 139 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The writer was unable to +ascertain the meaning of the rite; the +natives would only say that it was their +custom.</note> Among +the Washamba of German East Africa, when a boy has +been circumcised, two women bring a long sugar-cane, which +still bears its leaves. The cane is split at some distance +from its upper and lower ends and the two sides are held +apart so as to form a cleft or opening; at the lower end +of the cleft a <foreign rend='italic'>danga</foreign> ring is fastened. The father and mother +of the circumcised youth now place the sugar-cane between +them, touch the ring with their feet, and then slip through +the cleft; and after them the lad's aunt must also pass +through the cleft sugar-cane.<note place='foot'>A. Karasek, <q>Beiträge zur +Kenntnis der Waschambo,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Baessler-Archiv</hi>, +i. (Leipsic and Berlin, 1911) +p. 192.</note> In both these cases the +passage through the cleft stick is probably intended to give +<pb n='184'/><anchor id='Pg184'/> +the slip to certain dangerous spirits, which are apt to molest +people at such critical seasons as puberty and circumcision. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Crawling +through a +ring or +hoop as a +cure or +preventive +of disease. +Passing +sheep +through +a hoop +of rowan. Milking +a cow +through +a natural +wooden +ring or a +<q>witch's +nest.</q> +Passing +sick +persons +or animals +through +a ring +of yarn. +Passing +diseased +children +through +a coil. Passing +through +a hemlock +ring during +an epidemic. +Passing +through a +ring of red-hot +iron to +escape an +evil spirit.</note> +Again, the passage through a ring or hoop is resorted +to for like reasons as a mode of curing or preventing disease. +Thus in Sweden, when a natural ring has been found in a +tree, it is carefully removed and treasured in the family; for +sick and especially rickety children are healed by merely +passing through it.<note place='foot'>H. F. Feilberg, <q>Zwieselbäume +nebst verwandtem Aberglauben in +Skandinavien,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift des Vereins +für Volkskunde</hi>, vii. (1897) pp. 49 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> A young married woman in Sweden, +who suffered from an infirmity, was advised by a wise +woman to steal three branches of willow, make them into +a hoop, and creep through it naked, taking care not to touch +the hoop and to keep perfectly silent. The hoop was afterwards +to be burnt. She carried out the prescription faithfully, +and her faith was rewarded by a perfect cure.<note place='foot'>H. F. Feilberg, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 44.</note> No doubt her +infirmity was thought to adhere to the hoop and to be burnt +with it. Similarly in Scotland children who suffered from +hectic fever and consumptive patients used to be healed by +passing thrice through a circular wreath of woodbine, which +was cut during the increase of the March moon and was let +down over the body of the sufferer from the head to the feet. +Thus Jonet Stewart cured sundry women by <q>taking ane +garland of grene woodbynd, and causing the patient pas +thryis throw it, quhilk thairefter scho cut in nyne pieces, and +cast in the fyre.</q> Another wise woman transmitted the sick +<q>throw are girth of woodbind thryis thre times, saying, <q>I +do this in name of the Father, the Sone, and the Halie +Ghaist.</q></q><note place='foot'>J. G. Dalyell, <hi rend='italic'>The Darker Superstitions +of Scotland</hi> (Edinburgh, 1834), +p. 121; Ch. Rogers, <hi rend='italic'>Social Life in +Scotland</hi> (Edinburgh, 1884-1886), iii. +239.</note> The Highlanders of Strathspey used to force +all their sheep and lambs to pass through a hoop of +rowan-tree on All Saints' Day and Beltane (the first of +November and the first of May),<note place='foot'>John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, <hi rend='italic'>Scotland +and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth +Century</hi>, edited by A. Allardyce, +(Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii. +454. Immediately after mentioning +this custom the writer adds: <q>And in +Breadalbane it is the custom for the +dairymaid to drive the cattle to the +sheals with a wand of that tree [the +rowan] cut upon the day of removal, +which is laid above the door until the +cattle be going back again to the winter-town. +This was reckoned a preservative +against witchcraft.</q> As to the activity +of witches and fairies on Hallowe'en and +the first of May, see above, vol. i. pp. +226 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 295; <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the +Evolution of Kings</hi>, ii. 52 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; J. G. +Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>Superstitions of the Highlands +and Islands of Scotland</hi> (Glasgow, +1900), p. 18; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Witchcraft and +Second Sight in the Highlands and +Islands of Scotland</hi> (Glasgow, 1902), +p. 270. As to the power of the +rowan-tree to counteract their spells, +see W. Gregor, <hi rend='italic'>Notes on the Folk-lore +of the North-East of Scotland</hi> (London, +1881), p. 188; J. C. Atkinson, <hi rend='italic'>Forty +Years in a Moorland Parish</hi> (London, +1891), pp. 97 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>The Scapegoat</hi>, pp. +266 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> probably as a means of +<pb n='185'/><anchor id='Pg185'/> +warding off the witches and fairies, who are especially +dreaded at these seasons, and against whose malignant arts +the rowan-tree affords an efficient protection. In Oldenburg +when a cow gives little or no milk, they milk her through a +hole in a branch. In Eversten they say that this should be +done through a ring which an oak-tree has formed round the +scar where a branch has been sawn off. Others say the +beast should be milked through a <q>witch's nest,</q> that is, +through the boughs of a birch-tree which have grown in a +tangle. Such a <q>witch's nest</q> is also hung up in a pig's stye +to protect the pig against witchcraft.<note place='foot'>L. Strackerjan, <hi rend='italic'>Aberglaube und +Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg</hi> +(Oldenburg, 1867), i. p. 364, § 241.</note> Hence the aim of +milking a cow through a <q>witch's nest</q> or through a natural +wooden ring is no doubt to deliver the poor creature from +an artful witch who has been draining away the milk into +her own pail, as witches are too apt to do. Again, in +Oldenburg sick children, and also adults and animals, are +passed through a ring of rough unwashed yarn, just as it +comes from the reel. To complete the cure you should +throw a hot coal thrice through the ring, then spit through +it thrice, and finally bury the yarn under a stone, where you +leave it to rot. The writer who reports these remedies explains +them as intended to strip the witchcraft, as you might +say, from the bodies of the victims, whether human or animal, +on whom the witch has cast her spell.<note place='foot'>L. Strackerjan, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. p. 364, +§ 240.</note> Among the Lushais +of Assam <q>five to ten days after the child is born its body +is said to be covered with small pimples, its lips become +black and its strength decreases. The family then obtain +a particular kind of creeping plant called <foreign rend='italic'>vawm</foreign>, which they +make into a coil. In the evening everything in the house +that has a lid or covering is uncovered, and the child is thrice +passed through this coil, which act is supposed to clear the +<pb n='186'/><anchor id='Pg186'/> +child's skin and restore its strength. After this is finished, +the parents go to bed and the pots or other receptacles are +covered again by any of the other members of the family. +The parents themselves must not replace any of these lids +for fear that they might shut up the spirit of the child in +them.</q><note place='foot'>Lieutenant-Colonel H. W. G. +Cole, <q>The Lushais,</q> in <hi rend='italic'>Census of +India</hi>, 1911, vol. iii. <hi rend='italic'>Assam</hi>, Part i. +<hi rend='italic'>Report</hi> (Shillong, 1912), p. 140.</note> When the Kwakiutl Indians of British Columbia +fear the outbreak of an epidemic, a medicine-man takes a +large ring of hemlock branches and causes every member of +the tribe to pass through it. Each person puts his head +through the ring and then moves the ring downwards over +his body till it has almost reached his feet, when he steps +out of it, right foot first. They think that this prevents the +epidemic from breaking out.<note place='foot'>Franz Boas, in <hi rend='italic'>Eleventh Report +on the North-Western Tribes of Canada</hi>, +pp. 3 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> (separate reprint from the +<hi rend='italic'>Report of the British Association for +the Advancement of Science</hi>, Liverpool +meeting, 1896).</note> In Asia Minor, <q>if a person +is believed to be possessed by an evil spirit, one form of +treatment is to heat an iron-chain red-hot, form it into a ring +and pass the afflicted person through the opening, on the +theory that the evil spirit cannot pass the hot chain, and +so is torn from his victim and left behind.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. G. E. White, Dean of Anatolia +College, <hi rend='italic'>Survivals of Primitive +Religion among the People of Asia +Minor</hi>, p. 12 (paper read before the +Victoria Institute or Philosophical +Society of Great Britain, 6 Adelphi +Terrace, Strand, London).</note> Here the +intention of the passage through the aperture is avowedly +to shake off a spiritual pursuer, who is deterred from +further pursuit not only by the narrowness of the opening +but by the risk of burning himself in the attempt to make +his way through it. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Crawling +through +holed +stones as +a cure in +Scotland +and +Cornwall.</note> +But if the intention of these ceremonies is essentially to +rid the performer of some harmful thing, whether a disease +or a ghost or a demon, which is supposed to be clinging to +him, we should expect to find that any narrow hole or +opening would serve the purpose as well as a cleft tree or +stick, an arch or ring of boughs, or a couple of posts fixed +in the ground. And this expectation is not disappointed. +On the coast of Morven and Mull thin ledges of rock may +be seen pierced with large holes near the sea. Consumptive +people used to be brought thither, and after the tops of nine +<pb n='187'/><anchor id='Pg187'/> +waves had been caught in a dish and thrown on the patient's +head, he was made to pass through one of the rifted rocks +thrice in the direction of the sun.<note place='foot'>John Ramsay, <hi rend='italic'>Scotland and Scotsmen +in the Eighteenth Century</hi>, edited +by Alex. Allardyce (Edinburgh, 1888), +ii. 451 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> <q>On the farm of +Crossapol in Coll there is a stone called <foreign lang='gd' rend='italic'>Clach Thuill</foreign>, +that is, the Hole Stone, through which persons suffering +from consumption were made to pass three times in the +name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. They took +meat with them each time, and left some on the stone. +The bird that took the food away had the consumption +laid upon it. Similar stones, under which the patient can +creep, were made use of in other islands.</q><note place='foot'>J. G. Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>Witchcraft and +Second Sight in the Highlands and +Islands of Scotland</hi> (Glasgow, 1902), +p. 100.</note> Here it is +manifest that the patient left his disease behind him on the +stone, since the bird which carried off the food from the +stone caught the disease. In the Aberdeenshire river Dee, +at Cambus o' May, near Ballater, there is a rock with a hole +in it large enough to let a person pass through. Legend +runs that childless women used to wade out to the stone +and squeeze themselves through the hole. It is said that a +certain noble lady tried the effect of the charm not very many +years ago with indifferent success.<note place='foot'>Mr. James S. Greig, in a letter to +me dated Lindean, Perth Road, +Dundee, 17th August, 1913.</note> In the parish of Madern +in Cornwall, near the village of Lanyon, there is a perforated +stone called the <foreign lang='kw' rend='italic'>Mên-an-tol</foreign> or <q>holed stone,</q> through which +people formerly crept as a remedy for pains in the back and +limbs; and at certain times of the year parents drew their +children through the hole to cure them of the rickets.<note place='foot'>W. Borlase, <hi rend='italic'>Antiquities, historical +and monumental, of the County of Cornwall</hi> +(London, 1769), pp. 177 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +The passage through the stone was also deemed a cure for +scrofula, provided it was made against the sun and repeated +three times or three times three.<note place='foot'>Robert Hunt, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Romances +of the West of England</hi>, Third Edition +(London, 1881), pp. 176, 415.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Crawling +through +holed +stones as +a cure in +France.</note> +Near the little town of Dourgne, not far from Castres, +in Southern France, there is a mountain, and on the top +of the mountain is a tableland, where a number of large +stones may be seen planted in the ground about a cross +and rising to a height of two to five feet above the +<pb n='188'/><anchor id='Pg188'/> +ground. Almost all of them are pierced with holes of +different sizes. From time immemorial people used to assemble +at Dourgne and the neighbourhood every year on +the sixth of August, the festival of St. Estapin. The palsied, +the lame, the blind, the sick of all sorts, flocked thither +to seek and find a cure for their various infirmities. Very +early in the morning they set out from the villages where +they had lodged or from the meadows where for want of +better accommodation they had been forced to pass the +night, and went on pilgrimage to the chapel of St. Estapin, +which stands in a gorge at the southern foot of the mountain. +Having gone nine times in procession round the chapel, they +hobbled, limped, or crawled to the tableland on the top of +the mountain. There each of them chose a stone with a +hole of the requisite size and thrust his ailing member +through the hole. For there are holes to suit every complaint; +some for the head, some for the arm, some for the +leg, and so on. Having performed this simple ceremony +they were cured; the lame walked, the blind saw, the palsied +recovered the use of their limbs, and so on. The chapel of +the saint is adorned with the crutches and other artificial +aids, now wholly superfluous, which the joyful pilgrims left +behind them in token of their gratitude and devotion.<note place='foot'>Thomas-de-Saint-Mars, <q>Fête de +Saint Estapin,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mémoires de la Société +Royale des Antiquaires de France</hi>, i. +(1817) pp. 428-430.</note> +About two miles from Gisors, in the French department of +Oise, there is a dolmen called Trie or Trie- Chateau, consisting +of three upright stones with a fourth and larger stone +laid horizontally on their tops. The stone which forms the +back wall of the dolmen is pierced about the middle by an +irregularly shaped hole, through which the people of the +neighbourhood used from time immemorial to pass their +sickly children in the firm belief that the passage through +the stone would restore them to health.<note place='foot'>J. Deniker, <q>Dolmen et superstitions,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Bulletins et Mémoires de la +Société d'Anthropologie de Paris</hi>, v. +série, i. (1900) p. 111. Compare +H. Gaidoz, <hi rend='italic'>Un Vieux Rite médical</hi> +(Paris, 1892), pp. 26 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; G. Fouju, +<q>Légendes et Superstitions préhistoriques,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Revue des Traditions Populaires</hi>, +xiv. (1899) pp. 477 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Crawling +through +holed +stones +as a cure +in Bavaria, +Austria, +and +Greece.</note> +In the church of St. Corona at the village of Koppenwal, +in Lower Bavaria, there is a hole in the stone on which the +<pb n='189'/><anchor id='Pg189'/> +altar rests. Through this hole, while service was going on, +the peasants used to creep, believing that having done so +they would not suffer from pains in their back at harvest.<note place='foot'>F. Panzer, <hi rend='italic'>Beitrag zur deutschen +Mythologie</hi> (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. +48 § 61.</note> +In the crypt of the old cathedral at Freising in Bavaria +there is a tomb which is reputed to contain the relics of +St. Nonnosius. Between a pillar of the tomb and the +wall there is a narrow opening, through which persons +afflicted with pains in the back creep in order to obtain +thereby some mitigation of their pangs.<note place='foot'>F. Panzer, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 431 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In Upper Austria, +above the Lake of Aber, which is a sheet of dark-green +water nestling among wooded mountains, there stands +the Falkenstein chapel of St. Wolfgang built close to the +face of a cliff that rises from a little green dale. A +staircase leads up from the chapel to a narrow, dark, +dripping cleft in the rock, through which pilgrims creep +in a stooping posture <q>in the belief that they can strip +off their bodily sufferings or sins on the face of the rock.</q><note place='foot'>Marie Andree-Eysn, <hi rend='italic'>Volkskundliches +aus dem bayrisch-österreichischen +Alpengebiet</hi> (Brunswick, 1910), pp. 1, +9, with the illustrations on pp. 10, 11.</note> +Women with child also crawl through the hole, hoping +thus to obtain an easy delivery.<note place='foot'>F. Panzer, <hi rend='italic'>Beitrag zur deutschen +Mythologie</hi>, ii. 431.</note> In the Greek island +of Cythnos, when a child is sickly, the mother will take +it to a hole in a rock about half an hour distant from +Messaria. There she strips the child naked and pushes it +through the hole in the rock, afterwards throwing away the +old garments and clothing the child in new ones.<note place='foot'>J. Theodore Bent, <hi rend='italic'>The Cyclades</hi> +(London, 1885), p. 437.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Crawling +through +holed +stones +as a cure +in Asia +Minor. Passing +through +various +narrow +openings +as a cure or +preventive +in India +and +Ireland.</note> +Near Everek, on the site of the ancient Caesarea in Asia +Minor, there is a rifted rock through which persons pass to rid +themselves of a cough.<note place='foot'>E. H. Carnoy et J. Nicolaides, +<hi rend='italic'>Traditions populaires de l'Asie Mineure</hi> +(Paris, 1889), p. 338.</note> A writer well acquainted with Asia +Minor has described how he visited <q>a well-known pool of +water tucked away in a beautiful nook high up among the +Anatolian mountains, and with a wide reputation for sanctity +and healing powers. We arrived just as the last of a flock +of three hundred sheep were being passed through a peculiar +hole in the thin ledge of a huge rock to deliver them +from a disease of the liver supposed to prevent the proper +<pb n='190'/><anchor id='Pg190'/> +laying on of fat.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. George E. White (of Marsovan, +Turkey), <hi rend='italic'>Present Day Sacrifices +in Asia Minor</hi>, p. 3 (reprinted from +<hi rend='italic'>The Hartford Seminary Record</hi>, February +1906).</note> Among the Kawars of the Central +Provinces in India a man who suffers from intermittent +fever will try to cure it by walking through a narrow +passage between two houses.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Central Provinces, Ethnographic +Survey</hi>, vii. <hi rend='italic'>Draft Articles on Forest +Tribes</hi> (Allahabad, 1911), p. 46.</note> In a ruined church of St. +Brandon, about ten miles from Dingle, in the west of Ireland, +there is a narrow window, through which sick women pass +thrice in order to be cured.<note place='foot'>So my friend Dr. G. W. Prothero +informs me in a letter.</note> The Hindoos of the Punjaub +think that the birth of a son after three girls is unlucky for +the parents, and in order to avert the ill-luck they resort to +a number of devices. Amongst other things they break the +centre of a bronze plate and remove all but the rim; then +they pass the luckless child through the bronze rim. Moreover, +they make an opening in the roof of the room where +the birth took place, and then pull the infant out through +the opening; and further they pass the child under the sill +of the door.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Census of India, 1911</hi>, vol. xiv. +<hi rend='italic'>Punjab</hi>, Part i. <hi rend='italic'>Report</hi>, by Pandit +Harikishan Kaul (Lahore, 1912), p. +302.</note> By these passages through narrow apertures +they apparently hope to rid the child of the ill-luck which is +either pursuing it or sticking to it like a burr. For in this +case, as in many similar ones, it might be hard to say whether +the riddance is conceived as an escape from the pursuit of a +maleficent spirit or as the abrasion of a dangerous substance +which adheres to the person of the sufferer. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Crawling +through +holes in the +ground as +a cure for +disease. Passing +through +the yoke of +a chariot +as a cure +for skin +disease.</note> +Another way of ridding man and beast of the clinging +infection of disease is to pass them through a hole dug in +the ground. This mode of cure was practised in Europe +during the Middle Ages, and has survived in Denmark down +to modern times. In a sermon preached by St. Eloi, Bishop +of Noyon, in the sixth century, he forbade the faithful to +practise lustrations and to drive their sheep through hollow +trees and holes in the earth, <q>because by this they seem to +consecrate them to the devil.</q><note place='foot'>H. Gaidoz, <hi rend='italic'>Un Vieux Rite médical</hi> +(Paris, 1892), p. 10.</note> Theodore, Archbishop of +Canterbury, who died in 690 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>, decreed that <q>if any one +for the health of his little son shall pass through a hole in +the ground and then close it behind him with thorns, let him +<pb n='191'/><anchor id='Pg191'/> +do penance for eleven days on bread and water.</q><note place='foot'>H. Gaidoz, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 21.</note> Here +the closing of the hole with thorns after the patient or his +representative has passed through is plainly intended to +barricade the narrow way against the pursuit of sickness +personified as a demon; hence it confirms the general +interpretation here given of these customs. Again, Burchard, +Bishop of Worms, who died in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 1025, repeated the same +condemnation: <q>Hast thou done what certain women are +wont to do? I mean those who have squalling babes; +they dig the earth and pierce it, and through that hole they +drag the babe, and they say that thus the squalling babe +ceases to squall. If thou has done this or consented unto +it, thou shalt do penance for fifteen days on bread and +water.</q><note place='foot'>H. Gaidoz, <hi rend='italic'>Un Vieux Rite médical</hi> +(Paris, 1892), p. 21. Compare J. +Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> ii. 975 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> At Fünen in Denmark, as late as the latter part of +the nineteenth century, a cure for childish ailments was to +dig up several sods, arrange them so as to form a hole, +and then to pass the sick child through it.<note place='foot'>H. F. Feilberg, <q>Zwieselbäume +nebst verwandtem Aberglaube in +Skandinavien,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift des Vereins +für Volkskunde</hi>, vii. (1897) p. 45.</note> A simplified +form of this cure is adopted in Jutland. At twelve o'clock +on a Thursday night you go to a churchyard, dig up a +circular piece of turf, and make a hole in it large enough +to permit the passage through it of your infant progeny. +Taking the sod with you, go home, salute nobody on the +way, and speak to nobody. On getting to your house, +take the child and pass it thrice through the turf from right +to left; then take the turf back to the churchyard and +replace it in position. If the turf takes root and grows +afresh, the child will recover; but if the turf withers, there is +no hope. Elsewhere it is at the hour of sunset rather than +of midnight that people cut the turf in the churchyard. The +same cure is applied to cattle which have been bewitched; +though naturally in that case you must cut a much bigger +turf and make a much bigger hole in it to let a horse or a +cow through than is necessary for an infant.<note place='foot'>H. Gaidoz, <hi rend='italic'>Un Vieux Rite médical</hi> +(Paris, 1892), pp. 22 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, referring to +Nyrop, in <hi rend='italic'>Dania</hi>, i. No. 1 (Copenhagen, +1890), pp. 5 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Here, again, +the conception of a sympathetic relation, established between +<pb n='192'/><anchor id='Pg192'/> +the sufferer and the thing which has rid him of his ailment, +comes out clearly in the belief, that if the turf through which +the child has been passed thrives, the child will thrive also, +but that if the turf withers, the child will die. Among the +Corannas, a people of the Hottentot race on the Orange +River, <q>when a child recovers from a dangerous illness, a +trench is dug in the ground, across the middle of which an +arch is thrown, and an ox made to stand upon it; the child +is then dragged under the arch. After this ceremony the +animal is killed, and eaten by married people who have +children, none else being permitted to participate of the +feast.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. John Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>Travels in +South Africa, Second Journey</hi> (London, +1822), ii. 346. Among the same +people <q>when a person is ill, they +bring an ox to the place where he is +laid. Two cuts are then made in one +of its legs, extending down the whole +length of it. The skin in the middle +of the leg being raised up, the operator +thrusts in his hand, to make way for +that of the sick person, whose whole +body is afterwards rubbed over with +the blood of the animal. The ox after +enduring this torment is killed, and +those who are married and have children, +as in the other case, are the only +partakers of the feast.</q> (J. Campbell, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 346 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>). Here the intention +seems to be not so much to +transfer the disease to the ox, as to +transfuse the healthy life of the beast +into the veins of the sick man. The +same is perhaps true of the Welsh and +French cure for whooping-cough, which +consists in passing the little sufferer +several times under an ass. See J. +Brand, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Antiquities of Great +Britain</hi> (London, 1882-1883), iii. 288; +L. J. B. Bérenger-Féraud, in <hi rend='italic'>Bulletins +de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris</hi>, +Quatrième Série, i. (1890) p. 897; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Superstitions et Survivances</hi> (Paris, +1896), i. 526. The same cure for whooping-cough +<q>is also practised in Ireland; +only here the sufferer is passed round, +that is, over and under, the body of +an ass</q> (letter of Miss A. H. Singleton +to me, dated Rathmagle House, Abbey-Leix, +Ireland, 24th February 1904). +But perhaps the intention rather is to +give the whooping-cough to the animal; +for it might reasonably be thought that +the feeble whoop of the sick child would +neither seriously impair the lungs, nor +perceptibly augment the stentorian bray, +of the donkey.</note> Here the attempt to leave the sickness behind in +the hole, which is probably the essence of the ceremony, +may perhaps be combined with an endeavour to impart to +the child the strength and vigour of the animal. Ancient +India seems also to have been familiar with the same +primitive notion that sickness could, as it were, be stripped +off the person of the sufferer by passing him through a +narrow aperture; for in the Rigveda it is said that Indra +cured Apala of a disease of the skin by drawing her through +the yoke of the chariot; <q>thus the god made her to have a +golden skin, purifying her thrice.</q><note place='foot'>H. Oldenberg, <hi rend='italic'>Die Religion des +Veda</hi> (Berlin, 1894), p. 495. According +to a fuller account, Indra drew +her through three holes, that of a war-chariot, that of a cart, and that of a +yoke. See W. Caland, <hi rend='italic'>Altindisches +Zauberritual</hi> (Amsterdam, 1900), p. 31 +note 5.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='193'/><anchor id='Pg193'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Passing +under a +yoke or +arch as +a rite of +initiation.</note> +At the small village of Damun, on the Kabenau river, +in German New Guinea, a traveller witnessed the natives +performing a ceremony of initiation, of which the following +rite formed part. The candidates for initiation, six in +number, were boys and lads of various ages from about +four years of age to sixteen or seventeen. The company +betook themselves to the bed of a small stream, where at +the end of a gully a hollow in the rocks formed a natural +basin. At the entrance to the gully a sort of yoke, so the +traveller calls it, was erected by means of some poles, and +from the cross-piece plants were hung so as to make an arch. +One of the men took up his station in front of the arch, and +as each candidate came up, the man seized him, spat on his +breast and back a clot of red spittle, and gave him several +severe blows with the stock of a plant. After that the +candidate, who had previously stripped himself naked, passed +under the leafy arch and bathed in the rocky pool at the +other end of the gully. All the time that this solemnity +was proceeding another man sat perched on a neighbouring +rock, beating a drum and singing. Only men took part in +the ceremony.<note place='foot'>Dr. E. Werner, <q>Im westlichen +Finsterregebirge und an der Nordküste +von Deutsch-Neuginea,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Petermanns +Mitteilungen</hi>, lv. (1909) pp. 74 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +Among some tribes of South-Eastern +Australia it was customary at the +ceremonies of initiation to bend growing +saplings into arches and compel +the novices to pass under them; sometimes +the youths had to crawl on +the ground to get through. See +A. W. Howitt, <q>On some Australian +ceremonies of Initiation,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xiii. (1884) +p. 445; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of South-East +Australia</hi> (London, 1904), p. 536.</note> Though no explanation of the ceremony is +given by the observer who witnessed it, we may suppose +that by passing under the yoke or arch the novices were +supposed to rid themselves of certain evil influences, whether +conceived as spiritual or not, which they left behind them +on the further side of the barrier. This interpretation is +confirmed by the bath which each candidate took immediately +afterwards. In short the whole purpose of the rite +would seem to have been purificatory. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +ancient +Roman +custom +of passing +enemies +under a +yoke was +probably +in origin a +ceremony +of purification +rather than +of degradation.</note> +With the preceding examples before us, it seems worth +while to ask whether the ancient Italian practice of making +conquered enemies to pass under a yoke may not in its +<pb n='194'/><anchor id='Pg194'/> +origin have been a purificatory ceremony, designed to rid +the foe of some uncanny powers before dismissing him to +his home. For apparently the ceremony was only observed +with prisoners who were about to be released;<note place='foot'>Livy iii. 28, ix. 6, x. 36; +Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <hi rend='italic'>Antiquit. +Roman.</hi> iii. 22. 7. The so-called yoke +in this case consisted of two spears or +two beams set upright in the ground, +with a third spear or beam laid transversely +across them. See Livy iii. 28; +Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi></note> had it been +a mere mark of ignominy, there seems to be no reason +why it should not have been inflicted also on men who +were doomed to die. This conjectural explanation of the +ceremony is confirmed by the tradition that the Roman +Horatius was similarly obliged by his fellow-countrymen to +pass under a yoke as a form of purification for the murder +of his sister. The yoke by passing under which he cleansed +himself from his sister's blood was still to be seen in Rome +when Livy was writing his history under the emperor +Augustus. It was an ancient wooden beam spanning a +narrow lane in an old quarter of the city, the two ends of +the beam being built into the masonry of the walls on +either side; it went by the name of the Sister's Beam, and +whenever the wood decayed and threatened to fall, the +venerable monument, which carried back the thoughts of +passers-by to the kingly age of Rome, was repaired at the +public expense.<note place='foot'>Livy i. 26: <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Itaque, ut caedes +manifesta aliquo tamen piaculo lueretur, +imperatum patri, ut filium expiaret +pecunia publica. Is quibusdam piacularibus +sacrificiis factis, quae deinde +genti Horatiae tradita sunt, transmisso +per viam tigillo capite adoperto velut +sub jugum misit juvenem. Id hodie +quoque publice semper refectum manet; +sororium tigillum vocant</foreign>;</q> Festus, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> +<q>Sororium Tigillum,</q> pp. 297, 307, +ed. C. O. Müller (Leipsic, 1839); +Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <hi rend='italic'>Antiquit. +Roman.</hi> iii. 22. The position of the +beam is described exactly by the last +of these writers, who had evidently +seen it. According to Festus, the +yoke under which Horatius passed was +composed of three beams, two uprights, +and a cross-piece. The similarity of +the ceremony to that which was exacted +from conquered foes is noted by +Dionysius Halicarnasensis as well as +by Livy. The tradition of the purification +has been rightly explained by +Dr. W. H. Roscher with reference to +the custom of passing through cleft +trees, holed stones, and so on. See +W. H. Roscher, <hi rend='italic'>Ausführliches Lexikon +der griech. und röm. Mythologie</hi>, ii. +(Leipsic, 1890-1897) col. 21. Compare +G. Wissowa, <hi rend='italic'>Religion und Kultus +der Römer</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Munich, 1912), p. 104.</note> If our interpretation of these customs is +right, it was the ghost of his murdered sister whom the +Roman hero gave the slip to by passing under the yoke; +and it may have been the angry ghosts of slaughtered +<pb n='195'/><anchor id='Pg195'/> +Romans from whom the enemy's soldiers were believed to +be delivered when they marched under the yoke before +being dismissed by their merciful conquerors to their homes. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Similarly +the passage +of a victorious +Roman +army +under a +triumphal +arch may +have been +intended to +purify the +men from +the stain of +bloodshed +by interposing +a +barrier +between +the slayers +and the +angry +ghosts of +the slain.</note> +In a former part of this work we saw that homicides in +general and victorious warriors in particular are often +obliged to perform a variety of ceremonies for the purpose +of ridding them of the dangerous ghosts of their victims.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Taboo and the Perils of the Soul</hi>, +pp. 165 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +If the ceremony of passing under the yoke was primarily +designed, as I have suggested, to free the soldiers from the +angry ghosts of the men whom they had slain, we should +expect to find that the victorious Romans themselves +observed a similar ceremony after a battle for a similar +purpose. Was this the original meaning of passing under a +triumphal arch? In other words, may not the triumphal +arch have been for the victors what the yoke was for the +vanquished, a barrier to protect them against the pursuit of +the spirits of the slain? That the Romans felt the need +of purification from the taint of bloodshed after a battle +appears from the opinion of Masurius, mentioned by Pliny, +that the laurel worn by soldiers in a triumphal procession +was intended to purge them from the slaughter of the +enemy.<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Natur. Histor.</hi> xv. 135: +<q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Quia suffimentum sit caedis hostium +et purgatio</foreign>.</q></note> A special gate, the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Porta Triumphalis</foreign>, was reserved +for the entrance of a victorious army into Rome;<note place='foot'>Cicero, <hi rend='italic'>In Pisonem</hi>, xxiii. 55; +Josephus, <hi rend='italic'>Bellum Judaicum</hi>, vii. 5. 4.</note> and it +would be in accordance with ancient religious views if this +distinction was originally not so much an honour conferred +as a precaution enforced to prevent the ordinary gates from +being polluted by the passage of thousands of blood-guilty +men.<note place='foot'>It was not till after I had given +this conjectural explanation of the +<q>Sister's Beam</q> and the triumphal +arch at Rome that I read the article +of Mr. W. Warde Fowler, <q>Passing +under the Yoke</q> (<hi rend='italic'>The Classical Review</hi>, +March 1913, pp. 48-51), in +which he quite independently suggests +practically the same explanation of +both these Roman structures. I have +left my exposition, except for one or +two trivial verbal changes, exactly as +it stood before I was aware that my +friend had anticipated me in both conjectures. +The closeness of the coincidence +between our views is a welcome +confirmation of their truth. As to +the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Porta Triumphalis</foreign>, the exact +position of which is uncertain, Mr. +Warde Fowler thinks that it was not a +gate in the walls, but an archway +standing by itself in the Campus +Martius outside the city walls. He +points out that in the oldest existing +triumphal arch, that of Augustus at +Ariminum, the most striking part of +the structure consists of two upright +Corinthian pillars with an architrave +laid horizontally across them; and he +ingeniously conjectures that we have +here a reminiscence of the two uprights +and the cross-piece, which, if our theory +is correct, was the original form both +of the triumphal arch and of the yoke.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='196'/><anchor id='Pg196'/> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='3. The External Soul in Animals.'/> +<head>§ 3. The External Soul in Animals.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Belief in +a sympathetic +relation +between a +man and +an animal +such that +the fate +of the one +depends +on that of +the other. +The external +souls +of Yakut +shamans +in animals. Sympathetic +relation +between +witches +and hares.</note> +But in practice, as in folk-tales, it is not merely with +inanimate objects and plants that a person is occasionally +believed to be united by a bond of physical sympathy. +The same bond, it is supposed, may exist between a man +and an animal, so that the welfare of the one depends on +the welfare of the other, and when the animal dies the man +dies also. The analogy between the custom and the tales +is all the closer because in both of them the power of thus +removing the soul from the body and stowing it away in an +animal is often a special privilege of wizards and witches. +Thus the Yakuts of Siberia believe that every shaman or +wizard keeps his soul, or one of his souls, incarnate in an +animal which is carefully concealed from all the world. +<q>Nobody can find my external soul,</q> said one famous +wizard, <q>it lies hidden far away in the stony mountains +of Edzhigansk.</q> Only once a year, when the last snows +melt and the earth turns black, do these external souls of +wizards appear in the shape of animals among the dwellings +of men. They wander everywhere, yet none but wizards +can see them. The strong ones sweep roaring and noisily +along, the weak steal about quietly and furtively. Often +they fight, and then the wizard whose external soul is +beaten, falls ill or dies. The weakest and most cowardly +wizards are they whose souls are incarnate in the shape of +dogs, for the dog gives his human double no peace, but +gnaws his heart and tears his body. The most powerful +wizards are they whose external souls have the shape of +stallions, elks, black bears, eagles, or boars. Again, the +Samoyeds of the Turukhinsk region hold that every shaman +has a familiar spirit in the shape of a boar, which he leads +about by a magic belt. On the death of the boar the +shaman himself dies; and stories are told of battles between +<pb n='197'/><anchor id='Pg197'/> +wizards, who send their spirits to fight before they encounter +each other in person.<note place='foot'>Professor V. M. Mikhailoviskij, +<q>Shamanism in Siberia and European +Russia,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxiv. (1895) pp. 133, 134.</note> In Yorkshire witches are thought to +stand in such peculiarly close relations to hares, that if a +particular hare is killed or wounded, a certain witch will at +the same moment be killed or receive a hurt in her +body exactly corresponding to the wound in the hare.<note place='foot'>Th. Parkinson, <hi rend='italic'>Yorkshire Legends +and Traditions</hi>, Second Series (London, +1889), pp. 160 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +However, this fancy is probably a case of the general +European belief that witches have the power of temporarily +transforming themselves into certain animals, particularly +hares and cats, and that any hurts inflicted on such transformed +animals are felt by the witches who are concealed in +the animals.<note place='foot'>See above, vol. i. pp. 315 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> But the notion that a person can temporarily +transform himself into an animal differs from the notion +that he can deposit his soul for a longer or shorter period in +an animal, while he himself retains the human form; though +in the cloudy mind of the peasant and the savage the two +ideas may not always be sharply distinguished. The +Malays believe that <q>the soul of a person may pass into +another person or into an animal, or rather that such a +mysterious relation can arise between the two that the fate +of the one is wholly dependent on that of the other.</q><note place='foot'>B. F. Matthes, <hi rend='italic'>Makassaarsch-Hollandsch +Woordenboek</hi> (Amsterdam, +1859), <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <foreign rend='italic'>soemāñgá</foreign>, p. 569; G. A. +Wilken, <q>Het animisme bij de volken +van den Indischen Archipel,</q> <hi rend='italic'>De +Indische Gids</hi>, June 1884, p. 933; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Verspreide Geschriften</hi> (The Hague, +1912), iii. 12.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Melanesian +conception +of the +<foreign rend='italic'>tamaniu</foreign>, +a person's +external +soul lodged +in an +animal +or other +object.</note> +Among the Melanesians of Mota, one of the New +Hebrides islands, the conception of an external soul is +carried out in the practice of daily life. The Mota word +for soul is <foreign rend='italic'>atai</foreign>. <q>The use of the word <foreign rend='italic'>atai</foreign> in Mota seems +properly and originally to have been to signify something +peculiarly and intimately connected with a person and +sacred to him, something that he has set his fancy upon +when he has seen it in what has seemed to him a wonderful +manner, or some one has shewn it to him as such. Whatever +the thing might be the man believed it to be the +reflection of his own personality; he and his <foreign rend='italic'>atai</foreign> flourished, +suffered, lived, and died together. But the word must not +be supposed to have been borrowed from this use and +<pb n='198'/><anchor id='Pg198'/> +applied secondarily to describe the soul; the word carries a +sense with it which is applicable alike to that second self, +the visible object so mysteriously connected with the man, +and to this invisible second self which we call the soul. +There is another Mota word, <foreign rend='italic'>tamaniu</foreign>, which has almost if +not quite the same meaning as <foreign rend='italic'>atai</foreign> has when it describes +something animate or inanimate which a man has come to +believe to have an existence intimately connected with his +own. The word <foreign rend='italic'>tamaniu</foreign> may be taken to be properly +<q>likeness,</q> and the noun form of the adverb <foreign rend='italic'>tama</foreign>, as, like. +It was not every one in Mota who had his <foreign rend='italic'>tamaniu</foreign>; only +some men fancied that they had this relation to a lizard, a +snake, or it might be a stone; sometimes the thing was +sought for and found by drinking the infusion of certain +leaves and heaping together the dregs; then whatever +living thing was first seen in or upon the heap was the +<foreign rend='italic'>tamaniu</foreign>. It was watched but not fed or worshipped; the +natives believed that it came at call, and that the life of the +man was bound up with the life of his <foreign rend='italic'>tamaniu</foreign>, if a living +thing, or with its safety; should it die, or if not living get +broken or be lost, the man would die. Hence in case of +sickness they would send to see if the <foreign rend='italic'>tamaniu</foreign> was safe and +well. This word has never been used apparently for the +soul in Mota; but in Aurora in the New Hebrides it is the +accepted equivalent. It is well worth observing that both +the <foreign rend='italic'>atai</foreign> and the <foreign rend='italic'>tamaniu</foreign>, and it may be added the Motlav +<foreign rend='italic'>talegi</foreign>, is something which has a substantial existence of its +own, as when a snake or stone is a man's <foreign rend='italic'>atai</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>tamaniu</foreign>; +a soul then when called by these names is conceived of as +something in a way substantial.</q><note place='foot'>R. H. Codrington, D.D., <hi rend='italic'>The +Melanesians</hi> (Oxford, 1891), pp. 250 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Notes on the +Customs of Mota, Banks Islands,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Transactions and Proceedings of the +Royal Society of Victoria</hi>, xvi. (1880) +p. 136.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Sympathetic +relation +between +a man +and his +<foreign rend='italic'>tamaniu</foreign> +(external +soul).</note> +From this account, which we owe to the careful and +accurate researches of the Rev. Dr. Codrington, we gather +that while every person in Mota has a second self or external +soul in a visible object called an <foreign rend='italic'>atai</foreign>, only some people +have, it may be, a second external soul in another visible +object called a <foreign rend='italic'>tamaniu</foreign>. We may conjecture that persons +who have a <foreign rend='italic'>tamaniu</foreign> in addition to an <foreign rend='italic'>atai</foreign> are more than +<pb n='199'/><anchor id='Pg199'/> +usually anxious as to the state of their soul, and that they +seek to put it in perfect security by what we may call a +system of double insurance, calculating that if one of their +external souls should die or be broken, they themselves may +still survive by virtue of the survival of the other. Be that +as it may, the <foreign rend='italic'>tamaniu</foreign> discharges two functions, one of them +defensive and the other offensive. On the one hand, so long +as it lives or remains unbroken, it preserves its owner in life; +and on the other hand it helps him to injure his enemies. +In its offensive character, if the <foreign rend='italic'>tamaniu</foreign> happens to be an +eel, it will bite its owner's enemy; if it is a shark, it will +swallow him. In its defensive character, the state of the +<foreign rend='italic'>tamaniu</foreign> is a symptom or life-token of the state of the man; +hence when he is ill he will visit and examine it, or if he +cannot go himself he will send another to inspect it and +report. In either case the man turns the animal, if animal +it be, carefully over in order to see what is the matter with +it; should something be found sticking to its skin, it is +removed, and through the relief thus afforded to the creature +the sick man recovers. But if the animal should be found +dying, it is an omen of death for the man; for whenever it +dies he dies also.<note place='foot'>W. H. R. Rivers, <q>Totemism in +Polynesia and Melanesia,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the Royal Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxix. (1909) p. 177. Dr. Rivers +cites a recent case of a man who had a +large lizard for his <foreign rend='italic'>tamaniu</foreign>. The +animal lived in the roots of a big +banyan-tree; when the man was ill, +the lizard also seemed unwell; and +when the man died, the tree fell, which +was deemed a sign that the lizard also +was dead.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Soul of a +Melanesian +doctor in +an eagle-hawk +and +a rat.</note> +In Melanesia a native doctor was once attending to a +sick man. Just then <q>a large eagle-hawk came soaring past +the house, and Kaplen, my hunter, was going to shoot it; +but the doctor jumped up in evident alarm, and said, <q>Oh, +don't shoot; that is my spirit</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>niog</foreign>, literally, my shadow); +<q>if you shoot that, I will die.</q> He then told the old man, +<q>If you see a rat to-night, don't drive it away, 'tis my spirit +(<foreign rend='italic'>niog</foreign>), or a snake which will come to-night, that also is my +spirit.</q></q><note place='foot'>George Brown, D.D., <hi rend='italic'>Melanesians +and Polynesians</hi> (London, 1910), p. +177. The case was known to Dr. +Brown, who made notes of it. The +part of Melanesia where it happened +was probably the Duke of York Island +or New Britain.</note> It does not appear whether the doctor in this +case, like the giant or warlock in the tales, kept his spirit +<pb n='200'/><anchor id='Pg200'/> +permanently in the bird or in the animal, or whether he only +transferred it temporarily to the creature for the purpose +of enabling him the better to work the cure, perhaps by +sending out his own soul in a bird or beast to find and bring +back the lost soul of the patient. In either case he seems +to have thought, like the giant or warlock in the stories, that +the death of the bird or the animal would simultaneously +entail his own. A family in Nauru, one of the Marshall +Islands, apparently imagine that their lives are bound up +with a species of large fish, which has a huge mouth and +devours human beings; for when one of these fish was killed, +the members of the family cried, <q>Our guardian spirit is +killed, now we must all die!</q><note place='foot'><q>Totemismus auf den Marshall-Inseln +(Südsee),</q> <hi rend='italic'>Anthropos</hi>, viii. (1913) +p. 251.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The theory +of an external +soul +lodged in +an animal +is very +prevalent +in West +Africa. +The soul of +a chief in a +hippopotamus +or a +black +snake. Belief of +the Fans +that every +wizard +unites his +life to that +of a wild +animal by +a rite of +blood +brotherhood.</note> +The theory of an external soul deposited in an animal +appears to be very prevalent in West Africa, particularly in +Nigeria, the Cameroons, and the Gaboon.<note place='foot'>Much of the following evidence +has already been cited by me in <hi rend='italic'>Totemism +and Exogamy</hi>, ii. 593 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> In the latter part +of the nineteenth century two English missionaries, established +at San Salvador, the capital of the King of Congo, asked the +natives repeatedly whether any of them had seen the strange, +big, East African goat which Stanley had given to a chief at +Stanley Pool in 1877. But their enquiries were fruitless; +no native would admit that he had seen the goat. Some +years afterwards the missionaries discovered why they could +obtain no reply to their enquiry. All the people, it turned +out, imagined that the missionaries believed the spirit of the +King of Salvador to be contained in the goat, and that they +wished to obtain possession of the animal in order to exercise +an evil influence on his majesty.<note place='foot'>Herbert Ward, <hi rend='italic'>Five Years with +the Congo Cannibals</hi> (London, 1890), +p. 53.</note> The belief from the standpoint +of the Congo savages was natural enough, since in that +region some chiefs regularly link their fate to that of an +animal. Thus the Chief Bankwa of Ndolo, on the Moeko +River, had conferred this honour on a certain hippopotamus of +the neighbourhood, at which he would allow nobody to shoot.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Notes Analytiques sur les Collections +ethnographiques du Musée du +Congo</hi>, i. (Brussels, 1902-1906) p. 150.</note> +At the village of Ongek, in the Gaboon, a French missionary +slept in the hut of an old Fan chief. Awakened about two +<pb n='201'/><anchor id='Pg201'/> +in the morning by a rustling of dry leaves, he lit a torch, +when to his horror he perceived a huge black serpent of the +most dangerous sort, coiled in a corner, with head erect, +shining eyes, and hissing jaws, ready to dart at him. Instinctively +he seized his gun and pointed it at the reptile, +when suddenly his arm was struck up, the torch was +extinguished, and the voice of the old chief said, <q>Don't +fire! don't fire! I beg of you. In killing the serpent, it is +me that you would kill. Fear nothing. The serpent is my +<foreign rend='italic'>elangela</foreign>.</q> So saying he flung himself on his knees beside +the reptile, put his arms about it, and clasped it to his breast. +The serpent received his caresses quietly, manifesting neither +anger nor fear, and the chief carried it off and laid it down +beside him in another hut, exhorting the missionary to have +no fear and never to speak of the subject.<note place='foot'>Father H. Trilles, <q>Chez les +Fangs,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Les Missions Catholiques</hi>, xxx. +(1898) p. 322; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Le Totémisme +chez les Fâṅ</hi> (Münster i. W. 1912), +pp. 473 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> His curiosity +being excited by this adventure, the missionary, Father +Trilles, pursued his enquiries and ascertained that among +the Fans of the Gaboon every wizard is believed at initiation +to unite his life with that of some particular wild animal +by a rite of blood-brotherhood; he draws blood from the ear +of the animal and from his own arm, and inoculates the +animal with his own blood, and himself with the blood of the +beast. Henceforth such an intimate union is established +between the two that the death of the one entails the death +of the other. The alliance is thought to bring to the wizard +or sorcerer a great accession of power, which he can turn to +his advantage in various ways. In the first place, like the +warlock in the fairy tales who has deposited his life outside +of himself in some safe place, the Fan wizard now deems +himself invulnerable. Moreover, the animal with which he +has exchanged blood has become his familiar, and will obey +any orders he may choose to give it; so he makes use of it +to injure and kill his enemies. For that reason the creature +with whom he establishes the relation of blood-brotherhood +is never a tame or domestic animal, but always a ferocious +and dangerous wild beast, such as a leopard, a black serpent, +a crocodile, a hippopotamus, a wild boar, or a vulture. Of +<pb n='202'/><anchor id='Pg202'/> +all these creatures the leopard is by far the commonest +familiar of Fan wizards, and next to it comes the black +serpent; the vulture is the rarest. Witches as well as wizards +have their familiars; but the animals with which the lives of +women are thus bound up generally differ from those to +which men commit their external souls. A witch never has a +panther for her familiar, but often a venomous species of +serpent, sometimes a horned viper, sometimes a black serpent, +sometimes a green one that lives in banana-trees; or it may +be a vulture, an owl, or other bird of night. In every case +the beast or bird with which the witch or wizard has contracted +this mystic alliance is an individual, never a species; +and when the individual animal dies the alliance is naturally +at an end, since the death of the animal is supposed to entail +the death of the man.<note place='foot'>Father H. Trilles, <hi rend='italic'>Le Totémisme +chez les Fâṅ</hi> (Münster i. W. 1912), +pp. 167 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 438 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 484-489. The +description of the rite of blood-brotherhood +contracted with the animal +is quoted by Father Trilles (pp. 486 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>) from a work by Mgr. Buléon, <hi rend='italic'>Sous +le ciel d'Afrique, Récits d'un Missionnaire</hi>, +pp. 88 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> Father Trilles's own +observations and enquiries confirm the +account given by Mgr. Buléon. But +the story of an alliance contracted +between a man or woman and a +ferocious wild beast and cemented by +the blood of the high contracting parties +is no doubt a mere fable devised by +wizards and witches in order to increase +their reputation by imposing on the +credulity of the simple.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Belief of +the natives +of the Cross +River that +they stand +in a vital +relation to +certain wild +animals, so +that when +the animal +dies the +man dies +also.</note> +Similar beliefs are held by the natives of the Cross River +valley within the German provinces of the Cameroons. +Groups of people, generally the inhabitants of a village, have +chosen various animals, with which they believe themselves +to stand on a footing of intimate friendship or relationship. +Amongst such animals are hippopotamuses, elephants, +leopards, crocodiles, gorillas, fish, and serpents, all of them +creatures which are either very strong or can easily hide themselves +in the water or a thicket. This power of concealing +themselves is said to be an indispensable condition of the +choice of animal familiars, since the animal friend or helper is +expected to injure his owner's enemy by stealth; for example, +if he is a hippopotamus, he will bob up suddenly out of the +water and capsize the enemy's canoe. Between the animals +and their human friends or kinsfolk such a sympathetic +relation is supposed to exist that the moment the animal +dies the man dies also, and similarly the instant the man +<pb n='203'/><anchor id='Pg203'/> +perishes so does the beast. From this it follows that the +animal kinsfolk may never be shot at or molested for fear of +injuring or killing the persons whose lives are knit up with +the lives of the brutes. This does not, however, prevent the +people of a village, who have elephants for their animal +friends, from hunting elephants. For they do not respect +the whole species but merely certain individuals of it, which +stand in an intimate relation to certain individual men and +women; and they imagine that they can always distinguish +these brother elephants from the common herd of elephants +which are mere elephants and nothing more. The recognition +indeed is said to be mutual. When a hunter, who has +an elephant for his friend, meets a human elephant, as we +may call it, the noble animal lifts up a paw and holds it +before his face, as much as to say, <q>Don't shoot.</q> Were the +hunter so inhuman as to fire on and wound such an elephant, +the person whose life was bound up with the elephant would +fall ill.<note place='foot'>Alfred Mansfeld, <hi rend='italic'>Urwald-Dokumente, +vier Jahre unter den Crossflussnegern +Kameruns</hi> (Berlin, 1908), pp. +220 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Similar +belief of +the Balong +in the +Cameroons.</note> +The Balong of the Cameroons think that every man has +several souls, of which one is in his body and another in an +animal, such as an elephant, a wild pig, a leopard, and so +forth. When a man comes home, feeling ill, and says, <q>I +shall soon die,</q> and dies accordingly, the people aver that one +of his souls has been killed in a wild pig or a leopard, and that +the death of the external soul has caused the death of the +soul in his body. Hence the corpse is cut open, and a +diviner determines, from an inspection of the inwards, +whether the popular surmise is correct or not.<note place='foot'>J. Keller (missionary), <q>Ueber +das Land und Volk der Balong,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Deutsches Kolonialblatt</hi>, 1 Oktober +1895, p. 484; H. Seidel, <q>Ethnographisches +aus Nordost Kamerun,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lxix. (1896) p. 277.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Belief of +the Ibos in +external +human +souls which +are lodged +in animals.</note> +A similar belief in the external souls of living people is +entertained by the Ibos, an important tribe of the Niger +delta, who inhabit a country west of the Cross River. They +think that a man's spirit can quit his body for a time during +life and take up its abode in an animal. This is called <foreign rend='italic'>ishi +anu</foreign>, <q>to turn animal.</q> A man who wishes to acquire this +power procures a certain drug from a wise man and mixes +it with his food. After that his soul goes out and enters +<pb n='204'/><anchor id='Pg204'/> +into the animal. If it should happen that the animal is +killed while the man's soul is lodged in it, the man dies; +and if the animal be wounded, the man's body will presently +be covered with boils. This belief instigates to many deeds +of darkness; for a sly rogue will sometimes surreptitiously +administer the magical drug to his enemy in his food, and +having thus smuggled the other's soul into an animal will +destroy the creature, and with it the man whose soul is +lodged in it.<note place='foot'>John Parkinson, <q>Note on the +Asaba People (Ibos) of the Niger,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxvi. (1906) pp. 314 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> A like belief is reported to prevail among the +tribes of the Obubura Hill district on the Cross River in +Southern Nigeria. Once when Mr. Partridge's canoe-men +wished to catch fish near a town of the Assiga tribe, the +people objected, saying, <q>Our souls live in those fish, and if +you kill them we shall die.</q><note place='foot'>Charles Partridge, <hi rend='italic'>Cross River +Natives</hi> (London, 1905), pp. 225 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Belief of +the negroes +of Calabar +that every +person has +an external +or bush +soul lodged +in a wild +beast.</note> +The negroes of Calabar, at the mouth of the Niger, +believe that every person has four souls, one of which always +lives outside of his or her body in the form of a wild beast +in the forest. This external soul, or bush soul, as Miss +Kingsley calls it, may be almost any animal, for example, a +leopard, a fish, or a tortoise; but it is never a domestic +animal and never a plant. Unless he is gifted with second +sight, a man cannot see his own bush soul, but a diviner will +often tell him what sort of creature his bush soul is, and after +that the man will be careful not to kill any animal of that +species, and will strongly object to any one else doing so. +A man and his sons have usually the same sort of animals +for their bush souls, and so with a mother and her daughters. +But sometimes all the children of a family take after the +bush soul of their father; for example, if his external soul +is a leopard, all his sons and daughters will have leopards +for their external souls. And on the other hand, sometimes +they all take after their mother; for instance, if her external +soul is a tortoise, all the external souls of her sons and +daughters will be tortoises too. So intimately bound up is +the life of the man with that of the animal which he regards +as his external or bush soul, that the death or injury of the +animal necessarily entails the death or injury of the man. +<pb n='205'/><anchor id='Pg205'/> +And, conversely, when the man dies, his bush soul can no +longer find a place of rest, but goes mad and rushes into the +fire or charges people and is knocked on the head, and that +is an end of it. When a person is sick, the diviner will +sometimes tell him that his bush soul is angry at being +neglected; thereupon the patient will make an offering to +the offended spirit and deposit it in a tiny hut in the forest +at the spot where the animal, which is his external soul, +was last seen. If the bush soul is appeased, the patient +recovers; but if it is not, he dies. Yet the foolish bush +soul does not understand that in injuring the man it injures +itself, and that it cannot long survive his decease.<note place='foot'>Miss Mary H. Kingsley, <hi rend='italic'>Travels +in West Africa</hi> (London, 1897), pp. +459-461. The lamented authoress was +kind enough to give me in conversation +(1st June 1897) some details which +do not appear in her book; among +these are the statements, which I have +embodied in the text, that the bush +soul is never a domestic animal, and +that when a man knows what kind of +creature his bush soul is, he will not kill +an animal of that species and will +strongly object to any one else doing +so. Miss Kingsley was not able to +say whether persons who have the same +sort of bush soul are allowed or forbidden +to marry each other.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Further +particulars +as to the +Calabar +belief in +bush souls.</note> +Such is the account which Miss Kingsley gives of the +bush souls of the Calabar negroes. Some fresh particulars +are furnished by Mr. Richard Henshaw, Agent for Native +Affairs at Calabar. He tells us that a man may only marry +a woman who has the same sort of bush soul as himself; +for example, if his bush soul is a leopard, his wife also must +have a leopard for her bush soul. Further, we learn from +Mr. Henshaw that a person's bush soul need not be that +either of his father or of his mother. For example, a child +with a hippopotamus for his bush soul may be born into a +family, all the members of which have wild pigs for their +bush souls; this happens when the child is a reincarnation +of a man whose external soul was a hippopotamus. In such +a case, if the parents object to the intrusion of an alien soul, +they may call in a medicine-man to check its growth and +finally abolish it altogether, after which they will give the +child their own bush soul. Or they may leave the matter +over till the child comes of age, when he will choose a bush +soul for himself with the help of a medicine-man, who will also +select the piece of bush or water in which the chosen animal +lives. When a man dies, then the animal which contains his +<pb n='206'/><anchor id='Pg206'/> +external soul <q>becomes insensible and quite unconscious of +the approach of danger. Thus a hunter can capture or +kill him with perfect ease.</q> Sacrifices are often offered to +prevent other people from killing the animal in which a +man's bush soul resides. The tribes of Calabar which hold +these beliefs as to the bush soul are the Efik and Ekoi.<note place='foot'>John Parkinson, <q>Notes on the +Efik Belief in <q>Bush-soul,</q></q> <hi rend='italic'>Man</hi>, vi. +(1906) pp. 121 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, No. 80. Mr. +Henshaw is a member of the highest +grade of the secret society of Egbo.</note> +The belief of the Calabar negroes in the external soul has +been described as follows by a missionary: <q><foreign rend='italic'>Ukpong</foreign> is the +native word we have taken to translate our word <emph>soul</emph>. It +primarily signifies the shadow of a person. It also signifies +that which dwells within a man on which his life depends, +but which may detach itself from the body, and visiting +places and persons here and there, again return to its abode +in the man.... Besides all this, the word is used to +designate an animal possessed of an <foreign rend='italic'>ukpong</foreign>, so connected +with a person's <foreign rend='italic'>ukpong</foreign>, that they mutually act upon each +other. When the leopard, or crocodile, or whatever animal +may be a man's <foreign rend='italic'>ukpong</foreign>, gets sick or dies, the like thing +happens to him. Many individuals, it is believed, have the +power of changing themselves into the animals which are +their <foreign rend='italic'>ukpong</foreign>.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. Hugh Goldie, <hi rend='italic'>Calabar and its +Mission</hi>, New Edition (Edinburgh and +London, 1901), pp. 51 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare +Major A. G. Leonard, <hi rend='italic'>The Lower Niger +and its Tribes</hi> (London, 1906), p. 217: +<q>When Efik or waterside Ibo see a +dead fish floating in the water of the +kind called <foreign rend='italic'>Edidim</foreign> by the former and +<foreign rend='italic'>Elili</foreign> by the latter—a variety of the +electric species—they believe it to be a +bad omen, generally signifying that +some one belonging to the house will +die, the man who first sees it becoming +the victim according to Ibo belief. The +only reason that is assigned for this +lugubrious forecast is the fact that one +of the souls of the departed is in the dead +fish—that, in fact, the relationship or +affinity existing between the soul +essence that had animated the fish +and that of one of the members of the +household was so intimate that the +death of the one was bound to effect +the death of the other.</q></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Belief of +the Ekoi +of Southern +Nigeria in +external +souls +lodged in +animals. Case of a +chief whose +external +soul was in +a buffalo.</note> +Among the Ekoi of the Oban district, in Southern +Nigeria, it is usual to hear a person say of another that he +or she <q>possesses</q> such and such an animal, meaning that +the person has the power to assume the shape of that particular +creature. It is their belief that by constant practice +and by virtue of certain hereditary secrets a man can quit +his human body and put on that of a wild beast. They say +that in addition to the soul which animates his human body +<pb n='207'/><anchor id='Pg207'/> +everybody has a bush soul which at times he can send forth +to animate the body of the creature which he <q>possesses.</q> +When he wishes his bush soul to go out on its rambles, he +drinks a magic potion, the secret of which has been handed +down from time immemorial, and some of which is always +kept ready for use in an ancient earthen pot set apart for the +purpose. No sooner has he drunk the mystic draught than +his bush soul escapes from him and floats away invisible +through the town into the forest. There it begins to swell +and, safe in the shadow of the trees, takes on the shape of +the man's animal double, it may be an elephant, a leopard, a +buffalo, a wild boar, or a crocodile. Naturally the potion +differs according to the kind of animal into which a man is +temporarily converted. It would be absurd, for example, to +expect that the dose which turns you into an elephant should +also be able to turn you into a crocodile; the thing is manifestly +impossible. A great advantage of these temporary +conversions of a man into a beast is that it enables the +convert in his animal shape to pay out his enemy without +being suspected. If, for example, you have a grudge at a +man who is a well-to-do farmer, all that you have to do is to +turn yourself by night into a buffalo, an elephant, or a wild +boar, and then, bursting into his fields, stamp about in them +till you have laid the standing crops level with the ground. +That is why in the neighbourhood of large well-tilled farms, +people prefer to keep their bush souls in buffaloes, elephants, +and wild boars, because these animals are the most convenient +means of destroying a neighbour's crops. Whereas where +the farms are small and ill-kept, as they are round about +Oban, it is hardly worth a man's while to take the trouble +of turning into a buffalo or an elephant for the paltry satisfaction +of rooting up a few miserable yams or such like trash. +So the Oban people keep their bush souls in leopards and +crocodiles, which, though of little use for the purpose of +destroying a neighbour's crops, are excellent for the purpose +of killing the man himself first and eating him afterwards. +But the power of turning into an animal has this serious disadvantage +that it lays you open to the chance of being +wounded or even slain in your animal skin before you have +time to put it off and scramble back into your human integument. +<pb n='208'/><anchor id='Pg208'/> +A remarkable case of this sort happened only a few +miles from Oban not long ago. To understand it you must +know that the chiefs of the Ododop tribe, who live about ten +miles from Oban, keep their bush souls, whenever they are +out on a ramble, in the shape of buffaloes. Well, one day the +District Commissioner at Oban saw a buffalo come down to +drink at a stream which runs through his garden. He shot +at the beast and hit it, and it ran away badly wounded. At +the very same moment the head chief of the Ododop tribe, +ten miles away, clapped his hand to his side and said, +<q>They have killed me at Oban.</q> Death was not instantaneous, +for the buffalo lingered in pain for a couple of days +in the forest, but an hour or two before its dead body was discovered +by the trackers the chief expired. Just before he died, +with touching solicitude he sent a message warning all +people who kept their external souls in buffaloes to profit by +his sad fate and beware of going near Oban, which was not +a safe place for them. Naturally, when a man keeps his +external soul from time to time in a beast, say in a wild +cow, he is not so foolish as to shoot an animal of that +particular sort, for in so doing he might perhaps be killing +himself. But he may kill animals in which other people +keep their external souls. For example, a wild cow man +may freely shoot an antelope or a wild boar; but should he +do so and then have reason to suspect that the dead beast is +the animal double of somebody with whom he is on friendly +terms, he must perform certain ceremonies over the carcase +and then hurry home, running at the top of his speed, to +administer a particular medicine to the man whom he has +unintentionally injured. In this way he may possibly be in +time to save the life of his friend from the effects of the +deplorable accident.<note place='foot'>P. Amaury Talbot, <hi rend='italic'>In the Shadow +of the Bush</hi> (London, 1912), pp. 80-87. +The Ekoi name for a man who has the +power of sending out his spirit into +the form of some animal is <foreign rend='italic'>efumi</foreign> (<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +p. 71 note). A certain chief named +Agbashan, a great elephant hunter, is +believed to have the power of transforming +himself into an elephant; and +<q>a man of considerable intelligence, +educated in England, the brother of a +member of the Legislative Council for +one of the West African Colonies, +offered to take oath that he had seen +Agbashan not only in his elephant +form, but while actually undergoing the +metamorphosis</q> (<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, pp. 82 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>). In +this case, therefore, the man seems to +have felt no scruples at hunting the +animals in one of which his own bush +soul might be lodged.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='209'/><anchor id='Pg209'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Belief +of other +tribes of +Nigeria in +external +souls +lodged in +animals.</note> +Near Eket in North Calabar there is a sacred lake, the fish +of which are carefully preserved because the people believe that +their own souls are lodged in the fish, and that with every +fish killed a human life would be simultaneously extinguished.<note place='foot'>Letter of Mr. P. Amaury Talbot +to me, dated Eket, North Calabar, +Southern Nigeria, April 3d, 1913.</note> +In the Calabar River not very many years ago there used +to be a huge old crocodile, popularly supposed to contain the +external soul of a chief who resided in the flesh at Duke +Town. Sporting vice-consuls used from time to time to +hunt the animal, and once a peculiarly energetic officer contrived +to hit it. Forthwith the chief was laid up with a +wound in his leg. He gave out that a dog had bitten him, +but no doubt the wise shook their heads and refused to be +put off with so flimsy a pretext.<note place='foot'>Miss Mary H. Kingsley, <hi rend='italic'>Travels +in West Africa</hi> (London, 1897), pp. +538 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Again, among several +tribes on the banks of the Niger between Lokoja and the +delta there prevails <q>a belief in the possibility of a man +possessing an <hi rend='italic'>alter ego</hi> in the form of some animal such as a +crocodile or a hippopotamus. It is believed that such a +person's life is bound up with that of the animal to such an +extent that, whatever affects the one produces a corresponding +impression upon the other, and that if one dies the other +must speedily do so too. It happened not very long ago that +an Englishman shot a hippopotamus close to a native village; +the friends of a woman who died the same night in the +village demanded and eventually obtained five pounds as +compensation for the murder of the woman.</q><note place='foot'>C. H. Robinson, <hi rend='italic'>Hausaland</hi> (London, +1896), pp. 36 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among the +Montols of Northern Nigeria, <q>in many of the compounds +there will be found a species of snake, of a non-poisonous +sort, which, when full grown, attains a length of about five +feet and a girth of eight or nine inches. These snakes live +in and about the compound. They are not specially fed by +the people of the place, nor are places provided for them to +nest in. They live generally in the roofs of the small +granaries and huts that make up the compound. They feed +upon small mammals, and no doubt serve a useful purpose +in destroying vermin which might otherwise eat the stored +grain. They are not kept for the purpose of destroying +vermin, however. The Montols believe that at the birth of +<pb n='210'/><anchor id='Pg210'/> +every individual of their race, male and female, one of these +snakes, of the same sex, is also born. If the snake be killed, +his human partner in life dies also and at the same time. If +the wife of a compound-owner gives birth to a son, shortly +after the interesting event, the snake of the establishment +will be seen with a young one of corresponding sex. From +the moment of birth, these two, the snake and the man, +share a life of common duration, and the measure of the one +is the measure of the other. Hence every care is taken to +protect these animals from injury, and no Montol would in +any circumstances think of injuring or killing one. It is said +that a snake of this kind never attempts any injury to a man. +There is only one type of snake thus regarded.</q><note place='foot'>J. F. J. Fitzpatrick (Assistant +Resident, Northern Nigeria), <q>Some +Notes on the Kwolla District and its +Tribes,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the African Society</hi>, +No. 37, October, 1910, p. 30.</note> Among +the Angass, of the Kanna District in Northern Nigeria, <q>when +a man is born, he is endowed with two distinct entities, life +and a <foreign rend='italic'>kurua</foreign> (Arabic <foreign lang='ar' rend='italic'>rin</foreign>).... When the <foreign lang='ar' rend='italic'>rin</foreign> enters a man, +its counterpart enters some beast or snake at the same +time, and if either dies, so also does the body containing the +counterpart. This, however, in no wise prevents a man +from killing any game, etc., he may see, though he knows +full well that he is causing thereby the death of some man +or woman. When a man dies, his life and <foreign lang='ar' rend='italic'>rin</foreign> both leave +him, though the latter is asserted sometimes to linger near +the place of death for a day or two.</q><note place='foot'>Extract from a Report by Captain +Foulkes to the British Colonial Office. +My thanks are due to Mr. N. W. +Thomas for sending me the extract and +to the authorities of the Colonial Office +for their permission to publish it.</note> Again, at the town of +Paha, in the northern territory of the Gold Coast, there are +pools inhabited by crocodiles which are worshipped by the +people. The natives believe that for every death or birth in +the town a similar event takes place among the crocodiles.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Daily Graphic</hi>, Tuesday, +October 7th, 1902, p. 3.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The conception +of +an external +soul +lodged in +an animal +appears to +be absent +in South +Africa.</note> +In South Africa the conception of an external soul +deposited in an animal, which is so common in West Africa, +appears to be almost unknown; at least I have met with no +clear traces of it in literature. The Bechuanas, indeed, commonly +believe that if a man wounds a crocodile, the man +will be ill as long as the crocodile is ill of its wound, and +<pb n='211'/><anchor id='Pg211'/> +that if the crocodile dies, the man dies too. This belief is +not, apparently, confined to the Bechuana clan which has +the crocodile for its totem, but is shared by all the other +clans; all of them certainly hold the crocodile in respect.<note place='foot'>Rev. W. C. Willoughby, <q>Notes +on the Totemism of the Becwana,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxv. (1905) p. 300. The writer adds +that he found a similar belief as to +the sympathetic relation between a +wounded crocodile and the man who +wounded it very general among the +Wanyamwezi, who, in 1882, were +living under Mirambo about two +hundred miles south of Lake Victoria +Nyanza and a hundred miles east of +Lake Tanganyika.</note> It +does not appear whether the sympathetic relation between a +man and a crocodile is supposed by the Bechuanas to be +lifelong, or only to arise at the moment when the man +wounds the animal; in the latter case the shedding of the +crocodile's blood might perhaps be thought to establish a +relationship of affinity or sympathy between the two. The +Zulus believe that every man is attended by an ancestral +spirit (<foreign rend='italic'>ihlozi</foreign>, or rather <foreign rend='italic'>idhlozi</foreign>) in the form of a serpent, +<q>which specially guards and helps him, lives with him, wakes +with him, sleeps and travels with him, but always under +ground. If it ever makes its appearance, great is the joy, +and the man must seek to discover the meaning of its +appearance. He who has no <foreign rend='italic'>ihlozi</foreign> must die. Therefore if +any one kills an <foreign rend='italic'>ihlozi</foreign> serpent, the man whose <foreign rend='italic'>ihlozi</foreign> it was +dies, but the serpent comes to life again.</q><note place='foot'><p>F. Speckmann, <hi rend='italic'>Die Hermannsburger +Mission in Africa</hi> (Hermannsburg, +1876) p. 167. Compare David +Leslie, <hi rend='italic'>Among the Zulus and Amatongas</hi>, +Second Edition (Edinburgh, 1875) +pp. 47 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <q>The Kaffirs believe that +after death their spirits turn into a +snake, which they call <foreign rend='italic'>Ehlose</foreign>, and that +every living man has two of these +familiar spirits—a good and a bad. +When everything they undertake goes +wrong with them, such as hunting, +cattle-breeding, etc., they say they +know that it is their enemies who are +annoying them, and that they are only +to be appeased by sacrificing an animal; +but when everything prospers, they +ascribe it to their good <foreign rend='italic'>Ehlose</foreign> being in +the ascendant</q>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 148: +<q>When in battle two men are fighting, +their snakes (<foreign rend='italic'>Mahloze</foreign>) are poetically +said to be twisting and biting each +other overhead. One <q>softens</q> and +goes down, and the man, whose attendant +it is, goes down with it. Everything +is ascribed to <foreign rend='italic'>Ehlose</foreign>. If he +fails in anything, his <foreign rend='italic'>Ehlose</foreign> is bad; if +successful, it is good.... It is this +thing which is the inducing cause of +everything. In fact, nothing in Zulu +is admitted to arise from natural +causes; everything is ascribed to +witchcraft or the <foreign rend='italic'>Ehlose</foreign>.</q> +</p> +<p> +It is not all serpents that are <foreign rend='italic'>amadhlozi</foreign> +(plural of <foreign rend='italic'>idhlozi</foreign>), that is, are the +transformed spirits of the dead. Serpents +which are dead men may easily +be distinguished from common snakes, +for they frequent huts; they do not +eat mice, and they are not afraid of +people. If a man in his life had a +scar, his serpent after his death will +also have a scar; if he had only one +eye, his serpent will have only one +eye; if he was lame, his serpent +will be lame too. That is how you +can recognise So-and-So in his serpent +form. Chiefs do not turn into the +same kind of snakes as ordinary people. +For common folk become harmless +snakes with green and white bellies +and very small heads; but kings +become boa-constrictors or the large +and deadly black <foreign rend='italic'>mamba</foreign>. See Rev. +Henry Callaway, M.D., <hi rend='italic'>The Religions +System of the Amazulu</hi>, Part ii. +(Capetown, London, etc., 1869) pp. +134 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 140, 196-202, 205, 208-211, +231. <q>The <foreign rend='italic'>Ehlose</foreign> of Chaka and +other dead kings is the Boa-constrictor, +or the large and deadly black Mamba, +whichever the doctors decide. That +of dead Queens is the tree Iguana</q> +(David Leslie, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 213). Compare +Rev. Joseph Shooter, <hi rend='italic'>The Kafirs +of Natal and the Zulu Country</hi> (London, +1857), pp. 161 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; W. R. +Gordon, <q>Words about Spirits,</q> +(<hi rend='italic'>South African</hi>) <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore Journal</hi>, ii. +(Cape Town, 1880) pp. 101-103; W. +Grant, <q>Magato and his Tribe,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxv. (1905) p. 270. A word which is +sometimes confounded with <foreign rend='italic'>idhlozi</foreign> is +<foreign rend='italic'>itongo</foreign> (plural <foreign rend='italic'>amatongo</foreign>); but the natives +themselves when closely questioned +distinguish between the two. See +Dudley Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>Savage Childhood, a +Study of Kafir Children</hi> (London, +1906), pp. 14 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 281-286. The +notion that the spirits of the dead +appear in the form of serpents is widespread +in Africa. See <hi rend='italic'>Adonis, Attis, +Osiris</hi>, Second Edition, pp. 73 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> +Dr. F. B. Jevons has suggested that +the Roman <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>genius</foreign>, the guardian-spirit +which accompanied a man from birth +to death (Censorinus, <hi rend='italic'>De die natali</hi>, 3) +and was commonly represented in the +form of a snake, may have been an +external soul. See F. B. Jevons, +<hi rend='italic'>Plutarch's Romane Questions</hi> (London, +1892) pp. xlvii. <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Introduction +to the History of Religion</hi> (London, +1896), pp. 186 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; L. Preller, +<hi rend='italic'>Römische Mythologie</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi> (Berlin, 1881-1883), +ii. 195 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; G. Wissowa, +<hi rend='italic'>Religion und Kultus der Römer</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Munich, 1912), pp. 176 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></p></note> But the conception +<pb n='212'/><anchor id='Pg212'/> +of a dead ancestor incarnate in a snake, on which the +welfare or existence of one of his living descendants depends, +is rather that of a guardian spirit than of an external +soul. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The conception +of +an external +soul +lodged in +an animal +occurs +among the +Indians of +Central +America, +some of +whom call +such a soul +a <foreign rend='italic'>nagual</foreign>.</note> +Amongst the Zapotecs of Central America, when a +woman was about to be confined, her relations assembled in +the hut, and began to draw on the floor figures of different +animals, rubbing each one out as soon as it was completed. +This went on till the moment of birth, and the figure that +then remained sketched upon the ground was called the +child's <foreign rend='italic'>tona</foreign> or second self. <q>When the child grew old +enough, he procured the animal that represented him and +took care of it, as it was believed that health and existence +were bound up with that of the animal's, in fact that the +death of both would occur simultaneously,</q> or rather that +when the animal died the man would die too.<note place='foot'>H. H. Bancroft, <hi rend='italic'>The Native Races +of the Pacific Coast</hi> (London, 1875-1876), +i. 661. The words quoted +by Bancroft (p. 662, note), <q><foreign lang='es' rend='italic'>Consérvase +entre ellos la creencia de que +su vida está unida à la de un animal, +y que es forzoso que mueran ellos +cuando éste muere</foreign>,</q> are not quite accurately +represented by the statement +of Bancroft in the text. Elsewhere +(vol. ii. p. 277) the same writer calls +the <q>second self</q> of the Zapotecs a +<q><foreign rend='italic'>nagual</foreign>, or tutelary genius,</q> adding +that the fate of the child was supposed +to be so intimately bound up with the +fortune of the animal that the death +of the one involved the death of the +other. Compare Daniel G. Brinton, +<q>Nagualism, a Study in American +Folk-lore and History,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Proceedings of +the American Philosophical Society +held at Philadelphia</hi>, vol. xxxiii. No. +144 (Philadelphia, January, 1894), pp. +11-73. According to Professor E. +Seler the word <foreign rend='italic'>nagual</foreign> is akin to the +Mexican <foreign rend='italic'>naualli</foreign>, <q>a witch or wizard,</q> +which is derived from a word meaning +<q>hidden</q> with reference to the power +attributed to sorcerers of transforming +themselves into animals. See E. Seler, +<q>Altmexikanische Studien, II.</q> <hi rend='italic'>Veröffentlichungen +aus dem Königlichen +Museum für Völkerkunde</hi>, vi. heft 2/4 +(Berlin, 1899), pp. 52-57.</note> Among the +<pb n='213'/><anchor id='Pg213'/> +Indians of Guatemala and Honduras the <foreign rend='italic'>nagual</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>naual</foreign> is +<q>that animate or inanimate object, generally an animal, +which stands in a parallel relation to a particular man, so +that the weal and woe of the man depend on the fate of the +<foreign rend='italic'>nagual</foreign>.</q><note place='foot'>Otto Stoll, <hi rend='italic'>Die Ethnologie der +Indianerstämme von Guatemala</hi> (Leyden, +1889), p. 57.</note> According to an old writer, many Indians of +Guatemala <q>are deluded by the devil to believe that their +life dependeth upon the life of such and such a beast (which +they take unto them as their familiar spirit), and think that +when that beast dieth they must die; when he is chased, +their hearts pant; when he is faint, they are faint; nay, it +happeneth that by the devil's delusion they appear in the +shape of that beast (which commonly by their choice is a +buck, or doe, a lion, or tigre, or dog, or eagle) and in that +shape have been shot at and wounded.</q><note place='foot'>Thomas Gage, <hi rend='italic'>A New Survey of +the West Indies</hi>, Third Edition (London, +1677), p. 334. The same writer +relates how a certain Indian named +Gonzalez was reported to have the +power of turning himself into a lion or +rather a puma. Once when a Spaniard +had shot a puma in the nose, Gonzalez +was found with a bruised face and +accused the Spaniard of having shot +him. Another Indian chief named +Gomez was said to have transformed +himself into a puma, and in that shape +to have fought a terrific battle with a +rival chief named Lopez, who had +changed himself into a jaguar. See +Gage, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 383-389.</note> Herrera's account +of the way in which the Indians of Honduras acquired their +<foreign rend='italic'>naguals</foreign>, runs thus: <q>The devil deluded them, appearing in +the shape of a lion or a tiger, or a coyte, a beast like a +wolf, or in the shape of an alligator, a snake, or a bird, that +province abounding in creatures of prey, which they called +<foreign rend='italic'>naguales</foreign>, signifying keepers or guardians, and when the bird +died the Indian that was in league with him died also, +which often happened and was looked upon as infallible. +The manner of contracting this alliance was thus. The +Indian repaired to the river, wood, hill, or most obscure +<pb n='214'/><anchor id='Pg214'/> +place, where he called upon the devils by such names as he +thought fit, talked to the rivers, rocks, or woods, said he +went to weep that he might have the same his predecessors +had, carrying a cock or a dog to sacrifice. In that melancholy +fit he fell asleep, and either in a dream or waking +saw some one of the aforesaid birds or other creatures, +whom he entreated to grant him profit in salt, cacao, or any +other commodity, drawing blood from his own tongue, ears, +and other parts of his body, making his contract at the +same time with the said creature, the which either in a +dream or waking told him, <q>Such a day you shall go abroad +asporting, and I will be the first bird or other animal you +shall meet, and will be your <foreign rend='italic'>nagual</foreign> and companion at all +times.</q> Whereupon such friendship was contracted between +them, that when one of them died the other did not survive, +and they fancied that he who had no <foreign rend='italic'>nagual</foreign> could not be +rich.</q><note place='foot'>Antonio de Herrera, <hi rend='italic'>General History +of the Vast Continent and Islands +of America</hi>, translated by Capt. John +Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iv. +138 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The Spanish original of Herrera's +history, a work based on excellent +authorities, was first published +at Madrid in 1601-1615. The Indians +of Santa Catalina Istlavacan still receive +at birth the name of some animal, +which is commonly regarded as their +guardian spirit for the rest of their life. +The name is bestowed by the heathen +priest, who usually hears of a birth +in the village sooner than his Catholic +colleague. See K. Scherzer, <q>Die +Indianer von Santa Catalina Istlávacana +(Frauenfuss), ein Beitrag zur +Culturgeschichte der Urbewohner Central-Amerikas,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Sitzungsberichte der +philos. histor. Classe der kais. Akademie +der Wissenschaften</hi> (Vienna), xviii. +(1856) p. 235.</note> The Indians were persuaded that the death of their +<foreign rend='italic'>nagual</foreign> would entail their own. Legend affirms that in the +first battles with the Spaniards on the plateau of Quetzaltenango +the <foreign rend='italic'>naguals</foreign> of the Indian chiefs fought in the form +of serpents. The <foreign rend='italic'>nagual</foreign> of the highest chief was especially +conspicuous, because it had the form of a great bird, resplendent +in green plumage. The Spanish general Pedro +de Alvarado killed the bird with his lance, and at the same +moment the Indian chief fell dead to the ground.<note place='foot'>Otto Stoll, <hi rend='italic'>Die Ethnologie der +Indianerstämme von Guatemala</hi> (Leyden, +1889), pp. 57 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Suggestion +und Hypnotism</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Leipsic, 1904), p. +170.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>In some +tribes of +South-Eastern +Australia +the lives of +the two +sexes are +thought to +be bound +up with the +lives of two +different +kinds of +animals, +as bats +and owls.</note> +In many tribes of South-Eastern Australia each sex used +to regard a particular species of animals in the same way that a +Central American Indian regarded his <foreign rend='italic'>nagual</foreign>, but with this +difference, that whereas the Indian apparently knew the individual +<pb n='215'/><anchor id='Pg215'/> +animal with which his life was bound up, the Australians +only knew that each of their lives was bound up with some +one animal of the species, but they could not say with which. +The result naturally was that every man spared and protected +all the animals of the species with which the lives of the men +were bound up; and every woman spared and protected all the +animals of the species with which the lives of the women were +bound up; because no one knew but that the death of any +animal of the respective species might entail his or her own; +just as the killing of the green bird was immediately +followed by the death of the Indian chief, and the killing of +the parrot by the death of Punchkin in the fairy tale. +Thus, for example, the Wotjobaluk tribe of South-Eastern +Australia <q>held that <q>the life of Ngŭnŭngŭnŭt (the Bat) is +the life of a man, and the life of Yártatgŭrk (the Nightjar) +is the life of a woman,</q> and that when either of these +creatures is killed the life of some man or of some woman +is shortened. In such a case every man or every woman +in the camp feared that he or she might be the victim, and +from this cause great fights arose in this tribe. I learn that +in these fights, men on one side and women on the other, +it was not at all certain which would be victorious, for +at times the women gave the men a severe drubbing with +their yamsticks, while often women were injured or killed +by spears.</q> The Wotjobaluk said that the bat was the +man's <q>brother</q> and that the nightjar was his <q>wife.</q><note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <q>Further Notes +on the Australian Class Systems,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xviii. (1889) pp. 57 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of South-East Australia</hi> +(London, 1904), pp. 148, 150. It is +very remarkable that among the Kurnai +these fights had a special connexion +with marriage. When young men were +backward of taking wives, the women +used to go out into the forest and kill +an emu-wren, which was the men's +<q>brother</q>; then returning to the +camp they shewed the dead bird to the +men. The result was a fight between +the young men and the young women, +in which, however, lads who were not +yet marriageable might not take part. +Next day the marriageable young men +went out and killed a superb warbler, +which was the women's <q>sister,</q> and +this led to a worse fight than before. +Some days afterwards, when the wounds +and bruises were healed, one of the +marriageable young men met one of +the marriageable young women, and +said, <q>Superb warbler!</q> She answered, +<q>Emu-wren! What does the +emu-wren eat?</q> To which the young +man answered, <q>He eats so-and-so,</q> +naming kangaroo, opossum, emu, or +some other game. Then they laughed, +and she ran off with him without telling +any one. See L. Fison and A. W. +Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>Kamilaroi and Kurnai</hi> (Melbourne, +Sydney, Adelaide, and Brisbane, +1880), pp. 201 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. W. +Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of South-East +Australia</hi>, pp. 149, 273 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Perhaps +this killing of the sex-totem before +marriage may be related to the pretence +of killing young men and bringing +them to life again at puberty. See +below, pp. <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +<pb n='216'/><anchor id='Pg216'/> +The particular species of animals with which the lives of +the sexes were believed to be respectively bound up varied +somewhat from tribe to tribe. Thus whereas among the +Wotjobaluk the bat was the animal of the men, at Gunbower +Creek on the Lower Murray the bat seems to have been +the animal of the women, for the natives would not kill it +for the reason that <q>if it was killed, one of their lubras +[women] would be sure to die in consequence.</q><note place='foot'>Gerard Krefft, <q>Manners and +Customs of the Aborigines of the Lower +Murray and Darling,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Transactions of +the Philosophical Society of New South +Wales</hi>, 1862-65, pp. 359 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In the +Kurnai tribe of Gippsland the emu-wren (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Stipiturus malachurus</foreign>) +was the <q>man's brother</q> and the superb warbler +(<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Malurus cyaneus</foreign>) was the <q>woman's sister</q>; at the initiation +of young men into the tribal mysteries the name of the +emu-wren was invoked over the novices for the purpose of +infusing manly virtue into them.<note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <q>Further Notes on +the Australian Class Systems,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xviii. +(1889) pp. 56 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among the Yuin on the +south-eastern coast of Australia, the <q>woman's sister</q> was +the tree-creeper (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Climacteris scandens</foreign>), and the men had +both the bat and the emu-wren for their <q>brothers.</q><note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 57; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of South-East +Australia</hi>, p. 150.</note> In +the Kulin nation each sex had a pair of <q>brothers</q> and +<q>sisters</q>; the men had the bat and the emu-wren for their +<q>brothers,</q> and the women had the superb warbler and the +small nightjar for their <q>sisters.</q><note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <q>On the Migrations +of the Kurnai Ancestors,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xv. +(1886) p. 416.</note> It is notable that in South-Eastern +Australia the animals thus associated with the lives of +men and women were generally flying creatures, either birds +or bats. However, in the Port Lincoln tribe of South Australia +the man's <q>brother</q> and the woman's <q>sister</q> seem to have +been identified with the male and female respectively of a +species of lizard; for we read that <q>a small kind of lizard, +the male of which is called <foreign rend='italic'>ibirri</foreign>, and the female <foreign rend='italic'>waka</foreign>, is +said to have divided the sexes in the human species; an +event that would appear not to be much approved of by the +natives, since either sex has a mortal hatred against the +<pb n='217'/><anchor id='Pg217'/> +opposite sex of these little animals, the men always destroying +the <foreign rend='italic'>waka</foreign> and the women the <foreign rend='italic'>ibirri</foreign>.</q><note place='foot'>C. W. Schürmann, <q>The Aboriginal +Tribes of Port Lincoln,</q> in <hi rend='italic'>Native +Tribes of South Australia</hi> (Adelaide, +1879), p. 241. Compare G. F. Angas, +<hi rend='italic'>Savage Life and Scenes in Australia +and New Zealand</hi> (London, 1847), i. +109.</note> But whatever +the particular sorts of creature with which the lives of men +and women were believed to be bound up, the belief itself +and the fights to which it gave rise are known to have +prevailed over a large part of South-Eastern Australia, and +probably they extended much farther.<note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <q>Further Notes on +the Australian Class Systems,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xviii. +(1889) p. 58. Compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Native +Tribes of South-East Australia</hi> (London, +1904), pp. 148-151.</note> The belief was a very +serious one, and so consequently were the fights which sprang +from it. Thus among some tribes of Victoria <q>the common +bat belongs to the men, who protect it against injury, even +to the half-killing of their wives for its sake. The fern owl, +or large goatsucker, belongs to the women, and, although a +bird of evil omen, creating terror at night by its cry, it is +jealously protected by them. If a man kills one, they are +as much enraged as if it was one of their children, and will +strike him with their long poles.</q><note place='foot'>James Dawson, <hi rend='italic'>Australian Aborigines</hi> +(Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide, +1881), p. 52.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Bats +regarded +as the +brothers of +men, and +owls as the +sisters of +women.</note> +The jealous protection thus afforded by Australian men +and women to bats and owls respectively (for bats and +owls seem to be the creatures usually allotted to the two +sexes)<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Totemism and Exogamy</hi>, i. +47 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> It is at least remarkable that +both the creatures thus assigned to the +two sexes should be nocturnal in their +habits. Perhaps the choice of such +creatures is connected with the belief +that the soul is absent from the body +in slumber. On this hypothesis bats +and owls would be regarded by these +savages as the wandering souls of +sleepers. Such a belief would fully +account for the reluctance of the natives +to kill them. The Kiowa Indians of +North America think that owls and +other night birds are animated by the +souls of the dead. See James Mooney, +<q>Calendar History of the Kiowa +Indians,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Seventeenth Annual Report +of the Bureau of American Ethnology</hi>, +Part i. (Washington, 1898) p. 237.</note> is not based upon purely selfish considerations. +For each man believes that not only his own life but the +lives of his father, brothers, sons, and so on are bound up with +the lives of particular bats, and that therefore in protecting the +bat species he is protecting the lives of all his male relations +as well as his own. Similarly, each woman believes that the +lives of her mother, sisters, daughters, and so forth, equally +with her own, are bound up with the lives of particular owls, +<pb n='218'/><anchor id='Pg218'/> +and that in guarding the owl species she is guarding the lives +of all her female relations besides her own. Now, when +men's lives are thus supposed to be contained in certain +animals, it is obvious that the animals can hardly be distinguished +from the men, or the men from the animals. If +my brother John's life is in a bat, then, on the one hand, the +bat is my brother as well as John; and, on the other hand, +John is in a sense a bat, since his life is in a bat. Similarly, +if my sister Mary's life is in an owl, then the owl is my +sister and Mary is an owl. This is a natural enough conclusion, +and the Australians have not failed to draw it. +When the bat is the man's animal, it is called his brother; +and when the owl is the woman's animal, it is called her +sister. And conversely a man addresses a woman as an owl, +and she addresses him as a bat.<note place='foot'>A. L. P. Cameron, <q>Notes on +some Tribes of New South Wales,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xiv. (1885) p. 350 note 1; A. W. +Howitt, <q>On the Migrations of the +Kurnai Ancestors,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</hi>, xv. (1886) +p. 416; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Further Notes on the +Australian Class Systems,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xviii. +(1889) p. 57.</note> So with the other animals +allotted to the sexes respectively in other tribes. For +example, among the Kurnai all emu-wrens were <q>brothers</q> +of the men, and all the men were emu-wrens; all superb +warblers were <q>sisters</q> of the women, and all the women +were superb warblers.<note place='foot'>L. Fison and A. W. Howitt, +<hi rend='italic'>Kamilaroi and Kurnai</hi>, pp. 194, 201, +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 215; <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xv. 416, xviii. 56 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. W. +Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of South-East +Australia</hi> (London, 1904), pp. 148-151.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='4. A Suggested Theory of Totemism.'/> +<head>§ 4. A Suggested Theory of Totemism.<note place='foot'>The following suggestion as to the +origin of totemism was made in the +first edition of this book (published in +1890) and is here reprinted without +any substantial change. In the meantime +much additional evidence as to +the nature and prevalence of totemism +has come to light, and with the new +evidence my opinions, or rather conjectures, +as to the origin of the institution +have repeatedly changed. If I +here reprint my earliest conjecture, it +is partly because I still think it may +contain an element of truth, and partly +because it serves as a convenient peg +on which to hang a collection of facts +which are much more valuable than +any theories of mine. The reader who +desires to acquaint himself more fully +with the facts of totemism and with +the theories that have been broached +on the subject, will find them stated +at length in my <hi rend='italic'>Totemism and Exogamy</hi> +(London, 1910). Here I will +only call attention to the Arunta +legend that the ancestors of the tribe +kept their spirits in certain sacred sticks +and stones (<foreign rend='italic'>churinga</foreign>), which bear a +close resemblance to the well-known +bull-roarers, and that when they went +out hunting they hung these sticks or +stones on certain sacred poles (<foreign rend='italic'>nurtunjas</foreign>) +which represented their totems. See +Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, +<hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of Central Australia</hi> +(London, 1899), pp. 137 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 629. +This tradition appears to point to a +custom of transferring a man's soul or +spirit temporarily to his totem. Conversely +when an Arunta is sick he +scrapes his <foreign rend='italic'>churinga</foreign> and swallows the +scrapings, as if to restore to himself +the spiritual substance deposited in the +instrument. See Baldwin Spencer and +F. J. Gillen, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 135 note 1.</note></head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Sex totems +and clan +totems may +both be +based on +the notion +that men +and women +keep their +external +souls in +their +totems, +whether +these are +animals, +plants, or +what not.</note> +But when a savage names himself after an animal, calls +<pb n='219'/><anchor id='Pg219'/> +it his brother, and refuses to kill it, the animal is said to +be his totem. Accordingly in the tribes of South-Eastern +Australia which we have been considering the bat and the +owl, the emu-wren and the superb warbler, may properly be +described as totems of the sexes. But the assignation of a +totem to a sex is comparatively rare, and has hitherto been +discovered nowhere but in Australia. Far more commonly +the totem is appropriated not to a sex, but to a clan, and +is hereditary either in the male or female line. The relation +of an individual to the clan totem does not differ in kind +from his relation to the sex totem; he will not kill it, he +speaks of it as his brother, and he calls himself by its name. +Now if the relations are similar, the explanation which holds +good of the one ought equally to hold good of the other. +Therefore the reason why a clan revere a particular species +of animals or plants (for the clan totem may be a plant) and +call themselves after it, would seem to be a belief that the +life of each individual of the clan is bound up with some one +animal or plant of the species, and that his or her death +would be the consequence of killing that particular animal, +or destroying that particular plant. This explanation of +totemism squares very well with Sir George Grey's definition +of a totem or <foreign rend='italic'>kobong</foreign> in Western Australia. He says: <q>A +certain mysterious connection exists between a family and +its <foreign rend='italic'>kobong</foreign>, so that a member of the family will never kill an +animal of the species to which his <foreign rend='italic'>kobong</foreign> belongs, should he +find it asleep; indeed he always kills it reluctantly, and never +without affording it a chance to escape. This arises from +the family belief that some one individual of the species is +their nearest friend, to kill whom would be a great crime, +and to be carefully avoided. Similarly, a native who has +a vegetable for his <foreign rend='italic'>kobong</foreign> may not gather it under certain +<pb n='220'/><anchor id='Pg220'/> +circumstances, and at a particular period of the year.</q><note place='foot'>(Sir) George Grey, <hi rend='italic'>Journals of +Two Expeditions of Discovery in North-West +and Western Australia</hi> (London, +1841), ii. 228 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Here +it will be observed that though each man spares all the +animals or plants of the species, they are not all equally +precious to him; far from it, out of the whole species there +is only one which is specially dear to him; but as he does +not know which the dear one is, he is obliged to spare them +all from fear of injuring the one. Again, this explanation +of the clan totem harmonizes with the supposed effect of +killing one of the totem species. <q>One day one of the +blacks killed a crow. Three or four days afterwards a +Boortwa (crow) [<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> a man of the Crow clan] named +Larry died. He had been ailing for some days, but the +killing of his <foreign rend='italic'>wingong</foreign> [totem] hastened his death.</q><note place='foot'>L. Fison and A. W. Howitt, +<hi rend='italic'>Kamilaroi and Kurnai</hi>, p. 169. According +to Dr. Howitt, it is a serious +offence to kill the totem of another +person <q>with intent to injure him</q> +(<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xviii. (1889) p. 53). Such an +intention seems to imply a belief in a +sympathetic connexion between the man +and the animal. Similarly the Siena +of the Ivory Coast, in West Africa, +who have totemism, believe that if a +man kills one of his totemic animals, +a member of his totemic clan dies +instantaneously. See Maurice Delafosse, +<q>Le peuple Siéna ou Sénoufo,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Revue des Études Ethnographiques et +Sociologiques</hi>, i. (1908) p. 452.</note> Here +the killing of the crow caused the death of a man of the +Crow clan, exactly as, in the case of the sex-totems, the +killing of a bat causes the death of a Bat-man or the killing +of an owl causes the death of an Owl-woman. Similarly, +the killing of his <foreign rend='italic'>nagual</foreign> causes the death of a Central +American Indian, the killing of his bush soul causes the +death of a Calabar negro, the killing of his <foreign rend='italic'>tamaniu</foreign> causes +the death of a Banks Islander, and the killing of the animal +in which his life is stowed away causes the death of the giant +or warlock in the fairy tale. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The savage +may imagine +his +life to be +bound up +with that +of more +animals +than one +at the same +time; for +many +savages +think that +every person +has +more souls +than one.</note> +Thus it appears that the story of <q>The giant who had no +heart in his body</q> may perhaps furnish the key to the relation +which is supposed to subsist between a man and his totem. +The totem, on this theory, is simply the receptacle in which +a man keeps his life, as Punchkin kept his life in a parrot, +and Bidasari kept her soul in a golden fish. It is no +valid objection to this view that when a savage has both +a sex totem and a clan totem his life must be bound up +with two different animals, the death of either of which +<pb n='221'/><anchor id='Pg221'/> +would entail his own. If a man has more vital places +than one in his body, why, the savage may think, should +he not have more vital places than one outside it? Why, +since he can put his life outside himself, should he not +transfer one portion of it to one animal and another to +another? The divisibility of life, or, to put it otherwise, +the plurality of souls, is an idea suggested by many familiar +facts, and has commended itself to philosophers like Plato,<note place='foot'>According to Plato, the different +parts of the soul were lodged in +different parts of the body (<hi rend='italic'>Timaeus</hi>, +pp. 69<hi rend='smallcaps'>c</hi>-72<hi rend='smallcaps'>d</hi>), and as only one part, on +his theory, was immortal, Lucian seems +not unnaturally to have interpreted the +Platonic doctrine to mean that every +man had more than one soul (<hi rend='italic'>Demonax</hi>, +33).</note> +as well as to savages. It finds favour also with the sages of +China, who tell us that every human being is provided with +what may be called a male soul (<foreign lang='zh' rend='italic'>shen</foreign>) and a female soul +(<foreign lang='zh' rend='italic'>kwei</foreign>), which by their harmonious co-operation compose an +organic unity. However, some Chinese philosophers will have +it that each of the five viscera has its own separate male soul +(<foreign lang='zh' rend='italic'>shen</foreign>); and a Taoist treatise written about the end of the +tenth or beginning of the eleventh century has even enriched +science with a list of about three dozen souls distributed over +the various parts of the human frame; indeed, not content +with a bare catalogue of these souls, the learned author has +annexed to the name and surname of each a brief description +of its size and stature, of the kind of dress in which it +is clothed and the shape of hat it wears.<note place='foot'>J. J. M. de Groot, <hi rend='italic'>The Religious +System of China</hi>, iv. (Leyden, 1901) +pp. 3 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 70-75.</note> It is only when +the notion of a soul, from being a quasi-scientific hypothesis, +becomes a theological dogma that its unity and indivisibility +are insisted upon as essential. The savage, unshackled by +dogma, is free to explain the facts of life by the assumption +of as many souls as he thinks necessary. Hence, for example, +the Caribs supposed that there was one soul in the +head, another in the heart, and other souls at all the places +where an artery is felt pulsating.<note place='foot'>Le sieur de la Borde, <q>Relation +de l'Origine, Mœurs, Coustumes, Religion, +Guerres et Voyages des Caraibes +sauvages des Isles Antilles de l'Amerique,</q> +p. 15, in <hi rend='italic'>Recueil de divers Voyages +faits en Afrique et en l'Amerique</hi> (Paris, +1684).</note> Some of the Hidatsa +Indians explain the phenomena of gradual death, when the +extremities appear dead first, by supposing that man has four +<pb n='222'/><anchor id='Pg222'/> +souls, and that they quit the body, not simultaneously, but +one after the other, dissolution being only complete when all +four have departed.<note place='foot'>Washington Matthews, <hi rend='italic'>The +Hidatsa Indians</hi> (Washington, 1877), +p. 50.</note> Some of the Dyaks of Borneo and the +Malays of the Peninsula believe that every man has seven +souls.<note place='foot'>H. Ling Roth, <q>Low's Natives of +Borneo,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxi. (1892) p. 117; W. W. +Skeat, <hi rend='italic'>Malay Magic</hi> (London, 1900), +p. 50.</note> The Alfoors of Poso in Celebes are of opinion that +he has three.<note place='foot'>A. C. Kruijt, <q>Een en ander +aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk +leven van den Poso-Alfoer,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche +Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, xxxix. +(1895) pp. 3 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The natives of Laos suppose that the body +is the seat of thirty spirits, which reside in the hands, the feet, +the mouth, the eyes, and so on.<note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die Völker des östlichen +Asien</hi>, iii. (Jena, 1867) p. 248.</note> Hence, from the primitive +point of view, it is perfectly possible that a savage should +have one soul in his sex totem and another in his clan +totem. However, as I have observed, sex totems have been +found nowhere but in Australia; so that as a rule the savage +who practises totemism need not have more than one soul +out of his body at a time.<note place='foot'>In some tribes, chiefly of North +American Indians, every man has an +individual or personal totem in addition +to the totem of his clan. This personal +totem is usually the animal of which +he dreamed during a long and solitary +fast at puberty. See <hi rend='italic'>Totemism and +Exogamy</hi>, i. 49-52, iii. 370-456, where +the relation of the individual or personal +totem (if we may call it so) to the +clan totem is discussed. It is quite +possible that, as some good authorities +incline to believe, the clan totem has +been developed out of the personal +totem by inheritance. See Miss Alice +C. Fletcher, <hi rend='italic'>The Import of the Totem</hi>, +pp. 3 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> (paper read before the +American Association for the Advancement +of Science, August 1887, +separate reprint); Fr. Boas, <q>The +Social Organization and the Secret +Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Report of the United States National +Museum for 1895</hi> (Washington, 1897), +pp. 323 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 336-338, 393. In the +bush souls of the Calabar negroes (see +above, pp. 204 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>) we seem to have +something like the personal totem on +its way to become hereditary and so to +grow into the totem of a clan.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +Battas of +Sumatra, +who have +totemism, +believe that +every person +has a +soul which +is always +outside of +his body.</note> +If this explanation of the totem as a receptacle in which +a man keeps his soul or one of his souls is correct, we should +expect to find some totemic people of whom it is expressly +said that every man amongst them is believed to keep at +least one soul permanently out of his body, and that the +destruction of this external soul is supposed to entail the +death of its owner. Such a people are the Battas of Sumatra. +The Battas are divided into exogamous clans (<foreign rend='italic'>margas</foreign>) with +descent in the male line; and each clan is forbidden to eat +<pb n='223'/><anchor id='Pg223'/> +the flesh of a particular animal. One clan may not eat the +tiger, another the ape, another the crocodile, another the dog, +another the cat, another the dove, another the white buffalo, +and another the locust. The reason given by members of a +clan for abstaining from the flesh of the particular animal is +either that they are descended from animals of that species, +and that their souls after death may transmigrate into the +animals, or that they or their forefathers have been under +certain obligations to the creatures. Sometimes, but not +always, the clan bears the name of the animal.<note place='foot'>J. B. Neumann, <q>Het Pane- en +Bila-stroomgebied op het eiland +Sumatra,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch +Aardrijkskundig Genootschap</hi>, +Tweede Serie, dl. iii. Afdeeling, meer +uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2 (1886), pp. +311 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, dl. iv. No. 1 (1887), pp. +8 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Van Hoëvell, <q>Iets over 't +oorlogvoeren der Batta's,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift +voor Nederlandsch Indië</hi>, N.S., vii. +(1878) p. 434; G. A. Wilken, <hi rend='italic'>Verspreide +Geschriften</hi> (The Hague, 1912), +i. 296, 306 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 309, 325 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; L. de +Backer, <hi rend='italic'>L'Archipel Indien</hi> (Paris, +1874), p. 470; Col. Yule, in <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, ix. +(1880) p. 295; Joachim Freiherr von +Brenner, <hi rend='italic'>Besuch bei den Kannibalen +Sumatras</hi> (Würzburg, 1894), pp. 197 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; P. A. L. E. van Dijk, <q>Eenige +aanteekeningen omtrent de verschillenden +stammen (<foreign rend='italic'>Margas</foreign>) en de stamverdeling +bij de Battaks,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift +voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, +xxxviii. (1895) pp. 296 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +M. Joustra, <q>Naar het landschap +Goenoeng,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege +het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xlv. (1901) pp. 80 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<q>Het leven, de zeden en gewoonten +der Bataks,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege +het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xlvi. (1902) pp. 387 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; J. E. Neumann, +<q>Kemali, Pantang, en Rĕboe +bij de Karo-Bataks,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor +Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, +xlviii. (1906) p. 512. See further +<hi rend='italic'>Totemism and Exogamy</hi>, ii. 185 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Thus the +Battas have totemism in full. But, further, each Batta +believes that he has seven or, on a more moderate computation, +three souls. One of these souls is always outside +the body, but nevertheless whenever it dies, however far +away it may be at the time, that same moment the man dies +also.<note place='foot'>B. Hagen, <q>Beiträge zur Kenntniss +der Battareligion,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor +Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, +xxviii. (1883) p. 514. J. B. Neumann +(<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> dl. iii. No. 2, pp. 299) is the +authority for the seven souls. According +to another writer, six out of the seven +souls reside outside of the body; one of +them dwells in heaven, the remaining +five have no definite place of abode, +but are so closely related to the man +that were they to abandon him his +health would suffer. See J. Freiherr +von Brenner, <hi rend='italic'>Besuch bei den Kannibalen +Sumatras</hi>, pp. 239 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> A different +account of Batta psychology is given by +Mr. Westenberg. According to him, +each Batta has only one <foreign rend='italic'>tendi</foreign> (not three +or seven of them); and the <foreign rend='italic'>tendi</foreign> is +something between a soul and a guardian +spirit. It always resides outside +of the body, and on its position near, +before, behind, above, or below, the +welfare of its owner is supposed in +great measure to depend. But in +addition each man has two invisible +guardian spirits (his <foreign rend='italic'>kaka</foreign> and <foreign rend='italic'>agi</foreign>) +whose help he invokes in great danger; +one is the seed by which he was +begotten, the other is the afterbirth, +and these he calls respectively his elder +and his younger brother. Mr. Westenberg's +account refers specially to the +Karo-Battas. See C. J. Westenberg, +<q>Aanteekeningen omtrent de godsdienstige +begrippen der Karo-Bataks,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en +Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië</hi>, +xli. (1892) pp. 228 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The writer who mentions this belief says nothing +<pb n='224'/><anchor id='Pg224'/> +about the Batta totems; but on the analogy of the Australian, +Central American, and African evidence we may conjecture +that the external soul, whose death entails the death of the +man, is housed in the totemic animal or plant. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>If a totem +is the receptacle +in which a +man keeps +his external +soul, it is +no wonder +that +savages +should conceal +the +secret from +strangers.</note> +Against this view it can hardly be thought to militate +that the Batta does not in set terms affirm his external +soul to be in his totem, but alleges other grounds for +respecting the sacred animal or plant of his clan. For +if a savage seriously believes that his life is bound up +with an external object, it is in the last degree unlikely +that he will let any stranger into the secret. In all that +touches his inmost life and beliefs the savage is exceedingly +suspicious and reserved; Europeans have resided +among savages for years without discovering some of their +capital articles of faith, and in the end the discovery has +often been the result of accident.<note place='foot'>Compare Ch. Hose and W. +McDougall, <hi rend='italic'>The Pagan Tribes of +Borneo</hi> (London, 1912), ii. 90 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>: +<q>An important institution among some +of the Ibans, which occurs but in rare +instances among the other peoples, is +the <foreign rend='italic'>ngarong</foreign> or secret helper. The +<foreign rend='italic'>ngarong</foreign> is one of the very few topics in +regard to which the Ibans display any +reluctance to speak freely. So great is +their reserve in this connection that +one of us lived for fourteen years on +friendly terms with Ibans of various +districts without ascertaining the meaning +of the word <foreign rend='italic'>ngarong</foreign>, or suspecting +the great importance of the part played +by the notion in the lives of some of +these people. The <foreign rend='italic'>ngarong</foreign> seems to +be usually the spirit of some ancestor +or dead relative, but not always so, and +it is not clear that it is always conceived +as the spirit of a deceased +human being. This spirit becomes +the special protector of some individual +Iban, to whom in a dream he +manifests himself, in the first place in +human form, and announces that he +will be his secret helper.... When, +as is most commonly the case, the +secret helper takes on the form of +some animal, all individuals of that +species become objects of especial +regard to the fortunate Iban; he will +not kill or eat any such animal, and +he will as far as possible restrain others +from doing so.</q> Thus the <foreign rend='italic'>ngarong</foreign> +or secret helper of the Ibans closely +resembles what I have called the individual +or personal totem.</note> Above all, the savage +lives in an intense and perpetual dread of assassination by +sorcery; the most trifling relics of his person—the clippings +of his hair and nails, his spittle, the remnants of his food, his +very name<note place='foot'>It is not merely the personal name +which is often shrouded in mystery (see +<hi rend='italic'>Taboo and the Perils of the Soul</hi>, pp. +318 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>); the names of the clans and +their subdivisions are objects of mysterious +reverence among many, if not all, +of the Siouan tribes of North America, +and are never used in ordinary conversation. +See J. Owen Dorsey, <q>Osage +Traditions,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Sixth Annual Report of +the Bureau of Ethnology</hi> (Washington, +1888), p. 396. Among the Yuin of +South-Eastern Australia <q>the totem +name was called <foreign rend='italic'>Budjan</foreign>, and it was +said to be more like <foreign rend='italic'>Joïa</foreign>, or magic, +than a name; and it was in one sense +a secret name, for with it an enemy +might cause injury to its bearer by magic. +Thus very few people knew the totem +names of others, the name being told +to a youth by his father at his initiation</q> +(A. W. Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of +South-East Australia</hi>, London, 1904, +p. 133).</note>—all these may, he fancies, be turned by the +<pb n='225'/><anchor id='Pg225'/> +sorcerer to his destruction, and he is therefore anxiously +careful to conceal or destroy them. But if in matters such +as these, which are but the outposts and outworks of his life, +he is so shy and secretive, how close must be the concealment, +how impenetrable the reserve in which he enshrouds +the inner keep and citadel of his being! When the princess +in the fairy tale asks the giant where he keeps his soul, he +often gives false or evasive answers, and it is only after +much coaxing and wheedling that the secret is at last wrung +from him. In his jealous reticence the giant resembles the +timid and furtive savage; but whereas the exigencies of the +story demand that the giant should at last reveal his secret, +no such obligation is laid on the savage; and no inducement +that can be offered is likely to tempt him to imperil his soul +by revealing its hiding-place to a stranger. It is therefore +no matter for surprise that the central mystery of the savage's +life should so long have remained a secret, and that we should +be left to piece it together from scattered hints and fragments +and from the recollections of it which linger in fairy tales. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='5. The Ritual of Death and Resurrection.'/> +<head>§ 5. The Ritual of Death and Resurrection.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>This +view of +totemism +may help +to explain +the rite of +death and +resurrection +which +forms part +of many +initiatory +ceremonies +among +savages.</note> +This view of totemism throws light on a class of religious +rites of which no adequate explanation, so far as I am aware, +has yet been offered. Amongst many savage tribes, especially +such as are known to practise totemism, it is customary +for lads at puberty to undergo certain initiatory rites, of +which one of the commonest is a pretence of killing the lad +and bringing him to life again. Such rites become intelligible +if we suppose that their substance consists in extracting the +youth's soul in order to transfer it to his totem. For the +<pb n='226'/><anchor id='Pg226'/> +extraction of his soul would naturally be supposed to kill the +youth or at least to throw him into a death-like trance, which +the savage hardly distinguishes from death. His recovery +would then be attributed either to the gradual recovery of his +system from the violent shock which it had received, or, more +probably, to the infusion into him of fresh life drawn from +the totem. Thus the essence of these initiatory rites, so far +as they consist in a simulation of death and resurrection, +would be an exchange of life or souls between the man and +his totem. The primitive belief in the possibility of such an +exchange of souls comes clearly out in the story of the +Basque hunter who affirmed that he had been killed by a +bear, but that the bear had, after killing him, breathed its +own soul into him, so that the bear's body was now dead, +but he himself was a bear, being animated by the bear's +soul.<note place='foot'>Theodor Benfey, <hi rend='italic'>Pantschatantra</hi> +(Leipsic, 1859), i. 128 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Similarly +a man of the Kulin tribe in Victoria +was called Kurburu, that is, <q>native +bear,</q> because the spirit of a native +bear was supposed to have entered into +him when he killed the animal, and +to have endowed him with its wonderful +cleverness. This I learn from Miss +E. B. Howitt's <hi rend='italic'>Folklore and Legends +of some Victorian Tribes</hi> (chapter vi.), +which I have been privileged to see +in manuscript. Among the Chiquites +Indians of Paraguay sickness was sometimes +accounted for by supposing that +the soul of a deer or a turtle had entered +into the patient. See <hi rend='italic'>Lettres Édifiantes +et Curieuses</hi>, Nouvelle Édition, +viii. (Paris, 1781) p. 339. We have +seen (pp. <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>) that the Indians of +Honduras made an alliance with the +animal that was to be their <foreign rend='italic'>nagual</foreign> +by offering some of their own blood +to it. Conversely the North American +Indian kills the animal which is to be +his personal totem, and thenceforth +wears some part of the creature as +an amulet (<hi rend='italic'>Totemism and Exogamy</hi>, +i. 50). These facts seem to point +to the establishment of a blood covenant, +involving an interchange of life +between a man and his personal totem +or <foreign rend='italic'>nagual</foreign>; and among the Fans of +West Africa, as we saw (above, p. +<ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>), such a covenant is actually supposed +to exist between a sorcerer and +his <foreign rend='italic'>elangela</foreign>.</note> This revival of the dead hunter as a bear is exactly +analogous to what, on the theory here suggested, is supposed +to take place in the ceremony of killing a lad at puberty +and bringing him to life again. The lad dies as a man and +comes to life again as an animal; the animal's soul is now +in him, and his human soul is in the animal. With good +right, therefore, does he call himself a Bear or a Wolf, etc., +according to his totem; and with good right does he treat +the bears or the wolves, etc., as his brethren, since in these +animals are lodged the souls of himself and his kindred. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The rite +of death +and resurrection +among the +Wonghi of +New South +Wales.</note> +Examples of this supposed death and resurrection at +<pb n='227'/><anchor id='Pg227'/> +initiation are as follows. In the Wonghi or Wonghibon +tribe of New South Wales <q>the youths on approaching +manhood attend a meeting of the tribe. The ceremonies +of initiation are secret, and at them none but the men of the +tribe who have been initiated attend with the novices. At +the spot where the ceremonies are to be performed, a large +oval space is cleared. The old men of the tribe conduct the +ceremonies, and the <q>medicine man</q> of the tribe is the master +of them. Part of the proceedings consists in knocking out +a tooth and giving a new designation to the novice, indicating +the change from youth to manhood. When the tooth is +knocked out, a loud humming noise is heard, which is made +with an instrument of the following description: a flat piece +of wood is made with serrated edges, and having a hole at +one end, to which a string is attached, and this swung round +produces a humming noise. The uninitiated are not even +allowed to see this instrument. Women are forbidden to be +present at these ceremonies, and should one, by accident or +otherwise, witness them, the penalty is death. The penalty +for revealing the secrets is probably the same. When everything +is prepared the women and children are covered with +boughs, and the men retire, with the young fellows who are +to be initiated, to a little distance. It is said that the youths +are sent away a short distance one by one, and that they are +each met in turn by a Being, who, so far as I can understand, +is believed to be something between a blackfellow and a spirit. +This Being, called Thuremlin, it is said, takes the youth to a +distance, kills him, and in some instances cuts him up, after +which he restores him to life and knocks out a tooth. Their +belief in the power of Thuremlin is undoubted.</q><note place='foot'>A. L. P. Cameron, <q>Notes on +some Tribes of New South Wales,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xiv. (1885) pp. 357 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare +A. W. Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of +South-East Australia</hi> (London, 1904), +pp. 588 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Use of the +bull-roarer +at initiatory +ceremonies +in +Australia. The +sound of +the bull-roarer +compared +to thunder. Belief of +the Dieri +that by +sounding a +bull-roarer +a newly +initiated +young man +produces a +supply of +edible +snakes and +lizards.</note> +The foregoing account, while it applies strictly to one +tribe only, may be regarded as typical of the initiation ceremonies +performed on young men throughout the tribes of +South-Eastern and Central Australia, except that among the +Central tribes the practice of knocking out a tooth on these +occasions is replaced by the equally mysterious and much +severer bodily mutilations of circumcision and subincision, +<pb n='228'/><anchor id='Pg228'/> +which are not practised by the tribes of the South-East.<note place='foot'>Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, +<hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of Central Australia</hi> +(London, 1899), pp. 213, 453.</note> +The instrument whose humming or booming sound accompanies +the critical operation of knocking out the tooth of +the novice, is the now well-known bull-roarer, which figures +in many savage rites of initiation. Its true nature is concealed +from the women and uninitiated lads, who are taught +to believe that its sonorous and long-drawn notes are the +voice of the mythical being, often called Daramulun, who +lives in the sky, instituted the rites, and superintends their +performance. The hollow roar of the slat of wood, as it is +swung round and round, <q>represents the muttering of thunder, +and the thunder is the voice of Daramulun, and therefore its +sound is of the most sacred character. Umbara once said to +me, <q>Thunder is the voice of him (pointing upward to the +sky) calling on the rain to fall and make everything grow +up new.</q></q><note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of +South-East Australia</hi> (London, 1904), +p. 538. As to Daramulun (of whose +name Thuremlin is no doubt only a +dialectical variation) see <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, pp. 407, +493, 494 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 497, 499, 500, 507, +523 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 526, 528, 529 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 535, 540, +541, 585 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 587; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>On some +Australian Ceremonies of Initiation,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xiii. (1884) pp. 442, 443, 446, +447, 448, 450, 451, 452, 455, 456, +459. On the bull-roarer see Andrew +Lang, <hi rend='italic'>Custom and Myth</hi> (London, +1884), pp. 29-44; J. D. E. Schmeltz, +<hi rend='italic'>Das Schwirrholz</hi> (Hamburg, 1896); +A. C. Haddon, <hi rend='italic'>The Study of Man</hi> +(London and New York, 1898), pp. +277-327; J. G. Frazer, <q>On some +Ceremonies of the Central Australian +Aborigines,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Proceedings of the Australasian +Association for the Advancement +of Science for the Year 1900</hi> (Melbourne, +1901), pp. 317-322. The religious or +magical use of the bull-roarer is best +known in Australia. See, for example, +L. Fison and A. W. Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>Kamilaroi +and Kurnai</hi> (Melbourne, Sydney, Adelaide, +and Brisbane, 1880), pp. 267-269; +A. W. Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes +of South-East Australia</hi>, pp. 354, 509 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 514, 515, 517, 569, 571, 575, +578, 579, 582, 583, 584, 589, 592, +594, 595, 606, 659 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 670, 672, +696, 715; Baldwin Spencer and F. J. +Gillen, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of Central Australia</hi> +(London, 1899), pp. 246, 344, +347; W. Baldwin Spencer, <hi rend='italic'>Introduction +to the Study of Certain Native +Tribes of the Northern Territory</hi> +(<hi rend='italic'>Bulletin of the Northern Territory</hi>, +No. 2) (Melbourne, 1912), pp. 19 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +23, 24, 31 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 37 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; A. R. Brown, +<q>Three Tribes of Western Australia,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Royal Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xliii. (1913) pp. 168, 174; R. +Pettazzoni, <q>Mythologie Australienne +du Rhombe,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Revue de l'Histoire des +Religions</hi>, lxv. (1912) pp. 149-170. +But in the essay just referred to +Mr. Andrew Lang shewed that the +instrument has been similarly employed +not only by savages in various +parts of the world, but also by the +ancient Greeks in their religious mysteries. +In the Torres Straits Islands +it is used both at the initiation of +young men and as a magical instrument. +See <hi rend='italic'>Reports of the Cambridge +Anthropological Expedition to Torres +Straits</hi>, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 217, +218, 219, 328, 330-333, 346, 352. +In various parts of New Guinea it is +sounded at the initiation of young men +and is carefully concealed from women; +the sound is thought to be the voice of a +spirit. See Rev. J. Chalmers, <hi rend='italic'>Pioneering +in New Guinea</hi> (London, 1887), +p. 85; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Toaripi,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxvii. (1898) +p. 329; Rev. J. Holmes, <q>Initiation +Ceremonies of Natives of the Papuan +Gulf,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxxii. (1902) pp. 420, 424 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; O. Schellong, <q>Das Barlum-fest +der Gegend Finsch-hafens,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Internationales +Archiv für Ethnographie</hi>, ii. +(1889) pp. 150 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 154 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; F. +Grabowsky, <q>Der Bezirk von Hatzfeldthafen +und seine Bewohner,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Petermanns +Mitteilungen</hi>, xli. (1895) p. +189; B. Hagen, <hi rend='italic'>Unter den Papua's</hi> +(Wiesbaden, 1899), pp. 188 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Max +Krieger, <hi rend='italic'>Neu-Guinea</hi> (Berlin, preface +dated 1899), pp. 168 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; J. Vetter, +in <hi rend='italic'>Mitteilungen der Geographischen +Gesellschaft zu Jena</hi>, xi. (1892) p. +105; K. Vetter, in <hi rend='italic'>Nachrichten über +Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und den Bismarck-Archipel, +1897</hi> (Berlin), p. 93; +R. Neuhauss, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsch Neu-Guinea</hi> +(Berlin, 1911), pp. 36, 297, 403, 406 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 410-412, 494 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Otto Reche, +<hi rend='italic'>Der Kaiserin-Augusta-Fluss</hi> (Hamburg, +1913), pp. 349 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> (<hi rend='italic'>Ergebnisse +der Südsee-Expedition 1908-1910</hi>, herausgegeben +von G. Thilenius). It is +similarly used at the circumcision-festivals +in the French Islands, to the +west of New Britain (R. Parkinson, +<hi rend='italic'>Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee</hi>, Stuttgart, +1907, pp. 640 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>), and it is employed +at mysteries or mourning ceremonies +in Bougainville and other Melanesian +Islands. See R. Parkinson, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +pp. 658 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Zur Ethnographie +der Nordwestlichen Salomo Inseln</hi> (Berlin, +1899), p. 11; R. H. Codrington, +<hi rend='italic'>The Melanesians</hi> (Oxford, 1891), pp. +98 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 342. Among the Minangkabauers +of Sumatra the bull-roarer +(<foreign rend='italic'>gasiĕng</foreign>) is used by a rejected lover +to induce the demons to carry off the +soul of the jilt and so drive her mad. +It is made of the frontal bone of a +brave or skilful man, and some of the +intended victim's hair is attached to it. +See J. L. van der Toorn, <q>Het animisme +bij den Minangkabauer in der +Padangsche Bovenlanden,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen +tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van +Nederlandsch Indië</hi>, xxxix. (1890) pp. +55 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Among the Yoruba-speaking +negroes of the Slave Coast in West +Africa, particularly at Abeokuta, the +sound of the bull-roarer is supposed to +be the voice of a great bogey named +Oro, whose votaries compose a secret +society under the name of Ogboni. +When the sound of the bull-roarer is +heard in the streets, every woman must +shut herself up in her house and not +look out of the window under pain of +death. See R. F. Burton, <hi rend='italic'>Abeokuta +and the Cameroons Mountains</hi> (London, +1863), i. 197 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;, Missionary Chautard, +in <hi rend='italic'>Annales de la Propagation de la Foi</hi>, +lv. (Lyons, 1883) pp. 192-198; Missionary +Baudin, <q>Le Fétichisme,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Les +Missions Catholiques</hi>, xvi. (1884) p. +257; P. Bouche, <hi rend='italic'>La Côte des Esclaves +et le Dahomey</hi> (Paris, 1885), p. 124; +Mrs. R. B. Batty and Governor Moloney, +<q>Notes on the Yoruba Country,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xix. (1890) pp. 160-164; A. B. Ellis, +<hi rend='italic'>The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the +Slave Coast of West Africa</hi> (London, +1894), pp. 110 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; R. H. Stone, <hi rend='italic'>In +Afric's Forest and Jungle</hi> (Edinburgh +and London, 1900), p. 88; L. Frobenius, +<hi rend='italic'>Die Masken und Geheimbünde +Afrikas</hi> (Halle, 1898), pp. 95 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> +(<hi rend='italic'>Nova Acta, Abh. der Kaiserl. Leop.-Carol. +Deutschen Akademie der Naturforscher</hi>, +vol. lxxiv. No. 1). Among +the Nandi of British East Africa and +the Bushongo of the Congo region bull-roarers +are sounded by men to frighten +novices at initiation. See A. C. Hollis, +<hi rend='italic'>The Nandi</hi> (Oxford, 1909), pp. 40, +56; E. Torday and T. A. Joyce, <hi rend='italic'>Les +Bushongo</hi> (Brussels, 1910), p. 82. +Among the Caffres of South Africa +and the Boloki of the Upper Congo +the bull-roarer is a child's toy, but yet +is thought to be endowed with magical +virtue. See below, p. <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref> note 3. Among +the Koskimo Indians of British Columbia the sound of the bull-roarers is +supposed to be the voice of a spirit who +comes to fetch away the novices. See +Franz Boas, <q>The Social Organization +and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl +Indians,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Report of the United States +National Museum</hi> (Washington, 1897), +p. 610. The bull-roarer is used as a +sacred or magical instrument for the +making of rain by the Zuñi and other +Pueblo Indians of Arizona and New +Mexico, also by the Navajos and +Apaches of the same region, and by +the Utes of Nevada and Utah. See +Dr. Washington Matthews, <q>The +Mountain Chant, a Navajo Ceremony,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of +Ethnology</hi> (Washington, 1887), pp. +435, 436; Captain J. G. Bourke, +<q>The Medicine-men of the Apache,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau +of Ethnology</hi> (Washington, 1892), pp. +476-479; Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, +<q>The Zuñi Indians,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Twenty-third +Report of the Bureau of American +Ethnology</hi> (Washington, 1904), pp. +115, 117, 128 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 175, 177, 355. +The Guatusos of Costa Rica ascertain +the will of the deity by listening +to the humming sound of the bull-roarer. +See Dr. C. Sapper, <q>Ein +Besuch bei den Guatusos in Costarica,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lxxvi. (1899) p. 352; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<q>Beiträge zur Ethnographie des südlichen +Mittelamerika,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Petermanns +Mitteilungen</hi>, xlvii. (1901) p. 36. +The Caripunas Indians of the Madeira +River, in Brazil, sound bull-roarers in +lamentations for the dead. See Franz +Keller, <hi rend='italic'>The Amazon and Madeira +Rivers</hi> (London, 1874), p. 124. The +Bororo of Brazil also swing bull-roarers +at their festivals of the dead; the sound +of them is the signal for the women to +hide themselves; it is believed that +women and children would die if they +saw a bull-roarer. See K. von den +Steinen, <hi rend='italic'>Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasilien's</hi> +(Berlin, 1894), pp. 497-499. +The Nahuqua and other Brazilian +tribes use bull-roarers in their masked +dances, but make no mystery of them. +See K. von den Steinen, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. +327 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> As to the magical use of the +bull-roarer, see pp. 230 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> This supposed resemblance of the sound to +<pb n='229'/><anchor id='Pg229'/> +thunder probably explains a certain use which the Dieri, a +tribe of Central Australia, made of the instrument. When +<pb n='230'/><anchor id='Pg230'/> +a young man had passed through an initiatory rite, which +consisted in cutting a row of gashes in his back, he was +given a bull-roarer, and when he went out in search of game, +he used to twirl the implement in the belief that by doing +so, while his wounds were still unhealed, he created a good +harvest of snakes, lizards, and other reptiles, which the +natives employ as food; but on the contrary they imagined +that these supplies of food would be cut off for ever, if a +woman were to see a bull-roarer which had been swung at +the rites of initiation.<note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <q>The Dieri and +other Kindred Tribes of Central Australia,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xx. (1891) p. 83; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Native +Tribes of South-East Australia</hi>, p. 660. +In the latter passage Dr. Howitt omits +the not unimportant particular that the +bull-roarer is swung for this purpose by +the young man <emph>before his wounds are +healed</emph>.</note> No doubt these savages, living in a +parched wilderness where the existence of plants and animals +depends on rare and irregular showers,<note place='foot'>On the desert nature of Central +Australia and the magical-like change +wrought in its fauna and flora by heavy +rain, see Baldwin Spencer and F. J. +Gillen, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of Central Australia</hi> +(London, 1899), pp. 4 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +<hi rend='italic'>Totemism and Exogamy</hi>, i. 170 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, +316 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 341 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; J. G. Frazer, +<q>Howitt and Fison,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, xx. +(1909) pp. 160, 162 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 164.</note> have observed that +<pb n='231'/><anchor id='Pg231'/> +the fall of rain is regularly followed by a great and sudden +increase in the food supply, and that this increase is most +marked after violent thunder-storms. Hence by making a +noise like thunder with the help of bull-roarers they probably +hope, on the principle of imitative magic, to bring on a +thunder-storm and with it a fertilizing deluge of rain. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +bull-roarer +used by the +Indians +of New +Mexico and +Arizona +to procure +rain. The bull-roarer +used +in Torres +Straits +Islands to +produce +wind +and good +crops.</note> +For the same reason in the parched and torrid regions of +Arizona and New Mexico the Indians make great use of the +bull-roarer in their ceremonies for procuring rain. For example, +when Captain Bourke was at the Pueblo Indian village +of Walpi in the month of August, 1881, he saw the instrument +in use at the snake dance. <q>The medicine-men twirled it +rapidly, and with a uniform motion, about the head and from +front to rear, and succeeded in faithfully imitating the sound +of a gust of rain-laden wind. As explained to me by one +of the medicine-men, by making this sound they compelled +the wind and rain to come to the aid of the crops. At a later +date I found it in use among the Apache, and for the same +purpose.</q><note place='foot'>Captain J. G. Bourke, <q>The +Medicine-men of the Apache,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Ninth +Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology</hi> +(Washington, 1892), pp. 476 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Zuñi Indians of New Mexico whirl bull-roarers +<q>to create enthusiasm</q> among the mythical beings +who are supposed to cause rain, or for the purpose of making +them gather in the air over the village.<note place='foot'>Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, +<q>The Zuñi Indians,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Twenty-third +Annual Report of the Bureau of American +Ethnology</hi> (Washington, 1904), pp. +115, 355.</note> In a Zuñi rain-making +ceremony, while one medicine-man whirls a bull-roarer, +another whips up a mixture of water and meal +into frothy suds symbolic of clouds, and a third plays a flute. +<q>All this is an invocation to the gods for rain—the one +great and perpetual prayer of the people of this arid +land.</q><note place='foot'>Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, <hi rend='italic'>op. +cit.</hi> p. 175; compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, pp. 128 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +177.</note> This supposed connexion of the instrument with +thunder-storms explains why the Navajos of the same torrid +country say that the bull-roarer should always be made of +wood from a pine-tree that has been struck by lightning;<note place='foot'>Dr. Washington Matthews, <q>The +Navajo Chant,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Fifth Annual Report +of the Bureau of Ethnology</hi> (Washington, +1887), p. 436; compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, p. +435, where the sound of the bull-roarer +is said to be <q>like that of a +rain storm.</q></note> +and why the Bakairi of Brazil call the unpretentious +<pb n='232'/><anchor id='Pg232'/> +instrument by a name that means <q>thunder and lightning.</q><note place='foot'>Karl von den Steinen, <hi rend='italic'>Unter den +Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens</hi> (Berlin, +1894), p. 328.</note> +The resemblance of the sound of the bull-roarer to the +roaring of the wind is doubtless the reason why in the Torres +Straits Islands wizards whirled bull-roarers in order to make +the wind to blow,<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological +Expedition to Torres Straits</hi>, +v. (Cambridge, 1904) p. 352.</note> and why, when Caffres wish for calm +weather, they forbid boys to play with bull-roarers, because +they think that the booming noise attracts a gale of wind.<note place='foot'>G. McCall Theal, <hi rend='italic'>Kaffir Folk-lore</hi> +(London, 1886), pp. 222 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Records of South-Eastern Africa</hi>, vii. +(1901) p. 456; Dudley Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>The +Essential Kafir</hi> (London, 1904), p. +333. For an analogous reason among +the Boloki of the Upper Congo the +elders do not like when boys play +with bull-roarers, because the sound +resembles the growl of a leopard and +will attract these ferocious animals. +See Rev. John H. Weeks, <hi rend='italic'>Among +Congo Cannibals</hi> (London, 1913), p. +157.</note> +Hence, as an instrument whose sound resembles the rumbling +of thunder, the roar of wind, and the patter of rain, the bull-roarer +is naturally swung by agricultural savages as a powerful +means of promoting the growth of the crops. In the +island of Kiwai, off the mouth of the Fly River in British +New Guinea, bull-roarers are whirled in order to ensure a +good crop of yams, sweet potatoes, and bananas.<note place='foot'>A. C. Haddon, <hi rend='italic'>Head-hunters, Black, +White, and Brown</hi> (London, 1901), p. +104; <hi rend='italic'>Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological +Expedition to Torres Straits</hi>, +v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 218, 219; +Rev. J. Chalmers, <q>Notes on the +Natives of Kiwai Island,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxxiii. +(1903) p. 119.</note> Similarly +the Yabim of German New Guinea imagine that by twirling +bull-roarers while they mention the names of the dead they +produce a fine crop of taro.<note place='foot'>H. Zahn, <q>Die Jabim,</q> in R. +Neuhauss's <hi rend='italic'>Deutsch Neu-Guinea</hi> (Berlin, +1911), iii. 333.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +whirling +of bull-roarers +by +young men +with bleeding +backs +in Australia +seems to +have been +a rain-making +ceremony.</note> +But why among the Dieri of Central Australia should +the power of attracting rain and so ensuring a supply of +food be specially attributed to a young man whose back has +just been scored and whose wounds are still raw? Perhaps +the reason may be that the blood dripping from the gashes +is thought to resemble rain and therefore to be endowed with +a magical potency of drawing showers from the clouds. The +conjecture is confirmed by the observation that the Dieri +actually do bleed themselves avowedly for the purpose of +making rain, and they are not the only people in Australia +and elsewhere who have resorted to this singular mode of +<pb n='233'/><anchor id='Pg233'/> +putting an end to a drought.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, i. 256-258.</note> Altogether the foregoing +evidence seems to hint that the whole virtue of the bull-roarer +resides, as its English name implies, in its voice, and +that its original significance was simply that of a magical +instrument for causing thunder, wind, and rain.<note place='foot'>This appears to be the view also of +Professor K. von den Steinen (<hi rend='italic'>Unter den +Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens</hi>, pp. +327 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>), who is probably right in thinking +that the primary intention of the instrument +is to make thunder, and that +the idea of making rain is secondary.</note> When these +natural phenomena came to be personified as spirits, the +sound of the bull-roarer was naturally interpreted as their +voice. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +sound of +the bull-roarer +at +initiation is +believed by +Australian +women and +children +to be the +voice of a +spirit, who +carries +away the +novices.</note> +Among the tribes on the Brisbane River in Queensland +the weird sound of the bull-roarers swung at initiation was +believed by the women and children to be made by the +wizards in swallowing the boys and bringing them up again +as young men. The Ualaroi of the Upper Darling River +said that the boy met a ghost, who killed him and brought +him to life again as a young man. Among the natives on +the Lower Lachlan and Murray Rivers it was Thrumalun +(Daramulun) who was thought to slay and resuscitate the +novices.<note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <q>On Australian +Medicine Men,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xvi. (1887) pp. 47 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of +South-East Australia</hi>, p. 596.</note> In the Arunta tribe of Central Australia, at the +moment when the lads are being circumcised, the bull-roarer +sounds in the darkness all round the ceremonial ground; +and the awestruck women, listening in the distance, believe +that it is the voice of a spirit called Twanyirika, who lives +in wild and inaccessible regions and only comes out when a +youth is initiated. They think that the spirit enters the body +of the lad after the operation of circumcision has been performed +and carries him away into the bush, keeping him there +till his wound is healed. While the newly circumcised youth +is out in the wilds, carefully secluded from the sight of the +women and children, he constantly sounds the bull-roarer. +When he has recovered from the wound, the spirit leaves +him and he returns to camp an initiated, or rather partially +initiated, man. He has learned, at all events, the secret of +Twanyirika; for no sooner is he circumcised than an elder +brother comes up to him, and placing in his hands a bundle +<pb n='234'/><anchor id='Pg234'/> +of sacred sticks or stones (<foreign rend='italic'>churinga</foreign>), says, <q>Here is Twanyirika, +of whom you have heard so much. They are <foreign rend='italic'>churinga</foreign> and +will help you to heal quickly; guard them well, or else you +and your mothers and sisters will be killed.</q><note place='foot'>Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, +<hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of Central Australia</hi>, p. +246 note 1; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Northern Tribes of +Central Australia</hi> (London, 1904), p. +497. According to the classificatory +system of relationship, which prevails +among all the aborigines of Australia, +a man may have, and generally has, a +number of women who stand to him in +the relation of mother as well as of +sister, though there need not be a drop +of blood in common between them, as +we count kin. This explains the reference +in the text to a boy's <q>mothers.</q></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>In some +Australian +tribes the +women +believe that +lads at +initiation +are killed +and +brought to +life again +by a spirit, +whose +voice is +heard in +the sound +of the bull-roarer.</note> +In this account nothing is said about killing the lad and +bringing him to life again; but a belief in the death and +resurrection of the novices at initiation is expressly affirmed +to be part of the feminine creed in other tribes of Central +Australia. Thus in the Unmatjera tribe both women and +children believe that Twanyirika kills the youth and afterwards +brings him to life again during the period of initiation. +The rites of initiation in this tribe, as in the other Central +tribes, comprise the operations of circumcision and subincision; +and as soon as the second of these has been performed +on him, the young man receives from his father a +sacred stick (<foreign rend='italic'>churinga</foreign>), with which, he is told, his spirit was +associated in the remotest past. While he is out in the bush +recovering from his wounds, he must swing the bull-roarer, +or a being who lives up in the sky will swoop down and +carry him off.<note place='foot'>B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, +<hi rend='italic'>Northern Tribes of Central Australia</hi>, +pp. 342 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 498.</note> In the Urabunna tribe of Central Australia +a lad at initiation receives a bull-roarer, the very name of +which (<foreign rend='italic'>chimbaliri</foreign>) is never heard by women and children. +They are taught to believe that the sound of it is the voice +of a spirit called Witurna, who takes the boy away, cuts out +all his bowels, provides him with a new set, and brings him +back an initiated youth. The lad is warned that on no +account may he allow a woman or a child to see the sacred +stick, else he and his mother and sisters will fall down as +dead as stones.<note place='foot'>Spencer and Gillen, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. +498.</note> In the Binbinga tribe, on the western coast +of the Gulf of Carpentaria, the women and children believe +that the noise of the bull-roarer at initiation is made by a +spirit named Katajalina, who lives in an ant-hill and comes +<pb n='235'/><anchor id='Pg235'/> +out and eats up the boy, afterwards restoring him to life.<note place='foot'>Spencer and Gillen, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. +366 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 501.</note> +Similarly among their neighbours the Anula the women +imagine that the droning sound of the bull-roarer is produced +by a spirit called Gnabaia, who swallows the lads at +initiation and afterwards disgorges them in the form of initiated +men. In this tribe, after a lad has been subincised +as well as circumcised, he is presented with a bull-roarer and +informed that the instrument was originally made by the +whirlwind, that it is sacred or tabooed, and that it may +on no account be shewn to women or children.<note place='foot'>Spencer and Gillen, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. +373, 501.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>A drama +of resurrection +from +the dead +used to be +shewn to +novices at +initiation +in some +tribes of +New South +Wales. +Dr. +Howitt's +description +of the +scene. The seeming +dead +man in +the grave. The resurrection +from the +grave.</note> +Among the tribes settled on the southern coast of New +South Wales, of which the Coast Murring tribe may be +regarded as typical, the drama of resurrection from the dead +was exhibited in a graphic form to the novices at initiation. +Before they were privileged to witness this edifying spectacle +they had been raised to the dignity of manhood by an old +man, who promoted them to their new status by the simple +process of knocking a tooth out of the mouth of each with +the help of a wooden chisel and hammer. The ceremony +of the resurrection has been described for us in detail by an +eye-witness, the late Dr. A. W. Howitt, one of the best +authorities on the customs of the Australian aborigines. +The scene selected for the sacred drama was the bottom +of a deep valley, where a sluggish stream wound through a +bed of tall sharp-edged sedge. Though the hour was between +ten and eleven o'clock in the morning, the sun had but just +peeped over the mountains which enclosed the valley like a +wall on the east; and while the upper slopes, clothed with +a forest of tall rowan trees, looked warm and bright in +sunshine, which shot between the grey stems and under +the light feathery foliage of the trees, all the bottom of +the dell was still in deep shadow and dank with the +moisture of the night's rain. While the novices rested and +warmed themselves at a crackling fire, the initiated men laid +their heads together, prepared a stock of decorations made +of stringy bark, and dug a grave. There was some discussion +as to the shape of the grave, but the man who was +to be buried in it decided the question by declaring that he +<pb n='236'/><anchor id='Pg236'/> +would be laid in it on his back at full length. He was a +man of the eagle-hawk totem and belonged to the tribal +subdivision called Yibai. So while two men under his +directions were digging the grave with sticks in the friable +granitic soil, he superintended the costume of the other +actors in the drama. Sheets of bark were beaten out into +fleeces of stringy fibre, and in these garments six performers +were clothed from head to foot so that not even +a glimpse could be obtained of their faces. Four of them +were tied together by a cord which was fastened to the back +of their heads, and each of them carried two pieces of bark +in his hands. The other two walked free, but hobbled along +bent double and supporting their tottery steps on staves to +mark the weight of years; for they played the part of two +medicine-men of venerable age and great magical power. +By this time the grave was ready, and the eagle-hawk man +stretched himself in it at full length on a bed of leaves, his +head resting on a rolled-up blanket, just as if he were a +corpse. In his two hands, crossed on his chest, he held the +stem of a young tree (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Persoonia linearis</foreign>), which had been +pulled up by the roots and now stood planted on his chest, +so that the top of it rose several feet above the level of the +ground. A light covering of dried sticks filled the grave, and +dead leaves, tufts of grass, and small plants were artistically +arranged over them so as to complete the illusion. All +being now ready, the novices were led by their sisters' +husbands to the grave and placed in a row beside it, while +a singer, perched on the trunk of a fallen tree at the head of +the grave, crooned a melancholy ditty, the song of Yibai. +Though the words of the song consisted merely of a monotonous +repetition of the words <foreign rend='italic'>Burrin-burrin Yibai</foreign>, that is, +Stringy-bark Yibai, they were understood to refer to the +eagle-hawk totem, as well as to the tribal subdivision of the +buried man. Then to the slow, plaintive but well-marked +air of the song the actors began to move forward, winding +among the trees, logs, and rocks. On came the four disguised +men, stepping in time to the music, swaying from side to +side, and clashing their bark clappers together at every step, +while beside them hobbled the two old men keeping a little +aloof to mark their superior dignity. They represented a +<pb n='237'/><anchor id='Pg237'/> +party of medicine-men, guided by two reverend seniors, +who had come on pilgrimage to the grave of a brother +medicine-man, him of the eagle-hawk totem, who lay buried +here in the lonely valley, now illumined by the warm rays +of the sun; for by this time the morning was wearing on +to noon. When the little procession, chanting an invocation +to Daramulun, had defiled from among the rocks and trees +into the open, it drew up on the side of the grave opposite +to the novices, the two old men taking up a position in the +rear of the dancers. For some time the dance and song +went on till the tree that seemed to grow from the grave +began to quiver. <q>Look there!</q> cried the sisters' husbands +to the novices, pointing to the trembling leaves. +As they looked, the tree quivered more and more, then was +violently agitated and fell to the ground, while amid +the excited dancing of the dancers and the chanting of +the tuneful choir the supposed dead man spurned from +him the superincumbent mass of sticks and leaves, and +springing to his feet danced his magic dance in the grave +itself, and exhibited in his mouth the magic substances +which he was supposed to have received from Daramulun +in person.<note place='foot'>A. W. Howitt, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of +South-East Australia</hi>, pp. 554-556. +Compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>On some Australian +Ceremonies of Initiation,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xiii. +(1884) pp. 453 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>In some +Australian +tribes a +medicine-man +at his +initiation +is thought +to be killed +and raised +again from +the dead.</note> +In some tribes of Central and Northern Australia the +initiation of a medicine-man into the mysteries of his +craft is supposed to be accomplished by certain spirits, +who kill him, cut out his internal organs, and having provided +him with a new set bring him to life again. Sometimes +the spirits kindly replace the man's human organs by +their own spiritual organs; sometimes along with the new +organs they insert magical stones in his body or even a +serpent, and the stones or the serpents naturally endow the +new wizards with marvellous powers. In some tribes the +initiation takes place in a cave, where the spirits dwell. +After the man has been restored to life with a new heart, +a new pair of lungs, and so forth, he returns to his people +in a more or less dazed condition, which his friends may at +first mistake for insanity, though afterwards they recognize +<pb n='238'/><anchor id='Pg238'/> +its true character as inspiration.<note place='foot'>B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, +<hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of Central Australia</hi>, +pp. 523-525; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Northern Tribes of +Central Australia</hi>, 480 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 484, 485, +487, 488; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Across Australia</hi> (London, +1912), ii. 334 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> One eminent medical +practitioner in the Unmatjera tribe assured Messrs. Spencer +and Gillen that when he came to himself after the operation, +which in his case was performed by an aged doctor, he had +completely forgotten who he was and all about his past life. +After a time his venerable friend led him back to the camp +and shewed it to him, and said, <q>That woman there is your +wife,</q> for she had gone clean out of his head.<note place='foot'>Spencer and Gillen, <hi rend='italic'>Northern +Tribes of Central Australia</hi>, pp. 480 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> We shall +see presently that this temporary oblivion, a natural effect +of the shock to the nervous system produced by resuscitation +from the dead, is characteristic of novices under similar +circumstances in other lands. Among the Arunta of Alice +Springs the cave where the mystic initiation takes place is +a limestone cavern in a range of hills which rises to the +north of the wide level expanse known as the Emily plain. +None of the ordinary natives would dare to set foot in the +awful grotto, which they believe to extend for miles into the +bowels of the earth and to be tenanted by certain ancestral +spirits, who live there in perpetual sunshine and amid streams +of running water, an earthly paradise by contrast with the +arid sun-scorched steppes and barren mountains outside. +White men have explored the cave, and if they perceived +no spirits, they found bats in plenty. The man who aspires +to the rank of a wizard lies down at the mouth of the +cave and falls asleep; and as he sleeps one of the ancestral +spirits steals up to him and drives an invisible spear through +his neck from back to front. The point of the spear comes +out through the man's tongue, leaving a hole through which +you could put your little finger, and this hole the man +retains for the rest of his natural life, or at least so long as +he retains his magical powers; for if the hole should close +up, these spiritual gifts and graces would depart from him. +A second thrust from the invisible spear transfixes the man's +head from ear to ear; he drops down dead, and is immediately +transported into the depths of the cavern, where the +spirits dissect his dead body, extract the old viscera, and +<pb n='239'/><anchor id='Pg239'/> +replace them with a new set in the manner already described.<note place='foot'>F. J. Gillen, <q>Notes on some +Manners and Customs of the Aborigines +of the McDonnel Ranges belonging +to the Arunta Tribe,</q> in <hi rend='italic'>Report on +the Work of the Horn Scientific Expedition +to Central Australia</hi>, Part iv. +<hi rend='italic'>Anthropology</hi> (London and Melbourne, +1896), pp. 180 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; B. Spencer and +F. J. Gillen, <hi rend='italic'>Native Tribes of Central +Australia</hi> (London, 1899), pp. 523 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Across Australia</hi> (London, +1912), ii. 335.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Notable +features in +the initiation +of +Australian +medicine-men.</note> +In this account of the manner in which medicine-men +obtain their magical powers not only are the supposed death +and resurrection of the novice worthy of attention, but also +the exchange of internal organs which in the Binbinga and +Mara tribes is supposed to be effected between the man +and the spirit;<note place='foot'>B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, +<hi rend='italic'>Northern Tribes of Central Australia</hi>, +pp. 487, 488; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Across Australia</hi>, +ii. 481 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> for this exchange resembles that which, on +the theory I have suggested, may be thought to take place +between a lad and his totem at the ceremonies of initiation +which mark the momentous transition from boyhood to +manhood. Further, the bodily mutilation which is the +visible sign of the medicine-man's initiation (for however +the hole may be made it certainly exists in the tongues of +regular Arunta practitioners) corresponds to the bodily +mutilations of other sorts, which in many savage tribes +attest to the world that the mutilated persons are fullgrown +men. What the precise meaning of such mutilations may +be, still remains very obscure; but they seem in some cases +to be directly associated with the conception of death and +resurrection. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Rites of +initiation in +some tribes +of German +New +Guinea. The +novices +thought +to be +swallowed +and disgorged +by +a monster, +whose +voice is +heard in +the hum +of the bull-roarers.</note> +This association certainly comes out plainly in the rites +of initiation through which in some parts of New Guinea +all lads must pass before they attain to the status of adults. +The rites are observed by a group of tribes who occupy +contiguous territories about Finsch Harbour and Huon +Gulf in German New Guinea. The tribes in question are +the Yabim, the Bukaua, the Kai, and the Tami. All of +them except the Kai belong to the Melanesian stock and +are therefore presumably immigrants from the adjoining +islands; but the Kai, who inhabit the rugged, densely +wooded, and rainy mountains inland from Finsch Harbour, +belong to the aboriginal Papuan stock and differ from their +neighbours in speech as well as in appearance. Yet the +<pb n='240'/><anchor id='Pg240'/> +rites of initiation which all these tribes celebrate and the +beliefs which they associate with them are so similar that +a single description will apply accurately enough to them all. +All of them, like many Australian tribes, require every male +member of the tribe to be circumcised before he ranks as +a full-grown man; and the tribal initiation, of which circumcision +is the central feature, is conceived by them, as by +some Australian tribes, as a process of being swallowed and +disgorged by a mythical monster, whose voice is heard in +the humming sound of the bull-roarer. Indeed the New +Guinea tribes not only impress this belief on the minds +of women and children, but enact it in a dramatic form +at the actual rites of initiation, at which no woman or uninitiated +person may be present. For this purpose a hut +about a hundred feet long is erected either in the village or +in a lonely part of the forest. It is modelled in the shape +of the mythical monster; at the end which represents his +head it is high, and it tapers away at the other end. A +betel-palm, grubbed up with the roots, stands for the backbone +of the great being and its clustering fibres for his +hair; and to complete the resemblance the butt end of the +building is adorned by a native artist with a pair of goggle +eyes and a gaping mouth. When after a tearful parting +from their mothers and women folk, who believe or pretend +to believe in the monster that swallows their dear ones, the +awe-struck novices are brought face to face with this imposing +structure, the huge creature emits a sullen growl, +which is in fact no other than the humming note of bull-roarers +swung by men concealed in the monster's belly. +The actual process of deglutition is variously enacted. +Among the Tami it is represented by causing the candidates +to defile past a row of men who hold bull-roarers over +their heads; among the Kai it is more graphically set forth +by making them pass under a scaffold on which stands a +man, who makes a gesture of swallowing and takes in fact +a gulp of water as each trembling novice passes beneath +him. But the present of a pig, opportunely offered for the +redemption of the youth, induces the monster to relent and +disgorge his victim; the man who represents the monster +accepts the gift vicariously, a gurgling sound is heard, and +<pb n='241'/><anchor id='Pg241'/> +the water which had just been swallowed descends in a jet on +the novice. This signifies that the young man has been +released from the monster's belly. However, he has now +to undergo the more painful and dangerous operation of +circumcision. It follows immediately, and the cut made by +the knife of the operator is explained to be a bite or scratch +which the monster inflicted on the novice in spewing him out +of his capacious maw. While the operation is proceeding, a +prodigious noise is made by the swinging of bull-roarers to +represent the roar of the dreadful being who is in the act +of swallowing the young men. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +return +of the +novices +after initiation.</note> +When, as sometimes happens, a lad dies from the effect +of the operation, he is buried secretly in the forest, and his +sorrowing mother is told that the monster has a pig's +stomach as well as a human stomach, and that unfortunately +her son slipped into the wrong stomach, from which it was +impossible to extricate him. After they have been circumcised +the lads must remain for some months in seclusion, +shunning all contact with women and even the sight of +them. They live in the long hut which represents the +monster's belly; among the Yabim they beguile the tedium +of this enforced leisure by weaving baskets and playing on +certain sacred flutes, which are never used except on these +occasions. The instruments are of two patterns. One is +called the male and the other the female; and they are +believed to be married to each other. No woman may see +these mysterious flutes; if she did, she would die. When +the long seclusion is over, the lads, now ranking as initiated +men, are brought back with great pomp and ceremony to +the village, where they are received with sobs and tears of +joy by the women, as if the grave had given up its dead. +At first the young men keep their eyes rigidly closed or +even sealed with a plaster of chalk, and they appear not +to understand the words of command which are given them +by an elder. Gradually, however, they come to themselves +as if awaking from a stupor, and next day they bathe and +wash off the crust of white chalk with which their bodies +had been coated.<note place='foot'>As to the initiatory rites among +the Yabim, see K. Vetter, in <hi rend='italic'>Nachrichten +über Kaiser Wilhelms-Land +und den Bismarck-Archipel</hi>, 1897, +pp. 92 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, in <hi rend='italic'>Mitteilungen der +Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena</hi>, +xi. (1892) p. 105; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Komm herüber +und hilf uns!</hi> ii. (Barmen, 1898) p. +18; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, cited by M. Krieger, <hi rend='italic'>Neu-Guinea</hi> +(Berlin, preface dated 1899), +pp. 167-170; O. Schellong, <q>Das +Barlum-fest der Gegend Finschhafens,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Internationales Archiv für +Ethnographie</hi>, ii. (1889) pp. 145-162; +H. Zahn, <q>Die Jabim,</q> in R. Neuhauss's +<hi rend='italic'>Deutsch Neu-Guinea</hi> (Berlin, +1911), iii. 296-298. As to the initiatory +rites among the Bukaua, see S. +Lehner, <q>Bukaua,</q> in R. Neuhauss's +<hi rend='italic'>Deutsch Neu-Guinea</hi>, iii. 402-410; +among the Kai, see Ch. Keysser, +<q>Aus dem Kai-Leute,</q> <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> pp. 34-40; +among the Tami, see G. Bamler, +<q>Tami,</q> <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> pp. 493-507. I have +described the rites of the various tribes +more in detail in <hi rend='italic'>The Belief in Immortality +and the Worship of the Dead</hi>, i. 250-255, +260 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 290 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 301 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> In the +Bukaua and Tami tribes the initiation +ceremonies are performed not in the +forest but in a special house built for +the purpose in the village, which the +women are obliged to vacate till the +rites are over.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='242'/><anchor id='Pg242'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +monster +who is +supposed +to swallow +the novices +is apparently +conceived +as a +ghost or +ancestral +spirit.</note> +It is highly significant that all these tribes of New +Guinea apply the same word to the bull-roarer and to the +monster, who is supposed to swallow the novices at circumcision, +and whose fearful roar is represented by the hum of +the harmless wooden instruments. The word in the speech +of the Yabim and Bukaua is <foreign rend='italic'>balum</foreign>; in that of the Kai it +is <foreign rend='italic'>ngosa</foreign>; and in that of the Tami it is <foreign rend='italic'>kani</foreign>. Further, it +deserves to be noted that in three languages out of the four +the same word which is applied to the bull-roarer and to the +monster means also a ghost or spirit of the dead, while in +the fourth language (the Kai) it signifies <q>grandfather.</q> +From this it seems to follow that the being who swallows +and disgorges the novices at initiation is believed to be a +powerful ghost or ancestral spirit, and that the bull-roarer, +which bears his name, is his material representative. That +would explain the jealous secrecy with which the sacred implement +is kept from the sight of women. While they are not +in use, the bull-roarers are stowed away in the men's club-houses, +which no woman may enter; indeed no woman or +uninitiated person may set eyes on a bull-roarer under pain +of death.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Belief in Immortality and the +Worship of the Dead</hi>, i. 250, 251, 255, +261, 290 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 301. Among the +Bukaua not only does the bull-roarer +bear the general name for a ghost +(<foreign rend='italic'>balum</foreign>), but each particular bull-roarer +bears in addition the name of a particular +dead man, and varies in dignity +and importance with the dignity and +importance of the deceased person +whom it represents. And besides the +big bull-roarers with gruff voices there +are little bull-roarers with shrill voices, +which represent the shrill-voiced wives +of the ancient heroes. See S. Lehner, +<q>Bukaua,</q> in R. Neuhauss's <hi rend='italic'>Deutsch +Neu-Guinea</hi>, iii. 410-412.</note> Similarly among the Tugeri or Kaya-Kaya, a +large Papuan tribe on the south coast of Dutch New +<pb n='243'/><anchor id='Pg243'/> +Guinea, the name of the bull-roarer, which they call <foreign rend='italic'>sosom</foreign>, +is given to a mythical giant, who is supposed to appear +every year with the south-east monsoon. When he comes, +a festival is held in his honour and bull-roarers are swung. +Boys are presented to the giant, and he kills them, but +considerately brings them to life again.<note place='foot'>R. Pöch, <q>Vierter Bericht über +meine Reise nach Neu-Guinea,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Sitzungsberichte +der mathematischen-naturwissenschaftlichen +Klasse der +Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften</hi> +(Vienna), cxv. (1906) Abteilung +i. pp. 901, 902.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The drama +of death +and resurrection +used to be +enacted before +young +men at +initiation in +some parts +of Fiji.</note> +In certain districts of Viti Levu, the largest of the Fijian +Islands, the drama of death and resurrection used to be +acted with much solemnity before the eyes of young men at +initiation. The ceremonies were performed in certain sacred +precincts of oblong shape, enclosed by low walls or rows of +stones but open to the sky. Such a precinct was called a +<foreign rend='italic'>Nanga</foreign>, and it might be described as a temple dedicated to +the worship of ancestors; for in it sacrifices and prayers +were offered to the ancestral spirits. For example, the first-fruits +of the yam harvest were regularly presented with great +ceremony to the souls of the dead in the temple before the +bulk of the crop was dug for the people's use, and no man +might taste of the new yams until this solemn offering had +been made. The yams so offered were piled up in the sacred +enclosure and left to rot there; if any man were so bold as +to eat of these dedicated fruits, it was believed that he would +go mad.<note place='foot'>Rev. Lorimer Fison, <q>The <foreign rend='italic'>Nanga</foreign> +or Sacred Stone Enclosure of Wainimala, +Fiji,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xiv. (1885) p. 27. +The <foreign rend='italic'>Nanga</foreign> or sacred enclosure of +stones, with its sacred rites, was known +only to certain tribes of Fiji (the Nuyaloa, +Vatusila, Mbatiwai, and Mdavutukia), +who inhabited a comparatively +small area, barely a third, of the +island of Viti Levu. As to the institution +in general, see Rev. Lorimer +Fison, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 14-31; A. B. +Joske, <q>The Nanga of Viti-levu,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie</hi>, +ii. (1889) pp. 254-266; Basil +Thomson, <hi rend='italic'>The Fijians</hi> (London, 1908), +pp. 146-157. Compare <hi rend='italic'>The Belief in +Immortality and the Worship of the +Dead</hi>, i. 427-438.</note> Any initiated man had the right of approaching +the ancestral spirits at any time in their holy place, where +he would pray to them for help and protection and propitiate +them by laying down his offering of a pig, or yams, or eels, +or cloth, or what not.<note place='foot'>Rev. Lorimer Fison, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. +26; Basil Thomson, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> 147.</note> Of these offerings perhaps the most +curious was that of the foreskins of young men, who were +circumcised as a sort of vicarious sacrifice or atonement for +<pb n='244'/><anchor id='Pg244'/> +the recovery of a sick relative, it might be either their father +or one of their father's brothers. The bloody foreskins, stuck +in the cleft of a split reed, were presented to the ancestral +gods in the temple by the chief priest, who prayed for the +sick man's recovery.<note place='foot'>Rev. Lorimer Fison, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 27 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The phrase <q>the ancestral gods</q> +is used by Mr. Fison, one of our best +authorities on Fijian religion. Mr. +Basil Thomson (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 157) +questions the accuracy of Mr. Fison's +account of this vicarious sacrifice on +the ground that every youth was regularly +circumcised as a matter of course. +But there seems to be no inconsistency +between the two statements. While +custom required that every youth should +be circumcised, the exact time for performing +the ceremony need not have +been rigidly prescribed; and if a saving +or atoning virtue was attributed to +the sacrifice of foreskins, it might be +thought desirable in cases of emergency, +such as serious illness, to anticipate it +for the benefit of the sufferer.</note> The temple or sacred enclosure was +divided into two or three compartments by cross walls of +stones, and the inmost of these compartments was the <foreign rend='italic'>Nanga-tambu-tambu</foreign>, +or Holy of Holies.<note place='foot'>According to Mr. Fison, the enclosure +was divided into three compartments; +Mr. Basil Thomson describes +only two, though by speaking +of one of them as the <q>Middle +Nanga</q> he seems to imply that there +were three. The structure was a rough +parallelogram lying east and west, +about a hundred feet long by fifty feet +broad, enclosed by walls or rows of +stone slabs embedded endwise in the +earth. See Basil Thomson, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +pp. 147 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Description +of the +rite. The mimic +death. +The mimic +resurrection. +The sacramental +meal. The intention +of the +rite.</note> +In these open-air temples of the dead the ceremony of +initiating young men was performed as a rule every year at +the end of October or the beginning of November, which +was the commencement of the Fijian New Year; hence the +novices who were initiated at that season went by the name +of <foreign rend='italic'>Vilavou</foreign> or New Year's Men. The exact time for celebrating +the rite was determined by the flowering of the +<foreign rend='italic'>ndrala</foreign> tree (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Erythrina</foreign>); but it roughly coincided with the +New Year of the Tahitians and Hawaiians, who dated the +commencement of the year by observation of the Pleiades. +The highlanders of Fiji, who alone celebrated these rites, did +not trouble their heads about the stars.<note place='foot'>A. B. Joske, <q>The Nanga of Vitilevu,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie</hi>, +ii. (1889) p. 259; Basil +Thomson, <hi rend='italic'>The Fijians</hi>, pp. 150 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +According to Mr. Fison (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 19) +the initiatory ceremonies were held as +a rule only every second year; but he +adds: <q>This period, however, is not +necessarily restricted to two years. +There are always a number of youths +who are growing to the proper age, +and the length of the interval depends +upon the decision of the elders.</q> Perhaps +the seeming discrepancy between +our authorities on this point may be explained +by Mr. Joske's statement (p. +259) that the rites are held in alternate +years by two different sets of men, the +Kai Vesina and the Kai Rukuruku, +both of whom claim to be descended +from the original founders of the rites. +The custom of dating the New Year +by observation of the Pleiades was +apparently universal among the Polynesians. +See <hi rend='italic'>The Spirits of the Corn +and of the Wild</hi>, i. 312 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> As a preparation +<pb n='245'/><anchor id='Pg245'/> +for the solemnity the heads of the novices were shaved and +their beards, if they had any, were carefully eradicated. On +four successive days they went in procession to the temple +and there deposited in the Holy of Holies their offerings of +cloth and weapons to the ancestral spirits. But on the fifth +and great day of the festival, when they again entered the +sacred ground, they beheld a sight which froze their souls +with horror. Stretched on the ground was a row of dead or +seemingly dead and murdered men, their bodies cut open +and covered with blood, their entrails protruding. At the +further end sat the High Priest, regarding them with a +stony glare, and to reach him the trembling novices had +to crawl on hands and knees over the ghastly blood-bedabbled +corpses that lay between. Having done so they +drew up in a line before him. Suddenly he blurted out a +piercing yell, at which the counterfeit dead men started to +their feet and ran down to the river to cleanse themselves +from the blood and guts of pigs with which they were +beslobbered. The High Priest now unbent his starched +dignity, and skipping from side to side cried in stridulous +tones, <q>Where are the people of my enclosure? Are they +gone to Tonga Levu? Are they gone to the deep sea?</q> +He was soon answered by a deep-mouthed chant, and back +from the river marched the dead men come to life, clean, +fresh, and garlanded, swaying their bodies in time to the +music of their solemn hymn. They took their places in +front of the novices and a religious silence ensued. Such +was the drama of death and resurrection. It was immediately +followed by a sacramental meal. Four old men of +the highest order of initiates now entered the Holy of +Holies. The first bore a cooked yam carefully wrapt up in +leaves so that no part of it should touch the hands of the +bearer: the second carried a piece of baked pork similarly +enveloped: the third held a drinking-cup full of water and +wrapt round with native cloth; and the fourth bore a +napkin of the same stuff. The first elder passed along the +row of novices putting the end of the yam into each of their +<pb n='246'/><anchor id='Pg246'/> +mouths, and as he did so each of them nibbled a morsel of +the sacred food: the second elder did the same with the +hallowed pork: the third elder followed with the holy +water, with which each novice merely wetted his lips; and +the fourth elder wiped all their mouths with his napkin. +Then the high priest or one of the elders addressed the +young men, warning them solemnly against the sacrilege of +betraying to the profane vulgar any of the high mysteries +which they had witnessed, and threatening all such traitors +with the vengeance of the gods. The general intention of the +initiatory rites seems to have been to introduce the young +men to the worshipful spirits of the dead at their temple, +and to cement the bond between them by a sacramental +meal.<note place='foot'>Rev. Lorimer Fison, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. +20-23; A. B. Joske, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 264 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Basil Thomson, <hi rend='italic'>The Fijians</hi>, pp. +150-153. The sacramental character +of the meal is recognized by Mr. Fison, +who says (p. 23) that after the performance +of the rites the novices <q>are +now <foreign rend='italic'>Vīlavóu</foreign>, accepted members of the +<foreign rend='italic'>Nanga</foreign>, qualified to take their place +among the men of the community, +though still only on probation. As +children—their childhood being indicated +by their shaven heads—they +were presented to the ancestors, and +their acceptance was notified by what +(looking at the matter from the +natives' standpoint) we might, without +irreverance, almost call the <emph>sacrament</emph> +of food and water, too sacred even for +the elders' hands to touch.</q></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Initiatory +rite in the +island of +Rook: +pretence +that the +novices are +swallowed +by the +devil. +Secret +society of +the Duk-duk +in New +Britain. Novices +supposed +to be killed. +The new +birth.</note> +The people of Rook, an island between New Guinea and +New Britain, hold festivals at which one or two disguised men, +their heads covered with wooden masks, go dancing through +the village, followed by all the other men. They demand +that the circumcised boys who have not yet been swallowed +by Marsaba (the devil) shall be given up to them. The +boys, trembling and shrieking, are delivered to them, and +must creep between the legs of the disguised men. Then +the procession moves through the village again, and +announces that Marsaba has eaten up the boys, and will +not disgorge them till he receives a present of pigs, taro, +and so forth. So all the villagers, according to their means, +contribute provisions, which are then consumed in the name +of Marsaba.<note place='foot'>Paul Reina, <q>Ueber die Bewohner +der Insel Rook,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für +allgemeine Erdkunde</hi>, N.F., iv. (1858) +pp. 356 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In New Britain all males are members of an +association called the Duk-duk. The boys are admitted to +it very young, but are not fully initiated till their fourteenth +year, when they receive from the Tubuvan or Tubuan a +<pb n='247'/><anchor id='Pg247'/> +terrible blow with a cane, which is supposed to kill them. +The Tubuan and the Duk-duk are two disguised men who +represent cassowaries. They dance with a short hopping +step in imitation of the cassowary. Each of them wears a +huge hat like an extinguisher, woven of grass or palm-fibres; +it is six feet high, and descends to the wearer's +shoulders, completely concealing his head and face. From +the neck to the knees the man's body is hidden by a crinoline +made of the leaves of a certain tree fastened on hoops, +one above the other. The Tubuan is regarded as a female, +the Duk-duk as a male. The former is supposed to breed +and give birth to the novices, who are accordingly looked +upon as newly born. The female masks are very plain +compared with the male masks. Two of them are regularly +kept from year to year in order that they may annually +breed new Duk-duks. When they are wanted for this purpose +they are brought forth, decorated afresh, and provided with +new leaf dresses to match. According to one account, women +and children may not look upon one of these disguised men +or they would die. So strong is this superstition among +them that they will run away and hide as soon as they hear +him coming, for they are aware of his approach through a +peculiar shrieking noise he utters as he goes along. In the +district of Berara, where red is the Duk-duk colour, the mere +sight of a red cloth is enough to make the women take to +their heels. The common herd are not allowed to know +who the masker is. If he stumbles and his hat falls to the +ground, disclosing his face, or his crinoline is torn to tatters +by the bushes, his attendants immediately surround him to +hide his person from the vulgar eye. According to one +writer, indeed, the performer who drops his mask, or lets it +fall so that the sharp point at the top sticks in the ground, +is put to death. The institution of the Duk-duk is common +to the neighbouring islands of New Ireland and the Duke +of York.<note place='foot'>R. Parkinson, <hi rend='italic'>Im Bismarck +Archipel</hi> (Leipsic, 1887), pp. 129-134; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> <hi rend='italic'>Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee</hi> +(Stuttgart, 1907), pp. 567 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Rev. +G. Brown, <q>Notes on the Duke of +York Group, New Britain, and New +Ireland,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Royal Geographical +Society</hi>, xlvii. (1878) pp. 148 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +H. H. Romilly, <q>The Islands of the +New Britain Group,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Proceedings of +the Royal Geographical Society</hi>, N.S., +ix. (1887) pp. 11 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Rev. G. Brown, +<hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> p. 17; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Melanesians and Polynesians</hi> +(London, 1910), pp. 60 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; +W. Powell, <hi rend='italic'>Wanderings in a Wild +Country</hi> (London, 1883), pp. 60-66; +C. Hager, <hi rend='italic'>Kaiser Wilhelm's Land und +der Bismarck Archipel</hi> (Leipsic, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), +pp. 115-128; Hubner, quoted by W. +H. Dall, <q>On masks, labrets, and +certain aboriginal customs,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Third +Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology</hi> +(Washington, 1884), p. 100; +P. A. Kleintitschen, <hi rend='italic'>Die Küstenbewohner +der Gazellehalbinsel</hi> (Hiltrup bei +Münster, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), pp. 350 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; H. +Schurtz, <hi rend='italic'>Altersklassen und Männerbünde</hi> +(Berlin, 1902), pp. 369-377. +The inhabitants of these islands are +divided into two exogamous classes, +which in the Duke of York Island have +two insects for their totems. One of +the insects is the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>mantis religiosus</foreign>; the +other is an insect that mimics the leaf +of the horse-chestnut tree very closely. +See Rev. B. Danks, <q>Marriage Customs +of the New Britain Group,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xviii. +(1889) pp. 281 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>Totemism and +Exogamy</hi>, ii. 118 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<pb n='248'/><anchor id='Pg248'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Initiatory +rite in +Halmahera: +pretence +of +begetting +the novices +anew.</note> +Among the Galelareese and Tobelorese of Halmahera, +an island to the west of New Guinea, boys go through a form +of initiation, part of which seems to consist in a pretence of +begetting them anew. When a number of boys have reached +the proper age, their parents agree to celebrate the ceremony +at their common expense, and they invite others to be present +at it. A shed is erected, and two long tables are placed in +it, with benches to match, one for the men and one for the +women. When all the preparations have been made for a +feast, a great many skins of the rayfish, and some pieces of +a wood which imparts a red colour to water, are taken to the +shed. A priest or elder causes a vessel to be placed in the +sight of all the people, and then begins, with significant +gestures, to rub a piece of the wood with the ray-skin. The +powder so produced is put in the vessel, and at the same +time the name of one of the boys is called out. The same +proceeding is repeated for each boy. Then the vessels are +filled with water, after which the feast begins. At the third +cock-crow the priest smears the faces and bodies of the boys +with the red water, which represents the blood shed at the +perforation of the <emph>hymen</emph>. Towards daybreak the boys are +taken to the wood, and must hide behind the largest trees. +The men, armed with sword and shield, accompany them, +dancing and singing. The priest knocks thrice on each of +the trees behind which a boy is hiding. All day the boys +stay in the wood, exposing themselves to the heat of the sun +as much as possible. In the evening they bathe and return +to the shed, where the women supply them with food.<note place='foot'>J. G. F. Riedel, <q>Galela und +Tobeloresen,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</hi>, +xvii. (1885) pp. 81 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<pb n='249'/><anchor id='Pg249'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +Kakian +association +in Ceram. +The rite of +initiation: +pretence of +killing the +novices.</note> +In the west of Ceram boys at puberty are admitted to +the Kakian association.<note place='foot'>The Kakian association and its +initiatory ceremonies have often been +described. See François Valentyn, +<hi rend='italic'>Oud en nieuw Oost-Indiën</hi> (Dordrecht +and Amsterdam, 1724-1726), iii. 3 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +Von Schmid, <q>Het Kakihansch Verbond +op het eiland Ceram,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift +voor Neérlands Indië</hi> (Batavia, 1843), +dl. ii. pp. 25-38; A. van Ekris, <q>Het +Ceramsche Kakianverbond,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen +van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +ix. (1865) pp. 205-226 +(repeated with slight changes in +<hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en +Volkenkunde</hi>, xvi. (1867) pp. 290-315); +P. Fournier, <q>De Zuidkust van +Ceram,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Indische +Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde</hi>, xvi. +(1867) pp. 154-156; W. A. van Rees, +<hi rend='italic'>Die Pionniers der Beschaving in +Neêrlands Indië</hi> (Arnheim, 1867), +pp. 92-106; G. W. W. C. Baron +van Hoëvell, <hi rend='italic'>Ambon en meer bepaaldelijk +de Oeliasers</hi> (Dordrecht, 1875), +pp. 153 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Schulze, <q>Ueber Ceram +und seine Bewohner,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Verhandlungen +der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, +Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte</hi> +(1877), p. 117; W. Joest, <q>Beiträge +zur Kenntniss der Eingebornen der +Insel Formosa und Ceram,</q> <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> +(1882) p. 64; H. von Rosenberg, +<hi rend='italic'>Der Malayische Archipel</hi> (Leipsic, +1878), p. 318; A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Indonesien</hi>, +i. (Berlin, 1884) pp. 145-148; +J. G. F. Riedel, <hi rend='italic'>De sluik- en kroesharige +rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua</hi> +(The Hague, 1886), pp. 107-111; +O. D. Tauern, <q>Ceram,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift +für Ethnologie</hi>, xlv. (1913) pp. 167 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +The best accounts are those of Valentyn, +Von Schmid, Van Ekris, Van Rees, +and Riedel, which are accordingly followed +in the text.</note> Modern writers have commonly +regarded this association as primarily a political league instituted +to resist foreign domination. In reality its objects +are purely religious and social, though it is possible that the +priests may have occasionally used their powerful influence +for political ends. The society is in fact merely one of those +widely-diffused primitive institutions, of which a chief object +is the initiation of young men. In recent years the true +nature of the association has been duly recognized by the +distinguished Dutch ethnologist, J. G. F. Riedel. The Kakian +house is an oblong wooden shed, situated under the darkest +trees in the depth of the forest, and is built to admit so little +light that it is impossible to see what goes on in it. Every +village has such a house. Thither the boys who are to be +initiated are conducted blindfold, followed by their parents +and relations. Each boy is led by the hand by two men, +who act as his sponsors or guardians, looking after him +during the period of initiation. When all are assembled +before the shed, the high priest calls aloud upon the devils. +Immediately a hideous uproar is heard to proceed from the +shed. It is made by men with bamboo trumpets, who have +been secretly introduced into the building by a back door, +but the women and children think it is made by the devils, +<pb n='250'/><anchor id='Pg250'/> +and are much terrified. Then the priests enter the shed, +followed by the boys, one at a time. As soon as each boy +has disappeared within the precincts, a dull chopping sound +is heard, a fearful cry rings out, and a sword or spear, dripping +with blood, is thrust through the roof of the shed. This is a +token that the boy's head has been cut off, and that the devil +has carried him away to the other world, there to regenerate +and transform him. So at sight of the bloody sword the +mothers weep and wail, crying that the devil has murdered +their children. In some places, it would seem, the boys are +pushed through an opening made in the shape of a crocodile's +jaws or a cassowary's beak, and it is then said that the devil +has swallowed them. The boys remain in the shed for five +or nine days. Sitting in the dark, they hear the blast of the +bamboo trumpets, and from time to time the sound of musket +shots and the clash of swords. Every day they bathe, and +their faces and bodies are smeared with a yellow dye, to give +them the appearance of having been swallowed by the devil. +During his stay in the Kakian house each boy has one +or two crosses tattooed with thorns on his breast or arm. +When they are not sleeping, the lads must sit in a crouching +posture without moving a muscle. As they sit in a row +cross-legged, with their hands stretched out, the chief takes +his trumpet, and placing the mouth of it on the hands of +each lad, speaks through it in strange tones, imitating the +voice of the spirits. He warns the lads, under pain of death, +to observe the rules of the Kakian society, and never to +reveal what has passed in the Kakian house. The novices +are also told by the priests to behave well to their blood +relations, and are taught the traditions and secrets of the +tribe. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The resurrection +of +the novices.</note> +Meantime the mothers and sisters of the lads have gone +home to weep and mourn. But in a day or two the men +who acted as guardians or sponsors to the novices return +to the village with the glad tidings that the devil, at the +intercession of the priests, has restored the lads to life. The +men who bring this news come in a fainting state and +daubed with mud, like messengers freshly arrived from the +nether world. Before leaving the Kakian house, each lad +receives from the priest a stick adorned at both ends with +<pb n='251'/><anchor id='Pg251'/> +cock's or cassowary's feathers. The sticks are supposed to +have been given to the lads by the devil at the time when he +restored them to life, and they serve as a token that the youths +have been in the spirit land. When they return to their +homes they totter in their walk, and enter the house backward, +as if they had forgotten how to walk properly; or they +enter the house by the back door. If a plate of food is given +to them, they hold it upside down. They remain dumb, +indicating their wants by signs only. All this is to shew +that they are still under the influence of the devil or the +spirits. Their sponsors have to teach them all the common +acts of life, as if they were new-born children. Further, +upon leaving the Kakian house the boys are strictly forbidden +to eat of certain fruits until the next celebration of +the rites has taken place. And for twenty or thirty days +their hair may not be combed by their mothers or sisters. +At the end of that time the high priest takes them to a +lonely place in the forest, and cuts off a lock of hair from the +crown of each of their heads. After these initiatory rites the +lads are deemed men, and may marry; it would be a scandal +if they married before. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The secret +society of +<foreign rend='italic'>Ndembo</foreign> +in the +valley of +the Lowe +Congo.</note> +In the region of the Lower Congo a simulation of death +and resurrection is, or rather used to be, practised by the +members of a guild or secret society called <foreign rend='italic'>ndembo</foreign>. The +society had nothing to do with puberty or circumcision, +though the custom of circumcision is common in the country. +Young people and adults of both sexes might join the +guild; after initiation they were called <q>the Knowing +Ones</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>nganga</foreign>). To found a branch of the society it was +necessary to have an albino, who, whether a child, lad, or +adult, was the acknowledged head of the society.<note place='foot'>No reason is assigned for this +curious choice of a president. Can +it have been that, because negro children +are born pale or nearly white, +an albino was deemed a proper president +for a society, all the initiated +members of which claimed to have +been born again? Speaking of the +people of the Lower Congo the old +English traveller Andrew Battel observes +that <q>the children of this +country are born white, but change +their colour in two days' time to +a perfect black</q> (<q>Adventures of +Andrew Battel,</q> in J. Pinkerton's +<hi rend='italic'>Voyages and Travels</hi>, xvi. London, +1814, p. 331).</note> The +ostensible reason for starting a branch of the guild in a +district was commonly an epidemic of sickness, <q>and the +<pb n='252'/><anchor id='Pg252'/> +idea was to go into <foreign rend='italic'>ndembo</foreign> to die, and after an indefinite +period, from a few months to two or three years, to be +resurrected with a new body not liable to the sickness then +troubling the countryside. Another reason for starting a +<foreign rend='italic'>ndembo</foreign> was a dearth of children in a district. It was +believed that good luck in having children would attend +those who entered or died <foreign rend='italic'>ndembo</foreign>. But the underlying +idea was the same, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> to get a <q>new body</q> that would be +healthy and perform its functions properly.</q> The quarters +of the society were always a stockaded enclosure in a great +thick forest; a gate of planks painted yellow and red gave +access to it, and within there was an assemblage of huts. +The place was fenced to keep intruders from prying into +the mysteries of the guild, and it was near water. Uninitiated +persons might walk on the public roads through +the forest, but if they were caught in bye-paths or hunting +in the woods, they were flogged, fined, and sometimes killed. +They might not even look upon the persons of those who +had <q>died <foreign rend='italic'>ndembo</foreign></q>; hence when these sanctified persons +were roving about the forest or going to the river, the booming +notes of a drum warned the profane vulgar to keep out +of their way. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Pretence of +death as a +preliminary +to resurrection.</note> +When the stockade and the huts in the forest were +ready to receive all who wished to put off the old man or +woman and to put on the new, one of the initiates gave +the sign and the aspirant after the higher life dropped down +like dead in some public place, it might be the market or +the centre of the town where there were plenty of people to +witness the edifying spectacle. The initiates immediately +spread a pall over him or her, beat the earth round about +the pretended corpse with plantain stalks, chanted incantations, +fired guns, and cut capers. Then they carried the +seemingly dead body away into the forest and disappeared +with it into the stockade. The spectacle proved infectious; +one after another in the emotional, excitable crowd of negroes +followed the example, dropped down like dead, and were +carried off, sometimes in a real cataleptic state. In this +way fifty to a hundred or more novices might feign death +and be transported into the sacred enclosure. There they +were supposed not only to die but to rot till only a single +<pb n='253'/><anchor id='Pg253'/> +bone of their body remained, of which the initiated had to +take the greatest care in expectation of the joyful resurrection +that was soon to follow. However, though they were both +dead and rotten, they consumed a large quantity of food, +which their credulous relatives brought to them in baskets, +toiling with the loads on their backs over the long paths +through the forest in the sweltering heat of the tropical +day. If the relations failed to discharge this pious and +indispensable duty, their kinsman in the sacred enclosure ran +a risk of dying in good earnest, or rather of being spirited +away to a distant town and sold as a slave. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Seclusion +of the +novices.</note> +Shut up within the stockade for months or years, the men +and women, boys and girls, dispensed with the superfluity of +clothes, rubbed their naked bodies with red ochre or powdered +camwood instead, and gave themselves up to orgies of unbridled +lust. Some feeble attempts were made to teach them +the rudiments of a secret language, but the vocabulary was +small and its principles lacking in ingenuity. The time during +which this seclusion lasted might vary from three months +to three years. When the circumstances which had furnished +the pretext for instituting the society had passed away, +whether it was that the epidemic had died out or that the +birth-rate had sensibly increased, murmurs would begin to +be heard among friends and relatives in the town, who did +not see why they should be taxed any longer to support a +set of idle and dissolute ruffians in the forest, and why they +should trudge day after day in the sweat of their brow to +carry provisions to them. So the supplies would begin to +run short, and whenever that happened the mystery of the +resurrection was sure to follow very soon after. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Resurrection +of the +novices. Pretence +of the +novices +that they +have forgotten +everything.</note> +Accordingly it would be announced that on a certain +market-day the new initiates, now raised from the dead, would +reveal themselves in all their glory to the astonished gaze of the +public. The glad tidings were received with enthusiasm, and +crowds assembled from all the country round about to welcome +those who had come back from the world beyond the grave. +When all were gathered in eager expectancy in the market-place, +the sounds of distant music would be heard, and soon +the gay procession would defile into the open square and +march round it, while the dusky skins, reddened with camwood +<pb n='254'/><anchor id='Pg254'/> +powder, glistened in the sunshine, the gay garments +fluttered in the wind, and the tassels of palm-leaf fibre +dangled at every arm. In the crowd of spectators many +parents would recognize their children in the marching +figures of the procession, and girls and boys would point +out their brothers and sisters and eagerly call out their +names. But in the stolid faces of the initiates not an eye +would gleam with recognition, not a muscle would twitch +with an involuntary expression of delight; for having just +been raised from the dead they were supposed to know +nothing of their former life, of friends and relations, of home +and country. There might be in the crowd a mother or a +sister not seen for years; or, more moving still, the novice +might look in vain for loved and remembered faces that +would never be seen in the market-place again. But whatever +his feelings might be, he must rigidly suppress them +under pain of a flogging, a fine, or even death. At last the +parade was over and the procession broke up. Then the +old hands introduced the new hands to their own parents +and brothers and sisters, to their old homes and haunts. +For still the novices kept up the pretence that everything +was new and strange to them, that they could not speak +their mother tongue, that they did not know their own +fathers and mothers, their own town and their own houses; +nay that they had forgotten even how to eat their food. So +everything and everybody had to be shewn to them and +their names and meanings explained. Their guides would +lead them about the town, pointing out the various roads +and telling where they led to—this one to the watering-place +on the river, this to the forest, that to the farms, and +so on: they would take up the commonest domestic utensils +and shew what they were used for: they would even chew +the food and put it into the mouths of the novices, like +mother birds feeding their callow young. For some time +afterwards the resuscitated persons, attended by their mentors, +would go about the town and the neighbourhood acting in a +strange way like children or mad folk, seizing what they +wanted and trying to beat or even kill such as dared to +refuse them anything. Their guardian would generally +restrain these sallies; but sometimes he would arrange with +<pb n='255'/><anchor id='Pg255'/> +his hopeful pupils to be out of sight when two or three of +them clubbed together to assault and rob an honest man, +and would only return in time to share the booty. After +a while, however, the excitement created by the resurrection +would wear off; the dead folk come to life were expected +to have learned their lessons, and if they forgot themselves, +their memory was promptly refreshed by the law.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. H. Weeks, <q>Notes on +some Customs of the Lower Congo +People,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, xx. (1909) pp. +189-198; Rev. W. H. Bentley, <hi rend='italic'>Life +on the Congo</hi> (London, 1887), pp. +78 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Pioneering on the Congo</hi> +(London, 1900), i. 284-287. Mr. +Weeks's description of the institution +is the fullest and I have followed it +in the text. The custom was in vogue +down to recent years, but seems to +have been suppressed chiefly by the +exertions of the missionaries. Besides +the <foreign rend='italic'>ndembo</foreign> guild there is, or was, in +these regions another secret society +known as the <foreign rend='italic'>nkimba</foreign>, which some +writers have confused with the <foreign rend='italic'>ndembo</foreign>. +The <foreign rend='italic'>nkimba</foreign> was of a more harmless +character than the other; indeed it +seems even to have served some useful +purposes, partly as a kind of freemasonry +which encouraged mutual +help among its members, partly as a +system of police for the repression of +crime, its professed object being to put +down witchcraft and punish witches. +Only males were admitted to it. Candidates +for initiation were stupefied by +a drug, but there was apparently no +pretence of killing them and bringing +them to life again. Members of the +society had a home in the jungle away +from the town, where the novices lived +together for a period varying from six +months to two years. They learned a +secret language, and received new +names; it was afterwards an offence +to call a man by the name of his childhood. +Instead of the red dye affected +by members of the <foreign rend='italic'>ndembo</foreign> guild, +members of the <foreign rend='italic'>nkimba</foreign> guild whitened +their bodies with pipe clay and wore +crinolines of palm frondlets. See +Rev. W. H. Bentley, <hi rend='italic'>Life on the +Congo</hi>, pp. 80-83; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Pioneering on +the Congo</hi>, i. 282-284; Rev. J. H. +Weeks, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 198-201; (Sir) +H. H. Johnston, <q>A Visit to Mr. +Stanley's Stations on the River Congo,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Proceedings of the Royal Geographical +Society</hi>, N. S. v. (1883) pp. +572 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; E. Delmar Morgan, <q>Notes +on the Lower Congo,</q> <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, N.S. vi. +(1884) p. 193. As to these two secret +societies on the Lower Congo, see +further (Sir) H. H. Johnston, <q>On +the Races of the Congo,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the Anthropological Institute</hi>, xiii. +(1884) pp. 472 sq.; É. Dupont, <hi rend='italic'>Lettres +sur le Congo</hi> (Paris, 1889), pp. 96-100; +Herbert Ward, <hi rend='italic'>Five Years with +the Congo Cannibals</hi> (London, 1890), +pp. 54 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> <q>Ethnographical +Notes relating to the Congo Tribes,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxiv. (1895) pp. 288 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; E. J. +Glave, <hi rend='italic'>Six Years of Adventure in +Congo Land</hi> (London, 1893), pp. 80-83; +L. Frobenius, <hi rend='italic'>Die Masken und +Geheimbünde Afrikas</hi> (Halle, 1898), +pp. 43-54 (<hi rend='italic'>Nova Acta. Abh. der +Kaiserl. Leop. Carol. Deutschen Akademie +der Naturforscher</hi>, vol. lxxiv. +No. 1); H. Schurtz, <hi rend='italic'>Altersklassen +und Männerbünde</hi> (Berlin, 1902), pp. +433-437; <hi rend='italic'>Notes Annalytiques sur les +Collections Ethnographiques du Musée +du Congo</hi> (Brussels, 1902-1906), pp. +199-206; Ed. de Jonghe, <hi rend='italic'>Les Sociétés +Secrètes au Bas-Congo</hi> (Brussels, 1907), +pp. 15 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> (extract from the <hi rend='italic'>Revue +des Questions Scientifiques</hi>, October +1907). Some of these writers do not +discriminate between the two societies, +the <foreign rend='italic'>ndembo</foreign> and the <foreign rend='italic'>nkimba</foreign>. According +to our best authorities (Messrs. +Bentley and Weeks) the two societies +are quite distinct and neither of them +has anything to do with circumcision, +which is, however, prevalent in the +region. See Rev. J. H. Weeks, +<q>Notes on some Customs of the +Lower Congo People,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, xx. +(1909) pp. 304 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> A secret society +of the Lower Congo which Adolf +Bastian has described under the +name of <foreign rend='italic'>quimba</foreign> is probably identical +with the <foreign rend='italic'>nkimba</foreign>. He speaks of a +<q>Secret Order of those who have +been born again,</q> and tells us that the +candidates <q>are thrown into a death-like +state and buried in the fetish +house. When they are wakened to +life again, they have (as in the Belliparo) +lost their memory of everything +that is past, even of their father and +mother, and they can no longer remember +their own name. Hence new +names are given them according to +the titles or ranks to which they are +advanced.</q> See A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die +deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste</hi> +(Jena, 1874-1875), ii. 15 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<pb n='256'/><anchor id='Pg256'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Bastian's +account of +the ritual +of death +and resurrection +in +West +Africa.</note> +The following account of the rites, as practised in this +part of Africa, was given to Adolf Bastian by an interpreter. +<q>The great fetish lives in the interior of the forest-land, +where nobody sees him and nobody can see him. When he +dies, the fetish priests carefully collect his bones in order to +bring them to life again, and they nourish them, that he may +be clothed anew in flesh and blood. But it is not good to +speak of it. In the land of Ambamba every one must die +once, and when the fetish priest shakes his calabash against +a village, all the men and lads whose hour is come fall into +a state of lifeless torpidity, from which they generally arise +after three days. But if the fetish loves a man he carries +him away into the bush and buries him in the fetish house, +often for many years. When he comes to life again, he +begins to eat and drink as before, but his understanding is +gone and the fetish man must teach him and direct him in +every motion, like the smallest child. At first this can only +be done with a stick, but gradually his senses return, so that +it is possible to talk with him, and when his education is +complete, the priest brings him back to his parents. They +would seldom recognize their son but for the express assurances +of the fetish priest, who moreover recalls previous +events to their memory. He who has not gone through the +ceremony of the new birth in Ambamba is universally looked +down upon and is not admitted to the dances.</q><note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Ein Besuch in San +Salvador</hi> (Bremen, 1859), pp. 82 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Acquisition +of a patron +animal or +guardian +spirit in a +dream.</note> +In the same part of Africa we hear of a fetish called +Malassi, the votaries of which form a secret order of the +usual sort with a variety of ranks to which the initiates are +promoted. <q>The candidate is plunged into a magic sleep +within the temple-hut, and while he sleeps he beholds a bird +or other object with which his existence is henceforth +<pb n='257'/><anchor id='Pg257'/> +sympathetically bound up, just as the life of the young +Indian is bound up with the animal which he sees in his +dream at puberty. All who have been born again at +initiation, after their return to a normal state, bear the name +of Swamie (a sacred designation also in India) or, if they are +women, Sumbo (Tembo), and wear as a token the ring called +<foreign rend='italic'>sase</foreign>, which consists of an iron hoop with a fruit attached to +it.</q><note place='foot'>A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutsche Expedition +an der Loango-Küste</hi>, ii. 183. +Elsewhere Bastian says that about San +Salvador lads at puberty are secluded +in the forest and circumcised, and +during their seclusion <q>each of them is +mystically united to the fetish by which +his life is henceforth determined, as the +Brahman whispers the secret charm in +the ear of him who has been born +again.</q> See A. Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Ein Besuch +in San Salvador</hi> (Bremen, 1859), pp. +85 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Similarly among the Fans of the Gaboon a young +warrior acquires his guardian spirit by dreaming. He is +secluded in the forest, drinks a fermented and intoxicating +liquor, and smokes hemp. Then he falls into a heavy sleep, +and next morning he must describe exactly to the fetish +priest the animal, tree, mineral, or whatever it may have +been which he saw in his dream. This magical dream is +repeated on three successive nights; and after that the young +man is sent forth by the priest to seek and bring back the +beast, bird, reptile, or whatever it was of which he dreamed. +The youth obeys, reduces the animal or thing to cinders or +ashes, and preserves these calcined remains as a talisman +which will protect him against many dangers.<note place='foot'>H. Trilles, <hi rend='italic'>Le Totémisme chez les +Fâṅ</hi> (Münster i. W., 1912), pp. 479 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +The writer speaks of the guardian +spirit as the individual totem of the +young warrior.</note> However, +in these rites there is no clear simulation of dying and coming +to life again. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Dapper's +account of +the ritual +of death +and resurrection +in +the Belli-Paaro +society.</note> +Rites of death and resurrection were formerly observed in +Quoja, on the west coast of Africa, to the north of the Congo. +They are thus described by an old writer:—<q>They have +another ceremony which they call Belli-Paaro, but it is not for +everybody. For it is an incorporation in the assembly of +the spirits, and confers the right of entering their groves, +that is to say, of going and eating the offerings which the +simple folk bring thither. The initiation or admission to +the Belli-Paaro is celebrated every twenty or twenty-five +years. The initiated recount marvels of the ceremony, +saying that they are roasted, that they entirely change their +<pb n='258'/><anchor id='Pg258'/> +habits and life, and that they receive a spirit quite different +from that of other people and quite new lights. The badge +of membership consists in some lines traced on the neck +between the shoulders; the lines seem to be pricked with a +needle. Those who have this mark pass for persons of +spirit, and when they have attained a certain age they are +allowed a voice in all public assemblies; whereas the +uninitiated are regarded as profane, impure, and ignorant +persons, who dare not express an opinion on any subject of +importance. When the time for the ceremony has come, it +is celebrated as follows. By order of the king a place is +appointed in the forest, whither they bring the youths who +have not been marked, not without much crying and weeping; +for it is impressed upon the youths that in order to +undergo this change it is necessary to suffer death. So they +dispose of their property, as if it were all over with them. +There are always some of the initiated beside the novices to +instruct them. They teach them to dance a certain dance +called <foreign rend='italic'>killing</foreign>, and to sing verses in praise of Belli. Above +all, they are very careful not to let them die of hunger, +because if they did so, it is much to be feared that the +spiritual resurrection would profit them nothing. This +manner of life lasts five or six years, and is comfortable +enough, for there is a village in the forest, and they amuse +themselves with hunting and fishing. Other lads are brought +thither from time to time, so that the last comers have not +long to stay. No woman or uninitiated person is suffered +to pass within four or five leagues of the sacred wood. +When their instruction is completed, they are taken from the +wood and shut up in small huts made for the purpose. Here +they begin once more to hold communion with mankind and +to talk with the women who bring them their food. It is +amusing to see their affected simplicity. They pretend to +know no one, and to be ignorant of all the customs of the +country, such as the customs of washing themselves, rubbing +themselves with oil, and so forth. When they enter these huts, +their bodies are all covered with the feathers of birds, and +they wear caps of bark which hang down before their faces. +But after a time they are dressed in clothes and taken to a +great open place, where all the people of the neighbourhood +<pb n='259'/><anchor id='Pg259'/> +are assembled. Here the novices give the first proof of their +capacity by dancing a dance which is called the dance of Belli. +After the dance is over, the novices are taken to the houses +of their parents by their instructors.</q><note place='foot'>O. Dapper, <hi rend='italic'>Description de l'Afrique</hi> +(Amsterdam, 1686), pp. 268 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +Dapper's account has been abridged +in the text.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Miss +Kingsley +on the rites +of initiation +into secret +societies +in West +Africa.</note> +Miss Kingsley informs us that <q>the great point of +agreement between all these West African secret societies +lies in the methods of initiation. The boy, if he belongs +to a tribe that goes in for tattooing, is tattooed, and is +handed over to instructors in the societies' secrets and +formulae. He lives, with the other boys of his tribe +undergoing initiation, usually under the rule of several instructors, +and for the space of one year. He lives always +in the forest, and is naked and smeared with clay. The +boys are exercised so as to become inured to hardship; in +some districts, they make raids so as to perfect themselves in +this useful accomplishment. They always take a new name, +and are supposed by the initiation process to become new +beings in the magic wood, and on their return to their village +at the end of their course, they pretend to have entirely +forgotten their life before they entered the wood; but this +pretence is not kept up beyond the period of festivities given +to welcome them home. They all learn, to a certain extent, +a new language, a secret language only understood by the +initiated. The same removal from home and instruction +from initiated members is observed also with the girls. +However, in their case, it is not always a forest-grove they +are secluded in, sometimes it is done in huts. Among the +Grain Coast tribes, however, the girls go into a magic wood +until they are married. Should they have to leave the wood +for any temporary reason, they must smear themselves with +white clay. A similar custom holds good in Okÿon, Calabar +district, where, should a girl have to leave the fattening-house, +she must be covered with white clay.</q><note place='foot'>Miss Mary H. Kingsley, <hi rend='italic'>Travels +in West Africa</hi> (London, 1867), p. +531. Perhaps the smearing with clay +may be intended to indicate that the +novices have undergone the new birth; +for the negro child, though born +reddish-brown, soon turns slaty-grey +(E. B. Tylor, <hi rend='italic'>Anthropology</hi>, London, +1881, p. 67), which would answer well +enough to the hue of the clay-bedaubed +novices.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The <foreign rend='italic'>purra</foreign> +or <foreign rend='italic'>poro</foreign>, +a secret +society +of Sierra +Leone. The new +birth. +The <foreign rend='italic'>semo</foreign>, +a secret +society +of Senegambia. Death and +resurrection +at +initiation.</note> +Among the natives of the Sherbro, an island lying close +<pb n='260'/><anchor id='Pg260'/> +to the coast of Sierra Leone, there is a secret society called +the <foreign rend='italic'>purra</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>poro</foreign>, <q>which is partly of a religious, but chiefly +of a political nature. It resembles free-masonry in excluding +females, and in obliging every member by a solemn oath, +which I believe is seldom violated, not to divulge the sacred +mysteries, and to yield a prompt and implicit obedience to +every order of their superiors. Boys of seven or eight years +of age are admitted, or rather serve a novitiate until they +arrive at a proper age; for it is difficult to procure exact +information, and even somewhat dangerous to make many +inquiries. Every person on entering the society lays aside +his former name and assumes a new one; to call him by his +old name would produce a dispute. They have a superior +or head <foreign rend='italic'>purra</foreign> man, assisted by a grand council, whose +commands are received with the most profound reverence +and absolute submission, both by the subordinate councils +and by individuals. Their meetings are held in the most +retired spots, amid the gloom of night, and carried on with +inquisitorial secrecy. When the <foreign rend='italic'>purra</foreign> comes into a town, +which is always at night, it is accompanied with the most +dreadful howlings, screams, and other horrid noises. The +inhabitants, who are not members of the society, are obliged +to secure themselves within doors; should any one be +discovered without, or attempting to peep at what is going +forward, he would inevitably be put to death. To restrain +the curiosity of the females, they are ordered to continue +within doors, clapping their hands incessantly, so long as the +<foreign rend='italic'>purra</foreign> remains. Like the secret tribunal, which formerly +existed in Germany, it takes cognizance of offences, +particularly of witchcraft and murder, but above all of +contumacy and disobedience in any of its own members, and +punishes the guilty with death in so secret and sudden a +manner, that the perpetrators are never known: indeed, such +is the dread created by this institution, that they are never +even inquired after.</q><note place='foot'>Thomas Winterbottom, <hi rend='italic'>An Account +of the Native Africans in the +Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone</hi> (London, +1803), pp. 135 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare +John Matthews, <hi rend='italic'>A Voyage to the River +Sierra-Leone</hi> (London, 1791), pp. 82-85; +J. B. L. Durand, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage au +Sénégal</hi> (Paris, 1802), pp. 183 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +(whose account is copied without +acknowledgment from Matthews). +The <foreign rend='italic'>purra</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>poro</foreign> society also exists +among the Timmes of Sierra Leone; +in this tribe the novices are sometimes +secluded from their families for ten +years in the wood, they are tattooed on +their backs and arms, and they learn +a language which consists chiefly of +names of plants and animals used in +special senses. Women are not admitted +to the society. See Zweifel et +Moustier, <q>Voyage aux sources du +Niger,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de la Société de Géographie</hi> +(Paris), VI. Série, xv. (1878) +pp. 108 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> When the members of the <foreign rend='italic'>purra</foreign> or +<pb n='261'/><anchor id='Pg261'/> +<foreign rend='italic'>poro</foreign> society visit a town, the leader of the troop, whom an +English writer calls <q>the Poro devil,</q> draws discordant notes +from a sort of reed flute, the holes of which are covered with +spiders' webs. The only time when this devil and his rout +make a prolonged stay in the town is on the evening before +the day on which the newly initiated lads are to be brought +back from the forest. Then the leader and his satellites +parade the streets for hours, while all the uninitiated men, +women, and children remain shut up in their houses, listening +to the doleful strains of the flute, which signify that the devil +is suffering the pangs of childbirth before he brings forth the +initiated lads; for he is supposed to have been pregnant +with them the whole of the rainy season ever since they +entered into the forest. When they come forth from the +wood, they wear four or five coils of twisted ferns round their +waists in token of their being initiated members of the order.<note place='foot'>T. J. Alldridge, <hi rend='italic'>The Sherbro and +its Hinterland</hi> (London, 1901), p. 130. +This work contains a comparatively +full account of the <foreign rend='italic'>purra</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>poro</foreign> society +(pp. 124-131) and of the other secret +societies of the country (pp. 131-149, +153-159). Compare L. Frobenius, +<hi rend='italic'>Die Masken und Geheimbünde Afrikas</hi> +(Halle, 1898), pp. 138-144 (<hi rend='italic'>Nova +Acta, Abh. der Kaiserl. Leop.-Carol. +Deutschen Akademie der Naturforscher</hi>, +vol. lxxiv. No. 1).</note> +Among the Soosoos of Senegambia there is a similar secret +society called <foreign rend='italic'>semo</foreign>: <q>the natives who speak English call it +African masonry. As the whole ceremonies are kept very +private, it is difficult to discover in what they consist: but +it is said that the novices are met in the woods by the +old men, who cut marks on several parts of their bodies, +but most commonly on the belly; they are also taught a +language peculiar to the <foreign rend='italic'>semo</foreign>, and swear dreadful oaths +never to divulge the secrets revealed to them. The young +men are then made to live in the woods for twelve months, +and are supposed to be at liberty to kill any one who +approaches and does not understand the language of the +<foreign rend='italic'>semo</foreign>.... It is said, when women are so unfortunate as to +intrude upon the <foreign rend='italic'>semo</foreign>, they kill them, cut off their breasts, +and hang them up by the side of the paths as a warning +<pb n='262'/><anchor id='Pg262'/> +to others. This circumstance is perhaps less deserving of +credit, because the Soosoos are fond of telling wonderful and +horrid stories respecting this institution. They say, for +instance, that when first initiated their throats are cut, and +they continue dead for some time; at length they are +reanimated and initiated into the mysteries of the institution, +and are enabled to ramble about with much more vigour +than they possessed before.</q><note place='foot'>Thomas Winterbottom, <hi rend='italic'>An Account +of the Native Africans in the +Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone</hi> (London, +1803), pp. 137-139. As to the +<foreign rend='italic'>semo</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>simo</foreign> society see further L. +Frobenius, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 130-138.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Ritual +of the +new birth +among the +Akikuyu +of British +East +Africa.</note> +While the belief or the pretence of death and resurrection +at initiation is common among the negroes of West Africa, +few traces of it appear to be found among the tribes in the +southern, central, and eastern parts of that continent; and it +is notable that in these regions secret societies, which flourish +in the West, are also conspicuously absent. However, the +Akikuyu of British East Africa <q>have a curious custom +which requires that every boy just before circumcision must +be born again. The mother stands up with the boy crouching +at her feet; she pretends to go through all the labour pains, +and the boy on being reborn cries like a babe and is +washed. He lives on milk for some days afterwards.</q><note place='foot'>Extract from a letter of Mr. A. C. +Hollis to me. Mr. Hollis's authority +is Dr. T. W. W. Crawford of the +Kenia Medical Mission.</note> +A fuller description of the ceremony was given by a member +of the Kikuyu tribe as follows: <q>A day is appointed, any +time of year, by father and mother. If the father is dead +another elder is called in to act as proxy in his stead, or if +the mother is not living another woman to act in her place. +Any woman thus acting as representative is looked upon in +future by the boy as his own mother. A goat or sheep is +killed in the afternoon by any one, usually not by the father, +and the stomach and intestines reserved. The ceremony +begins in the evening. A piece of skin is cut in a circle, and +passed over one shoulder of the candidate and under the +other arm. The stomach of the goat is similarly treated and +passed over the other shoulder and under the other arm. +All the boy's ornaments are removed, but not his clothes. +No men are allowed inside the hut, but women are present. +The mother sits on a hide on the floor with the boy between +<pb n='263'/><anchor id='Pg263'/> +her knees. The sheep's gut is passed round the woman and +brought in front of the boy. The woman groans as in labour, +another woman cuts the gut, and the boy imitates the +cry of a new-born infant. The women present all applaud, +and afterwards the assistant and the mother wash the +boy. That night the boy sleeps in the same hut as the +mother.</q><note place='foot'>W. Scoresby Routledge and +Katherine Routledge, <hi rend='italic'>With a Prehistoric +People, the Akikuyu of British +East Africa</hi> (London, 1910), p. 152. +Compare C. W. Hobley, <q>Kikuyu +Customs and Beliefs,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Royal Anthropological Institute</hi>, xl. +(1910) p. 441.</note> Here the cutting of the sheep's gut, which +unites the mother to the boy, is clearly an imitation of +severing the navel string. Nor is it boys alone who are +born again among the Akikuyu. <q>Girls go through the rite +of second birth as well as boys. It is sometimes administered +to infants. At one time the new birth was combined +with circumcision, and so the ceremony admitted +to the privileges and religious rites of the tribe. Afterwards +trouble took place on account of mere boys wishing to take +their place alongside of the young men and maintaining +they were justified in doing so. The old men then settled +the matter by separating the two. Unless the new birth has +been administered the individual is not in a position to be +admitted to circumcision, which is the outward sign of +admittance to the nation. Any who have not gone through +the rite cannot inherit property, nor take any part in the +religious rites of the country.</q><note place='foot'>Mr. A. W. McGregor, of the +Church Missionary Society, quoted by +W. S. Routledge and K. Routledge, +<hi rend='italic'>With a Prehistoric People</hi>, p. 151, +note. 1. Mr. McGregor <q>has resided +amongst the Akikuyu since 1901. He +has by his tact and kindness won the +confidence of the natives, and is the +greatest authority on their language</q> +(<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, p. xxi).</note> For example, a man who +has not been born again is disqualified for carrying his dying +father out into the wilds and for disposing of his body after +death. The new birth seems to take place usually about the +tenth year, but the age varies with the ability of the father +to provide a goat, whose guts are necessary to enable the +boy or girl to be born again in due form.<note place='foot'>W. S. Routledge and K. Routledge, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 151.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Rites +of initiation +among the +Bondeis +of East +Africa. Rites +of initiation +among the +Bushongo +of the +Congo. +The first +ordeal. +The second +ordeal. The last +ordeal: the +descent +from the +tree.</note> +Among the Bondeis, a tribe on the coast of German +East Africa, opposite to the island of Pemba, one of the +rites of initiation into manhood consists in a pretence of +<pb n='264'/><anchor id='Pg264'/> +slaying one of the lads with a sword; the entrails of a +fowl are placed on the boy's stomach to make the pretence +seem more real.<note place='foot'>Rev. G. Dale, <q>An Account of +the principal Customs and Habits of +the Natives inhabiting the Bondei +Country,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxv. (1896) p. 189.</note> Among the Bushongo, who inhabit a +district of the Belgian Congo bounded on the north and +east by the Sankuru River and on the west by the Kasai, +young boys had formerly to undergo certain rites of initiation, +amongst which a simulation of killing them would seem +to have had a place, though in recent times the youths have +been allowed to escape the ordeal by the payment of a fine. +The supreme chief of the tribe, who in old days bore the +title of God on Earth (<foreign rend='italic'>Chembe Kunji</foreign>), used to assemble +all the lads who had just reached puberty and send them +away into the forest, where they remained for several +months under the care of one of his sons. During their +seclusion they were deemed unclean and might see no one; +if they chanced to meet a woman, she had to flee before +them. By night the old men marched round the quarters +of the novices, raising hideous cries and whirling bull-roarers, +the noise of which the frightened lads took to be the +voices of ghosts. They wore nothing but a comb, and +passed their leisure hours in learning to make mats and +baskets. After about a month they had to submit to the first +ordeal. A trench about ten feet deep was dug in the ground +and roofed over with sticks and earth so as to form a dark +tunnel. In the sides of the tunnel were cut niches, and in +each niche a man took post, whose business it was to terrify +the novices. For this purpose one of them was disguised in +the skin of a leopard, a second was dressed as a warrior with +a knife in his hand, a third was a smith with his furnace and +red-hot irons, and a fourth was masked to look like an ugly +ape, while he too gripped a knife in his hand. The novices +generally recoiled in dismay from each of these apparitions, +and it was only by means of reiterated taunts and threats that +the elders forced them to traverse the whole length of the +tunnel. After the lapse of another month the youths had to +face another ordeal of a similar character. A low tunnel, about +three feet deep, was dug in the earth, and sticks were inserted +<pb n='265'/><anchor id='Pg265'/> +in it so that their tops projected from the surface of the ground. +At the end of the tunnel a calabash was set full of goat's blood. +By way of encouraging the timid novices the master of the +ceremonies himself crawled through the tunnel, his progress +under ground being revealed to the novices above ground by +the vibrations of the sticks with which he collided in the +dark passage. Then having bedabbled his nose, his mouth, +and all the rest of his body with the goat's blood, he emerged +from the tunnel on hands and knees, dripping with gore and +to all appearance in the last stage of exhaustion. Then he +lay prostrate on his stomach in a state of collapse; the elders +declared him to be dead and carried him off. The chief +now ordered the lads to imitate the example set them by +the master of the ceremonies, but they begged and prayed +to be excused. At first the chief was inexorable, but in time +he relented and agreed to accept a fine of so many cowries as +a ransom paid by the youths for exemption from the ordeal. +A month later the last of the ordeals took place. A great +trunk of a tree was buried with its lower end in the earth +and surrounded for three-quarters of its circumference with +arrows stuck in the ground so that the barbs were pointed +towards the tree. The chief and the leading men sat down +at the gap in the circle of arrows, so as to conceal the gap +from the eyes of the novices and other spectators, among whom +the women were allowed to be present. To the eyes of the +uninitiated it now seemed that the tree was surrounded by a +bristling hedge of arrows, to fall upon which would be death. +All being ready the master of the ceremonies climbed the +tree amid breathless silence, and having reached the top, +which was decorated with a bunch of leaves, he looked about +him and asked the women, <q>Shall I come down?</q> <q>No! +no!</q> they shrieked, <q>you will be killed by the arrows.</q> +Then, turning disdainfully from these craven souls, the +gallant man addressed himself to the youths and repeated +his question, <q>Shall I come down?</q> A shout of <q>Yes!</q> +gave the answer that might have been expected from these +heroic spirits. In response the master of the ceremonies at +once slid down the tree and, dropping neatly to the ground +just at the gap in the hedge of arrows, presented himself +unscathed to the gaze of the excited assembly. The chief +<pb n='266'/><anchor id='Pg266'/> +now ordered the young men to go up and do likewise. But +the dauntless courage with which they had contemplated the +descent of the master of the ceremonies entirely forsook them +when it came to their turn to copy his shining example. +Their mothers, too, raised a loud cry of protest, joining their +prayers and entreaties to those of their hopeful sons. After +some discussion the chief consented to accept a ransom, and +the novices were dispensed from the ordeal. Then they +bathed and were deemed to have rid themselves of their +uncleanness, but they had still to work for the chief for +three months before they ranked as full-grown men and +might return to their villages.<note place='foot'>E. Torday et T. A. Joyce, <hi rend='italic'>Les +Bushongo</hi> (Brussels, 1910), pp. 82-85. +As for the title <q>God on Earth,</q> +applied to the principal chief or king, +see <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, p. 53.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Rites +of initiation +among the +Indians +of Virginia: +pretence +of the +novices +that they +have forgotten +their +former life.</note> +Among the Indians of Virginia, an initiatory ceremony, +called <foreign rend='italic'>Huskanaw</foreign>, took place every sixteen or twenty years, +or oftener, as the young men happened to grow up. The +youths were kept in solitary confinement in the woods for +several months, receiving no food but an infusion of some +intoxicating roots, so that they went raving mad, and continued +in this state eighteen or twenty days. <q>Upon this +occasion it is pretended that these poor creatures drink so +much of the water of Lethe that they perfectly lose the +remembrance of all former things, even of their parents, their +treasure, and their language. When the doctors find that +they have drunk sufficiently of the Wysoccan (so they call +this mad potion), they gradually restore them to their senses +again by lessening the intoxication of their diet; but before +they are perfectly well they bring them back into their +towns, while they are still wild and crazy through the violence +of the medicine. After this they are very fearful of discovering +anything of their former remembrance; for if such a +thing should happen to any of them, they must immediately +be <foreign rend='italic'>Huskanaw'd</foreign> again; and the second time the usage is so +severe that seldom any one escapes with life. Thus they +must pretend to have forgot the very use of their tongues, +so as not to be able to speak, nor understand anything that +is spoken, till they learn it again. Now, whether this be +real or counterfeit, I don't know; but certain it is that they +<pb n='267'/><anchor id='Pg267'/> +will not for some time take notice of anybody nor anything +with which they were before acquainted, being still under +the guard of their keepers, who constantly wait upon them +everywhere till they have learnt all things perfectly over +again. Thus they unlive their former lives, and commence +men by forgetting that they ever have been boys.</q><note place='foot'>(Beverley's) <hi rend='italic'>History of Virginia</hi> +(London, 1722), pp. 177 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare +J. Bricknell, <hi rend='italic'>The Natural History of +North Carolina</hi> (Dublin, 1737), pp. +405 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Ritual +of death +and resurrection +at initiation +into the +secret +societies +of North +America. The medicine-bag +as an instrument +of death +and resurrection. Ritual +of death +and resurrection +at initiation +among the +Dacotas.</note> +Among some of the Indian tribes of North America +there exist certain religious associations which are only open +to candidates who have gone through a pretence of being +killed and brought to life again. In 1766 or 1767 Captain +Jonathan Carver witnessed the admission of a candidate to an +association called <q>the friendly society of the Spirit</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>Wakon-Kitchewah</foreign>) +among the Naudowessies, a Siouan or Dacotan +tribe in the region of the great lakes. The candidate knelt +before the chief, who told him that <q>he himself was now +agitated by the same spirit which he should in a few +moments communicate to him; that it would strike him +dead, but that he would instantly be restored again to +life; to this he added, that the communication, however +terrifying, was a necessary introduction to the advantages +enjoyed by the community into which he was on the point +of being admitted. As he spoke this, he appeared to be +greatly agitated; till at last his emotions became so violent, +that his countenance was distorted, and his whole frame convulsed. +At this juncture he threw something that appeared +both in shape and colour like a small bean, at the young +man, which seemed to enter his mouth, and he instantly +fell as motionless as if he had been shot.</q> For a time the +man lay like dead, but under a shower of blows he shewed +signs of consciousness, and finally, discharging from his +mouth the bean, or whatever it was that the chief had thrown +at him, he came to life.<note place='foot'>J. Carver, <hi rend='italic'>Travels through the +Interior Parts of North America</hi>, +Third Edition (London, 1781), pp. +271-275. The thing thrown at the +man and afterwards vomited by him +was probably not a bean but a small +white sea-shell (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Cypraea moneta</foreign>). See +H. R. Schoolcraft, <hi rend='italic'>Indian Tribes of +the United States</hi> (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), +iii. 287; J. G. Kohl, <hi rend='italic'>Kitschi-Gami</hi> +(Bremen, 1859), i. 71; <hi rend='italic'>Seventh +Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology</hi> +(Washington, 1891), pp. 191, +215; <hi rend='italic'>Fourteenth Annual Report of +the Bureau of Ethnology</hi> (Washington, +1896), p. 101.</note> In other tribes, for example, the +<pb n='268'/><anchor id='Pg268'/> +Ojebways, Winnebagoes, and Dacotas or Sioux, the instrument +by which the candidate is apparently slain is the +medicine-bag. The bag is made of the skin of an animal +(such as the otter, wild cat, serpent, bear, raccoon, wolf, owl, +weasel), of which it roughly preserves the shape. Each +member of the society has one of these bags, in which he +keeps the odds and ends that make up his <q>medicine</q> or +charms. <q>They believe that from the miscellaneous contents +in the belly of the skin bag or animal there issues a spirit or +breath, which has the power, not only to knock down and +kill a man, but also to set him up and restore him to life.</q> +The mode of killing a man with one of these medicine-bags +is to thrust it at him; he falls like dead, but a second thrust +of the bag restores him to life.<note place='foot'>J. Carver, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 277 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +H. R. Schoolcraft, <hi rend='italic'>Indian Tribes of +the United States</hi>, iii. 287 (as to the +Winnebagoes), v. 430 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> (as to the +Chippeways and Sioux); J. G. Kohl, +<hi rend='italic'>Kitschi-Gami</hi>, i. 64-70 (as to the +Ojebways). For a very detailed +account of the Ojebway ceremonies, +see W. J. Hoffman, <q>The Midewiwin +or Grand Medicine Society of the +Ojibwa,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Seventh Annual Report of +the Bureau of Ethnology</hi> (Washington, +1891), especially pp. 215 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 234 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +248, 265. For similar ceremonies +among the Menomini, see <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>The +Menomini Indians,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Fourteenth Annual +Report of the Bureau of Ethnology</hi> +(Washington, 1896), pp. 99-102; and +among the Omahas, see J. Owen +Dorsey, <q>Omaha Sociology,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Third +Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology</hi> +(Washington, 1884), pp. 342-346. +I have dealt more fully with +the ritual in <hi rend='italic'>Totemism and Exogamy</hi>, +iii. 462 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> Compare also P. Radin, +<q>Ritual and Significance of the Winnebago +Medicine Dance,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +American Folk-lore</hi>, xxiv. (1911) pp. +149-208.</note> Among the Dacotas the +institution of the medicine-bag or mystery-sack was attributed +to Onktehi, the great spirit of the waters, who ordained that +the bag should consist of the skin of the otter, raccoon, +weasel, squirrel, or loon, or a species of fish and of serpents. +Further, he decreed that the bag should contain four sorts of +medicines of magical qualities, which should represent fowls, +quadrupeds, herbs, and trees. Accordingly, swan's down, +buffalo hair, grass roots, and bark from the roots of trees are +kept by the Dacotas in their medicine-bags. From this +combination there proceeds a magical influence (<foreign rend='italic'>tonwan</foreign>) +so powerful that no human being can of his own strength +withstand it. When the god of the waters had prepared the +first medicine-bag, he tested its powers on four candidates +for initiation, who all perished under the shock. So he +consulted with his wife, the goddess of the earth, and by +<pb n='269'/><anchor id='Pg269'/> +holding up his left hand and pattering on the back of it +with the right, he produced myriads of little shells, whose +virtue is to restore life to those who have been slain by the +medicine-bag. Having taken this precaution, the god chose +four other candidates and repeated the experiment of initiation +with success, for after killing them with the bag he +immediately resuscitated them by throwing one of the shells +into their vital parts, while he chanted certain words assuring +them that it was only sport and bidding them rise to +their feet. That is why to this day every initiated Dacota +has one of these shells in his body. Such was the divine +origin of the medicine-dance of the Dacotas. The initiation +takes place in a special tent. The candidate, after being +steamed in a vapour-bath for four successive days, plants +himself on a pile of blankets, and behind him stands an aged +member of the order. <q>Now the master of the ceremonies, +with the joints of his knees and hips considerably bent, +advances with an unsteady, uncouth hitching, sack in hand, +wearing an aspect of desperate energy, and uttering his +<q>Heen, heen, heen</q> with frightful emphasis, while all around +are enthusiastic demonstrations of all kinds of wild passions. +At this point the sack is raised near a painted spot on the +breast of the candidate, at which the <foreign rend='italic'>tonwan</foreign> is discharged. +At the instant the brother from behind gives him a push and +he falls dead, and is covered with blankets. Now the +frenzied dancers gather around, and in the midst of bewildering +and indescribable noises, chant the words uttered by the +god at the institution of the ceremony, as already recorded. +Then the master throws off the covering, and chewing a +piece of the bone of the Onktehi, spirts it over him, and he +begins to show signs of returning life. Then as the master +pats energetically upon the breast of the initiated person, he, +convulsed, strangling, struggling, and agonizing, heaves up +the shell which falls from his mouth on a sack placed in +readiness to receive it. Life is restored and entrance effected +into the awful mysteries. He belongs henceforth to the +medicine-dance, and has a right to enjoy the medicine-feast.</q><note place='foot'>G. H. Pond, <q>Dakota superstitions,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Collections of the Minnesota +Historical Society for the year 1867</hi> +(Saint Paul, 1867), pp. 35, 37-40. A +similar but abridged account of the +Dakota tradition and usage is given by +S. R. Riggs in his <hi rend='italic'>Dakota Grammar, +Texts, and Ethnography</hi> (Washington, +1893), pp. 227-229 (<hi rend='italic'>Contributions to +North American Ethnology</hi>, vol. ix.).</note> +</p> + +<pb n='270'/><anchor id='Pg270'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Ritual +of mimic +death +among the +Indians +of Nootka +Sound.</note> +A ceremony witnessed by the castaway John R. Jewitt +during his captivity among the Indians of Nootka Sound doubtless +belongs to this class of customs. The Indian king or chief +<q>discharged a pistol close to his son's ear, who immediately fell +down as if killed, upon which all the women of the house set +up a most lamentable cry, tearing handfuls of hair from their +heads, and exclaiming that the prince was dead; at the +same time a great number of the inhabitants rushed into the +house armed with their daggers, muskets, etc., enquiring the +cause of their outcry. These were immediately followed by +two others dressed in wolf skins, with masks over their faces +representing the head of that animal. The latter came in +on their hands and feet in the manner of a beast, and taking +up the prince, carried him off upon their backs, retiring +in the same manner they entered.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Narrative of the Adventures and +Sufferings of John R. Jewitt</hi> (Middletown, +1820), p. 119.</note> In another place +Jewitt mentions that the young prince—a lad of about +eleven years of age—wore a mask in imitation of a wolf's +head.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Id.</hi>, p. 44. For the age of the +prince, see <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, p. 35.</note> Now, as the Indians of this part of America are +divided into totem clans, of which the Wolf clan is one of +the principal, and as the members of each clan are in the +habit of wearing some portion of the totem animal about +their person,<note place='foot'>H. J. Holmberg, <q>Ueber die +Völker des russischen Amerika,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Acta +Societatis Scientiarum Fennicae</hi>, iv. +(Helsingfors, 1856) pp. 292 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 328; +Ivan Petroff, <hi rend='italic'>Report on the Population, +Industries and Resources of Alaska</hi>, +pp. 165 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. Krause, <hi rend='italic'>Die Tlinkit-Indianer</hi> +(Jena, 1885), p. 112; R. C. +Mayne, <hi rend='italic'>Four Years in British Columbia +and Vancouver Island</hi> (London, +1862), pp. 257 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 268; <hi rend='italic'>Totemism +and Exogamy</hi>, iii. 264 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> it is probable that the prince belonged to the +Wolf clan, and that the ceremony described by Jewitt represented +the killing of the lad in order that he might be born +anew as a wolf, much in the same way that the Basque +hunter supposed himself to have been killed and to have +come to life again as a bear. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Rite of +death and +resurrection +at +initiation +into the +Nootka +society of +human +wolves. +Novice +brought +back by an +artificial +totemic +animal +among the +Niska +Indians.</note> +This conjectural explanation of the ceremony has, since +it was first put forward, been confirmed by the researches of +Dr. Franz Boas among these Indians; though it would seem +<pb n='271'/><anchor id='Pg271'/> +that the community to which the chief's son thus obtained +admission was not so much a totem clan as a secret society +called Tlokoala, whose members imitated wolves. The +name Tlokoala is a foreign word among the Nootka Indians, +having been borrowed by them from the Kwakiutl Indians, +in whose language the word means the finding of a <foreign rend='italic'>manitoo</foreign> +or personal totem. The Nootka tradition runs that this +secret society was instituted by wolves who took away a +chief's son and tried to kill him, but, failing to do so, became +his friends, taught him the rites of the society, and ordered +him to teach them to his friends on his return home. Then +they carried the young man back to his village. They also +begged that whenever he moved from one place to another +he would kindly leave behind him some red cedar-bark to be +used by them in their own ceremonies; and to this custom +the Nootka tribes still adhere. Every new member of the +society must be initiated by the wolves. At night a pack +of wolves, personated by Indians dressed in wolf-skins and +wearing wolf-masks, make their appearance, seize the novice, +and carry him into the woods. When the wolves are heard +outside the village, coming to fetch away the novice, all the +members of the society blacken their faces and sing, <q>Among +all the tribes is great excitement, because I am Tlokoala.</q> +Next day the wolves bring back the novice dead, and the +members of the society have to revive him. The wolves are +supposed to have put a magic stone into his body, which +must be removed before he can come to life. Till this is +done the pretended corpse is left lying outside the house. +Two wizards go and remove the stone, which appears to be +quartz, and then the novice is resuscitated.<note place='foot'>Fr. Boas, in <hi rend='italic'>Sixth Report on the +North-Western Tribes of Canada</hi>, pp. +47 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> (separate reprint from the <hi rend='italic'>Report +of the British Association</hi>, Leeds +meeting, 1890); <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>The Social +Organization and the Secret Societies +of the Kwakiutl Indians,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Report of the +United States National Museum for +1895</hi>; (Washington, 1897), pp. 632 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +But while the initiation described in the +text was into a wolf society, not into a +wolf clan, it is to be observed that the +wolf is one of the regular totems of the +Nootka Indians. See Fr. Boas, in +<hi rend='italic'>Sixth Report on the North-Western +Tribes of Canada</hi>, p. 32.</note> Among the +Niska Indians of British Columbia, who are divided into four +principal clans with the raven, the wolf, the eagle, and the bear +for their respective totems, the novice at initiation is always +brought back by an artificial totem animal. Thus when a +<pb n='272'/><anchor id='Pg272'/> +man was about to be initiated into a secret society called +Olala, his friends drew their knives and pretended to kill +him. In reality they let him slip away, while they cut off the +head of a dummy which had been adroitly substituted for him. +Then they laid the decapitated dummy down and covered it +over, and the women began to mourn and wail. His relations +gave a funeral banquet and solemnly burnt the effigy. +In short, they held a regular funeral. For a whole year the +novice remained absent and was seen by none but members +of the secret society. But at the end of that time he came +back alive, carried by an artificial animal which represented +his totem.<note place='foot'>Fr. Boas, in <hi rend='italic'>Tenth Report on the +North-Western Tribes of Canada</hi>, pp. +49 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 58 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> (separate reprint from +the <hi rend='italic'>Report of the British Association</hi>, +Ipswich meeting, 1895). It is remarkable, +however, that in this tribe persons +who are being initiated into the secret +societies, of which there are six, are +not always or even generally brought +back by an artificial animal which represents +their own totem. Thus while men +of the eagle totem are brought back by +an eagle which rises from underground, +men of the bear clan return on the +back of an artificial killer-whale which +is towed across the river by ropes. +Again, members of the wolf clan are +brought back by an artificial bear, and +members of the raven clan by a frog. +In former times the appearance of the +artificial totem animal, or of the guardian +spirit, was considered a matter of +great importance, and any failure which +disclosed the deception to the uninitiated +was deemed a grave misfortune +which could only be atoned for by the +death of the persons concerned in the +disclosure.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>In these +initiatory +rites the +novice +seems to be +killed as a +man and +restored to +life as an +animal.</note> +In these ceremonies the essence of the rite appears +to be the killing of the novice in his character of a man +and his restoration to life in the form of the animal which +is thenceforward to be, if not his guardian spirit, at least +linked to him in a peculiarly intimate relation. It is to +be remembered that the Indians of Guatemala, whose life +was bound up with an animal, were supposed to have the +power of appearing in the shape of the particular creature +with which they were thus sympathetically united.<note place='foot'>See above, p. <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>.</note> Hence +it seems not unreasonable to conjecture that in like manner +the Indians of British Columbia may imagine that their life +depends on the life of some one of that species of creature to +which they assimilate themselves by their costume. At least +if that is not an article of belief with the Columbian Indians +of the present day, it may very well have been so with their +ancestors in the past, and thus may have helped to mould +the rites and ceremonies both of the totem clans and of the +<pb n='273'/><anchor id='Pg273'/> +secret societies. For though these two sorts of communities +differ in respect of the mode in which membership of them +is obtained—a man being born into his totem clan but +admitted into a secret society later in life—we can hardly +doubt that they are near akin and have their root in the +same mode of thought.<note place='foot'>This is the opinion of Dr. F. Boas, +who writes: <q>The close similarity between +the clan legends and those of +the acquisition of spirits presiding over +secret societies, as well as the intimate +relation between these and the social +organizations of the tribes, allow us to +apply the same argument to the consideration +of the growth of the secret +societies, and lead us to the conclusion +that the same psychical factor that +molded the clans into their present shape +molded the secret societies</q> (<q>The +Social Organization and the Secret +Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Report of the United States National +Museum for 1895</hi>, p. 662). Dr. Boas +would see in the acquisition of a <foreign rend='italic'>manitoo</foreign> +or personal totem the origin both +of the secret societies and of the totem +clans; for according to him the totem +of the clan is merely the <foreign rend='italic'>manitoo</foreign> or +personal totem of the ancestor transmitted +by inheritance to his descendants. +As to personal totems or guardian +spirits (<foreign rend='italic'>manitoos</foreign>) among the North +American Indians, see <hi rend='italic'>Totemism and +Exogamy</hi>, iii. 370 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; as to their +secret societies, see <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, iii. 457 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; +as to the theory that clan totems originated +in personal or individual totems, +see <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, iv. 48 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> That thought, if I am right, is +the possibility of establishing a sympathetic relation with +an animal, a spirit, or other mighty being, with whom a +man deposits for safe-keeping his soul or some part of +it, and from whom he receives in return a gift of magical +powers. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Honorific +totems +among the +Carrier +Indians. Initiatory +rites at the +adoption of +a honorific +totem. +Simulated +transformation +of a +novice into +a bear. Pretence of +death and +resurrection +at +initiation.</note> +The Carrier Indians, who dwell further inland than the +tribes we have just been considering, are divided into four +clans with the grouse, the beaver, the toad, and the grizzly +bear for their totems. But in addition to these clan totems +the tribe recognized a considerable number of what Father +Morice calls honorific totems, which could be acquired, +through the performance of certain rites, by any person who +wished to improve his social position. Each totem clan had +a certain number of honorific totems or crests, and these +might be assumed by any member of the clan who fulfilled +the required conditions; but they could not be acquired by +members of another clan. Thus the Grouse clan had for its +honorific totems or crests the owl, the moose, the weasel, +the crane, the wolf, the full moon, the wind, and so on; the +Toad clan had the sturgeon, the porcupine, the wolverine, +the red-headed woodpecker, the <q>darding knife,</q> and so +forth; the Beaver clan had the mountain-goat for one of its +<pb n='274'/><anchor id='Pg274'/> +honorific totems; and the goose was a honorific totem of +the Grizzly Bear clan. But the common bear, as a honorific +totem or crest, might be assumed by anybody, whatever his +clan. The common possession of a honorific totem appears +to have constituted the same sort of bond among the Carrier +Indians as the membership of a secret society does among +the coast tribes of British Columbia; certainly the rites of +initiation were similar. This will be clear from Father +Morice's account of the performances, which I will subjoin in +his own words. <q>The connection of the individual with his +crest appeared more especially during ceremonial dances, +when the former, attired, if possible, with the spoils of the +latter, was wont to personate it in the gaze of an admiring +assemblage. On all such occasions, man and totem were +also called by the same name. The adoption of any such +'rite' or crest was usually accompanied by initiatory ceremonies +or observances corresponding to the nature of the +crest, followed in all cases by a distribution of clothes to all +present. Thus whenever anybody resolved upon getting +received as <foreign rend='italic'>Lulem</foreign> or Bear, he would, regardless of the +season, divest himself of all his wearing apparel and don a +bear-skin, whereupon he would dash into the woods there +to remain for the space of three or four days and nights in +deference to the wonts of his intended totem animal. Every +night a party of his fellow-villagers would sally out in search +of the missing <q>bear.</q> To their loud calls: <foreign rend='italic'>Yi! Kelulem</foreign> +(Come on, Bear!) he would answer by angry growls in +imitation of the bear. The searching party making for the +spot where he had been heard, would find by a second call +followed by a similar answer that he had dexterously shifted +to some opposite quarter in the forest. As a rule, he could +not be found, but had to come back of himself, when he was +speedily apprehended and conducted to the ceremonial lodge, +where he would commence his first bear-dance in conjunction +with all the other totem people, each of whom would then personate +his own particular totem. Finally would take place +the <foreign rend='italic'>potlatch</foreign> [distribution of property] of the newly initiated +<q>bear,</q> who would not forget to present his captor with at least +a whole dressed skin. The initiation to the <q>Darding Knife</q> +was quite a theatrical performance. A lance was prepared +<pb n='275'/><anchor id='Pg275'/> +which had a very sharp point so arranged that the slightest +pressure on its tip would cause the steel to gradually sink +into the shaft. In the sight of the multitude crowding the +lodge, this lance was pressed on the bare chest of the +candidate and apparently sunk in his body to the shaft, +when he would tumble down simulating death. At the +same time a quantity of blood—previously kept in the +mouth—would issue from the would-be corpse, making it +quite clear to the uninitiated gazers-on that the terrible +knife had had its effect, when lo! upon one of the actors +striking up one of the chants specially made for the circumstance +and richly paid for, the candidate would gradually +rise up a new man, the particular <foreign rend='italic'>protégé</foreign> of the <q>Darding +Knife.</q></q><note place='foot'>A. G. Morice, <q>Notes, archaeological, +industrial, and sociological, on +the Western Dénés,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Transactions of +the Canadian Institute</hi>, iv. (1892-93) +pp. 203-206. The honorific totems +of the Carrier Indians may perhaps +correspond in some measure to the +sub-totems or multiplex totems of the +Australians. As to these latter see +<hi rend='italic'>Totemism and Exogamy</hi>, i. 78 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, +133 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Significance +of +these +initiatory +rites. +Supposed +invulnerability +of +men who +have +weapons +for their +guardian +spirits.</note> +In the former of these two initiatory rites of the Carrier +Indians the prominent feature is the transformation of the +man into his totem animal; in the latter it is his death and +resurrection. But in substance, probably, both are identical. +In both the novice dies as a man and revives as his totem, +whether that be a bear, a <q>darding</q> knife, or what not; in +other words, he has deposited his life or some portion of it in +his totem, with which accordingly for the future he is more +or less completely identified. Hard as it may be for us to +conceive why a man should choose to identify himself with a +knife, whether <q>darding</q> or otherwise, we have to remember +that in Celebes it is to a chopping-knife or other iron tool +that the soul of a woman in labour is transferred for safety;<note place='foot'>See above, pp. <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +and the difference between a chopping-knife and a <q>darding</q> +knife, considered as a receptacle for a human soul, is perhaps +not very material. Among the Thompson Indians of +British Columbia warriors who had a knife, an arrow, or +any other weapon for their personal totem or guardian +spirit, enjoyed this signal advantage over their fellows that +they were for all practical purposes invulnerable. If an +arrow did hit them, which seldom happened, they vomited +<pb n='276'/><anchor id='Pg276'/> +the blood up, and the hurt soon healed. Hence these +arrow-proof warriors rarely wore armour, which would indeed +have been superfluous, and they generally took the +most dangerous posts in battle. So convinced were the +Thompson Indians of the power of their personal totem +or guardian spirit to bring them back to life, that some +of them killed themselves in the sure hope that the spirit +would immediately raise them up from the dead. Others, +more prudently, experimented on their friends, shooting +them dead and then awaiting more or less cheerfully their +joyful resurrection. We are not told that success crowned +these experimental demonstrations of the immortality of the +soul.<note place='foot'>James Teit, <hi rend='italic'>The Thompson Indians +of British Columbia</hi>, p. 357 (<hi rend='italic'>The Jesup +North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of +the American Museum of Natural +History</hi>, April, 1900). Among the +Shuswap of British Columbia, when a +young man has obtained his personal +totem or guardian spirit, he is supposed +to become proof against bullets +and arrows (Fr. Boas, in <hi rend='italic'>Sixth Report +of the Committee on the North-Western +Tribes of Canada</hi>, p. 93, separate reprint +from the <hi rend='italic'>Report of the British +Association</hi>, Leeds meeting, 1890).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Initiatory +rite of the +Toukaway +Indians.</note> +The Toukaway Indians of Texas, one of whose totems +is the wolf, have a ceremony in which men, dressed in wolf-skins, +run about on all fours, howling and mimicking wolves. +At last they scratch up a living tribesman, who has been +buried on purpose, and putting a bow and arrows in his +hands, bid him do as the wolves do—rob, kill, and murder.<note place='foot'>H. R. Schoolcraft, <hi rend='italic'>Indian Tribes +of the United States</hi> (Philadelphia, +1853-1856), v. 683. In a letter dated +16th Dec. 1887, Mr. A. S. Gatschet, +formerly of the Bureau of Ethnology, +Washington, wrote to me: <q>Among +the Toukawe whom in 1884 I found at +Fort Griffin [?], Texas, I noticed that +they never kill the big or grey wolf, +<foreign rend='italic'>hatchukunän</foreign>, which has a mythological +signification, <q>holding the earth</q> +(<foreign rend='italic'>hatch</foreign>). He forms one of their totem +clans, and they have had a dance in his +honor, danced by the males only, who +carried sticks.</q></note> +The ceremony probably forms part of an initiatory rite like +the resurrection from the grave of the old man in the +Australian rites. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Traces of +the rite of +death and +resurrection +among +more +advanced +peoples.</note> +The simulation of death and resurrection or of a new +birth at initiation appears to have lingered on, or at least to +have left traces of itself, among peoples who have advanced +far beyond the stage of savagery. Thus, after his investiture +with the sacred thread—the symbol of his order—a Brahman +is called <q>twice born.</q> Manu says, <q>According to +the injunction of the revealed texts the first birth of an +<pb n='277'/><anchor id='Pg277'/> +Aryan is from his natural mother, the second happens on +the tying of the girdle of Muñga grass, and the third on the +initiation to the performance to a Srauta sacrifice.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Laws of Manu</hi>, ii. 169, +translated by G. Bühler (Oxford, 1886), +p. 61 (<hi rend='italic'>The Sacred Books of the East</hi>, +vol. xxv.); J. A. Dubois, <hi rend='italic'>Mœurs, Institutions +et Cérémonies des Peuples de +l'Inde</hi> (Paris, 1825), i. 125; Monier +Williams, <hi rend='italic'>Religious Thought and Life +in India</hi> (London, 1883), pp. 360 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +396 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; H. Oldenberg, <hi rend='italic'>Die Religion +des Veda</hi> (Berlin, 1894), pp. 466 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> A +pretence of killing the candidate perhaps formed part of the +initiation to the Mithraic mysteries.<note place='foot'>Lampridius, <hi rend='italic'>Commodus</hi>, 9; C. W. +King, <hi rend='italic'>The Gnostics and their Remains</hi>, +Second Edition (London, 1887), pp. +127, 129. Compare Fr. Cumont, +<hi rend='italic'>Textes et Monuments figurés relatifs +aux mystères de Mithra</hi>, i. (Brussels, +1899) pp. 69 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 321 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; E. Rohde, +<hi rend='italic'>Psyche</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi> (Tübingen and Leipsic, 1903), +ii. 400 n. 1; A. Dieterich, <hi rend='italic'>Eine Mithrasliturgie</hi> +(Leipsic, 1903), pp. 91, +157 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +motive for +attempting +to deposit +the soul +in a safe +place outside +of +the body +at puberty +may have +been a +fear of the +dangers +which, +according +to primitive +notions, +attend the +union of +the sexes.</note> +Thus, on the theory here suggested, wherever totemism is +found, and wherever a pretence is made of killing and bringing +to life again the novice at initiation, there may exist or +have existed not only a belief in the possibility of permanently +depositing the soul in some external object—animal, plant, +or what not—but an actual intention of so doing. If the +question is put, why do men desire to deposit their life outside +their bodies? the answer can only be that, like the +giant in the fairy tale, they think it safer to do so than to +carry it about with them, just as people deposit their money +with a banker rather than carry it on their persons. We +have seen that at critical periods the life or soul is sometimes +temporarily stowed away in a safe place till the +danger is past. But institutions like totemism are not +resorted to merely on special occasions of danger; they are +systems into which every one, or at least every male, is +obliged to be initiated at a certain period of life. Now the +period of life at which initiation takes place is regularly +puberty; and this fact suggests that the special danger +which totemism and systems like it are intended to obviate +is supposed not to arise till sexual maturity has been attained, +in fact, that the danger apprehended is believed to attend +the relation of the sexes to each other. It would be easy +to prove by a long array of facts that the sexual relation is +associated in the primitive mind with many serious perils; +but the exact nature of the danger apprehended is still +<pb n='278'/><anchor id='Pg278'/> +obscure. We may hope that a more exact acquaintance +with savage modes of thought will in time disclose this +central mystery of primitive society, and will thereby furnish +the clue, not only to totemism, but to the origin of the +marriage system. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='279'/><anchor id='Pg279'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter XII. The Golden Bough.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Balder's +life or +death in the +mistletoe.</note> +Thus the view that Balder's life was in the mistletoe is +entirely in harmony with primitive modes of thought. It +may indeed sound like a contradiction that, if his life was in +the mistletoe, he should nevertheless have been killed by a +blow from the plant. But when a person's life is conceived +as embodied in a particular object, with the existence of +which his own existence is inseparably bound up, and the +destruction of which involves his own, the object in question +may be regarded and spoken of indifferently as his life +or his death, as happens in the fairy tales. Hence if a +man's death is in an object, it is perfectly natural that he +should be killed by a blow from it. In the fairy tales +Koshchei the Deathless is killed by a blow from the egg or +the stone in which his life or death is secreted;<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>; compare pp. <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>, +<ref target='Pg120'>120</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>.</note> the ogres +burst when a certain grain of sand—doubtless containing their +life or death—is carried over their heads;<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>.</note> the magician +dies when the stone in which his life or death is contained +is put under his pillow;<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref>.</note> and the Tartar hero is warned +that he may be killed by the golden arrow or golden sword +in which his soul has been stowed away.<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>. In the myth the +throwing of the weapons and of the +mistletoe at Balder and the blindness +of Hother who slew him remind us of +the custom of the Irish reapers who +kill the corn-spirit in the last sheaf by +throwing their sickles blindfold at it. +See <hi rend='italic'>Spirits of the Corn and of the +Wild</hi>, i. 144. In Mecklenburg a cock +is sometimes buried in the ground and +a man who is blindfolded strikes at it +with a flail. If he misses it, another +tries, and so on till the cock is killed. +See K. Bartsch, <hi rend='italic'>Sagen, Märchen und +Gebräuche aus Mecklenburg</hi> (Vienna, +1879-1880), ii. 280. In England on +Shrove Tuesday a hen used to be tied +upon a man's back, and other men blindfolded struck at it with branches till they +killed it. See T. F. Thiselton Dyer, +<hi rend='italic'>British Popular Customs</hi> (London, +1876), p. 68. W. Mannhardt (<hi rend='italic'>Die +Korndämonen</hi>, Berlin, 1868, pp. 16 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>) +has made it probable that such sports are +directly derived from the custom of killing +a cock upon the harvest-field as a +representative of the corn-spirit. See +<hi rend='italic'>Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild</hi>, i. +277 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> These customs, therefore, combined +with the blindness of Hother in the +myth, suggest that the man who killed +the human representative of the oak-spirit +was blindfolded, and threw his +weapon or the mistletoe from a little +distance. After the Lapps had killed +a bear—which was the occasion of +many superstitious ceremonies—the +bear's skin was hung on a post, and +the women, blindfolded, shot arrows at +it. See J. Scheffer, <hi rend='italic'>Lapponia</hi> (Frankfort, +1673), p. 240.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='280'/><anchor id='Pg280'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The view +that the +mistletoe +contained +the life of +the oak +may have +been suggested +by +the position +of the +parasite +among the +boughs. +Indian +parallel to +Balder +and the +mistletoe.</note> +The idea that the life of the oak was in the mistletoe +was probably suggested, as I have said, by the observation +that in winter the mistletoe growing on the oak remains +green while the oak itself is leafless. But the position of +the plant—growing not from the ground but from the trunk +or branches of the tree—might confirm this idea. Primitive +man might think that, like himself, the oak-spirit had sought +to deposit his life in some safe place, and for this purpose +had pitched on the mistletoe, which, being in a sense neither +on earth nor in heaven, might be supposed to be fairly out +of harm's way. In the first chapter we saw that primitive +man seeks to preserve the life of his human divinities by +keeping them poised between earth and heaven, as the +place where they are least likely to be assailed by the +dangers that encompass the life of man on earth. We +can therefore understand why it has been a rule both of +ancient and of modern folk-medicine that the mistletoe +should not be allowed to touch the ground; were it to +touch the ground, its healing virtue would be gone.<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xxiv. 12; J. +Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> ii. 1010. +Compare below, p. <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>.</note> This +may be a survival of the old superstition that the plant in +which the life of the sacred tree was concentrated should +not be exposed to the risk incurred by contact with the +earth. In an Indian legend, which offers a parallel to the +Balder myth, Indra swore to the demon Namuci that he +would slay him neither by day nor by night, neither with +staff nor with bow, neither with the palm of the hand nor +with the fist, neither with the wet nor with the dry. But +he killed him in the morning twilight by sprinkling over +him the foam of the sea.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Satapatha Brahmana</hi>, xii. 7. +3. 1-3, translated by J. Eggeling, +Part v. (Oxford, 1900) pp. 222 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +(<hi rend='italic'>The Sacred Books of the East</hi>, vol. +xliv.); Denham Rouse, in <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore +Journal</hi>, vii. (1889) p. 61, quoting +<hi rend='italic'>Taittīrya Brāhmana</hi>, I. vii. 1.</note> The foam of the sea is just such +<pb n='281'/><anchor id='Pg281'/> +an object as a savage might choose to put his life in, because +it occupies that sort of intermediate or nondescript position +between earth and sky or sea and sky in which primitive +man sees safety. It is therefore not surprising that the +foam of the river should be the totem of a clan in India.<note place='foot'>Col. E. T. Dalton, <q>The Kols of +Chota-Nagpore,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Transactions of the +Ethnological Society</hi>, N.S. vi. (1868) +p. 36.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Analogous +superstitions +attaching +to a parasitic +rowan.</note> +Again, the view that the mistletoe owes its mystic character +partly to its not growing on the ground is confirmed by +a parallel superstition about the mountain-ash or rowan-tree. +In Jutland a rowan that is found growing out of the top +of another tree is esteemed <q>exceedingly effective against +witchcraft: since it does not grow on the ground witches +have no power over it; if it is to have its full effect it must +be cut on Ascension Day.</q><note place='foot'>Jens Kamp, <hi rend='italic'>Danske Folkeminder</hi> +(Odense, 1877), pp. 172, 65 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, referred +to in Feilberg's <hi rend='italic'>Bidrag til en +Ordbog over Jyske Almuesmål</hi>, Fjerde +hefte (Copenhagen, 1888), p. 320. +For a sight of Feilberg's work I am +indebted to the kindness of the late +Rev. Walter Gregor, M.A., of Pitsligo, +who pointed out the passage to me.</note> Hence it is placed over doors +to prevent the ingress of witches.<note place='foot'>E. T. Kristensen, <hi rend='italic'>Iydske Folkeminder</hi>, +vi. 380, referred to by +Feilberg, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi> According to Marcellus +(<hi rend='italic'>De Medicamentis</hi>, xxvi. 115), ivy +which springs from an oak is a remedy +for stone, provided it be cut with a +copper instrument.</note> In Sweden and Norway, +also, magical properties are ascribed to a <q>flying-rowan</q> +(<foreign rend='italic'>flögrönn</foreign>), that is to a rowan which is found growing not in the +ordinary fashion on the ground but on another tree, or on a +roof, or in a cleft of the rock, where it has sprouted from seed +scattered by birds. They say that a man who is out in the +dark should have a bit of <q>flying-rowan</q> with him to chew; +else he runs a risk of being bewitched and of being unable +to stir from the spot.<note place='foot'>A. Kuhn, <hi rend='italic'>Die Herabkunft des +Feuers und des Göttertranks</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Gütersloh, +1886), pp. 175 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, quoting +Dybeck's <hi rend='italic'>Runa</hi>, 1845, pp. 62 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> A Norwegian story relates how +once on a time a Troll so bewitched some men who were +ploughing in a field that they could not drive a straight +furrow; only one of the ploughmen was able to resist the +enchantment because by good luck his plough was made +out of a <q>flying-rowan.</q><note place='foot'>A. Kuhn, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 176.</note> In Sweden, too, the <q>flying-rowan</q> +is used to make the divining rod, which discovers +hidden treasures. This useful art has nowadays unfortunately +<pb n='282'/><anchor id='Pg282'/> +been almost forgotten, but three hundred years ago +it was in full bloom, as we gather from the following contemporary +account. <q>If in the woods or elsewhere, on old +walls or on high mountains or rocks you perceive a rowan-tree +(<foreign lang='sv' rend='italic'>runn</foreign>) which has sprung from a seed that a bird has +dropped from its bill, you must either knock or break off +that rod or tree in the twilight between the third day and +the night after Ladyday. But you must take care that +neither iron nor steel touches it and that in carrying it +home you do not let it fall on the ground. Then place it +under the roof on a spot under which you have laid various +metals, and you will soon be surprised to see how that rod +under the roof gradually bends in the direction of the metals. +When your rod has sat there in the same spot for fourteen +days or more, you take a knife or an awl, which has been +stroked with a magnet, and with it you slit the bark on all +sides, and pour or drop the blood of a cock (best of all the +blood from the comb of a cock which is all of one colour) on +the said slits in the bark; and when the blood has dried, +the rod is ready and will give public proof of the efficacy of +its marvellous properties.</q><note place='foot'>Quoted by A. Kuhn, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. +180 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> In Zimbales, a province of the +Philippine Islands, <q>a certain parasitic +plant that much resembles yellow moss +and grows high up on trees is regarded +as a very powerful charm. It is called +<foreign rend='italic'>gay-u-ma</foreign>, and a man who possesses +it is called <foreign rend='italic'>nanara gayuma</foreign>. If his +eyes rest on a person during the new +moon he will become sick at the +stomach, but he can cure the sickness +by laying hands on the afflicted part.</q> +See W. A. Reed, <hi rend='italic'>Negritos of Zambales</hi> +(Manilla, 1904), p. 67 (<hi rend='italic'>Department of +the Interior, Ethnological Survey Publications</hi>, +vol. ii. part i.). Mr. Reed +seems to mean that if a man who possesses +this parasitic plant sees a person at the +new moon, the person on whom his +eye falls will be sick in his stomach, +but that the owner of the parasite +can cure the sufferer by laying his (the +owner's) hands on his (the patient's) +stomach. It is interesting to observe +that the magical virtue of the parasitic +plant appears to be especially effective +at the new moon.</note> Just as in Scandinavia the +parasitic rowan is deemed a countercharm to sorcery, so in +Germany the parasitic mistletoe is still commonly considered +a protection against witchcraft, and in Sweden, as +we saw, the mistletoe which is gathered on Midsummer Eve +is attached to the ceiling of the house, the horse's stall or +the cow's crib, in the belief that this renders the Troll powerless +to injure man or beast.<note place='foot'>A. Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>Der deutsche Volksaberglaube</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Berlin, 1869), p. 97 § +128; L. Lloyd, <hi rend='italic'>Peasant Life in +Sweden</hi> (London, 1870), p. 269. See +above, p. <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='283'/><anchor id='Pg283'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The fate of +the Hays +believed to +be bound +up with the +mistletoe +on Errol's +oak.</note> +The view that the mistletoe was not merely the instrument +of Balder's death, but that it contained his life, is +countenanced by the analogy of a Scottish superstition. +Tradition ran that the fate of the Hays of Errol, an estate +in Perthshire, near the Firth of Tay, was bound up with the +mistletoe that grew on a certain great oak. A member of +the Hay family has recorded the old belief as follows: +<q>Among the low country families the badges are now +almost generally forgotten; but it appears by an ancient +MS. and the tradition of a few old people in Perthshire, +that the badge of the Hays was the mistletoe. There was +formerly in the neighbourhood of Errol, and not far from +the Falcon stone, a vast oak of an unknown age, and upon +which grew a profusion of the plant: many charms and +legends were considered to be connected with the tree, and +the duration of the family of Hay was said to be united with +its existence. It was believed that a sprig of the mistletoe cut +by a Hay on Allhallowmas eve, with a new dirk, and after +surrounding the tree three times sunwise, and pronouncing +a certain spell, was a sure charm against all glamour or +witchery, and an infallible guard in the day of battle. A +spray gathered in the same manner was placed in the cradle +of infants, and thought to defend them from being changed +for elf-bairns by the fairies. Finally, it was affirmed, that +when the root of the oak had perished, <q>the grass should +grow in the hearth of Errol, and a raven should sit in the +falcon's nest.</q> The two most unlucky deeds which could be +done by one of the name of Hay were, to kill a white falcon, +and to cut down a limb from the oak of Errol. When the +old tree was destroyed I could never learn. The estate has +been some time sold out of the family of Hay, and of course +it is said that the fatal oak was cut down a short time +before.</q><note place='foot'>John Hay Allan, <hi rend='italic'>The Bridal of Caölchairn</hi> (London, 1822), pp. 337 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The old superstition is recorded in verses which +are traditionally ascribed to Thomas the Rhymer:— +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<lg> +<l><q rend='pre'><hi rend='italic'>While the mistletoe bats on Errol's aik,</hi></q></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>And that aik stands fast,</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>The Hays shall flourish, and their good grey hawk</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>Shall nocht flinch before the blast.</hi></l> +<pb n='284'/><anchor id='Pg284'/> +<l><hi rend='italic'>But when the root of the aik decays,</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>And the mistletoe dwines on its withered breast,</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>The grass shall grow on Errol's hearthstane,</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q rend='post'><hi rend='italic'>And the corbie roup in the falcon's nest.</hi></q><note place='foot'>Rev. John B. Pratt, <hi rend='italic'>Buchan</hi>, +Second Edition (Aberdeen, Edinburgh, +and London, 1859), p. 342. <q><hi rend='italic'>The +corbie roup</hi></q> means <q>the raven croak.</q> +In former editions of this work my +only source of information as to the +mistletoe and oak of the Hays was an +extract from a newspaper which was +kindly copied and sent to me, without +the name of the newspaper, by the late +Rev. Walter Gregor, M.A., of Pitsligo. +For my acquaintance with the works of +J. H. Allan and J. B. Pratt I am +indebted to the researches of my +learned friend Mr. A. B. Cook, who +has already quoted them in his article +<q>The European Sky-God,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, +xvii. (1906) pp. 318 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note></l> +</lg> +</quote> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +life of the +Lachlins +and the +deer of +Finchra.</note> +The idea that the fate of a family, as distinct from the +lives of its members, is bound up with a particular plant or +tree, is no doubt comparatively modern. The older view +may have been that the lives of all the Hays were in this +particular mistletoe, just as in the Indian story the lives of +all the ogres are in a lemon; to break a twig of the mistletoe +would then have been to kill one of the Hays. Similarly in +the island of Rum, whose bold mountains the voyager from +Oban to Skye observes to seaward, it was thought that if one +of the family of Lachlin shot a deer on the mountain of +Finchra, he would die suddenly or contract a distemper which +would soon prove fatal.<note place='foot'>M. Martin, <q>Description of the +Western Islands of Scotland,</q> in J. +Pinkerton's <hi rend='italic'>Voyages and Travels</hi> (London, +1808-1814), iii. 661.</note> Probably the life of the Lachlins +was bound up with the deer on Finchra, as the life of the +Hays was bound up with the mistletoe on Errol's oak, and +the life of the Dalhousie family with the Edgewell Tree. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +Golden +Bough +seems to +have been +a glorified +mistletoe.</note> +It is not a new opinion that the Golden Bough was the +mistletoe.<note place='foot'>See James Sowerby, <hi rend='italic'>English +Botany</hi>, xxi. (London, 1805), p. 1470: +<q>The Misseltoe is celebrated in story +as the sacred plant of the Druids, and +the Golden Bough of Virgil, which +was Aeneas's passport to the infernal +regions.</q> Again, the author of the +<hi rend='italic'>Lexicon Mythologicum</hi> concludes, <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>cum +Jonghio nostro</foreign>,</q> that the Golden Bough +<q>was nothing but the mistletoe glorified +by poetical license.</q> See <hi rend='italic'>Edda +Rhythmica seu Antiquior, vulgo Saemundina +dicta</hi>, iii. (Copenhagen, +1828) p. 513 note. C. L. Rochholz +expresses the same opinion +(<hi rend='italic'>Deutscher Glaube und Brauch</hi>, Berlin, +1867, i. 9). The subject is discussed +at length by E. Norden, <hi rend='italic'>P. Vergilius +Maro, Aeneis Buch VI.</hi> (Leipsic, 1903) +pp. 161-171, who, however, does not +even mention the general or popular view +(<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>publica opinio</foreign>) current in the time of +Servius, that the Golden Bough was +the branch which a candidate for the +priesthood of Diana had to pluck in +the sacred grove of Nemi. I confess +I have more respect for the general +opinion of antiquity than to dismiss it +thus cavalierly without a hearing.</note> True, Virgil does not identify but only compares +<pb n='285'/><anchor id='Pg285'/> +it with mistletoe. But this may be only a poetical device to +cast a mystic glamour over the humble plant. Or, more +probably, his description was based on a popular superstition +that at certain times the mistletoe blazed out into a supernatural +golden glory. The poet tells how two doves, guiding +Aeneas to the gloomy vale in whose depth grew the Golden +Bough, alighted upon a tree, <q>whence shone a flickering +gleam of gold. As in the woods in winter cold the mistletoe—a +plant not native to its tree—is green with fresh leaves +and twines its yellow berries about the boles; such seemed +upon the shady holm-oak the leafy gold, so rustled in the +gentle breeze the golden leaf.</q><note place='foot'>Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> vi. 203 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, compare +136 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> See Note IV. <q>The Mistletoe +and the Golden Bough</q> at the end of +this volume.</note> Here Virgil definitely +describes the Golden Bough as growing on a holm-oak, +and compares it with the mistletoe. The inference is almost +inevitable that the Golden Bough was nothing but the +mistletoe seen through the haze of poetry or of popular +superstition. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>If the +Golden +Bough +was the +mistletoe, +the King of +the Wood +at Nemi +may have +personated +an oak +spirit and +perished +in an oak +fire.</note> +Now grounds have been shewn for believing that the +priest of the Arician grove—the King of the Wood—personified +the tree on which grew the Golden Bough.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, i. 40 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, ii. 378 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> Virgil +(<hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> vi. 201 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>) places the Golden +Bough in the neighbourhood of Lake +Avernus. But this was probably a +poetical liberty, adopted for the convenience +of Aeneas's descent to the +infernal world. Italian tradition, as +we learn from Servius (on Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> +vi. 136), placed the Golden Bough in +the grove at Nemi.</note> Hence +if that tree was the oak, the King of the Wood must have +been a personification of the oak-spirit. It is, therefore, +easy to understand why, before he could be slain, it was +necessary to break the Golden Bough. As an oak-spirit, his +life or death was in the mistletoe on the oak, and so long +as the mistletoe remained intact, he, like Balder, could not +die. To slay him, therefore, it was necessary to break the +mistletoe, and probably, as in the case of Balder, to throw it +at him. And to complete the parallel, it is only necessary +to suppose that the King of the Wood was formerly burned, +dead or alive, at the midsummer fire festival which, as we +have seen, was annually celebrated in the Arician grove.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, i. 12.</note> +The perpetual fire which burned in the grove, like the perpetual +<pb n='286'/><anchor id='Pg286'/> +fire which burned in the temple of Vesta at Rome +and under the oak at Romove,<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, ii. 186, 366 note 2.</note> was probably fed with the +sacred oak-wood; and thus it would be in a great fire of oak +that the King of the Wood formerly met his end. At a +later time, as I have suggested, his annual tenure of office +was lengthened or shortened, as the case might be, by the +rule which allowed him to live so long as he could prove his +divine right by the strong hand. But he only escaped the +fire to fall by the sword. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>A similar +tragedy +may have +been +enacted +over the +human +representative +of +Balder in +Norway.</note> +Thus it seems that at a remote age in the heart of Italy, +beside the sweet Lake of Nemi, the same fiery tragedy was +annually enacted which Italian merchants and soldiers were +afterwards to witness among their rude kindred, the Celts of +Gaul, and which, if the Roman eagles had ever swooped on +Norway, might have been found repeated with little difference +among the barbarous Aryans of the North. The rite +was probably an essential feature in the ancient Aryan +worship of the oak.<note place='foot'>A custom of annually burning or +otherwise sacrificing a human representative +of the corn-spirit has been +noted among the Egyptians, Pawnees, +and Khonds. See <hi rend='italic'>Spirits of the Corn +and of the Wild</hi>, i. 238 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 245 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, +259 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> We have seen that in Western +Asia there are strong traces of a practice +of annually burning a human god. See +<hi rend='italic'>Adonis, Attis, Osiris</hi>, Second Edition, +pp. 84 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 98 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 137 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 139 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, +155 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The Druids appear to have +eaten portions of the human victim +(Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xxx. 13). Perhaps +portions of the flesh of the King of the +Wood were eaten by his worshippers +as a sacrament. We have found traces +of the use of sacramental bread at +Nemi. See <hi rend='italic'>Spirits of the Corn and of +the Wild</hi>, ii. 94 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +name of the +Golden +Bough may +have been +applied +to the +mistletoe +on account +of the +golden +tinge which +the plant +assumes in +withering.</note> +It only remains to ask, Why was the mistletoe called +the Golden Bough?<note place='foot'>It has been said that in Welsh a +name for mistletoe is <q>the tree of pure +gold</q> (<foreign lang='cy' rend='italic'>pren puraur</foreign>). See J. Grimm, +<hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> ii. 1009, referring +to Davies. But my friend Sir +John Rhys tells me that the statement +is devoid of foundation.</note> The whitish-yellow of the mistletoe +berries is hardly enough to account for the name, for +Virgil says that the bough was altogether golden, stem +as well as leaves.<note place='foot'><p>Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> vi. 137 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>:— +</p> +<p> +<q><hi rend='italic'>Latet arbore opaca<lb/> +Aureus et foliis et lento vimine ramus.</hi></q> +</p></note> Perhaps the name may be derived +from the rich golden yellow which a bough of mistletoe +assumes when it has been cut and kept for some months; +the bright tint is not confined to the leaves, but spreads +to the stalks as well, so that the whole branch appears +to be indeed a Golden Bough. Breton peasants hang up +<pb n='287'/><anchor id='Pg287'/> +great bunches of mistletoe in front of their cottages, and +in the month of June these bunches are conspicuous for +the bright golden tinge of their foliage.<note place='foot'>This suggestion as to the origin of +the name has been made to me by two +correspondents independently. Miss +Florence Grove, writing to me from +10 Milton Chambers, Cheyne Walk, +London, on May 13th, 1901, tells me +that she regularly hangs up a bough of +mistletoe every year and allows it to +remain till it is replaced by the new +branch next year, and from her observation +<q>the mistletoe is actually a golden +bough when kept a sufficiently long +time.</q> She was kind enough to send +me some twigs of her old bough, which +fully bore out her description. Again, +Mrs. A. Stuart writes to me from +Crear Cottage, Morningside Drive, +Edinburgh, on June 26th, 1901: <q>As +to why the mistletoe might be called +the Golden Bough, my sister Miss Haig +wishes me to tell you that last June, +when she was in Brittany, she saw +great bunches of mistletoe hung up in +front of the houses in the villages. +The leaves were <emph>bright golden</emph>. You +should hang up a branch next Christmas +and keep it till June!</q> The +great hollow oak of Saint-Denis-des-Puits, +in the French province of Perche, +is called <q>the gilded or golden oak</q> +(<foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>Chêne-Doré</foreign>) <q>in memory of the +Druidical tradition of the mistletoe cut +with a golden sickle.</q> See Felix +Chapiseau, <hi rend='italic'>Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et +du Perche</hi> (Paris, 1902), i. 97. Perhaps +the name may be derived from bunches +of withered mistletoe shining like gold +in the sunshine among the branches.</note> In some parts of +Brittany, especially about Morbihan, branches of mistletoe +are hung over the doors of stables and byres to protect the +horses and cattle,<note place='foot'>H. Gaidoz, <q>Bulletin critique de +la Mythologie Gauloise,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Revue de +l'Histoire des Religions</hi>, ii. (Paris, +1880) p. 76.</note> probably against witchcraft. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The yellow +hue of +withered +mistletoe +may partly +explain +why the +plant is +thought to +disclose +yellow gold +in the +earth. +Similarly +fern-seed is +thought to +bloom like +gold or fire +and to reveal +buried +treasures +on Midsummer +Eve. Sometimes +fern-seed is +thought to +bloom on +Christmas +night. +The wicked +weaver of +Rotenburg.</note> +The yellow colour of the withered bough may partly +explain why the mistletoe has been sometimes supposed to +possess the property of disclosing treasures in the earth;<note place='foot'>See below, pp. <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> for +on the principles of homoeopathic magic there is a natural +affinity between a yellow bough and yellow gold. This suggestion +is confirmed by the analogy of the marvellous properties +popularly ascribed to the mythical fern-seed or fern-bloom. +We saw that fern-seed is popularly supposed to bloom +like gold or fire on Midsummer Eve.<note place='foot'>See above, pp. <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Thus in Bohemia it +is said that <q>on St. John's Day fern-seed blooms with golden +blossoms that gleam like fire.</q><note place='foot'>J. V. Grohmann, <hi rend='italic'>Aberglauben und +Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren</hi> +(Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 97, +§ 673.</note> Now it is a property of +this mythical fern-seed that whoever has it, or will ascend a +mountain holding it in his hand on Midsummer Eve, will +discover a vein of gold or will see the treasures of the earth +shining with a bluish flame.<note place='foot'>J. V. Grohmann, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 97, § +676; A. Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>Der deutsche Volksaberglaube</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Berlin, 1869), p. 94, § +123; I. V. Zingerle, <hi rend='italic'>Sitten, Bräuche +und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Innsbruck, 1871), p. 158, § 1350.</note> In Russia they say that if you +<pb n='288'/><anchor id='Pg288'/> +succeed in catching the wondrous bloom of the fern at midnight +on Midsummer Eve, you have only to throw it up into the +air, and it will fall like a star on the very spot where a treasure +lies hidden.<note place='foot'>C. Russwurm, <q>Aberglaube in +Russland,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für deutsche +Mythologie und Sittenkunde</hi>, iv. (1859), +pp. 152 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Angelo de Gubernatis, +<hi rend='italic'>Mythologie des Plantes</hi> (Paris, 1878-1882), +ii. 146.</note> In Brittany treasure-seekers gather fern-seed +at midnight on Midsummer Eve, and keep it till Palm +Sunday of the following year; then they strew the seed on +ground where they think a treasure is concealed.<note place='foot'>P. Sébillot, <hi rend='italic'>Traditions et Superstitions +de la Haute-Bretagne</hi> (Paris, +1882), ii. 336; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Coutumes populaires +de la Haute-Bretagne</hi> (Paris, 1886), p. +217.</note> Tyrolese +peasants imagine that hidden treasures can be seen glowing +like flame on Midsummer Eve, and that fern-seed, gathered +at this mystic season, with the usual precautions, will help to +bring the buried gold to the surface.<note place='foot'>J. E. Waldfreund, <q>Volksgebräuche +und Aberglauben in Tirol und +dem Salzburger Gebirg,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für +deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde</hi>, +iii. (1855), p. 339.</note> In the Swiss canton +of Freiburg people used to watch beside a fern on St. John's +night in the hope of winning a treasure, which the devil +himself sometimes brought to them.<note place='foot'>H. Runge, <q>Volksglaube in der +Schweiz,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für deutsche +Mythologie und Sittenkunde</hi>, iv. (1859), +p. 175.</note> In Bohemia they say +that he who procures the golden bloom of the fern at this +season has thereby the key to all hidden treasures; and that +if maidens will spread a cloth under the fast-fading bloom, +red gold will drop into it.<note place='foot'>O. Frh. von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, +<hi rend='italic'>Fest-Kalendar aus Böhmen</hi> (Prague, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), pp. 311 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare Theodor +Vernaleken, <hi rend='italic'>Mythen und Bräuche des +Volkes in Oesterreich</hi> (Vienna, 1859), +pp. 309 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; M. Töppen, <hi rend='italic'>Aberglauben +aus Masuren</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Danzig, 1867), pp. 72 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Even without the use of fern-seed +treasures are sometimes said to bloom +or burn in the earth, or to reveal their +presence by a bluish flame, on Midsummer +Eve; in Transylvania only +children born on a Sunday can see +them and fetch them up. See J. Haltrich, +<hi rend='italic'>Zur Volkskunde der Siebenbürger +Sachsen</hi> (Vienna, 1885), p. 287; I. V. +Zingerle, <hi rend='italic'>Sitten, Bräuche und Meinungen +des Tiroler Volkes</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Innsbruck, +1871), p. 159, §§ 1351, 1352; K. +Bartsch, <hi rend='italic'>Sagen, Märchen und Gebrauche +aus Mecklenburg</hi> (Vienna, 1879-1880), +ii. 285, § 1431; E. Monseur, <hi rend='italic'>Folklore +Wallon</hi> (Brussels, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), p. 6, § 1789; +K. Haupt, <hi rend='italic'>Sagenbuch der Lausitz</hi> +(Leipsic, 1862-1863), i. 231 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, No. +275; A. Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>Der deutsche Volksaberglaube</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Berlin, 1869), p. 76, § 92; +F. J. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Aus dem inneren +und äusseren Leben der Ehsten</hi> (St. +Petersburg, 1876), p. 363.</note> And in the Tyrol and Bohemia +if you place fern-seed among money, the money will never +decrease, however much of it you spend.<note place='foot'>I. V. Zingerle, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 103, § +882; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, in <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für deutsche +Mythologie und Sittenkunde</hi>, i. (1853), +p. 330; W. Müller, <hi rend='italic'>Beiträge zur Volkskunde +der Deutschen in Mähren</hi> (Vienna +and Olmütz, 1893), p. 265. At Pergine, in the Tyrol, it was thought that +fern-seed gathered with the dew on St. +John's night had the power of transforming +metals (into gold?). See Ch. +Schneller, <hi rend='italic'>Märchen und Sagen aus +Wälschtirol</hi> (Innsbruck, 1867), p. 237, +§ 23.</note> Sometimes the +<pb n='289'/><anchor id='Pg289'/> +fern-seed is supposed to bloom on Christmas night, and +whoever catches it will become very rich.<note place='foot'>I. V. Zingerle, <hi rend='italic'>Sitten, Bräuche +und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> pp. +190 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, § 1573.</note> In Styria they +say that by gathering fern-seed on Christmas night you can +force the devil to bring you a bag of money.<note place='foot'>A. Schlossar, <q>Volksmeinung und +Volksaberglaube aus der deutschen +Steiermark,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Germania</hi>, N.R., xxiv. +(1891) p. 387.</note> In Swabia +likewise you can, by taking the proper precautions, compel +Satan himself to fetch you a packet of fern-seed on Christmas +night. But for four weeks previously, and during the whole +of the Advent season, you must be very careful never to +pray, never to go to church, and never to use holy water; +you must busy yourself all day long with devilish thoughts, +and cherish an ardent wish that the devil would help you to +get money. Thus prepared you take your stand, between +eleven and twelve on Christmas night, at the meeting of two +roads, over both of which corpses have been carried to the +churchyard. Here many people meet you, some of them +dead and buried long ago, it may be your parents or grandparents, +or old friends and acquaintances, and they stop and +greet you, and ask, <q>What are you doing here?</q> And tiny +little goblins hop and dance about and try to make you laugh. +But if you smile or utter a single word, the devil will tear you +to shreds and tatters on the spot. If, however, you stand +glum and silent and solemn, there will come, after all the +ghostly train has passed by, a man dressed as a hunter, and +that is the devil. He will hand you a paper cornet full of +fern-seed, which you must keep and carry about with you as +long as you live. It will give you the power of doing as +much work at your trade in a day as twenty or thirty ordinary +men could do in the same time. So you will grow very +rich. But few people have the courage to go through with +the ordeal. The people of Rotenburg tell of a weaver of +their town, who lived some two hundred and fifty years +ago and performed prodigies of weaving by a simple application +of fern-seed which he had been so fortunate as to obtain, +no doubt from the devil, though that is not expressly alleged +<pb n='290'/><anchor id='Pg290'/> +by tradition. Rich in the possession of this treasure, the lazy +rascal worked only on Saturdays and spent all the rest of +the week playing and drinking; yet in one day he wove +far more cloth than any other skilled weaver who sat at his +loom from morning to night every day of the week. Naturally +he kept his own counsel, and nobody might ever have +known how he did it, if it had not been for what, humanly +speaking, you might call an accident, though for my part I cannot +but regard it as the manifest finger of Providence. One +day—it was the octave of a festival—the fellow had woven +a web no less than a hundred ells long, and his mistress +resolved to deliver it to her customer the same evening. So +she put the cloth in a basket and away she trudged with it. +Her way led her past a church, and as she passed the +sacred edifice, she heard the tinkle of the holy bell which +announced the elevation of the Host. Being a good woman +she put her basket down, knelt beside it, and there, with the +shadows gathering round her, committed herself to the care +of God and his good angels and received, along with the +kneeling congregation in the lighted church, the evening +benediction, which kept her and them from all the perils and +dangers of the night. Then rising refreshed she took up her +basket. But what was her astonishment on looking into it +to find the whole web reduced to a heap of yarn! The +blessed words of the priest at the altar had undone the cursed +spell of the Enemy of Mankind.<note place='foot'>Ernst Meier, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Sagen, Sitten +und Gebräuche aus Schwaben</hi> (Stuttgart, +1852), pp. 242-244.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The golden +or fiery +fern-seed +appears to +be an +emanation +of the sun's +fire.</note> +Thus, on the principle of like by like, fern-seed is +supposed to discover gold because it is itself golden; and +for a similar reason it enriches its possessor with an unfailing +supply of gold. But while the fern-seed is described +as golden, it is equally described as glowing and fiery.<note place='foot'>J. V. Grohmann, <hi rend='italic'>Aberglauben und +Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren</hi>, +p. 97, § 675; W. R. S. Ralston, +<hi rend='italic'>Songs of the Russian People</hi>, Second +Edition (London, 1872), p. 98; C. +Russwurm, <q>Aberglaube in Russland,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und +Sittenkunde</hi>, iv. (1859) p. 152.</note> +Hence, when we consider that two great days for gathering +the fabulous seed are Midsummer Eve and Christmas—that +is, the two solstices (for Christmas is nothing but an old +heathen celebration of the winter solstice)—we are led to +<pb n='291'/><anchor id='Pg291'/> +regard the fiery aspect of the fern-seed as primary, and its +golden aspect as secondary and derivative. Fern-seed, in fact, +would seem to be an emanation of the sun's fire at the two +turning-points of its course, the summer and winter solstices. +This view is confirmed by a German story in which a hunter +is said to have procured fern-seed by shooting at the sun +on Midsummer Day at noon; three drops of blood fell down, +which he caught in a white cloth, and these blood-drops were +the fern-seed.<note place='foot'>L. Bechstein, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsches Sagenbuch</hi> +(Leipsic, 1853), p. 430, No. 500; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Thüringer Sagenbuch</hi> (Leipsic, 1885), +ii. pp. 17 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, No. 161.</note> Here the blood is clearly the blood of the +sun, from which the fern-seed is thus directly derived. Thus +it may be taken as probable that fern-seed is golden, because +it is believed to be an emanation of the sun's golden fire. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Like fern-seed +the +mistletoe is +gathered at +the solstices +(Midsummer +and Christmas) +and is +supposed +to reveal +treasures in +the earth; +perhaps, +therefore, +it too is +deemed an +emanation +of the sun's +golden fire. +The bloom +of the oak +on Midsummer +Eve.</note> +Now, like fern-seed, the mistletoe is gathered either at +Midsummer or Christmas<note place='foot'>For gathering it at midsummer, +see above, pp. <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The custom of +gathering it at Christmas still commonly +survives in England. At York <q>on +the eve of Christmas-day they carry +mistletoe to the high altar of the +cathedral, and proclaim a public and +universal liberty, pardon and freedom +to all sorts of inferior and even wicked +people at the gates of the city, toward +the four quarters of heaven.</q> See W. +Stukeley, <hi rend='italic'>The Medallic History of +Marcus Aurelius Valerius Carausius, +Emperor in Britain</hi> (London, 1757-1759), +ii. 164; J. Brand, <hi rend='italic'>Popular +Antiquities of Great Britain</hi> (London, +1882-1883), i. 525. This last custom, +which is now doubtless obsolete, may +have been a relic of an annual period +of license like the Saturnalia. The +traditional privilege accorded to men +of kissing any woman found under +mistletoe is probably another relic of +the same sort. See Washington Irving, +<hi rend='italic'>Sketch-Book</hi>, <q>Christmas Eve,</q> p. 147 +(Bohn's edition); Marie Trevelyan, +<hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales</hi> +(London, 1909), p. 88.</note>—that is, at the summer and +winter solstices—and, like fern-seed, it is supposed to +possess the power of revealing treasures in the earth. On +Midsummer Eve people in Sweden make divining-rods of +mistletoe, or of four different kinds of wood one of which +must be mistletoe. The treasure-seeker places the rod on +the ground after sun-down, and when it rests directly over +treasure, the rod begins to move as if it were alive.<note place='foot'>A. A. Afzelius, <hi rend='italic'>Volkssagen und +Volkslieder aus Schwedens älterer und +neuerer Zeit</hi> (Leipsic, 1842), i. 41 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> iii. +289; L. Lloyd, <hi rend='italic'>Peasant Life in Sweden</hi> +(London, 1870), pp. 266 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> See above, +p. 69. In the Tyrol they say that if +mistletoe grows on a hazel-tree, there +must be a treasure under the tree. See +J. N. Ritter von Alpenburg, <hi rend='italic'>Mythen +und Sagen Tirols</hi> (Zurich, 1857), p. 398. +In East Prussia a similar belief is held +in regard to mistletoe that grows on a +thorn. See C. Lemke, <hi rend='italic'>Volksthümliches +in Ostpreussen</hi> (Mohrungen, +1884-1887), ii. 283. We have seen +that the divining-rod which reveals +treasures is commonly cut from a hazel +(above, pp. <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>).</note> Now, +<pb n='292'/><anchor id='Pg292'/> +if the mistletoe discovers gold, it must be in its character of +the Golden Bough; and if it is gathered at the solstices, must +not the Golden Bough, like the golden fern-seed, be an emanation +of the sun's fire? The question cannot be answered with +a simple affirmative. We have seen that the old Aryans +perhaps kindled the solstitial and other ceremonial fires in +part as sun-charms, that is, with the intention of supplying the +sun with fresh fire; and as these fires were usually made by +the friction or combustion of oak-wood,<note place='foot'>Above, pp. <ref target='Pg090'>90-92</ref>.</note> it may have appeared +to the ancient Aryan that the sun was periodically recruited +from the fire which resided in the sacred oak. In other words, +the oak may have seemed to him the original storehouse or +reservoir of the fire which was from time to time drawn out +to feed the sun. But if the life of the oak was conceived +to be in the mistletoe, the mistletoe must on that view have +contained the seed or germ of the fire which was elicited by +friction from the wood of the oak. Thus, instead of saying +that the mistletoe was an emanation of the sun's fire, it +might be more correct to say that the sun's fire was regarded +as an emanation of the mistletoe. No wonder, then, that +the mistletoe shone with a golden splendour, and was called +the Golden Bough. Probably, however, like fern-seed, it was +thought to assume its golden aspect only at those stated +times, especially midsummer, when fire was drawn from the +oak to light up the sun.<note place='foot'>Fern-seed is supposed to bloom at +Easter as well as at Midsummer and +Christmas (W. R. S. Ralston, <hi rend='italic'>Songs of +the Russian People</hi>, pp. 98 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>); and +Easter, as we have seen, is one of +the times when fires are ceremonially +kindled, perhaps to recruit the fire of +the sun.</note> At Pulverbatch, in Shropshire, it +was believed within living memory that the oak-tree blooms +on Midsummer Eve and the blossom withers before daylight. +A maiden who wishes to know her lot in marriage +should spread a white cloth under the tree at night, and in +the morning she will find a little dust, which is all that +remains of the flower. She should place the pinch of dust +under her pillow, and then her future husband will appear +to her in her dreams.<note place='foot'>Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. +Jackson, <hi rend='italic'>Shropshire Folk-lore</hi> (London, +1883), p. 242.</note> This fleeting bloom of the oak, if I +am right, was probably the mistletoe in its character of the +Golden Bough. The conjecture is confirmed by the observation +<pb n='293'/><anchor id='Pg293'/> +that in Wales a real sprig of mistletoe gathered on +Midsummer Eve is similarly placed under the pillow to +induce prophetic dreams;<note place='foot'>Marie Trevelyan, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore and +Folk-stories of Wales</hi> (London, 1909), +p. 88.</note> and further the mode of catching +the imaginary bloom of the oak in a white cloth is exactly +that which was employed by the Druids to catch the real +mistletoe when it dropped from the bough of the oak, +severed by the golden sickle.<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xvi. 251.</note> As Shropshire borders on +Wales, the belief that the oak blooms on Midsummer Eve +may be Welsh in its immediate origin, though probably the +belief is a fragment of the primitive Aryan creed. In some +parts of Italy, as we saw,<note place='foot'>Above, pp. <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> peasants still go out on Midsummer +morning to search the oak-trees for the <q>oil of St. +John,</q> which, like the mistletoe, heals all wounds, and is, +perhaps, the mistletoe itself in its glorified aspect. Thus it +is easy to understand how a title like the Golden Bough, so +little descriptive of its usual appearance on the tree, should +have been applied to the seemingly insignificant parasite. +Further, we can perhaps see why in antiquity mistletoe was +believed to possess the remarkable property of extinguishing +fire,<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xxxiii. 94: +<q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Calx aqua accenditur et Thracius +lapis, idem oleo restinguitur, ignis autem +aceto maxime et visco et ovo.</foreign></q></note> and why in Sweden it is still kept in houses as a safeguard +against conflagration.<note place='foot'>See above, p. <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>.</note> Its fiery nature marks it out, +on homoeopathic principles, as the best possible cure or +preventive of injury by fire. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Aeneas and +the Golden +Bough. Orpheus +and the +willow.</note> +These considerations may partially explain why Virgil +makes Aeneas carry a glorified bough of mistletoe with him +on his descent into the gloomy subterranean world. The +poet describes how at the very gates of hell there stretched +a vast and gloomy wood, and how the hero, following the +flight of two doves that lured him on, wandered into the +depths of the immemorial forest till he saw afar off through +the shadows of the trees the flickering light of the Golden +Bough illuminating the matted boughs overhead.<note place='foot'>Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> vi. 179-209.</note> If the +mistletoe, as a yellow withered bough in the sad autumn +woods, was conceived to contain the seed of fire, what better +companion could a forlorn wanderer in the nether shades +<pb n='294'/><anchor id='Pg294'/> +take with him than a bough that would be a lamp to his +feet as well as a rod and staff to his hands? Armed with +it he might boldly confront the dreadful spectres that would +cross his path on his adventurous journey. Hence when +Aeneas, emerging from the forest, comes to the banks of +Styx, winding slow with sluggish stream through the infernal +marsh, and the surly ferryman refuses him passage in his +boat, he has but to draw the Golden Bough from his bosom +and hold it up, and straightway the blusterer quails at the +sight and meekly receives the hero into his crazy bark, which +sinks deep in the water under the unusual weight of the +living man.<note place='foot'>Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> vi. 384-416.</note> Even in recent times, as we have seen, +mistletoe has been deemed a protection against witches and +trolls,<note place='foot'>Above, pp. <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>.</note> and the ancients may well have credited it with the +same magical virtue. And if the parasite can, as some +of our peasants believe, open all locks,<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>.</note> why should it +not have served as an <q>open Sesame</q> in the hands of +Aeneas to unlock the gates of death? There is some reason +to suppose that when Orpheus in like manner descended +alive to hell to rescue the soul of his dead wife Eurydice +from the shades, he carried with him a willow bough to +serve as a passport on his journey to and from the land of +the dead; for in the great frescoes representing the nether +world, with which the master hand of Polygnotus adorned +the walls of a loggia at Delphi, Orpheus was depicted sitting +pensively under a willow, holding his lyre, now silent and +useless, in his left hand, while with his right he grasped the +drooping boughs of the tree.<note place='foot'>Pausanias, x. 30. 6.</note> If the willow in the picture +had indeed the significance which an ingenious scholar has +attributed to it,<note place='foot'>J. Six, <q>Die Eriphyle des Polygnot,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Mittheilungen des kaiserlich +deutschen Archaeologischen Instituts, +Athenische Abtheilung</hi>, xix. (1894) +pp. 338 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare my commentary +on Pausanias, vol. v. p. 385.</note> the painter meant to represent the dead +musician dreaming wistfully of the time when the willow had +carried him safe back across the Stygian ferry to that bright +world of love and music which he was now to see no more. +Again, on an ancient sarcophagus, which exhibits in sculptured +relief the parting of Adonis from Aphrodite, the +hapless youth, reclining in the lap of his leman, holds a +<pb n='295'/><anchor id='Pg295'/> +branch, which has been taken to signify that he, too, by the +help of the mystic bough, might yet be brought back from +the gates of death to life and love.<note place='foot'>The sarcophagus is in the Lateran +Museum at Rome. See W. Helbig, +<hi rend='italic'>Führer durch die öffentlichen Sammlungen +Klassischer Altertümer in Rom</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Leipsic, 1899), ii. 468.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Trees +thought by +the savage +to be the +seat of fire +because he +elicits it by +friction +from their +wood.</note> +Now, too, we can conjecture why Virbius at Nemi came +to be confounded with the sun.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, i. 19 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> If Virbius was, as I have +tried to shew, a tree-spirit, he must have been the spirit of +the oak on which grew the Golden Bough; for tradition +represented him as the first of the Kings of the Wood. As +an oak-spirit he must have been supposed periodically to +rekindle the sun's fire, and might therefore easily be confounded +with the sun itself. Similarly we can explain why +Balder, an oak-spirit, was described as <q>so fair of face and +so shining that a light went forth from him,</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Die Edda</hi>, übersetzt von K. +Simrock<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>8</hi> (Stuttgart, 1882), p. 264.</note> and why he +should have been so often taken to be the sun. And in +general we may say that in primitive society, when the only +known way of making fire is by the friction of wood, the +savage must necessarily conceive of fire as a property stored +away, like sap or juice, in trees, from which he has laboriously +to extract it. The Senal Indians of California <q>profess +to believe that the whole world was once a globe of fire, +whence that element passed up into the trees, and now +comes out whenever two pieces of wood are rubbed +together.</q><note place='foot'>S. Powers, <hi rend='italic'>Tribes of California</hi> +(Washington, 1877), p. 171.</note> Similarly the Maidu Indians of California hold +that <q>the earth was primarily a globe of molten matter, and +from that the principle of fire ascended through the roots +into the trunk and branches of trees, whence the Indians can +extract it by means of their drill.</q><note place='foot'>S. Powers, <hi rend='italic'>Tribes of California</hi>, +p. 287.</note> In Namoluk, one of +the Caroline Islands, they say that the art of making fire +was taught men by the gods. Olofaet, the cunning master +of flames, gave fire to the bird <foreign rend='italic'>mwi</foreign> and bade him carry it to +earth in his bill. So the bird flew from tree to tree and +stored away the slumbering force of the fire in the wood, +from which men can elicit it by friction.<note place='foot'>Max Girschner, <q>Die Karolineninsel +Namöluk und ihre Bewohner,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Baessler-Archiv</hi>, ii. (1912) p. 141.</note> In the ancient +<pb n='296'/><anchor id='Pg296'/> +Vedic hymns of India the fire-god Agni <q>is spoken of as +born in wood, as the embryo of plants, or as distributed in +plants. He is also said to have entered into all plants or +to strive after them. When he is called the embryo of trees +or of trees as well as plants, there may be a side-glance at +the fire produced in forests by the friction of the boughs of +trees.</q><note place='foot'>A. A. Macdonell, <hi rend='italic'>Vedic Mythology</hi> +(Strasburg, 1897), pp. 91 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, referring +to <hi rend='italic'>Rigveda</hi>, vi. 3. 3, x. 79. 7, ii. 1. +14, iii. 1. 13, x. 1. 2, viii. 43. 9, i. +70. 4, ii. 1. 1. Compare H. Oldenberg, +<hi rend='italic'>Die Religion des Veda</hi> (Berlin, +1894), pp. 120 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In some Australian languages the words for wood +and fire are said to be the same.<note place='foot'>Edward M. Curr, <hi rend='italic'>The Australian +Race</hi> (Melbourne and London, 1886-1887), +i. 9, 18.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Trees that +have been +struck by +lightning +are deemed +by the +savage to +be charged +with a +double +portion of +fire.</note> +A tree which has been struck by lightning is naturally +regarded by the savage as charged with a double or +triple portion of fire; for has he not seen the mighty +flash enter into the trunk with his own eyes? Hence +perhaps we may explain some of the many superstitious +beliefs concerning trees that have been struck by lightning. +Thus in the opinion of the Cherokee Indians <q>mysterious +properties attach to the wood of a tree which has been +struck by lightning, especially when the tree itself still +lives, and such wood enters largely into the secret compounds +of the conjurers. An ordinary person of the laity +will not touch it, for fear of having cracks come upon his +hands and feet, nor is it burned for fuel, for fear that lye +made from the ashes will cause consumption. In preparing +ballplayers for the contest, the medicine-man sometimes +burns splinters of it to coal, which he gives to the players to +paint themselves with, in order that they may be able to +strike their opponents with all the force of a thunderbolt. +Bark or wood from a tree struck by lightning, but still +green, is beaten up and put into the water in which seeds +are soaked before planting, to insure a good crop, but, on +the other hand, any lightning-struck wood thrown into the +field will cause the crop to wither, and it is believed to have +a bad effect even to go into the field immediately after +having been near such a tree.</q><note place='foot'>James Mooney, <q>Myths of the +Cherokee,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Nineteenth Annual Report +of the Bureau of American Ethnology</hi>, +Part i. (Washington, 1900) p. 422, +compare p. 435.</note> Apparently the Cherokees +imagine that when wood struck by lightning is soaked in +<pb n='297'/><anchor id='Pg297'/> +water the fierce heat of the slumbering fire in its veins is +tempered to a genial warmth, which promotes the growth +of the crops; but that when the force of the fire has not +been thus diluted it blasts the growing corn. When the +Thompson Indians of British Columbia wished to set fire to +the houses of their enemies, they shot at them arrows which +were either made from a tree that had been struck by lightning +or had splinters of such wood attached to them.<note place='foot'>James Teit, <hi rend='italic'>The Thompson Indians +of British Columbia</hi>, p. 346 (<hi rend='italic'>The Jesup +North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of +the American Museum of Natural History</hi>, +April, 1900).</note> They +seem to have thought that wood struck by lightning was so +charged with fire that it would ignite whatever it struck, the +mere concussion sufficing to explode it like gunpowder. Yet +curiously enough these Indians supposed that if they burned +the wood of trees that had been struck by lightning, the +weather would immediately turn cold.<note place='foot'>J. Teit, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 374.</note> Perhaps they conceived +such trees as reservoirs of heat, and imagined that by +using them up they would exhaust the supply and thus +lower the temperature of the atmosphere.<note place='foot'>The Shuswap Indians of British +Columbia entertain a similar belief. +It has been suggested that the fancy may +be based on the observation that cold +follows a thunder-storm. See G. M. +Dawson, <q>Notes on the Shuswap +people of British Columbia,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Transactions +of the Royal Society of Canada</hi>, +ix. (1891) Section ii. p. 38.</note> Wendish peasants +of Saxony similarly refuse to burn in their stoves the wood +of trees that have been struck by lightning; but the reason +they give for their refusal is different. They say that with such +fuel the house would be burnt down.<note place='foot'>R. Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>Sächsische Volkskunde</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Dresden, 1901), p. 369.</note> No doubt they think +that the electric flash, inherent in the wood, would send such a +roaring flame up the chimney that nothing could stand before +it. In like manner the Thonga of South Africa will not use +such wood as fuel nor warm themselves at a fire which has +been kindled with it; but what danger they apprehend from +the wood we are not told.<note place='foot'>Henri A. Junod, <hi rend='italic'>The Life of a +South African Tribe</hi> (Neuchatel, 1912-1913), +ii. 291. The Thonga imagine +that lightning is caused by a great bird, +which sometimes buries itself in the +ground to a depth of several feet. See +H. A. Junod, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 290 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> On the contrary, when lightning +sets fire to a tree, the Winamwanga of Northern Rhodesia +put out all the fires in the village and plaster the fireplaces +afresh, while the head men convey the lightning-kindled fire +to the chief, who prays over it. The chief then sends out +<pb n='298'/><anchor id='Pg298'/> +the new fire to all his villages, and the villagers reward his +messengers for the boon. This shews that they look upon +fire kindled by lightning with reverence, and the reverence is +intelligible, for they speak of thunder and lightning as God +himself coming down to earth.<note place='foot'>Dr. James A. Chisholm (of the +Livingstonia Mission, Mwenzo, N.E. +Rhodesia), <q>Notes on the Manners +and Customs of the Winamwanga and +Wiwa,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the African Society</hi>, +No. 36 (July, 1910), p. 363.</note> Similarly the Maidu +Indians of California believe that a Great Man created the +world and all its inhabitants, and that lightning is nothing +but the Great Man himself descending swiftly out of heaven +and rending the trees with his flaming arm.<note place='foot'>S. Powers, <hi rend='italic'>Tribes of California</hi> +(Washington, 1877), p. 287. The +dread of lightning is prominent in some +of the customs observed in Patiko, a +district of the Uganda Protectorate. +If a village has suffered from lightning, +ropes made of twisted grass are strung +from peak to peak of the houses to ward +off further strokes. And if a person +has been struck or badly shaken, <q>an +elaborate cure is performed upon him. +A red cock is taken, his tongue torn +out, and his body dashed upon the +house where the stroke fell. Then the +scene changes to the bank of a small +running stream, where the patient is +made to kneel while the bird is sacrificed +over the water. A raw egg is +next given to the patient to swallow, +and he is laid on his stomach and +encouraged to vomit. The lightning +is supposed to be vomited along with +the egg, and all ill effects prevented.</q> +See Rev. A. L. Kitching, <hi rend='italic'>On the +Backwaters of the Nile</hi> (London, 1912), +p. 263.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Theory +that the +sanctity +of the oak +and the +relation of +the tree to +the sky-god +were suggested +by +the frequency +with which +oaks are +struck by +lightning.</note> +It is a plausible theory that the reverence which the +ancient peoples of Europe paid to the oak, and the connexion +which they traced between the tree and their sky-god,<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, ii. 349 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +were derived from the much greater frequency with +which the oak appears to be struck by lightning than any +other tree of our European forests. Some remarkable +statistics have been adduced in support of this view by +Mr. W. Warde Fowler.<note place='foot'>W. Warde Fowler, <q>The Oak +and the Thunder-god,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Archiv für +Religionswissenschaft</hi>, xvi. (1913) pp. +318 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> My friend Mr. Warde Fowler +had previously called my attention to +the facts in a letter dated September +17th, 1912.</note> Observations, annually made in +the forests of Lippe-Detmold for seventeen years, yielded +the result that while the woods were mainly stocked with +beech and only to a small extent with oak and Scotch +pine, yet far more oaks and Scotch pines were struck by +lightning than beeches, the number of stricken Scotch pines +exceeding the number of stricken beeches in the proportion +of thirty-seven to one, and the number of stricken oaks +exceeding the number of stricken beeches in the proportion +<pb n='299'/><anchor id='Pg299'/> +of no less than sixty to one. Similar results have been +obtained from observations made in French and Bavarian +forests.<note place='foot'>Dr. W. Schlich's <hi rend='italic'>Manual of +Forestry</hi>, vol. iv. <hi rend='italic'>Forest Protection</hi>, by +W. R. Fisher, Second Edition (London, +1907), pp. 662 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Mr. W. Warde +Fowler was the first to call the attention +of mythologists to this work.</note> In short, it would seem from statistics compiled by +scientific observers, who have no mythological theories to +maintain, that the oak suffers from the stroke of lightning +far oftener than any other forest tree in Europe. However +we may explain it, whether by the easier passage of electricity +through oakwood than through any other timber,<note place='foot'>Experiments on the conductivity +of electricity in wood go to shew that +starchy trees (oak, poplar, maples, ash, +elm, <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>sorbus</foreign>) are good conductors, that +oily trees (beech, walnut, birch, lime) +are bad conductors, and that the conifers +are intermediate, the Scotch pine in +summer being as deficient in oil as the +starchy trees, but rich in oil during +winter. It was found that a single +turn of Holz's electric machine sufficed +to send the spark through oakwood, +but that from twelve to twenty turns +were required to send it through beech-wood. +Five turns of the machine were +needed to send the spark through +poplar and willow wood. See Dr. W. +Schlich, <hi rend='italic'>Manual of Forestry</hi>, vol. iv. +<hi rend='italic'>Forest Protection</hi>, Second Edition (London, +1907), p. 664. In the tropics +lightning is said to be especially +attracted to coco-nut palms. See +P. Amaury Talbot, <hi rend='italic'>In the Shadow of +the Bush</hi> (London, 1913), p. 73.</note> or in some +other way, the fact itself may well have attracted the notice +of our rude forefathers, who dwelt in the vast forests which +then covered a large part of Europe; and they might +naturally account for it in their simple religious way by +supposing that the great sky-god, whom they worshipped +and whose awful voice they heard in the roll of thunder, +loved the oak above all the trees of the wood and often +descended into it from the murky cloud in a flash of lightning, +leaving a token of his presence or of his passage in the riven +and blackened trunk and the blasted foliage. Such trees +would thenceforth be encircled by a nimbus of glory as +the visible seats of the thundering sky-god. Certain it is +that, like some savages, both Greeks and Romans identified +their great god of the sky and of the oak with the lightning +flash which struck the ground; and they regularly enclosed +such a stricken spot and treated it thereafter as sacred.<note place='foot'>As to the Greek belief and custom, +see H. Usener, <hi rend='italic'>Kleine Schriften</hi>, iv. +(Leipsic and Berlin, 1913), <q>Keraunos,</q> +pp. 471 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art +and the Evolution of Kings</hi>, ii. 361. +As to the Roman belief and custom, +see Festus, <hi rend='italic'>svv.</hi> <hi rend='italic'>Fulguritum and Provorsum +fulgur</hi>, pp. 92, 229, ed. C. O. +Müller (Leipsic, 1839); H. Dessau, +<hi rend='italic'>Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae</hi>, vol. ii. +pars i. (Berlin, 1902) pp. 10 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +Nos. 3048-3056; L. Preller, <hi rend='italic'>Römische +Mythologie</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi> (Berlin, 1881-1883), i. +190-193; G. Wissowa, <hi rend='italic'>Religion und +Kultus der Römer</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Munich, 1912), +pp. 121 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> By a curious refinement +the Romans referred lightning which +fell by day to Jupiter, but lightning +which fell by night to a god called +Summanus (Festus, p. 229).</note> It +<pb n='300'/><anchor id='Pg300'/> +is not rash to suppose that the ancestors of the Celts and +Germans in the forests of Central Europe paid a like respect +for like reasons to a blasted oak. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>This explanation +of the +Aryan worship +of the +oak is preferable +to +the one +formerly +adopted by +the author.</note> +This explanation of the Aryan reverence for the oak +and of the association of the tree with the great god of +the thunder and the sky, was suggested or implied long +ago by Jacob Grimm,<note place='foot'>J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> +iii. 64, citing a statement that lightning +strikes twenty oaks for one beech. +The statistics adduced by Mr. W. +Warde Fowler seem to shew that this +statement is no exaggeration but rather +the contrary.</note> and has been of late powerfully +reinforced by Mr. W. Warde Fowler.<note place='foot'>W. Warde Fowler, <q>The Oak +and the Thunder-god,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Archiv für +Religionswissenschaft</hi>, xvi. (1913) pp. +317-320.</note> It appears to be +simpler and more probable than the explanation which I +formerly adopted, namely, that the oak was worshipped +primarily for the many benefits which our rude forefathers +derived from the tree, particularly for the fire which they +drew by friction from its wood; and that the connexion of +the oak with the sky was an after-thought based on the +belief that the flash of lightning was nothing but the spark +which the sky-god up aloft elicited by rubbing two pieces +of oak wood against each other, just as his savage worshipper +kindled fire in the forest on earth.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, ii. 356 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> On that theory the god +of the thunder and the sky was derived from the original +god of the oak; on the present theory, which I now prefer, +the god of the sky and the thunder was the great original +deity of our Aryan ancestors, and his association with the +oak was merely an inference based on the frequency with +which the oak was seen to be struck by lightning. If the +Aryans, as some think, roamed the wide steppes of Russia +or Central Asia with their flocks and herds before they +plunged into the gloom of the European forests, they +may have worshipped the god of the blue or cloudy +firmament and the flashing thunderbolt long before they +thought of associating him with the blasted oaks in their +new home.<note place='foot'>The suggestion is Mr. W. Warde +Fowler's (<hi rend='italic'>op cit.</hi> pp. 319 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>).</note> +</p> + +<pb n='301'/><anchor id='Pg301'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The sacredness +of +mistletoe +was perhaps +due to +a belief that +the plant +fell on the +tree in a +flash of +lightning.</note> +Perhaps the new theory has the further advantage of +throwing light on the special sanctity ascribed to mistletoe +which grows on an oak. The mere rarity of such a growth +on an oak hardly suffices to explain the extent and the +persistence of the superstition. A hint of its real origin is +possibly furnished by the statement of Pliny that the Druids +worshipped the plant because they believed it to have fallen +from heaven and to be a token that the tree on which it +grew was chosen by the god himself.<note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Natur. Hist.</hi> xvi. 249.</note> Can they have thought +that the mistletoe dropped on the oak in a flash of lightning? +The conjecture is confirmed by the name thunder-besom which +is applied to mistletoe in the Swiss canton of Aargau,<note place='foot'>See above, p. <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>.</note> for +the epithet clearly implies a close connexion between the +parasite and the thunder; indeed <q>thunder-besom</q> is a +popular name in Germany for any bushy nest-like excrescence +growing on a branch, because such a parasitic growth is +actually believed by the ignorant to be a product of lightning.<note place='foot'>J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> +i. 153. See above, p. <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>.</note> +If there is any truth in this conjecture, the real reason why +the Druids worshipped a mistletoe-bearing oak above all +other trees of the forest was a belief that every such oak had +not only been struck by lightning but bore among its branches +a visible emanation of the celestial fire; so that in cutting +the mistletoe with mystic rites they were securing for themselves +all the magical properties of a thunderbolt. If that +was so, we must apparently conclude that the mistletoe was +deemed an emanation of the lightning rather than, as I have +thus far argued, of the midsummer sun. Perhaps, indeed, we +might combine the two seemingly divergent views by supposing +that in the old Aryan creed the mistletoe descended +from the sun on Midsummer Day in a flash of lightning. But +such a combination is artificial and unsupported, so far as I +know, by any positive evidence. Whether on mythical principles +the two interpretations can really be reconciled with +each other or not, I will not presume to say; but even should +they prove to be discrepant, the inconsistency need not have +prevented our rude forefathers from embracing both of them +at the same time with an equal fervour of conviction; for +like the great majority of mankind the savage is above being +<pb n='302'/><anchor id='Pg302'/> +hidebound by the trammels of a pedantic logic. In attempting +to track his devious thought through the jungle +of crass ignorance and blind fear, we must always remember +that we are treading enchanted ground, and must beware of +taking for solid realities the cloudy shapes that cross our +path or hover and gibber at us through the gloom. We +can never completely replace ourselves at the standpoint of +primitive man, see things with his eyes, and feel our hearts +beat with the emotions that stirred his. All our theories +concerning him and his ways must therefore fall far short of +certainty; the utmost we can aspire to in such matters is a +reasonable degree of probability. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Hence the +stroke of +mistletoe +that killed +Balder may +have been a +stroke of +lightning.</note> +To conclude these enquiries we may say that if Balder +was indeed, as I have conjectured, a personification of a +mistletoe-bearing oak, his death by a blow of the mistletoe +might on the new theory be explained as a death by a +stroke of lightning. So long as the mistletoe, in which the +flame of the lightning smouldered, was suffered to remain +among the boughs, so long no harm could befall the good +and kindly god of the oak, who kept his life stowed away for +safety between earth and heaven in the mysterious parasite; +but when once that seat of his life, or of his death, was +torn from the branch and hurled at the trunk, the tree +fell—the god died—smitten by a thunderbolt.<note place='foot'>This interpretation of Balder's +death was anticipated by W. Schwartz +(<hi rend='italic'>Der Ursprung der Mythologie</hi>, Berlin, +1860, p. 176), who cut the whole +knot by dubbing Balder <q>the German +thunder-and-lightning god</q> and mistletoe +<q>the wonderful thunder-and-lightning +flower.</q> But as this learned writer +nursed a fatal passion for thunder and +lightning, which he detected lurking +in the most unlikely places, we need +not wonder that he occasionally found +it in places where there were some +slight grounds for thinking that it +really existed.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The King +of the +Wood and +the Golden +Bough.</note> +And what we have said of Balder in the oak forests of +Scandinavia may perhaps, with all due diffidence in a question +so obscure and uncertain, be applied to the priest of Diana, +the King of the Wood, at Aricia in the oak forests of Italy. +He may have personated in flesh and blood the great Italian +god of the sky, Jupiter,<note place='foot'>On the relation of the priest to +Jupiter, and the equivalence of Jupiter +and Juno to Janus (Dianus) and Diana, +see <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, ii. 376 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> who had kindly come down from +heaven in the lightning flash to dwell among men in the +mistletoe—the thunder-besom—the Golden Bough—growing +<pb n='303'/><anchor id='Pg303'/> +on the sacred oak beside the still waters of the lake of Nemi. +If that was so, we need not wonder that the priest guarded +with drawn sword the mystic bough which contained the +god's life and his own. The goddess whom he served and +married was herself, if I am right, no other than the Queen +of Heaven, the true wife of the sky-god. For she, too, loved +the solitude of the woods and the lonely hills, and sailing +overhead on clear nights in the likeness of the silver moon +she looked down with pleasure on her own fair image +reflected on the calm, the burnished surface of the lake, +Diana's Mirror. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='304'/><anchor id='Pg304'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter XIII. Farewell to Nemi.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Looking +back at the +end of the +journey.</note> +We are at the end of our enquiry, but as often happens +in the search after truth, if we have answered one question, +we have raised many more; if we have followed one track +home, we have had to pass by others that opened off it and +led, or seemed to lead, to far other goals than the sacred +grove at Nemi. Some of these paths we have followed a +little way; others, if fortune should be kind, the writer and +the reader may one day pursue together. For the present +we have journeyed far enough together, and it is time to +part. Yet before we do so, we may well ask ourselves +whether there is not some more general conclusion, some +lesson, if possible, of hope and encouragement, to be drawn +from the melancholy record of human error and folly which +has engaged our attention in these volumes. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +movement +of human +thought +in the past +from magic +to religion.</note> +If then we consider, on the one hand, the essential +similarity of man's chief wants everywhere and at all times, +and on the other hand, the wide difference between the +means he has adopted to satisfy them in different ages, we +shall perhaps be disposed to conclude that the movement of +the higher thought, so far as we can trace it, has on the +whole been from magic through religion to science. In +magic man depends on his own strength to meet the +difficulties and dangers that beset him on every side. He +believes in a certain established order of nature on which he +can surely count, and which he can manipulate for his own +ends. When he discovers his mistake, when he recognizes +sadly that both the order of nature which he had assumed +and the control which he had believed himself to exercise +<pb n='305'/><anchor id='Pg305'/> +over it were purely imaginary, he ceases to rely on his own +intelligence and his own unaided efforts, and throws himself +humbly on the mercy of certain great invisible beings +behind the veil of nature, to whom he now ascribes all those +far-reaching powers which he once arrogated to himself. +Thus in the acuter minds magic is gradually superseded by +religion, which explains the succession of natural phenomena +as regulated by the will, the passion, or the caprice of +spiritual beings like man in kind, though vastly superior to +him in power. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +movement +of thought +from +religion +to science.</note> +But as time goes on this explanation in its turn proves +to be unsatisfactory. For it assumes that the succession of +natural events is not determined by immutable laws, but is +to some extent variable and irregular, and this assumption +is not borne out by closer observation. On the contrary, +the more we scrutinize that succession the more we are +struck by the rigid uniformity, the punctual precision with +which, wherever we can follow them, the operations of nature +are carried on. Every great advance in knowledge has +extended the sphere of order and correspondingly restricted +the sphere of apparent disorder in the world, till now we +are ready to anticipate that even in regions where chance +and confusion appear still to reign, a fuller knowledge +would everywhere reduce the seeming chaos to cosmos. +Thus the keener minds, still pressing forward to a deeper +solution of the mysteries of the universe, come to reject the +religious theory of nature as inadequate, and to revert in a +measure to the older standpoint of magic by postulating +explicitly, what in magic had only been implicitly assumed, +to wit, an inflexible regularity in the order of natural events, +which, if carefully observed, enables us to foresee their course +with certainty and to act accordingly. In short, religion, +regarded as an explanation of nature, is displaced by science. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Contrast +between +the views +of natural +order +postulated +by magic +and by +science +respectively.</note> +But while science has this much in common with +magic that both rest on a faith in order as the underlying +principle of all things, readers of this work will hardly +need to be reminded that the order presupposed by +magic differs widely from that which forms the basis of +science. The difference flows naturally from the different +modes in which the two orders have been reached. For +<pb n='306'/><anchor id='Pg306'/> +whereas the order on which magic reckons is merely an +extension, by false analogy, of the order in which ideas +present themselves to our minds, the order laid down by +science is derived from patient and exact observation of the +phenomena themselves. The abundance, the solidity, and +the splendour of the results already achieved by science are +well fitted to inspire us with a cheerful confidence in the +soundness of its method. Here at last, after groping about +in the dark for countless ages, man has hit upon a clue to +the labyrinth, a golden key that opens many locks in the +treasury of nature. It is probably not too much to say that +the hope of progress—moral and intellectual as well as +material—in the future is bound up with the fortunes of +science, and that every obstacle placed in the way of scientific +discovery is a wrong to humanity. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The scientific +theory +of the +world not +necessarily +final.</note> +Yet the history of thought should warn us against +concluding that because the scientific theory of the world +is the best that has yet been formulated, it is necessarily +complete and final. We must remember that at bottom +the generalizations of science or, in common parlance, +the laws of nature are merely hypotheses devised to +explain that ever-shifting phantasmagoria of thought +which we dignify with the high-sounding names of the +world and the universe. In the last analysis magic, +religion, and science are nothing but theories of thought; +and as science has supplanted its predecessors, so it may +hereafter be itself superseded by some more perfect hypothesis, +perhaps by some totally different way of looking at +the phenomena—of registering the shadows on the screen—of +which we in this generation can form no idea. The +advance of knowledge is an infinite progression towards a +goal that for ever recedes. We need not murmur at the +endless pursuit:— +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<lg> +<l><q rend='pre'><hi rend='italic'>Fatti non foste a viver come bruti</hi></q></l> +<l><q rend='post'><hi rend='italic'>Ma per seguir virtute e conoscenza.</hi></q></l> +</lg> +</quote> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +shadow +across the +path.</note> +Great things will come of that pursuit, though we may not +enjoy them. Brighter stars will rise on some voyager of +the future—some great Ulysses of the realms of thought—than +shine on us. The dreams of magic may one day be +<pb n='307'/><anchor id='Pg307'/> +the waking realities of science. But a dark shadow lies +athwart the far end of this fair prospect. For however vast +the increase of knowledge and of power which the future +may have in store for man, he can scarcely hope to stay +the sweep of those great forces which seem to be making +silently but relentlessly for the destruction of all this starry +universe in which our earth swims as a speck or mote. In +the ages to come man may be able to predict, perhaps even +to control, the wayward courses of the winds and clouds, +but hardly will his puny hands have strength to speed +afresh our slackening planet in its orbit or rekindle the +dying fire of the sun.<note place='foot'><q>I quite agree how humiliating +the slow progress of man is, but every +one has his own pet horror, and this +slow progress or even personal annihilation +sinks in my mind into insignificance +compared with the idea or +rather I presume certainty of the sun +some day cooling and we all freezing. +To think of the progress of millions of +years, with every continent swarming +with good and enlightened men, all +ending in this, and with probably no +fresh start until this our planetary +system has been again converted into +red-hot gas. <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Sic transit gloria mundi</foreign>, +with a vengeance</q> (<hi rend='italic'>More Letters of +Charles Darwin</hi>, edited by Francis +Darwin, London, 1903, i. 260 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>).</note> Yet the philosopher who trembles +at the idea of such distant catastrophes may console himself +by reflecting that these gloomy apprehensions, like the +earth and the sun themselves, are only parts of that unsubstantial +world which thought has conjured up out of the +void, and that the phantoms which the subtle enchantress +has evoked to-day she may ban to-morrow. They too, like +so much that to common eyes seems solid, may melt into +air, into thin air.<note place='foot'>Since this passage was written the +hope which it expresses has been to +some extent strengthened by the discovery +of radium, which appears to +prolong indefinitely the prospect of the +duration of the sun's heat, and with it +the duration of life on its attendant +planets. See (Sir) George Howard +Darwin's Presidential Address to the +British Association, <hi rend='italic'>Report of the 75th +Meeting of the British Association for +the Advancement of Science</hi> (South +Africa, 1905), pp. 28 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; F. Soddy, +<hi rend='italic'>The Interpretation of Radium</hi>, Third +Edition (London, 1912), pp. 240 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; +E. Rutherford, <hi rend='italic'>Radio-active Substances +and their Radiations</hi> (Cambridge, +1913), pp. 653-656. At the same +time it should be borne in mind that +even if the atomic disintegration and +accompanying liberation of energy, +which characterize radium and kindred +elements, should prove to be common +in different degrees to all the other +elements and to form a vast and till +lately unsuspected store of heat to the +sun, this enormous reserve of fuel +would only defer but could not avert +that final catastrophe with which the +solar system and indeed the whole +universe is remorselessly threatened by +the law of the dissipation of energy.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The web +of thought.</note> +Without dipping so far into the future, we may illustrate +the course which thought has hitherto run by likening it to +<pb n='308'/><anchor id='Pg308'/> +a web woven of three different threads—the black thread of +magic, the red thread of religion, and the white thread of +science, if under science we may include those simple truths, +drawn from observation of nature, of which men in all +ages have possessed a store. Could we then survey the +web of thought from the beginning, we should probably +perceive it to be at first a chequer of black and white, a +patchwork of true and false notions, hardly tinged as yet by +the red thread of religion. But carry your eye further +along the fabric and you will remark that, while the black +and white chequer still runs through it, there rests on the +middle portion of the web, where religion has entered most +deeply into its texture, a dark crimson stain, which shades +off insensibly into a lighter tint as the white thread of +science is woven more and more into the tissue. To a web +thus chequered and stained, thus shot with threads of +diverse hues, but gradually changing colour the farther it is +unrolled, the state of modern thought, with all its divergent +aims and conflicting tendencies, may be compared. Will +the great movement which for centuries has been slowly +altering the complexion of thought be continued in the near +future? or will a reaction set in which may arrest progress +and even undo much that has been done? To keep up +our parable, what will be the colour of the web which the +Fates are now weaving on the humming loom of time? will +it be white or red? We cannot tell. A faint glimmering +light illumines the backward portion of the web. Clouds +and thick darkness hide the other end. +</p> + +<milestone unit='tb' rend='rule: 50%'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Nemi +at evening: +the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Ave +Maria</foreign> bell.</note> +Our long voyage of discovery is over and our bark has +drooped her weary sails in port at last. Once more we take +the road to Nemi. It is evening, and as we climb the long +slope of the Appian Way up to the Alban Hills, we look +back and see the sky aflame with sunset, its golden glory +resting like the aureole of a dying saint over Rome and +touching with a crest of fire the dome of St. Peter's. The +sight once seen can never be forgotten, but we turn from it +and pursue our way darkling along the mountain side, till +we come to Nemi and look down on the lake in its deep +hollow, now fast disappearing in the evening shadows. The +<pb n='309'/><anchor id='Pg309'/> +place has changed but little since Diana received the homage +of her worshippers in the sacred grove. The temple of the +sylvan goddess, indeed, has vanished and the King of the +Wood no longer stands sentinel over the Golden Bough. +But Nemi's woods are still green, and as the sunset fades +above them in the west, there comes to us, borne on the +swell of the wind, the sound of the church bells of Ariccia +ringing the Angelus. <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Ave Maria!</foreign> Sweet and solemn they +chime out from the distant town and die lingeringly away +across the wide Campagnan marshes. <foreign rend='italic'>Le roi est mort, vive +le roi! Ave Maria!</foreign> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='311'/><anchor id='Pg311'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Notes.</head> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>I. Snake Stones.<note place='foot'>See above, vol. i. pp. 15 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note></head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Snake +Stones +in the +Highlands.</note> +The belief of the Scottish Highlanders as to the so-called Snake +Stones has been recorded as follows by a good authority at the end +of the nineteenth century:— +</p> + +<p> +<q>A product called <foreign lang='gd' rend='italic'>clach-nathrach</foreign>, serpent stone, is found on the +root of the long ling. It is of steel-grey colour, has the consistency +of soft putty when new and of hard putty when old, and is as light +as pumice-stone, which it resembles. It is of a globular form, and +from one to three inches in diameter. There is a circular hole, +about a quarter of an inch in width, through the centre. This +substance is said to be produced by the serpent emitting spume +round the root of a twig of heather. The <foreign lang='gd' rend='italic'>clach-nathrach</foreign> is greatly +prized by the people, who transmit it as a talisman to their +descendants.</q><note place='foot'>Alexander Carmichael, <hi rend='italic'>Carmina +Gadelica, Hymns and Incantations +with Illustrative Notes on Words, +Rites, and Customs, dying and obsolete: +orally collected in the Highlands +and Islands of Scotland and translated +into English</hi> (Edinburgh, 1900), ii. +312.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>II. The Transformation of Witches Into Cats.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Witches +as cats +among the +Oraons.</note> +The European belief that witches can turn themselves into cats, +and that any wounds inflicted on the witch-cat will afterwards be +found on the body of the witch herself,<note place='foot'>Above, vol. i. pp. 315 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> has its exact parallel +among the Oraons or Uraons, a primitive hill tribe of Bengal. +The following is the account given of the Oraon belief by a Jesuit +missionary, who laboured for years among these savages and was +intimately acquainted with their superstitions:— +</p> + +<pb n='312'/><anchor id='Pg312'/> + +<p> +<q><foreign rend='italic'>Chordewa</foreign> is a witch rather than a <foreign rend='italic'>bhut</foreign> [demon]. It is +believed that some women have the power to change their soul +into a black cat, who then goes about in the houses where there +are sick people. Such a cat has a peculiar way of mewing quite +different from its brethren, and is easily recognised. It steals +quietly into the house, licks the lips of the sick man and eats of +the food that has been prepared for him. The sick man soon gets +worse and dies. They say it is very difficult to catch the cat, as it +has all the nimbleness of its nature and the cleverness of a <foreign rend='italic'>bhut</foreign>. +However, they sometimes succeed, and then something wonderful +happens. The woman out of whom the cat has come remains +insensible, as it were in a state of temporary death, until the cat +re-enters her body. Any wound inflicted on the cat will be inflicted +on her; if they cut its ears or break its legs or put out its eyes +the woman will suffer the same mutilation. The Uraons say that +formerly they used to burn any woman that was suspected to be a +<foreign rend='italic'>Chordewa</foreign>.</q><note place='foot'>The late Rev. P. Dehon, S.J., +<q>Religion and Customs of the +Uraons,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Memoirs of the Asiatic +Society of Bengal</hi>, vol. i. No. 9 +(Calcutta, 1906), p. 141.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>III. African Balders.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>African +parallels +to Balder.</note> +In various parts of Africa stories are told of men who could only +be killed, like Balder, by the stroke of an apparently insignificant +weapon; and some at least of these men were not mythical beings +but real men of flesh and blood who lived not long ago and whose +memory is still comparatively fresh among their people. The +Wadoe of German East Africa tell such a story of a great sorcerer, +whom they now worship as a dispenser of sunshine and rain. The +legend and the worship are reported as follows by a native African +traveller:— +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +worshipful +ghost in +the cave.</note> +<q rend='pre'>If drought sets in, all the chiefs meet in council and resolve: +<q>This year we have had nothing but sunshine; when we plant, the +fruits will not ripen; therefore we must betake ourselves to our +spirits of the dead (<foreign rend='italic'>mizimu</foreign>).</q> Then they take some woollen stuff +dyed blue and a red cloth, and set out together on the way and go +to the district Nguu, where their principal ghost (<foreign rend='italic'>mzimu</foreign>) resides, +in order to lay the matter before him. The ghost dwells in a very +spacious cave. On their coming the chiefs greet him. His answer +consists in a humming noise, which sounds like the patter of rain. +If one among them is a bad man, the ghost says to them, <q>There +is come with you in the caravan a rascal who wears such and such +clothes.</q> If such a man there is, he is driven away. Now they +<pb n='313'/><anchor id='Pg313'/> +tell the ghost all that they wish to say, to wit: <q>This year thou +hast given us much sunshine; the fruits in the fields do not grow +tall, everywhere there is sickness, therefore we beg thee, give us +rain.</q> Thereupon the ghost hums a second time, and all are glad, +because he has answered them. But if the ghost is angry, he does +not answer but holds his peace. If he has made them glad and +given an answer, much rain will fall; otherwise they return as they +went in sunshine.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The man +who could +only be +killed by +the stalk +of a gourd.</note> +<q>Originally this ghost was a man, a village elder (<foreign rend='italic'>jumbe</foreign>) of +Ukami. He was a great sorcerer. One day people wished to +conquer him, but they could do him no harm, for neither lead nor +sword nor arrow could pierce his body. But he lived at strife with +his wife. She said to his enemies, <q>If you would kill my husband, +I will tell you how it can be done.</q> They asked her, <q>How can +it be done?</q> She answered, <q>My husband is a great sorcerer; +you all know that.</q> They answered, <q>That is true.</q> Then she +said further, <q>If you would kill him so that he dies on the spot, +seek a stalk of a gourd and smite him with it; then he will +die at once, for that has always been to him a forbidden thing.</q><note place='foot'><q>Every clan (<foreign rend='italic'>Familienstamm</foreign>) has +a definite thing which is forbidden to +all the members of the clan, whether +it be a particular kind of meat, or a +certain fish, or as here the stalk of a +gourd.</q></note> +They sought the stalk of a gourd, and when they smote him with +it, he died at once without so much as setting one foot from the +spot. But of him and his departure there was nothing more to +be seen, for suddenly a great storm blew, and no man knew +whither he had gone. The storm is said to have carried him to +that cave which is still there to this day. After some days people +saw in the cave his weapons, clothes, and turban lying, and they +brought word to the folk in the town, <q>We have seen the clothes of +the elder in the cave, but of himself we have perceived nothing.</q> +The folk went thither to look about, and they found that it was so. +So the news of this ghost spread, all the more because people had +seen the marvel that a man died and nobody knew where he +had gone. The wonderful thing in this wood is that the spirits +dwell in the midst of the wood and that everywhere a bright white +sand lies on the ground, as if people had gone thither for the +purpose of keeping everything clean. On many days they hear +a drumming and shouts of joy in this wood, as if a marriage +feast were being held there. That is the report about the ghost of +Kolelo.<note place='foot'><q>The place in Nguu, where the +ghost is said to dwell.</q></note> All village elders, who dwell in the interior, see in this +ghost the greatest ghost of all. All the chiefs (<foreign rend='italic'>mwene</foreign>) and headmen +(<foreign rend='italic'>pazi</foreign>) and the village elders (<foreign rend='italic'>jumben</foreign>) of the clan Kingaru<note place='foot'><q>In Ukami.</q></note> +respect that ghost.</q><note place='foot'>C. Velten, <hi rend='italic'>Schilderungen der +Suaheli</hi> (Göttingen, 1901), pp. 195-197.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='314'/><anchor id='Pg314'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The man +who could +only be +killed by a +splinter of +bamboo.</note> +Miss Alice Werner, who kindly called my attention to this +and the following cases of African Balders, tells me that this +worshipful ghost in the cave appears to have been in his time +a real man. Again, she was assured by some natives that <q>Chikumbu, +a Yao chief, who at one time gave the Administration +some trouble, was invulnerable by shot or steel; the only thing +that could kill him—since he had not been fortified against it +by the proper medicine—was a sharp splinter of bamboo. This +reminds one of Balder and the mistletoe.</q><note place='foot'>Miss Alice Werner, <hi rend='italic'>The Natives +of British Central Africa</hi> (London, +1906), p. 82. In a letter Miss +Werner tells me that she learned these +particulars at Blantyre in 1893, and +that the chief lived in the neighbourhood +of Mlanje.</note> Again, a Nyanja chief +named Chibisa, who was a great man in this part of Africa when +Livingstone travelled in it,<note place='foot'>Rev. Henry Rowley, <hi rend='italic'>Twenty +Years in Central Africa</hi> (London, +N.D.), pp. 36 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> For a reference to +this and all the other works cited in +this Note I am indebted to the kindness +of Miss Alice Werner.</note> <q>stood firm upon his ant-heap, while +his men fell round him, shouting his war-song, until one who knew +the secret of a sand-bullet brought him down.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. David Clement Scott, <hi rend='italic'>A +Cyclopaedic Dictionary of the Mang'anja +Language spoken in British Central +Africa</hi> (Edinburgh, 1892), p. 315.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The man +who could +only be +killed by +a copper +needle.</note> +Once more the Swahili tell a story of an African Samson +named Liongo who lived in Shanga, while it was a flourishing city. +By reason of his great strength he oppressed the people exceedingly, +and they sought to kill him, but all in vain. At last they bribed +his nephew, saying, <q>Go and ask your father what it is that will +kill him. When you know, come and tell us, and when he is dead +we will give you the kingdom.</q> So the treacherous nephew went +to his uncle and asked him, <q>Father, what is it that can kill you?</q> +And his uncle said, <q>A copper needle. If any one stabs me in the +navel, I die.</q> So the nephew went to the town and said to the +people, <q>It is a copper needle that will kill him.</q> And they gave +him a needle, and he went back to his uncle; and while his uncle +slept the wicked nephew stabbed him with the needle in the navel. +So he died, and they buried him, and his grave is to be seen +at Ozi to this day. But they seized the nephew and killed him; +they did not give the kingdom to that bad young man.<note place='foot'>Edward Steere, <hi rend='italic'>Swahili Tales</hi> +(London, 1870), pp. 441-453. The +young man in the story is spoken of +now as the nephew and now as the +son of the man he murdered. Probably +he was what we should call a +nephew or brother's son of his victim; +for under the classificatory system of +relationship, which seems to prevail +among the Bantu stock, to whom the +Swahili belong, a man regularly calls +his paternal uncle his father.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>These +stories +confirm the +view that +Balder may +have been +a real man +who was +deified +after death.</note> +When we compare the story of Balder with these African stories, +the heroes of which were probably all real men, and when further +we remember the similar tale told of the Persian hero Isfendiyar, +who may well have been an historical personage,<note place='foot'>Above, vol. i. pp. 104 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> we are confirmed +<pb n='315'/><anchor id='Pg315'/> +in the suspicion that Balder himself may have been a real man, +admired and beloved in his lifetime and deified after his death, +like the African sorcerer, who is now worshipped in a cave and +bestows rain or sunshine on his votaries. On the whole I incline +to regard this solution of the Balder problem as more probable than +the one I have advocated in the text, namely that Balder was a +mythical personification of a mistletoe-bearing oak. The facts +which seem to incline the balance to the side of Euhemerism +reached me as my book was going to press and too late to be +embodied in their proper place in the volumes. The acceptance +of this hypothesis would not necessarily break the analogy which I +have traced between Balder in his sacred grove on the Sogne fiord +of Norway and the priest of Diana in the sacred grove of Nemi; +indeed, it might even be thought rather to strengthen the +resemblance between the two, since there is no doubt at all that +the priests of Diana at Nemi were men who lived real lives and +died real deaths. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>IV. The Mistletoe and the Golden Bough.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Two +species +of mistletoe, +the +<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Viscum +album</foreign> +and the +<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus +europaeus</foreign>. +Common +mistletoe +(<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Viscum +album</foreign>).</note> +That Virgil compares the Golden Bough to the mistletoe<note place='foot'><p>Virgil, Aen. vi. 205 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>:— +</p> +<p> +<q><hi rend='italic'>Quale solet silvis brumali frigore viscum<lb/> +Fronde virere nova, quod non sua seminat arbos,<lb/> +Et croceo fetu teretis circumdare truncos:<lb/> +Talis erat species auri frondentis opaca<lb/> +Ilice, sic leni crepitabat bractea vento.</hi></q> +</p></note> is +certain and admitted on all hands. The only doubt that can arise +is whether the plant to which he compares the mystic bough is the +ordinary species of mistletoe (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Viscum album</foreign>) or the species known +to botanists as <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus europaeus</foreign>. The common mistletoe (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Viscum +album</foreign>, L.) <q>lives as a semi-parasite (obtaining carbon from the air, +but water, nitrogen, and mineral matter from the sap of its host) on +many conifers and broadleaved trees, and chiefly on their branches. +The hosts, or trees on which it lives, are, <emph>most frequently</emph>, the apple +tree, both wild and cultivated varieties; next, the silver-fir; <emph>frequently</emph>, +birches, poplars (except aspen), limes, willows, Scots pine, +mountain-ash, and hawthorn; <emph>occasionally</emph>, robinia, maples, horse-chestnut, +hornbeam, and aspen. It is very rarely found on oaks, +but has been observed on pedunculate oak at Thornbury, Gloucestershire, +and elsewhere in Europe, also on <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Quercus coccinea</foreign>, Moench., +and <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Q. palustris</foreign>, Moench. The alders, beech and spruce appear +to be always free from mistletoe, and it very rarely attacks pear-trees. +It is commoner in Southern Europe than in the North, +<pb n='316'/><anchor id='Pg316'/> +and is extremely abundant where cider is made. In the N.-W. +Himalayan districts, it is frequently found on apricot-trees, which +are the commonest fruit-trees there. Its white berries are eaten by +birds, chiefly by the missel-thrush (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Turdus viscivorus</foreign>, L.), and the +seeds are either rubbed by the beak against branches of trees, or +voided on to them; the seeds, owing to the viscous nature of the +pulp surrounding them, then become attached to the branches.</q><note place='foot'>W. Schlich, <hi rend='italic'>Manual of Forestry</hi>, +vol. iv. <hi rend='italic'>Forest Protection</hi>, by W. R. +Fisher, M.A., Second Edition (London, +1907), p. 412. French peasants about +Coulommiers think that mistletoe +springs from birds' dung. See H. +Gaidoz, <q>Bulletin critique de la Mythologie +Gauloise,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Revue de l'Histoire +des Religions</hi>, ii. (1880) p. 76. The +ancients were well aware that mistletoe +is propagated from tree to tree by seeds +which have been voided by birds. See +Theophrastus, <hi rend='italic'>De Causis Plantarum</hi>, +ii. 17. 5; Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Naturalis Historia</hi>, +xvi. 247. Pliny tells us that the birds +which most commonly deposited the +seeds were pigeons and thrushes. Can +this have been the reason why Virgil +(<hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> vi. 190 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>) represents Aeneas led +to the Golden Bough by a pair of doves?</note> +The large smooth pale-green tufts of the parasite, clinging to the +boughs of trees, are most conspicuous in winter, when they assume +a yellowish hue.<note place='foot'>James Sowerby, <hi rend='italic'>English Botany</hi>, +xxi. (London, 1805) p. 1470.</note> In Greece at the present time mistletoe grows +most commonly on firs, especially at a considerable elevation (three +thousand feet or more) above the level of the sea.<note place='foot'>C. Fraas, <hi rend='italic'>Synopsis Plantarum +Florae Classicae</hi> (Munich, 1845), p. +152.</note> Throughout +Italy mistletoe now grows on fruit-trees, almond-trees, hawthorn, +limes, willows, black poplars, and firs, but never, it is said, on oaks.<note place='foot'>H. O. Lenz, <hi rend='italic'>Botanik der alten +Griechen und Römer</hi> (Gotha, 1859), p. +597, quoting Pollini.</note> +In England seven authentic cases of mistletoe growing on oaks are +said to be reported.<note place='foot'>J. Lindley and T. Moore, <hi rend='italic'>The +Treasury of Botany</hi>, New Edition +(London, 1874), ii. 1220. A good +authority, however, observes that +mistletoe is <q>frequently to be observed +on the branches of old apple-trees, +hawthorns, lime-trees, oaks, etc., where +it grows parasitically.</q> See J. Sowerby, +<hi rend='italic'>English Botany</hi>, xxi. (London, 1805) +p. 1470.</note> In Gloucestershire mistletoe grows on the +Badham Court oak, Sedbury Park, Chepstow, and on the Frampton-on-Severn +oak.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Encyclopaedia Britannica</hi>, Ninth +Edition, x. 689, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Gloucester.</q></note> Branches of oak with mistletoe growing on them +were exhibited to more than one learned society in France during +the nineteenth century; one of the branches was cut in the forest of +Jeugny.<note place='foot'>H. Gaidoz, <q>Bulletin critique de +la Mythologie Gauloise,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Revue de +l'Histoire des Religions</hi>, ii. (1880) pp. +75 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> It is a popular French superstition that mandragora or +<q>the hand of glory,</q> as it is called by the people, may be found by +digging at the root of a mistletoe-bearing oak.<note place='foot'>Angelo de Gubernatis, <hi rend='italic'>La Mythologie +des Plantes</hi> (Paris, 1878-1882), ii. +216 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> As to the many curious superstitions +that have clustered round +mandragora, see P. J. Veth, <q>De +Mandragora,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Internationales Archiv +für Ethnographie</hi>, vii. (1894) pp. 199-205; +C. B. Randolph, <q>The Mandragora +of the Ancients in Folk-lore and +Medicine,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Proceedings of the American +Academy of Arts and Sciences</hi>, vol. xl. +No. 12 (January, 1905), pp. 487-537.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='317'/><anchor id='Pg317'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus +europaeus.</foreign></note> +The species of mistletoe known as <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus europaeus</foreign> resembles +the ordinary mistletoe in general appearance, but its berries are bright +yellow instead of white. <q>This species attacks chiefly oaks, <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Quercus +cerris</foreign>, L., <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Q. sessiliflora</foreign>, Salisb., less frequently, <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Q. pedunculata</foreign>, Ehrh., +and <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Castanea vulgaris</foreign>, Lam.; also lime. It is found throughout +Southern Europe and as far north as Saxony, not in Britain. It +grows chiefly on the branches of standards over coppice.</q> The +injury which it inflicts on its hosts is even greater than that inflicted +by the ordinary mistletoe; it often kills the branch on which it +settles. The seeds are carried to the trees by birds, chiefly by +the missel-thrush. In India many kinds of <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign> grow on +various species of forest trees, for example, on teak;<note place='foot'>W. Schlich, <hi rend='italic'>Manual of Forestry</hi>, +vol. iv. <hi rend='italic'>Forest Protection</hi>, Second +Edition (London, 1907), pp. 415-417.</note> one variety +(<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus vestitus</foreign>) grows on two species of oak, the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Quercus +dilatata</foreign>, Lindl., and the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Quercus incana</foreign>, Roxb.<note place='foot'>E. B. Stebbing, <q>The Loranthus +Parasite of the Moru and Ban Oaks,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal and Proceedings of the Asiatic +Society of Bengal</hi>, New Series, v. +(Calcutta, 1910) pp. 189-195. The +<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus vestitus</foreign> <q>is a small branching +woody plant with dirty yellowish +green leaves which are dark shining +green above. It grows in great +clumps and masses on the trees, resembling +a giant mistletoe. The fruit +is yellowish and fleshy, and is almost +sessile on the stem, which it thickly +studs</q> (<hi rend='italic'>ib.</hi>, p. 192). The writer +shews that the parasite is very destructive +to oaks in India.</note> A marked distinction +between the two sorts of mistletoe is that whereas ordinary +mistletoe (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Viscum album</foreign>) is evergreen, the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign> is deciduous.<note place='foot'>H. O. Lenz, <hi rend='italic'>Botanik der alten +Griechen und Römer</hi> (Gotha, 1859), p. +598, notes 151 and 152.</note> +In Greece the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign> has been observed on many old chestnut-trees +at Stheni, near Delphi.<note place='foot'>C. Fraas, <hi rend='italic'>Synopsis Plantarum +Florae Classicae</hi> (Munich, 1845), p. 152.</note> In Italy it grows chiefly on the various +species of oaks and also on chestnut-trees. So familiar is it on oaks +that it is known as <q>oak mistletoe</q> both in popular parlance (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>visco +quercino</foreign>) and in druggists' shops (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>viscum quernum</foreign>). Bird-lime is +made from it in Italy.<note place='foot'>H. O. Lenz, <hi rend='italic'>Botanik der alten +Griechen und Römer</hi> (Gotha, 1859), +pp. 599 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Both sorts +of mistletoe +known +to the +ancients +and designated +by +different +words.</note> +Both sorts of mistletoe were known to the ancient Greeks and +Romans, though the distinctive terms which they applied to each +appear not to be quite certain. Theophrastus, and Pliny after him, +seem to distinguish three sorts of mistletoe, to which Theophrastus +gives the names of <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>ixia</foreign>, <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>hyphear</foreign>, and <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>stelis</foreign> respectively. He says +that the <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>hyphear</foreign> and the <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>stelis</foreign> grow on firs and pines, and that the +<foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>ixia</foreign> grows on the oak (δρῦς), the terebinth, and many other kinds +of trees. He also observes that both the <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>ixia</foreign> and the <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>hyphear</foreign> grow +on the ilex or holm-oak (πρῖνος), the same tree sometimes bearing +both species at the same time, the <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>ixia</foreign> on the north and the <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>hyphear</foreign> +on the south. He expressly distinguishes the evergreen species of +<foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>ixia</foreign> from the deciduous, which seems to prove that he included +<pb n='318'/><anchor id='Pg318'/> +both the ordinary mistletoe (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Viscum album</foreign>) and the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign> under +the general name of <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>ixia</foreign>.<note place='foot'>Theophrastus, <hi rend='italic'>Historia Plantarum</hi>, +iii. 7. 5, iii. 16. 1, <hi rend='italic'>De Causis Plantarum</hi>, +ii. 17; Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xvi. +245-247. Compare Dioscorides, <hi rend='italic'>De +materia medica</hi>, ii. 93 (103), vol. i. +pp. 442 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ed. C. Sprengel (Leipsic, +1829-1830), who uses the form <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>ixos</foreign> +instead of <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>ixia</foreign>. Both Dioscorides (<hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi>) +and Plutarch (<hi rend='italic'>Coriolanus</hi>, 3) affirm that +mistletoe (<foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>ixos</foreign>) grows on the oak (δρῦς); +and Hesychius quotes from Sophocles's +play <hi rend='italic'>Meleager</hi> the expression <q>mistletoe-bearing +oaks</q> (ἰξοφόρους δρύας, +Hesychius, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi>).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Doubts +as to the +identification +of the +ancient +names for +mistletoe.</note> +Modern writers are not agreed as to the identification of the +various species of mistletoe designated by the names <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>ixia</foreign>, <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>hyphear</foreign>, +and <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>stelis</foreign>. F. Wimmer, the editor of Theophrastus in the Didot +edition, takes <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>hyphear</foreign> to be common mistletoe (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Viscum album</foreign>), +<foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>stelis</foreign> to be <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus europaeus</foreign>, and <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>ixia</foreign> to be a general name +which includes the two species.<note place='foot'>Theophrastus, <hi rend='italic'>Opera quae supersunt +omnia</hi>, ed. Fr. Wimmer (Paris, +1866), pp. 537, 545, 546, <hi rend='italic'>s.vv.</hi> ἰξία, +στελίς, ὑφέαρ.</note> On the other hand F. Fraas, +while he agrees as to the identification of <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>hyphear</foreign> and <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>stelis</foreign> with +common mistletoe and <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign> respectively, inclines somewhat +hesitatingly to regard <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>ixia</foreign> or <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>ixos</foreign> (as Dioscorides has it) as a +synonym for <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>stelis</foreign> (the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign>).<note place='foot'>F. Fraas, <hi rend='italic'>Synopsis Plantarum +Florae Classicae</hi> (Munich, 1845), p. +152.</note> H. O. Lenz, again, regards +both <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>hyphear</foreign> and <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>stelis</foreign> as synonyms for common mistletoe (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Viscum +album</foreign>), while he would restrict <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>ixia</foreign> to the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign>.<note place='foot'>H. O. Lenz, <hi rend='italic'>Botanik der alten +Griechen und Römer</hi> (Gotha, 1859), p. +597, notes 147 and 148.</note> But both +these attempts to confine <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>ixia</foreign> to the single deciduous species +<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign> seem incompatible with the statement of Theophrastus, +that <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>ixia</foreign> includes an evergreen as well as a deciduous species.<note place='foot'>Theophrastus, <hi rend='italic'>De Causis Plantarum</hi>, +ii. 17. 2, ἐπεὶ τό γε τὴν μὲν +ἀείφυλλον εἶναι τῶν ἰξιῶν (τὴν δὲ φυλλοβόλον) +οὐθὲν ἄτοπον, κἂν ἡ μὲν +(ἐν) ἀιφύλλοις ἡ δὲ ἐν φυλλοβόλοις +ἐμβιῴη.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Did Virgil +compare +the Golden +Bough +to common +mistletoe +or to <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign>? +Some +enquirers +decide +in favour +of <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign>.</note> +We have now to ask, Did Virgil compare the Golden Bough to +the common mistletoe (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Viscum album</foreign>) or to the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus europaeus</foreign>? +Some modern enquirers decide in favour of the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign>. Many +years ago Sir Francis Darwin wrote to me:<note place='foot'>His letter is undated, but the +postmark is April 28th, 1889. Sir +Francis Darwin has since told me that +his authority is Kerner von Marilaun, +<hi rend='italic'>Pflanzenleben</hi> (1888), vol. i. pp. 195, +196. See Anton Kerner von Marilaun, +<hi rend='italic'>The Natural History of Plants</hi>, translated +and edited by F. W. Oliver +(London, 1894-1895), i. 204 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> +According to this writer <q>the mistletoe's +favourite tree is certainly the +Black Poplar (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Populus nigra</foreign>). It +flourishes with astonishing luxuriance +on the branches of that tree.... +Mistletoe has also been found by way +of exception upon the oak and the +maple, and upon old vines</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +i. 205).</note> <q>I wonder whether +<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus europaeus</foreign> would do for your Golden Bough. It is a sort +of mistletoe growing on oaks and chestnuts in S. Europe. In +the autumn it produces what are described as bunches of pretty +yellow berries. It is not evergreen like the mistletoe, but +deciduous, and as its leaves appear at the same time as the oak +<pb n='319'/><anchor id='Pg319'/> +leaves and drop at the same time in autumn, it must look like a +branch of the oak, more especially as it has rough bark with lichens +often growing on it. <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign> is said to be a hundred years old +sometimes.</q> Professor P. J. Veth, after quoting the passage from +Virgil, writes that <q>almost all translators (including Vondel) and +commentators of the Mantuan bard think that the mistletoe is here +meant, probably for the simple reason that it was better known to +them than <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus europaeus</foreign>. I am convinced that Virgil can +only have thought of the latter. On the other side of the Alps the +<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign> is much commoner than the mistletoe; on account of its +splendid red blossoms, sometimes twenty centimetres long, it is a +far larger and more conspicuous ornament of the trees; it bears +really golden yellow fruit (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Croceus fetus</foreign>), whereas the berries of the +mistletoe are almost white; and it attaches itself by preference +to the oak, whereas the mistletoe is very seldom found on the +oak.</q><note place='foot'>Prof. P. J. Veth, <q>De leer der +signatuur, III. De mistel en de +riembloem,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Internationales Archiv +für Ethnographie</hi>, vii. (1894) p. 105. +The Dutch language has separate +names for the two species: mistletoe is +<foreign lang='nl' rend='italic'>mistel</foreign>, and <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign> is <foreign lang='nl' rend='italic'>riembloem</foreign>.</note> Again, Mr. W. R. Paton writes to me from Mount +Athos:<note place='foot'>His letter is dated 18th February, +1908.</note> <q>The oak is here called <foreign rend='italic'>dendron</foreign>, <emph>the</emph> tree. As for the +mistletoe there are two varieties, both called <foreign rend='italic'>axo</foreign> (ancient ἰξός). +Both are used to make bird-lime. The real <hi rend='italic'>Golden Bough</hi> is the +variety with yellow berries and no leaves. It is the parasite of the +oak and rarely grows on other trees. It is very abundant, and +now in winter the oak-trees which have adopted it seem from a +distance to be draped in a golden tissue. The other variety is our +own mistletoe and is strictly a parasite of the fir (a spruce fir, I don't +know its scientific name). It is also very abundant.</q> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Reason for +preferring +common +mistletoe. Perhaps +Virgil +confused +the two +species.</note> +Thus in favour of identifying Virgil's mistletoe (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>viscum</foreign>) with +<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign> rather than with common mistletoe it has been urged, +first, that the berries of <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign> are bright yellow, whereas those +of the mistletoe are of a greenish white; and, second, that the +<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign> commonly grows on oaks, whereas mistletoe seldom does +so, indeed in Italy mistletoe is said never to be found on an oak. +Both these circumstances certainly speak strongly in favour of +<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign>; since Virgil definitely describes the berries as of a +saffron-yellow (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>croceus</foreign>) and says that the plant grew on a holm-oak. +Yet on the other hand Virgil tells us that the plant put forth fresh +leaves in the depths of winter (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>brumali frigore</foreign>, strictly speaking, +<q>the cold of the winter solstice</q>); and this would best apply to +the common mistletoe, which is evergreen, whereas <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign> is +deciduous.<note place='foot'>But Sir Francis Darwin writes to +me:—<q>I do not quite see why <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign> +should not put out leaves in +winter as easily as <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Viscum</foreign>, in both +cases it would be due to unfolding +leaf buds; the fact that <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Viscum</foreign> has +adult leaves at the time, while <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign> +has not, does not really affect +the matter.</q> However, Mr. Paton +tells us, as we have just seen, that in +winter the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign> growing on the +oaks of Mount Athos has no leaves, +though its yellow berries are very +conspicuous.</note> Accordingly, if we must decide between the two species, +this single circumstance appears to incline the balance in favour of +<pb n='320'/><anchor id='Pg320'/> +common mistletoe. But is it not possible that Virgil, whether consciously +or unconsciously, confused the two plants and combined +traits from both in his description? Both parasites are common +in Italy and in appearance they are much alike except for the +colour of the berries. As a loving observer of nature, Virgil was +probably familiar by sight with both, but he may not have examined +them closely; and he might be excused if he thought that the +parasite which he saw growing, with its clusters of bright yellow +berries, on oaks in winter, was identical with the similar parasite +which he saw growing, with its bunches of greenish white +berries and its pale green leaves, on many other trees of the +forest. The confusion would be all the more natural if the Celts +of northern Italy, in whose country the poet was born, resembled +the modern Celts of Brittany in attaching bunches of the common +mistletoe to their cottages and leaving them there till the revolving +months had tinged the pale berries, leaves, and twigs with a golden +yellow, thereby converting the branch of mistletoe into a true +Golden Bough. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='321'/><anchor id='Pg321'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Index.</head> + +<lg> +<l>Aachen, effigy burnt at, i. 120, ii. <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aargau, Swiss canton, of, Lenten fire-custom in, i. 119;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>superstition as to oak-mistletoe in, ii. <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe called <q>thunder-besom</q> in, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>birth-trees in, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abeghian, Manuk, on creeping through cleft trees in Armenia, ii. <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abensberg in Bavaria, burning the Easter Man at, i. 144</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abeokuta, use of bull-roarers at, ii. <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aber, the Lake of, in Upper Austria, ii. <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aberdeenshire, custom at reaping the last corn in, i. 12;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire in, 296;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>holed rock used by childless women in, ii. <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aberfeldy, Hallowe'en fires near, i. 232</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aborigines of Victoria, their custom as to emu fat, i. 13</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abougit, Father X., S.J., on the ceremony of the new fire at Jerusalem, i. 130</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abruzzi, new Easter fire in the, i. 122;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>water consecrated at Easter in the, 122 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer rites of fire and water in the, 209 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Acacia, the heart in the flower of the, ii. <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Acarnanian story of Prince Sunless, i. 21</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Achern, St. John's fires at, i. 168</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Achterneed, in Ross-shire, Beltane cakes at, i. 153</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Acireale, in Sicily, Midsummer fires at, i. 210</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Adder stones, i. 15</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Addison, Joseph, on witchcraft in Switzerland, ii. <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Adonis and Aphrodite, ii. <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aelst, Peter van, painter, ii. <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aeneas and the Golden Bough, ii. <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref>, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Africa, girls secluded at puberty in, i. 22 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dread and seclusion of women at menstruation in, 79 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>birth-trees in, ii. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of bull-roarers in, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, British Central, the Anyanja of, i. 81</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, British East, i. 81;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ceremony of new fire in, 135 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Nandi of, ii. <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Akikuyu of, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, East, ceremony of the new fire in, i. 135;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Swahili of, ii. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, German East, the Wajagga of, ii. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Washamba of, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Bondeis of, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Wadoe of, <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, German South-West, the Ovambo of, ii. <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, North, Midsummer fires in, i. 213 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, South, the Thonga of, ii. <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, West, theory of an external soul embodied in an animal prevalent in, ii. <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ritual of death and resurrection at initiation in, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>African stories of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Balders, <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Afterbirth buried under a tree, ii. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of child animated by a ghost and sympathetically connected with a banana-tree, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>regarded as brother or sister of child, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>regarded as a second child, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>regarded as a guardian spirit, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and navel-string regarded as guardian angels of the man, ii. <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Agaric growing on birch-trees, superstitions as to, i. 148</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aglu, New year fires at, i. 217</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Air thought to be poisoned at eclipses, i. 162 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aisne, Midsummer fires in the department of, i. 187</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aix, squibs at Midsummer in, i. 193;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer king at, i. 194, ii. <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bathing at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='322'/><anchor id='Pg322'/> + +<lg> +<l>Agni, Hindoo deity, i. 99 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the fire-god, ii. <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref>, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ague, Midsummer bonfires deemed a cure for, i. 162;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>leaps across the Midsummer bonfires thought to be a preventive of, 174</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Agweh, on the Slave Coast, custom of widows at, ii. <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ahlen, in Munsterland, i. 247</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ahriman, the devil of the Persians, i. 95</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aht or Nootka Indians of Vancouver Island, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 43 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ahura Mazda, the supreme being of the Persians, i. 95</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ain, Lenten fires in the department of, i. 114</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ainos of Japan, their mourning caps, i. 20;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their use of mugwort in exorcism, ii. <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their veneration for mistletoe, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>A-Kamba of British East Africa, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 23</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Akikuyu of British East Africa, their dread of menstruous women, i. 81;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ritual of the new birth among the, ii. <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp, Roman version of, ii. <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alaska, seclusion of girls at puberty among the Indians of, i. 45 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Esquimaux of, ii. <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alastir and the Bare-Stripping Hangman, Argyleshire story of, ii. <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Albania, Midsummer fires in, i. 212;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 264</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Albanian story of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Albert Nyanza, the Wakondyo of the, ii. <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Albino head of secret society on the Lower Congo, ii. <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alders free from mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alfoors or Toradjas of Celebes, their custom at the smelting of iron, ii. <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their doctrine of the plurality of souls, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Algeria, Midsummer fires in, i. 213</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alice Springs in Central Australia, ii. <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Allan, John Hay, on the Hays of Errol, ii. <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Allandur temple, at St. Thomas's Mount, Madras, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>All-healer, name applied to mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>All Saints' Day, omens on, i. 240;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the first of November, 225;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bonfires on, 246;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sheep passed through a hoop on, ii. <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>All Souls, Feast of, i. 223 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 225 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Almond-trees, mistletoe on, ii. <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>A-Louyi, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 28 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alsace, Midsummer fires in, i. 169;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cats burnt in Easter bonfires in, ii. <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Althenneberg, in Bavaria, Easter fires at, i. 143 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Altmark, Easter bonfires in, i. 140, 142</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alum burnt at Midsummer, i. 214</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alungu, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 24 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alur, a tribe of the Upper Nile, i. 64</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alvarado, Pedro de, Spanish general, ii. <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Amadhlozi</foreign>, ancestral spirits in serpent form, ii. <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amambwe, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 24 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Amatongo</foreign>, plural of <foreign rend='italic'>itongo</foreign>, ii. <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amazon, ordeals of young men among the Indians of the, i. 62 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ambamba, in West Africa, death, resurrection, and the new birth in, ii. <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amboyna, hair of criminals cut in, ii. <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ambras, Midsummer customs at, i. 173</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>America, Central, the Mosquito territory in, i. 86</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>America, North, Indians of, not allowed to sit on bare ground in war, i. 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seclusion of girls at puberty among the Indians of, 41 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dread and seclusion of menstruous women among the Indians of, 87 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>stories of the external soul among the Indians of, ii. <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>religious associations among the Indian tribes of, <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, South, seclusion of girls at puberty among the Indians of, i. 56 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>effigies of Judas burnt at Easter in, 128;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 212 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ammerland, in Oldenburg, cart-wheel used as charm against witchcraft in, i. 345 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amphitryo besieges Taphos, ii. <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amulets, rings and bracelets as, i. 92;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as soul-boxes, ii. <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>degenerate into ornaments, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ancestor, wooden image of, ii. <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ancestors, worship of, in Fiji, ii. <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ancestral spirits incarnate in serpents, ii. <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anderson, Miss, of Barskimming, i. 171 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Andes, the Peruvian, effigies of Judas burnt at Easter in the, i. 128</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Andjra, a district of Morocco, i. 17;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in the, 213 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer rites of water in, 216;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>animals bathed at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='323'/><anchor id='Pg323'/> + +<lg> +<l>Andreas, parish of, in the Isle of Man, i. 224, 305, 307 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Angass, the, of Northern Nigeria, their belief in external human souls lodged in animals, ii. <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Angel, need-fire revealed by an, i. 287</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -man, effigy of, burnt at Midsummer, i. 167</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Angelus bell, the, i. 110, ii. <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Angoniland, British Central Africa, customs as to girls at puberty in, i. 25 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>customs as to salt in, 27</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Angus, superstitious remedy for the <q>quarter-ill</q> in, i. 296 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anhalt, Easter bonfires in, i. 140</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Animal, bewitched, or part of it, burnt to compel the witch to appear, i. 303, 305, 307 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 321 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sickness transferred to, ii. <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and man, sympathetic relation between, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Animal familiars of wizards and witches, ii. <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Animals burnt alive as a sacrifice in England, Wales, and Scotland, i. 300 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches transformed into, 315 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bewitched, buried alive, i. 324 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>live, burnt at Spring and Midsummer festivals, ii. <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the animals perhaps deemed embodiments of witches, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the language of, learned by means of fern-seed, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external soul in, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>magical transformation of men into animals, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>helpful, in fairy tales. <hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Helpful'>Helpful</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Ankenmilch bohren</foreign>, to make the need-fire, i. 270 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ankole, in Central Africa, i. 80</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Annam, dread of menstruous women in, i. 85;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of wormwood to avert demons in, ii. <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anpu and Bata, ancient Egyptian story of, ii. <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Anthemis nobilis</foreign>, camomile, gathered at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ant-hill, insane people buried in an, i. 64</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ants employed to sting girls at puberty, i. 61;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to sting young men, i. 62 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Antonius Mountain, in Thuringia, Christmas bonfire on the, i. 265 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Antwerp, wicker giants at, ii. <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anula tribe of Northern Australia, their rites of initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anyanja of British Central Africa, their dread of menstruous women, i. 81 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apaches, i. 21;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of bull-roarers among the, ii, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apala cured by Indra in the Rigveda, ii. <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ape, a Batta totem, ii. <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aphrodite and Adonis, ii. <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apollo, identified with the Celtic Grannus, i. 112</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Soranus, ii. <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apollo's temple at Cumae, i. 99</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apple, divination by the sliced, i. 238;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and candle, biting at, 241, 242, 243, 245</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apple-tree as life-index of boy, ii. <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -trees, torches thrown at, i. 108;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe on, ii. <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref>, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apples, dipping for, at Hallowe'en, i. 237, 239, 241, 242, 243, 245</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apricot-trees, mistletoe on, ii. <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>April, the twenty-seventh of, in popular superstitions of Morocco, i. 17 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ceremony of the new fire in, 136 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Chinese festival of fire in, <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arab women in Morocco, their superstitions as to plants at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arabia, tree-spirits in snake form in, ii. <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arabian, modern, story of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Arabian Nights</hi>, story of the external soul in the, ii. <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arabs of Morocco, their Midsummer customs, i. 214</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aran, in the valley of the Garonne, Midsummer fires at, i. 193</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arch, child after an illness passed under an, ii. <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>young men at initiation passed under a leafy, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>triumphal, suggested origin of the, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Archer (<foreign rend='italic'>Tirant</foreign>), effigy of, ii. <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arches, novices at initiation passed under arches in Australia, ii. <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Archways, passing under, as a means of escaping evil spirits or sickness, ii. <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ardennes, the Belgian, bonfires on the first Sunday of Lent in the, i. 107 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the French, Lenten fires and customs in the, 109 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in the, 188;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in the, 253;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cats burnt alive in Lenten bonfires, ii. <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Argo, tree of which the ship was made, ii. <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Argyleshire stories of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Argyrus, temple of Hercules at, i. 99 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aricia, the priest of, and the Golden Bough, i. 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the priest of Diana at, perhaps a personified Jupiter, ii. <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Arician'/> +<l>Arician grove, the Midsummer festival of fire in the, ii. <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the priest of the, a personification of an oak-spirit, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ariminum, triumphal arch of Augustus at, ii. <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arizona and New Mexico, use of bull-roarers in, ii. <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='324'/><anchor id='Pg324'/> + +<lg> +<l>Arks, sacred, of the Cherokees, i. 11 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Armenia, were-wolves in, i. 316;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sick people creep through cleft trees in, ii. <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Armenian church, bonfires at Candlemas in the, i. 131</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— idea of the sun as a wheel, i. 334 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arms of youths punctured to make them good hunters, i. 58</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arnstadt, witches burnt at, i. 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arran, the need-fire in, i. 293</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arrows used as a love-charm, i. 14</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Artemis Perasia, at Castabala in Cappadocia, ii. <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Artemisia absinthium</foreign>, wormwood, ii. <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>vulgaris</foreign>, mugwort, gathered at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Artois, mugwort at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arunta of Central Australia, their sacred pole, i. 7;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their dread of women at menstruation, 77;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>legend that the ancestors kept their spirits in their <foreign rend='italic'>churinga</foreign>, ii. <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rites of initiation among the, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>initiation of medicine-men among the, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aryan god of the thunder and the oak, i. 265</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— peoples, stories of the external soul among, ii. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aryans of Europe, importance of the Midsummer festival among the, ii. <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the oak the chief sacred tree of the, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ascension Day, parasitic rowan should be cut on, ii. <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Asceticism not primitive, i. 65</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ash Wednesday, effigy burnt on, i. 120</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ash-trees, children passed through cleft ash-trees as a cure for rupture or rickets, ii. <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Ashes'/> +<l>Ashes in divination, i. 243, 244, 245.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Sticks-Charred'>Sticks, Charred</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of bonfires put in fowls' nests, i. 112, 338;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>increase fertility of fields, 141, 337;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>make cattle thrive, 141, 338;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>placed in a person's shoes, 156;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>administered to cattle to make them fat, ii. <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of dead, disposal of the, i. 11</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Easter bonfire mixed with seed at sowing, i. 121</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Hallowe'en fires scattered, i. 233</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of holy fires a protection against demons, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Midsummer fires strewed on fields to fertilize them, i. 170, 190, 203;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against conflagration, 174, 196;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against lightning, 187, 188;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against thunder, 190;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>put by people in their shoes, 191 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a cure for consumption, 194 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rubbed by people on their hair or bodies, 213, 214, 215;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>good for the eyes, 214</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ashes of the need-fire strewn on fields to protect the crops against vermin, i. 274;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used as a medicine, 286</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of New Year's fire used to rub sore eyes, i. 218</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Yule log strewed on fields, i. 250;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used to heal swollen glands, 251</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Ashur</foreign>, Arab New Year's Day, i. 217, 218</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Asia Minor, the Celts in, ii. <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cure for possession by an evil spirit in, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>creeping through rifted rocks in, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aspen, mistletoe on, ii. <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Aspidium filix mas</foreign>, the male fern, superstitions as to, ii. <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ass, child passed under an, as a cure for whooping-cough, ii. <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Assam, the Khasis of, ii. <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Lushais of, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Assiga, tribe of South Nigeria, ii. <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Associations, religious, among the Indian tribes of North America, ii. <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Assyrian ritual, use of golden axe in, ii. <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aston, W. G., quoted, i. 137 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the fire-walk in Japan, ii. <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Astral spirit of a witch, i. 317</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Atai</foreign>, external soul in the Mota language, ii. <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ath, in Hainaut, procession of giants at, ii. <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athboy, in County Meath, i. 139</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athena, priestess of, uses a white umbrella, i. 20 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athenians offer cakes to Cronus, i. 153 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athens, ceremony of the new fire at Easter in, i. 130</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athis, in Normandy, Christmas bonfires at, i. 266</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athos, Mount, mistletoe at, ii. <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref>, <ref target='Pg320'>320</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Atrae, city in Mesopotamia, i. 82</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aubrey, John, on the Midsummer fires, i. 197</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aufkirchen in Bavaria, burning the Easter Man at, i. 144</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>August, procession of wicker giants in, ii. <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, first of, Festival of the Cross on the, i. 220</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— the eighteenth, feast of Florus and Laurus, i. 220</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— the sixth, festival of St. Estapin, ii. <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Augustus, triumphal arch of Augustus at Ariminum, ii. <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='325'/><anchor id='Pg325'/> + +<lg> +<l>Aunis, wonderful herbs gathered on St. John's Eve in, ii. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>St. John's wort in, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>vervain gathered at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>four-leaved clover at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Saintonge, Midsummer fires in, i. 192</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aurora, in the New Hebrides, <foreign rend='italic'>tamaniu</foreign> in, ii. <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Australia, dread and seclusion of women at menstruation in, i. 76 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>passing under an arch as a rite of initiation in, ii. <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>initiation of young men in, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of bull-roarers in, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Central, pointing sticks or bones in, i. 14 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>its desert nature, ii. <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, South-Eastern, sex totems among the natives of, ii. <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Australian languages, words for fire and wood in, ii. <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Austria, Midsummer fires in, i. 172 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log among the Servians of, 262 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire in Upper, 279;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fern-seed at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe used to prevent nightmare in, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Autumn fires, i. 220 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Auvergne, Lenten fires in, i. 111 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>story of a were-wolf in, 308 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Ave Maria</foreign> bell, ii. <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Avernus, Lake, and the Golden Bough, ii. <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Awa-nkonde, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 28</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Awasungu, the house of the,</q> i. 28</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Awka in South Nigeria, i. 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Azemmur, in Morocco, Midsummer fires at, i. 214</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Azores, bonfires and divination on Midsummer Eve in the, i. 208 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fern-seed at Midsummer in the, ii. <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aztecs, their punishment of witches and wizards, ii. <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baal and Beltane, i. 149 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 150 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 157</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Babine Lake in British Columbia, i. 47</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Backache at reaping, leaps over the Midsummer bonfire thought to be a preventive of, i. 165, 168, 189, 344 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>set down to witchcraft, 343 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, 345;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at harvest, mugwort a protection against, ii. <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>creeping through a holed stone to prevent backache at harvest, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Badache</foreign>, double-axe, Midsummer King of the, i. 194</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Badagas of the Neilgherry Hills, their fire-walk, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baden, Lenten fire-custom in, i. 117;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Easter bonfires in, 145;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 167 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Badham Court oak, in Gloucestershire, ii. <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Badnyak</foreign>, Yule log, i. 259, 263</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Badnyi Dan</foreign>, Christmas Eve, i. 258, 263</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bag, souls of persons deposited in a, ii. <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Baganda'/> +<l>Baganda, children live apart from their parents among the, i. 23 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seclusion of girls at puberty among the, 23 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>superstition as to women who do not menstruate, 24;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>abstain from salt in certain cases, 27 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their dread of menstruous women, 80 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their beliefs and customs concerning the afterbirth, ii. <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Uganda'>Uganda</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bahaus or Kayans of Central Borneo, i. 4 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bahima of Central Africa, their dread of menstruous women, i. 80</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bahr-el-Ghazal province, ceremony of the new fire in the, i. 134 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bakairi, the, of Brazil, call bull-roarers <q>thunder and lightning,</q> ii. <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baking-forks, witches ride on, ii. <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bakuba or Bushongo of the Congo, i. 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Balder, his body burnt, i. 102;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped in Norway, 104;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>camomile sacred to, ii. <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt at Midsummer, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer sacred to, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a tree-spirit or deity of vegetation, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>interpreted as a mistletoe-bearing oak, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his invulnerability, <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>why Balder was thought to shine, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and the mistletoe, i. 101 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his life or death in the mistletoe, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perhaps a real man deified, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the myth of, i. 101 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reproduced in the Midsummer festival of Scandinavia, ii. <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perhaps dramatized in ritual, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Indian parallel to, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>African parallels to, <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Balder's Balefires, name formerly given to Midsummer bonfires in Sweden, i. 172, ii. <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Grove, i. 104, ii. <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Balders-brâ</foreign>, Balder's eyelashes, a name for camomile, ii. <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bâle, Lenten fire-custom in the canton of, i. 119</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Balefires, Balder's, at Midsummer in Sweden, i. 172</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bali, filing of teeth in, i. 68 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>birth-trees in, ii. <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Balkan Peninsula, need-fire in the, i. 281</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ball, game of, played to determine the King of Summer, i. 195</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ballyvadlea, in Tipperary, woman burnt as a witch at, i. 323 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='326'/><anchor id='Pg326'/> + +<lg> +<l>Balnagown loch, in Lismore, i. 316</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Balong of the Cameroons, their external souls in animals, ii. <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Balquhidder, hill of the fires at, i. 149;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Hallowe'en bonfires at, 232</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Balum</foreign>, New Guinea word signifying bull-roarer, ghost, and mythical monster, ii. <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Banana-tree, afterbirth of child buried under a, ii. <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bancroft, H. H., on the external souls of the Zapotecs, ii. <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Banivas of the Orinoco, their scourging of girls at puberty, i. 66 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Baraka</foreign>, blessed or magical virtue, i. 216, 218, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Barclay, Sheriff, on Hallowe'en fires, i. 232</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bardney bumpkin, on witch as hare, i. 318</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bare-Stripping Hangman, Argyleshire story of the, ii. <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Barker, W. G. M. Jones, on need-fire in Yorkshire, i. 286 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Barley plant, external soul of prince in a, ii. <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ba-Ronga, the, of South Africa, their story of a clan whose external souls were in a cat, ii. <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Barotse'/> +<l>Barotse or Marotse of the Zambesi, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 28, 29</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Barren cattle driven through fire, i. 203, 338</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— women hope to conceive through fertilizing influence of vegetables, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Barricading the road against a ghostly pursuer, ii. <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Barsana, in North India, Holi bonfires at, ii. <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref>, <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bartle Bay, in British New Guinea, festival of the wild mango tree at, i. 7 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Basque hunter transformed into bear, ii. <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— story of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bastar, province of India, treatment of witches in, ii. <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bastian, Adolph, on rites of initiation in West Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Basutos, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 31</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bata and Anpu, ancient Egyptian story of, ii. <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bathing in the sea at Easter, i. 123;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Midsummer, 208, 210, 216, ii. <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to be dangerous on Midsummer Day, <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bats, the lives of men in, ii. <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called men's <q>brothers,</q> <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Battas, their doctrine of the plurality of souls, ii. <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their totemic system, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Battel, Andrew, on the colour of negro children at birth, ii. <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bavaria, Easter bonfires in, i. 143 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>belief as to eclipses in, 162;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 164 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>leaf-clad mummer at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the divining-rod in, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>creeping through a holed stone or narrow opening in, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Upper, use of mistletoe in, ii. <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bavarian peasants, their belief as to hazel, ii. <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bavili, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 31</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beal-fires on Midsummer Eve in Yorkshire, i. 198</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bean, King of the, i. 153 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beans, divination by, i. 209</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bear, external soul of warrior in a, ii. <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Basque hunter transformed into, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref>, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>simulated transformation of novice into a, <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— clan, ii. <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -dance of man who pretends to be a bear, ii. <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bear's skin, Lapp women shoot blindfold at a, ii. <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bearers to carry royal personages, i. 3 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beating girls at puberty, i. 61, 66 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a form of purification, 61, 64 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beauce, festival of torches in, i. 113;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>story of a were-wolf in, 309</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Perche, Midsummer fires in, i. 188</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beaver clan, ii. <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bechuana belief as to sympathetic relation of man to wounded crocodile, ii. <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bee, external soul of an ogre in a, ii. <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beech or fir used to make the Yule log, i. 249</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -tree burnt in Lenten bonfire, i. 115 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beeches, struck by lightning, proportion of, ii. <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>free from mistletoe, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bees thought to be killed by menstruous women, i. 96;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ashes of bonfires used to cure ailments of, 142</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beetle, external soul in a, ii. <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Begetting novices anew at initiation, pretence of, ii. <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Behar, the fire-walk in, ii. <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>Beifuss</foreign>, German name for mugwort, ii. <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bel, the fires of, i. 147, 157, 158 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beleth, John, his <hi rend='italic'>Rationale Divinorum Officiorum</hi> quoted, i. 161 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='327'/><anchor id='Pg327'/> + +<lg> +<l>Belford, in Northumberland, the Yule log at, i. 256</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Belgium, Lenten fires in, i. 107 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 194 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 249;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bathing on Midsummer Day in, ii. <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination by flowers on Midsummer Eve in, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mugwort gathered on St. John's Day or Eve in, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>vervain gathered on St. John's Day in, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>four-leaved clover at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the witches' Sabbath in, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Bella-Coola'/> +<l>Bella Coola Indians of British Columbia, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 46;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>custom of mourners among the, ii. <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Belli-Paaro society in West Africa, rites of initiation in the, ii. <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bellochroy, i. 290</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bells worn by priest in exorcism, i. 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on his legs, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, church, silenced in Holy Week, i. 123, 125 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rung on Midsummer Eve, ii. <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rung to drive away witches, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beltane, popularly derived from Baal, i. 149 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 150 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the need-fire at, 293;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yellow Day of, 293;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sheep passed through a hoop at, ii. <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Hallowe'en the two chief fire-festivals of the British Celts, ii. <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— cakes, i. 148 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 150, 152, 153, 154, 155</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— carline, i. 148, 153</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Eve (the Eve of May Day), a witching time, i. 295</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— fire, pretence of throwing a man into the, i. 148, ii. <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kindled by the friction of oak-wood, i. 148, 155, ii. <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— fires, i. 146 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Wales, 155 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Ireland, 157 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Nottinghamshire, 157</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Benametapa, the king of, in East Africa, i. 135</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bengal, seclusion of girls at puberty in, i. 68;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Oraons of, ii. <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bengalee stories of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beni Ahsen, a tribe in Morocco, ii. <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their Midsummer fires, i. 215 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Mgild, a Berber tribe of Morocco, their Midsummer fires, i. 215</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Snous, the, of Morocco, their Midsummer rites, i. 216</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bent, J. Theodore, on passing sick children through a cleft oak, ii. <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Berber belief as to water at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— tale, milk-tie in a, ii. <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Berbers of North Africa, their Midsummer customs, i. 213 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 219</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bergen, Midsummer bonfires at, i. 171</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bering Strait, the Esquimaux of, i. 91</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Berleburg, in Westphalia, the Yule log at, i. 248</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Berlin, the divining-rod at, ii. <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bern, Midsummer fires in the canton of, i. 172;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in the canton of, 249;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches put to death in the canton of, ii. <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Berry, Lenten fire custom in, i. 115;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 189;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 251 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>four-leaved clover at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Besoms, blazing, flung aloft to make the corn grow high, i. 340;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used to drive away witches, ii. <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bethlehem, new Easter fire carried to, i. 130 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Between the two Beltane fires,</q> i. 149</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beul, fire of, need-fire, i. 293</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bevan, Professor A. A., i. 83 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beverley, on the initiatory rites of the Virginian Indians, ii. <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bewitched animals burnt alive, i. 300 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>buried alive, 324 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— cow, mugwort applied to, ii. <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— things burnt to compel the witch to appear, i. 322</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bhils of India, torture of witches among the, ii. <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bhuiyars of Mirzapur, their dread of menstrual pollution, i. 84</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bhuiyas, a Dravidian tribe, fire-walk among the, ii. <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Bhut</foreign>, demon, ii. <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bidasari and the golden fish, Malay story of, ii. <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bilqula. <hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Bella-Coola'>Bella Coola</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Binbinga tribe of Northern Australia, their rites of initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>initiation of medicine-man in the, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Binding up a cleft stick or tree a mode of barricading the road against a ghostly pursuer, ii. <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bir, a tribal hero, ii. <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Birch used to kindle need-fire, i. 291</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and plane, fire made by the friction of, i. 220</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, branches of, on Midsummer Day, i. 177, 196;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against witchcraft, ii. <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— trees set up at Midsummer, i. 177;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used to keep off witches, ii. <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe on, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bird, disease transferred to, ii. <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>brings first fire to earth, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bird-lime made from mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Birds, external souls in, ii. <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref>, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>carry seed of mistletoe, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Birseck, Lenten fires at, i. 119</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Birth, the new, of novices at initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref>, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref>, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>, <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref>, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='328'/><anchor id='Pg328'/> + +<lg> +<l>Birth-names of Central American Indians, ii. <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -trees in Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Europe, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Birthday of the Sun at the winter solstice, i. 246</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bisection of the year, Celtic, i. 223</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Black Corrie of Ben Breck, the giant of, in an Argyleshire tale, ii. <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Forest, Midsummer fires in the, i. 168</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Isle, Ross-shire, i. 301</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— poplars, mistletoe on, ii. <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref>, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— spauld, a disease of cattle, cure for, i. 325</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— three-legged horse ridden by witches, ii. <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Blackening girls at puberty, i. 41, 60</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Blemishes, physical, transferred to witches, i. 160 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Blindness of Hother, ii. <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Block, the Yule, i. 247</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Blocksberg, the resort of witches, i. 171;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Mount of the Witches, ii. <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Blood'/> +<l>Blood, girls at puberty forbidden to see, i. 46;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>disastrous effect of seeing menstruous, 77;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>drawn from women who do not menstruate, 81</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -brotherhood between men and animals among the Fans, ii. <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -covenant between men and animals, ii. <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, human, used in rain-making ceremonies, ii. <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, menstruous, dread of, i. 76;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>deemed fatal to cattle, 80;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>miraculous virtue attributed to, 82 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>medicinal application of, 98 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of St. John found on St. John's wort and other plants at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of sheep poured on image of god as a sin-offering, i. 82</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boa-constrictors, kings at death turn into, ii. <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boas, Dr. Franz, on seclusion of Shuswap girls at puberty, i. 53;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on customs observed by mourners among the Bella Coola Indians, ii. <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on initiation into the wolf society of the Nootka Indians, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the relation between clans and secret societies, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boar's skin, shoes of, worn by a king at inauguration, i. 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boars, familiar spirits of wizards in, ii. <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lives of persons bound up with those of, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external human souls in, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bocage of Normandy, Midsummer fires in the, i. 185;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in the, 252;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>torchlight processions on Christmas Eve in the, 266</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Body-without-soul in a Ligurian story, ii. <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a German story, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a Breton story, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a Basque story, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boeotian festival of the Great Daedala, ii. <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bogota, rigorous training of the heir to the throne of, i. 19</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bohemia, water and fire consecrated at Easter in, i. 123 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bonfires on May Day in, 159;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 173 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire in, 278 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>charm to make corn grow high in, 340;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>offering to water-spirits on Midsummer Eve in, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>simples gathered on St. John's Night in, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination by means of flowers on Midsummer Eve in, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mugwort at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>elder-flowers gathered at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wild thyme gathered on Midsummer Day in, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fern-seed at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>thunder besoms</q> in, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fern-seed on St. John's Day in, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bohemian poachers, their use of vervain, ii. <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their use of seeds of fir-cones, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— story of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bohus, Midsummer fires in, i. 172</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Boidès</foreign>, bonfires, i. 111 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boiling bewitched animal or part of it to compel witch to appear, i. 321 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 323</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— milk, omens drawn from, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— resin, ordeal of, i. 311</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boils, crawling under a bramble as a cure for, ii. <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bolivia, the Chiriguanos of, i. 56;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yuracares of, 57 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fires on St. John's Eve in, 213;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>La Paz in, ii. <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boloki of the Upper Congo, birth-plants among the, ii. <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of bull-roarers among the, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bondeis of German East Africa, rites of initiation among the, ii. <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bone used to point with in sorcery, i. 14;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>incident of, in folk-tales, 73 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of bird (eagle or swan), women at menstruation obliged to drink out of, 45, 48, 49, 50, 73 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, 90, 92</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bones burnt in the Easter bonfires, i. 142;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt in Midsummer fires, 203</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of dead husbands carried by their widows, i. 91 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bonfire Day in County Leitrim, i. 203</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Bonfires'/> +<l>Bonfires supposed to protect against conflagrations, i. 107, 108;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>protect +<pb n='329'/><anchor id='Pg329'/> +houses against lightning and conflagration, 344;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lit by the persons last married, 107, 109;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against witchcraft, 108, 109, 154;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against sickness, 108, 109;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against sorcery, 156;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>quickening and fertilizing influence of, 336 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>omens of marriage drawn from, 338 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>protect fields against hail, 344;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at festivals in India, ii. <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Fires'>Fires</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bonfires, Midsummer, intended to drive away dragons, i. 161;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>protect cattle against witchcraft, 188;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to ensure good crops, 188, 336</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boniface, Archbishop of Mainz, i. 270</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bonnach stone in a Celtic story, ii. <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Bordes</foreign>, bonfires, i. 111 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 113</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Borlase, William, on Midsummer fires in Cornwall, i. 199</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Borneo, festivals in, i. 13;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seclusion of girls at puberty in, 35 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>birth-custom in, ii. <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>trees and plants as life-indices in, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>creeping through a cleft stick after a funeral in, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>giving the slip to an evil spirit in, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Dyaks of, i. 5, ii. <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Kayans of, i. 4 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bororo of Brazil, their use of bull-roarers, ii. <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Borrow, witches come to, i. 322, 323, ii. <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bosnia, need-fire in, i. 286;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>life-trees of children in, ii. <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bossuet, Bishop, on the Midsummer bonfires, i. 182</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bottesford, in Lincolnshire, mistletoe deemed a remedy for epilepsy at, ii. <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bottle, external soul of queen in a, ii. <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bougainville, use of bull-roarers in, ii. <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bough, the Golden, ii. <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and the priest of Aricia, i. 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a branch of mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Golden-Bough'>Golden Bough</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boulia district of Queensland, i. 14</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bourbonnais, mistletoe a remedy for epilepsy in, ii. <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Bourdifailles</foreign>, bonfires, i. 111 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bourke, Captain J. G., on the bull-roarer, ii. <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bowels, novice at initiation supplied by spirits with a new set of, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bowes, in Yorkshire, need-fire at, i. 287</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Box, external soul of king in a, ii. <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>, <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external soul of cannibal in a, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boxes or arks, sacred, i. 11 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Box-tree, external soul of giant in a, ii. <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boxwood blessed on Palm Sunday, i. 184, ii. <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boy and girl produce need-fire by friction of wood, i. 281</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boys at initiation thought to be swallowed by wizards, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brabant, Midsummer fires in, i. 194;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>St. Peter's bonfires in, 195;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wicker giants in, ii. <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bracelets as amulets, i. 92</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Braemar Highlanders, their Hallowe'en fires, i. 233 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brahman, the Hindoo creator, i. 95</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brahman called <q>twice born,</q> ii. <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— boys forbidden to see the sun, i. 68 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— student, his observances at end of his studentship, i. 20</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brahmanic ritual at inauguration of a king, i. 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bramble, crawling under a, as a cure for whooping-cough, etc., ii. <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brand, John, on the Yule log, i. 247, 255</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brandenburg, simples culled at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Brandons</foreign>, the Sunday of the, i. 110;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>torches carried about fields and streets, 111 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brands of Midsummer fires a protection against lightning, conflagration, and spells, i. 183;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against thunder, 191;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lighted, carried round cattle, 341</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Braunrode in the Harz Mountains, Easter fires at, i. 142</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brazier, walking through a lighted, ii. <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brazil, the Guaranis of, i. 56;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seclusion of girls at puberty among the Indians of, 56, 59 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Uaupes of, 61;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ordeals undergone by young men among the Indians of, 62 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>effigies of Judas burnt at Easter in, 128;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fires of St. John in, 213;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Caripunas of, ii. <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Bororo of, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Nahuqua of, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Bakairi of, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bread, reverence for, i. 13</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Breadalbane, i. 149;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>treatment of mad cow in, 326</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Breadfruit-tree planted over navel-string of child, ii. <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Breath, scoring above the,</q> cutting a witch on the forehead, i. 315 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Breitenbrunn, the <q>Charcoal Man</q> at, ii. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brekinjska, in Slavonia, need-fire at, i. 282</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bresse, Midsummer bonfires in, i. 189</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brest, Midsummer fire-custom at, i. 184</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='330'/><anchor id='Pg330'/> + +<lg> +<l>Breteuil, canton of, Midsummer fires in the, i. 187</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Breton belief that women can be impregnated by the moon, i. 76</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— stories of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brezina, in Slavonia, need-fire at, i. 282</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Briar-thorn, divination by, i. 242</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bri-bri Indians of Costa Rica, seclusion of women at menstruation among the, i. 86</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bride not allowed to tread the earth, i. 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>last married, made to leap over bonfire, ii. <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and bridegroom, mock, at bonfires, i. 109 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bride, parish of, in the Isle of Man, i. 306, 307 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bridegroom not to touch the ground with his feet, i. 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brie, Isle de France, effigy of giant burnt on Midsummer Eve at, ii. <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brihaspati, Hindoo deity, i. 99 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Briony, wreaths of, at Midsummer, i. 210</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brisbane River in Queensland, use of bull-roarers on the, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>British Columbia, seclusion of girls at puberty among the Indians of, i. 46 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dread and seclusion of menstruous women among the Indians of, 89 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Kwakiutl of, ii. <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Koskimo Indians of, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rites of initiation among the Indians of, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Thompson Indians of, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Shuswap Indians of, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brittany, Midsummer fires in, i. 183 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>stones thrown into the Midsummer fires in, 240;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 253;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe hung over doors of stables and byres in, ii. <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fern-seed used by treasure-seekers in, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Brochs</foreign>, prehistoric ruins, i. 291</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brocken, in the Harz mountains, associated with witches, i. 160 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 171 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Broom, a protective against witchcraft, i. 210</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Brother</q> and <q>sister,</q> titles given by men and women to their sex totems, ii. <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brotherhood of the Green Wolf at Jumièges in Normandy, i. 185 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brothers, ancient Egyptian story of the Two, ii. <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brown, Dr. George, quoted, i. 32 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on external soul in Melanesia, ii. <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brughe, John, his cure for bewitched cattle, i. 324 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brund (or brand), the Christmas, the Yule log, i. 257</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brunswick, belief as to menstruous women in, i. 96;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Easter bonfires in, 140;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire in, 277 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Buchan, Hallowe'en fires in, i. 232 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Bûche de Noël</foreign>, the Yule log, i. 249</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Buddha and the crocodile, Indian story, ii. <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Buffalo, external souls of a clan in a, ii. <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a Batta totem, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— clan in Uganda, i. 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Buffaloes, external human souls in, ii. <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bühl, St. John's fires at, i. 168</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bukaua, the, of New Guinea, girls at puberty secluded among the, i. 35;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their rites of initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Bu-ku-rú</foreign>, ceremonial uncleanness, i. 65 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 86</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Buléon, Mgr., quoted by Father H. Trilles, ii. <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bulgaria, the Yule log in, i. 264 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire in, 281, 285;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>simples and flowers culled on St. John's Day in, ii. <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>creeping through an arch of vines as a cure in, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>creeping under the root of a willow as a cure for whooping-cough in, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Simeon, prince of, ii. <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bullet blessed by St. Hubert used to shoot witches with, i. 315 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bullock, bewitched, burnt to cause the witch to appear, i. 303</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bull-roarers swung, i. 133;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sounded at initiation of lads, ii. <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used as magical instruments to make rain, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sounded at festivals of the dead, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made from trees struck by lightning, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sounded to make the wind blow, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called <q>thunder and lightning,</q> <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sounded to promote the growth of the crops, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>originally magical instruments for making thunder, wind, and rain, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be seen by women, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called by name which means a ghost or spirit of the dead, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called by the same name as the monster who swallows lads at initiation, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kept in men's club-house, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>named after dead men, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, sound of, thought to resemble thunder, ii. <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed to increase the food supply, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed to be the voice of a spirit, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burchard, Bishop of Worms, his condemnation of a heathen practice, ii. <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Bures</foreign>, bonfires, i. 110 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 111 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burford, in Oxfordshire, Midsummer giant and dragon at, ii. <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burghead, the burning of the Clavie at, i. 266 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the old rampart at, 267 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='331'/><anchor id='Pg331'/> + +<lg> +<l>Burgundy, Firebrand Sunday in, i. 114;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 254</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burma, the Karens of, ii. <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burne, Miss F. C., and Jackson, Miss G. F., on the fear of witchcraft in Shropshire, i. 342 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Burning-The-Witches'/> +<l>Burning the witches on May Day, i. 157, 159, 160;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of effigies in the Midsummer fires, 195;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the witches in the Hallowe'en fires, 232 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the Clavie at Burghead, 266 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of a bewitched animal or part of it to cause the witch to appear, 303, 305, 307 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 321 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of human beings in the fires, ii. <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of live animals at spring and Midsummer festivals, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the animals perhaps deemed embodiments of witches, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of human victims annually, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— discs thrown into the air, i. 116 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 119, 143, 165, 166, 168 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 172</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— the Easter Man, i. 144</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>—— the Old Wife (Old Woman),</q> i. 116, 120</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>—— the Witches,</q> i. 116, 118 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 154;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a popular name for the fires of the festivals, ii. <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— wheels rolled down hill, i. 116, 117 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 119, 141, 143, 161, 162 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 163 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 166, 173, 174, 201, 328, 334, 337 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rolled over fields at Midsummer to fertilize them, 191, 340 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perhaps intended to burn witches, 345</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burns, Robert, i. 207;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Hallowe'en, 234</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burnt sacrifices to stay cattle-plague in England, Wales, and Scotland, i. 300 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burs, a preservative against witchcraft, i. 177</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burying bewitched animals alive, i. 324 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— girls at puberty in the ground, i. 38 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bushmen, their dread of menstruous women, i. 79;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their way of warming up the star Sirius, 332 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bushongo, royal persons among the, not allowed to set foot on the ground, i. 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of bull-roarers among the, ii. <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rites of initiation among the, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Butter thought to be improved by the Midsummer fires, i. 180;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bewitched, burnt at a cross-road, 322</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>—— -churning,</q> Swiss expression for kindling a need-fire, i. 279</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Byron, Lord, and the oak, ii. <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cabbages, divination by, at Hallowe'en, i. 242.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Kail'>Kail</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caesar on the fortification walls of the Gauls, i. 267;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on human sacrifices among the Celts of Gaul, ii. <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caesarea. <hi rend='italic'>See</hi> Everek</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caffre villages, women's tracks at, i. 80</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caffres of South Africa, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 30;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of bull-roarers among the, ii. <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cages, girls at puberty confined in, i. 32 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 44, 45</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Cailleach beal-tine</foreign>, the Beltane carline, i. 148</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cairnshee, in Kincardineshire, Midsummer fires on, i. 206</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caithness, need-fire in, i. 290 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cake, St. Michael's, i. 149, 154 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>salt, divination by, 238 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule or Christmas, 257, 259, 261</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cakes, Hallowe'en, i. 238, 241, 245;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Beltane, 148 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 150, 152, 153, 154, 155;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination by, 242, 243</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calabar, soul of chief in sacred grove at, ii. <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>negroes of, their belief in external or bush souls lodged in animals, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the fattening-house for girls in, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calabria, holy water at Easter in, i. 123</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calamities, almost all, set down to witchcraft, ii. <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calendar, change in the Chinese, i. 137;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mohammedan, 216 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 218 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Julian, used by Mohammedans, 218 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the reform of, in relation to floral superstitions, ii. <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calendars, conflict of, i. 218</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Calendeau</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>calignau</foreign>, the Yule-log, i. 250</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calf burnt alive to stop a murrain, i. 300 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>California, seclusion of girls at puberty among the Indians of, i. 41 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ordeals among the Indians of, 64;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Senal Indians of, ii. <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Maidu Indians of, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Callander, the parish of, Beltane fires in, i. 150 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Hallowe'en fires in, 231</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calves burnt to stop disease in the herds, i. 301, 306</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calymnos, a Greek island, superstition as to menstruous women in, i. 96 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 212</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cambodia, seclusion of girls at puberty in, i. 70;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ritual at cutting a parasitic orchid in, ii. <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cambodian or Siamese story of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cambridgeshire, witch as cat in, i. 317</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cambus o' May, near Ballater, holed stone at, ii. <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cameroons, life of person bound up with tree in the, ii. <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>theory of the external soul in, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='332'/><anchor id='Pg332'/> + +<lg> +<l>Camomile (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Anthemis nobilis</foreign>) burnt in Midsummer fire, i. 213;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred to Balder, ii. <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gathered at Midsummer, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Campbell, Rev. J. G., on <foreign rend='italic'>deiseal</foreign>, i. 151 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Campbell, Rev. John, on Coranna customs, ii. <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Campo di Giove, in the Abruzzi, Easter candles at, i. 122</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Candle, the Easter or Paschal, i. 121, 122, 125;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination by the flame of a, 229;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule or Christmas, 255, 256, 260;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external soul in a, ii. <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and apple, biting at, i. 241, 242, 243, 245</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Candlemas in the Armenian church, bonfires at, i. 131;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log at, 256 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— candles, i. 264 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Candles used to keep off witches, i. 245</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Canopus and Sirius in Bushman lore, i. 333</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Capart, Jean, on palettes found in Egyptian tombs, ii. <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cape York Peninsula in Queensland, i. 37, 38</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caper-spurge (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Euphorbia lathyris</foreign>) identified with mythical springwort, ii. <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Capital of column, external soul in, ii. <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Capitol at Rome, the oak of Jupiter on the, ii. <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cappadocia, the fire-walk at Castabala in, ii. <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Capri, feast of the Nativity of the Virgin in, i. 220 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Capricorn, time when the sun enters the tropic of, ii. <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caps worn in mourning, i. 20</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cardiganshire, Hallowe'en in, i. 226</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caribs, their theory of the plurality of souls, ii. <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carinthia, new fire at Easter in, i. 124</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caripunas Indians of Brazil, use of bull-roarers among the, ii. <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carmichael, Alexander, on need-fire, i. 293 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on snake stones, ii. <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carn Brea, in Cornwall, Midsummer fires on, i. 199</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carnarvonshire, the cutty black sow in, i. 240</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carnival, effigy burnt at end of, i. 120;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wicker giants at the, ii. <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carnmoor, in Mull, need-fire kindled on, i. 289 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carnwarth, in Cornwall, Midsummer fires at, i. 199</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caroline Islands, traditionary origin of fire in the, ii. <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carpathian Mountains, Midsummer fires on the, i. 175;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire in the, 281;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Huzuls of the, ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carrier Indians of North-Western America, funeral custom of the, i. 11;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their dread and seclusion of menstruous women, 91 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their honorific totems, ii. <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carver, Captain Jonathan, his description of the rite of death and resurrection, ii. <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Casablanca, Midsummer fires at, i. 214</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cashmeer stories of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caspar, Balthasar, and Melchior, the Three Holy Kings, ii. <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cassel, in France, wicker giants on Shrove Tuesday at, ii. <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cassowaries, men disguised as, in Duk-duk ceremonies, ii. <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Castabala, in Cappadocia, the fire-walk at, ii. <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Castiglione a Casauria, Midsummer customs at, i. 210</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Castle Ditches, in the Vale of Glamorgan, bonfires at, i. 156</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Castres, in Southern France, ii. <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cat, a representative of the devil, ii. <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>story of a clan whose souls were all in one, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a Batta totem, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Cats'>Cats</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caterpillars, bonfires as a protection against, i. 114</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Catholic Church, its consecration of the Midsummer festival to St. John the Baptist, i. 181</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cato on a Roman cure for dislocation, ii. <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Cats'/> +<l>Cats burnt in bonfires, i. 109, ii. <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perhaps burnt as witches, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches changed into, i. 315 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 317, 318, 319 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cattle sacrificed at holy oak, i. 181;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>protected against sorcery by sprigs of mullein, 190;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fire carried round, 201, 206;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>driven out to pasture in spring and back in autumn, 223;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>acquire the gift of speech on Christmas Eve, 254;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>driven through the need-fire, 270 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>killed by fairy darts, 303;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lighted brands carried round, 341;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to benefit by festivals of fire, ii. <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref>, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fumigated with smoke of Midsummer herbs, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and sheep driven through, round, or between bonfires, i. 108, 109, 141, 154, 157, 158, 159, 165, 175, 176, 179, 185, 188, 192, 202, 203, 204, 301, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Cattle-Disease'/> +<l>—— disease, the Midsummer fires a protection against, i. 176;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>attributed to witchcraft, 302 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 343</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='333'/><anchor id='Pg333'/> + +<lg> +<l>—— -plague, need-fire kindled as a remedy for, i. 270 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifice of an animal to stay a, 300 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -rearing tribes of South Africa, their dread of menstruous women, i. 79 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cave, initiation of medicine-men by spirits in a, ii. <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Cruachan, the <q>Hell-gate of Ireland,</q> i. 226</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cedar-bark, red, used in ceremonies of a secret society, ii. <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Celebes, Macassar in, i. 14;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>souls of persons removed for safety from their bodies in, ii. <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Central, the Toradjas of, i. 311 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Southern, birth-trees in, ii. <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Celibacy of the Vestal Virgins, i. 138 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Celtic bisection of the year, i. 223</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— population, their superstition as to Snake Stones, i. 15</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— stories of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Celts, their two great fire-festivals on the Eve of May Day and Hallowe'en, i. 222, 224;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the oak worshipped by the, ii. <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the British, their chief fire-festivals, Beltane and Hallowe'en, ii. <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Brittany, their use of mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg320'>320</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Gaul, their human sacrifices, ii. <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the victims perhaps witches and wizards, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>W. Mannhardt's theory, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Ireland, their new fire on Hallowe'en, i. 139</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of northern Italy, ii. <ref target='Pg320'>320</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Celts (prehistoric implements) called <q>thunderbolts,</q> i. 14 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Central Provinces of India, cure for fever in the, ii. <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ceos, Greek island of, sick children passed through a cleft oak in, ii. <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ceram, seclusion of girls at puberty in, i. 36;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>belief that strength of young people is in their hair in, ii. <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rites of initiation to the Kakian association in, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ceremony, magical, to ensure fertility of women, i. 23 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 31</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cetraro in Calabria, Easter custom at, i. 123</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ceylon, the king of, and his external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chaco, the Gran, i. 58;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>marriage custom of Indians of the, i. 75;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Indians of the, i. 98 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Paraguayan, i. 56</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chadwick, Professor H. M., i. 103 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chaka, Zulu king, ii. <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chalk, white, bodies of newly initiated lads coated with, ii. <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chambers, E. K., on the Celtic bisection of the year, i. 223</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Charcoal Man</q> at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Charente Inférieure, department of, St. John's fires in the, i. 192</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chariot, patient drawn through the yoke of a, ii. <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chariots used by sacred persons, i. 4 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Charlemagne, i. 270</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chaste young men kindle need-fire, i. 273</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chastity associated with abstinence from salt, i. 27 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Château-Tierry, Midsummer fires at, i. 187 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chatham Islands, birth-trees in the, ii. <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Chavandes</hi>, bonfires, i. 109 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cheadle, in Staffordshire, the Yule log at, i. 256</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cheese, the Beltane, kept as a charm against the bewitching of milk-produce, i. 154</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Chêne-Doré</foreign>, <q>the gilded oak,</q> in Perche, ii. <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chepstow oak, in Gloucestershire, ii. <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cheremiss of the Volga, their Midsummer festival, i. 181</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cherokees, their sacred arks, i. 11 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their ideas as to trees struck by lightning, ii. <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cherry-tree wood used for Yule log, i. 250</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -trees, torches thrown at, i. 108</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chervil-seed burnt in Midsummer fire, i. 213</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Chesnitsa</foreign>, Christmas cake, i. 261</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chester, Midsummer giants at, ii. <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Chevannes</foreign>, bonfires, i. 111 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cheyenne Indians, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 54 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— women secluded at menstruation, i. 89</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chiaromonte, Midsummer custom at, i. 210</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chibisa, an African chief, ii. <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Chicha</foreign>, a native intoxicant, i. 57, 58</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chicory, the white flower of, opens all locks, ii. <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chief's daughter, ceremonies observed by her at puberty, i. 30, 43</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chikumbu, a Yao chief, ii. <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chilblains, the Yule log a preventive of, i. 250</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Childbirth, customs observed by women after, i. 20</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Childless couples leap over bonfires to procure offspring, i. 214, 338</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='334'/><anchor id='Pg334'/> + +<lg> +<l>Childless women creep through a holed stone, ii. <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Children live apart from their parents among the Baganda, i. 23 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>born feet foremost, curative power attributed to, 295;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>passed across the Midsummer fires, 182, 189 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 192, 203;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>passed through holes in ground or turf to cure them, ii. <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chillingworth, Thomas, passed through a cleft ash-tree for rupture, ii. <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chimney, witches fly up the, ii. <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -piece, divination by names on, i. 237</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>China, were-wolves in, i. 310 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>annual ceremony of the new fire in, 136 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of fire to bar ghosts in, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>spirits of plants in snake form in, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of mugwort in, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chinese festival of fire, ii. <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>story of the external soul, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>theories as to the human soul, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chinook Indians, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 43</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chippeway Indians, their dread and seclusion of menstruous women, i. 90 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chiquites Indians of Paraguay, their theory of sickness, ii. <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chirbury, in Shropshire, the Yule log at, i. 257</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chiriguanos of Bolivia, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 56</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Choctaw women secluded at menstruation, i. 88</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chopping-knife, soul of woman in childbirth transferred for safety to a, ii. <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chota Nagpur, the fire-walk in, ii. <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chouquet, in Normandy, the Green Wolf at, i. 185</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Christbrand</foreign>, the Yule log, i. 248</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Christenburg Crags, in Northumberland, Midsummer fires at, i. 198</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Christian Church, its treatment of witches, ii. <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Christklotz</foreign>, the Yule log, i. 248</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Christmas, an old pagan festival of the sun, i. 246, 331 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>new fire made by the friction of wood at, 264;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe gathered at, ii. <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— cake, i. 257, 259, 261</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— candle, the, i. 255, 256, 260</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Eve, cattle acquire the gift of speech on, i. 254;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>trees fumigated with wild thyme on, ii. <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the fern blooms at, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches dreaded on, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sick children passed through cleft trees on, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— night, fern-seed blooms on, ii. <ref target='Pg289'>289</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— pig, i. 259</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— visiter, the, i. 261 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 263, 264</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Church, the Christian, its treatment of witches, ii. <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— bells on Midsummer Eve, custom as to ringing, ii. <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rung to drive away witches, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Churches used as places of divination at Hallowe'en, i. 229</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Churinga</foreign>, sacred sticks and stones of the Arunta, ii. <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chu-Tu-shi, a Chinese were-tiger, i. 310 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ciotat, Midsummer rites of fire and water at, i. 194</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Circumambulating fields with lighted torches, i. 233 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Circumcision, custom at, among the Washamba, ii. <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of lads at initiation in Australia, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in New Guinea, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Fiji, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Rook, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>custom of, on the Lower Congo, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref>, <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Clach-nathrach</foreign>, serpent stone, ii. <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clam shell, sacred, of the Omahas, i. 11</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clan of the Cat, ii. <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clappers, used instead of church bells in Holy Week, i. 125;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wooden, used in China, 137</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Classificatory system of relationship, ii. <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Claudius, the emperor, i. 15</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clavie, the burning of the, at Burghead, i. 266 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clay plastered on girls at puberty, i. 31;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>white, bodies of novices at initiation smeared with, ii. <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cleary, Bridget, burnt as a witch in Tipperary, i. 323 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Michael, burns his wife as a witch, i. 323 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clee, in Lincolnshire, the Yule log at, i. 257</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Hills, in Shropshire, fear of witchcraft in the, i. 342 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cleft stick, passage through a, in connexion with puberty and circumcision, ii. <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Climacteris scandens</foreign>, women's <q>sister</q> among the Kulin, ii. <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clodd, Edward, on the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clog, the Yule, i. 247</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clonmel, trial for witch-burning at, i. 324</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clover, four-leaved, a counter-charm for witchcraft, i. 316;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>found at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clue of yarn, divination by a, i. 235, 240, 241, 243</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coal, magical, that turns to gold at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coast Murring tribe of New South Wales, the drama of resurrection exhibited to novices at initiation in the, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='335'/><anchor id='Pg335'/> + +<lg> +<l>Cobern, effigy burnt at, i. 120</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coblentz, i. 248</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Coccus Polonica</foreign> and St. John's blood, ii. <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cock, effigy of, in bonfire, i. iii;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a black, used as counter-charm to witchcraft, 321;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>white, burnt in Midsummer bonfire, ii. <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external soul of ogre in a, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>killed on harvest-field, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>red, killed to cure person struck by lightning, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— or hen, striking blindfold at a, ii. <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cock's blood poured on divining-rod, ii. <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cockchafer, external soul in a golden, ii. <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cockchafers, witches as, i. 322</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coco-nut, soul of child deposited in a, i. 154 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— palm planted over navel-string and afterbirth of child, ii. <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>, compare <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>attracts lightning, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Codrington, Dr. R. H., on the Melanesian conception of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Coel Coeth</foreign>, Hallowe'en bonfire, i. 239</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cohen, S. S., i. 128 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coil, sick children passed through a, ii. <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cold food, festival of the, in China, i. 137</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cole, Lieut.-Colonel H. W. G., on a custom of the Lushais, ii. <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Colic, popular remedies for, i. 17;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>leaping over bonfires as a preventive of, 107, 195 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 344;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>attributed to witchcraft, 344</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coll, the Hole Stone in the island of, ii. <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Colleda, an old Servian goddess, i. 259</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cologne, St. John's fourteen Midsummer victims at, ii. <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Colombia, the Goajiras of, i. 34 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Guacheta in, 74</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Combe d'Ain, i. 114</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Comminges, Midsummer fires in, i. 192 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Community, welfare of, bound up with the life of the divine king, i. 1 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>purified in the persons of its representatives, ii. <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Condé, in Normandy, i. 266</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Conductivity, electric, of various kinds of wood, ii. <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Conflagrations, bonfires supposed to protect against, i. 107, 108, 140, 142, 344;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>brands of Midsummer bonfires thought to be a protection against, 165, 174, 183, 188, 196;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log a protection against, 248 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 250, 255, 256, 258;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer flowers a protection against, ii. <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mountain arnica a protection against, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>oak-mistletoe a protection against, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Conflict of calendars, solar and lunar, i. 218</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Congo, seclusion of girls at puberty on the Lower, i. 31;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>birth-trees on the, 161 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>theory of the external soul on the, ii. <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of bull-roarers on the, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the French, the Fans of, ii. <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Lower, rites of initiation on the, ii. <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Connaught, Midsummer fires in, i. 203;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cave of Cruachan in, 226;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>palace of the kings of, ii. <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Connemara, Midsummer fires in, i. 203</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Constance, the Lake of, ii. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Constantinople, column at, ii. <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Consumption, ashes of the Midsummer fires a cure for, i. 194 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>transferred to bird, ii. <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Consumptive patients passed through holes in stones or rocks, ii. <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Continence as preparation for walking through fire, ii. <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Conty, Lenten fires at, i. 113</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Conway, Professor R. S., on the etymology of Soranus, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cook, A. B., on the oak of Errol, ii. <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cook, menstruous women not allowed to, i. 80, 82, 84, 90</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Copper needle, story of man who could only be killed by a, ii. <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Corannas, a Hottentot people, children after an illness passed under an arch among the, ii. <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cords tied tightly round the bodies of girls at puberty, i. 92 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Corea, custom observed after childbirth by women in, i. 20;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of torches to ensure good crops in, 340</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cormac, on Beltane fires, i. 157</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cor-mass, procession of wicker giants at Dunkirk, ii. <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Corn, charm to make the corn grow tall, i. 18;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thrown on the man who brings in the Yule log, 260, 262, 264;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>blazing besoms flung aloft to make the corn grow high, 340</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -spirit in last standing corn, i. 12;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human representatives of, put to death, ii. <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in animal shape, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cornel-tree wood used to kindle need-fire, i. 286</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cornwall, Snake Stones in, i. 15, 16 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 199 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt sacrifices to stay cattle-disease in, 300 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>holed stone through which people used to creep in, ii. <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Corpse, priest of Earth forbidden to see a, i. 4</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='336'/><anchor id='Pg336'/> + +<lg> +<l>Corpus Christi Day, processions on, i. 165</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Corrèze and Creuse, departments of, St. John's fires in the, i. 190</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Corsica, Midsummer fires in, i. 209</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cos, effigies of Judas burnt at Easter in, i. 130;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 212</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cosquin, E., on helpful animals and external souls in folk-tales, ii. <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Cosse de Nau</foreign>, the Yule log, i. 251</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Costa Rica, Indians of, their customs in fasts, i. 20;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ceremonial uncleanness among the, 65 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Bri-bri Indians of, 86;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Guatusos of, ii. <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coudreau, H., quoted, i. 63 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coulommiers, in France, notion as to mistletoe at, ii. <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Counter-charm for witchcraft, <q>scoring above the breath,</q> i. 316 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Couples married within the year obliged to dance by torchlight, i. 115, 339</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coventry, Midsummer giants at, ii. <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cows, witches steal milk from, i. 343;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe given to, ii. <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>milked through a hole in a branch or a <q>witch's nest,</q> <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crackers burnt to frighten ghosts, ii. <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cracow, Midsummer fires in the district of, i. 175</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cream, ceremony for thickening, i. 262</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Creek Indians, their dread of menstruous women, i. 88</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Creeping through a tunnel as a remedy for an epidemic, i. 283 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>through cleft trees as cure for various maladies, ii. <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>through narrow openings in order to escape ghostly pursuers, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Creuse and Corrèze, departments of, St. John's fires in the, i. 190</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Criminals shorn to make them confess, ii. <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Croatia, Midsummer fires in, i. 178</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Croats of Istria, their belief as to the activity of witches on Midsummer Eve, ii. <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crocodile, a Batta totem, ii. <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crocodiles, fat of, i. 14;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lives of persons bound up with those of, ii. <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external human souls in, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cronus, cakes offered to, i. 153 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crops supposed to be spoiled by menstruous women, i. 79, 96;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>leaping over bonfires to ensure good, 107;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires thought to ensure good, 188, 336;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>torches swung by eunuchs to ensure good, 340;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bull-roarers sounded to promote the growth of the, ii. <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cross River natives, their lives bound up with those of certain animals, ii. <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -roads, ceremonies at, i. 24;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches at, 160 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires lighted at, 172, 191;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination at, 229;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bewitched things burnt at, 322</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crosses chalked up to protect houses and cattle-stalls against witches, i. 160 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, ii. <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crow, hooded, sacrifice to, i. 152</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Crowdie</foreign>, a dish of milk and meal, i. 237</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Crown'/> +<l>Crown or garland of flowers in Midsummer bonfire, i. 184, 185, 188, 192;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Roses, festival of the, 195.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Flowers'>Flowers</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cruachan, the herdsman or king of, Argyleshire story of, ii. <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Connaught, the cave of, i. 226</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Cryptocerus atratus</foreign>, F., stinging ants, i. 62</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cuissard, Ch., on Midsummer fires, i. 182 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cumae, the Sibyl at, i. 99</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cumanus, inquisitor, ii. <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cumberland, Midsummer fires in, i. 197</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cups, special, used by girls at puberty, i. 50, 53</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Curative powers ascribed to persons born feet foremost, i. 295</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cures, popular, prescribed by Marcellus of Bordeaux, i. 17</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cursing a mist in Switzerland, i. 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cuzco, ceremony of the new fire in, i. 132</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cycle of thirty years (Druidical), ii. <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cycles of sixty years (Boeotian, Indian, and Tibetan), ii. <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cythnos, Greek island, sickly children pushed through a hole in a rock in, ii. <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Czechs cull simples at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dacotas or Sioux, ritual of death and resurrection among the, ii. <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Daedala, Boeotian festival of the Great, ii. <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dairy, mistletoe used to make the dairy thrive, ii. <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Daizan, king of Atrae, i. 83</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dalhousie Castle, the Edgewell Tree at, ii. <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dalmatia, the Yule log in, i. 263</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dalyell, J. G., on Beltane, i. 149 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Damun, in German New Guinea, ceremony of initiation at, ii. <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Danae, the story of, i. 73 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dance at Sipi in Northern India, i. 12;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of young women at puberty, ii. <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the grave at initiation, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in honour of the big or grey wolf, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='337'/><anchor id='Pg337'/> + +<lg> +<l>Dances of fasting men and women at festival, i. 8 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Duk-duk society, 11;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of girls at puberty, 28, 29, 30, 37, 42, 50, 58, 59;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>round bonfires, 108, 109, 110, 111, 114, 116, 120, 131, 142, 145, 148, 153 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 159, 166, 172, 173, 175, 178, 182, 183, 185, 187, 188, 189, 191, 193, 194, 195, 198, 246, ii. <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref>, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>masked, bull-roarers used at, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of novices at initiation, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref>, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dancing with the fairies at Hallowe'en, i. 227</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dandelions gathered at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Danger apprehended from the sexual relation, ii. <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dangers thought to attend women at menstruation, i. 94</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Danish stories of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— story of a girl who was forbidden to see the sun, i. 70 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Danserosse</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>danseresse</foreign>, a stone, i. 110</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Danube, worship of Grannus on the, i. 112</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Danzig, the immortal lady of, i. 100</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Daphne gnidium</foreign> gathered at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dapper, O., on ritual of death and resurrection at initiation in the Belli-Paaro society, ii. <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Daramulun'/> +<l>Daramulun, a mythical being who instituted and superintends the initiation of lads in Australia, ii. <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his voice heard in the sound of the bull-roarer, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Thrumalun'>Thrumalun</ref> and <ref target='Index-Thuremlin'>Thuremlin</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Darding Knife,</q> pretence of death and resurrection at initiation to the, ii. <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Darling River, the Ualaroi of the, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Darma Rajah, Hindoo god, ii. <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Darowen, in Wales, Midsummer fires at, i. 201</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Darwin, Charles, on the cooling of the sun, ii. <ref target='Pg307'>307</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Darwin, Sir Francis, on the Golden Bough, ii. <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref>, <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dashers of churns, witches ride on, ii. <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Date of Chinese festival changed, i. 137</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dathi, king of Ireland, and his Druid, i. 228 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Davies, J. Ceredig, as to witches in Wales, i. 321 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dawn of the Day, prayers to the, i. 50 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 53;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>prayer of adolescent girl to the, 98 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dawson, James, on sex totems in Victoria, ii. <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dead, festival of the, i. 223 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 225 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>souls of the, sit round the Midsummer fire, 183, 184;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifice of reindeer to the, ii. <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>incarnate in serpents, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bull-roarers sounded at festivals of the, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>first-fruits offered to the souls of the, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Death, carrying out,</q> i. 119;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>the burying of,</q> 119;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>effigies of, burnt in spring fires, ii. <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>omens of, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>customs observed by mourners after a death in order to escape from the ghost, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with the sun, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Death and resurrection, ritual of, ii. <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Australia, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in New Guinea, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Fiji, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Rook, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in New Britain, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Ceram, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Africa, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in North America, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>traces of it elsewhere, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Debregeasia velutina</foreign>, used to kindle fire by friction, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>December, the last day of, Hogmanay, i. 266;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the twenty-first, St. Thomas's Day, 266</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Decle, L., quoted, i. 4 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dee, holed stone used by childless women in the Aberdeenshire, ii. <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Deer and the family of Lachlin, superstition concerning, ii. <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Deffingin, in Swabia, Midsummer bonfires at, i. 166 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dehon, P., on witches as cats among the Oraons, ii. <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Deiseal'/> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Deiseal</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>deisheal</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>dessil</foreign>, the right-hand turn, in the Highlands of Scotland, i. 150 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 154</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Delagoa Bay, the Thonga of, i. 29</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Delaware Indians, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 54</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Delivery, charms to ensure women an easy, i. 49, 50 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 52;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>women creep through a rifted rock to obtain an easy, ii. <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Delmenhorst, in Oldenburg, Easter fires at, i. 142</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Delos, new fire brought from, i. 136</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Delphi, perpetual fire at, ii. <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 7;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the picture of Orpheus at, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Stheni, near, <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Demeter, the torches of, i. 340 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>serpents in the worship of, ii. <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Demnat, in the Atlas, New Year rites at, i. 217, 218</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Demon supposed to attack girls at puberty, i. 67 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festival of fire instituted to ban a, ii. <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Demons'/> +<l>Demons attack women at puberty and childbirth, i. 24 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>expelled at the New Year, 134 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>abroad on Midsummer Eve, 172;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ashes of holy +<pb n='338'/><anchor id='Pg338'/> +fires a protection against, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>vervain a protection against, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>guard treasures, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Evil-Spirits'>Evil Spirits</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Déné or Tinneh Indians, their dread and seclusion of menstruous women, i. 91 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Western, tattooing among the, 98 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Tinneh'>Tinneh</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Denham Tracts</foreign>, on need-fire in Yorkshire, i. 287 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Denmark, fires on St. John's Eve in, i. 171;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>passing sick children through a hole in the ground in, 190, 191;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>children passed through a cleft oak as a cure for rupture or rickets in, ii. <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Dessil.</foreign> <hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Deiseal'><foreign rend='italic'>Deiseal</foreign></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Deux-Sèvres, department of, Midsummer fires in the, i. 191;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fires on All Saints' Day in the, 245 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Devil, the, seen on Midsummer Eve, i. 208</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Devil's bit, St. John's wort, ii. <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Devils, ghosts, and hobgoblins abroad on Midsummer Eve, i. 202</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Devonshire, need-fire in, i. 288;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>animals burnt alive as a sacrifice in, 302;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>belief in witchcraft in, 302;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>crawling under a bramble as a cure for whooping-cough in, ii. <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dew, rolling in the, at Midsummer, i. 208, with <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Midsummer a protection against witchcraft, ii. <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diana and Juno, ii. <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diana, priest of, at Nemi, ii. <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diana's Mirror, the Lake of Nemi, ii. <ref target='Pg303'>303</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dieri of Central Australia, their dread of women at menstruation, i. 77;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of bull-roarers among the, ii. <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bleed themselves to make rain, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dijon, Lenten fires at, i, 114</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dingle, church of St. Brandon near, ii. <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diodorus Siculus, on the human sacrifices of the Celts, ii. <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dioscorides on mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dipping for apples at Hallowe'en, i. 237, 239, 241, 242, 245</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Discs, burning, thrown into the air, i. 116 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 119, 143, 165, 166, 168 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 172, 328, 334;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burning, perhaps directed at witches, 345</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Disease, walking through fire as a remedy for, ii. <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conceived as something physical that can be stripped off the patient and left behind, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diseases of cattle ascribed to witchcraft, i. 343</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dish, external soul of warlock in a, ii. <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dishes, special, used by girls at puberty, i. 47, 49</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dislocation, Roman cure for, ii. <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Divination on St. John's Night (Midsummer Eve), i. 173, ii. <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Midsummer in Spain and the Azores, i. 208 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Hallowe'en, 225, 228 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by stones at Hallowe'en fires, 230 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 239, 240;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by stolen kail, 234 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 241;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by clue of yarn, 235, 240, 241, 243;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by hemp seed, 235, 241, 245;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by winnowing-basket, 236;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by thrown shoe, 236;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by wet shirt, 236, 241;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by white of eggs, 236 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 238;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by apples in water, 237;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by a ring, 237;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by names on chimney-piece, 237;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by three plates or basins, 237 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 240, 244;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by nuts in fire, 237, 239, 241, 242, 245;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by salt cake, or salt herring, 238 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by the sliced apple, 238;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by eavesdropping, 238, 243, 244;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by knife, 241;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by briar-thorn, 242;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by melted lead, 242;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by cabbages, 242;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by cake at Hallowe'en, 242, 243;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by ashes, 243, 244, 245;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by salt, 244;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by raking a rick, 247;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>magic dwindles into, 336.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Divining-Rod'>Divining-rod</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Divine personages not allowed to touch the ground with their feet, i. 2 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to see the sun, 18 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>suspended for safety between heaven and earth, 98 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Divining-Rod'/> +<l>Divining-rod cut on Midsummer Eve, ii. <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made of hazel, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made of mistletoe in Sweden, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made of four sorts of wood, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made of willow, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made out of a parasitic rowan, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Divisibility of life, doctrine of the, ii. <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dobischwald, in Silesia, need-fire at, i. 278</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dodona, Zeus and his sacred oak at, ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dog not allowed to enter priest's house, i. 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>beaten to ensure woman's fertility, 69;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>charm against the bite of a mad, ii. <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a Batta totem, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Star, or Sirius, supposed by the ancients to cause the heat of summer, i. 332</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dolac, need-fire at, i. 286</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dolmen, sick children passed through a hole in a, ii. <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dommartin, Lenten fires at, i. 109</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Door, separate, for girls at puberty, i. 43, 44</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Doorie, hill of, at Burghead, i. 267</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Doors, separate, used by menstruous women, i. 84</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Doorway, creeping through narrow opening in, as a cure, ii. <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='339'/><anchor id='Pg339'/> + + +<lg> +<l>Dosadhs, an Indian caste, the fire-walk among the, ii. <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dosuma, king of, not allowed to touch the ground, i. 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Douay, procession of the giants at, ii. <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Double-axe, Midsummer king of the, i. 194</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dourgne, in Southern France, crawling through holed stones near, ii. <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dove, the ceremony of the fiery, at Easter in Florence, i. 126;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a Batta totem, ii. <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Doves, external soul of magicians in, ii. <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Aeneas led by doves to the Golden Bough, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref>, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dragon at Midsummer, effigy of, ii. <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external soul of a queen in a, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the water-mill, Servian story of the, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dragons driven away by smoke of Midsummer bonfires, i. 161;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>St. Peter's fires lighted to drive away, 195</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Draguignan, in the department of Var, Midsummer fires at, i. 193</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Draupadi, the heroine of the <hi rend='italic'>Mahabharata</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dread and seclusion of menstruous women, i. 76 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dread of witchcraft in Europe, 342</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dream, guardian spirit or animal acquired in a, ii. <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dreaming on flowers on Midsummer Eve, i. 175</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dreams, oracular, i. 238, 242;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of love on Midsummer Eve, ii. <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>prophetic, on the bloom of the oak, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>prophetic, on mistletoe, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Driving away the witches on Walpurgis Night, i. 160;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Midsummer, 170, 171</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Drobede (Draupadi), the heroine of the epic <hi rend='italic'>Mahabharata</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Drömling district, in Hanover, need-fire in, i. 277</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Drought attributed to misconduct of young girls, i. 31</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Druid, etymology of the word, i. 76 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Druidical custom of burning live animals, ii. <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the animals perhaps deemed embodiments of witches, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festivals, so-called, of the Scotch Highlanders, i. 147, 206</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— sacrifices, W. Mannhardt's theory of the, ii. <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Druidism, so-called, remains of, i. 233, 241;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and the Christian Church in relation to witchcraft, ii. <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Druid's Glass, the, i. 16; prediction, the, 229</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Druids' Hill, the, i. 229</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Druids, their superstition as to <q>serpents' eggs,</q> i. 15;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their human sacrifices, ii. <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in relation to the Midsummer festival, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their worship of the mistletoe and the oak, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their cycle of thirty years, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>catch the mistletoe in a white cloth, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Ireland, i. 157</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Drynemetum, <q>the temple of the oak,</q> ii. <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Duck baked alive as a sacrifice in Suffolk, i. 304</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Duck's egg, external soul in a, ii. <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Duk-duk, secret society of New Britain, i. 11, ii. <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Duke of York Island, ii. <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Duk-duk society in, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>exogamous classes in, <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Duke Town, on the Calabar River, ii. <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dukkala, New Year customs in, i. 218</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dumbartonshire, Hallowe'en in, i. 237 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dunbeath, in Caithness, i. 291</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dunkeld, i. 232</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dunkirk, procession of giants on Midsummer Day at, ii. <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Durandus, G. (W. Durantis), his <hi rend='italic'>Rationale Divinorum Officiorum</hi>, i. 161</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Durham, Easter candle in the cathedral of, i. 122 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Durris, parish of, Kincardineshire, Midsummer fires in the, i. 206 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dusk of the Evening, prayers to the, i. 53</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Düsseldorf, Shrove Tuesday custom in the district of, i. 120</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dutch names for mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dwarf-elder at Midsummer detects witchcraft, ii. <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dyaks of Borneo, trees and plants as life indices among the, ii. <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their doctrine of the plurality of souls, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Landak and Tajan, marriage custom of the, i. 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>birth-trees among the, ii. <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Pinoeh, their custom at a birth, ii. <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eagle, sacrifice to, i. 152</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— bone, used to drink out of, i. 45</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— clan, ii. <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -hawk, external soul of medicine-man in, ii. <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -spirits and buried treasures, i. 218</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Earth, taboos observed by the priest of, in Southern Nigeria, i. 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>prayers to, 50;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and heaven, between, 1 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Easter, fern-seed blooms at, ii. <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— candle, i. 121, 122, 125</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='340'/><anchor id='Pg340'/> + +<lg> +<l>—— ceremonies in the New World, i. 127 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— eggs, i. 108, 143, 144</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Eve, new fire on, i. 121, 124, 126, 158;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the fern blooms at, ii. <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— fires, i. 120 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Man, burning the, i. 144</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Monday, fire-custom on, i. 143</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Mountains, bonfires on, i. 140, 141</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Saturday, new fire on, i. 121, 122, 124, 127, 128, 130;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the divining-rod baptized on, ii. <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Sunday, red eggs on, i. 122</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eavesdropping, divination by, i. 238, 243, 244</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Echternach in Luxemburg, Lenten fire-custom at, i. 116</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eclipses attributed to monster biting the sun or moon, i. 70;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>air thought to be poisoned at, 162 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to be caused by a monster attacking the luminary, 162 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Edda</hi>, the prose, story of Balder in, i. 101;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the poetic, story of Balder in, 102</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eddesse, in Hanover, need-fire at, i. 275 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Edersleben, Midsummer fire-custom at, i. 169</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Edgewell Tree, oak at castle of Dalhousie, ii. <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Effect, supposed, of killing a totem animal, ii. <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Effigies burnt in bonfires, i. 106, 107, 116, 118 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 119 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 121, 122, 159, 167;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Judas burnt at Easter, 121, 127 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 130 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt in the Midsummer fires, 172 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 195;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of witches burnt in the fires, 342, ii. <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of human beings burnt in the fires, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of giants burnt in the summer fires, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Effigy of absent friend cut in a tree, ii. <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Efik, a tribe of Calabar, their belief in external or bush souls, ii. <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Egede, Hans, on impregnation by the moon, i. 76</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Egg broken in water, divination by means of, i. 208 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eggs, charm to ensure plenty of, i. 112, 338;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>begged for at Midsummer, 169;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination by white of, 236 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 238;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external souls of fairy beings in, ii. <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref>, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Easter, i. 108, 122, 143, 144</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Egypt, the Flight into, ii. <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>deified kings of, their souls deposited during life in portrait statues, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Egyptian, ancient, story of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— doctrine of the <foreign rend='italic'>ka</foreign> or external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— tombs, plaques or palettes of schist in, ii. <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Egyptians, human sacrifices among the, ii. <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eifel Mountains, Lenten fires in the, i. 115 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 336 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Cobern in the, 120;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>St. John's fires in the, 169;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in the, 248;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer flowers in the, ii. <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eighty-one (nine times nine), men make need-fire, i. 289, 294, 295</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eket, in North Calabar, ii. <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ekoi, a tribe of Calabar, their belief in external or bush souls, ii. <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Elangela</foreign>, external soul in Fan language, ii. <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Elbe, the river, dangerous on Midsummer Day, ii. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Elder-flowers gathered at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Elecampane in a popular remedy, i. 17</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Electric conductivity of various kinds of wood, ii. <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Elephant hunters, custom of, i. 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Elephants, lives of persons bound up with those of, ii. <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external human souls in, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Elgin, medical use of mistletoe in, ii. <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Elk clan of the Omaha Indians, i. 11</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Elm wood used to kindle need-fire, i. 299</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Embers of bonfires planted in fields, i. 117, 121;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>stuck in cabbage gardens, 174, 175;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>promote growth of crops, 337.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Ashes'>Ashes</ref> <hi rend='italic'>and</hi> <ref target='Index-Sticks-Charred'>Sticks, charred</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Midsummer fires a protection against conflagration, i. 188;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against lightning, 190</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Emily plain of Central Australia, ii. <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Emmenthal, in Switzerland, superstition as to Midsummer Day in the, ii. <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of orpine at Midsummer in the, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Emu fat not allowed to touch the ground, i. 13</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -wren, called men's <q>brother</q> among the Kurnai, ii. <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Encounter Bay tribe in South Australia, their dread of women at menstruation, i. 76</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Energy, sanctity and uncleanness, different forms of the same mysterious, i. 97 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>England, belief as to menstruous women in, i. 96 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 196 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 255 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the need-fire in, 286 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer giants in, ii. <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination by orpine at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fern-seed +<pb n='341'/><anchor id='Pg341'/> +at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the north of, mistletoe used to make the dairy thrive in, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>birth-trees in, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>children passed through cleft ash-trees as a cure for rupture or rickets in, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>oak-mistletoe in, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>English cure for whooping-cough, rheumatism, and boils, ii. <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ensival, bonfires at, i. 108</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Entrails, external soul in, ii. <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Epic of Kings</hi>, Firdusi's, i. 104</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Epidemic, creeping through a tunnel as a remedy for an, i. 283 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Epilepsy, yellow mullein a protection against, ii. <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe a cure for, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Épinal, Lenten fires at, i. 109</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eriskay, fairies at Hallowe'en in, i. 226;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>salt cake at Hallowe'en in, 238 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Errol, the Hays of, their fate bound up with oak-mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Escouvion'/> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Escouvion</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>Scouvion</foreign>, the Great and the Little, i. 108</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Esquimaux, their superstition as to various meats, i. 13 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seclusion of girls at puberty among the, 55;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ceremony of the new fire among the, 134;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their custom at eclipses, 162 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Alaska, child's soul deposited in a bag among the, ii. <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Bering Strait, their belief as to menstruous women, i. 91</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Esthonia, bathing at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>flowers gathered for divination and magic at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Esthonians, Midsummer fires among the, i. 179 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Oesel cull St. John's herbs on St. John's Day, ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eteobutads as umbrella-bearers at the festival of Scira, i. 20 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eton, Midsummer fires at, i. 197</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eunuchs perform a ceremony for the fertility of the fields, i. 340</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Euphorbia lathyris</foreign>, caper-spurge, ii. <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Euripides, his play on Meleager, ii. <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Europe, superstitions as to menstruous women in, i. 96 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the fire-festivals of, 106 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>great dread of witchcraft in, 342;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>birth-trees in, ii. <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>belief in, that strength of witches and wizards is in their hair, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eurydice, Orpheus and, ii. <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eve of Samhain (Hallowe'en) in Ireland, i. 139</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Everek (Caesarea), in Asia Minor, creeping through a rifted rock at, ii. <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Evil eye, protection against, i. 17</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— spirit, mode of cure for possession by an, ii. <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Evil-Spirits'/> +<l>Evil spirits driven away at the New Year, i. 134 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kept off by fire, 282, 285 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>St. John's herbs a protection against, ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kept off by flowers gathered at Midsummer, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>creeping through cleft trees to escape the pursuit of, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Demons'>Demons</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ewe negroes, their dread of menstruous women, i. 82</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Exogamous classes in Duke of York island, ii. <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Exorcizing vermin with torches, i. 340</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Exorcism of evil spirits, i. 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and ordeals, 66;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Easter, 123;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of St. John's wort in, ii. <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of mugwort in, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by vervain, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Expulsion of demons, annual, i. 135</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>External soul in folk-tales, ii. <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in folk-custom, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in inanimate things, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in plants, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in animals, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kept in totem, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> Souls, External</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Extinction of common fires before the kindling of the need-fire, i. 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 279, 283, 285, 288, 289, 289 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 291, 291 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 292, 294, 297, 298 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ceremonial, of fires, ii. <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eye, the evil, cast on cattle, i. 302, 303;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>oleander a protection against the, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eyes, looking through flowers at the Midsummer fire, thought to be good for the, i. 162, 163, 165 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 171, 174 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 344;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ashes or smoke of Midsummer fire supposed to benefit the, 214 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sore, attributed to witchcraft, 344;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mugwort a protection against sore, ii. <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of newly initiated lads closed, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eyre, E. J., on menstruous women in Australia, i. 77</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Faery dairts</q> thought to kill cattle, i. 303</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Failles</foreign>, bonfires, i. 111 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fair, great, at Uisnech in County Meath, i. 158</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fairies let loose at Hallowe'en, i. 224 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>carry off men's wives, 227;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Hallowe'en, dancing with the, 227;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to kill cattle by their darts, 303;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>active on Hallowe'en and May Day, ii. <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fairy changelings, i. 151 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe a protection against, ii. <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Falcon stone, at Errol, in Perthshire, ii. <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Falkenstein chapel of St. Wolfgang, creeping through a rifted rock near the, ii. <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Falling sickness, mistletoe a remedy for, ii. <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='342'/><anchor id='Pg342'/> + +<lg> +<l>Famenne in Namur, Lenten fires in, i. 108</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Familiar spirits of wizards in boars, ii. <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fans of the French Congo, birth-trees among the, ii. <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the Gaboon, their theory of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>guardian spirits acquired in dreams among the, <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of West Africa, custom at end of mourning among the, ii. <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fast at puberty, ii. <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fasting of girls at puberty, i. 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 66;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of women at menstruation, 93, 94;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as preparation for gathering magical plants, ii. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— men and women at a dancing festival, i. 8 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fasts imposed on heirs to thrones in South America, i. 19;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rules observed in, 20</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fat of emu not allowed to touch the ground, i. 13;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of crocodiles and snakes as unguent, 14</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fattening-house for girls in Calabar, ii. <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Feast of Florus and Lauras on August 18th, i. 220;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the Nativity of the Virgin, 220 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of All Souls, 223 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 225 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Fechenots</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>fechenottes</foreign>, Valentines, i. 110</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Feet foremost, children born, curative power attributed to, i. 295</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fen-hall, i. 102</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ferintosh district, in Scotland, i. 227</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fern in a popular remedy, i. 17;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the male (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Aspidium filix mas</foreign>), superstitions as 10, ii. <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— owl or goatsucker, sex totem of women, ii. <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -seed gathered on Midsummer Eve, magical properties ascribed to, ii. <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>blooms on Midsummer Eve, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>blooms on Christmas Night, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reveals treasures in the earth, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>brought by Satan on Christmas night, <ref target='Pg289'>289</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gathered at the solstices, Midsummer Eve and Christmas, <ref target='Pg290'>290</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>procured by shooting at the sun on Midsummer Day, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>blooms at Easter, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Feronia, Italian goddess, ii. <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ferrara, synod of, denounces practice of gathering fern-seed, ii. <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fertility of women, magical ceremony to ensure, i. 23 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 31;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of fields, processions with lighted torches to ensure the, 233 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the land supposed to depend on the number of human beings sacrificed, ii. <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fertilization of mango trees, ceremony for the, i. 10</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fertilizing fields with ashes of Midsummer fires, i. 170</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Festival of the cold food in China, i. 137;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Chinese, shifted in the calendar, 137;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the Cross on August 1st, 220;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the Dead, 223 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 225 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fetish, the great, in West Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fever, leaping over the Midsummer bonfires as a preventive of, i. 166, 173, 194;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires a protection against, 190;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire kindled to prevent, 297;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cure for, in India, ii. <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Fey</foreign>, devoted, i. 231</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fez, Midsummer custom at, i. 216, ii. <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Field-mice, burning torches as a protection against, i. 114, 115</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and moles driven away by torches, ii. <ref target='Pg340'>340</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fields, cultivated, menstruous women not allowed to enter, i. 79;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>protected against insects by menstruous women, 98 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>processions with torches through, 107 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 110 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 113 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 179, 339 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>protected against witches, 121;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made fruitful by bonfires, 140;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fertilized by ashes of Midsummer fires, 170;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fertilized by burning wheel rolled over them, 191, 340 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>protected against hail by bonfires, 344</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fig-trees, charm to benefit, i. 18; sacred among the Fans, ii. <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fights between men and women about their sex totems, ii. <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Figo</foreign>, bonfire, i. 111</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fiji, brides tattooed in, i. 34 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the fire-walk in, ii. <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>birth-trees in, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the drama of death and resurrection exhibited to novices at initiation in, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Filey, in Yorkshire, the Yule log and candle at, i. 256</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Finchra, mountain in Rum, ii. <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fingan Eve in the Isle of Man, i. 266</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Finistère, bonfires on St. John's Day in, i. 183</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Finland, Midsummer fires in, i. 180 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fir-tree as life-index in, ii. <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Finsch Harbour in German New Guinea, ii. <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fir-branches, prayers to, i. 51;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Midsummer, 177;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer mummers clad in, ii. <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -cones, seeds of, gathered on St. John's Day, ii. <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -tree as life-index, ii. <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe on fir-trees, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref>, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -wood used to kindle need-fire, i. 278, 282</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— or beech used to make the Yule log, i. 249</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='343'/><anchor id='Pg343'/> + +<lg> +<l>Firdusi's <hi rend='italic'>Epic of Kings</hi>, i. 104</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Fire'/> +<l>Fire, girls at puberty forbidden to see or go near, i. 29, 45, 46;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>menstruous women not allowed to touch or see, 84, 85;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>extinguished at menstruation, 87;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in fire-festivals, different possible explanations of its use, 112 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made by flints or by flint and steel, 121, 124, 126, 127, 145, 146, 159;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made by a burning-glass, 121, 127;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made by a metal mirror, 132, 137, 138 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made by the friction of wood, 132, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138, 144 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 148, 155, 169 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 175, 177, 179, 220, 264, 270 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 335 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be blown up with breath, i. 133;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>year called a fire, 137;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to grow weak with age, 137;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>pretence of throwing a man into, 148, 186, ii. <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>carried round houses, corn, cattle, and women after child-bearing, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used to drive away witches and demons at Midsummer, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a protection against evil spirits, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made by means of a wheel, <ref target='Pg335'>335</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a destructive and purificatory agent, i. 341;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used as a charm to produce sunshine, 341 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>employed as a barrier against ghosts, ii. <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a purificatory agency, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used to burn or ban witches, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>extinguished by mistletoe, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of oak-wood used to detect a murderer, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>life of man bound up with a, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perpetual, of oak-wood, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conceived by savages as a property stored like sap in trees, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>primitive ideas as to the origin of, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, living, made by friction of wood, i. 220</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, new, kindled on Easter Saturday, i. 121 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festivals of new, 131 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made by the friction of wood at Christmas, 264</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>—— of heaven,</q> term applied to Midsummer bonfire, i. 334, 335</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -drill used to kindle need-fire, i. 292</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fire-festivals of Europe, i. 106 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>interpretation of the, 328 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at the solstices, i. 331 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>solar theory of the, 331 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>purificatory theory of the, 341 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>regarded as a protection against witchcraft, 342;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the purificatory theory of the, more probable than the solar theory, 346;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>elsewhere than in Europe, ii. <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in India, <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in China, <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Japan, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Fiji, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Tahiti, the Marquesas Islands, and Trinidad, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Africa, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in classical antiquity in Cappadocia and Italy, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their relation to Druidism, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fire-god, Armenian, i. 131 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the Iroquois, prayers to the, 299 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -walk, the, ii. <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a remedy for disease, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the meaning of the, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Firebrand, external soul of Meleager in a, ii. <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Firebrands, the Sunday of the, i. 110, 114</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Fires'/> +<l>Fires extinguished as preliminary to obtaining new fire, i. 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>annually extinguished and relit, 132 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to burn the witches on the Eve of May Day (Walpurgis Night), 159 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>autumn, 220 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the need-fire, 269 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>extinguished before the lighting of the need-fire, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 279, 283, 285, 288, 289 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 291, 291 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 292, 294, 297, 298 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the fire-festivals explained as sun-charms, 329, 331 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>explained as purificatory, 329 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 341 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the burning of human beings in the, ii. <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perpetual, fed with oak-wood, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>with pinewood, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 7;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the solstitial, perhaps sun-charms, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>extinguished and relighted from a flame kindled by lightning, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Fire'>Fire</ref>, <ref target='Index-Bonfires'>Bonfires</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Beltane, i. 146 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Easter, i. 120 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Hallowe'en, i. 222 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 230 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Lenten, i. 106 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Midsummer, i. 160 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against witches, 180;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed to stop rain, 188, 336;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed to be a preventive of backache in reaping, 189, 344 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against fever, 190</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Midwinter, i. 246 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of St. John in France, i. 183, 188, 189, 190, 192, 193</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— on the Eve of Twelfth Day, i. 107</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>First-born lamb, wool of, used as cure for colic, i. 17</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— sons make need-fire, i. 294;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>special magical virtue attributed to, 295</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>First-fruits offered to the souls of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fish frightened or killed by proximity of menstruous women, i. 77, 93;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external soul in a, ii. <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>golden, external soul of girl in a, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lives of people bound up with, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fisheries supposed to be spoiled by menstruous women, i. 77, 78, 90 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 93</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fison, Rev. Lorimer, on Fijian religion, ii. <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 2, 3, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='344'/><anchor id='Pg344'/> + +<lg> +<l>Fittleworth, in Sussex, cleft ash-trees used for the cure of rupture at, ii. <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flames of bonfires, omens drawn from, i. 159, 165, 336</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flanders, Midsummer fires in, i. 194;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 249;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wicker giants in, ii. <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flax, leaping over bonfires to make the flax grow tall, i. 119;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>charms to make flax grow tall, 165, 166, 173, 174, 176, 180</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— crop, omens of the, drawn from Midsummer bonfires, i. 165</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— seed sown in direction of flames of bonfire, i. 140, 337</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fleabane as a cure for headache, i. 17</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fleas, leaping over Midsummer fires to get rid of, i. 211, 212, 217</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flight into Egypt, the, ii. <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flints, fire kindled by, i. 121, 124, 126, 127, 145, 146, 159</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Floor, sitting on the, at Christmas, i. 261</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Florence, ceremony of the new fire at Easter in, i. 126 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Florus and Laurus, feast of, on August 18th, i. 220</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Flowers'/> +<l>Flowers thrown on bonfire, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external souls in, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Crown'>Crown</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and herbs cast into the Midsummer bonfires, i. 162, 163, 172, 173</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— at Midsummer thrown on roofs as a protection against lightning, i. 169;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festival of, 177 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as talismans, 183;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in fires, 184, 188, 190;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wreaths of, hung over doors and windows, 201;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>placed on mouths of wells, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination from, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— on Midsummer Eve, blessed by St. John, i. 171;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the magic flowers of Midsummer Eve, ii. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used in divination, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used to dream upon, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flutes, sacred, played at initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fly River, in British New Guinea, ii. <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Flying-rowan</q> (parasitic rowan), superstitions in regard to, ii. <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used to make a divining-rod, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Foam of the sea, the demon Namuci killed by the, ii. <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the totem of a clan in India, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fo-Kien, province of China, festival of fire in, ii. <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Folgareit, in the Tyrol, Midsummer custom at, ii. <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Folk-custom, external soul in, ii. <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -tales, the external soul in, ii. <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Follies of Dunkirk, ii. <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Food, sacred, not allowed to touch the ground, i. 13 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>girls at puberty not allowed to handle, 23, 28, 36, 40 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 42</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Foods, forbidden, i. 4, 7, 19, 36 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 54, 56, 57, 58, 68, 77, 78, 94</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Fool's Stone</q> in ashes of Midsummer fire, i. 195</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Forbidden thing of clan, ii. <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Forchheim, in Bavaria, the burning of Judas at Easter in, i. 143</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Foreskins of young men offered to ancestral spirits in Fiji, ii. <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Forespeaking men and cattle, i. 303</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Forgetfulness of the past after initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref>, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref>, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Forked shape of divining-rod, ii. <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Forlorn fire,</q> need-fire, i. 292</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Foulères</foreign>, bonfires, i. 111 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Foulkes, Captain, quoted, ii. <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Four kinds of wood used to make the divining-rod, ii. <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fourdin, E., on the procession of the giants at Ath, ii. <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Four-leaved clover, a counter-charm for witchcraft, i. 316;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Midsummer useful for magic, ii. <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fowler, W. Warde, on Midsummer custom, i. 206 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on <hi rend='italic'>sexta luna,</hi> ii. <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the ceremony of passing under the yoke, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the oak and the thunder-god, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, <ref target='Pg300'>300</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fowls' nests, ashes of bonfires put in, i, 112, 338</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fox prayed to spare lambs, i. 152</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Foxes burnt in Midsummer fires, ii. <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches turn into, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Foxwell, Ernest, on the fire-walk in Japan, ii. <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fraas, F., on the various sorts of mistletoe known to the ancients, ii. <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Frampton-on-Severn in Gloucestershire, ii. <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>France, Lenten fires in, i. 109 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 181 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fires on All Saints' Day in, 245 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 249 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wonderful herbs gathered on St. John's Eve (Midsummer Eve) in, ii. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mugwort (herb of St. John) at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fern-seed at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>judicial treatment of sorcerers in, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>birth-trees in, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>children passed through a cleft oak as a cure for rupture or rickets in, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-French'>French</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Franche-Comté, Lenten fires in, i. 110 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fires of St. John in, 189;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 254</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='345'/><anchor id='Pg345'/> + +<lg> +<l>Franken, Middle, fire custom at Easter in, i. 143</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Frankenstein, precautions against witches in, ii. <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fraser Lake in British Columbia, i. 47</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Freiburg, in Switzerland, Lenten fires in, i. 119;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fern and treasure on St. John's Night in, ii. <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Freising, in Bavaria, creeping through a narrow opening in the cathedral of, ii. <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-French'/> +<l>French cure for whooping-cough, ii. <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Islands, use of bull-roarers in, ii. <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— peasants, their superstition as to a virgin and a flame, i. 137 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Friction of wood, fire made by the, i. 132, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138, 144 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 148, 155, 169 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 175, 177, 179, 220, 264, 270 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 335 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the most primitive mode of making fire, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Friendly Society of the Spirit</q> among the Naudowessies, ii. <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Frigg or Frigga, the goddess, and Balder, i. 101, 102</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fringes worn over the eyes by girls at puberty, i. 47, 48</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fruit-trees threatened, i. 114;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires lit under, 215;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>shaken at Christmas to make them bear fruit, 248;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fumigated with smoke of need-fire, 280;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fertilized by burning torches, 340</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Fuga daemonum</foreign>, St. John's wort, ii. <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fulda, the Lord of the Wells at, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fumigating crops with smoke of bonfires, i. 201, 337</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— sheep and cattle, ii. <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fumigation of pastures at Midsummer to drive away witches and demons, i. 170;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of fruit-trees, nets, and cattle with smoke of need-fire, 280;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of byres with juniper, 296;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of trees with wild thyme on Christmas Eve, ii. <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fünen, in Denmark, cure for childish ailments at, ii. <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Funeral, customs observed by mourners after a funeral in order to escape from the ghost, ii. <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— ceremony among the Michemis, i. 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Furnace, walking through a fiery, ii. <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Furness, W. H., on passing under an archway, ii. <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 180 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gabb, W. M., on ceremonial uncleanness, i. 65 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gablonz, in Bohemia, Midsummer bed of flowers at, ii. <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gaboon, birth-trees in the, ii. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>theory of the external soul in, <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gacko, need-fire at, i. 286</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gaidoz, H., on the custom of passing sick people through cleft trees, ii. <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gage, Thomas, on <foreign rend='italic'>naguals</foreign> among the Indians of Guatemala, ii. <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gaj, in Slavonia, need-fire at, i. 282</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Galatian senate met in Drynemetum, <q>the temple of the oak,</q> ii. <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Galatians kept their old Celtic speech, ii. <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Galela, dread of women at menstruation in, i. 79</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Galelareese of Halmahera, their rites of initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gallic Councils, their prohibition of carrying torches, i. 199</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gallows Hill, magical plants gathered on the, ii. <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -rope used to kindle need-fire, i. 277</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gandersheim, in Brunswick, need-fire at, i. 277</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gap, in the High Alps, cats roasted alive in the Midsummer fire at, ii. <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gardner, Mrs. E. A., i. 131 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Garlands of flowers placed on wells at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thrown on trees, a form of divination, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Garlic roasted at Midsummer fires, i. 193</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Garonne, Midsummer fires in the valley of the, i. 193</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gatschet, A. S., on the Toukawe Indians, ii. <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gaul, <q>serpents' eggs</q> in ancient, i. 15;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human sacrifices in ancient, ii. <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gauls, their fortification walls, i. 267 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gazelle Peninsula, New Britain, the Ingniet society in the, ii. <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gem, external soul of magician in a, ii. <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external soul of giant in a, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Geneva, Midsummer fires in the canton of, i. 172</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Genius</foreign>, the Roman, ii. <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Geranium burnt in Midsummer fire, i. 213</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gerhausen, i. 166</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>German stories of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Germans, human sacrifices offered by the ancient, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the oak sacred among the, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Germany, Lenten fires in, i. 115 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Easter bonfires in, 140 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>custom at eclipses in, 162 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Midsummer fires in, 163 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 247 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>belief in the transformation of witches into animals in, 321 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>colic, sore eyes, and stiffness of the +<pb n='346'/><anchor id='Pg346'/> +back attributed to witchcraft in, 344 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mugwort at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>orpine gathered at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fern-seed at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe a remedy for epilepsy in, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the need-fire kindled by the friction of oak in, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>oak-wood used to make up cottage fires on Midsummer Day in, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>birth-trees in, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>children passed through a cleft oak as a cure for rupture in, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gestr and the spae-wives, Icelandic story of, ii. <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gewar, King of Norway, i. 103</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ghost, oracular, in a cave, ii. <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ghosts extracted from wooden posts, i. 8;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fire used to get rid of, ii. <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mugwort a protection against, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kept off by thorn bushes, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>creeping through cleft sticks to escape from, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Giant who had no heart in his body, stories of the, ii. <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mythical, supposed to kill and resuscitate lads at initiation, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Giant-fennel burnt in Midsummer fire, i. 213</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Giants of wicker-work at popular festivals in Europe, ii. <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt in the summer bonfires, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Giggenhausen, in Bavaria, burning the Easter Man at, i. 144</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gion shrine in Japan, i. 138</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gippsland, the Kurnai of, ii. <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Giraldus Cambrensis on transformation of witches into hares, i. 315 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Girdle of wolf's hide worn by were-wolves, i. 310 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of St. John, mugwort, ii. <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Girdles of mugwort worn on St. John's Day or Eve as preservative against backache, sore eyes, ghosts, magic, and sickness, ii. <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Girkshausen, in Westphalia, the Yule log at, i. 248</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Girl at puberty said to be wounded by a snake, i. 56;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to be swallowed by a serpent, 57</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and boy produce need-fire by friction of wood, 281</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Girls at puberty, secluded, i. 22 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to touch the ground, 22, 33, 35, 36, 60;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to see the sun, 22, 35, 36, 37, 41, 44, 46, 47, 68;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to handle food, 23, 28, 36, 40 sq., 42; half buried in ground, 38 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to scratch themselves with their fingers, 38, 39, 41, 42, 44, 47, 50, 53, 92;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to lie down, 44;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gashed on back, breast, and belly, 60;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>stung by ants, 61;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>beaten severely, 61, 66 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed to be attacked by a demon, 67 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to see the sky, 69;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>forbidden to break bones of hares, 73 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gisors, crawling through a holed stone near, ii. <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Givoy agon</foreign>, living fire, made by the friction of wood, i. 220</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Glamorgan, the Vale of, Beltane and Midsummer fires in the, i. 154;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 201, 338</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Glands, ashes of Yule log used to cure swollen, i. 251</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Glanvil, Joseph, on a witch in the form of a cat, i. 317</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Glass, the Magician's or Druid's, i. 16</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Glatz, precautions against witches on Walpurgis Night in, ii. <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Glawi, in the Atlas, New Year fires at, i. 217</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Glencuaich, the hawk of, in a Celtic tale, ii. <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Glenorchy, the Beltane cake in, i. 149</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Glory, the Hand of,</q> mandragora, ii. <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gloucestershire, mistletoe growing on oaks in, ii. <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gnabaia, a spirit who swallows and disgorges lads at initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Gnid-eld</foreign>, need-fire, i. 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Goajiras of Colombia, their seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 34 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Goatsucker or fern owl, sex totem of women, ii. <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>God, Aryan, of the thunder and the oak, i. 265</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— on Earth, title of supreme chief of the Bushongo, ii. <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Godolphin, in Cornwall, Midsummer fires on, i. 199</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gold, the flower of chicory to be cut with, ii. <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>root of marsh mallow to be dug with, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>buried, revealed by mistletoe and fern-seed, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— coin, magic plant to be dug up with a, ii. <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Golden'>Golden</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Golden'/> +<l>Golden axe, sacred tamarisk touched with, ii. <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Golden-Bough'/> +<l>Golden Bough, the, ii. <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and the priest of Aricia, i. 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a branch of mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Virgil's account of the, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref>, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>origin of the name, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— fish, girl's external soul in a, ii. <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— knife, horse slain in sacrifice with a, ii. <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— ring, half a hero's strength in a, ii. <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— sickle, mistletoe cut by Druids with a, ii. <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred olive at Olympia cut with a, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='347'/><anchor id='Pg347'/> + +<lg> +<l>Golden sword and golden arrow, external soul of a hero in a, ii. <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Goldie, Rev. Hugh, on the <foreign rend='italic'>ukpong</foreign> or external soul in Calabar, ii. <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Goliath, effigy of, ii. <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Goluan</foreign>, Midsummer, i. 199</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Good Friday, Judas driven out of church on, i. 146;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the divining-rod cut on, ii. <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sick children passed through cleft trees on, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Goodrich-Freer, A., quoted, i. 154 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Googe, Barnabe, i. 124</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gooseberry bushes, wild, custom as to, ii. <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gorillas, lives of persons bound up with those of, ii. <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Görz, belief as to witches at Midsummer about, ii. <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grain Coast, West Africa, initiation of girls on the, ii. <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grammont, in Belgium, festival of the <q>Crown of Roses</q> at, i. 195;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log at, 249</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Granada (South America), youthful rulers secluded in, i. 19</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grand Halleux, bonfires at, i. 107</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Grannas-mias</foreign>, torches, i. 111</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Granno, invocation of, i. 111 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Granno-mio</foreign>, a torch, i. 111</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grannus, a Celtic deity, identified with Apollo, i. 111 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grant, the great laird of, not exempt from witchcraft, i. 342 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grass, ceremony to make grass plentiful, i. 136</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gratz, puppet burned on St. John's Eve at, i. 173</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grave, dance at initiation in, ii. <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Great Man, who created the world and comes down in the form of lightning, ii. <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Greece, Midsummer fires in, i. 211 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe in, ii. <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref>, <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Greek belief as to menstruous women, i. 98 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Church, ritual of the new fire at Easter in the, i. 128 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— stories of girls who were forbidden to see the sun, i. 72 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Greeks deemed sacred the places which were struck by lightning, ii. <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Green Wolf, Brotherhood of the, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Jumièges in Normandy, i. 185 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Greenlanders, their notion that women can conceive by the moon, i. 75 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gregor, Rev. Walter, ii. <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on virtue of children born feet foremost, i. 295 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the <q>quarter-ill,</q> 296 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the bewitching of cattle, 303</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Greig, James S., ii. <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Greta, river in Yorkshire, i. 287</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grey, Sir George, on the <foreign rend='italic'>kobong</foreign> or totem, ii. <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grimm, J., on need-fire, i. 270 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, 272 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the relation of the Midsummer fires to Balder, ii. <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the sanctity of the oak, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the oak and lightning, <ref target='Pg300'>300</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grisons, threatening a mist in the, i. 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grizzly Bear clan, ii. <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Groot, J. J. M. de, on mugwort in China, ii. <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grottkau, precautions against witches in, ii. <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ground, sacred persons not allowed to set foot on, i. 2 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to sit on bare, 4, 5, 12;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>girls at puberty not allowed to touch the, 22, 33, 35, 36, 60;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>magical plants not to touch the, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe not allowed to touch the, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grouse clan, ii. <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grove, Miss Florence, on withered mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grove, Balder's, i. 104, ii. <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred grove of Nemi, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>soul of chief in sacred, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Arician'>Arician</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grubb, Rev. W. B., i. 57 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grün, in Bohemia, mountain arnica gathered at Midsummer at, ii. <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guacheta in Colombia, i. 74</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guaranis of Brazil, their seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 56</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guaraunos of the Orinoco, uncleanness of menstruous women among the, i. 85 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guardian angels, afterbirth and navel-string regarded as a man's, ii. <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— spirit, afterbirth and seed regarded as, ii. <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>acquired in a dream, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guatemala, the <foreign rend='italic'>nagual</foreign> or external soul among the Indians of, ii. <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guatusos of Costa Rica, use of bull-roarers among the, ii. <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guayquiries of the Orinoco, their beliefs as to menstruous women, i. 85</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guelphs, the oak of the, ii. <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guiana, British, the Macusis of, i. 60;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ordeals undergone by young men among the Indians of, 63 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, French, the Wayanas of, i. 63</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Guizing</foreign> at Christmas in Lerwick, i. 268 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guleesh and the fairies at Hallowe'en, i. 277 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gunn, David, kindles need-fire, i. 291</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guns fired to drive away witches, ii. <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gwalior, Holi fires in, ii. <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hadji Mohammad shoots a were-wolf, i. 312 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='348'/><anchor id='Pg348'/> + +<lg> +<l>Haida Indians of Queen Charlotte Islands, girls at puberty secluded among the, i. 44 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hail, bonfires thought to protect fields against, i. 344;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ceremonies to avert, 144, 145;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires a protection against, 176;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mountain arnica a protection against, ii. <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and thunderstorms caused by witches, i. 344</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hainan, island, i. 137</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hainaut, province of Belgium, fire customs in, i. 108;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>procession of giants in, ii. <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hair, unguent for, i. 14;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>prohibition to cut, 28;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of girls at puberty shaved, 31, 56, 57, 59;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Hindoo ritual of cutting a child's, 99 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the Virgin or St. John looked for in ashes of Midsummer fire, 182 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 190, 191;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external soul in, ii. <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>strength of people bound up with their, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of criminals, witches, and wizards shorn to make them confess, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of children tied to trees, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of novices cut at initiation, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref>, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and nails of child buried under a tree, ii. <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hairy Stone, the, at Midsummer, i. 212</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Halberstadt district, need-fire in the, i. 273</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hall, C. F., among the Esquimaux, i. 13, 134</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Rev. G. R., quoted, i. 198</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hallowe'en, new fire at, in Ireland, i. 139;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>an old Celtic festival of New Year, 224 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination at, 225, 228 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches, hobgoblins, and fairies let loose at, 226 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 245;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches and fairies active on, ii. <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Beltane, the two chief fire festivals of the British Celts, ii. <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— cakes, i. 238, 241, 245</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— fires, i. 222 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 230 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Wales, 156</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Halmahera, rites of initiation in, ii. <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Haltwhistle, in Northumberland, burnt sacrifice at, i. 301</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hamilton, Gavin, quoted, i. 47 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hammocks, girls at puberty hung up in, i. 56, 59, 60, 61, 66</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Hand of Glory,</q> mandragora, ii. <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hannibal despoils the shrine on Soracte, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hanover, the need-fire in, i. 275;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Easter bonfires in, 140;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>custom on St. John's Day about, ii. <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hare, pastern bone of a, in a popular remedy, i. 17</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hares, witches in the form of, i. 157;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches changed into, 315 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 316 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hares and witches in Yorkshire, ii. <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hareskin Tinneh, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 48</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Harris, Slope of Big Stones in, i. 227</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hartland, E. S., on the life-token, ii. <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Haruvarus, degenerate Brahmans, their fire-walk, ii. <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Harz district, Easter bonfires in the, i. 140;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in the, 169</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Mountains, Easter fires in the, i. 142;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire in the, 276;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>springwort in the, ii. <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Hats'/> +<l>Hats, special, worn by girls at puberty, i. 45, 46, 47, 92.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Hoods'>Hoods</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hausa story of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hawaiians, the New Year of the, ii. <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hawkweed gathered at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hawthorn, mistletoe on, ii. <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref>, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Haxthausen, A. von, i. 181</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hays of Errol, their fate bound up with an oak-tree and the mistletoe growing on it, ii. <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hazebrouch, in France, wicker giants on Shrove Tuesday at, ii. <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hazel, the divining-rod made of, ii. <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>never struck by lightning, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— rods to drive cattle with, i. 204</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Headache, cure for, i. 17;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mugwort a protection against, ii. <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Headdress, special, worn by girls at first menstruation, i. 92</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Headless Hugh, Highland story of, ii. <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— horsemen in India, ii. <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heads or faces of menstruous women covered, i. 22, 24, 25, 29, 31, 44 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 48 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 55, 90</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hearne, Samuel, quoted, i. 90 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heart of bewitched animal burnt or boiled to compel the witch to appear, i. 321 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hearts of diseased cattle cut out and hung up as a remedy, i. 269 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 325</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heaven, the Queen of, ii. <ref target='Pg303'>303</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and earth, between, i. 1 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 98 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hector, first chief of Lochbuy, ii. <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heiberg, Sigurd K., i. 171 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heifer sacrificed at kindling need-fire, i. 290</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Helensburgh, in Dumbartonshire, Hallowe'en at, i. 237 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Hell-gate of Ireland,</q> i. 226</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Helmsdale, in Sutherland, need-fire at, i. 295</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Helpful'/> +<l>Helpful animals in fairy tales, ii. <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref>, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hemlock branch, external soul of ogress in a, ii. <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='349'/><anchor id='Pg349'/> + +<lg> +<l>Hemlock branches, passing through a ring of, in time of sickness, ii. <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— stone in Nottinghamshire, i. 157</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hemorrhoids, root of orpine a cure for, ii. <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hemp, how to make hemp grow tall, i. 109;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>leaping over the Midsummer bonfire to make the hemp grow tall, 166, 168</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— seed, divination by, i. 235, 241, 245</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hen and chickens imitated by a woman and her children at Christmas, i. 260</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Henderson, William, on need-fire, i. 288 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on a remedy for cattle-disease, 296 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on burnt sacrifice of ox, 301</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hen's egg, external soul of giant in a, ii. <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Henshaw, Richard, on external or bush souls in Calabar, ii. <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hephaestus worshipped in Lemnos, i. 138</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Herb, a magic, gathered at Hallowe'en, i. 228</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of St. John, mugwort, ii. <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Herbs thrown across the Midsummer fires, i. 182, 201;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wonderful, gathered on St. John's Eve or Day, ii. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of St. John, wonderful virtues ascribed to, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and flowers cast into the Midsummer bonfires, i. 162, 163, 172, 173</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hercules at Argyrus, temple of, i. 99 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Herdsmen dread witches and wolves, i. 343</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Herefordshire, Midsummer fires in, i. 199;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 257 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Herndon, W. L., quoted, i. 62 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hernia, cure for, i. 98 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Herodias, cursed by Slavonian peasants, i. 345</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Herrera, A. de, on <foreign rend='italic'>naguals</foreign> among the Indians of Honduras, ii. <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Herrick, Robert, on the Yule log, i. 255</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Herring, salt, divination by, i. 239</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Herzegovina, the Yule log in, i. 263;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire in, 288</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hesse, Lenten fire-custom in, i. 118;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Easter fires in, 140;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wells decked with flowers on Midsummer Day in, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hewitt, J. N. B., on need-fire of the Iroquois, i. 299 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hiaina district of Morocco, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hidatsa Indians, their theory of the plurality of souls, ii. <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Hieracium pilosella</foreign>, mouse-ear hawk-weed, gathered at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Higgins, Rev. J. C., i. 207 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>High Alps, department of the, Midsummer fires in the, ii. <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>High Priest, the Fijian, ii. <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Highland story of Headless Hugh, ii. <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Highlanders'/> +<l>Highlanders of Scotland, their medicinal applications of menstruous blood, i. 98 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their belief in the power of witches to destroy cattle, 343 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their belief concerning snake stones, ii. <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Highlands'/> +<l>Highlands of Scotland, snake stones in the, i. 16;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Beltane fires in the, 146 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination at Hallowe'en in the, 229, 234 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire and Beltane fire kindled by the friction of oak in the, ii. <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hildesheim, Easter rites of fire and water at, i. 124;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Easter bonfires at, 141;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the need-fire at, 272 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hawk-weed gathered on Midsummer Day at, ii. <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hill of the Fires in the Highlands of Scotland, i. 149</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Ward, in County Meath, i. 139</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Himalayan districts, mistletoe in the, ii. <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hindoo maidens secluded at puberty, i. 68</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— marriage custom, i. 75</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— ritual, abstinence from salt in, i. 27;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as to cutting a child's hair, 99 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— stories of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— use of menstruous fluid, i. 98 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— women, their restrictions at menstruation, i. 84</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hindoos of Southern India, their Pongol festival, ii. <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the Punjaub, their custom of passing unlucky children through narrow openings, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hippopotamus, external soul of chief in, ii. <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lives of persons bound up with those of hippopotamuses, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hirpi Sorani, their fire-walk, ii. <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hlubi chief, his external soul in a pair of ox-horns, ii. <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hoare, Sir Richard Colt, on Hallowe'en in Wales, i. 239</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hogg, Alexander, i. 206</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hogmanay, the last day of the year, i. 224, 266</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hohenstaufen Mountains in Wurtemberg, Midsummer fires in the, i. 166</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hole in tongue of medicine-man, ii. <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Holed stones which people creep through as a cure, ii. <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Holes in rocks or stones, sick people passed through, ii. <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Holi, a festival of Northern India, ii. <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Holiness or taboo conceived as a dangerous physical substance which needs to be insulated, i. 6 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='350'/><anchor id='Pg350'/> + +<lg> +<l>Holland, Easter fires in, i. 145</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hollantide Eve (Hallowe'en) in the Isle of Man, i. 244</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hollertau, Bavaria, Easter fires in the, i. 122</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hollis, A. C., ii. <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Holly-tree, children passed through a cleft, ii. <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Holm-oak, the Golden Bough growing on a, ii. <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Holy Apostles, church of the, at Florence, i. 126</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Land, fire flints brought from the, i. 126</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Holies, the Fijian, ii. <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref>, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Sepulchre, church of the, at Jerusalem, ceremony of the new fire in the, i. 128 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Homesteads protected by bonfires against lightning and conflagration, i. 344</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Homoeopathic or imitative magic, i. 49, 133, ii. <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Homoeopathy, magical, ii. <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Homolje mountains in Servia, i. 282</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Honduras, the <foreign rend='italic'>nagual</foreign> or external soul among the Indians of, ii. <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Honorific totems of the Carrier Indians, ii. <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Hoods'/> +<l>Hoods worn by women after childbirth, i. 20;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worn by girls at puberty, 44 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 48 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 55;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worn by women at menstruation, 90.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Hats'>Hats</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hoop, crawling through a, as a cure or preventive of disease, ii. <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of rowan-tree, sheep forced through a, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hoopoe brings the mythical springwort, ii. <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Horatius purified for the murder of his sister, ii. <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hornbeam, mistletoe on, ii. <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Horse, the White, effigy carried through Midsummer fire, i. 203 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witch in the shape of a, 319</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— sacrifice in ancient India, ii. <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Horse's head thrown into Midsummer fire, ii. <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Horse-chestnut, mistletoe on, ii. <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Horses used by sacred persons, i. 4 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be touched or ridden by menstruous women, 88 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 96;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>driven through the need-fire, 276, 297</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hos, the, of Togoland (West Africa), their dread of menstruous women, i. 82</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hose, Dr. Charles, on creeping through a cleft stick after a funeral, ii. <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and W. McDougall, on the <foreign rend='italic'>ngarong</foreign> or secret helper of the Ibans, ii. <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hother, Hodr, or Hod, the blind god, and Balder, i. 101 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hottentots drive their sheep through fire, ii. <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>House-communities of the Servians, i. 259 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Houses protected by bonfires against lightning and conflagration, i. 344;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made fast against witches on Midsummer Eve, ii. <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>—— of the soul</q> in Isaiah, ii. <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Housman, Professor A. E., on the feast of the Nativity of the Virgin, i. 220 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Houstry, in Caithness, need-fire at, i. 291 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Howitt, A. W., on seclusion of menstruous women, i. 78;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on killing a totem animal, ii. <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on secrecy of totem names, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the drama of resurrection at initiation, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Howitt, Miss E. B., ii. <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Howth, the western promontory of, Midsummer fire on, i. 204</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Castle, life-tree of the St. Lawrence family at, ii. <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Huahine, one of the Tahitian islands, ii. <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hudson Bay Territory, the Chippeways of, i. 90</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hughes, Miss E. P., on the fire-walk in Japan, ii. <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Human beings burnt in the fires, ii. <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— divinities put to death, i. 1 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— sacrifices at fire-festivals, i. 106;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>traces of, 146, 148, 150 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 186, ii. <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>offered by the ancient Germans, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Celts of Gaul, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the victims perhaps witches and wizards, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mannhardt's theory, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— victims annually burnt, ii. <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hungarian story of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hungary, Midsummer fires in, i. 178 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hunt, Holman, his picture of the new fire at Jerusalem, i. 130 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hunt, Robert, on burnt sacrifices, i. 303</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hunters avoid girls at puberty, i. 44, 46;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>luck of, spoiled by menstruous women, 87, 89, 90, 91, 94</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Huon Gulf in German New Guinea, ii. <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hupa Indians of California, seclusion of girls among the, i. 42</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hurons of Canada, custom of their women at menstruation, i. 88 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Huskanaw</foreign>, initiatory ceremony of the Virginian Indians, ii. <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hut burnt at Midsummer, i. 215 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hutchinson, W., quoted, i. 197 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Huts, special, for menstruous women, i. 79, 82, 85 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Huzuls of the Carpathians kindle new fire at Christmas, i. 264;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gather simples on St. John's Night, ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hyaenas, men turned into, i. 313</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='351'/><anchor id='Pg351'/> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Hypericum perforatum</foreign>, St. John's wort, gathered at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-St-Johns-Wort'>St. John's Wort</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Hyphear</foreign>, a kind of mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref>, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hyrrockin, a giantess, i. 102</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ibans of Borneo, their <foreign rend='italic'>ngarong</foreign> or secret helper, ii. <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ibos of the Niger delta, their belief in external human souls lodged in animals, ii. <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ibrahim Pasha, i. 129</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Icelandic stories of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Icolmkill, the hill of the fires in, i. 149</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ideler, L., on the Arab year before Mohammed, i. 217 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Idhlozi</foreign>, ancestral spirit in serpent form, ii. <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Iglulik, Esquimaux of, i. 134</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ilmenau, witches burnt at, i. 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Iluvans of Malabar, marriage custom of, i. 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Image of god carried through fire, ii. <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reason for carrying over a fire, <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Images, colossal, filled with human victims and burnt, ii. <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Imitative magic, i. 329, ii. <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Immortality, the burdensome gift of, i. 99 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the soul, experimental demonstration of the, ii. <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Immortelles, wreaths of, on Midsummer Day, i. 177</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Implements, magical, not allowed to touch the ground, i. 14 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Impregnation of women by the sun, i. 74 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by the moon, 75 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>—— rite</q> at Hindoo marriages, i. 75</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Inauguration of a king in Brahmanic ritual, i. 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Inca, fast of the future, i. 19</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Incas of Peru, their ceremony of the new fire, i. 132</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Incantation recited at kindling need-fire, i. 290</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Inconsistency and vagueness of primitive thought, ii. <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>India, seclusion of girls at puberty in, i. 68 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fire-festivals in, ii. <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sixty years' cycle in, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the horse-sacrifice in ancient, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>torture of suspected witches in, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient, traditional cure of skin disease in, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><foreign rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign> in, <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Indian Archipelago, birth-custom in the, ii. <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— legend parallel to Balder myth, ii. <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Indians of Costa Rica, their customs in fasts, i. 20</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Granada seclude their future rulers, i. 19</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Indians of North America, not allowed to sit on bare ground in war, i. 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seclusion of girls among the, 41 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>imitate lightning by torches, 340 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rites of initiation into religious associations among the, ii. <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Index of Superstitions,</q> i. 270</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Indra and Apala, in the Rigveda, ii. <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and the demon Namuci, Indian legend of, ii. <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Indrapoora, story of the daughter of a merchant of, ii. <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Infants tabooed, i. 5, 20</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ingleborough in Yorkshire, i. 288</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ingleton, in Yorkshire, need-fire at, i. 288</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ingniet or Ingiet, a secret society of New Britain, ii. <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Initiation, rites in German New Guinea, ii. <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at puberty, pretence of killing the novice and bringing him to life again during, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Australia, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in New Guinea, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Fiji, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Rook, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in New Britain, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Halmahera, <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Fiji apparently intended to introduce the novices to the worshipful spirits of the dead, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Ceram, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Africa, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in North America, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of young men, bull-roarers sounded at the, ii. <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of a medicine-man in Australia, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Inn, effigies burnt at Midsummer in the valley of the river, i. 172 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Innerste, river, i. 124</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Innuits (Esquimaux), i. 14</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Insanity, burying in an ant-hill as a cure for, i. 64</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Inspired men walk through fire unharmed, ii. <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Insulation of women at menstruation, i. 97</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Interpretation of the fire-festivals, i. 328 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Inverness-shire, Beltane cakes in, i. 153</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Invulnerability conferred by a species of mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conferred by decoction of a parasitic orchid, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Balder, <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>attained through blood-brotherhood with animal, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to be attained through initiation, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Invulnerable warlock or giant, stories of the, ii. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ipswich witches, i. 304 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Iran, marriage custom in, i. 75</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ireland, the Druid's Glass in, i. 16;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>new fire at Hallowe'en in, 139, 225;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Beltane fires in, 157 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 201 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fairies at Hallowe'en +<pb n='352'/><anchor id='Pg352'/> +in, 226 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Hallowe'en customs in, 241 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches as hares in, 315 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bathing at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cure for whooping-cough in, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Irish story of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Iron not to be used in digging fern root, ii. <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe gathered without the use of, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be used in cutting certain plants, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>custom observed by the Toradjas at the working of, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Iron-wort, bunches of, held in the smoke of the Midsummer fires, i. 179</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Iroquois, ceremony of the new fire among the, i. 133 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire among the, 299 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Isaiah, <q>houses of the soul</q> in, ii. <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Isfendiyar and Rustem, i. 104 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 314</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Island, need-fire kindled in an, i. 290 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 291 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Isle de France, Midsummer giant burnt in, ii. <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Isle-Man'/> +<l>—— of Man, Beltane fires in the, i. 157.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Man-Isle'>Man, Isle of</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Istria, the Croats of, ii. <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Italian stories of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient practice of passing conquered enemies under a yoke, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Italians, the oak the chief sacred tree among the ancient, ii. <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Italy, birth-trees in, ii. <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe in, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref>, <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Itongo</foreign>, plural <foreign rend='italic'>amatongo</foreign>, ii. <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ivory Coast, totemism among the Siena of the, ii. <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ivy to dream on, i. 242</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>Ixia</foreign>, a kind of mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref>, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jablanica, need-fire at, i. 286</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jack-in-the-Green, ii. <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jaffa, new Easter fire carried to, i. 130 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jakkaneri, in the Neilgherry Hills, the fire-walk at, ii. <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>James, M. R., on the Sibyl's Wish, i. 100 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>James and Philip, the Apostles, feast of, i. 158</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jamieson, J., on the <q>quarter-ill,</q> i. 296 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>January, the Holi festival in, ii. <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the fire-walk in, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— the sixth, the nativity of Christ on, i. 246</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Janus and Jupiter, ii. <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Japan, the Ainos of, i. 20, ii. <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the fire-walk in, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Japanese ceremony of new fire, i. 137 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Java, birth-trees in, ii. <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jebel Bela mountain, in the Sudan, i. 313</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jerusalem, ceremony of the new fire, at Easter in, i. 128 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jeugny, the forest of, ii. <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jevons, Dr. F. B., on the Roman <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>genius</foreign>, ii. <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jewitt, John R., on ritual of mimic death among the Nootka Indians, ii. <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Johanniswurzel</foreign>, the male fern, ii. <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Johnstone, Rev. A., quoted, i. 233</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Jônee</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>joanne</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>jouanne</foreign>, the Midsummer fire (the fire of St. John), i. 189</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Joyce, P. W., on driving cattle through fires, i. 159 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the bisection of the Celtic year, 223 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Judas, effigies of, burnt in Easter fires, i. 121, 127 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 130 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 143, 146, ii. <ref target='Pg023'>23</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>driven out of church on Good Friday, i. 146</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— candle, i. 122 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— fire at Easter, i. 123, 144</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Julian calendar used by Mohammedans, i. 218 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>July, procession of giants at Douay in, ii. <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— the twenty-fifth, St. James's Day, flower of chicory cut on, ii. <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jumièges, in Normandy, Brotherhood of the Green Wolf at, i. 185 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jumping over a wife, significance of, i. 23</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>June, the fifteenth of, St. Vitus's Day, i. 335</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— the fire-walk in, ii. <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Juniper burnt in need-fire, i. 288;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used to fumigate byres, 296</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Juno and Diana, ii. <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jupiter represented by an oak-tree on the Capitol, ii. <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perhaps personified by the King of the Wood, the priest of Diana at Nemi, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Jupiter and Janus, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, cycle of sixty years based on the sidereal revolution of the planet, ii. <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jura, fire-custom at Lent in the, i. 114</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Mountains, Midsummer bonfires in the, i. 188 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in the, 249</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jurby, parish of, in the Isle of Man, i. 305</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jutland, sick children and cattle passed through holes in turf in, ii. <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>superstitions about a parasitic rowan in, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Ka</foreign>, external soul or double in ancient Egypt, ii. <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kabadi, a district of British New Guinea, i. 35</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='353'/><anchor id='Pg353'/> + +<lg> +<l>Kabenau river, in German New Guinea, ii. <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kabyle tale, milk-tie in a, ii. <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the external soul in a, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kahma, in Burma, annual extinction of fires in, i. 136</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kai of New Guinea, their seclusion of women at menstruation, i. 79;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their use of a cleft stick as a cure, ii. <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their rites of initiation, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Kail'/> +<l>Kail, divination by stolen, i. 234 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kakian association in Ceram, rites of initiation in the, ii. <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kalmuck story of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kamenagora in Croatia, Midsummer fires at, i. 178</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kamtchatkans, their purification after a death, ii. <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kanna district, Northern Nigeria, ii. <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kappiliyans of Madura, their seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 69</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Karens of Burma, their custom at childbirth, ii. <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kasai River, ii. <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Katajalina, a spirit who eats up boys at initiation and restores them to life, ii. <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Katrine, Loch, i. 231</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kauffmann, Professor F., i. 102 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 103 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kaupole, a Midsummer pole in Eastern Prussia, ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kawars, of India, their cure for fever, ii. <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kaya-Kaya or Tugeri of Dutch New Guinea, their use of bull-roarers, ii. <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kayans or Bahaus of Central Borneo, i. 4 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>custom observed by them after a funeral, ii. <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their way of giving the slip to a demon, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Keating, Geoffrey, Irish historian, quoted, i. 139;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Beltane fires, 158</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Keating, W. H., quoted, i. 89</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kei Islands, birth-custom in the, ii. <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Keitele, Lake, in Finland, ii. <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kemble, J. M., on need-fire, i. 288</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kerry, Midsummer fires in, i. 203</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Kersavondblok</foreign>, the Yule log, i. 249</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Kersmismot</foreign>, the Yule log, i. 249</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khambu caste in Sikkhim, their custom after a funeral, ii. <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kharwars of Mirzapur, their dread of menstruous women, i. 84</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khasis of Assam, story of the external soul told by the, i. 146 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khnumu, Egyptian god, fashions a wife for Bata, ii. <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khonds, human sacrifices among the, ii. <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kia blacks of Queensland, their treatment of girls at puberty, i. 39</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kidd, Dudley, on external souls of chiefs, ii. <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kildare, Midsummer fires in, i. 203</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kilkenny, Midsummer fires in, i. 203</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Killin, the hill of the fires at, i. 149</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Killing a totem animal, ii. <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— the novice and bringing him to life again at initiation, pretence of, ii. <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>King, nominal, chosen at Midsummer, i. 194, ii. <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>presides at summer bonfire, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Queen of Roses, i. 195</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the Bean, i. 153 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Summer chosen on St. Peter's Day, i. 195</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the Wood at Nemi put to death, i. 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the Arician grove a personification of an oak-spirit, ii. <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the priest of Diana at Aricia, perhaps personified Jupiter, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Kings'>Kings</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kingaru, clan of the Wadoe, ii. <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Kings'/> +<l>Kings, sacred or divine, put to death, i. 1 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>subject to taboos, 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and priests, their sanctity analogous to the uncleanness of women at menstruation, i. 97 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Uganda, their life bound up with barkcloth trees, ii. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Kings, The Epic of</hi>, i. 104</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kingsley, Miss Mary H., on external or bush souls, ii. <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on rites of initiation in West Africa, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kingussie, in Inverness-shire, Beltane cakes at, i. 153</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kinship created by the milk-tie, ii. <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kirchmeyer, Thomas, author of <hi rend='italic'>Regnum Papisticum</hi>, i. 124, 125 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his account of Midsummer customs, 162 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kirghiz story of girl who might not see the sun, i. 74</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kirk Andreas, in the Isle of Man, i. 306</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kirkmichael, in Perthshire, Beltane fires and cakes at, i. 153</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kirton Lindsey, in Lincolnshire, i. 318;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>medical use of mistletoe at, ii. <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kitching, Rev. A. L., on cure for lightning stroke, ii. <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kiwai, island off New Guinea, use of bull-roarers in, ii. <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kiziba, to the west of Victoria Nyanza, theory of the afterbirth in, ii. <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kloo, in the Queen Charlotte Islands, i. 45</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Knawel, St. John's blood on root of, ii. <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='354'/><anchor id='Pg354'/> + +<lg> +<l>Knife, divination by, i. 241;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>soul of child bound up with, ii. <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>Darding Knife,</q> honorific totem of the Carrier Indians, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref>, <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Kobong</foreign>, totem, in Western Australia, ii. <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Köhler, Joh., lights need-fire and burnt as a witch, i. 270 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Köhler, Reinhold, on the external soul in folk-tales, ii. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kolelo, in East Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Konz on the Moselle, custom of rolling a burning wheel down hill at, i. 118, 163 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 337 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kooboos of Sumatra, their theory of the afterbirth and navel-string, ii. <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Koppenwal, church of St. Corona at, ii. <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Koran, passage of, used as a charm, i. 18</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Koryaks, their festivals of the dead and subsequent purification, ii. <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their custom in time of pestilence, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Koshchei the Deathless, Russian story of, ii. <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Koskimo Indians of British Columbia, use of bull-roarers among the, ii. <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kreemer, J., on the Looboos of Sumatra, ii. <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kroeber, A. L., quoted, i. 41 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kruijt, A. C., on Toradja custom as to the working of iron, ii. <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Kuga</foreign>, an evil spirit, i. 282</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kuhn, Adalbert, on need-fire, i. 273;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Midsummer fire, 335;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the divining-rod, ii. <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kühnau, R., on precautions against witches in Silesia, ii. <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kukunjevac, in Slavonia, need-fire at, i. 282</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kulin nation of South-Eastern Australia, sex totems in the, ii. <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— tribe of Victoria, ii. <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kumaon, in North-West India, the Holi festival in, ii. <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kupalo, image of, burnt or thrown into stream on St. John's Night, i. 176;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>effigy of, carried across fire and thrown into water, ii. <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref>, <ref target='Pg023'>23</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kupalo's Night, Midsummer Eve, i. 175, 176</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kurnai, a tribe of Gippsland, sex totems and fights concerning them among the, ii. <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Küstendil, in Bulgaria, need-fire at, i. 281</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kwakiutl, Indians of British Columbia, their story of an ogress whose life was in a hemlock branch, ii. <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>pass through a hemlock ring in time of epidemic, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kylenagranagh, the hill of, in Ireland, i. 324</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>La Manche, in Normandy, Lenten fire-custom in, i. 115</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>La Paz, in Bolivia, Midsummer fires at, i. 213;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer flowers at, ii. <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lacaune, belief as to mistletoe at, ii. <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lachlan River, in Australia, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lachlins of Rum and deer, superstition concerning, ii. <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ladyday, ii. <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lahn, the Yule log in the valley of the, i. 248</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lamb burnt alive to save the rest of the flock, i. 301</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lammas, the first of August, superstitious practice at, i. 98 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Lamoa</foreign>, gods in Poso, ii. <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lancashire, Hallowe'en customs in, i. 244 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Landak, district of Dutch Borneo, i. 5, ii. <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lanercost, Chronicle of, i. 286</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lang, Andrew, on the fire-walk, ii. <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the bull-roarer, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Language of animals learned by means of fern-seed, ii. <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>L'ánṣăra</foreign> (<foreign rend='italic'>El Anṣarah</foreign>), Midsummer Day in North Africa, i. 213, 214 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lanyon, in Cornwall, holed stone near, ii. <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Laon, Midsummer fires near, i. 187</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Laos, custom of elephant hunters in, i. 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the natives of, their doctrine of the plurality of souls, ii. <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lapps, their rule as to menstruous women, i. 91;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their story of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their custom of shooting arrows at skin of dead bear, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Larkspur, looking at Midsummer bonfires through bunches of, i. 163, 165 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Larrakeeyah tribe of South Australia, their treatment of girls at puberty, i. 38</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Laurus and Florus, feast of, on August 18th, i. 220</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lausitz, Midsummer fires in, i. 170;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>marriage oaks in, ii. <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lawgivers, ancient, on the uncleanness of women at menstruation, i. 95 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lead, melted, divination by, i. 242</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leaf-clad mummer on Midsummer Day, ii. <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leaping over bonfires to ensure good crops, i. 107;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a preventive of colic, 107, 195 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 344;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to make the flax grow tall, 119, 165, 166, 166 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 168, 173, 174, 337;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to ensure a happy marriage, 107, 108;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to ensure a plentiful harvest, 155, 156;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to be free from backache at reaping, 165, 168;</l> +<pb n='355'/><anchor id='Pg355'/> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a preventive of fever, 166, 173, 194;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>for luck, 171, 189;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in order to be free from ague, 174;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in order to marry and have many children, 204, 338 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as cure of sickness, 214;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to procure offspring, 214, 338;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>over ashes of fire as remedy for skin diseases, ii. <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>after a burial to escape the ghost, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a panacea for almost all ills, <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a protection against witchcraft, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leaping of women over the Midsummer bonfires to ensure an easy delivery, i. 194, 339</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leaps of lovers over the Midsummer bonfires, i. 165, 166, 168, 174</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leather, Mrs. Ella Mary, on the Yule log, i. 257 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lebanon, peasants of the, their dread of menstruous women, i. 83 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lech, Midsummer fires in the valley of the, i. 166</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lechrain, the divining rod in, ii. <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lecky, W. E. H., on the treatment of magic and witchcraft by the Christian Church, ii. <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lee, the laird of, his <q>cureing stane,</q> i. 325</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Leeting</foreign> the witches, i. 245</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Legends of persons who could not die, i. 99 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Legs and thighs of diseased cattle cut off and hung up as a remedy, i. 296 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 325</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leine, river, i. 124</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leinster, Midsummer fires in, i. 203</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leitrim, Midsummer fires in County, i. 203;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination at Hallowe'en in, 242;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire in, 297;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witch as hare in, 318</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lemnos, worship of Hephaestus in, i. 138</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lemon, external souls of ogres in a, ii. <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lengua Indians of the Paraguayan Chaco, i. 75 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seclusion of girls at puberty among the, 56;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>masquerade of boys among, 57 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lent, the first Sunday in, fire-festival on, i. 107 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bonfires on, 107 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lenten fires, i. 106 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lenz, H. O., on ancient names for mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leobschütz, in Silesia, Midsummer fires at, i. 170</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leonard, Major A. G., on souls of people in animals, ii. <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leopard the commonest familiar of Fan wizards, ii. <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leopards, lives of persons bound up with those of, ii. <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external human souls in, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lerwick, Christmas <hi rend='italic'>guizing</hi> at, i. 268 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>procession with lighted tar-barrels on Christmas Eve at, 268;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>celebration of Up-helly-a' at, 269 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lesachthal (Carinthia), new fire at Easter in the, i. 124</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lesbos, fires on St. John's Eve in, i. 211 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leslie, David, on Caffre belief as to spirits of the dead incarnate in serpents, ii. <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>L'Étoile, Lenten fires at, i. 113</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lettermore Island, Midsummer fires in, i. 203</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Letts of Russia, Midsummer fires among the, i. 177 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gather aromatic plants on Midsummer Day, ii. <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lewis, Professor W. J., i. 127 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lewis, island of, custom of fiery circle in the, i. 151 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire in the, 293</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Lexicon Mythologicum</hi>, author of, on the Golden Bough, ii. <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lhwyd, Edward, on snake stones, i. 16 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>License, annual period of, i. 135;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Midsummer festival, 180, 339</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Liège, Lenten fires near, i. 108</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lierre, in Belgium, the witches' Sabbath at, ii. <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Life of community bound up with life of divine king, i. 1 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the water of, ii. <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of woman bound up with ornament, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of a man bound up with the capital of a column, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of a man bound up with fire in hut, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of child bound up with knife, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of children bound up with trees, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the divisibility of, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Soul'>Soul</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -indices, trees and plants as, ii. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -tokens in fairy tales, ii. <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -tree of the Manchu dynasty at Peking, ii. <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -trees of kings of Uganda, ii. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ligho, a heathen deity of the Letts, i. 177, 178 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Light, girls at puberty not allowed to see the, i. 57;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external soul of witch in a, ii. <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Lightning'/> +<l>Lightning, charred sticks of Easter fire used as a talisman against, i. 121, 124, 140 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 145, 146;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Easter candle a talisman against, 122;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>brands of the Midsummer bonfires a protection against, 166 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 183;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>flowers thrown on roofs at Midsummer as a protection against, 169;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>charred sticks of bonfires a protection against, 174, 187, 188, 190;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ashes of Midsummer fires a protection against, 187, 188, 190;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>torches interpreted as imitations +<pb n='356'/><anchor id='Pg356'/> +of, 340 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bonfires a protection against, 344;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a magical coal a protection against, ii. <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>pine-tree struck by, used to make bull-roarer, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>superstitions about trees struck by, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to be caused by a great bird, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>strikes oaks oftener than any other tree of the European forests, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>regarded as a god descending out of heaven, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mode of treating persons who have been struck by, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>places struck by lightning enclosed and deemed sacred, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Thunder'>Thunder</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lightning and thunder, the Yule log a protection against, i. 248, 249, 250, 252, 253, 254, 258, 264;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mountain arnica a protection against, ii. <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lillooet Indians of British Columbia, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 52 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Limburg, processions, with torches in, i. 107 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 194;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 249</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lime-kiln in divination, i. 235, 243</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -tree, the bloom of the, gathered at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe on limes, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref>, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -wood used to kindle need-fire, i. 281, 283, 286</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lincolnshire, the Yule log in, i. 257;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches as cats and hares in, 318;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>calf buried to stop a murrain in, 326;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe a remedy for epilepsy and St. Vitus's dance in, ii. 83 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lindenbrog, on need-fire, i. 335 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lint seed, divination by, i. 235</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Liongo, an African Samson, ii. <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lion, the sun in the sign of the, ii. <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lismore, witch as hare in, i. 316 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lithuania, Midsummer fires in, i. 176;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sanctuary at Romove in, ii. <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lithuanians, their custom before first ploughing in spring, i. 18;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their worship of the oak, ii. <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their story of the external soul, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lives of a family bound up with a fish, ii. <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>with a cat, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Living fire made by friction of wood, i. 220;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the need-fire, 281, 286</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Livonia, story of a were-wolf in, i. 308</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Livonians cull simples on Midsummer Day, ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lizard, external soul in, ii. <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sex totem in the Port Lincoln tribe of South Australia, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>said to have divided the sexes in the human species, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Loaf thrown into river Neckar on St. John's Day, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Loango, rule as to infants in, i. 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>girls secluded at puberty in, 22</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Loch Katrine, i. 231</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Tay, i. 232</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lock and key in a charm, i. 283</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Locks opened by springwort, ii. <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and by the white flower of chicory, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe a master-key to open all, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Locust, a Batta totem, ii. <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Log, the Yule, i. 247 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Logierait, in Perthshire, Beltane festival in, i. 152 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Hallowe'en fires in, 231 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Loiret, Lenten fires in the department of, i. 114</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Loki and Balder, i. 101 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lokoja on the Niger, ii. <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lombardy, belief as to the <q>oil of St. John</q> on St. John's Morning in, ii. <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>London, the immortal girl of, i. 99;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 196 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Longridge Fell, <foreign rend='italic'>leeting</foreign> the witches at, i. 245</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Looboos of Sumatra creep through a cleft rattan to escape a demon, ii. <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Looking at bonfires through mugwort a protection against headache and sore eyes, ii. <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus europaeus</foreign>, a species of mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref>, <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called <q>oak mistletoe</q> (<foreign lang='it' rend='italic'>visco quercino</foreign>) in Italy, <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <foreign rend='italic'>vestitus</foreign>, in India, ii. <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lord of the Wells at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lorne, the Beltane cake in, i. 149</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lorraine, Midsummer fires in, i. 169;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 253;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer customs in, ii. <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Loudoun, in Ayrshire, i. 207</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Louis XIV. at Midsummer bonfire in Paris, ii. <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Love-charm of arrows, i. 14</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lovers leap over the Midsummer bonfires, i. 165, 166, 168, 174</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Low Countries, the Yule log in the, i. 249</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lowell, Percival, his fire-walk, ii. <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lübeck, church of St. Mary at, i. 100</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lucerne, Lenten fire-custom in the canton of, i. 118 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bathing at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Luchon, in the Pyrenees, serpents burnt alive at the Midsummer festival in, ii. <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lucian, on the Platonic doctrine of the soul, ii. <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Luck, leaping over the Midsummer fires for good, i. 171, 189</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Luckiness of the right hand, i. 151</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lunar calendar of Mohammedans, i. 216 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 218 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='357'/><anchor id='Pg357'/> + +<lg> +<l>Lungs or liver of bewitched animal burnt or boiled to compel the witch to appear, i. 321 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lushais of Assam, sick children passed through a coil among the, ii. <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lussac, in Poitou, Midsummer fires at, i. 191</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Luther, Martin, burnt in effigy at Midsummer, i. 167, 172 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg023'>23</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Luxemburg, <q>Burning the Witch</q> in, ii. <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Lythrum salicaria</foreign>, purple loosestrife, gathered at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mabuiag, seclusion of girls at puberty in, i. 36 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dread and seclusion of women at menstruation in, 78 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>girls at puberty in, 92 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>belief as to a species of mistletoe in, ii. <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mac Crauford, the great arch witch, i. 293</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Macassar in Celebes, magical unguent in, i. 14</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Macdonald, Rev. James, on the story of Headless Hugh, ii. <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on external soul in South Africa, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Macdonell, A. A., on Agni, ii. <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>McDougall, W., and C. Hose, on creeping through a cleft stick after a funeral, ii. <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Macedonia, Midsummer fires among the Greeks of, i. 212;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bonfires on August 1st in, 220;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire among the Serbs of Western, 281;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>St. John's flower at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Macedonian peasantry burn effigies of Judas at Easter, i. 131</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>McGregor, A. W., on the rite of new birth among the Akikuyu, ii. <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mackay, Alexander, on need-fire, i. 294 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mackays, sept of the <q>descendants of the seal,</q> ii. <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mackenzie, E., on need-fire, i. 288</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mackenzie, Sheriff David J., i. 268 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Macphail, John, on need-fire, i. 293 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Macusis of British Guiana, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 60</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Madangs of Borneo, custom observed by them after a funeral, ii. <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Madern, parish of, Cornwall, holed stone in, ii. <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Madonie Mountains, in Sicily, Midsummer fires on the, i. 210</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Madras Presidency, the fire-walk in the, ii. <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Madura, the Kappiliyans of, i. 69;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Parivarams of, 69</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maeseyck, processions with torches at, i. 107 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Magic, homoeopathic or imitative, i. 49, 133, 329, ii. <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dwindles into divination, i. 336;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>movement of thought from magic through religion to science, ii. <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Magic and ghosts, mugwort a protection against, ii. <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and science, different views of natural order postulated by the two, ii. <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— flowers of Midsummer Eve, ii. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Magical bone in sorcery, i. 14</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— implements not allowed to touch the ground, i. 14 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— influence of medicine-bag, ii. <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— virtues of plants at Midsummer apparently derived from the sun, ii. <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Magician's apprentice, Danish story of the, ii. <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Glass, the, i. 16</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Magyars, Midsummer fires among the, i. 178 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>stories of the external soul among the, ii. <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Mahabharata</hi>, Draupadi and her five husbands in the, ii. <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Maiden-flax</q> at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maidu Indians of California, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 42;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their notion as to fire in trees, ii. <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their idea of lightning, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maimonides, on the seclusion of menstruous women, i. 83</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Makalanga, a Bantu tribe, i. 135 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Makral</foreign>, <q>the witch,</q> i. 107</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Malabar, the Iluvans of, i. 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Tiyans of, 68</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Malassi, a fetish in West Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Malay belief as to sympathetic relation between man and animal, ii. <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— story of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Malayo-Siamese families of the Patani States, their custom as to the afterbirth, ii. <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Malays of the Peninsula, their doctrine of the plurality of souls, ii. <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Male and female souls in Chinese philosophy, ii. <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Malkin Tower, witches at the, i. 245</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Malta, fires on St. John's Eve in, i. 210 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Malurus cyaneus</foreign>, superb warbler, women's <q>sister,</q> among the Kurnai, ii. <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Man and animal, sympathetic relation between, ii. <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Man-Isle'/> +<l>Man, the Isle of, Midsummer fires in, i. 201, 337;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>old New Year's Day in, 224 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Hallowe'en customs in, 243 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bonfires on St. Thomas's Day in, 266;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cattle burnt alive to stop a murrain in, 325 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mugwort gathered on Midsummer Eve in, ii. <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Isle-Man'>Isle of Man</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='358'/><anchor id='Pg358'/> + +<lg> +<l>Manchu dynasty, the life-tree of the, ii. <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mandragora, <q>the hand of glory,</q> ii. <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mang'anje woman, her external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mango tree, festival of wild, i. 7 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ceremony for the fertilization of the, 10</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Manitoo</foreign>, personal totem, ii. <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mannhardt, W., on fire-customs, i. 106 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on burning leaf-clad representative of spirit of vegetation, 25;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his theory that the fires of the fire-festivals are charms to secure sunshine, 329, 331 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on torches as imitations of lightning, 340 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Hirpi Sorani, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the human victims sacrificed by the Celts, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his theory of the Druidical sacrifices, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his solar theory of the bonfires at the European fire-festivals, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on killing a cock on the harvest-field, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Mantis religiosus</foreign>, a totem, ii. <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Manu, Hindoo lawgiver, on the uncleanness of women at menstruation, i. 95;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Laws of, on the three births of the Aryan, ii. <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Manx mummers at Hallowe'en, i. 224</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maoris, birth-trees among the, ii. <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mara tribe of Northern Australia, initiation of medicine-men in the, ii. <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Marake</foreign>, an ordeal of being stung by ants and wasps, i. 63 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marcellus of Bordeaux, his medical treatise, i. 17</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>March, the month of, the fire-walk in, ii. <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe cut at the full moon of, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— moon, woodbine cut in the increase of the, ii. <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Margas</foreign>, exogamous totemic clans of the Battas of Sumatra, ii. <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marilaun, A. Kerner von, on mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marjoram burnt at Midsummer, i. 214;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gathered at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a talisman against witchcraft, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mark of Brandenburg, need-fire in the, i. 273;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>simples culled at Midsummer in the, ii. <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>St. John's blood in the, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the divining-rod in the, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marotse. <hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Barotse'>Barotse</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marquesas Islands, the fire-walk in the, ii. <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marriage, leaping over bonfires to ensure a happy, i. 107, 108, 110;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>omens of, drawn from Midsummer bonfires, 168, 174, 178, 185, 189;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>omens of, drawn from bonfires, 338 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>omens of, from flowers, ii. <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>oak-trees planted at, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Married, the person last, lights the bonfire, i. 107, 109, 111, 119, 339;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>young man last married provides wheel to be burnt, 116;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the person last married officiates at Midsummer fire, 192;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>men married within the year collect fuel for Midsummer fire, 192 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>married men kindle need-fire, 289;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>last married bride made to leap over bonfire, ii. <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mars and Silvia, ii. <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marsaba, a devil who swallows lads at initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marseilles, drenching people with water at Midsummer in, i. 193;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer king of the double-axe at, 194;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log at, 250;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer flowers at, ii. <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marshall Islands, belief in the external soul in the, ii. <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marsi, the ancient, i. 209</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Martin of Urzedow, i. 177</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Martin, M., on <foreign rend='italic'>dessil</foreign> (<foreign rend='italic'>deiseal</foreign>), i. 151 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on need-fire, 289</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marwaris, of India, Holi festival among the, ii. <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marxberg, the, on the Moselle, i. 118</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Masai, peace-making ceremony among the, ii. <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mask, not to wear a, i. 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Masked dances, bull-roarers used at, ii. <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Masks worn by girls at puberty, i. 31, 52;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worn at Duk-duk ceremonies in New Britain, ii. <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worn by members of a secret society, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref>, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Masquerade of boys among the Lengua Indians, i. 57 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Masuren, a district of Eastern Prussia, Midsummer fire kindled by the revolution of a wheel at, i. 177, 335 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination by flowers on Midsummer Eve in, ii. <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination by orpine at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>camomile gathered at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fire kindled by friction of oak at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Matabeles fumigate their gardens, i. 337</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Matacos, Indian tribe of the Gran Chaco, their custom of secluding girls at puberty, i. 58</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mataguayos, Indian tribe of the Gran Chaco, their custom of secluding girls at puberty, i. 58</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Matthes, B. F., on sympathetic relation between man and animal, ii. <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mauhes, Indians of Brazil, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 59;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ordeal of young men among the, 62</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maundy Thursday, i. 125 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maurer, Konrad, on Icelandic story of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>May Day in the Isle of Man, i. 157;</l> +<pb n='359'/><anchor id='Pg359'/> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sheep burnt as a sacrifice on, 306;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches active on, ii. <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Eve of, Snake Stones thought to be formed on, i. 15;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a witching time, 295;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches active on, ii. <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>May-tree carried about, i. 120, ii. <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mayo, County, story of Guleesh in, i. 228</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>M'Bengas of the Gaboon, birth-trees among the, ii. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mbengga, in Fiji, the fire-walk in, ii. <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Meakin, Budgett, on Midsummer fires in Morocco, i. 214 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Meath, County, Hill of Ward in, i. 139;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Uisnech in, 158</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Meaux, Midsummer bonfires in the diocese of, i. 182</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mecklenburg, need-fire in, i. 274 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>simples gathered at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mugwort at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the divining-rod in, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>treatment of the afterbirth in, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>children passed through a cleft oak as a cure in, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>custom of striking blindfold at a half-buried cock in, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Medicine-bag, instrument of pretended death and resurrection at initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -man in Australia, initiation of, ii. <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Megara besieged by Minos, ii. <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Meinersen, in Hanover, i. 275</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Meissen or Thuringia, horse's head thrown into Midsummer fire in, ii. <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Melanesian conception of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Papuan stocks in New Guinea, ii. <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Meleager and the firebrand, story of, ii. <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and the olive-leaf, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Melur, in the Neilgherry Hills, the fire-walk at, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Men disguised as women, i. 107</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and women eat apart, i. 81</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Mên-an-tol</foreign>, <q>holed stone</q> in Cornwall, ii. <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Menomini Indians, ritual of death and resurrection among the, ii. <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Menstruation, seclusion of girls at the first, i. 22 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the first, attributed to defloration by a spirit, 24;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reasons for secluding women at, 97</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Menstruous blood, the dread of, i. 76.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Blood'>Blood</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— energy, beneficent applications of, i. 98 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— fluid, medicinal applications of the, i. 98 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Menstruous'/> +<l>Menstruous women keep their heads or faces covered, i. 22, 24, 25, 29, 31, 44 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 48 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 55, 90, 92;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to cross or bathe in rivers, 77;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to go near water, 77;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed to spoil fisheries, 77, 78, 90 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 93;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>painted red, or red and white, 78;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to use the ordinary paths, 78, 80, 84, 89, 90;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to approach the sea, 79;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to enter cultivated fields, 79;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>obliged to occupy special huts, 79, 82, 85 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed to spoil crops, 79, 96;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to cook, 80, 82, 84, 90;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to drink milk, 80, 84;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to handle salt, 81 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 84;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kept from wells, 81, 82, 97;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>obliged to use separate doors, 84;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to lie on high beds, 84;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to touch or see fire, 84, 85;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to cross the tracks of animals, 84, 91, 93;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>excluded from religious ceremonies, 85;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to eat with men, 85, 90;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to spoil the luck of hunters, 87, 89, 90, 91, 94;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to ride horses, 88 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 96;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to walk on ice of rivers and lakes, 90;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dangers to which they are thought to be exposed, 94;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to touch beer, wine or vinegar, 96;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to salt or pickle meat, 96 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to cross running streams, 97;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to draw water at wells, 97;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used to protect fields against insects, 98 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dreaded and secluded in Australia, i. 76 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>,</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the Torres Straits Islands, 78 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>,</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in New Guinea, 79,</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Galela, 79,</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Sumatra, 79,</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Africa, 79 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>,</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Jews and in Syria, 83 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>,</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in India, 84 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>,</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Annam, 85,</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in America, 85 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mequinez, Midsummer custom at, i. 216</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Merolla, J., on seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 31 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Merrakech, in Morocco, Midsummer custom at, i. 216;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>New Year fires at, 217</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mesopotamia, Atrae in, i. 82</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mespelaer, St. Peter's fires at, i. 195</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Messaria, in Cythnos, ii. <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Metz, F., on the fire-walk, ii. <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Metz, cats burnt alive in Midsummer fire at, ii. <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mexican ceremony of new fire, i. 132</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— representation of the sun as a wheel, i. 334 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mexico, effigies of Judas burnt at Easter in, i. 127 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Zapotecs of, ii. 212</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Michael, in the Isle of Man, i. 307</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Michaelmas, cakes baked at, i. 149.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-St-Michael'>St. Michael</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Michemis, a Tibetan tribe, a funeral ceremony among the, i. 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Middle Ages, the Yule log in the, i. 252;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the need-fire in the, 270</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='360'/><anchor id='Pg360'/> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Midsummer'/> +<l>Midsummer, wells crowned with flowers at, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bathing at, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred to Balder, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-St-John'>St. John's Day</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— bonfire called <q>fire of heaven,</q> i. 334;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>intended to drive away dragons, 161</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>—— Brooms</q> in Sweden, ii. <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Day, charm for fig-trees on, i. 18;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>water claims human victims on, 26 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Rome, 178;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>regarded as unlucky, ii. <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Eve, Snake Stones thought to be formed on, i. 15;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Trolls and evil spirits abroad on, 172;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches active on, ii. <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the season for gathering wonderful herbs and flowers, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the magic flowers of, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination on, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dreams of love on, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fernseed blooms at, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the divining-rod cut at, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>activity of witches and warlocks on, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>treasures bloom in the earth on, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the oak thought to bloom on, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— festival common to peoples on both sides of the Mediterranean, i. 219, ii. <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the most important of the year among the primitive Aryans of Europe, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>its relation to Druidism, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Midsummer-Fires'/> +<l>—— fires, i. 160 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Wales, 156</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— flowers and plants used as talismans against witchcraft, ii. <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Men, orpine, ii. <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— mummers clad in green fir branches, ii. <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Midwinter fires, i. 246 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mijatovich, Chedo, on the <foreign rend='italic'>Zadrooga</foreign> or Servian house-community, i. 259 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mikado not allowed to set foot on ground, i. 2 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the sun not allowed to shine on him, 18 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Milk, girls at puberty forbidden to drink, i. 22, 30;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>libations of, 30;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be drunk by menstruous women, 80, 84;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>stolen by witches from cows, 176, 343, ii. <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>omens drawn from boiling, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>libations of, poured on fire, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>libations of, poured into a stream, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>poured on sick cattle, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and butter thought to be improved by the Midsummer fires, i. 180;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>stolen by witches at Midsummer, 185;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witchcraft fatal to, ii. <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -tie as a bond of kinship, ii. <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -vessels not to be touched by menstruous women, i. 80</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Milking cows through a hole in a branch or a <q>witch's nest,</q> ii. <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Millaeus on judicial torture, ii. <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Miller's wife a witch, story of the, i. 319 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Miming, a satyr of the woods, i. 103</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Minahassa, in Celebes, ceremony at a house-warming in, ii. <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Minangkabauers of Sumatra, their belief as to menstruous women, i. 79;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of bull-roarers among the, ii. <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Minos, king of Crete, besieges Megara, ii. <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mint, flowers of, gathered on St. John's Day, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mirzapur, the Bhuiyars of, i. 84</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Misfortune burnt in Midsummer fires, i. 215;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>got rid of by leaping over Midsummer fires, 215</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Missel-thrush and mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Mist-healing,</q> Swiss expression for kindling a need-fire, i. 279</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mistletoe, the divining-rod made of, ii. <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped by the Druids, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cut on the sixth day of the moon, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>makes barren animals and women to bring forth, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cut with a golden sickle, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to have fallen from the sky, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called the <q>all-healer,</q> <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>an antidote to all poison, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gathered on the first day of the moon, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to touch the earth, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a cure for epilepsy, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>extinguishes fire, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>venerated by the Ainos of Japan, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>growing on willow specially efficacious, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>confers invulnerability, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>its position as a parasite on a tree the source of superstitions about it, <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref>, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be cut but shot or knocked down with stones, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the folk-lore of modern European peasants, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>medical virtues ascribed to, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>these virtues a pure superstition, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cut when the sun is in Sagittarius, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>growing on oak a panacea for green wounds, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mystic qualities ascribed to mistletoe at Midsummer (St. John's Day or Eve), <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cut at the full moon of March, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called <q>thunder-besom</q> in Aargau, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a masterkey to open all locks, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against witchcraft, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>given to first cow that calves after New Year, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gathered especially at Midsummer, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>grows on oaks in Sweden, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient Italian belief that mistletoe could be destroyed neither by fire nor water, <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Balder's life or death in the, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>life of oak in, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to touch the ground, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against witchcraft and Trolls, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against fairy changelings, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hung over doors of stables and byres +<pb n='361'/><anchor id='Pg361'/> +in Brittany, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>; thought to disclose +treasures in the earth, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gathered at the solstices, Midsummer and Christmas, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>traditional privilege of, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>growing on a hazel, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>growing on a thorn, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>life of the oak conceived to be in the, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perhaps conceived as a germ or seed of fire, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sanctity of mistletoe perhaps explained by the belief that the plant has fallen on the tree in a flash of lightning, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>two species of, <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Viscum album</foreign> and <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus europaeus</foreign>, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>found most commonly on apple-trees, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref>, compare <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>growing on oaks in England, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seeds of, deposited by missel-thrush, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient names of, <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Virgil on, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Dutch names for, <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mistletoe and Balder, i. 101 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and the Golden Bough, ii. <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mitchell, Sir Arthur, on a barbarous cure for murrain, i. 326</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mithr, Armenian fire-god, i. 131 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mithraic mysteries, initiation into the, ii. <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Mizimu</foreign>, spirits of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mlanje, in British Central Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mnasara tribe of Morocco, i. 214</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mogk, Professor Eugen, i. 330</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mohammedan calendar lunar, i. 216 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 218 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— New Year festival in North Africa, i. 217 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— peoples of North Africa, Midsummer fires among the, i. 213 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moharram, first Mohammedan month, i. 217</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moles and field-mice driven away by torches, i. 115, ii. <ref target='Pg340'>340</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Molsheim in Baden, i. 117</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mondays, witches dreaded on, ii. <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mongolian story, milk-tie in a, i. 138 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the external soul in a, ii. <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Monster supposed to swallow and disgorge novices at initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mont des Fourches, in the Vosges, i. 318</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Montaigne on ceremonial extinction of fires, i. 135 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Montanus, on the Yule log, i. 248</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Montenegro, the Yule log in, i. 263</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Montezuma not allowed to set foot on ground, i. 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Montols of Northern Nigeria, their belief in their sympathetic relation to snakes, ii. <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moon, impregnation of women by the, i. 75 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the sixth day of the, mistletoe cut on, 77;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the first day of the, mistletoe gathered on, 78;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the full, transformation of were-wolves at, 314 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mooney, James, on Cherokee ideas as to trees struck by lightning, ii. <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moore, <hi rend='italic'>Manx Surnames,</hi> quoted by Sir John Rhys, i. 306</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moors, their superstition as to the <q>sultan of the oleander,</q> i. 18</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moosheim, in Wurtemberg, leaf-clad mummer at, ii. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moravia, fires to burn the witches in, i. 160;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 175;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the divining-rod in, ii. <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moravians cull simples at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moray, remedy for a murrain in the county of, i. 326</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Morayshire, medical use of mistletoe in, ii. <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Morbihan in Brittany, ii. <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moresin, Thomas, on St. Peter's fires in Scotland, i. 207</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Morice, Father A. G., on customs and beliefs of the Carrier Indians as to menstruous women, i. 91 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the honorific totems of the Carrier Indians, ii. <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Morlaks, the Yule log among the, i. 264</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Morlanwelz, bonfires at, i. 107</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Morning star, the rising of the, i. 40, 133</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Morocco, magical virtue ascribed to rain-water in, i. 17 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 213 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>water thought to acquire marvellous virtue at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>magical plants gathered at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Morven, i. 290;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>consumptive people passed through rifted rocks in, ii. <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moscow, annual new fire in villages near, i. 139</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moselle, bonfires on the, i. 109;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Konz on the, 118, 163 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moses on the uncleanness of women at menstruation, i. 95 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mosquito territory, Central America, seclusion of menstruous women in the, i. 86</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mota, in the New Hebrides, conception of the external soul in, ii. <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Motherwort, garlands of, at Midsummer, i. 162</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moulin, parish of, in Perthshire, Hallowe'en fires in, i. 230</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moulton, Professor J. H., on the etymology of Soranus, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mountain arnica gathered at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against thunder, lightning, hail, and conflagration, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='362'/><anchor id='Pg362'/> + +<lg> +<l>Mountain-ash, parasitic, used to make the divining rod, ii. <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe on, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Rowan'>Rowan</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— scaur, external soul in, ii. <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mourne Mountains, i. 159</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mourners tabooed, i. 20;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>step over fire after funeral in China, ii. <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>purified by fire, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>customs observed by, among the Bella Coola Indians, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mourning, the great, for Isfendiyar, i. 105</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mouse-ear hawkweed (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Hieracium pilosella</foreign>) gathered at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Movement of thought from magic through religion to science, ii. <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mugwort (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Artemisia vulgaris</foreign>), wreaths of, at Midsummer, i. 163, 165, 174;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a preventive of sore eyes, 174;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a preservative against witchcraft, 177;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against thunder, ghosts, magic, and witchcraft, ii. <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gathered on Midsummer Day or Eve, ii. <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thrown into the Midsummer fires, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used in exorcism, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mull, the need-fire in, i. 148, 289 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Beltane cake in, 149;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>remedy for cattle-disease in, 325;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>consumptive people passed through rifted rocks in, ii. <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mullein, sprigs of, passed across Midsummer fires protect cattle against sickness and sorcery, i. 190;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bunches of, passed across Midsummer fires and fastened on cattle-shed, 191;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>yellow (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Verbascum</foreign>), gathered at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>yellow hoary (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Verbascum pulverulentum</foreign>), its golden pyramid of blooms, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>great (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Verbascum thapsus</foreign>), called King's Candle or High Taper, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mummers at Hallowe'en in the Isle of Man, i. 224</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Munster, the King of, i. 139;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 203</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Münsterberg, precautions against witches in, ii. <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Münsterland, Easter fires in, i. 141;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 247</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Muralug, dread of women at menstruation in, i. 78</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Murderer, fire of oak-wood used to detect a, ii. <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Murrain, need-fire kindled as a remedy for, i. 278, 282, 290 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt sacrifices to stay a, in England, Wales, and Scotland, 300 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>calf burnt alive to stop a, 300 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cattle buried to stop a, 326.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Cattle-Disease'>Cattle disease</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Murray, the country of, i. 154 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Murray River, in Australia, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>natives of, their dread of menstruous women, i. 77</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Muskau, in Lausitz, marriage oaks at, ii. <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Myrtle-trees of the Patricians and Plebeians at Rome, ii. <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Myths dramatized in ritual, i. 105</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Na Ivilankata, a Fijian clan, ii. <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nagas of North-Eastern India, their ceremony of the new fire, i. 136</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Nagual</foreign>, external soul, among the Indians of Guatemala and Honduras, ii. <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nahuqua Indians of Brazil, their use of bull-roarers, ii. <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Names on chimney-piece, divination by, i. 237;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of savages kept secret, ii. <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>new, taken by novices after initiation, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Namoluk, one of the Caroline Islands, traditionary origin of fire in, ii. <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Namuci and Indra, legend of, ii. <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Namur, Lenten fires in, i. 108</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nandi, the, of British East Africa, their custom of driving sick cattle round a fire, ii. <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of bull-roarers among the, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Nanga</foreign>, sacred enclosure in Fiji, ii. <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref>, <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nanna, the wife of Balder, i. 102, 103</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nanny, a Yorkshire witch, i. 317</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Naples, feast of the Nativity of the Virgin at, i. 220 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Narrow openings, creeping through, in order to escape ghostly pursuers, ii. <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nathuram, image supposed to make women fruitful, ii. <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nativity of the Virgin, feast of the, i. 220 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Naudowessies, Indian tribe of North America, ritual of death and resurrection among the, ii. <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Naueld</foreign>, need-fire, i. 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nauru, in the Marshall Islands, lives of people bound up with a fish in, ii. <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Navajoes, their story of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of bull-roarers among the, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Navel-string buried under a plant or tree, ii. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>regarded as brother or sister of child, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Ndembo</foreign>, secret society on the Lower Congo, ii. <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ndolo, on the Moeko River, West Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Neckar, the river, requires three human victims at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>loaf thrown into the river, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Necklace, girl's soul in a, ii. <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='363'/><anchor id='Pg363'/> + +<lg> +<l>Need-fire, i. 269 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kindled as a remedy for cattle-plague, 270 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 343;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cattle driven through the, 270 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>derivation of the name, 270 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kindled by the friction of a wheel, 270, 273, 289 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 292;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kindled with oak-wood, 271, 272, 275, 276, 278, 281, 289 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 294;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called <q>wild-fire,</q> 272, 273, 277;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kindled by fir-wood, 278, 282;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kindled as a remedy for witchcraft, 280, 292 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 293, 295;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called <q>living fire,</q> 281, 286;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>healing virtue ascribed to, 281, 286;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kindled by lime-wood, 281, 283, 286;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kindled by poplar-wood, 282;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>regarded as a barrier interposed between cattle and an evil spirit, 282, 285 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kindled by cornel-tree wood, 286;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>revealed by an angel from heaven, 287;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used to heat water, 289;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kindled on an island, 290 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 291 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kindled by birch-wood, 291;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kindled between two running streams, 292;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kindled to prevent fever, 297;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>probable antiquity of the, 297 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kindled by elm-wood, 299;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the parent of the periodic fire-festivals, 299, 343;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used by Slavonic peoples to combat vampyres, 344;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sometimes kindled by the friction of fir, plane, birch, lime, poplar, cornel-wood, ii. <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Need-fire, John Ramsay's account of, i. 147 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Lindenbrog on, 335 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Negro children pale at birth, ii. <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Neil, R. A., on Gaelic name for mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Neilgherry Hills, the Badagas of the, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Todas of the, i. 136</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Neisse, precautions against witches in, ii. <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nellingen in Lorraine, simples gathered on Midsummer Day at, ii. <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nemi, the King of the Wood at, i. 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Lake of, annual tragedy enacted at, ii. <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacramental bread at, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Virbius at, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>; at evening, <ref target='Pg308'>308</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred grove of, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>priests of Diana at, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nerthus, old German goddess, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Nestelknüpfen</foreign>, i. 346 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nets fumigated with smoke of need-fire, i. 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nettles, Indians beaten with, as an ordeal, i. 64</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Neuchatel, Midsummer fires in the canton of, i. 172</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Neumann, J. B., on the Batta doctrine of souls, ii. <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Neustadt, in Silesia, Midsummer fires at, i. 170;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>near Marburg, the need-fire at, 270</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>New birth of novices at initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref>, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref>, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>, <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref>, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref>, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— body obtained at initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Britain, the Duk-duk society of i. 11, ii. <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— fire kindled on Easter Saturday, i. 121 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made at the New Year, 134 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 138, 140;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made by the friction of wood at Christmas, 264</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Guinea, British, festival of wild mango in, i. 7;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>custom observed after childbirth in, 20;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seclusion of girls at puberty in, 35;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dread and seclusion of women at menstruation in, 79;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Toaripi of, 84;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of bull-roarers in, ii. <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Guinea, German, the Kai of, ii. <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ceremony of initiation in, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yabim of, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rites of initiation in, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Hebrides, conception of the external soul in the, ii. <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Ireland, seclusion of girls at puberty in, i. 32 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Duk-duk society in, ii. <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Mexico, the Zuni Indians of, i. 132;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and Arizona, use of bull-roarers in, ii. <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— South Wales, dread of women at menstruation in, i. 78;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Wongh tribe of, ii. <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the drama of resurrection at initiation in, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— water at Easter, i. 123</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— World, Easter ceremonies in the, i. 127 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>magical virtue of plants at Midsummer in the, ii. <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Year, new fire made at the, i. 134 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 138, 140;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festival of Mohammedans in North Africa, 217 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Celtic, on November first, 224 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Fijian, Tahitian, and Hawaiian, ii. <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Newstead, Byron's oak at, ii. <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Nganga</foreign>, <q>the Knowing Ones,</q> initiates, ii. <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Ngarong</foreign>, secret helper, of the Ibans of Borneo, ii. <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nguu, district of German East Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nias, story of the external soul told in the island of, ii. <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ceremonies performed by candidates for the priesthood in, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Niceros and the were-wolf, story of, i. 313 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nidugala, in the Neilgherry Hills, the fire-walk at, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nieder-Lausitz, the Midsummer log in, ii. <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Niederehe, in the Eifel Mountains, Midsummer flowers at, ii. <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='364'/><anchor id='Pg364'/> + +<lg> +<l>Niger, belief as to external human souls lodged in animals on the, ii. <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nigeria, the Ibo of Southern, i. 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>theory of the external soul in, ii. <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref>, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nigerian, South, story of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Night-jars, the lives of women in, ii. <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called women's <q>sisters,</q> <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nikclerith, Neane, buries cow alive, i. 324 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nile, the Alur of the Upper, i. 64</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nine, ruptured child passed nine times on nine successive mornings through a cleft ash-tree and attended by nine persons, ii. <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— bonfires on Midsummer Eve an omen of marriage, i. 174, 185, 189, 339</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— different kinds of wood burnt in the Beltane fires, i. 155;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used for the Midsummer bonfires, 172, 201;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt in the need-fire, 271, 278;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used to kindle need-fire, 278, 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— grains of oats in divination, i. 243</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— leaps over Midsummer fire, i. 193</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— men employed to make fire by the friction of wood, i. 148, 155</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— ridges of ploughed land in divination, i. 235</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— sorts of flowers on Midsummer Eve, to dream on, i. 175;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gathered, ii. <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— times to crawl under a bramble as a cure, ii. <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— times nine men make need-fire, i. 289, 294, 295</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— (thrice three) times passed through a girth of woodbine, ii. <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>passed through a holed stone, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— turns round a rick, i. 243</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Niska Indians of British Columbia, rites of initiation among the, ii. <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nisus and his purple or golden hair, story of, ii. <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Nkimba</foreign>, secret society on the Lower Congo, ii. <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nocturnal creatures the sex totems of men and women, ii. <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nograd-Ludany, in Hungary, Midsummer fires at, i. 179</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Noguès, J. L. M., on the wonderful herbs of St. John's Eve, ii. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nootka Indians of Vancouver Island, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 43 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ritual of death and resurrection among the, ii. <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nord, the department of, giants at Shrove Tuesday in, ii. <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Norden, E., on the Golden Bough, ii. <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nore, A. de, on the Yule log, i. 250 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 253</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Norfolk, use of orpine for divination in, ii. <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Norman peasants gather seven kinds of plants on St. John's Day, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Normandy, Midsummer fires in, i. 185 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 252;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>torch-light processions on Christmas Eve in, 266;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>processions with torches on the Eve of Twelfth Day, in, 340;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wonderful herbs and flowers gathered at Midsummer in, ii, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wreaths of mugwort in, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>vervain gathered at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Norrland, Midsummer bonfires in, i. 172</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Norse stories of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>North American Indians, their personal totems, ii. <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Berwick, Satan preaches at, ii. <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Northamptonshire, sacrifice of a calf in, i. 300</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Northumberland, Midsummer fires in, i. 197 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination at Hallowe'en in, 245;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 256;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire in, 288 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ox burnt alive in, to stop a murrain, 301</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Norway, bonfires on Midsummer Eve in, i. 171;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the need-fire in, 280;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>superstitions about a parasitic rowan in, ii. <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Norwich, Easter candle in the cathedral of, i. 122 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nottinghamshire, the Hemlock Stone in, i. 157</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>Nouer l'aiguilette</foreign>, i. 346 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nouzon, in the Ardennes, the Yule log at, i. 253</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>November the first, old New Year's Day in the Isle of Man, i. 224 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the first of, All Saints' Day, 225</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Novice at initiation killed as a man and brought to life as an animal, ii. <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Novices (lads) at initiation supposed to be swallowed and disgorged by a spirit or monster, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref>, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed to be newly born, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref>, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref>, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>, <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref>, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref>, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>begotten anew, <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Nurtunjas</foreign>, sacred poles among the Arunta, ii. <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nut-water brewed at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nuts passed across Midsummer fires, i. 190;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in fire, divination by, 237, 239, 241, 242, 245</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nyanja chief, ii. <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nyanja-speaking tribes of Angoniland, their customs as to girls at puberty, i. 25 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='365'/><anchor id='Pg365'/> + +<lg> +<l>Nyassa, Lake, i. 28, 81;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>people to the east of, crawl through an arch as a precaution against sickness, evil spirits, etc., ii. <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oak associated with thunder, i. 145;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped by the Druids, ii. <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the principal sacred tree of the Aryans, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human representatives of the oak perhaps originally burnt at the fire-festivals, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>children passed through a cleft oak as a cure for rupture or rickets, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>life of, in mistletoe, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>struck by lightning oftener than any other tree of the European forest, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed to bloom on Midsummer Eve, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and thunder, Aryan god of the, i. 265</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -leaves, <q>oil of St. John</q> found on St. John's Morning upon, ii. <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— log a protection against witchcraft, ii. <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -mistletoe an <q>all-healer</q> or panacea, ii. <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a remedy for epilepsy, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to be shot down with an arrow, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a panacea for green wounds, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against conflagration, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Errol, fate of the Hays bound up with the, ii. <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the Guelphs, ii. <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Romove, ii. <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the Vespasian family at Rome, ii. <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— planted by Byron, ii. <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -spirit, the priest of the Arician grove a personification of an, ii. <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— tree worshipped by the Cheremiss, i. 181</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -trees planted at marriage, ii. <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— twigs and leaves used to keep off witches, ii. <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -wood used to kindle the need-fire, i. 148, 271, 272, 275, 276, 278, 281, 289 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used to kindle the Beltane fires, i. 148, 155;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used to kindle Midsummer fire, 169, 177, ii. <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used for the Yule log, i. 248, 250, 251, 257, 258, 259, 260, 263, 264 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fire of, used to detect a murderer, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perpetual fires of, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oaks planted by Sir Walter Scott, ii. <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe growing on, in Sweden, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe growing on, in England and France, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oath not to hurt Balder, i. 101</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oats, nine grains of, in divination, i. 243</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oban district, Southern Nigeria, belief as to external human souls lodged in animals in the, ii. <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oberland, in Central Germany, the Yule log in the, i. 248 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Obermedlingen, in Swabia, fire kindled on St. Vitus's Day at, i. 335 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Obubura district of S. Nigeria, ii. <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>October, ceremony of the new fire in, i. 136;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the last day of (Hallowe'en), 139</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Odessa, New Easter fire carried to, i. 130 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Odin, Othin, or Woden, the father of Balder, i. 101, 102, 103 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ododop tribe of Southern Nigeria, ii. <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oels, in Silesia, Midsummer fires at, i. 170</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oeniadae, the ancient, i. 21</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oesel, Midsummer fires in the island of, i. 180;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>St. John's herbs in the island of, ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Offenburg, in the Black Forest, Midsummer fires at, i. 168</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ogboni, a secret society on the Slave Coast, ii. <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ogre whose soul was in a bird, story of the, ii. <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Oil of St. John</q> found on St. John's morning, ii. <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on oaks at Midsummer, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oise, French department of, dolmen in, ii. <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ojebways, ritual of death and resurrection among the, ii. <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Olala, secret society of the Niska Indians, ii. <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Olaus Magnus, on were-wolves, i. 308</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Old Wife</q> (<q>Old Woman</q>), burning the, i. 116, 120</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oldenburg, the immortal dame of, i. 100;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Shrove Tuesday customs in, 120;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Easter bonfires in, 140;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burning or boiling portions of animals or things to force witch to appear in, 321 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witch as toad in, 323;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>children passed through a cleft oak as a cure in, ii. <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>custom as to milking cows in, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sick children passed through a ring of yarn in, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Olea chrysophilla</foreign>, used as fuel for bonfire, ii. <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Oleander, the Sultan of the,</q> i. 18, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gathered at Midsummer, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Olive, the sacred, at Olympia, ii. <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Olofaet, a fire-god, ii. <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Olympia, the sacred olive at, ii. <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>white poplar used for sacrifices to Zeus at, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 7</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Omaha tribe, Elk clan of the, i. 11</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— women secluded at menstruation, i. 88 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='366'/><anchor id='Pg366'/> + +<lg> +<l>Omens from birds and beasts, i. 56;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>from the smoke of bonfires, 116, 131, 337;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>from flames of bonfires, 140, 142, 159, 165, 336, 337;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>from cakes rolled down hill, 153;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>from boiling milk, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>from intestines of sheep, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of death, ii. <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of marriage drawn from Midsummer bonfires, i. 168, 174, 178, 185, 189, 339;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>drawn from bonfires, 338 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>from flowers, ii. <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Onktehi, the great spirit of the waters among the Dacotas, ii. <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref>, <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oran, bathing at Midsummer in, i. 216</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orange River, the Corannas of the, ii. <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Oraons'/> +<l>Oraons or Uraons of Bengal, their belief as to the transformation of witches into cats, ii. <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ordeal of stinging ants undergone by girls at puberty, i. 61, and by young men, 62 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of boiling resin, 311</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ordeals as an exorcism, i. 66;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>undergone by novices at initiation among the Bushongo, ii. <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Order of nature, different views of the, postulated by magic and science, ii. <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Organs, internal, of medicine-man replaced by a new set at initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Origin of fire, primitive ideas as to the, ii. <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orinoco, the Banivas of the, i. 66;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Guaraunos of the, 85; the Guayquiries of the, 85;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Tamanaks of the, 61 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ornament, external soul of woman in an ivory, ii. <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ornaments, amulets degenerate into, ii. <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orne, Midsummer fires in the valley of the, i. 185</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oro, West African bogey, ii. <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orpheus and the willow, ii. <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orpine (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Sedum telephium</foreign>) at Midsummer, i. 196;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used in divination at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orvieto, Midsummer fires at, i. 210</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oster-Kappeln, in Hanover, the oak of the Guelphs at, ii. <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Osterode, Easter bonfires at, i. 142</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ot Danoms of Borneo, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 35 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Otati tribe of Queensland, their treatment of girls at puberty, i. 38</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ovambo, of German South-West Africa, custom observed by young women at puberty among the, ii. <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Owls, lives of persons bound up with those of, ii. <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sex totem of women, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called women's <q>sisters,</q> <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ox burnt alive to stop a murrain, i. 301</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -horns, external soul of chief in pair of, ii. <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ozieri, in Sardinia, bonfires on St. John's Eve at, i. 209</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Padua, story of a were-wolf in, i. 309</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paha, on the Gold Coast, ii. <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pale colour of negro children at birth, ii. <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Palettes or plaques of schist in Egyptian tombs, ii. <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Palm-branches, consecrated, at Easter, i. 121</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Sunday, palm-branches consecrated on, i. 144, ii. <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref>, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>boxwood blessed on, i. 184, ii. <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fern-seed used on, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -trees as life-indices, ii. <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Papuan and Melanesian stocks in New Guinea, ii. <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Papuans, life-trees among the, ii. <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paraguay, the Chiquites Indians of, ii. <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Parallelism between witches and were-wolves, i. 315, 321</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Parasitic mountain-ash (rowan) used to make the divining-rod, ii. <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— orchid growing on a tamarind, ritual at cutting, ii. <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— rowan, superstitions about a, ii. <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paris, effigy of giant burnt in summer fire at, ii. <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cats burnt alive at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Parivarams of Madura, their seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 69</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Parrot, external soul of warlock in a, ii. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Punchkin, story of the, ii. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Parsees, their customs as to menstruous women, i. 85</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Partridge, C., ii. <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paschal candle, i. 121, 122 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, 125</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Mountains, i. 141</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Passage over or through fire a stringent form of purification, ii. <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>through a cleft stick in connexion with puberty and circumcision, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Passes, Indians of Brazil, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 59</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Passing over fire to get rid of ghosts, ii. <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>through cleft trees and other harrow openings to get rid of ghosts, etc., <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>under a yoke as a purification, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='367'/><anchor id='Pg367'/> + +<lg> +<l>Passing children through cleft trees, ii. <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>children, sheep, and cattle through holes in the ground, ii. <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pastern-bone of a hare in a popular remedy, i. 17</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pastures fumigated at Midsummer to drive away witches and demons, i. 170</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Patani States, custom as to the after-birth in the, ii. <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paths, separate, for men and women, i. 78, 80, 89</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Patiko, in the Uganda Protectorate, dread of lightning at, ii. <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paton, W. R., on the Golden Bough, ii. <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Patriarch of Jerusalem kindles the new fire at Easter, i. 129</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Patrician myrtle-tree at Rome, ii. <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Patschkau, precautions against witches near, ii. <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pâturages, processions with torches at, i. 108</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pawnee story of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pawnees, human sacrifices among the, ii. <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pazzi family at Florence, i. 126</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peace-making ceremony among the Masai, ii. <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pear-tree as life-index of girl, ii. <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -trees, torches thrown at, i. 108;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rarely attacked by mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peas, boiled, distributed by young married couples, i. 111 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pebbles thrown into Midsummer fires, i. 183</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peguenches, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 59</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peking, life-tree of the Manchu dynasty at, ii. <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pelops at Olympia, ii. <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pemba, island of, ii. <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pendle, the forest of, i. 245</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pennant, Thomas, on Beltane fires and cakes in Perthshire, i. 152;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Hallowe'en fires in Perthshire, 230</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pennefather River in Queensland, ii. <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>treatment of girls at puberty on the, i. 38</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Penny-royal burnt in Midsummer fire, i. 213, 214;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gathered at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Pentamerone</hi>, the, ii. <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Penzance, Midsummer fires at, i. 199 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Perche, Midsummer fires in, i. 188;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>St. John's herb gathered on Midsummer Eve in, ii. <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the <foreign rend='italic'>Chêne-Doré</foreign> in, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Perforating arms and legs of young men, girls, and dogs as a ceremony, i. 58</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pergine, in the Tyrol, fern-seed at, ii. <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Perigord, the Yule log in, i. 250 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 253;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>magic herbs gathered at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>crawling under a bramble as a cure for boils in, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Perkunas, Lithuanian god, his perpetual fire, ii. <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Péronne, mugwort at Midsummer near, ii. <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Persians celebrate a festival of fire at the winter solstice, i. 269</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Perthshire, Beltane fires and cakes in, i. 152 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>traces of Midsummer fires in, 206;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Hallowe'en bonfires in, 230 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire in, 296 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peru, ceremony of the new fire in, i. 132</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Perun, the oak sacred to the god, ii. <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Petronius, his story of the were-wolf, i. 313 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pett, Grace, a witch, i. 304</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Petworth, in Sussex, cleft ash-trees used for the cure of rupture at, ii. <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Phalgun, a Hindoo month, ii. <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Philip and James, the Apostles, feast of, i. 158</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Piazza del Limbo at Florence, i. 126</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Picardy, Lenten fire-customs in, i. 113;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 187</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Piedmont, belief as to the <q>oil of St. John</q> on St. John's morning in, ii. <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pietro in Guarano (Calabria), Easter custom at, i. 123</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pig, roast, at Christmas, i. 259;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt sacrifice of a, 302</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pigeon, external soul of ogre in a, ii. <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external soul of dragon in a, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pigeon's egg, external soul of fairy being in, ii. <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pigeons deposit seed of mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pigs sacrificed, i. 9;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>driven through Midsummer fire, 179;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>driven through the need-fire, 272, 273, 274 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 275 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 276 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 277, 278, 279, 297;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>offered to monster who swallows novices at initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pilgrimages on Yule Night in Sweden, i. 20 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pillar, external soul of ogre in a, ii. <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pima Indians, their purification for manslaughter, i. 21</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pines, Scotch, struck by lightning, proportion of, ii. <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pinewood, fire of, at Soracte, ii. <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pinoeh, district of South-Eastern Borneo, ii. <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pippin, king of the Franks, i. 270</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pitlochrie, in Perthshire, i. 230</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='368'/><anchor id='Pg368'/> + +<lg> +<l>Pitrè, Giuseppe, on St. John's Day in Sicily, ii. <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Placci, Carlo, i. 127 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Place de Noailles at Marseilles, Midsummer flowers in the, ii. <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plane and birch, fire made by the friction of, i. 220</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plantain-tree, creeping through a cleft, as a cure, ii. <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plants, spirits of, in the form of snakes, ii. <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external soul in, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and trees as life-indices, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plaques or palettes of schist in Egyptian tombs, ii. <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plates or basins, divination by three, i. 237 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 240, 244</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plato, on the distribution of the soul in the body, ii. <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plebeian myrtle-tree at Rome, ii. <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pleiades, beginning of year determined by observation of the, ii. <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref>, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pliny on <q>serpents' eggs,</q> i. 15;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on medicinal plants, 17;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the touch of menstruous women, 96;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the fire-walk of the Hirpi Sorani, ii. <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the mythical springwort, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Druidical worship of mistletoe, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the virtues of mistletoe, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the birds which deposit seeds of mistletoe, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the different kinds of mistletoe, <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plough, piece of Yule log inserted in the, i. 251, 337</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ploughing in spring, custom at the first, i. 18</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ploughshare, crawling under a, as a cure, ii. <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plum-tree wood used for Yule log, i. 250</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plurality of souls, doctrine of the, ii. <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plutarch, on oak-mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pogdanzig, witches' Sabbath at, ii. <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pointing sticks or bones in magic, i. 14</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Poitou, Midsummer fires in, i. 182, 190 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 340 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fires on All Saints' Day in, 246;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 251 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mugwort at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Poix, Lenten fires at, i. 113</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Poland, need-fire in, i. 281 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Polaznik</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>polazenik</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>polažaynik</foreign>, Christmas visiter, i. 261, 263, 264</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pole, sacred, of the Arunta, i. 7</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Poles, passing between two poles after a death, ii. <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>passing between two poles in order to escape sickness or evil spirit, ii. <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pollution, menstrual, widespread fear of, i. 76 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Polygnotus, his picture of Orpheus under the willow, ii. <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pomerania, hills called the Blocksberg in, i. 171 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pommerol, Dr., i. 112</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pond, G. H., on ritual of death and resurrection among the Dacotas, ii. <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pongol or Feast of Ingathering in Southern India, ii. <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref>, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pontesbury, in Shropshire, the Yule log at, i. 257</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Popinjay, shooting at a, i. 194</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Popish Kingdome, The</hi>, of Thomas Kirchmeyer, i. 125 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 162</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Poplar, the white, used in sacrificing to Zeus at Olympia, ii. <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 7;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>black, mistletoe on, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -wood used to kindle need-fire, i. 282</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Porcupine as charm to ensure women an easy delivery, i. 49</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Port Lincoln tribe of South Australia, their superstition as to lizards, ii. <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Porta Triumphalis</foreign> at Rome, ii. <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Portrait statues, external souls of Egyptian kings deposited in, ii. <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Portreach, sacrifice of a calf near, i. 301</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Poseidon makes Pterelaus immortal, ii. <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>priest of, uses a white umbrella, i. 20 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Posidonius, Greek traveller in Gaul, ii. <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Poso in Central Celebes, custom at the working of iron in, ii. <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Alfoors of, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Possession by an evil spirit cured by passing through a red-hot chain, ii. <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Potawatomi women secluded at menstruation, i. 89</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Potlatch</foreign>, distribution of property, ii. <ref target='Pg274'>274</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pots used by girls at puberty broken, i. 61, 69</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Powers, extraordinary, ascribed to first-born children, i. 295</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Požega district of Slavonia, need-fire in, i. 282</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prättigau in Switzerland, Lenten fire-custom at, i. 119</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prayers of adolescent girls to the Dawn of Day, i. 50 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 53, 98 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>for rain, 133</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pretence of throwing a man into fire, i. 148, 186, ii. <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Priapus, image of, at need-fire, i. 286</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Priest of Aricia and the Golden Bough, i. 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Earth, taboos observed by the, 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Diana at Aricia, the King of the Wood, perhaps personified Jupiter, ii. <ref target='Pg302'>302</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Nemi, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Priestesses not allowed to step on ground, i. 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Priests expected to pass through fire, ii. <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref>, <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref>, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Primitive thought, its vagueness and inconsistency, ii. <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='369'/><anchor id='Pg369'/> + +<lg> +<l>Prince Sunless, i. 21</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Wales Island, Torres Strait, treatment of girls at puberty in, i. 40</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Princess royal, ceremonies at the puberty of a, i. 29, 30<hi rend='italic'> sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Procession with lighted tar-barrels on Christmas Eve, i. 268</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Processions with lighted torches through fields, gardens, orchards, etc., i. 107 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 110 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 113 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 141, 179, 233 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 266, 339 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Corpus Christi Day, 165;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to the Midsummer bonfires, 184, 185, 187, 188, 191, 192, 193;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>across fiery furnaces, ii. <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of giants (effigies) at popular festivals in Europe, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Profligacy at Holi festival in India, ii. <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prophecy, the Norse Sibyl's, i. 102 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Proserpine River in Queensland, i. 39</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Provence, Midsummer fires in, i. 193 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 249 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prussia, Midsummer fires in, i. 176 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mullein gathered at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches' Sabbath in, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Eastern, herbs gathered at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination by flowers on Midsummer Eve in, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>belief as to mistletoe growing on a thorn in, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prussian custom before first ploughing in spring, i. 18</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prussians, the old, worshipped serpents, ii. <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pterelaus and his golden hair, ii. <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Puberty, girls secluded at, i. 22 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fast and dream at, ii. <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>pretence of killing the novice and bringing him to life again during initiatory rites at, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pueblo Indians of Arizona and New Mexico, use of bull-roarers among the, ii. <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pulayars of Travancore, their seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 69</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pulverbatch, in Shropshire, the Yule log at, i. 257;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>belief as the bloom of the oak on Midsummer Eve at, ii. <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pumpkin, external soul in a, ii. <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Punchkin and the parrot, story of, ii. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Punjaub, supernatural power ascribed to the first-born in the, i. 295;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>passing unlucky children through narrow openings in the, ii. <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Purification by stinging with ants, i. 61 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by beating, 61, 64 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of mourners by fire, ii. <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>after a death, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by passing under a yoke, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Purificatory theory of the fires of the fire-festivals, i. 329 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 341, ii. <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>more probable than the solar theory, i. 346</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Purple loosestrife (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Lythrum salicaria</foreign>) gathered at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Purra</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>poro</foreign>, secret society in Sierra Leone, ii. <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Puttenham, George, on the Midsummer giants, ii. <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pyrenees, Midsummer fires in the French, i. 193</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Quarter-ill, a disease of cattle, i. 296</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Quedlinburg, in the Harz Mountains, need-fire at, i. 276</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Queen Charlotte Islands, the Haida Indians of, i. 44</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Heaven, ii. <ref target='Pg303'>303</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Summer, i. 195</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Queen's County, Midsummer fires in, i. 203;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination at Hallowe'en in, 242</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Queensland, sorcery in, i. 14;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seclusion of girls at puberty in, 37 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dread of women at menstruation in, 78;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>natives of, their mode of ascertaining the fate of an absent friend, ii. <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of bull-roarers in, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Quimba</foreign>, a secret society on the Lower Congo, ii. <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Quimper, Midsummer fires at, i. 184</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Quirinus, sanctuary of, at Rome, ii. <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Races at fire-festivals, i. 111;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to Easter bonfire, 122;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Easter fires, 144;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>with torches at Midsummer, 175.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Torch-Races'>Torch-races</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Radium, bearing of its discovery on the probable duration of the sun, ii. <ref target='Pg307'>307</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rahu, a tribal god in India, ii. <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rain, Midsummer bonfires supposed to stop, i. 188, 336;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bull-roarers used as magical instruments to make, ii. <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -clouds, smoke made in imitation of, i. 133</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -makers (mythical), i. 133</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -water in Morocco, magical virtues ascribed to, i. 17 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Raking a rick in the devil's name, i. 243;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the ashes, a mode of divination, 243</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ralston, W. R. S., on sacred fire of Perkunas, ii. <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rama, his battle with the King of Ceylon, ii. <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rampart, old, of Burghead, i. 267 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ramsay, John, of Ochtertyre, on Beltane fires, i. 146 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Midsummer fires, 206;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Hallowe'en fires, 230 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on burying cattle alive, 325 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rarhi, Brahmans of Bengal, their seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 68</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='370'/><anchor id='Pg370'/> + +<lg> +<l>Rat, external soul of medicine-man in, ii. <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rattan, creeping through a split, to escape a malignant spirit, ii. <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rattle used at a festival, i. 28</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rattles to frighten ghosts, i. 52</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Raven clan, ii. <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ray-fish, cure for wound inflicted by a, i. 98 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Raymi, a festival of the summer solstice, i. 132</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reapers throw sickles blindfold at last sheaf, ii. <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reaping, girdle of rye a preventive of weariness in, i. 190</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reay, in Sutherland, the need-fire at, i. 294 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Red earth or paint smeared on girls at puberty, i. 30, 31;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>girl's face painted red at puberty, 49 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 54;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>women at menstruation painted, 78</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and white, girls at puberty painted, i. 35, 38, 39, 40;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>women at menstruation painted, 78</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -hot iron chain, passing persons possessed by evil spirits through a, ii. <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Island, i. 39</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— ochre round a woman's mouth, mark of menstruation, i. 77</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Redemption from the fire, i. 110</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reed, W. A., on a superstition as to a parasitic plant, ii. <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reed, split, used in cure for dislocation, ii. <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reef, plain of, in Tiree, i. 316</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Regaby, in the Isle of Man, i. 224</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reindeer sacrificed to the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, O. Frh. von, on the Yule log, i. 249</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reiskius, Joh., on the need-fire, i. 271 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Religion, movement of thought from magic through religion to science, ii. <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Religious associations among the Indians of North America, ii. <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Remedies, magical, not allowed to touch the ground, i. 14</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Renewal of fire, annual, in China, i. 137.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Fire'>Fire</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rengen, in the Eifel Mountains, Midsummer flowers at, ii. <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Resoliss, parish of, in Ross-shire, burnt sacrifice of a pig in, i. 301 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Resurrection, ritual of death and, ii. <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reuzes, wicker giants in Brabant and Flanders, ii. <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Revin, Midsummer fires at, i. 188</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rhenish Prussia, Lenten fires in, i. 115</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rheumatism, crawling under a bramble as a cure for, ii. <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rhine, the Lower, need-fire on, i. 278;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>St. John's wort on, ii. <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rhodesia, the Winamwanga of, ii. <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Rhodomyrtus tomentosus</foreign>, used to kindle fire by friction, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rhön Mountains, Lenten custom in the, i. 117</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rhys, Sir John, on Beltane fires, i. 157;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on driving cattle through fires, 159;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on old New Year's Day in the Isle of Man, 224;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Hallowe'en bonfires in Wales, 239 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on burnt sacrifices in the Isle of Man, 305 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on alleged Welsh name for mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ribble, the, i. 245</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ribwort gathered at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rickard, R. H., quoted, i. 34</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rickets, children passed through cleft ash-trees as a cure for, ii. <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>children passed through cleft oaks as a cure for, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>children passed through a holed stone as a cure for, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rickety children passed through a natural wooden ring, ii. <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Riedel, J. G. F., on the Kakian association in Ceram, ii. <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rif, province of Morocco, Midsummer fires in, i. 214 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, 215;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bathing at Midsummer in, 216</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Riga, Midsummer festival at, i. 177</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Right hand, luckiness of the, i. 151 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— turn (<foreign rend='italic'>deiseal</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>dessil</foreign>) in the Highlands of Scotland, i. 150 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 154</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rigveda, how Indra cured Apala in the, ii. <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Ring'/> +<l>Ring, crawling through a, as a cure or preventive of disease, ii. <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination by a, i. 237;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worn by initiates as token of the new birth, ii. <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Rings'>Rings</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ringhorn, Balder's ship, i. 102</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ringing church bells on Midsummer Eve, custom as to, ii. <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Rings'/> +<l>Rings as amulets, i. 92;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mourners creep through, ii. <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref>, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Ring'>Ring</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rio de Janeiro, i. 59</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Negro, ordeals of young men among the Indians of the, i. 63</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Risley, Sir Herbert H., on Indian fire-walk, ii. <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ritual, myths dramatized in, i. 105;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of death and resurrection, ii. <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rivers, Dr. W. H. R., on <foreign rend='italic'>tamaniu</foreign>, ii. <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rivers, menstruous women not allowed to cross or bathe in, i. 77, 97;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>claim human victims at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bathing in, at Midsummer, <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='371'/><anchor id='Pg371'/> + +<lg> +<l>Rizano, in Dalmatia, the Yule log at, i. 263</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Robertson, Rev. James, quoted, i. 150 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Robinson, C. H., on human life bound up with that of an animal, ii. <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rochholz, C. L., on need-fire, i. 270 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rocks, sick people passed through holes in, ii. <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roman belief as to menstruous women, i. 98 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— cure for dislocation, ii. <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Romans deemed sacred the places which were struck by lightning, ii. <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Romanus Lecapenus, emperor, ii. <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rome, the sacred fire of Vesta at, i. 138, ii. <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer Day in ancient, i. 178;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>myrtle-trees of the Patricians and Plebeians at, ii. <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>oak of the Vespasian family at, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Romove, sacred oak and perpetual fire at, ii. <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roof of house, the external soul in, ii. <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rook, the island of, initiation of young men in, ii. <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roscher, Dr. W. H., on the Roman ceremony of passing under a yoke, ii. <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roscoe, Rev. J., on life-trees of kings of Uganda, ii. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on passing through a cleft stick or a narrow opening as a cure, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roscommon, County, divination at Hallowe'en in, i. 243</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rose-tree, death in a blue, ii. <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roses, festival of the Crown of, i. 195;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the King and Queen of, 195</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ross-shire, Beltane cakes in, i. 153;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt sacrifice of a pig in, 301 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rotenburg on the Neckar, offering to the river on St. John's Day, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the wicked weaver of, <ref target='Pg289'>289</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rottenburg, in Swabia, burning the Angel-man at, i. 167;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>precautions against witches on Midsummer Eve at, ii. <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roumanians of Transylvania, their belief as to the sacredness of bread, i. 13</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Rowan'/> +<l>Rowan, parasitic, esteemed effective against witchcraft, ii. <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>superstitions about a, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>how it is to be gathered, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be touched with iron and not to fall on the ground, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -tree a protection against witches, i. 154, 327 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, ii. <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hoop of, sheep passed through a, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> Mountain-ash</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rubens, painter, ii. <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rucuyennes of Brazil, ordeal of young men among the, i. 63</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rue aux Ours at Paris, effigy of giant burnt in the, ii. <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rue burnt in Midsummer fire, i. 213</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rügen, sick persons passed through a cleft oak in, ii. <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rum, island of, and the Lachlin family, ii. <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rupert's Day, effigy burnt on, i. 119</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rupt in the Vosges, Lenten fires at, i. 109;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log at, 254</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rupture, children passed through cleft ash-trees or oaks as a cure for, ii. <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Russia, Midsummer fires in, i. 176, ii. <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire in, i. 281, ii. <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>treatment of the effigy of Kupalo in, <ref target='Pg023'>23</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Letts of, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>purple loose-strife gathered at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fern-seed at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>birth-trees in, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Russian feast of Florus and Laurus, i. 220</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— story of Koshchei the deathless, ii. <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rustem and Isfendiyar, i. 104 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ruthenia, Midsummer bonfires in, i. 176</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rye, girdles of, a preventive of weariness in reaping, i. 190</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saale, the river, claims a human victim on Midsummer Day, ii. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saaralben in Lorraine, ii. <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sabbaths of witches on the Eve of May Day and Midsummer Eve, i. 171 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, 181, ii. <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sacramental bread at Nemi, ii. <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— meal at initiation in Fiji, ii. <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sacred flutes played at initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— kings put to death, i. 1 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— persons not allowed to set foot on the ground, i. 2 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to see the sun, i. 18 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— stick (<foreign rend='italic'>churinga</foreign>), ii. <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sacrifice of cattle at holy oak, i. 181;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of heifer at kindling need-fire, 290;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of an animal to stay a cattle-plague, 300 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of reindeer to the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sacrifices, human, at fire-festivals, i. 106;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>traces of, 146, 148, 150 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 186, ii. <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>offered by the ancient Germans, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Celts of Gaul, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the victims perhaps witches and wizards, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>W. Mannhardt's theory, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Sacrificial fonts</q> in Sweden, i. 172 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Sada</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>Saza</foreign>, Persian festival of fire at the winter solstice, i. 269</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sage, divination by sprigs of red, on Midsummer Eve, ii. <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='372'/><anchor id='Pg372'/> + +<lg> +<l>Sagittarius, mistletoe cut when the sun is in the sign of, ii. <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sahagun, B. de, on the treatment of witches and wizards among the Aztecs, ii. <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saibai, island of Torres Strait, treatment of girls at puberty in, i. 40 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sail Dharaich, Sollas, in North Uist, need-fire at, i. 294</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Antony, wood of, i. 110</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Brandon, church of, in Ireland, sick women pass through a window of the, ii. <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Christopher, name given to Midsummer giant at Salisbury, ii. <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Columb Kill, festival of, i. 241</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Corona, church of, at Koppenwal, holed stone in the, ii. <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saint-Denis-des-Puits, the oak of, ii. <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Eloi, Bishop of Noyon, his denunciation of heathen practices, ii. <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Estapin, festival of, on August the sixth, ii. <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. George's Day, i. 223 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Hubert blesses bullets with which to shoot witches, i. 315 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. James's Day (July the twenty-fifth), the flower of chicory cut on, ii. <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Jean, in the Jura, Midsummer fire-custom at, i. 189</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-St-John'/> +<l>St. John blesses the flowers on Midsummer Eve, i. 171;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his hair looked for in ashes of Midsummer fire, 182 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 190;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fires of, in France, 183, 188, 189, 190, 192, 193;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>prayers to, at Midsummer, 210;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>claims human victims on St. John's Day (Midsummer Day), ii. <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>print of his head on St. John's Eve, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>oil of, found on oak leaves, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Knights of, i. 194</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Grand Master of the Order of, i. 211</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— the Baptist associated by the Catholic Church with Midsummer Day, i. 160, 181</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. John's blood found on St. John's wort and other plants at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. John's College, Oxford, the Christmas candle at, i. 255</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Day, Midsummer fires on, i. 167 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 171 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 178, 179;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fire kindled by friction of wood on, 281;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fern-seed blooms on, ii. <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Midsummer'>Midsummer</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Eve (Midsummer Eve) in Malta, i. 210 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wonderful herbs gathered on, ii. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sick children passed through cleft trees on, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. John's fires among the South Slavs, i. 178;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Esthonians, 180.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Midsummer-Fires'>Midsummer fires</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— flower at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gathered on St. John's Eve (Midsummer Eve), <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— girdle, mugwort, ii. <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— herbs gathered at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against evil spirits, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Night (Midsummer Eve), precautions against witches on, ii. <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— oil on oaks at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— root (<foreign rend='italic'>Johanniswurzel</foreign>), the male fern, ii. <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-St-Johns-Wort'/> +<l>—— wort (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Hypericum perforatum</foreign>), garlands of, at Midsummer, i. 169 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, 196;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gathered on St. John's Day or Eve (Midsummer Day or Eve), ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against thunder, witches, and evil spirits, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thrown into the Midsummer bonfires, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Juan Capistrano, in California, ordeal of nettles and ants among the Indians of, i. 64</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Julien, church of, at Ath, ii. <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Just, in Cornwall, Midsummer fire-custom at, i. 200</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Lawrence family, their lives bound up with an old tree at Howth castle, ii. <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Martin invoked to disperse a mist, i. 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Mary at Lübeck, church of, i. 100</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-St-Michael'/> +<l>St. Michael's cake, i. 149, 154 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Nonnosius, relics of, in the cathedral of Freising, Bavaria, ii. <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Patrick and the Beltane fires, i. 157 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Patrick's Chair, i. 205</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Mount, i. 205</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Peter, the Eve of, Midsummer fires in Ireland on, i. 202</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and St. Paul, celebration of their day in London, i. 196</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Peter's at Rome, new fire at Easter in, i. 125</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Day, bonfires in Belgium on, i. 194 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bonfires at Eton on, 197;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fires in Scotland on, 207</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Eve, bonfires on, i. 195, 198, 199 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gathering herbs on, ii. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Rochus's day, need-fire kindled on, i. 282</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Thomas's day (21st December), bonfires on, i. 266;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches dreaded on, ii. <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Mount, near Madras, the fire-walk at, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saint-Valery in Picardy, i. 113</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='373'/><anchor id='Pg373'/> + +<lg> +<l>St. Vitus's dance, mistletoe a cure for, ii. <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Day, <q>fire of heaven</q> kindled on, i. 335</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Wolfgang, Falkenstein chapel of, ii. <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saintes-Maries, Midsummer custom at, i. 194</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saintonge, the Yule log in, i. 251 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wonderful herbs gathered on St. John's Eve in, ii. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>St. John's wort in, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>vervain gathered at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n. 4</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>four-leaved clover at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Aunis, Midsummer fires in, i. 192</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Salee, in Morocco, Midsummer fires at, i. 214, 216</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Salisbury, Midsummer giants at, ii. <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Salop (Shropshire), fear of witchcraft in, i. 342 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Salt, prohibition to eat, i. 19, 20;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used in a ceremony after marriage, 25 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>abstinence from, associated with a rule of chastity, 26 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>prohibition to taste, 60, 68, 69;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be handled by menstruous women, 81 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 84;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination by, 244</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— cake, divination by, i. 238 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Samhain, Eve of, in Ireland, i. 139, 225, 226;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>All Saints' Day in Ireland, 225</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Samhanach</foreign>, Hallowe'en bogies, i. 227</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Samhnagan</foreign>, Hallowe'en fires, i. 230</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Samland fishermen will not go to sea on Midsummer Day, ii. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Samoan story of woman who was impregnated by the sun, i. 74 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Samoyed shamans, their familiar spirits in boars, ii. <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— story of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Samson, effigy of, ii. <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>an African, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>San Salvador in West Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg200'>200</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sanctity and uncleanness not clearly differentiated in the primitive mind, i. 97 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sanctuary of Balder, i. 104</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sand, souls of ogres in a grain of, ii. <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sandhill, in Northumberland, Midsummer fires at, i. 198</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sangerhausen, i. 169</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sangro, river, i. 210</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sankuru River, ii. <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Santa Catalina Istlavacan, birth-names of the Indians of, ii. <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Maria Piedigrotta at Naples, i. 221</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sapor, king of Persia, i. 82 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sarajevo, need-fire near, i. 286</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sardinia, Midsummer fires in, i. 209</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Satan preaches a sermon in the church of North Berwick, ii. <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>brings fern-seed on Christmas night, <ref target='Pg289'>289</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Satapatha Brahmana</hi>, on the sun as Death, ii. <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saturday, Easter, new fire on, i. 121, 122, 124, 127, 128, 130;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>second-sight of persons born on a, 285</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saturnalia at puberty of a princess royal, i. 30 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>license of the, ii. <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saucers, divination by seven, i. 209</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Savage, secretiveness of the, ii. <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dread of sorcery, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saxo Grammaticus, Danish historian, i. 102 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his account of Balder, 103</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saxons of Transylvania, story of the external soul among the, ii. <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saxony, fires to burn the witches in, i. 160;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Wends of, ii. <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Lower, the need-fire in, i. 272</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scania, Midsummer fires in, i. 172</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schaffhausen, St. John's three Midsummer victims at, ii. <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schar mountains of Servia, need-fire in the, i. 281</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>Scharholz</foreign>, Midsummer log in Germany, ii. <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schaumburg, Easter bonfires in, i. 142</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schlegel, G., on Chinese festival of fire, ii. <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schlich, W., on mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus europaeus</foreign>, <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schlochau, district of, witches' Sabbath in, ii. <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schöllbronn in Baden, <q>thunder poles</q> at, i. 145</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schoolcraft, Henry R., on renewal of fire, i. 134 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schürmann, C. W., on the Port Lincoln tribe of South Australia, ii. <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Schvannes</foreign>, bonfires, i. 111 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schweina, in Thuringia, Christmas bonfire at, i. 265 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schwenda, witches burnt at, i. 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Science, movement of thought from magic through religion to, ii. <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and magic, different views of natural order postulated by the two, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scira, an Athenian festival, i. 20 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Scoring above the breath,</q> cutting a witch on the forehead, i. 315 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>counter-spell to witchcraft, 343 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scotch Highlanders, their belief in bogies at Hallowe'en, i. 227;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their belief as to Snake Stones, ii. <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scotland, sacred wells in, i. 12;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Celts called <q>thunder-bolts</q> in, 14 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Snake Stones in, 15 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worship of Grannus in, i. 112;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Beltane fires in, 146 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 206 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination at Hallowe'en in, 229, 234 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire in, 289 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<pb n='374'/><anchor id='Pg374'/> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>animals burnt alive as a sacrifice in, 302;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>scoring above the breath,</q> a counter-charm for witchcraft in, 315 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches as hares in, 315 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>St. John's wort in, ii. <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the divining-rod in, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Highlands'>Highlands</ref> <hi rend='italic'>and</hi> <ref target='Index-Highlanders'>Highlanders</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scots pine, mistletoe on, ii. <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scott, Sir Walter, on the fear of witchcraft, i. 343;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>oaks planted by, ii. <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scourging girls at puberty, i. 66 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Scouvion</foreign>, i. 108.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Escouvion'><foreign rend='italic'>Escouvion</foreign></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scratching the person with the fingers forbidden to girls at puberty, i. 38, 39, 41, 42, 44, 47, 50, 53, 92</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scrofula, vervain a cure for, ii. <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>creeping through an arch of vines as a cure for, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>passage through a holed stone a cure for, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scylla, daughter of Nisus, the story of her treachery, ii. <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scythes and bill-hooks set out to cut witches as they fall from the clouds, i. 345 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sea, menstruous women not allowed to approach the, i. 79;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bathing in the, at Easter, 123;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bathing in the, at Midsummer, 208, 210, ii. <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>demands a human victim on Midsummer Day, <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seal, descendants of the, in Sutherlandshire, ii. <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seats placed for souls of dead at the Midsummer fires, i. 183, 184</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 22 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>,;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in folk-tales, 70 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reasons for the, 76 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of novices at initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref>, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>, <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref>, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref>, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of women at menstruation, i. 76 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Secret language learnt at initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>, <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— societies and totem clans, related to each other, ii. <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Secretiveness of the savage, ii. <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sedbury Park oak, in Gloucestershire, ii. <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Sedum telephium</foreign>, orpine, used in divination at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seed-corn, charred remains of Midsummer log mixed with the, ii. <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seeman, Berthold, on St. John's blood, ii. <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seler, Professor E., on nagual, ii. <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Semo</foreign>, a secret society of Senegambia, ii. <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Senal Indians of California, their notion as to fire stored in trees, ii. <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Senegambia, the Walos of, ii. <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>secret society in, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sennar, a province of the Sudan, human hyaenas in, i. 313</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Separation of children from their parents among the Baganda, i. 23 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>September, eve of the first of, new fire on the, i. 139;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the eighth, feast of the Nativity of the Virgin, 220;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the fire-walk in, ii. <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Serpent'/> +<l>Serpent, girls at puberty thought to be visited by a, i. 31;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed to swallow girl at puberty, 57;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ten-headed, external soul in a, ii. <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>twelve-headed, external soul of demon in a, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external soul of chief in a, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Snake'>Snake</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Serpents burnt alive at the Midsummer festival in Luchon, ii. <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches turn into, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped by the old Prussians, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the worship of Demeter, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the familiars of witches, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>spirits of the dead incarnate in, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Serpents' eggs (glass beads) in ancient Gaul, i. 15</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Servia, Midsummer fire custom in, i. 178;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 258 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire in, 281, 282 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Servian stories of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Servians, house-communities of the, i. 259 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Setonje, in Servia, need-fire at, i. 282 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seven bonfires, lucky to see, i. 107, 108</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— leaps over Midsummer fire, i. 213</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— sorts of plants gathered at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— years, a were-wolf for, i. 310 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 316 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Sex-Totems'/> +<l>Sex totems among the natives of South-Eastern Australia, ii. <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called <q>brother</q> and <q>sister</q> by men and women respectively, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sexes, danger apprehended from the relation of the, ii. <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seyf el-Mulook and the jinnee, the story of, ii. <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sgealoir, the burying-ground of, i. 294</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Sgreball</foreign>, three pence, i. 139</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sham-fights at New Year, i. 135</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shamans of the Yakuts and Samoyeds keep their external souls in animals, ii. <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shamash, the Assyrian sun-god, ii. <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shanga, city in East Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shawnee prophet, ii. <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sheaf, the last cut at harvest, the Yule log wrapt up in, i. 248;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reapers blindfold throw sickles at the, ii. <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sheaves of wheat or barley burnt in Midsummer fires, i. 215</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sheep made to tread embers of extinct Midsummer fires, i. 182;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>driven over +<pb n='375'/><anchor id='Pg375'/> +ashes of Midsummer fires, 192;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt to stop disease in the flock, 301;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt alive as a sacrifice in the Isle of Man, 306;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witch in shape of a black, 316;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>driven through fire, ii. <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>omens drawn from the intestines of, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>passed through a hole in a rock to rid them of disease, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shells used in ritual of death and resurrection, ii. <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sherbro, Sierra Leone, secret society in the, ii. <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shirley Heath, cleft ash-tree at, ii. <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shirt, wet, divination by, i. 236, 241</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shoe, divination by thrown, i. 236</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shoes of boar's skin worn by king at inauguration, i. 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>magical plants at Midsummer put in, ii. <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shooting at the sun on Midsummer Day, ii. <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— at witches in the clouds, i. 345</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Shot-a-dead</q> by fairies, i. 303</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shropshire, the Yule log in, i. 257;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fear of witchcraft in, 342 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the oak thought to bloom on Midsummer Eve in, ii. <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shrove Tuesday, effigies burnt on, i. 120;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>straw-man burnt on, ii. <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wicker giants on, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cats burnt alive on, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the divining-rod cut on, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>custom of striking a hen dead on, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shuswap Indians of British Columbia, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 53 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>girls at puberty forbidden to eat anything that bleeds, 94;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fence themselves with thorn bushes against ghosts, ii. <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>personal totems among the, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their belief as to trees struck by lightning, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Siam, king of, not allowed to set foot on ground, i. 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tree-spirit in serpent form in, ii. <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Siamese, their explanation of a first menstruation, i. 24;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their story of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Siberia, marriage custom in, i. 75;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external souls of shamans in, ii. <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sibyl, the Norse, her prophecy, i. 102 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sibyl's wish, the, i. 99</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sicily, Midsummer fires in, i. 210;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>St. John's Day (Midsummer Day) regarded as dangerous and unlucky in, ii. <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bathing at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>St. John's wort in, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sickness, bonfires a protection against, i. 108, 109;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>transferred to animal, ii. <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sieg, the Yule log in the valley of the, i. 248</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Siena, the, of the Ivory Coast, their totemism, ii. <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sierck, town on the Moselle, i. 164</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sierra Leone, birth-trees in, ii. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>secret society in, <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sieve, divination by, i. 236</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sikkhim, custom after a funeral in, ii. <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Silence compulsory on girls at puberty, i. 29, 57;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ritual, 123, 124, ii. <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref>, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Silesia, Spachendorf in, i. 119;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fires to burn the witches in, 160;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 170 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 175;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire in, 278;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches as cats in, 319 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination by flowers on Midsummer Eve in, ii. <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Silius Italicus, on the fire-walk of the Hirpi Sorani, ii. <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sill of door, unlucky children passed under the, ii. <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Silver sixpence or button used to shoot witches with, i. 316</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Silvia and Mars, story of, ii. <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Simeon, prince of Bulgaria, his life bound up with the capital of a column, ii. <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Simla, i. 12</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Simurgh and Rustem, i. 104</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sin-offering, i. 82</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Singhalese, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 69</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Singleton, Miss A. H., ii. <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Siouan tribes of North America, names of clans not used in ordinary conversation among the, ii. <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sioux or Dacotas, ritual of death and resurrection among the, ii. <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sipi in Northern India, i. 12</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sirius, how the Bushmen warm up the star, i. 332 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sister's Beam (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Sororium tigillum</foreign>) at Rome, ii. <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sisyphus, the stone of, i. 298</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sixpence, silver, witches shot with a, i. 316</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sixth day of the moon, mistletoe cut on the, ii. <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sixty years, cycles of, ii. <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Skin disease, traditional cure of, in India, ii. <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>leaping over ashes of fire as remedy for, 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sky, girls at puberty not allowed to look at the, i. 43, 45, 46, 69</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Skye, island of, i. 289;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the need-fire in, 148</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Slane, the hill of, i. 158</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Slave Coast, custom of widows on the, ii. <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of bull-roarers on the, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Slavonia, the Yule log in, i. 262 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire in, 282</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='376'/><anchor id='Pg376'/> + +<lg> +<l>Slavonian (South) peasants, the measures they take to bring down witches from the clouds, i. 345</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Slavonic peoples, need-fire among, i. 280 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 344</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— stories of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Slavs, the oak a sacred tree among the, ii. <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>oak wood used to kindle sacred fires among the, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the South, Midsummer fires among the, i. 178;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log among the, 247, 258 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination from flowers at Midsummer among the, ii. <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their belief in the activity of witches at Midsummer, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire sometimes kindled by the friction of oak-wood among the, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sleep, magic, at initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sligo, the Druids' Hill in County, i. 229</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Slope of Big Stones in Harris, i. 227</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Slovenians, their belief in the activity of witches on Midsummer Eve, ii. <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Smith, a spectral, i. 136</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Smoke made in imitation of rain-clouds, i. 133;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used to stupefy witches in the clouds, 345;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used to fumigate sheep and cattle, ii. <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of bonfires, omens drawn from the, i. 116, 131, 337;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>intended to drive away dragons, 161;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>allowed to pass over corn, 201, 337</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Midsummer bonfires a preservative against ills, i. 188;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against disease, 192;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>beneficial effects of, 214 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Midsummer herbs a protection against thunder and lightning, ii. <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used to fumigate cattle, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of need-fire used to fumigate fruit-trees, nets, and cattle, i. 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Smyth, R. Brough, on menstruous women in Australia, i. 13</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Snake'/> +<l>Snake said to wound a girl at puberty, i. 56;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seven-headed, external soul of witch in a, ii. <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external soul of medicine-man in, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Serpent'>Serpent</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Stones, superstitions as to, i. 15 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>belief of the Scottish Highlanders concerning, ii. <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Snakes, fat of, i. 14;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to congregate on Midsummer Eve or the Eve of May Day, 15 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>charm against, 17;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>spirits of plants and trees in the form of, ii. <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sympathetically related to human beings, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Snow, external soul of a king in, ii. <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Societies, secret, and clans, totemic, related to each other, ii. <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sodewa Bai and the golden necklace, story of, ii. <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Soemara, in Celebes, were-wolf at, i. 312</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sofala in East Africa, i. 135 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sogamoso, heir to the throne of, not allowed to see the sun, i. 19</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sogne Fiord in Norway, Balder's Grove on the, i. 104, ii. <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Solar festival in spring, ii. <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— theory of the fires of the fire-festivals, i. 329, 331 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Solstice, the summer, new fire kindled at the, i. 132, 133;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>its importance for primitive man, 160 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the winter, celebrated as the Birthday of the Sun, i. 246;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Persian festival of fire at the, 269</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Solstices, the old pagan festivals of the two, consecrated as the birthdays of Christ and St. John the Baptist, i. 181 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festivals of fire at the, 246, 247, 331 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fern-seed gathered at the, ii. <ref target='Pg290'>290</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe gathered at the, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Solstitial fires perhaps sun-charms, ii. <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Soma, Hindoo deity, i. 99 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Somme, the river, i. 113;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the department of, mugwort at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Somersetshire, Midsummer fires in, i. 199</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sonnerat, French traveller, on the fire-walk in India, ii. <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Soosoos of Senegambia, their secret society, ii. <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Soracte, fire-walk of the Hirpi Sorani on Mount, ii. <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Soranian Wolves at, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 7</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Soranian Wolves</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>Hirpi Sorani</foreign>), ii. <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Soracte, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Soranus, Italian god, ii. <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sorcerers, Midsummer herbs a protection against, ii. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>detected by St. John's wort, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>detected by fern root, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Sorcery'/> +<l>Sorcery, pointing sticks or bones in, i. 14;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bonfires a protection against, 156;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sprigs of mullein protect cattle against, 190;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe a protection against, ii. <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>savage dread of, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Witchcraft'>Witchcraft</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and witchcraft, Midsummer plants and flowers a protection against, ii. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sorcha, the King of, in a Celtic tale, ii. <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Soul'/> +<l>Soul, the notion of, a quasi-scientific hypothesis, ii. <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the unity and indivisibility of the, a theological dogma, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of chief in sacred grove, ii. <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='377'/><anchor id='Pg377'/> + +<lg> +<l>Soul of child deposited in a coco-nut, ii. <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>deposited in a bag, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bound up with knife, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of iron, ii. <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of ruptured person passes into cleft oak-tree, ii. <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of woman at childbirth deposited in a chopping-knife, ii. <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— the external, in folk-tales, ii. <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in parrot, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in bird, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in necklace, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a fish, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in cock, pigeon, starling, spinning-wheel, pillar, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a bee, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a lemon, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a tree, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a barley plant, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a box, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref>, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4, <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a firebrand, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in hair, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in snow, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in two or three doves, <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a ten-headed serpent, <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a pumpkin, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a spear, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a dragon, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a gem, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in an egg, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref>, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a duck's egg, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a blue rose-tree, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a bird, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a pigeon, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a light, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a flower, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in grain of sand, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a stone, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a thorn, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a gem, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a pigeon's egg, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a dove's egg, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a box-tree, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the flower of the acacia, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a sparrow, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a beetle, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a bottle, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a golden cock-chafer, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a dish, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a precious stone, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a bag, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a white herb, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a wasp, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a twelve-headed serpent, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a golden ring, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in seven little birds, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a seven-headed snake, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a quail, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a vase, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a golden sword and a golden arrow, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in entrails, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a golden fish, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a hair as hard as copper, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a cat, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a bear, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a buffalo, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in inanimate things, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a hemlock branch, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in folk-custom, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a mountain scaur, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ox-horns, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in roof of house, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a tree, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a spring of water, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in capital of column, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a portrait statue, <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in plants, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in animals, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of shaman or medicine-man in animal, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kept in totem, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -boxes, amulets as, ii. <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -stones, ii. <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -stuff of ghosts, ii. <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Soulless King, whose soul was in a duck's egg, Lithuanian story of the, ii. <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Souls of dead sit round the Midsummer fire, i. 183, 184;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of people at a house-warming collected in a bag, ii. <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>male and female, in Chinese philosophy, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the plurality of, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human, transmigrate into their totemic animals, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sow, the cropped black, at Hallowe'en, i. 239, 240</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sower, the Wicked, driving away, i. 107, 118</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sowerby, James, on mouse-ear hawk-weed, ii. <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on orpine, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on yellow hoary mullein, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Golden Bough, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on mistletoe, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sowing hemp seed, divination by, i. 235</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spachendorf, in Silesia, effigy burnt at, i. 119</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spae-wives and Gestr, Icelandic story of the, ii. <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spain, Midsummer fires and customs in, i. 208;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bathing at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>vervain gathered at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spark Sunday in Switzerland, i. 118</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sparks of Yule log prognosticate chickens, lambs, foals, calves, etc., i. 251, 262, 263, 264</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sparrow, external soul of a jinnee in a, ii. <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spear used to help women in hard labour, i. 14;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external soul in a, ii. <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Speicher, in the Eifel, St. John's fires at, i. 169</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spell recited at kindling need-fire, i. 290;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of witchcraft broken by suffering, 304</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spells cast on cattle, i. 301, 302;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cast by witches on union of man and wife, 346</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spencer (B.) and Gillen (F. J.) on initiation of medicine-man, ii. <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spinning-wheel, external soul of ogress in a, ii. <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spirit or god of vegetation, effigies of, burnt in spring, ii. <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reasons for burning, <ref target='Pg023'>23</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>leaf-clad representative of, burnt, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spirits of the hills, their treasures, ii. <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of plants and trees in the form of snakes, ii. <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of water propitiated at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spree, the river, requires its human victim on Midsummer Day, ii. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spreewald, the Wends of the, ii. <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sprenger, the inquisitor, ii. <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='378'/><anchor id='Pg378'/> + +<lg> +<l>Spring of water, external soul in a, ii. <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Springs, underground, detected by divining-rod, ii. <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Springwort, mythical plant, procured at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reveals treasures, opens all locks, and makes the bearer invisible and invulnerable, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sproat, G. M., on seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 43 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spruce trees free from mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Squeals of pigs necessary for fruitfulness of mangoes, i. 9</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Squirrels burnt in the Easter bonfires, i. 142, ii. <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stabbing a transformed witch or werewolf in order to compel him or her to reveal himself or herself, i. 315</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Staffordshire, the Yule log in, i. 256</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stamfordham, in Northumberland, need-fire at, i. 288 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Starling, external soul of ogress in a, ii. <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stebbing, E. B., on <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus vestitus</foreign> in India, ii. <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Steinen, Professor K. von den, on the bull-roarer, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Stelis</foreign>, a kind of mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref>, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sterile beasts passed through Midsummer fires, i. 203, 338</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sternberg, in Mecklenburg, need-fire at, i. 274</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stewart, Jonet, a wise woman, ii. <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stewart, W. Grant, on witchcraft, i. 342 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stheni, near Delphi, ii. <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Sticks-Charred'/> +<l>Sticks, charred, of bonfires, protect fields against hail, i. 144</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, charred, of Candlemas bonfires, superstitious uses of, i. 131</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, charred, of Easter fire, superstitious uses of, i. 121;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>preserve wheat from blight and mildew, 143</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, charred, of Midsummer bonfires, planted in the fields, i. 165, 166, 173, 174;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a charm against lightning and foul weather, 174;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kept to make the cattle thrive, 180;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thrown into wells to improve the water, 184;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against thunder, 184, 192;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against lightning, 187, 188, 190</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, sacred, whittled, i. 138 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stiffness of back set down to witchcraft, i. 343 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, 345</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stinging girls and young men with ants, i. 61, 62 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— with ants as a form of purification, i. 61 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Stipiturus malachurus</foreign>, emu-wren, men's <q>brother</q> among the Kurnai, ii. <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stolen kail, divination by, i. 234 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stone, look of a girl at puberty thought to turn things to, i. 46;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Hairy, at Midsummer, 212;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external soul in a, ii. <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>precious, external soul of khan in a, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>magical, put into body of novice at initiation, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stones thrown into Midsummer fire, i. 183, 191, 212;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>placed round Midsummer fires, 190;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>carried by persons on their heads at Midsummer, 205, 212;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Hallowe'en fires, divination by, 230 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 239, 240;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used for curing cattle, 324, 325;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sick people passed through holes in, ii. <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>magical, inserted by spirits in the body of a new medicine-man, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stoole, near Downpatrick, Midsummer ceremony at, i. 205</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stow, John, on Midsummer fires in London, i. 196 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Strabo, on the Hirpi Sorani, ii. <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the human sacrifices of the Celts, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Strackerjan, L., on fear of witchcraft in Oldenburg, i. 343 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Strap of wolf's hide used by were-wolves, i. 310 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Strathpeffer, in Ross-shire, i. 153</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Strathspey, sheep passed through a hoop of rowan in, ii. <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Straw tied round trees to make them fruitful, i. 115</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Streams, menstruous women not allowed to cross running, i. 97;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire kindled between two running, 292</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Strength of people bound up with their hair, ii. <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Striking or throwing blindfold, ii. <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Striped Petticoat Philosophy, The</hi>, i. 6.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stromberg Hill, burning wheel rolled down the, i. 163</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Strutt, Joseph, on Midsummer fires in England, i. 196</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stseelis Indians of British Columbia, dread and seclusion of menstruous women among the, i. 89</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stuart, Mrs. A., on withered mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Lake in British Columbia, i. 47</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stukeley, W., on a Christmas custom at York, ii. <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Styria, fern-seed on Christmas night in, ii. <ref target='Pg289'>289</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Styx, the passage of Aeneas across the, ii. <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Subincision at initiation of lads in Australia, ii. <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sub-totems in Australia, ii. <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sudan, ceremony of new fire in the, i. 134;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human hyaenas in, 313</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sudeten mountains in Silesia, i. 170</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='379'/><anchor id='Pg379'/> + +<lg> +<l>Suffering, intensity of, a means to break the spell of witchcraft, i. 304</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Suffolk, belief as to menstruous women in, i. 96 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>duck baked alive as a sacrifice in, 303 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Suk of British East Africa, their dread of menstruous women, i. 81</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Sultan of the Oleander,</q> i. 18</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sumatra, the Minangkabauers of, i. 79;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Kooboos of, ii. <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Looboos of, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>totemism among the Battas of, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of bull-roarers in, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Summer, King of, chosen on St. Peter's Day, i. 195</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sun, rule not to see the, i. 18 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>priest of the, uses a white umbrella, 20 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to shine on girls at puberty, 22, 35, 36, 37, 41, 44, 46, 47, 68;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be seen by Brahman boys for three days, 68 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>impregnation of women by the, 74 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made to shine on women at marriage, 75;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sheep and lambs sacrificed to the, 132;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>temple of the, at Cuzco, 132;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Birthday of the, at the winter solstice, 246;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Christmas an old heathen festival of the birth of the, 331 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolized by a wheel, 334 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 335;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the sign of the lion, ii. <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>magical virtues of plants at Midsummer derived from the, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the sign of Sagittarius, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>calls men to himself through death, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fern-seed procured by shooting at the sun on Midsummer Day, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the ultimate cooling of the, <ref target='Pg307'>307</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sun-charms, i. 331;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the solstitial and other ceremonial fires perhaps sun-charms, ii. <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -god, ii. <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref>, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sundal, in Norway, need-fire in, i. 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sunday, children born on a Sunday can see treasures in the earth, ii. <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the Firebrands, i. 110</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— in Lent, the first, fire-festival on the, i. 107 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sung-yang, were-tiger in, i. 310</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sunless, Prince, i. 21</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sunshine, use of fire as a charm to produce, i. 341 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Superb warbler, called women's <q>sister</q> among the Kurnai, ii. <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Superstitions, Index of, i. 270;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>about trees struck by lightning, ii. <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Surenthal in Switzerland, new fire made by friction at Midsummer in the, i. 169 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sûrya, the sun-god, ii. <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sussex, cleft ash-trees used for the cure of rupture in, ii. <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sutherland, the need-fire in, i. 294 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sutherlandshire, sept of the Mackays, <q>the descendants of the seal,</q> in, ii. <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Swabia, <q>burning the witch</q> in, i. 116;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>custom of throwing lighted discs in, 116 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Easter fires in, 144 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>custom at eclipses in, 162 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Midsummer fires in, 166 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches as hares and horses in, 318 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the divining-rod in, ii. <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fern-seed brought by Satan on Christmas night in, <ref target='Pg289'>289</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Swahili of East Africa, their ceremony of the new fire, i. 133, 140;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>birth-trees among the, ii. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their story of an African Samson, ii. <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Swallows, stones found in stomachs of, i. 17</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Swan-woman, Tartar story of the, ii. <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Swan's bone, used by menstruous women to drink out of, i. 48, 49, 50, 90, 92</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Swans' song in a fairy tale, ii. <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Swanton, J. R., quoted, i. 45 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sweden, customs observed on Yule Night in, i. 20 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Easter bonfires in, 146;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bonfires on the Eve of May Day in, 159, 336;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 172;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the need-fire in, 280;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bathing at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>Midsummer Brooms</q> in, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the divining-rod in, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe to be shot or knocked down with stones in, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe a remedy for epilepsy in, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>medical use of mistletoe in, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe used as a protection against conflagration in, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe cut at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mystic properties ascribed to mistletoe on St. John's Eve in, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Balder's balefires in, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>children passed through a cleft oak as a cure for rupture or rickets in, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>crawling through a hoop as a cure in, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>superstitions about a parasitic rowan in, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Switzerland, Lenten fires in, i. 118 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>new fire kindled by friction of wood in, 169 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 172;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 249;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire in, 279 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 336;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>people warned against bathing at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the belief in witchcraft in, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination by orpine at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sympathetic relation between cleft tree and person who has been passed through it, ii. <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>between man and animal, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Syria, restrictions on menstruous women in, i. 84</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Syrmia, the Yule log in, i. 262 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tabari, Arab chronicler, i. 82</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='380'/><anchor id='Pg380'/> + +<lg> +<l>Taboo conceived as a dangerous physical substance which needs to be insulated, i. 6 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tabooed men, i. 7 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— persons kept from contact with the ground, i. 2 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— things kept from contact with the ground, i. 7 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— women, i. 8</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Taboos regulating the lives of divine kings, i. 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>observed by priest of Earth in Southern Nigeria, 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tacitus, on human sacrifices offered by the ancient Germans, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the goddess Nerthus, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tahiti, king and queen of, not allowed to set foot on the ground, i. 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the fire-walk in, ii. <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tahitians, the New Year of the, ii. <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tajan and Landak, districts of Dutch Borneo, i. 5, ii. <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Talbot, P. Amaury, on external human souls in animals, ii. <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Talegi</foreign>, Motlav word for external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tales of maidens forbidden to see the sun, i. 70 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Talismans of cities, i. 83 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Talmud, the, on menstruous women, i. 83</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tamanaks of the Orinoco, their treatment of girls at puberty, i. 61 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Tamaniu</foreign>, external soul in the Mota language, ii. <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tamarisk, Isfendiyar slain with a branch of a, i. 105</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tami, the, of German New Guinea, their rites of initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tanganyika, Lake, tribes of, i. 24</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tanner, John, and the Shawnee sage, ii. <ref target='Pg157'>157</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Tantad</foreign>, Midsummer bonfire, i. 183</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Taoist treatise on the soul, ii. <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tapajos, tributary of the Amazon, i. 62</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Taphos besieged by Amphitryo, ii. <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tara, new fire in the King's house at, i. 158</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tar-barrels, burning, swung round pole at Midsummer, i. 169;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt at Midsummer, 180;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>procession with lighted, on Christmas Eve, 268</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tarbolton, in Ayrshire, annual bonfire at, i. 207</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tartar stories of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tartars after a funeral leap over fire, ii. <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tattooing, medicinal use of, i. 98 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref>, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tay, Loch, i. 232</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tcheou, dynasty of China, i. 137</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Teak, <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Loranthus</foreign> on, ii. <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Teanlas, Hallowe'en fires in Lancashire, i. 245</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Teeth filed as preliminary to marriage, i. 68 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tegner, Swedish poet, on the burning of Balder, ii. <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Tein Econuch</foreign>, <q>forlorn fire,</q> need-fire, i. 292</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Tein-eigin</foreign> (<foreign rend='italic'>teine-eigin</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>tin-egin</foreign>), need-fire, i. 147, 148, 289, 291, 293</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Teine Bheuil</foreign>, fire of Beul, need-fire, i. 293</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tent burnt at Midsummer, i. 215</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Termonde in Belgium, Midsummer fires at, i. 194</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tessier, on the burning wheel at Konz, i. 164 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tests undergone by girls at puberty, i. 25</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Teutates, Celtic god, ii. <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Teutonic stories of the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Texas, the Toukaway Indians of, ii. <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Thahu</foreign>, curse or pollution, i. 81</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thays of Tonquin, their customs after a burial, ii. <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thebes, in Greece, effigies of Judas burnt at Easter in, i. 130 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury, his denunciation of a heathen practice, ii. <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theophrastus on the different kinds of mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Therapia, effigies of Judas burnt at Easter in, i. 131</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thief wears a toad's heart to escape detection, i. 302 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thiers, J. B., on the Yule log, i. 250;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on gathering herbs at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on belief concerning wormwood, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thieves detected by divining-rod, ii. <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thighs of diseased cattle cut off and hung up as a remedy, i. 296 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thirty years' cycle of the Druids, ii. <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thlinkeet Indians. <hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Tlingit'>Tlingit</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thomas, N. W., ii. <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thomas the Rhymer, verses ascribed to, ii. <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thompson Indians of British Columbia, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 49 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their dread of menstruous women, 89 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>prayer of adolescent girl among the, 98 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed invulnerability of initiated men among the, ii. <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their ideas as to wood of trees struck by lightning, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thomsdorf, in Germany, i. 99</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thomson, Basil, ii. <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thonga, the, of Delagoa Bay, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 29 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>will not use the wood of trees struck by lightning, ii. <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>think lightning caused by a bird, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='381'/><anchor id='Pg381'/> + +<lg> +<l>Thor, a Norse god, i. 103</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thorn, external soul in a, ii. <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe on a, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— bushes used to keep off ghosts, ii. <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thought, the web of, ii. <ref target='Pg307'>307</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Threatening fruit-trees, i. 114</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Three Holy Kings, the divining-rod baptized in the name of the, ii. <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref></l> +<l>—— leaps over bonfire, i. 214, 215</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Threshold, shavings from the, burnt, ii. <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thrice to crawl under a bramble as a cure, ii. <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to pass through a wreath of woodbine, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Throwing or striking blindfold, ii. <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Thrumalun'/> +<l>Thrumalun, a mythical being who kills and resuscitates novices at initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Daramulun'>Daramulun</ref> <hi rend='italic'>and</hi> <ref target='Index-Thuremlin'>Thuremlin</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thrushes deposit seeds of mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Thunder'/> +<l>Thunder associated with the oak, i. 145;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires a protection against, 176;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>charred sticks of Midsummer bonfire a protection against, 184, 192;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ashes of Midsummer fires a protection against, 190;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>brands from the Midsummer fires a protection against, 191;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>certain flowers at Midsummer a protection against, ii. <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref>, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the sound of bull-roarers thought to imitate, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Lightning'>Lightning</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thunder and lightning, the Yule log a protection against, i. 248, 249, 250, 252, 253, 254, 258, 264;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bonfires a protection against, 344;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>smoke of Midsummer herbs a protection against, ii. <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>vervain a protection against, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>name given to bull-roarers, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and the oak, the Aryan god of the, i. 265</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>—— -besom,</q> name applied to mistletoe and other bushy excrescences on trees, ii. <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against thunderbolts, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -bird, the mythical, i. 44</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>—— -bolts,</q> name given to celts, i. 14 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>—— -poles,</q> oak sticks charred in Easter bonfires, i. 145</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thunderstorms and hail caused by witches, i. 344;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer flowers a protection against, ii. <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Thuremlin'/> +<l>Thuremlin, a mythical being who kills lads at initiation and restores them to life, ii. <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Daramulun'>Daramulun</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thuringia, custom at eclipses in, i. 162 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 169, ii. <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Schweina in, i. 265;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>belief as to magical properties of the fern in, ii. <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thursday, Maundy, i. 125 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thurso, witches as cats at, i. 317</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thurston, E., on the fire-walk, ii. <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thyme burnt in Midsummer fire, i. 213;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wild, gathered on Midsummer Day, ii. <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tibet, sixty years' cycle in, ii. <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ticunas of the Amazon, ordeal of young men among the, i. 62 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tiger, a Batta totem, ii. <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tiger's skin at inauguration of a king, i. 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Timmes of Sierra Leone, their secret society, ii. <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Tinneh'/> +<l>Tinneh Indians, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 47 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their dread and seclusion of menstruous women, 91 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tinnevelly, the Kappiliyans of, i. 69</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tipperary, county of, were-wolves in, i. 310 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>woman burnt as a witch in, 323 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tiree, the need-fire in, i. 148;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Beltane cake in, 149;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witch as sheep in, 316</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Tivor</foreign>, god or victim, i. 103 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tiyans of Malabar, their seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 68 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tlactga or Tlachtga in Ireland, i. 139</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Tlingit'/> +<l>Tlingit (Thlinkeet) Indians of Alaska, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 45 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tlokoala, a secret society of the Nootka Indians, ii. <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Toad, witch in form of a, i. 323</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— clan, ii. <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -stools thrown into Midsummer bonfires as a charm, i. 172</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Toad's heart worn by a thief to prevent detection, i. 302 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Toads burnt alive in Devonshire, i. 302</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Toaripi of New Guinea, their rule as to menstruous women, i. 84</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tobas, Indian tribe of the Gran Chaco, their custom of secluding girls at puberty, i. 59</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tobelorese of Halmahera, their rites of initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Toboengkoe, the, of Central Celebes, custom observed by widower among the, ii. <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Tocandeira</foreign>, native name for the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Cryptocerus atratus</foreign>, F., ant, i. 62</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Todas of the Neilgherry Hills, their ceremony of the new fire, i. 136</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tokio, the fire-walk at, ii. <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tokoelawi of Central Celebes, custom observed by mourners among the, ii. <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tomori, the Gulf of, in Celebes, i. 312</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tongue of medicine-man, hole in, ii. <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='382'/><anchor id='Pg382'/> + +<lg> +<l>Tonquin, the Thays of, their burial customs, ii. <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Tonwan</foreign>, magical influence of medicine-bag, ii. <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref>, <ref target='Pg269'>269</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tooth of novice knocked out at initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Toradjas of Central Celebes, were-wolves among the, i. 311 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their custom at the smelting of iron, ii. <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Torch-Races'/> +<l>Torch-races at Easter, i. 142;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Midsummer, 175</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Torches interpreted as imitations of lightning, i. 340 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, burning, carried round folds and lands at Midsummer, i. 206;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>applied to fruit-trees to fertilize them, 340</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Demeter, i. 340</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, processions with lighted, i. 141, 141 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 233 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>through fields, gardens, orchards, and streets, 107 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 110 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 113 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 179, 339 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Midsummer, 179;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Christmas Eve, 266</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Torres Straits Islands, seclusion of girls at puberty in the, i. 36 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 39 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dread and seclusion of women at menstruation in the, 78 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of bull-roarers in the, ii. <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tortoises, external human souls lodged in, ii. <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Torture, judicial, of criminals, witches, and wizards, ii. <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Totem, transference of man's soul to his, ii. <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed effect of killing a, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the receptacle in which a man keeps his external soul, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the individual or personal, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Sex-Totems'>Sex totem</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— animal, artificial, novice at initiation brought back by, ii. <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>transformation of man into his, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— clans and secret societies, related to each other, ii. <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— names kept secret, ii. <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— plants among the Fans, ii. <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Totemism, suggested theory of, ii. <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Totems, honorific, of the Carrier Indians, ii. <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>personal, among the North American Indians, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref>, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>multiplex, of the Australians, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Touch of menstruous women thought to convey pollution, i. 87, 90</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Toukaway Indians of Texas, ceremony of mimic wolves among the, ii. <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Toulouse, torture of sorcerers at, ii. <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Touraine, Midsummer fires in, i. 182</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Train, Joseph, on Beltane fires in Isle of Man, i. 157</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Transference of a man's soul to his totem, ii. <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Transformation of men into wolves at the full moon, i. 314 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of witches into animals, 315 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of men into animals, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of man into his totem animal, <ref target='Pg275'>275</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Transmigration of soul of ruptured person into cleft oak-tree, ii. <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of human souls into totem animals, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Transylvania, the Roumanians of, i. 13;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>story of the external soul among the Saxons of, ii. <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>belief as to children born on a Sunday in, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Travancore, women deemed liable to be attacked by demons in, i. 24 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Pulayars of, 69</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Travexin, in the Vosges, witch as hare at, i. 318</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Treasures guarded by demons, ii. <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>found by means of fern-seed, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>discovered by divining-rod, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>revealed by springwort, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>revealed by mistletoe, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bloom in the earth on Midsummer Eve, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Trebius, on the springwort, ii. <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tree burnt in the Midsummer bonfire, i. 173 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 180, 183;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>external soul in a, ii. <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -creeper (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Climacteris scandens</foreign>), women's <q>sister</q> among the Yuin, ii. <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -spirit, effigies of, burnt in bonfires, ii. <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human representatives of, put to death, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human representative of the, perhaps originally burnt at the fire-festivals, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— spirits bless women with offspring, ii. <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the form of serpents, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Trees, men changed into, by look of menstruous women, i. 79;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt in spring fires, 115 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 116, 142;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt in Midsummer fires, 173 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 185, 192, 193, 209;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt at Holi festival in India, ii. <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt in bonfires, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lives of people bound up with, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hair of children tied to, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the fate of families or individuals bound up with, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>creeping through cleft trees as cure for various maladies, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fire thought by savages to be stored like sap in, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>struck by lightning, superstitions about, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and plants as life-indices, ii. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Tréfoir</foreign>, the Yule log, i. 249</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Tréfouet</foreign>, the Yule log, i. 252 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, 253</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tregonan, in Cornwall, Midsummer fires on, i. 199</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Trench cut in ground at Beltane, i. 150, 152</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='383'/><anchor id='Pg383'/> + +<lg> +<l>Trevelyan, Marie, on Midsummer fires, i. 201;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Hallowe'en, 226 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on St. John's wort in Wales, ii. <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on burnt sacrifices in Wales, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Treves, the archbishop of, i. 118</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Triangle of reeds, passage of mourners through a, ii. <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Trie-Chateau, dolmen near Gisors, ii. <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Trilles, Father H., on the theory of the external soul among the Fans, ii. <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Trinidad, the fire-walk in, ii. <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Triumphal arch, suggested origin of the, ii. <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Trolls, efforts to keep off the, i. 146;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and evil spirits abroad on Midsummer Eve, 172;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer flowers a protection against, ii. <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rendered powerless by mistletoe, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>True Steel, whose heart was in a bird, ii. <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Trumpets sounded at initiation of young men, ii. <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— penny, at the feast of the Nativity of the Virgin, i. 221, 222</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tsetsaut tribe of British Columbia, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 46</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tsimshian girls at puberty, rules observed by, i. 44 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tubuan or Tubuvan, man disguised as cassowary in Duk-duk ceremonies, ii. <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tugeri or Kaya-Kaya of Dutch New Guinea, ii. <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their use of bull-roarers, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tui Nkualita, a Fijian chief, founder of the fire-walk, ii. <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Tulsi</foreign> plant, its miraculous virtue, ii. <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tummel, the valley of the, i. 231</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tunis, New Year fires at, i. 217;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gold sickle and fillet said to be found in, ii. <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tunnel, creeping through a, as a remedy for an epidemic, i. 283 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Turf, sick children and cattle passed through holes in, ii. <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Turks of Siberia, marriage custom of the, i. 75</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Turukhinsk region, Samoyeds of the, ii. <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tutu, island of Torres Strait, treatment of girls at puberty in, i. 41</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Twanyirika, a spirit whose voice is heard in the sound of the bull-roarer, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kills and resuscitates lads at initiation, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Twelfth Day, Eve of, the bonfires of, i. 107;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>processions with torches on, 340</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Night, the King of the Bean on, i. 153 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cake, 184;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log on, 248, 250, 251;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the divining-rod cut on, ii. <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Twelve Nights, remains of Yule log scattered on fields during the, i. 248;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>between Christmas and Epiphany, were-wolves abroad during the, 310 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Twice born</q> Brahman, ii. <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Twin brothers in ritual, i. 278</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -producing virtue ascribed to a kind of mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Twins and their afterbirths counted as four children, ii. <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Twins, father of, i. 24</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Two Brothers, ancient Egyptian story of the, ii. <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tyrol, <q>burning the witch</q> in the, i. 116;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fires to burn the witches in the, 160;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in the, 172 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>magical plants culled on Midsummer Eve in the, ii. <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>St. John's wort in the, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mountain arnica gathered at Midsummer in the, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of four-leaved clover in the, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dwarf-elder gathered at Midsummer in the, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the divining-rod in the, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe used to open all locks in the, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>belief as to mistletoe growing on a hazel in the, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tyrolese peasants use fern-seed to discover buried gold and to prevent money from decreasing, ii. <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— story of a girl who was forbidden to see the sun, i. 72</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ualaroi, the, of the Darling River, their belief as to initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Uaupes of Brazil, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 61</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Uganda'/> +<l>Uganda, kings of, not allowed to set foot on ground, i. 3 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>life of the king of, bound up with barkcloth trees, ii. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>passage of sick man through a cleft stick or a narrow opening in, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cure for lightning-stroke in, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Baganda'>Baganda</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Uisnech, in County Meath, great fair at, i. 158</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Uist, Beltane cakes in, i. 154</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, North, need-fire in, i. 293 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, South, fairies at Hallowe'en in, i. 226;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>salt cake at Hallowe'en in, 238 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Uiyumkwi tribe, their treatment of girls at puberty, i. 39 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ukami, in German East Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Ukpong</foreign>, external soul in Calabar, ii. <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ulad Bu Aziz, Arab tribe in Morocco, their Midsummer fires, i. 214</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Umbrellas in ritual, i. 20 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 31</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Uncleanness, ceremonial, among the Indians of Costa Rica, i. 65 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and sanctity not clearly differentiated in the primitive mind, 97 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='384'/><anchor id='Pg384'/> + +<lg> +<l>Uncleanness of women at menstruation, i. 76 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Menstruous'>Menstruous</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Unguent made from fat of crocodiles and snakes, i. 14</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Universal healer, name given to mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Unlucky, Midsummer Day regarded as, ii. <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— children passed through narrow openings, ii. <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Unmasking a were-wolf or witch by wounding him or her, i. 315, 321</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Unmatjera tribe of Central Australia, their rites of initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>initiation of a medicine-man in the, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Up-helly-a', at Lerwick, i. 269 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Uraons. <hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Oraons'>Oraons</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Urabunna tribe of Central Australia, their rites of initiation, ii. <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Ustrels</foreign>, a species of vampyre in Bulgaria, i. 284</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vagney, in the Vosges, Christmas custom at, i. 254</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vagueness and inconsistency of primitive thought, ii. <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Val di Ledro, effigy burnt in the, at Carnival, i. 120</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Valais, the canton of, Midsummer fires in, i. 172;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cursing a mist in, 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Valenciennes, Lenten fire-custom at, i. 114 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Valentines at bonfires, i. 109 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vallancey, General Charles, on Hallowe'en customs in Ireland, i. 241 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vallée des Bagnes, cursing a mist in the, i. 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vampyres, need-fire kindled as a safeguard against, i. 284 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 344</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vapour bath, i. 40</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Var, Midsummer fires in the French department of, i. 193</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Varro, on the fire-walk of the Hirpi Sorani, ii. <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vase, external soul of habitual criminal in a, ii. <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vecoux, in the Vosges, i. 254</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vedic hymns, the fire-god Agni in the, ii. <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vegetables at Midsummer, their fertilizing influence on women, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vegetation, spirit of, burnt in effigy, ii. <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reasons for burning, <ref target='Pg023'>23</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>leaf-clad representative of, burnt, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -spirits, W. Mannhardt's view that the victims burnt by the Druids represented, ii. <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Velten, C., on an African Balder, ii. <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Verbascum</foreign>, mullein, gathered at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>its relation to the sun, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Verbena officinalis</foreign>, vervain, gathered at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Verges, in the Jura, Lenten fire-custom at, i. 114 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vermin exorcized with torches, i. 340</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Versipellis</foreign>, a were-wolf, i. 314 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vervain, garlands or chaplets of, at Midsummer, i. 162, 163, 165;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt in the Midsummer fires, 195;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used in exorcism, ii. 62 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against thunder and lightning, sorcerers, demons, and thieves, 62;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gathered at Midsummer, 62</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vespasian family, the oak of the, ii. <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vesper-bell on Midsummer Eve, ii. <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vessels, special, used by menstruous women, i. 86, 90;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used by girls at puberty, 93</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vesta, sacred fire in the temple of, annually kindled, i. 138;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the fire of, at Rome, fed with oak-wood, ii. <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vestal Virgins relit the sacred fire of Vesta, i. 138;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their rule of celibacy, 138 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vestini, the ancient, i. 209</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Veth, P. J., on the Golden Bough, ii. <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Victims, human, claimed by St. John on St. John's Day (Midsummer Day), i. 27, 29;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>claimed by water at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Victoria, aborigines of, their custom as to emu fat, i. 13;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their dread of women at menstruation, 77 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— sex totems in, ii. <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vidovec in Croatia, Midsummer fires at, i. 178</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vienne, department of, Midsummer fires in the, i. 191;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 251</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Vilavou</foreign>, New Year's Men, name given to newly initiated lads in Fiji, ii. <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Village surrounded with a ring of fire as a protection against an evil spirit, i. 282</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vimeux, Lenten fires at, i. 113</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vintage, omens of, i. 164</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vipers sacred to balsam trees in Arabia, ii. <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Virbius at Nemi interpreted as an oak-spirit, ii. <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Virgil, on the fire-walk of the Hirpi Sorani, ii. <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his account of the Golden Bough, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref>, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Virgin, the, blesses the fruits of the earth, i. 118;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the hair of the Holy, found in ashes of Midsummer fire, 182 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 191;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>feast of the Nativity of the, 220 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and child supposed to sit on the Yule log, 253 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='385'/><anchor id='Pg385'/> + +<lg> +<l>Virgins of the Sun at Cuzco, i. 132;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Vestal, and the sacred fire, 136</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Virginia, rites of initiation among the Indians of, ii. <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Virginity, test of, by blowing up a flame, i. 137 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Virility supposed to be lost by contact with menstruous women, i. 81</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Viscum album</foreign>, common mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Viscum quernum</foreign>, <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Visiter, the Christmas, i. 261 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 263, 264</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Viti Levu, the largest of the Fijian Islands, ii. <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vitrolles, bathing at Midsummer in, i. 194</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vogel Mountains, i. 118</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Voigtland, bonfires on Walpurgis Night in, i. 160;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tree and person thrown into water on St. John's Day in, ii. <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination by flowers on Midsummer Eve in, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mountain arnica gathered at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wild thyme gathered at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>precautions against witches in, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Volga, the Cheremiss of the, i. 181</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Volksmarsen in Hesse, Easter fires at, i. 140</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Voluspa</hi>, the Sibyl's prophecy in the, i. 102 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Voralberg, in the Tyrol, <q>burning the witch</q> at, i. 116</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vorges, near Laon, Midsummer fires at, i. 187</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vosges, Midsummer fires in the, i. 188, 336;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in the, 254;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cats burnt alive on Shrove Tuesday in the, ii. <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Mountains, Lenten fires in the, i. 109;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches as hares in the, 318;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>magic herbs culled on Eve of St. John in the, ii. <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Vrid-eld</foreign>, need-fire, i. 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vultures, lives of persons bound up with those of, ii. <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref>, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wadai, ceremony of the new fire in, i. 134, 140</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wadoe, the, of German East Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg312'>312</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wafiomi, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 28</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wagstadt in Silesia, Judas ceremony at, i. 146 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wajagga, the, of German East Africa, birth-plants among the, ii. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wakelbura tribe (Australia), dread and seclusion of women at menstruation in the, i. 78</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wakondyo, their custom as to the afterbirth, ii. <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Wales'/> +<l>Wales, Snake Stones in, i. 15 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Beltane fires and cakes in, 155 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires in, 200 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination at Hallowe'en in, 229, 240 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Hallowe'en fires in, 239 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 258;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt sacrifices to stop cattle-disease in, 301;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches as hares in, 315 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>belief as to witches in, 321 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bewitched things burnt in, 322;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination by flowers on Midsummer Eve in, ii. <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>St. John's wort in, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe to be shot or knocked down with stones in, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe cut at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe used to make the dairy thrive in, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Beltane fire kindled by the friction of oak-wood in, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe gathered at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Walhalla, i. 101</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Walking over fire as a rite, ii. <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Walls, fortified, of the ancient Gauls, i. 267 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Walnut, branches of, passed across Midsummer fires and fastened on cattle-sheds, i. 191</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Walos of Senegambia, their belief as to a sort of mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Walpi, Pueblo Indian village, use of bull-roarers at, ii. <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Walpurgis Day, i. 143</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Night, witches abroad on, i. 159 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a witching time, 295;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>precautions against witches on, ii. <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witches active on, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wangen in Baden, Lenten fire-custom at, i. 117</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wanyamwezi, their belief as to wounded crocodiles, ii. <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Warlock, the invulnerable, stories of, ii. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Warriors tabooed, i. 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Warwickshire, the Yule log in, i. 257</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Washamba, the, of German East Africa, their custom at circumcision, ii. <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Washington State, seclusion of girls at puberty among the Indians of, i. 43</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wasmes, processions with torches at, i. 108</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wasp, external soul of enchanter in a, ii. <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wasps, young men stung with, as an ordeal, i. 63</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wassgow mountains, the need-fire in the, i. 271</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Water from sacred wells, i. 12;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>menstruous women not to go near, 77;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>consecrated at Easter, 122 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 125;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>turned to wine at Easter, 124;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>improved by charred sticks of Midsummer fires, 184;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Midsummer, people drenched with, 193 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>heated in need-fire and sprinkled on cattle, 289;</l> +<pb n='386'/><anchor id='Pg386'/> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>claims human victims at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed to acquire certain marvellous properties at Midsummer, <ref target='Pg029'>29</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>haunted and dangerous at Midsummer, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Water of life, ii. <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of springs thought to acquire medicinal qualities on Midsummer Eve, i. 172</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, rites of, at Midsummer festival in Morocco, i. 216;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at New Year in Morocco, 218</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— spirits, offerings to, at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wayanas of French Guiana, ordeals among the, i. 63 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Weariness, magical plants placed in shoes a charm against, ii. <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Weaver, the wicked, of Rotenburg, ii. <ref target='Pg289'>289</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Weeks, Rev. John H., on rites of initiation on the Lower Congo, ii. <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Weeping of girl at puberty, i. 24, 29</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Weidenhausen, in Westphalia, the Yule log at, i. 248</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wells, sacred, in Scotland, i. 12;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>menstruous women kept from, 81, 96 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>charred sticks of Midsummer fires thrown into, 184;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>crowned with flowers at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, holy, resorted to on Midsummer Eve in Ireland, i. 205 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Lord of the, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Welsh cure for whooping-cough, ii. <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— name, alleged, for mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg286'>286</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Wales'>Wales</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wends, their faith in Midsummer herbs, ii. <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Saxony, their idea as to wood of trees struck by lightning, ii. <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the Spreewald gather herbs and flowers at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their belief as to the divining-rod, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wensley-dale, the Yule log in, i. 256</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Were-tigers in China and the East Indies, i. 310 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 313 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -wolf, how a man becomes a, i. 310 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>story in Petronius, 313 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -wolves compelled to resume their human shape by wounds inflicted on them, i. 308 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>put to death, 311;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and the full moon, 314 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and witches, parallelism between, 315, 321</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Werner, Miss Alice, on a soul-box, ii. <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on African Balders, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Westenberg, J. C., on the Batta theory of souls, ii. <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Westermarck, Dr. Edward, on New Year rites in Morocco, i. 218;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Midsummer festival in North Africa, 219;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his theory that the fires of the fire-festivals are purificatory, 329 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on water at Midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Westphalia, Easter fires in, i. 140;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 248;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination by orpine at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>camomile gathered at Midsummer in, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Midsummer log of oak in, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wetteren, wicker giants at, ii. <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Wetterpfähle</foreign>, oak sticks charred in Easter bonfires, i. 145</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wexford, Midsummer fires in, i. 203</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Whalton, in Northumberland, Midsummer fires at, i. 198</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wheat thrown on the man who brings in the Christmas log, i. 260, 262, 264;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>protected against mice by mugwort, ii. <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wheel, fire kindled by the rotation of a, i. 177, 179, 270, 273, 289 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 292, 335 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a symbol of the sun, i. 334 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 335;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a charm against witchcraft, 345 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, burning, rolled down hill, i. 116, 117 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 119, 141, 143, 161, 162 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 163 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 166, 173, 174, 201, 328, 334, 337 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 338;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thrown into the air at Midsummer, 179;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rolled over fields at Midsummer to fertilize them, 191, 340 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perhaps intended to burn witches, 345</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wherry, Mrs., i. 108 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, ii. <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Whips cracked to drive away witches, ii. <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Whitby, the Yule log at, i. 256</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>White, Rev. G. E., on passing through a ring of red-hot iron, ii. <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on passing sheep through a rifted rock, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>White birds, ten, external soul in, ii. <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— bulls sacrificed by Druids at cutting the mistletoe, ii. <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— chalk, bodies of newly initiated lads coated with, ii. <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— clay, bodies of novices at initiation smeared with, ii. <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— cloth, fern-seed caught in a, i. 65, ii. <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>springwort caught in a, i. 70;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe caught in a, ii. <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used to catch the Midsummer bloom of the oak, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— cock burnt in Midsummer bonfire, ii. <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— herb, external souls of two brothers in a, ii. <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— horse, effigy of, carried through Midsummer fire, i. 203</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Sunday, i. 117 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Whiteborough, in Cornwall, Midsummer fires on, i. 199</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Whooping-cough cured by crawling under a bramble, ii. <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Bulgarian +<pb n='387'/><anchor id='Pg387'/> +cure for, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>child passed under an ass as a cure for, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wicked Sower, driving away the, i. 107, 118</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wicken (rowan) tree, a protection against witchcraft, i. 326, 327 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wicker giants at popular festivals in Europe, ii. <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt in summer bonfires, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wiesensteig, in Swabia, witch as horse at, i. 319</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Wild fire,</q> the need-fire, i. 272, 273, 277</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wilde, Lady, her description of Midsummer fires in Ireland, i. 204 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wilken, G. A., on the external soul, ii. <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wilkes, Charles, on seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 43</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Will-fire, or need-fire, i. 288, 297</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Willow, mistletoe growing on, ii. <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>, <ref target='Pg315'>315</ref>, <ref target='Pg316'>316</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>children passed through a cleft willow-tree as a cure, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>crawling through a hoop of willow branches as a cure, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>crawling under the root of a willow as a cure, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Orpheus and the, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wimmer, F., on the various sorts of mistletoe known to the ancients, ii. <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Winamwanga, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 24 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their custom as to lightning-kindled fire, ii. <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wind, bull-roarers sounded to raise a, ii. <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Window, magic flowers to be passed through the, ii. <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wine thought to be spoiled by menstruous women, i. 96</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Winenthal in Switzerland, new fire made by friction at Midsummer in the, i. 169 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Winnebagoes, ritual of death and resurrection among the, ii. <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Winnowing-basket, divination by, i. 236</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Winter solstice, Persian festival of fire at the, i. 269</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Winter's Grandmother,</q> burning the, i. 116</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Winterbottom, Thomas, on a secret society of Sierra Leone, ii. <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wintun Indians of California, seclusion of girls among the, i. 42 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Witch, burning the, i. 116, 118 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>effigy of, burnt in bonfire, 159;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compelled to appear by burning an animal or part of an animal which she has bewitched, 303, 305, 307 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 321 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in form of a toad, 323.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Witches'>Witches</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Witch, MacCrauford, the great arch, i. 293</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>—— -shot,</q> a sudden stiffness in the back, i. 343 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, 345</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Witch's herb, St. John's wort, ii. <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>—— nest,</q> a tangle of birch-branches, ii. <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Witchcraft'/> +<l>Witchcraft, bonfires a protection against, i. 108, 109;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>holy water a protection against, 123;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cattle driven through Midsummer fire as a protection against, 175;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burs and mugwort a preservative against, 177, ii. <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires a protection against, i. 185, 188;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a broom a protection against, 210;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire kindled to counteract, 280, 292 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 293, 295;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Devonshire, 302;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>great dread of, in Europe, 340;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the fire-festivals regarded as a protection against, 342;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>stiffness in the back attributed to, 343 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, 345;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>colic and sore eyes attributed to, 344;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a wheel a charm against, 345 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to be the source of almost all calamities, ii. <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>leaping over bonfires as a protection against, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>its treatment by the Christian Church, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and sorcery, Midsummer herbs and flowers a protection against, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref>, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>St. John's wort a protection against, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dwarf-elder used to detect, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fern root a protection against, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mistletoe a protection against, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>, <ref target='Pg283'>283</ref>, <ref target='Pg294'>294</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fatal to milk and butter, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>oak log a protection against, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the rowan a protection against, i. 327 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, ii. <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>children passed through a ring of yarn as a protection against, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a <q>witch's nest</q> (tangle of birch-branches) a protection against, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Sorcery'>Sorcery</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Witches'/> +<l>Witches not allowed to touch the bare ground, i. 5 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt and beheaded, 6;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>effigies of, burnt in bonfires, 107, 116 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 118 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 342, ii. <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>charm to protect fields against, i. 121;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Beltane fires a protection against, 154;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cast spells on cattle, 154;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>steal milk from cows, 154, 176, 343, ii. <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the form of hares and cats, i. 157, 315 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 316 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 317, 318, 319 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>, <ref target='Pg311'>311</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt on May Day, i. 157, 159, 160;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fires to burn the witches on the Eve of May Day (Walpurgis Night), 159 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>abroad on Walpurgis Night, i. 159 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kept out by crosses, 160 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>driving away the, 160, 170, 171;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>resort to the Blocksberg, 171;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires a protection against, 176, 180;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>steal milk +<pb n='388'/><anchor id='Pg388'/> +and butter at Midsummer, 185;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Midsummer Eve, 210, ii. <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>active on Hallowe'en and May Day, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt in Hallowe'en fires, i. 232 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>abroad at Hallowe'en, 226, 245;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log a protection against, 258;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to cause cattle disease, 302 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>transformed into animals, 315 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as cockchafers, 322;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>come to borrow, 322, 323, ii. <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cause hail and thunder-storms, i. 344;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>brought down from the clouds by shots and smoke, 345 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burning missiles hurled at, 345;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt or banned by fire, ii. <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gather noxious plants on Midsummer Eve, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gather St. John's wort on St. John's Eve, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>purple loosestrife a protection against, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tortured in India, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>animal familiars of, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Burning-The-Witches'><q>Burning the Witches</q></ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Witches at Ipswich, i. 304 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and hares in Yorkshire, ii. <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and were-wolves, parallelism between, i. 315. 321</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and wizards thought to keep their strength in their hair, ii. <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>put to death by the Aztecs, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and wolves the two great foes dreaded by herdsmen in Europe, i. 343</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>——, Burning the,</q> a popular name for the fires of the festivals, ii. <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Witches' Sabbath on the Eve of May Day and Midsummer Eve, i. 171 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, 181, ii. <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Withershins,</q> against the sun, in curses and excommunication, i. 234</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Witurna, a spirit whose voice is heard in the sound of the bull-roarer, ii. <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wizards gather baleful herbs on the Eve of St. John, ii. <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gather purple loosestrife at Midsummer, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>animal familiars of, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Woden, Odin, or Othin, the father of Balder, i. 101, 102, 103 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wolf, Brotherhood of the Green, at Jumièges in Normandy, i. 185 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— clan in North-Western America, ii. <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref>, <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— masks worn by members of a Wolf secret society, ii. <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— society among the Nootka Indians, rite of initiation into the, ii. <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wolf's hide, strap of, used by were-wolves, i. 310<hi rend='italic'> n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wolfeck, in Austria, leaf-clad mummer on Midsummer Day at, ii. <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wolfenbüttel, need-fire near, i. 277</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wolves and witches, the two great foes dreaded by herdsmen in Europe, i. 343</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Woman burnt alive as a witch in Ireland in 1895, i. 323 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Women in hard labour, charm to help, i. 14;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>after childbirth tabooed, 20;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>who do not menstruate supposed to make gardens barren, 24;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>impregnated by the sun, 74 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>impregnated by the moon, 75 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at menstruation painted red, 78;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>leap over Midsummer bonfires to ensure an easy delivery, 194, 339;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fertilized by tree-spirits, ii. <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>barren, hope to conceive through fertilizing influence of vegetables, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>creep through a rifted rock to obtain an easy delivery, <ref target='Pg189'>189</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to see bull-roarers, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Menstruous'>Menstruous women</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wonghi or Wonghibon tribe of New South Wales, ritual of death and resurrection at initiation among the, ii. <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wood, the King of the, at Nemi, i. 2, 285, 286, 295, 302, 309</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Woodbine, sick children passed through a wreath of, ii. <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Woodpecker brings the mythical springwort, ii. <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wootton-Wawen, in Warwickshire, the Yule log at, i. 257</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Working for need-fire,</q> a proverb, i. 287 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Worms, popular cure for, i. 17</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wormwood (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Artemisia absinthium</foreign>), ii. <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt to stupefy witches, i. 345;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>superstitions concerning, ii. <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref><hi rend='italic'> n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Worship of ancestors in Fiji, ii. <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the oak explained by the frequency with which oaks are struck by lightning, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Worth, R. N., on burnt sacrifices in Devonshire, i. 302</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Worthen, in Shropshire, the Yule log at, i. 257</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wotjobaluk, of South-Eastern Australia, sex totems among the, ii. <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wounding were-wolves in order to compel them to resume their human shape, i. 308 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wounds, St. John's wort a balm for, ii. <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wreath of woodbine, sick children passed through a, ii. <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wreaths of flowers thrown across the Midsummer fires, i. 174;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>superstitious uses made of the singed wreaths, 174;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hung over doors and windows at Midsummer, 201</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wurtemberg, Midsummer fires in, i. 166;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>leaf-clad mummer at Midsummer in, ii. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Würzburg, Midsummer fires at, i. 165</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='389'/><anchor id='Pg389'/> + +<lg> +<l>Yabim, the, of New Guinea, girls at puberty secluded among the, i. 35;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of bull-roarers among the, ii. <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rites of initiation among the, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yaguas, Indians of the Amazon, girls at puberty secluded among the, i. 59</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yakut shamans keep their external souls in animals, ii. <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yakuts leap over fire after a burial, ii. <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yam, island of Torres Strait, treatment of girls at puberty in, i. 41</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yap, seclusion of girls at puberty in the island of, i. 36</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yaraikanna, the, of Northern Queensland, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 37 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yarn, divination by, i. 235, 240, 241, 243;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sick children passed through a ring of, ii. <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yarra river in Victoria, i. 92 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Year called a fire, i. 137</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yellow Day of Beltane, i. 293</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— snow, the year of the, i. 294</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yibai, tribal subdivision of the Coast Murring tribe, ii. <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yoke, purification by passing under a, ii. <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient Italian practice of passing conquered enemies under a, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>York, custom formerly observed at Christmas in the cathedral at, ii. <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yorkshire, belief as to menstruous women in, i. 96 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Beal-fires on Midsummer Eve in, 198;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Yule log in, 256 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>need-fire in, 286 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>witch as hare in, 317, ii. <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yoruba-speaking negroes of the Slave Coast, use of bull-roarers among the, ii. <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Young, Hugh W., on the rampart of Burghead, i. 268 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Young, Issobell, buries ox and cat alive, i. 325</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ypres, wicker giants at, ii. <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yucatan, fire-walk among the Indians of, ii. <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yuin, the, of South-Eastern Australia, their sex totems, ii. <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>totem names kept secret among, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yukon, the Lower, i. 55</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yule cake, i. 257, 259, 261</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— candle, i. 255, 256, 260</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— log, i. 247 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Germany, 247 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made of oak-wood, 248, 250, 251, 257, 258, 259, 260, 263, 264 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against conflagration, i. 248 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 250, 255, 256, 258;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against thunder and lightning, 248, 249, 250, 252, 253, 254, 258, 264;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Switzerland, 249;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Belgium, 249;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in France, 249 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>helps cows to calve, 250, 338;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in England, 255 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Wales, 258;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Servians, 258 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a protection against witches, 258;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Albania, 264;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>privacy of the ceremonial of the, 328;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>explained as a sun-charm, 332;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made of fir, beech, holly, yew, crab-tree, or olive, ii. <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yule Night in Sweden, customs observed on, i. 20 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yuracares of Bolivia, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 57 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Zadrooga,</hi> Servian house-community, i. 259</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zambesi, the Barotse of the, i. 28</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zapotecs, supreme pontiff of the, not allowed to set foot on ground, i. 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the sun not allowed to shine on him, i. 19;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their belief that their lives were bound up with those of animals, ii. <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zemmur, the, of Morocco, their Midsummer custom, i. 215</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zerdusht and Isfendiyar, i. 104</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zeus and his sacred oak at Dodona, ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wood of white poplar used at Olympia in sacrificing to, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 7</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Danae, i. 74</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Hephaestus, i. 136</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zimbales, a province of the Philippines, superstition as to a parasitic plant in, ii. <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zoroaster, on the uncleanness of women</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at menstruation, i. 95</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zoznegg, in Baden, Easter fires at, i. 145</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zulus, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 22, 30;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fumigate their gardens with medicated smoke, 337;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their custom of fumigating sick cattle, ii. <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their belief as to ancestral spirits incarnate in serpents, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zülz, in Silesia, Midsummer fires at, i. 170</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zuñi Indians of New Mexico, their new fires at the solstices, i. 132 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of bull-roarers among the, ii. <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zurich, effigies burnt at, i. 120</l> +</lg> + +</div> + +</body> +<back rend="page-break-before: right"> + <div id="footnotes"> + <index index="toc" /> + <index index="pdf" /> + <head>Footnotes</head> + <divGen type="footnotes"/> + </div> + <div rend="page-break-before: right"> + <divGen type="pgfooter" /> + </div> +</back> +</text> +</TEI.2> |