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diff --git a/43427.txt b/43427.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 04f19aa..0000000 --- a/43427.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,21477 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, -Volume 17, Slice 1, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 17, Slice 1 - "Lord Chamberlain" to "Luqman" - -Author: Various - -Release Date: August 9, 2013 [EBook #43427] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally - printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an - underscore, like C_n. - -(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. - -(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective - paragraphs. - -(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not - inserted. - -(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek - letters. - -(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: - - ARTICLE LOTHAIR I.: "He was alternately master of the Empire, and - banished and confined to Italy; at one time taking up arms in - alliance with his brothers and at another fighting against them - ..." 'alternately' amended from 'alternetely'. - - ARTICLE LOTI, PIERRE: "He proceeded to the South Seas, and on - leaving Tahiti published the Polynesian idyll, originally called - Rarahu (1880) ..." 'idyll' amended from 'idyl'. - - ARTICLE LOUIS XIV.: "His numerous descendants seemed at one time to - place the succession beyond all difficulty." 'beyond' amended from - 'beyong'. - - ARTICLE LOUVET DE COUVRAI, JEAN BAPTISTE: "They were mainly written - in the various hiding-places in which Louvet took refuge, and they - give a vivid picture of the sufferings of the proscribed - Girondists." 'took' amended from 'rook'. - - ARTICLE LUGO: "The bishopric dates from a very early period, and it - is said to have acquired metropolitan rank in the middle of the 6th - century; it is now in the archiepiscopal province of Santiago de - Compostela." 'is' amended from 'it'. - - - - - THE - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - - - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768-1771. - SECOND " " ten " 1777-1784. - THIRD " " eighteen " 1788-1797. - FOURTH " " twenty " 1801-1810. - FIFTH " " twenty " 1815-1817. - SIXTH " " twenty " 1823-1824. - SEVENTH " " twenty-one " 1830-1842. - EIGHTH " " twenty-two " 1853-1860. - NINTH " " twenty-five " 1875-1889. - TENTH " ninth edition and eleven - supplementary volumes, 1902-1903. - ELEVENTH " published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911. - - - COPYRIGHT - - in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention - - by - - THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS - of the - UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE - - _All rights reserved_ - - - - - THE - - ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA - - A DICTIONARY OF - ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION - - ELEVENTH EDITION - - VOLUME XVII - LORD CHAMBERLAIN to MECKLENBURG - - New York - - Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. - 342 Madison Avenue - - Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910, - by - The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. - - - - - VOLUME XVII, SLICE I - - Lord Chamberlain to Luqman - - -ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: - - - LORD CHAMBERLAIN LOWE, JOHANN KARL GOTTFRIED - LORD CHIEF JUSTICE LOWELL, ABBOTT LAWRENCE - LORD GREAT CHAMBERLAIN LOWELL, CHARLES RUSSELL - LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR LOWELL, JAMES RUSSELL - LORD HIGH CONSTABLE LOWELL, JOHN - LORD HIGH STEWARD LOWELL (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) - LORD HIGH TREASURER LOWELL INSTITUTE - LORD HOWE LOWENBERG - LORD JUSTICE CLERK LOWENSTEIN - LORD JUSTICE-GENERAL LOWESTOFT - LORD KEEPER OF THE GREAT SEAL LOWIN, JOHN - LORD MAYOR'S DAY LOWLAND - LORD PRESIDENT OF THE COUNCIL LOWNDES, THOMAS - LORDS JUSTICES OF APPEAL LOWNDES, WILLIAM THOMAS - LORDS OF APPEAL IN ORDINARY LOW SUNDAY - LORD STEWARD LOWTH, ROBERT - LORE, AMBROISE DE LOXODROME - LORE LOYALISTS or TORIES - LORELEI LOYALTY - LORETO (Italy) LOYALTY ISLANDS - LORETO (Peru) LOYOLA, ST IGNATIUS OF - LORIENT LOZENGE - LORINER LOZERE - LORIS LUANG-PRABANG - LORIS-MELIKOV, TARIELOVICH LUBAO - LORIUM LUBBEN - LORRACH LUBECK - LORRAINE LUBLIN (government of Poland) - LORTZING, GUSTAV ALBERT LUBLIN (town of Poland) - LORY, CHARLES LUBRICANTS - LORY LUBRICATION - LOS ANDES LUCAN - LOS ANGELES LUCANIA - LOS ISLANDS LUCARIS, CYRILLUS - LOSSIEMOUTH LUCARNE - LOSSING, BENSON JOHN LUCAS, SIR CHARLES - LOSSNITZ LUCAS, CHARLES - LOST PROPERTY LUCAS, JOHN SEYMOUR - LOSTWITHIEL LUCAS VAN LEYDEN - LOT (Biblical) LUCCA - LOT (Franch river) LUCCA, BAGNI DI - LOT (Franch department) LUCCEIUS, LUCIUS - LOT-ET-GARONNE LUCCHESINI, GIROLAMO - LOTHAIR I. LUCENA (southern Spain) - LOTHAIR II. or III. LUCERA (Italy) - LOTHAIR (king of France) LUCERNE (Swiss canton) - LOTHAIR (king of Lotharingia) LUCERNE (Swiss town) - LOTHIAN, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF LUCERNE, LAKE OF - LOTHIAN LUCERNE (plant) - LOTI, PIERRE LUCHAIRE, DENIS JEAN ACHILLE - LOTSCHEN PASS LUCHU ARCHIPELAGO - LOTTERIES LUCIA (or Lucy), ST - LOTTI, ANTONIO LUCIAN (Christian martyr) - LOTTO, LORENZO LUCIAN (Greek satirist) - LOTTO LUCIFER (bishop of Cagliari) - LOTUS LUCIFER (planet) - LOTUS-EATERS LUCILIUS, GAIUS - LOTZE, RUDOLF HERMANN LUCILIUS JUNIOR - LOUBET, EMILE FRANCOIS LUCINA - LOUDON, ERNST GIDEON LUCIUS - LOUDOUN, JOHN CAMPBELL LUCK - LOUDUN LUCKE, GOTTFRIED CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH - LOUGHBOROUGH LUCKENWALDE - LOUGHREA LUCKNOW - LOUGHTON LUCON - LOUHANS LUCRE - LOUIS (name) LUCRETIA - LOUIS I. (Roman emperor) LUCRETILIS MONS - LOUIS II. (Roman emperor) LUCRETIUS - LOUIS III. (Roman emperor) LUCRINUS LACUS - LOUIS IV., or V. (Roman emperor) LUCULLUS - LOUIS (king of the East Franks) LUCUS FERONIAE - LOUIS I. (king of Bavaria) LUCY, RICHARD DE - LOUIS II. (king of Bavaria) LUCY, SIR THOMAS - LOUIS II. (king of France) LUDDITES - LOUIS III. (king of France) LUDENSCHEID - LOUIS IV. (king of France) LUDHIANA - LOUIS V. LUDINGTON - LOUIS VI. LUDLOW, EDMUND - LOUIS VII. LUDLOW (town) - LOUIS VIII. LUDLOW GROUP - LOUIS IX. LUDOLF (or Leutholf), HIOB - LOUIS X. LUDWIG, KARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM - LOUIS XI. LUDWIG, OTTO - LOUIS XII. LUDWIGSBURG - LOUIS XIII. LUDWIGSHAFEN - LOUIS XIV. LUDWIGSLUST - LOUIS XV. LUG - LOUIS XVI. LUGANO - LOUIS XVII. LUGANO, LAKE OF - LOUIS XVIII. LUGANSK - LOUIS I. (king of Hungary) LUGARD, SIR FREDERICK JOHN DEALTRY - LOUIS II. (king of Hungary) LUGO (Spanish province) - LOUIS (kings of Naples) LUGO (Spanish town) - LOUIS (king of the Franks) LUGOS - LOUIS OF NASSAU LUGUDUNUM - LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE LUINI, BERNARDINO - LOUIS PHILIPPE I. LUKE - LOUISBURG LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST - LOUISE LULEA - LOUISE OF SAVOY LULL (or Lully), RAIMON - LOUISIADE ARCHIPELAGO LULLABY - LOUISIANA (U.S.A. state) LULLY, JEAN-BAPTISTE - LOUISIANA (U.S.A. city) LUMBAGO - LOUISIANA PURCHASE LUMBER - LOUISVILLE LUMBINI - LOULE LUMP-SUCKER - LOURDES LUMSDEN, SIR HARRY BURNETT - LOURENCO MARQUES LUNA, ALVARO DE - LOUSE LUNA - LOUTH (Leinster, Ireland) LUNATION - LOUTH (Lincolnshire, England) LUNAVADA - LOUVAIN LUNCHEON - LOUVER LUND, TROELS FREDERIK - LOUVET, JEAN LUND - LOUVET DE COUVRAI, JEAN BAPTISTE LUNDY, BENJAMIN - LOUVIERS LUNDY, ROBERT - LOUVOIS, FRANCOIS LE TELLIER LUNDY - LOU[:Y]S, PIERRE LUNEBURG - LOVAT, SIMON FRASER LUNEBURGER HEIDE - LOVE-BIRD LUNETTE - LOVEDALE LUNEVILLE - LOVELACE, RICHARD LUNG (anatomy) - LOVELL, FRANCIS LOVELL LUNG (symbolical creature) - LOVER, SAMUEL LUNGCHOW - LOVERE LUNGE, GEORG - LOW, SETH LUPERCALIA - LOW, WILL HICOK LUPINE - LOWBOY LUPUS, PUBLIUS RUTILIUS - LOW CHURCHMAN LUPUS - LOWE, SIR HUDSON LUQMAN - - - - -INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XVII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,[1] -WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. - - A. C. G. - ALBERT CHARLES LEWIS GOTTHILF GUNTHER, M.A., M.D., PH.D., F.R.S. - - Keeper of Zoological Department, British Museum, 1875-1895. Gold - Medalist, Royal Society, 1878. Author of _Catalogues of Colubrine - Snakes, Batrachia salientia, and Fishes in the British Museum_; - &c. - - Mackerel (_in part_). - - A. C. S. - ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. - - See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES. - - Marlowe, Christopher; - Mary, Queen of Scots. - - A. E. J. - ARTHUR ERNEST JOLLIFFE, M.A. - - Fellow, Tutor and Mathematical Lecturer, Corpus Christi College, - Oxford. Senior Mathematical Scholar, 1892. - - Maxima; - Minima. - - A. F. P. - ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HIST.SOC. - - Professor of English History in University of London. Fellow of - All Souls' College, Oxford. Author of _England under the Protector - Somerset_; _Henry VIII._; &c. - - Macalpine, John. - - A. G. D. - ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., LITT.D., F.R.HIST.S. - - Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of - Canada. Author of _The Cradle of New France_; &c. Joint-editor of - _Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada_. - - McGee, T. A. - - A. Ha. - ADOLF HARNACK. - - See the biographical article: HARNACK, ADOLF. - - Manichaeism (_in part_); - Marcion. - - A. H. F. - REV. ANDREW HOLLINGSWORTH FROST, M.A. - - Principal of Church Missionary College, Islington, 1870-1874. - - Magic Square. - - A. H. S. - REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, LL.D., LITT.D. - - See the biographical article: SAYCE, ARCHIBALD HENRY. - - Lycia; - Lydia. - - A. H.-S. - SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. - - General in the Persian Army. Author of _Eastern Persian Irak_. - - Mazandaran. - - A. J. G.* - ARTHUR JAMES GRANT, M.A. - - King's College, Cambridge. Professor of History in the University - of Leeds. - - Louis XIII., XIV. and XV. of France. - - A. J. H. - ALFRED J. HIPKINS, F.S.A. (1826-1903). - - Formerly Member of Council and Hon. Curator of the Royal College - of Music, London. Member of Committee of the Inventions and Music - Exhibition, 1885; of the Vienna Exhibition, 1892; and of the Paris - Exhibition, 1900. Author of _Musical Instruments_; &c. - - Lute (_in part_); - Lyre (_in part_). - - A. M. C. - AGNES MARY CLERKE. - - See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. - - Maskelyne; - Mayer, Johann Tobias. - - A. M. Cl. - AGNES MURIEL CLAY (Mrs Edward Wilde). - - Formerly Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. - Joint-editor of _Sources of Roman History, 133-79 B.C._ - - Magistrate. - - A. M. F. - REV. ANDREW MARTIN FAIRBAIRN, M.A., D.D., LL.D. - - See the biographical article: FAIRBAIRN, A. M. - - Martineau, James. - - A. N. - ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. - - See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. - - Lory; - Love-Bird; - Lyre-Bird; - Macaw; - Magpie; - Mallemuck; - Manakin; - Manucode; - Martin. - - A. N. W. - ALFRED NORTH WHITEHEAD, M.A., D.SC, F.R.S. - - Fellow and Senior Lecturer in Mathematics, Trinity College, - Cambridge. Author of _A Treatise on Universal Algebra_. - - Mathematics. - - A. R. C. - ALEXANDER ROSS CLARKE, C.B., F.R.S. - - Colonel R.E. Royal Medal of Royal Society, 1887. In charge of - Trigonometrical Operations of the Ordnance Survey, 1854-1881. - - Map: _Projections_ (_in part_). - - A. R. L.* - ARTHUR ROBERT LING, F.I.C. - - Editor of the _Journal of the Institute of Brewing_. Lecturer on - Brewing and Malting at the Sir John Cass Institute, London. - Vice-President of the Society of Chemical Industry. - - Malt. - - A. Sl. - ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D. - - Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of _The - London Water-Supply_; _Industrial Efficiency_; _Drink, Temperance - and Legislation_. - - Malaria (_in part_); - Massage. - - A. Sy. - ARTHUR SYMONS. - - See the biographical article: SYMONS, ARTHUR. - - Mallarme, Stephane. - - A. Wa. - ARTHUR WAUGH, M.A. - - Managing Director of Chapman & Hall, Ltd., Publishers. Formerly - Literary Adviser to Kegan Paul & Co. Author of _Alfred Lord - Tennyson_; _Legends of the Wheel_; _Robert Browning_ in - "Westminster Biographies." Editor of Johnson's _Lives of the - Poets_. - - Lytton, 1st Baron. - - A. W. H.* - ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. - - Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of - Gray's Inn, 1900. - - Louis I., II., III. and IV.: _Roman Emperors_; - Louis the German; - Louis II. and III. of France; - Louis the Child; - Magna Carta; - Maximilian I.: _Roman Emperor_. - - A. W. Hu. - REV. ARTHUR WOLLASTON HUTTON, M.A. - - Rector of Bow Church, London. Formerly Librarian of the National - Liberal Club. Author of _Life of Cardinal Manning_; &c. - - Manning, Cardinal. - - A. W. M. - ARTHUR WILLIAM MOORE, C.V.O., M.A. (1853-1909). - - Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly Speaker of the House of Keys, - and J.P. for the Isle of Man. Author of _A History of the Isle of - Man_; &c. - - Man, Isle of. - - A. W. R. - ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. - - Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of - _Encyclopaedia of the Laws of England_. - - Maxims, Legal. - - B. W. - BENJAMIN WILLIAMSON, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. - - Professor of Natural Philosophy, and Vice-Provost of Trinity - College, Dublin. Author of _Differential Calculus_; &c. - - Maclaurin, Colin. - - C. A. M. F. - CHARLES AUGUSTUS MAUDE FENNELL, M.A., LITT.D. - - Formerly Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge. Editor of Pindar's - _Odes and Fragments_, and of the _Stanford Dictionary of - Anglicized Words and Phrases_. - - Magic Square (_in part_). - - C. B. P. - CATHERINE BEATRICE PHILLIPS, B.A. (Mrs W. Alison Phillips). - - Associate of Bedford College, London. - - Louis XVIII. of France; - Marie Antoinette. - - C. Ch. - CHARLES CHREE, M.A., LL.D., D.SC., F.R.S. - - Superintendent, Kew Observatory. Formerly Fellow of King's - College, Cambridge. President of Physical Society of London. Watt - Medallist, Institute of Civil Engineers, 1905. - - Magnetism, Terrestrial. - - C. F. A. - CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. - - Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of - London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of _The Wilderness and Cold - Harbour_. - - Machine-Gun. - - C. F. Cl. - CHARLES FREDERICK CLOSE, C.M.G. - - Lieutenant-Colonel, R.E. Head of the Geographical Section, British - General Staff. Formerly British Representative on the - Nyasa-Tanganyika Boundary Commission. Author of _Text-Book of - Topographical Surveying_; &c. - - Map: _Projections_ (_in part_). - - C. G. Cr. - CHARLES GEORGE CRUMP, M.A. - - Balliol College, Oxford. Clerk in H.M. Public Record Office, - London. Editor of _Landor's Works_; &c. - - Manor: _in England_. - - C. H. Ha. - CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. - - Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York - City. Member of the American Historical Association. - - Matilda, Countess of Tuscany; - Lucius. - - C. L. K. - CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HIST.S., F.S.A. - - Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of _Life of - Henry V._ Editor of _Chronicles of London_ and Stow's _Survey of - London_. - - Lovell, Viscount; - Margaret of Anjou. - - C. M. - CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.TH. - - Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author - of _Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregor VII._; _Quellen zur Geschichte - des Papstthums_; &c. - - Lyons, Councils of; - Marburg, Colloquy of. - - C. Pf. - CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. ES L. - - Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of - Honour. Author of _Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux_. - - Mayor of the Palace. - - C. R. B. - CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT. - - Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. - Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford. University Lecturer in - the History of Geography. Author of _Henry the Navigator_; _The - Dawn of Modern Geography_; &c. - - Magellan; - Marignolli (_in part_). - - D. B. Ma. - DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. - - Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, - U.S.A. Author of _Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence - and Constitutional Theory_; _Religious Attitude and Life in - Islam_; &c. - - Mahommedan Institutions; - Mahommedan Law; - Malik Ibn Anas. - - D. F. T. - DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. - - Author of _Essays in Musical Analysis_, comprising _The Classical - Concerto_, _The Goldberg Variations_ and analyses of many other - classical works. - - Madrigal (_in music_); - Mass (_in music_). - - D. G. H. - DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. - - Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. - Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; - Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907; - Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900; Director, Cretan - Exploration Fund, 1899. - - Magnesia; - Malatia; - Manisa; - Marash; - Maronites. - - D. H. - DAVID HANNAY. - - Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of _Short - History of the Royal Navy_; _Life of Emilio Castelar_; &c. - - Marryat, Frederick; - Mast; - Mathews, Thomas. - - D. Mn. - REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. - - Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of - _Constructive Congregational Ideals_; &c. - - Mackennal, Alexander. - - D. M. W. - SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O. - - Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of - the Foreign Department of The Times, 1891-1899. Member of Institut - de Droit International and Officier de l'Instruction Publique of - France. Joint-editor of New Volumes (10th ed.) of the - _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. Author of _Russia_; _Egypt and the - Egyptian Question_; _The Web of Empire_; &c. - - Loris-Melikov. - - D. S. M.* - DAVID SAMUEL MARGOLIOUTH, M.A., D.LITT. - - Laudian Professor of Arabic, Oxford. Fellow of New College. Author - of _Arabic Papyri of the Bodleian Library_; _Mohammed and the Rise - of Islam_; _Cairo, Jerusalem and Damascus_. - - Mahomet. - - E. A. J. - E. ALFRED JONES. - - Author of _Old English Gold Plate_; _Old Church Plate of the Isle - of Man_; _Old Silver Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant - Churches in England_; _Illustrated Catalogue of Leopold de - Rothschild's Collection of Old Plate_; _A Private Catalogue of the - Royal Plate at Windsor Castle_; &c. - - Mace. - - E. Bn. - EDUARD BERNSTEIN. - - Member of the German Reichstag, 1902-1906. Author of _Zur Theorie - und Geschichte des Socialismus_; &c. - - Marx. - - E. C. B. - RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.LITT. (Dubl.). - - Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of the _Lausiac History of - Palladius_, in "Cambridge Texts and Studies." - - Mabillon; - Maurists; - Mechitharists. - - E. G. - EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L. - - See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND. - - Loti, Pierre; - Lyrical Poetry; - Macaronics; - Madrigal (_in verse_); - Maeterlinck. - - E. Gr. - ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. - - See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. - - Mantinela (_in part_); - Marathon (_in part_). - - E. G. R. - ERNEST GEORGE RAVENSTEIN, M.A., PH.D. - - Professor of Geography at Bedford College, London, 1882-1883. - Formerly in Topographical (now Intelligence) Department of the War - Office. Author of _The Russians on the Amur_; _A Systematic - Atlas_; &c. - - Map (_in part_). - - E. H. M. - ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. - - University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and - Assistant Librarian at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly - Fellow of Pembroke College. - - Massagetae. - - E. L. W. - SIR EDWARD LEADER WILLIAMS (1828-1910). - - Formerly Vice-President, Institute of Civil Engineers. Consulting - Engineer, Manchester Ship Canal. Chief Engineer of the Manchester - Ship Canal during its construction. Author of papers printed in - _Proceedings of Institute of Civil Engineers_. - - Manchester Ship Canal. - - E. M. T. - SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, G.C.B., I.S.O., D.C.L., LITT.D., LL.D. - - Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum, 1898-1909. - Sandars Reader in Bibliography, Cambridge, 1895-1896. Hon. Fellow - of University College, Oxford. Correspondent of the Institute of - France and of the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences. Author of - _Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography_. Editor of _Chronicon - Angliae_. - - Manuscript. - - E. O.* - EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.SC. - - Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the - Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the - Legion of Honour. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of - Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of _A Manual of Anatomy for - Senior Students_. - - Lung; - Lupus; - Mammary Gland: _Diseases_. - - E. Pr. - EDGAR PRESTAGE. - - Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of - Manchester. Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, - Manchester, &c. Commendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. - Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon - Geographical Society, &c. Editor of _Letters of a Portuguese Nun_; - _Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea_; &c. - - Macedo; - Manuel de Mello. - - E. R. B. - EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A. - - Formerly Scholar of New College, Oxford. Author of _House of - Seleucus_; _Jerusalem under the High Priests_. - - Macedonian Empire; - Lysimachus. - - E. Tn. - REV. ETHELRED LUKE TAUNTON (d. 1907). - - Author of _The English Black Monks of St Benedict_; _History of - the Jesuits in England_. - - Loyola. - - E. W. B. N. - EDWARD WILLIAMS BYRON NICHOLSON, M.A. - - Librarian of the Bodleian Library, Oxford. Principal Librarian and - Superintendent of the London Institution, 1873-1882. Author of - _Keltic Researches_. - - Mandevllle, Sir John. - - F. A. P. - FREDERICK APTHORP PALEY, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: PALEY, F. A. - - Lucian. - - F. C. C. - FREDERIC CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Giessen). - - Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University - College, Oxford. Author of _The Ancient Armenian Texts of - Aristotle_; _Myth, Magic and Morals_; &c. - - Manichaeism (_in part_). - - F. G. M. B. - FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. - - Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. - - Lothian. - - F. G. P. - FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R. ANTHROP. INST. - - Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. - Lecturer on Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School - of Medicine for Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal - College of Surgeons. - - Lymphatic System (_in part_); - Mammary Gland: _Anatomy_. - - F. J. H. - FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D. - - Camden Professor of Ancient History at Oxford University. Fellow - of Brasenose College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. - Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. Formerly - Senior Censor, Student, Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, - Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1906. Author of Monographs on Roman - History, &c. - - Lugudunum; - Mancunium. - - F. J. S. - FREDERICK JOHN SNELL, M.A. - - Balliol College, Oxford. Author of _The Age of Chaucer_; &c. - - Lydgate. - - F. K. - FERNAND KHNOPFF. - - See the biographical article: KHNOPFF, FERNAND E. J. M. - - Madou. - - F. Ll. G. - FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. - - Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the - Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt - Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial German Archaeological - Institute. - - Luxor; - Manetho. - - F. Po. - SIR FREDERICK POLLOCK, BART., LL.D., D.C.L. - - See the article: POLLOCK (family). - - Maine, Sir Henry. - - F. R. C. - FRANK R. CANA. - - Author of _South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union_. - - Mandingo. - - F. W. R.* - FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. - - Curator and Librarian at the Museum of Practical Geology, London, - 1879-1902. President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. - - Magnetite; - Malachite. - - G. A. Gr. - GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.LITT. (Dublin). - - Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of - India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. - Vice-President of the Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of - Calcutta University. Author of _The Languages of India_; &c. - - Marathi. - - G. Br. - REV. GEORGE BRYCE, M.A., D.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Canada). - - President of the Royal Society of Canada. Head of Faculty of - Science and Lecturer in Biology and Geology in Manitoba - University, 1891-1904. Author of _Manitoba_; _A Short History of - the Canadian People_; &c. - - Manitoba (_in part_). - - G. B. S. - GEORGE BARNETT SMITH. - - Author of _William I. and the German Empire_; _Life of Queen - Victoria_; &c. - - Macmahon. - - G. C. L. - GEORGE COLLINS LEVEY, C.M.G. - - Member of Board of Advice to Agent-General of Victoria. Formerly - Editor and Proprietor of the _Melbourne Herald_. Secretary to - Commissioners for Victoria at the Exhibitions in London, Paris, - Vienna, Philadelphia and Melbourne. - - McCulloch, Sir James. - - G. G.* - GEORGE GLADDEN. - - Associate Editor of _Current Literature_, 1904-1905. Editor of - Biography, _New International Encyclopaedia_, 1901-1904, - 1906-1907, and _New International Year Book_, 1907-1908; &c. - - Martha's Vineyard. - - G. G. S. - GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. - - Professor of English Literature, Queen's University of Belfast. - Author of _The Days of James IV._; _The Transition Period_; - _Specimens of Middle Scots_; &c. - - Lyndsay, Sir David. - - G. H. C. - GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.SC. - - Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. - Author of _Insects: their Structure and Life_. - - May-Fly (_in part_). - - G. R. P. - GEORGE ROBERT PARKIN, LL.D., D.C.L. - - See the biographical article: PARKIN, GEORGE ROBERT. - - Macdonald, Sir John Alexander. - - G. Sa. - GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.C.L. - - See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE E. B. - - Maistre, Joseph de; - Malherbe, Franois de; - Marguerite de Valois; - Marivaux, Pierre; - Marot, Clement. - - G. W. T. - REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. - - Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew - and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. - - Luqman; - Mahommedan Religion; - Mandaeans (_in part_); - Maqqari; - Maqrizi; - Mas'udi. - - H. B. Wo. - HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S. - - Formerly Assistant Director, Geological Survey of England and - Wales. Wollaston Medallist, Geological Society. Author of _The - History of the Geological Society of London_; &c. - - Lyell, Sir Charles. - - H. Cl. - SIR HUGH CHARLES CLIFFORD, K.C.M.G. - - Colonial Secretary, Ceylon. Fellow of the Royal Colonial - Institute. Formerly Resident, Pahang. Colonial Secretary, Trinidad - and Tobago, 1903-1907. Author of _Studies in Brown Humanity_; - _Further India_; &c. Joint-author of _A Dictionary of the Malay - Language_. - - Malacca; - Malay Peninsula; - Malays; - Malay States: _Federated_. - - H. C. H. - REV. HORACE CARTER HOVEY, A.M., D.D. - - Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, - Geological Society of America, National Geographic Society and - Societe de Speleologie (France). Author of _Celebrated American - Caverns_; _Handbook of Mammoth Cave of Kentucky_; &c. - - Luray Cavern; - Mammoth Cave. - - H. De. - REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE S.J. S.J. - - Bollandist. Joint-editor of the _Acta Sanctorum_. - - Lucia, St; - Marcellinus, St; - Margaret, St; - Martyrology. - - H. E. S.* - HORACE ELISHA SCUDDER (D. 1902). - - Formerly Editor of the _Atlantic Monthly_. Author of _Life of - James Russell Lowell_; _History of the United States_; &c. - - Lowell, James Russell. - - H. Fr. - HENRI FRANTZ. - - Art Critic, _Gazette des Beaux-Arts_ (Paris). - - Manet. - - H. Le. - HERBERT MARTIN JAMES LOEWE, M.A. - - Queen's College, Cambridge. Curator of Oriental Literature, - University Library, Cambridge. Formerly Chief English Master at - the Schools of the Alliance at Cairo and Abyassiyyeh, Egypt. - Author of _Kitab el Ansab of Samani_; &c. - - Maimonides. - - H. Lb. - HORACE LAMB, M.A., LL.D., D.SC, F.R.S. - - Professor of Mathematics, University of Manchester. Formerly - Fellow and Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member - of Council of Royal Society, 1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902. - President of London Mathematical Society, 1902-1904. Author of - _Hydrodynamics_; &c. - - Mechanics: _Theoretical_. - - H. L. H. - HARRIET L. HENNESSY, M.D. (BRUX.), L.R.C.S.I., L.R.C.P.I. - - Malaria (_in part_). - - H. M. S. - HENRY MORSE STEPHENS, M.A., LITT.D. - - Balliol College, Oxford. Professor of History in the University of - California. Author of _History of the French Revolution_; &c. - - Maintenon, Madame de; - Mazarin. - - H. S.* - SIR HERBERT STEPHEN, BART., M.A., LL.M. - - Trinity College, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law. Clerk of Assize for - the Northern Circuit. - - Lytton, 1st Earl of. - - H. St. - HENRY STURT, M.A. - - Author of _Idola Theatri_; _The Idea of a Free Church_; _Personal - Idealism_; &c. - - Lotze (_in part_). - - H. W. C. D. - HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. - - Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' - College, Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of _England under the Normans - and Angevins_; _Charlemagne_. - - Mandeville, Geoffrey de; - Marsh, Adam; - Matilda, Queen; - Matthew of Paris. - - H. W. R.* - REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A. - - Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior - Kennicott Scholar, Oxford, 1901. Author of _Hebrew Psychology in - Relation to Pauline Anthropology_ (in _Mansfield College Essays_); - &c. - - Malachi (_in part_). - - H. Y. - SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B. - - See the biographical article: YULE, SIR HENRY. - - Mandeville, Sir John (_in part_); - Marignolli (_in part_). - - I. A. - ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. - - Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of - Cambridge. Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of - England. Author of _A Short History of Jewish Literature_; _Jewish - Life in the Middle Ages_; _Judaism_; &c. - - Luria; - Luzzatto, Moses Hayim; - Luzzatto, Samuel David; - Mapu; - Marano. - - J. A. C. - SIR JOSEPH ARCHER CROWE, K.C.M.G. - - See the biographical article: CROWE, SIR J. A. - - Mabuse. - - J. A. S. - JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS. - - See the biographical article: SYMONDS, J. A. - - Machiavelli; - Manutius. - - J. A. V.* - JOHN AUGUSTUS VOELCKER, M.A., PH.D., F.I.C., F.L.S. - - Consulting Chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, - &c. Author of _The Woburn Experiments_; &c. - - Manures. - - J. Bt. - JAMES BARTLETT. - - Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, - &c., at King's College, London. Member of Society of Architects. - Member of Institute of Junior Engineers. - - Masonry. - - J. C. R. C. - SIR JOHN CHARLES READY COLOMB, K.C.M.G. - - See the biographical article: COLOMB, P. H. - - Marines. - - J. D. B. - JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. - - King's College. Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in - South-Eastern Europe. Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of - Montenegro and of the Saviour of Greece, and Officer of the Order - of St Alexander of Bulgaria. - - Macedonia. - - J. F.-K. - JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HIST.S. - - Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool - University. Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow - of the British Academy. Member of the Council of the Hispanic - Society of America. Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. - Author of _A History of Spanish Literature_. - - Lull, Raimon; - Maupassant. - - J. Ga. - JAMES GAIRDNER, C.B., LL.D. - - See the biographical article: GAIRDNER, JAMES. - - Mary I., Queen. - - J. G. Sc. - SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E. - - Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author - of _Burma_; _The Upper Burma Gazetteer_. - - Mandalay. - - J. Hn. - JUSTUS HASHAGEN, PH.D. - - Privatdozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. - Author of _Das Rheinland unter die franzosische Herrschaft_. - - Louis I. and II. of Bavaria. - - J. H. F. - JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. - - Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. - - Lycaon. - - J. H. R. - JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (EDIN.). - - Author of _Feudal England_; _Studies in Peerage and Family - History_; _Peerage and Pedigree_. - - Lord Great Chamberlain; - Mar, Earldom of; - Marquess. - - J. Hl. R. - JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D. - - Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the - Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of _Life of - Napoleon I._; _Napoleonic Studies_; _The Development of the - European Nations_; _The Life of Pitt_; chapters in the _Cambridge - Modern History_. - - Lowe, Sir Hudson; - Maret. - - J. I. - JULES ISAAC. - - Professor of History at the Lycee of Lyons. - - Louis XII. of France. - - J. J. T. - SIR JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON, D.SC., LL.D., PH.D., F.R.S. - - Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics and Fellow of Trinity - College, Cambridge. President of the British Association, - 1909-1910. Author of _A Treatise on the Motion of Vortex Rings_; - _Application of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry_; _Recent - Researches in Electricity and Magnetism_; &c. - - Magneto-Optics; - Matter. - - J. L. W. - JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON. - - Author of _Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory_. - - Malory, Sir Thomas; - Map, Walter. - - J. M. Gr. - JAMES MONCRIEFF GRIERSON, C.B., C.M.G., C.V.O. - - Major-General, R.A. Commanding 1st Division Aldershot Command. - Director of Military Operations at Headquarters, 1904-1906. Served - through South African War, 1900-1901. _Author of Staff Duties in - the Field_; &c. - - Manoevres, Military. - - J. M. M. - JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. - - Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, - East London College (University of London). Joint-editor of - Grote's _History of Greece_. - - Mandeville, Bernard de; - Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. - - J. P. P. - JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., LITT.D. - - Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of - Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor - of the _Classical Quarterly_. Editor-in-chief of the _Corpus - Poetarum Latinorum_; &c. - - Lucan (_in part_). - - Jno. S. - SIR JOHN SCOTT, K.C.M.G., D.C.L. (1841-1904). - - Deputy Judge Advocate-General to the Forces, 1898-1904. Judicial - Adviser to the Khedive of Egypt, 1890-1898. Hon. Fellow of - Pembroke College, Oxford. - - Martial Law. - - J. Si.* - REV. JAMES SIBREE, F.R.G.S. - - Principal Emeritus, United College (L.M.S. and F.F.M.A.), - Antananarivo, Madagascar. Membre de l'Academie Malgache. Author of - _Madagascar and its People_; _Madagascar before the Conquest_; _A - Madagascar Bibliography_; &c. - - Madagascar; - Mauritius. - - J. S. Bl. - JOHN SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A., LL.D. - - Assistant-editor of the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia - Britannica. Joint-editor of the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_. - - Mary: Mother of Jesus (_in part_). - Mazzini. - - J. S. Co. - JAMES SUTHERLAND COTTON, M.A. - - Editor of the Imperial Gazetteer of India. Hon. Secretary of the - Egyptian Exploration Fund. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Queen's - College, Oxford. Author of _India_; &c. - - Mahrattas (_in part_). - - J. S. F. - JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.SC, F.G.S. - - Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on - Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal - Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society - of London. - - Marble; - Marl. - - J. T. Be. - JOHN THOMAS BEALBY. - - Joint-author of Stanford's _Europe_. Formerly Editor of the - _Scottish Geographical Magazine_. Translator of Sven Hedin's - _Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet_; &c. - - Maritime Province (_in part_). - - J. T. C. - JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. - - Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. - Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor - of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh and Naturalist - to the Marine Biological Association. - - Mackerel (_in part_). - - J. T. M. - JOHN THEODORE MERZ, LL.D., PH.D., D.C.L. - - Chairman of the Newcastle-upon-Tyne Electric Supply Co., Ltd. - Author of _History of European Thought in the XIXth Century_; &c. - - Lotze (_in part_). - - J. T. S.* - JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D. - - Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. - - Louis VI., VII., IX., X. and XI. of France. - - J. V.* - JULES VIARD. - - Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public - Instruction, France. Author of _La France sous Philippe VI de - Valois_; &c. - - Lore, Ambroise de; - Louvet, Jean; - Marcel, Etienne. - - J. V. B. - JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. (St Andrews). - - Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of - _The Apostolic Age_; &c. - - Mark, St (_in part_); - Matthew, St; - Luke, St. - - K. G. J. - KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNE. - - Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Matthew Arnold - Prizeman, 1903. Author of _Vasco da Gama and his Successors_. - - Malay Archipelago. - - K. K. - KONRAD KESSLER, PH.D. - - Formerly Professor of Semitic Languages at the University of - Greifswald. - - Mandaeans (_in part_). - - K. L. - REV. KIRSOPP LAKE, M.A. - - Lincoln College, Oxford. Professor of Early Christian Literature - and New Testament Exegesis in the University of Leiden. Author of - _The Text of the New Testament_; _The Historical Evidence for the - Resurrection of Jesus Christ_; &c. - - Mary, Mother of Jesus (_in part_). - - K. S. - KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. - - Editor of Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of _The - Instruments of the Orchestra_. - - Lute (_in part_); - Lyre (_in part_); - Mandoline. - - L. J. S. - LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A., F.G.S. - - Assistant, Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, South - Kensington. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, - and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_. - - Manganite; - Marcasite. - - L. V.* - LUIGI VILLARI. - - Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper - Correspondent in East of Europe. Author of _Italian Life in Town - and Country_; &c. - - Mazzini: _Bibliography_. - - L. W. V-H. - L. W. VERNON-HARCOURT (d. 1909). - - Barrister-at-Law. Author of _His Grace the Steward and the Trial - of Peers_. - - Lord High Steward. - - M. A. W. - MARY A. WARD (MRS HUMPHRY WARD). - - See the biographical article: WARD, MARY AUGUSTA. - - Lyly. - - M. Br. - MARGARET BRYANT. - - Louis VIII. and XVII. of France. - - M. Ja. - MORRIS JASTROW, JR., PH.D. - - Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania. Author - of _Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians_; &c. - - Marduk. - - M. N. T. - MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. - - Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in - Epigraphy. Joint-author of _Catalogue of the Sparta Museum_. - - Lycurgus: _Spartan Lawgiver_; - Lysander. - - M. O. B. C. - MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. (OXON.). - - Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek - at Birmingham University, 1905-1908. - - Mantineia (_in part_); - Manuel I., Comnenus; - Marathon (_in part_). - - M. P. - MARK PATTISON, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: PATTISON, MARK. - - Macaulay. - - N. D. M. - NEWTON DENNISON MERENESS, A.M., PH.D. - - Author of _Maryland as a Proprietary Province_. - - Maryland. - - N. V. - JOSEPH MARIE NOEL VALOIS. - - Member of Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, Paris. - Honorary Archivist at the Archives Nationales. Formerly President - of the Societe de l'Histoire de France, and of the Societe de - l'Ecole des Chartes. - - Marsilius of Padua; - Martin I.-V.: _Popes_. - - N. W. T. - NORTHCOTE WHITRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. - - Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding - Member of the Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of _Thought - Transference_; _Kinship and Marriage in Australia_; &c. - - Lycanthropy; - Magic. - - O. R. - OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. M.INST.C.E. - - Formerly Professor of Engineering, Victoria University, - Manchester. Honorary Fellow of Queens' College, Cambridge. - - Lubrication. - - P. A. A. - PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., DOC. JURIS. - - New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. - - Lubeck (_in part_). - - P. A. K. - PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. - - See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE, P. A. - - Maritime Province (_in part_). - - P. G. - PERCY GARDNER, M.A., LITT.D., LL.D. - - See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. - - Lysippus. - - P. Gi. - PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. - - Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and - University Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of - the Cambridge Philological Society. - - M. - - P. G. T. - PETER GUTHRIE TAIT, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: TAIT, PETER GUTHRIE. - - Maxwell, James Clerk. - - P. Vi. - PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L., LL.D. - - See the biographical article: VINOGRADOFF, PAUL. - - Manor (_in part_). - - R. A.* - ROBERT ANCHEL. - - Archivist to the Department de l'Eure. - - Louis XVI.; - Marat. - - R. B. McK. - RONALD BRUNLEES MCKERROW, M.A. - - Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of _The Works of Thomas Nashe_; - &c. - - Marprelate Controversy. - - R. C. J. - SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, D.C.L., LL.D. - - See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE. - - Lysias (_in part_). - - R. G. - RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D., D.C.L. - - See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. - - Lucan (_in part_); - Max Muller. - - R. H. C. - REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.LITT. - - Grinfield Lecturer on the Septuagint at Oxford, 1905-1907. Fellow - of the British Academy. Professor of Biblical Greek at Trinity - College, Dublin, 1898-1906. Hibbert Lecturer at Oxford, 1898; - Jowett Lecturer, 1898-1899. Author of _Critical History of a - Future Life_; &c. - - Manasses, Prayer of. - - R. J. M. - RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. - - Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-law. Formerly Editor of the - _St James's Gazette_, London. - - Lundy, Robert; - Macdonnell, Sorley Boy; - McNeile, Hugh; - Manchester, Earls and Dukes of; - March, Earls of; - Margaret, Queen of Scotland; - Masham, Abigail. - - R. K. D. - SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS. - - Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Keeper of - Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at British Museum, 1892-1907. - Member of the Chinese Consular Service, 1858-1865. Author of _The - Language and Literature of China_; _China_; _Europe and the Far - East_; &c. - - Manchuria. - - R. L.* - RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. - - Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. - Author of _Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the - British Museum_; _The Deer of all Lands_; _The Game Animals of - Africa_; &c. - - Loris; - Macaque; - Machaerodus; - Mammalia (_in part_); - Mammoth (_in part_); - Manati; - Mandrill; - Marmot; - Marsupialia; - Mastodon. - - R. M'L. - ROBERT M'LACHLAN, F.R.S. - - Editor of the _Entomologists' Monthly Magazine_. - - May-Fly (_in part_). - - R. M. D. - RICHARD MOUNTFORD DEELEY, M.INST.CE., M.I.MECH.E., F.G.S. - - Late Locomotive Superintendent, Midland Railway. Joint-author of - _Lubrication and Lubricants_. - - Lubricants. - - R. N. B. - ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). - - Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of - _Scandinavia, the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, - 1513-1900_; _The First Romanovs, 1613 to 1725_; _Slavonic Europe, - the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796_; &c. - - Louis I. and II. of Hungary; - Malachowski; - Margaret, Queen; - Martinuzzi; - Matthias I., Hunyadi; - Matvyeev; - Mazepa-Koledinsky. - - R. P. - REINHOLD PAULI. - - See the biographical article: PAULI, REINHOLD. - - Lubeck (_in part_). - - R. P. S. - R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. - - Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, - London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and - Fellow of King's College, London. Corresponding Member of the - Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's _History of - Architecture_. Author of _Architecture: East and West_; &c. - - Manor-House. - - R. Po. - RENE POUPARDIN, D. ES L. - - Secretary of the Ecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the - Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. Author of _Le Royaume de Provence - sous les Carolingiens_; _Recueil des chartes de Saint-Germain_; - &c. - - Lorraine; - Louis IV. and V. of France. - - R. S. C. - ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. (CANTAB.). - - Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University - of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, - Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. - Author of _The Italic Dialects_. - - Mamertini; - Marrucini; - Marsi. - - R. T. - SIR RICHARD TEMPLE. - - See the biographical article: TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD. - - Mahrattas (_in part_). - - R. We. - RICHARD WEBSTER, A.M. (PRINCETON). - - Formerly Fellow in Classics, Princeton University. Editor of _The - Elegies of Maximianus_; &c. - - Mather, Increase; - Mather, Richard. - - S. A. C. - STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. - - Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and - Caius College, Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. - Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. - Author of _Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions_; _The Laws of Moses - and the Code of Hammurabi_; _Critical Notes on Old Testament - History_; _Religion of Ancient Palestine_; &c. - - Lot; - Manasseh. - - S. Bi. - SHELFORD BIDWELL, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. (1848-1909). - - Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the - Physical Society and Member of Council of the Royal Society. - - Magnetism. - - S. C. - SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: COLVIN, SIDNEY. - - Marcantonio. - - S. N. - SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.SC. - - See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON. - - Mars: _Planet_. - - T. As. - THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT., F.S.A. - - Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. - Corresponding Member of the Imperial German Archaeological - Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford; Craven - Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of _The Classical Topography of the - Roman Campagna_; &c. - - Lucania; - Lucca; - Lucena; - Lucretilis, Mons; - Lucus Feroniae; - Luna; - Magna Graecia; - Manduria; - Manfredonia; - Marches, The; - Marino; - Marzabotto. - - T. Ba. - SIR THOMAS BARCLAY. - - Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the - Supreme Council of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of - Honour. Author of _Problems of International Practice and - Diplomacy_; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910. - - Mare Clausum. - - T. F. C. - THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D. - - Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, - Mass., U.S.A. - - Marcellus. - - T. G. Br. - THOMAS GREGOR BRODIE, M.D., F.R.S. - - Professor of Physiology in the University of Toronto. Author of - _Essentials of Experimental Physiology_. - - Lymph and Lymph Formation. - - T. H. H.* - SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.SC. - - Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold - Medallist, R.G.S., London, 1887. Author of _The Indian - Borderland_; _The Countries of the King's Award_; _India_; - _Tibet_. - - Makran. - - T. M. L. - THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, LL.D., D.D. - - Principal of the United Free Church College, Glasgow. Formerly - Assistant to the Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the - University of Edinburgh. Author of _History of the Reformation_; - _Life of Luther_; &c. - - Luther, Martin; - Lutherans. - - T. R. R. S. - THOMAS ROSCOE REDE STEBBING, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S. - - Fellow of King's College, London. Hon. Fellow of Worcester - College, Oxford. Zoological Secretary of Linnaean Society, - 1903-1907. Author of _A History of Crustacea_; _The Naturalist of - Cumbrae_; &c. - - Malacostraca. - - T. Se. - THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. - - Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and - Birkbeck Colleges, University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, - Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of _Dictionary of National - Biography_, 1891-1901. Author of _The Age of Johnson_; &c. - - Marlowe, Christopher (_in part_); - Marston, Philip Bourke. - - T. W. R. D. - THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, M.A., PH.D., LL.D. - - Professor of Comparative Religion in the University of Manchester. - Professor of Pali and Buddhist Literature, University College, - London, 1882-1904. President of the Pali Text Society. Fellow of - the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal Asiatic - Society, 1885-1902. Author of _Buddhism_; &c. - - Lumbini; - Mahavamsa; - Maitreya. - - V. H. S. - REV. VINCENT HENRY STANTON, M.A., D.D. - - Ely Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge. Canon of - Ely. Formerly Fellow, Dean, Tutor and Lecturer of Trinity College, - Cambridge. Author of The _Jewish and the Christian Messiahs_; &c. - - Mark, Gospel of St; - Matthew, Gospel of St; - Luke, Gospel of St. - - W. A. B. C. - REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S. - - Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, - St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of _Guide to - Switzerland_; _The Alps in Nature and in History_; &c. Editor of - the _Alpine Journal_, 1880-1889. - - Lotschen Pass; - Lucerne: Canton, Town, Lake of; - Lugano, Lake of; - Maggiore, Lago. - - W. A. G. - WALTER ARMSTRONG GRAHAM. - - His Siamese Majesty's Resident Commissioner for the Siamese Malay - State of Kelantan. Adviser to his Siamese Majesty's Minister for - Lands and Agriculture. Author of _Kelantan, a Handbook_; &c. - - Malay States: _Non-Federated_. - Malay States: _Siamese_. - - W. A. P. - WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. - - Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St - John's College, Oxford. Author of _Modern Europe_; &c. - - Louis Philippe; - Mahmud II.; - Mass: _Church_. - - W. D. L. - WILLIAM DRAPER LEWIS, LL.B., PH.D. - - Dean of the Law School, University of Pennsylvania. Lecturer on - Economics, Haverford College, Pennsylvania, 1890-1896. Editor of - _Great American Lawyers_; &c. - - Marshall, John. - - W. E. A. A. - WILLIAM EDMUND ARMYTAGE AXON, LL.D. - - Formerly Deputy Chief Librarian of the Manchester Free Libraries. - On Literary Staff of Manchester Guardian, 1874-1905. Member of the - Gorsedd, with the bardic name of Manceinion. Author of _Annals of - Manchester_; &c. - - Manchester. - - W. E. D. - WILLIAM ERNEST DALBY, M.A., M.INST.C.E., M.I.M.E. - - Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering at the City and - Guilds of London Institute Central Technical College, South - Kensington. Formerly University Demonstrator in the Engineering - Department, Cambridge. Author of _The Balancing of Engines_; - _Valves and Valve-Gear Mechanism_; &c. - - Mechanics: _Applied_ (_in part_). - - W. E. G. F. - WILLIAM EDWARD GARRETT FISHER, M.A. - - Author of _The Transvaal and the Boers_. - - Marbles. - - W. F.* - REV. WILLIAM FAIRWEATHER, M.A., D.D. - - Minister of Dunnikier United Free Church, Kirkcaldy, N.B. Author - of _Maccabees_ (Cambridge Bible for Schools); _The Background of - the Gospels_; &c. - - Maccabees; - Maccabees, Books of. - - W. Ho. - WYNNARD HOOPER, M.A. - - Clare College, Cambridge. Financial Editor of _The Times_, London. - - Market. - - W. H. F. - SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. - - See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. - - Mammalia (_in part_); - Mammoth (_in part_); - Mandrill (_in part_); - Marten. - - W. J. M. R. - WILLIAM JOHN MACQUORN RANKINE, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: RANKINE, WILLIAM JOHN MACQUORN. - - Mechanics: _Applied_ (_in part_). - - W. L. C.* - WILLIAM LEE CORBIN, A.M. - - Associate Professor of English, Wells College, Aurora, New York. - - Mather, Cotton. - - W. L. F. - WALTER LYNWOOD FLEMING, A.M., PH.D. - - Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Author of - _Documentary History of Reconstruction_; &c. - - Lynch Law; - McGillivray, Alexander. - - W. L. G. - WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. - - Professor at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit - Lecturer in Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of _Acts - of the Privy Council_, ("Colonial" series); _Canadian - Constitutional Development_ (in collaboration). - - Mackenzie, William Lyon; - Manitoba (_in part_). - - W. M. R. - WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. - - See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE G. - - Luini; - Mantegna; - Martini; - Masaccio; - Masolino da Panicale. - - W. M. Ra. - SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL RAMSAY, LL.D., D.C.L. - - See the biographical article: RAMSAY, SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL. - - Lycaonia. - - W. P. C. - WILLIAM PRIDEAUX COURTNEY, D.C.L. - - See the article: COURTNEY, L. H., BARON. - - Marlborough, 1st Duke of. - - W. R. S. - WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON. - - Malachi (_in part_); - Mecca. - - W. Wn. - WILLIAM WATSON, D.SC, F.R.S. - - Assistant Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. - Vice-President of the Physical Society. - - Magnetograph; - Magnetometer. - - W. W. F.* - WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A. - - Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-Rector, 1881-1904. Gifford - Lecturer, Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of _The City-State of - the Greeks and Romans_; _The Roman Festivals of the Republican - Period_; &c. - - Mars: _Mythology_; - Mauretania. - - W. Y. S. - WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D. - - See the biographical article: SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG. - - Martial; - Lucilius (_in part_); - Lucretius. - - - - -PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES - - Lord Chamberlain. Mafia. March. - Lotteries. Magnesium. Marengo. - Louisiana. Magnolia. Marionettes. - Lourdes. Maine, U.S.A. Marriage. - Loyalists. Maize. Marseilles. - Luchu Archipelago. Malplaquet. Marshal. - Lutzen. Malta. Marston Moor. - Lyons. Mandamus. Maryland. - Macabre. Manganese. Massachusetts. - McKinley, William. Manila. Match. - Madeira. Manipur. Mayo. - Madison, James. Manna. Mayor. - Madras. Maori. Measles. - Madrid. Maple. Mecklenburg. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in - the final volume. - - - - -LORD CHAMBERLAIN, in England, an important officer of the king's -household, to be distinguished from the lord great chamberlain (q.v.). -He is the second dignitary of the court, and is always a member of the -government of the day (before 1782 the office carried cabinet rank), a -peer and a privy councillor. He carries a white staff, and wears a -golden or jewelled key, typical of the key of the palace, which is -supposed to be in his charge, as the ensigns of his office. He is -responsible for the necessary arrangements connected with state -ceremonies, such as coronations and royal marriages, christenings and -funerals; he examines the claims of those who desire to be presented at -court; all invitations are sent out in his name by command of the -sovereign, and at drawing-rooms arid levees he stands next to the -sovereign and announces the persons who are approaching the throne. It -is also part of his duty to conduct the sovereign to and from his -carriage.[1] The bedchamber, privy chamber and presence chamber, the -wardrobe, the housekeeper's room, the guardroom and the chapels royal -are in the lord chamberlain's department. He is regarded as chief -officer of the royal household, and he has charge of a large number of -appointments, such as those of the royal physicians, tradesmen and -private attendants of the sovereign. All theatres in the cities of -London and Westminster (except patent theatres), in certain of the -London boroughs and in the towns of Windsor and Brighton, are licensed -by him and he is also licenser of plays (see THEATRE: _Law_; and REVELS, -MASTER OF THE). His salary is L2000 a year. - - The vice-chamberlain of the household is the lord chamberlain's - assistant and deputy. He also is one of the ministry, a white-staff - officer and the bearer of a key; and he is generally a peer or the son - of a peer as well as a privy councillor. He receives L700 a year. Next - to the vice-chamberlain comes the groom of the stole, an office only - in use during the reign of a king. He has the charge of the vestment - called the stole worn by the sovereign on state occasions. In the lord - chamberlain's department also are the master, assistant master, - marshal of the ceremonies and deputy-marshal of the ceremonies, - officers whose special function it is to enforce the observance of the - _etiquette_ of the court. The reception of foreign potentates and - ambassadors is under their particular care, and they assist in the - ordering of all entertainments and festivities at the palace.[2] The - gentleman usher of the black rod--the black rod which he carries being - the ensign of his office--is the principal usher of the court and - kingdom. He is one of the original functionaries of the order of the - Garter, and is in constant attendance on the House of Lords, from - whom, either personally or by his deputy, the yeoman usher of the - black rod, it is part of his duty to carry messages and summonses to - the House of Commons. There are six lords and six grooms "in waiting" - who attend on the sovereign throughout the year and whose terms of - attendance are of a fortnight's or three weeks' duration at a time. - Usually "extra" lords and grooms in waiting are nominated by the - sovereign, who, however, are unpaid and have no regular duties. Among - the serjeants-at-arms there are two to whom special duties are - assigned: the one attending the speaker in the House of Commons, and - the other attending the lord chancellor in the House of Lords, - carrying their maces and executing their orders.[3] The comptroller - and examiner of accounts, the paymaster of the household, the licenser - of plays, the dean and subdean of the chapels royal, the clerk and - deputy clerks of the closet, the groom of the robes, the pages of the - backstairs, of the chamber and of the presence, the poet laureate, the - royal physicians and surgeons, chaplains, painters and sculptors, - librarians and musicians, &c., are all under the superintendence of - the lord chamberlain of the household.[4] - - The queen consort's household is also in the department of the lord - chamberlain of the household. It comprises a lord chamberlain, a - vice-chamberlain and treasurer, equerry and the various ladies of the - royal household, a groom and a clerk of the robes. The ladies of the - household are the mistress of the robes, the ladies of the bedchamber, - the bedchamber women and the maids of honour. The mistress of the - robes in some measure occupies the position of the groom of the - stole.[5] She is the only lady of the court who comes into office and - goes out with the administration. She is always a duchess, and attends - the queen consort at all state ceremonies and entertainments, but is - never in permanent residence at the palace.[6] The ladies of the - bedchamber share the personal attendance on the queen consort - throughout the year. Of these there are eight, always peeresses, and - each is in waiting for a fortnight or three weeks at a time. But the - women of the bedchamber, of whom there are also eight, appear only at - court ceremonies and entertainments according to a roster annually - issued under the authority of the lord chamberlain of the queen - consort. They are usually the daughters of peers or the wives of the - sons of peers, and formerly, like the mistress of the robes and the - ladies of the bedchamber, habitually assisted the queen at her daily - toilette. But this has long ceased to be done by any of them. The - eight maids of honour have the same terms of waiting as the ladies of - the bedchamber. They are commonly if not always the daughters or - granddaughters of peers, and when they have no superior title and - precedence by birth are called "honourable" and placed next after the - daughters of barons. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The lord chamberlain of the household at one time discharged some - important political functions, which are described by Sir Harris - Nicolas (_Proceedings of the Privy Council_, vol. vi., Preface, p. - xxiii). - - [2] The office of master of the ceremonies was created by James I. - The master of the ceremonies wears a medal attached to a gold chain - round his neck, on one side being an emblem of peace with the motto - "Beati pacifici," and on the other an emblem of war with the motto - "Dieu et mon droit" (see _Finetti Philoxensis_, by Sir John Finett, - master of the ceremonies to James I. and Charles I., 1656; and - D'Israeli's _Curiosities of Literature_, 10th ed., p. 242 seq.). - - [3] See May, _Parliamentary Practice_, pp. 236, 244. - - [4] The offices of master of the great wardrobe and master of the - jewel house in the lord chamberlain's department were abolished in - 1782. - - [5] In the reign of Queen Anne, Sarah duchess of Marlborough from - 1704, and Elizabeth duchess of Somerset from 1710, held the combined - offices of mistress of the robes and groom of the stole. - - [6] Since the great "bedchamber question" of 1839 the settled - practice has been for all the ladies of the court except the mistress - of the robes to receive and continue in their appointments - independently of the political connexions of their husbands, fathers - and brothers (see Gladstone's _Gleanings of Past Years_, i. 40; and - Torrens's _Memoirs of Lord Melbourne_, ii. 304). - - - - -LORD CHIEF JUSTICE, in England, the presiding judge of the king's bench -division of the High Court of Justice, and in the absence of the lord -chancellor, president of the High Court. He traces his descent from the -justiciar of the Norman kings. This officer appears first as the -lieutenant or deputy of the king, exercising all the functions of the -regal office in the absence of the sovereign. "In this capacity William -Fitz-Osbern, the steward of Normandy, and Odo of Bayeux, acted during -the Conqueror's visit to the continent in 1067; they were left, -according to William of Poitiers, the former to govern the north of -England, the latter to hold rule in Kent, vice sua; Florence of -Worcester describes them as "custodes Angliae," and Ordericus Vitalis -gives to their office the name of "praefectura." It would seem most -probable that William Fitz-Osbern at least was left in his character of -steward, and that the Norman seneschalship was thus the origin of the -English justiciarship" (Stubbs's _Constitutional History_, i. 346). The -same authority observes that William of Warenne and Richard Clare -(Bienfaite), who were left in charge of England in 1074, are named by a -writer in the next generation "praecipui Angliae justitiarii"; but he -considers the name to have not yet been definitely attached to any -particular office, and that there is no evidence to show that officers -appointed to this trust exercised any functions at all when the king was -at home, or in his absence exercised supreme judicial authority to the -exclusion of other high officers of the court. The office became -permanent in the reign of William Rufus, and in the hands of Ranulf -Flambard it became coextensive with the supreme powers of government. -But it was not till the reign of Henry II. that the chief officer of the -crown acquired the exclusive right to the title of _capitalis_ or -_totius Angliae justitiarius_. Stubbs considers that the English form of -the office is to be accounted for by the king's desire to prevent the -administration falling into the hands of an hereditary noble. The early -justiciars were clerics, in whom the possession of power could not -become hereditary. The justiciar continued to be the chief officer of -state, next to the king, until the fall of Hubert de Burgh (in the reign -of King John), described by Stubbs as the last of the great justiciars. -Henceforward, according to Stubbs, the office may be said to have -survived only in the judicial functions, which were merely part of the -official character of the chief justiciar. He was at the head of the -curia regis, which was separating itself into the three historical -courts of common law about the time when the justiciarship was falling -from the supreme place. The chancellor took the place of the justiciar -in council, the treasurer in the exchequer, while the two offshoots from -the curia regis, the common pleas and the exchequer, received chiefs of -their own. The king's bench represented the original stock of the curia -regis, and its chief justice the great justiciar. The justiciar may, -therefore, be said to have become from a political a purely judicial -officer. A similar development awaited his successful rival the -chancellor. Before the Judicature Act the king's bench and the common -pleas were each presided over by a lord chief justice, and the lord -chief justice of the king's bench was nominal head of all the three -courts, and held the title of lord chief justice of England. The titles -of lord chief justice of the common pleas and lord chief baron were -abolished by the Judicature Act 1873, and all the common law divisions -of the High Court united into the king's bench division, the president -of which is the lord chief justice of England. - - The lord chief justice is, next to the lord chancellor, the highest - judicial dignitary in the kingdom. He is an _ex-officio_ judge of the - court of appeal. He holds office during good behaviour, and can only - be removed by the crown (by whom he is appointed) after a joint - address of both houses of parliament. He is now the only judicial - functionary privileged to wear the collar of SS. There has been much - discussion as to the origin and history of this collar;[1] it was a - badge or insignia attached to certain offices entitling the holders to - wear it only so long as they held those offices. The collar of SS. was - worn by the chiefs of the three courts previous to their amalgamation - in 1873, and that now worn by the lord chief justice of England was - provided by Sir A. Cockburn in 1859 and entailed by him on all holders - of the office. The salary is L8000 a year. - - In the United States the supreme court consists of a chief justice and - eight associate justices, any six of whom make a quorum. The salary of - the chief justice is $13,000 and that of the associates $12,500. The - chief justice takes rank next after the president, and he administers - the oath on the inauguration of a new president and vice-president. - The principal or presiding judge in most of the state judicatures also - takes the title of chief justice. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] _Notes and Queries_, series 1, vol. ii.; series 4, vols. ii. ix. - x.; series 6, vols. ii. iii.; Planche, _Dictionary of Costume_, p. - 126; Foss, _Lives of the Judges_, vol. vii.; Dugdale, _Orig. Jud._ - fol. 102. - - - - -LORD GREAT CHAMBERLAIN, in England, a functionary who must be carefully -distinguished from the lord chamberlain; he is one of the great officers -of state, whose office dates from Norman times; and the only one who -still holds it under a creation of that period. As his name implies, he -was specially connected by his duties with the king's chamber (_camera -curie_); but this phrase was also used to denote the king's privy purse, -and the chamberlain may be considered as originally the financial -officer of the household. But as he was always a great baron, deputies -performed his financial work, and his functions became, as they are now, -mainly ceremonial, though the emblem of his office is still a key. The -office had been held by Robert Malet, son of a leading companion of the -Conqueror, but he was forfeited by Henry I., who, in 1133, gave the -great chamberlainship to Aubrey de Vere and his heirs. Aubrey's son was -created earl of Oxford, and the earls held the office, with some -intermission, till 1526, when the then earl left female heirs. His -heir-male succeeded to the earldom, but the crown, as is now -established, denied his right to the office, which was thenceforth held -under grants for life till Queen Mary and Elizabeth admitted in error -the right of the earls on the strength of their own allegation. So -matters continued till 1626, when an earl died and again left an -heir-male and an heir-female. After an historic contest the office was -adjudged to the former, Lord Willoughby d'Eresby. No further question -arose till 1779, when his heirs were two sisters. In 1781 the House of -Lords decided that it belonged to them jointly, and that they could -appoint a deputy, which they did. Under a family arrangement the heirs -of the two sisters respectively appointed deputies in alternate reigns -till the death of Queen Victoria, when Lord Ancaster, the heir of the -elder, who was then in possession, claimed that he, as such, had sole -right to the office. Lord Cholmondeley and Lord Carrington as coheirs of -the younger sister, opposed his claim, and the crown also claimed for -itself on the ground of the action taken by the king in 1526. After a -long and historic contest, the House of Lords (1902) declined to re-open -the question, and merely re-affirmed the decision of 1781, and the -office, therefore, is now vested jointly in the three peers named and -their heirs. - -The lord great chamberlain has charge of the palace of Westminster, -especially of the House of Lords, in which he has an office; and when -the sovereign opens parliament in person he is responsible for the -arrangements. At the opening or closing of the session of parliament by -the sovereign in person he disposes of the sword of state to be carried -by any peer he may select, and walks himself in the procession on the -right of the sword of state, a little before it and next to the -sovereign. He issues the tickets of admission on the same occasions. He -assists at the introduction of all peers into the House of Lords on -their creation, and at the homage of all bishops after their -consecration. At coronations he emerges into special importance; he -still asserts before the court of claims his archaic right to bring the -king his "shirt, stockings and drawers" and to dress him on coronation -day and to receive his ancient fees, which include the king's bed and -"night robe." He also claims in error to serve the king ~~3 with water -before and after the banquet, which was the function of the "ewry," a -distinct office held by the earls of Oxford. At the actual coronation -ceremony he takes an active part in investing the king with the royal -insignia. - - See J. H. Round, "The Lord Great Chamberlain" (_Monthly Review_, June - 1902) and "Notes on the Lord Great Chamberlain Case" (_Ancestor_, No. - IV.). (J. H. R.) - - - - -LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR, one of the great officers of state of the United -Kingdom, and in England the highest judicial functionary. The history of -the office and of the growth of the importance of the lord chancellor -will be found under CHANCELLOR. The lord chancellor is in official rank -the highest civil subject in the land outside the royal family, and -takes precedence immediately after the archbishop of Canterbury. His -functions have sometimes been exercised by a lord keeper of the great -seal (see LORD KEEPER), the only real difference between the two offices -being in the appointment of the keeper by mere delivery of the seal, -while a lord chancellor receives letters patent along with it. He is by -office a privy councillor, and it has long been the practice to make him -a peer and also a cabinet minister. He is by prescription Speaker or -prolocutor of the House of Lords, and as such he sits upon the woolsack, -which is not strictly within the House. Unlike the Speaker of the House -of Commons, the lord chancellor takes part in debates, speaking from his -place in the House. He votes from the woolsack instead of going into the -division lobby. The only function which he discharges as Speaker -practically is putting the question; if two debaters rise together, he -has no power to call upon one, nor can he rule upon points of order. -Those taking part in debates address, not the lord chancellor, but the -whole House, as "My Lords." The lord chancellor always belongs to a -political party and is affected by its fluctuations. This has often been -denounced as destructive of the independence and calm deliberativeness -essential to the purity and efficiency of the bench. In defence, -however, of the ministerial connexion of the chancellor, it has been -said that, while the other judges should be permanent, the head of the -law should stand or fall with the ministry, as the best means of -securing his effective responsibility to parliament for the proper use -of his extensive powers. The transference of the judicial business of -the chancery court to the High Court of Justice removed many of the -objections to the fluctuating character of the office. As a great -officer of state, the lord chancellor acts for both England and -Scotland, and in some respects for the United Kingdom, including Ireland -(where, however, an Irish lord chancellor is at the head of the legal -system). By Article XXIV. of the Act of Union (1705) one great seal was -appointed to be kept for all public acts, and in this department the -lord chancellor's authority extends to the whole of Britain, and thus -the commissions of the peace for Scotland as well as England issue from -him.[1] As an administrative officer, as a judge and as head of the law, -he acts merely for England. His English ministerial functions are thus -briefly described by Blackstone: "He became keeper of the king's -conscience, visitor, in right of the king, of all hospitals and colleges -of the king's foundation, and patron of all the king's livings under the -value of twenty marks per annum in the king's books. He is the general -guardian of all infants, idiots and lunatics, and has the general -superintendence of all charitable uses in the kingdom." But these duties -and jurisdiction by modern statutes have been distributed for the most -part among other offices or committed to the judges of the High Court -(see CHARITY AND CHARITIES; INFANT; INSANITY). Under the Judicature Act -1873 the lord chancellor is a member of the court of appeal, and, when -he sits, its president, and he is also a judge of the High Court of -Justice. He is named as president of the chancery division of the latter -court. His judicial patronage is very extensive, and he is by usage the -adviser of the crown in the appointment of judges[2] of the High Court. -He presides over the hearing of appeals in the House of Lords. His -proper title is "Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain and Ireland." His -salary is L10,000 per annum, and he is entitled to a pension of L5000 -per annum. - - AUTHORITIES.--_Observations concerning the Office of Lord Chancellor_ - (1651), attributed to Lord Chancellor Ellesmere; Blackstone's - _Commentaries_; Campbell's _Lives of the Chancellors_; and D. M. - Kerly, _Historical Sketch of the Equitable Jurisdiction of the Court - of Chancery_ (1890). - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The great seal, which exists in duplicate for Irish use, is the - great seal of the United Kingdom. - - [2] Except the lord chief justice, who is appointed on the nomination - of the prime minister. - - - - -LORD HIGH CONSTABLE, in England, the seventh of the great officers of -state. His office is now called out of abeyance for coronations alone. -The constable was originally the commander of the royal armies and the -master of the horse. He was also, in conjunction with the earl marshal, -president of the court of chivalry or court of honour. In feudal times -martial law was administered in the court of the lord high constable. -The constableship was granted as a grand serjeanty with the earldom of -Hereford by the empress Maud to Milo of Gloucester, and was carried by -his heiress to the Bohuns, earls of Hereford and Essex. Through a -coheiress of the Bohuns it descended to the Staffords, dukes of -Buckingham; and on the attainder of Edward Stafford, third duke of -Buckingham, in the reign of Henry VIII. it became merged in the crown. -The Lacys and Verduns were hereditary constables of Ireland from the -12th to the 14th century, and the Hays, earls of Erroll, have been -hereditary constables of Scotland from early in the 14th century. - - - - -LORD HIGH STEWARD. The Lord High Steward of England, who must not be -confused with the Lord Steward, ranks as the first of the great officers -of state. Appointments to this office are now made only for special -occasions, such as the coronation of a sovereign or the trial of a peer -by his peers. The history of the office is noteworthy. The household of -the Norman and Angevin kings of England included certain persons of -secondary rank, styled dapifers, seneschals or stewards (the prototypes -of the lord steward), who were entrusted with domestic and state duties; -the former duties were those of purveyors and sewers to the king, the -latter were undefined. At coronations, however, and great festivals it -became the custom in England and elsewhere to appoint magnates of the -first rank to discharge for the occasion the domestic functions of the -ordinary officials. In accordance with this custom Henry II. appointed -both Robert II., earl of Leicester, and Hugh Bigod, earl of Norfolk, to -be his honorary hereditary stewards; and at the Christmas festival of -1186 the successors in title of these two earls, with William, earl of -Arundel, who held the similar honorary office of hereditary butler, are -described as serving the king at the royal banqueting table. -Subsequently the earls of Leicester bought out the rights of the earls -of Norfolk for ten knights' fees. - -The last of these earls of Leicester to inherit the hereditary -stewardship was Simon V. de Montfort; how he served as steward at the -coronation of Eleanor, queen of Henry III., is described in the -Exchequer Red Book. The office of steward in France, then recently -suppressed, had for some time been the highest office of state in that -kingdom, and Simon de Montfort appears to have considered that his -hereditary stewardship entitled him to high official position in -England; and after his victory at Lewes he repeatedly figures as steward -of England in official documents under the great seal. After Simon's -death at Evesham his forfeited estates were conferred on his son Edmund -of Lancaster, who also obtained a grant of the stewardship, but only for -life. Edmund was succeeded by Thomas, earl of Lancaster, who received a -fresh grant of the stewardship to himself and the heirs of his body from -Edward II.; and this earl it was who, during the weak administration of -the last-mentioned king, first put forward in a celebrated tract the -claim of the steward to be the second personage in the realm and supreme -judge in parliament, a claim which finds some slight recognition in the -preamble to the statute passed against the Despencers in the first year -of Edward III. - -Earl Thomas was executed for treason, and though his attainder was -reversed he left no issue, and was succeeded in the earldom by his -brother Henry. The subsequent earls and dukes of Lancaster were all -recognized as stewards of England, the office apparently being treated -as annexed to the earldom, or honor, of Leicester. John of Gaunt, -indeed, at a time when it was possible that he would never obtain the -Leicester moiety of the Lancastrian estates, seems to have made an -ingenious but quite unfounded claim to the office as annexed to the -honor of Hinckley. Strictly speaking, none of the Lancasters after -Thomas had any clear title either by grant or otherwise; such title as -they had merged in the crown when Henry IV. usurped the throne. -Meanwhile the stewardship had increased in importance. On the accession -of Edward III., Henry, earl of Lancaster, as president of the council, -had superintended the coronation of the infant king; John of Gaunt did -the same for the infant Richard II.; and, as part of the duties -involved, sat in the White Hall of Westminster to hear and determine the -claims to perform coronation services. The claims were made by petition, -and included amongst others: the claim of Thomas of Woodstock to act as -constable, the rival claims of John Dymock and Baldwin de Frevile to act -as champion, and the claim of the barons of the Cinque Ports to carry a -canopy over the king. Minutes of these proceedings, in which the duke is -stated to have sat "as steward of England," were enrolled by his order. -This is the origin of what is now called the Court of Claims. The -precedent of Richard II. has been followed on all subsequent occasions, -except that in modern times it has been the practice to appoint -commissioners instead of a steward to superintend this court. In 1397 -John of Gaunt created a notable precedent in support of the steward's -claim to be supreme judge in parliament by presiding at the trial of the -earl of Arundel and others. - -When Henry IV. came to the throne he appointed his young son Thomas, -afterwards duke of Clarence, to the office of steward. Clarence held the -office until his death. He himself never acted as judge in parliament; -but in 1415 he was appointed to preside at the judgment of peers -delivered in Southampton against Richard, earl of Cambridge, and Lord -Scrope of Masham, who had been previously tried by commissioners of oyer -and terminer. No permanent steward was ever again created; but a steward -was always appointed for coronations to perform the various ceremonial -services associated with the office, and, until the Court of Claims was -entrusted to commissioners, to preside over that court. Also, in the -15th century, it gradually became the custom to appoint a steward _pro -hac vice_ to preside at the trial, or at the proceedings upon the -attainder of a peer in parliament; and later, to preside over a court, -called the court of the lord high steward, for the trial of peers when -parliament was not sitting. To assist in establishing the latter court a -precedent of 1400 appears to have been deliberately forged. This -precedent is reported in the printed _Year-Book_ of 1400, first -published in 1553; it describes the trial of "the earl of H" for -participation in the rebellion of that year, and gives details of -procedure. John Holand, earl of Huntingdon, is undoubtedly the earl -indicated, but the evidence is conclusive that he was murdered in Essex -without any trial. The court of the lord high steward seems to have been -first definitely instituted in 1499 for the trial of Edward Plantagenet, -earl of Warwick; only two years earlier Lord Audley had been condemned -by the court of chivalry, a very different and unpopular tribunal. The -Warwick trial was most carefully schemed: the procedure, fundamentally -dissimilar to that adopted in 1415, follows exactly the forged -precedent; but the constitution of the court was plainly derived from -the Southampton case. The record of the trial was consigned to a new -repository (commonly but wrongly called the Baga de Secretis), which -thenceforth became the regular place of custody for important state -trials. Latterly, and possibly from its inception, this repository -consisted of a closet with three locks, of which the keys were -entrusted, one to the chief justice of England, another to the -attorney-general and the third to the master of the crown office, or -coroner. Notwithstanding the irregular origin of the steward's court, -for which Henry VII. must be held responsible, the validity of its -jurisdiction cannot be questioned. The Warwick proceedings were -confirmed by act of parliament, and ever since this court has been fully -recognized as part of the English constitution. - -For about a century and a half prior to the reign of James I. the -criminal jurisdiction of parliament remained in abeyance, and bills of -attainder were the vogue. The practice of appointing a steward on these -occasions to execute judgment upon a peer was kept up till 1477, when -George, duke of Clarence, was attainted, and then dropped. Under the -Stuarts the criminal jurisdiction of parliament was again resorted to, -and when the proceedings against a peer were founded on indictment the -appointment of a steward followed as a matter of settled practice. The -proper procedure in cases of impeachment had, on the contrary, never -been defined. On the impeachment of Strafford the lords themselves -appointed Arundel to be high steward. In Danby's case a commission under -the great seal issued in the common form adopted for the court of the -steward; this was recalled, and the rule agreed to by a joint committee -of both houses that a steward for trials of peers upon impeachments was -unnecessary. But, as such an appointment was obviously convenient, the -lords petitioned for a steward; and a fresh commission was accordingly -issued in an amended form, which recited the petition, and omitted words -implying that the appointment was necessary. This precedent has been -treated as settling the practice of parliament with regard to -impeachments. - -Of the proceedings against peers founded upon indictment very few trials -antecedent to the revolution took place in parliament. The preference -given to the steward's court was largely due to the practice, founded -upon the Southampton case, of summoning only a few peers selected by the -steward, a practice which made it easy for the king to secure a -conviction. This arrangement has been partially abrogated by the Treason -Act of William III., which in cases of treason and misprision of treason -requires that all peers of parliament shall be summoned twenty days at -least before every such trial. The steward's court also differed in -certain other particulars from the high court of parliament. For -example, it was ruled by Lord Chancellor Jeffreys, as steward at the -trial of Lord Delamere, that, in trials of peers which take place during -the recess of parliament in the steward's court, the steward is the -judge of the court, the court is held before him, his warrant convenes -the prisoner to the bar, his summons convenes the peers for the trial, -and he is to determine by his sole authority all questions of law that -arise in the course of the trial, but that he is to give no vote upon -the issue of guilty or not guilty; during a session of parliament, on -the contrary, all the peers are both triers and judges, and the steward -is only as chairman of the court and gives his vote together with the -other lords. Lord Delamere was tried in 1685 in the steward's court; -since then all trials of peers have taken place before the lords in -parliament. The most recent trial was that of Earl Russell in 1901, when -Lord Chancellor Halsbury was made lord high steward. The steward is -addressed as "his grace," he has a rod of office, and the commission -appointing him is dissolved according to custom by breaking this rod. - -A court of claims sat and a steward was appointed for the coronation of -Edward VII.; and during the procession in Westminster Abbey the duke of -Marlborough, as steward, carried "St Edward's crown" in front of the -bearer of the Bible (the bishop of London), who immediately preceded the -king; this function of the steward is of modern origin. The steward's -ancient and particular services at coronations are practically obsolete; -the full ceremonies, procession from Westminster Hall and banquet in -which he figured prominently, were abandoned on the accession of William -IV. - - For the early history of the steward see L. W. Vernon-Harcourt, _His - Grace the Steward and Trial of Peers_ (1907); for the later history of - the office see Sir E. Coke, _Institutes_ (1797); Cobbett and Howell, - _State Trials_ (1809, seq.); S. M. Phillipps, _State Trials_ (1826); - John Hatsell, _Precedents_, vol. 4 (1818); and Sir M. Foster, _Crown - Law_ (1809). See also the various works on _Coronations_ for the - steward's services on these occasions. (L. W. V.-H.) - - - - -LORD HIGH TREASURER, in England, once the third great officer of state. -The office was of Norman origin and dated from 1216. The duty of the -treasurer originally was to act as keeper of the royal treasure at -Winchester, while as officer of the exchequer he sat at Westminster to -receive the accounts of the sheriffs, and appoint officers to collect -the revenue. The treasurer was subordinate to both the justiciar and the -chancellor, but the removal of the chancery from the exchequer in the -reign of Richard I., and the abolition of the office of justiciars in -the reign of Henry III., increased his importance. Indeed, from the -middle of the reign of Henry III. he became one of the chief officers of -the crown. He took an important part in the equitable jurisdiction of -the exchequer, and was now styled not merely king's treasurer or -treasurer of the exchequer, but lord high treasurer and treasurer of the -exchequer. The first office was conferred by delivery of a white staff, -the second by patent. Near the end of the 16th century he had developed -into an official so occupied with the general policy of the country as -to be prevented from supervising personally the details of the -department, and Lord Burleigh employed a secretary for this purpose. On -the death of Lord Salisbury in 1612 the office was put in commission; it -was filled from time to time until 1714, when the duke of Shrewsbury -resigned it; since that time it has always been in commission (see -TREASURY). The Scottish treasury was merged with the English by the Act -of Union, but the office of lord high treasurer for Ireland was -continued until 1816. - - - - -LORD HOWE, an island of the southern Pacific Ocean, lying about 31 deg. -36' S., 159 deg. 5' E., 520 m. E.N.E. of Sydney. Pop. 120. It was -discovered in 1778 by Lieutenant Ball (whose name is commemorated in the -adjacent islet of Ball's Pyramid), and is a dependency of New South -Wales. It measures about 5(1/2) m. by 1 m., and is well wooded and hilly -(reaching a height of 2840 ft. at the southern end), being of volcanic -formation, while there are coral reefs on the western shore. It has a -pleasant climate. The name Lord Howe is given also to an islet of the -Santa Cruz group, and to two islands, also known under other -names--Mopiha, of the Society group, and Ongtong Java of the Solomon -Islands. - - - - -LORD JUSTICE CLERK, in Scotland, a judge next in rank to the lord -justice-general. He presides in the second division of the court of -session, and in the absence of the lord justice-general, presides in the -court of justiciary. The justice clerk was originally not a judge at -all, but simply clerk and legal assessor of the justice court. In course -of time he was raised from the clerk's table to the bench, and by custom -presided over the court in the absence of the justice-general. Up to -1672 his position was somewhat anomalous, as it was doubtful whether he -was a clerk or a judge, but an act of that year, which suppressed the -office of justice-depute, confirmed his position as a judge, forming -him, with the justice-general and five of the lords of session into the -court of justiciary. The lord justice clerk is also one of the officers -of state for Scotland, and one of the commissioners for keeping the -Scottish Regalia. His salary is L4800 a year. - - - - -LORD JUSTICE-GENERAL, the highest judge in Scotland, head of the court -of justiciary, called also the lord president, and as such head of the -court of session and representative of the sovereign. The office of -justice-general was for a considerable time a sinecure post held by one -of the Scottish nobility, but by the Court of Session Act 1830, it was -enacted that, at the termination of the existing interest, the office -should be united with that of lord president of the court of session, -who then became presiding judge of the court of justiciary. The salary -is L5000 a year. - - - - -LORD KEEPER OF THE GREAT SEAL, in England, formerly a great officer of -state. The Great Seal of England, which is affixed on all solemn -occasions to documents expressing the pleasure of the sovereign, was -first adopted by Edward the Confessor (see SEALS), and entrusted to a -chancellor for keeping. The office of chancellor from the time of Becket -onwards varied much in importance; the holder being an ecclesiastic, he -was not only engaged in the business of his diocese, but sometimes was -away from England. Consequently, it became not unusual to place the -personal custody of the great seal in the hands of a vice-chancellor or -keeper; this, too, was the practice followed during a temporary vacancy -in the chancellorship. This office gradually developed into a permanent -appointment, and the lord keeper acquired the right of discharging all -the duties connected with the great seal. He was usually, though not -necessarily, a peer, and held office during the king's pleasure, he was -appointed merely by delivery of the seal, and not, like the chancellor, -by patent. His status was definitely fixed (in the case of lord keeper -Sir Nicholas Bacon) by an act of Elizabeth, which declared him entitled -to "like place, pre-eminence, jurisdiction, execution of laws, and all -other customs, commodities, and advantages" as the lord chancellor. In -subsequent reigns the lord keeper was generally raised to the -chancellorship, and retained the custody of the seal. The last lord -keeper was Sir Robert Henley (afterwards Lord Northington), who was made -chancellor on the accession of George III. - - - - -LORD MAYOR'S DAY, in England, the 9th of November, the date of the -inauguration of the lord mayor of London (see Vol. XVI., p. 966), marked -by a pageant known as the Lord Mayor's Show. The first of these pageants -was held in 1215. The idea originated in the stipulation made in a -charter then granted by John that the citizen chosen to be mayor should -be presented to the king or his justice for approval. The crowd of -citizens who accompanied the mayor on horseback to Westminster developed -into a yearly pageant, which each season became more elaborate. Until -the 15th century the mayor either rode or walked to Westminster, but in -1453 Sir John Norman appears to have set a fashion of going by water. -From 1639 to 1655 the show disappeared owing to Puritan opposition. With -the Restoration the city pageant was revived, but interregnums occurred -during the years of the plague and fire, and in 1683 when a quarrel -broke out between Charles and the city, ending in the temporary -abrogation of the charter. In 1711 an untoward accident befell the show, -the mayor Sir Gilbert Heathcote (the original of Addison's Sir Andrew -Freeport) being thrown by his horse. The next year a coach was, in -consequence, provided for the chief magistrate. In 1757 this was -superseded by a gilded and elaborately decorated equipage costing -L10,065 which was used till 1896, when a replica of it was built to -replace it. - - - - -LORD PRESIDENT OF THE COUNCIL, in England, one of the great officers of -state, and a member of the ministry. It was only in 1679 that the office -of lord president became permanent. Previously either the lord -chancellor, the lord keeper of the seal, or some particular court -official took formal direction of the Privy Council. In the reign of -Charles I. a special lord president of the council was appointed, but in -the following reign the office was left unfilled. The office was of -considerable importance when the powers of the Privy Council, exercised -through various committees, were of greater extent than at the present -time. For example, a committee of the lords of the council was formerly -responsible for the work now dealt with by the secretary of state for -foreign affairs; so also with that now discharged by the Board of Trade. -The lord president up to 1855--when a new post of vice-president of the -council was created--was responsible for the education department. He -was also responsible for the duties of the council in regard to public -health, now transferred to the Local Government Board, and for duties in -regard to agriculture, now transferred to the Board of Agriculture and -Fisheries. The duties of the office now consist of presiding on the not -very frequent occasions when the Privy Council meets, and of the drawing -up of minutes of council upon subjects which do not belong to any other -department of state. The office is very frequently held in conjunction -with other ministerial offices, for example, in Gladstone's fourth -ministry the secretary of state for India was also lord president of the -council, and in the conservative ministry of 1903 the holder of the -office was also president of the Board of Education. The lord president -is appointed by a declaration made in council by the sovereign. He is -invariably a member of the House of Lords, and he is also included in -the cabinet. - - - - -LORDS JUSTICES OF APPEAL, in England, the ordinary judges of the court -of appeal, the appellate division of the High Court of Justice. Their -style was provided for by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1877. The -number was fixed at five by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1881, s. -3. Their salary is L5000 a year (see APPEAL). - - - - -LORDS OF APPEAL IN ORDINARY, in England, certain persons (limited to -four), who, having held high judicial office or practised at the bar for -not less than fifteen years, sit as members of the House of Lords to -adjudicate in cases before that House in its legal capacity, and also to -aid the judicial committee of the Privy Council in hearing appeals. Of -the four lords of appeal in ordinary one is usually appointed from the -Irish bench or bar and one from Scotland. Their salary is L6000 a year. -They hold office on the same conditions as other judges. By the -Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, under which they are appointed, lords -of appeal in ordinary are, by virtue of and according to the date of -their appointment, entitled during life to rank as barons and during the -time that they continue in office are entitled to a writ of summons to -attend, and to sit and vote in the House of Lords. They are life peers -only. The patent of a lord of appeal in ordinary differs from that of a -baron in that he is not "created" but "nominated and appointed to be a -Lord of Appeal in Ordinary by the style of Baron." - - - - -LORD STEWARD, in England, an important official of the king's household. -He is always a member of the government, a peer and a privy councillor. -Up to 1782, the office was one of considerable political importance and -carried cabinet rank. The lord steward receives his appointment from the -sovereign in person, and bears a white staff as the emblem and warrant -of his authority. He is the first dignitary of the court. In the -_Statutes of Eltham_ he is called "the lord great master," but in the -_Household Book_ of Queen Elizabeth "the lord steward," as before and -since. In an act of Henry VIII. (1539) "for placing of the lords," he is -described as "the grand master or lord steward of the king's most -honourable household." He presides at the Board of Green Cloth.[1] In -his department are the treasurer and comptroller of the household, who -rank next to him. These officials are usually peers or the sons of peers -and privy councillors. They sit at the Board of Green Cloth, carry white -staves, and belong to the ministry. But the duties which in theory -belong to the lord steward, treasurer and comptroller of the household -are in practice performed by the master of the household, who is a -permanent officer and resides in the palace. He is a white-staff officer -and a member of the Board of Green Cloth but not of the ministry, and -among other things he presides at the daily dinners of the suite in -waiting on the sovereign. In his case history repeats itself. He is not -named in the _Black Book_ of Edward IV. or in the _Statutes_ of Henry -VIII., and is entered as "master of the household and clerk of the green -cloth" in the _Household Book_ of Queen Elizabeth. But he has superseded -the lord steward of the household, as the lord steward of the household -at one time superseded the lord high steward of England. - -In the lord steward's department are the officials of the Board of Green -Cloth, the coroner ("coroner of the verge"), and paymaster of the -household, and the officers of the almonry (see ALMONER). Other offices -in the department were those of the cofferer of the household, the -treasurer of the chamber, and the paymaster of pensions, but these, with -six clerks of the Board of Green Cloth, were abolished in 1782. The lord -steward had formerly three courts besides the Board of Green Cloth under -him. First, the lord steward's court, superseded (1541) by--second--the -Marshalsea court, a court of record having jurisdiction, both civil and -criminal within the verge (the area within a radius of 12 m. from where -the sovereign is resident), and originally held for the purpose of -administering justice between the domestic servants of the sovereign, -"that they might not be drawn into other courts and their service lost." -Its criminal jurisdiction had long fallen into disuse and its civil -jurisdiction was abolished in 1849. Third, the palace court, created by -letters patent in 1612 and renewed in 1665 with jurisdiction over all -personal matters arising between parties within 12 m. of Whitehall (the -jurisdiction of the Marshalsea court, the City of London, and -Westminster Hall being excepted). It differed from the Marshalsea court -in that it had no jurisdiction over the sovereign's household nor were -its suitors necessarily of the household. The privilege of practising -before the palace court was limited to four counsel. It was abolished in -1849. The lord steward or his deputies formerly administered the oaths -to the members of the House of Commons. In certain cases (messages from -the sovereign under the sign-manual) "the lords with white staves" are -the proper persons to bear communications between the sovereign and the -houses of parliament. - - AUTHORITIES.--_Statutes of Eltham; Household Book_ of Queen Elizabeth; - Coke, _Institutes_; Reeves, _History of the Law of England_; Stephen, - _Commentaries on the Laws of England_; Hatsell, _Precedents of - Proceedings in the House of Commons_; May, _Parliamentary Practice_. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] A committee of the king's household, consisting of the lord - steward and his subordinates, charged with the duty of examining and - passing all the accounts of the household. The board had also power - to punish all offenders within the verge or jurisdiction of the - palace, which extended in every direction for 200 yds. from the gates - of the court yard. The name is derived from the green-covered table - at which the transactions of the board were originally conducted. - - - - -LORE, AMBROISE DE (1396-1446), baron of Ivry in Normandy and a French -commander, was born at the chateau of Lore (Orne, arrondissement of -Domfront). His first exploit in arms was at the battle of Agincourt in -1415; he followed the party of the Armagnacs and attached himself to the -dauphin Charles. He waged continual warfare against the English in Maine -until the advent of Joan of Arc. He fought at Jargeau, at -Meung-sur-Loire and at Patay (1429). Using his fortress of Saint Ceneri -as a base of operations during the next few years, he seized upon -Matthew Gough near Vivoin in 1431, and made an incursion as far as the -walls of Caen, whence he brought away three thousand prisoners. Taken -captive himself in 1433, he was exchanged for Talbot. In 1435 he and -Dunois defeated the English near Meulan, and in 1436 he helped the -constable Arthur, earl of Richmond (de Richmond), to expel them from -Paris. He was appointed provost of Paris in February 1437, and in 1438 -he was made "judge and general reformer of the malefactors of the -kingdom." He was present in 1439 at the taking of Meaux, in 1441 at that -of Pontoise, and he died on the 24th of May 1446. - - See the _Nouvelle Biographie Generale_, vol. xxxi., and the _Revue - Historique du Maine_, vols. iii. and vi. (J. V.*) - - - - -LORE, properly instruction, teaching, knowledge. The O. Eng. _lar_, as -the Dutch _leer_ and Ger. _Lehre_, represents the Old Teutonic root, -meaning to impart or receive knowledge, seen in "to learn," "learning." -In the _Gentleman's Magazine_ for June 1830 it was suggested that "lore" -should be used as a termination instead of the Greek derivative -_ology_ -in the names of the various sciences. This was never done, but the word, -both as termination and alone, is frequently applied to the many -traditional beliefs, stories, &c., connected with the body of knowledge -concerning some special subject; e.g. legendary lore, bird-lore, &c. The -most familiar use is in "folk-lore" (q.v.). - - - - -LORELEI (from Old High Ger. _Lur_, connected with modern Ger. _lauern_, -"to lurk," "be on the watch for," and equivalent to elf, and _lai_, "a -rock"). The Lorelei is a rock in the Rhine near St Goar, which gives a -remarkable echo, which may partly account for the legend. The tale -appears in many forms, but is best known through Heinrich Heine's poem, -beginning _Ich weiss nicht was soll es bedeuten_. In the commonest form -of the story the Lorelei is a maiden who threw herself into the Rhine in -despair over a faithless lover, and became a siren whose voice lured -fishermen to destruction. The 13th-century minnesinger, known as Der -Marner, says that the Nibelungen treasure was hidden beneath the rock. -The tale is obviously closely connected with the myth of Holda, queen of -the elves. On the Main she sits combing her locks on the Hullenstein, -and the man who sees her loses sight or reason, while he who listens is -condemned to wander with her for ever. The legend, which Clemens -Brentano claimed as his own invention when he wrote his poem "Zu -Bacharach am Rheine" in his novel of _Godwi_ (1802), bears all the marks -of popular mythology. In the 19th century it formed material for a great -number of songs, dramatic sketches, operas and even tragedies, which -are enumerated by Dr Hermann Seeliger in his _Loreleysage in Dichtung -und Musik_ (Leipzig-Reudnitz, 1898). The favourite poem with composers -was Heine's, set to music by some twenty-five musicians, the settings by -Friedrich Silcher (from an old folk-song) and by Liszt being the most -famous. - - - - -LORETO, an episcopal see and pilgrimage resort of the Marches, Italy, in -the province of Ancona, 15 m. by rail S.S.E. of that town. Pop. (1901) -1178 (town), 8033 (commune). It lies upon the right bank of the Musone, -at some distance from the railway station, on a hill-side commanding -splendid views from the Apennines to the Adriatic, 341 ft. above -sea-level. The town itself consists of little more than one long narrow -street, lined with shops for the sale of rosaries, medals, crucifixes -and similar objects, the manufacture of which is the sole industry of -the place. The number of pilgrims is said to amount to 50,000 annually, -the chief festival being held on the 8th of September, the Nativity of -the Virgin. The principal buildings, occupying the four sides of the -piazza, are the college of the Jesuits, the Palazzo Apostolico, now -Reale (designed by Bramante), which contains a picture gallery with -works of Lorenzo Lotto, Vouet and Caracci and a collection of majolica, -and the cathedral church of the Holy House (Chiesa della Casa Santa), a -Late Gothic structure continued by Giuliano da Maiano, Giuliano da -Sangallo and Bramante. The handsome facade of the church was erected -under Sixtus V., who fortified Loreto and gave it the privileges of a -town (1586); his colossal statue stands in the middle of the flight of -steps in front. Over the principal doorway is a life-size bronze statue -of the Virgin and Child by Girolamo Lombardo; the three superb bronze -doors executed at the latter end of the 16th century and under Paul V. -(1605-1621) are also by Lombardo, his sons and his pupils, among them -Tiburzio Vergelli, who also made the fine bronze font in the interior. -The doors and hanging lamps of the Santa Casa are by the same artists. -The richly decorated campanile, by Vanvitelli, is of great height; the -principal bell, presented by Leo X. in 1516, weighs 11 tons. The -interior of the church has mosaics by Domenichino and Guido Reni and -other works of art. In the sacristies on each side of the right transept -are frescoes, on the right by Melozzo da Forli, on the left by Luca -Signorelli. In both are fine intarsias. - -But the chief object of interest is the Holy House itself. It is a plain -stone building, 28 ft. by 12(1/2) and 13(1/2) ft. in height; it has a -door on the north side and a window on the west; and a niche contains a -small black image of the Virgin and Child, in Lebanon cedar, and richly -adorned with jewels. St Luke is alleged to have been the sculptor; its -workmanship suggests the latter half of the 15th century. Around the -Santa Casa is a lofty marble screen, designed by Bramante, and executed -under Popes Leo X., Clement VII. and Paul III., by Andrea Sansovino, -Girolamo Lombardo, Bandinelli, Guglielmo della Porta and others. The -four sides represent the Annunciation, the Nativity, the Arrival of the -Santa Casa at Loreto and the Nativity of the Virgin respectively. The -treasury contains a large variety of rich and curious votive offerings. -The architectural design is finer than the details of the sculpture. The -choir apse is decorated with modern German frescoes, which are somewhat -out of place. - -The legend of the Holy House seems to have sprung up (how is not exactly -known) at the close of the crusading period. - -It is briefly referred to in the _Italia Illustrata_ of Flavius Blondus, -secretary to Popes Eugenius IV., Nicholas V., Calixtus III. and Pius II. -(_ob._ 1464); it is to be read in all its fullness in the "Redemptoris -mundi Matris Ecclesiae Lauretana historia," by a certain Teremannus, -contained in the _Opera Omnia_ (1576) of Baptista Mantuanus. According -to this narrative the house at Nazareth in which Mary had been born and -brought up, had received the annunciation, and had lived during the -childhood of Jesus and after His ascension, was converted into a church -by the apostles. In 336 the empress Helena made a pilgrimage to Nazareth -and caused a basilica to be erected over it, in which worship continued -until the fall of the kingdom of Jerusalem. Threatened with destruction -by the Turks, it was carried by angels through the air and deposited -(1291) in the first instance on a hill at Tersatto in Dalmatia, where -an appearance of the Virgin and numerous miraculous cures attested its -sanctity, which was confirmed by investigations made at Nazareth by -messengers from the governor of Dalmatia. In 1294 the angels carried it -across the Adriatic to a wood near Recanati; from this wood (lauretum), -or from the name of its proprietrix (Laureta), the chapel derived the -name which it still retains ("sacellum gloriosae Virginis in Laureto"). -From this spot it was afterwards (1295) removed to the present hill, one -other slight adjustment being required to fix it in its actual site. -Bulls in favour of the shrine at Loreto were issued by Pope Sixtus IV. -in 1491 and by Julius II. in 1507, the last alluding to the translation -of the house with some caution ("ut pie creditur et fama est"). The -recognition of the sanctuary by subsequent pontiffs has already been -alluded to. In the end of the 17th century Innocent XII. appointed a -"missa cum officio proprio" for the feast of the Translation of the Holy -House, and the feast is still enjoined in the Spanish Breviary as a -"greater double" (December 10). - - See also U. Chevalier, _Notre-Dame de Lorette_ (Paris, 1906). - - - - -LORETO, an inland department of Peru, lying E. of the Andean Cordilleras -and forming the N.E. part of the republic. Extensive territories, -nominally parts of this department, are in dispute between Peru and the -neighbouring republics of Brazil, Colombia and Ecuador (see PERU), and -the northern and eastern boundaries of the territory are therefore not -definitely determined. Loreto is bounded W. by the departments of -Amazonas and San Martin (the latter a new department, with an area of -30,744 sq. m., taken from Loreto, lying between the central and eastern -Cordilleras and extending from the 6th to the 9th parallels, -approximately), and S. by Huanuco and Cuzco. The area of the department, -including the territories claimed by Peru, is estimated at 257,798 sq. -m. The population is estimated (1906) at 120,000. The aboriginal -population is not numerous, as the thick, humid forests are inhabited -only where lakes and streams make open spaces for sunlight and -ventilation. With the exception of the eastern Andean slopes and a -little-known range of low mountains on the Brazilian frontier, called -the Andes Conomamas, the surface is that of a thickly wooded plain -sloping gently towards the Maranon, or Upper Amazon, which crosses it -from W. to E. There are open plains between the Ucayali and Huallaga, -known as the Pampas del Sacramento, but otherwise there are no extensive -breaks in the forest. The elevation of the plain near the base of the -Andes is 526 ft. on the Ucayali, 558 on the Huallaga, and 453 at -Barranca, on the Maranon, a few miles below the Pongo de Manseriche. The -eastward slope of the plain is about 250 ft. in the 620 m. (direct) -between this point and Tabatinga, on the Brazilian frontier; this not -only shows the remarkably level character of the Amazon valley of which -it forms a part, but also the sluggish character of its drainage. From -the S. the principal rivers traversing Loreto are the Ucayali and -Huallaga, the former entering from Cuzco across its southern boundary -and skirting the eastern base of the Andes for about four degrees of -latitude before it turns away to the N.E. to join the Maranon, and the -latter breaking through the Eastern Cordillera between the 6th and 7th -parallels and entering the Maranon 143 m. below Yurimaguas, where -navigation begins. The lower Ucayali, which has a very tortuous course, -is said to have 868 m. of navigable channel at high water and 620 m. at -low water. North of the Maranon several large rivers pass through -Peruvian territory between the Santiago and Napo (see Ecuador), nearly -all having navigable channels. On the level plains are a number of -lakes, some are formed by the annual floods and are temporary in -character. Among the permanent lakes are the Gran Cocama, of the Pampas -del Sacramento, the Caballococha--a widening of the Amazon itself about -60 m. N.W. of Tabatinga--and Rimachuma, on the north side of the -Maranon, near the lower Pastaza. - -The natural resources of this extensive region are incalculable, but -their development has been well nigh impossible through lack of -transport facilities. They include the characteristic woods of the -Amazon valley, rubber, nuts, cinchona or Peruvian bark, medicinal -products, fish, fruits and fibres. The cultivated products include -cocoa, coffee, tobacco and fruits. Straw hats and hammocks are -manufactured to some extent. The natural outlet of this region is the -Amazon river, but this involves 2500 m. of river navigation from Iquitos -before the ocean is reached. Communication with the Pacific coast cities -and ports of Peru implies the crossing of three high, snow-covered -ranges of the Andes by extremely difficult trails and passes. A rough -mountain road has been constructed from Oroya to Puerto Bermudez, at the -head of navigation on the Pachitea, and is maintained by the government -pending the construction of a railway, but the distance is 210 m. and it -takes nine days for a mule train to make the journey. At Puerto Bermudez -a river steamer connects with Iquitos, making the distance of 930 m. in -seven days. From Lima to Iquitos by this route, therefore, involves 17 -days travel over a distance of 1268 m. The most feasible route from the -department to the Pacific coast is that which connects Puerto Limon, on -the Maranon, with the Pacific port of Payta, a distance of 410 m., it -being possible to cross the Andes on this route at the low elevation of -6600 ft. The climate of Loreto is hot and humid, except on the higher -slopes of the Andes. The year is divided into a wet and a dry season, -the first from May to October, and the average annual rainfall is -estimated at 70 in. though it varies widely between distant points. The -capital and only town of importance in the department is Iquitos. - - - - -LORIENT, a maritime town of western France, capital of an arrondissement -in the department of Morbihan, on the right bank of the Scorff at its -confluence with the Blavet, 34 m. W. by N. of Vannes by rail. Pop. -(1906) 40,848. The town is modern and regularly built. Its chief objects -of interest are the church of St Louis (1709) and a statue by A. Mercie -of Victor Masse, the composer, born at Lorient in 1822. It is one of the -five maritime prefectures in France and the first port for naval -construction in the country. The naval port to the east of the town is -formed by the channel of the Scorff, on the right bank of which the -chief naval establishments are situated. These include magazines, -foundries, forges, fitting-shops, rope-works and other workshops on the -most extensive scale, as well as a graving dock, a covered slip and -other slips. A floating bridge connects the right bank with the -peninsula of Caudan formed by the union of the Scorff and Blavet. Here -are the shipbuilding yards covering some 38 acres, and comprising nine -slips for large vessels and two others for smaller vessels, besides -forges and workshops for iron shipbuilding. The commercial port to the -south of the town consists of an outer tidal port protected by a jetty -and of an inner dock, both lined by fine quays planted with trees. It -separates the older part of the town, which is hemmed in by -fortifications from a newer quarter. In 1905, 121 vessels of 28,785 tons -entered with cargo and 145 vessels of 38,207 tons cleared. The chief -export is pit-timber, the chief import is coal. Fishing is actively -carried on. Lorient is the seat of a sub-prefect, of commercial and -maritime tribunals and of a tribunal of first instance, and has a -chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a lycee, schools of -navigation, and naval artillery. Private industry is also engaged in -iron-working and engine making. The trade in fresh fish, sardines, -oysters (which are reared near Lorient) and tinned vegetables is -important and the manufacture of basket-work, tin-boxes and -passementerie, arid the preparation of preserved sardines and vegetables -are carried on. The roadstead, formed by the estuary of the Blavet, is -accessible to vessels of the largest size; the entrance, 3 or 4 m. south -from Lorient, which is defended by numerous forts, is marked on the east -by the peninsula of Gavres (an artillery practising ground) and the -fortified town of Port Louis; on the west are the fort of Loqueltas and, -higher up, the battery of Kernevel. In the middle of the channel is the -granite rock of St Michel, occupied by a powder magazine. Opposite it, -on the right bank of the Blavet, is the mouth of the river Ter, with -fish and oyster breeding establishments from which 10 millions of -oysters are annually obtained. The roadstead is provided with six -lighthouses. Above Lorient on the Scorff, here spanned by a suspension -bridge, is Kerentrech, a pretty village surrounded by numerous country -houses. - -Lorient took the place of Port Louis as the port of the Blavet. The -latter stands on the site of an ancient hamlet which was fortified -during the wars of the League and handed over by Philip Emmanuel, duke -of Morcoeur, to the Spaniards. After the treaty of Vervins it was -restored to France, and it received its name of Port Louis under -Richelieu. Some Breton merchants trading with the Indies had established -themselves first at Port Louis, but in 1628 they built their warehouses -on the other bank. The Compagnie des Indes Orientales, created in 1664, -took possession of these, giving them the name of l'Orient. In 1745 the -Compagnie des Indes, then at the acme of its prosperity, owned -thirty-five ships of the largest class and many others of considerable -size. Its decadence dates from the English conquest of India, and in -1770 its property was ceded to the state. In 1782 the town was purchased -by Louis XVI. from its owners, the Rohan-Guemene family. In 1746 the -English under Admiral Richard Lestock made an unsuccessful attack on -Lorient. - - - - -LORINER, or LORIMER (from O. Fr. _loremier_ or _lorenier_, a maker of -_lorains_, bridles, from Lat. _lorum_, thong, bridle; the proper form is -with the _n_; a similar change is found in Latimer for Latiner, the -title of an old official of the royal household, the king's -interpreter), one who makes bits and spurs and the metal mountings for -saddles and bridles; the term is also applied to a worker in wrought -iron and to a maker of small iron ware. The word is now rarely used -except as the name of one of the London livery companies (see LIVERY -COMPANY). - - - - -LORIS, a name of uncertain origin applied to the Indo-Malay -representatives of the lemurs, which, together with the African pottos, -constitute the section _Nycticebinae_ of the family _Nycticebidae_ (see -PRIMATES). From their extremely slow movements and lethargic habits in -the daytime these weird little creatures are commonly called sloths by -Anglo-Indians. Their soft fur, huge staring eyes, rudimentary tails and -imperfectly developed index-fingers render lorises easy of recognition. -The smallest is the slender loris (_Loris gracilis_) of the forests of -Madras and Ceylon, a creature smaller than a squirrel. It is of such -exceeding strangeness and beauty that it might have been thought it -would be protected by the natives; but they hold it alive before a fire -till its beautiful eyes burst in order to afford a supposed remedy for -ophthalmia! The mainland and Cingalese animals form distinct races. Both -in this species and the slow loris there is a pair of rudimentary -abdominal teats in addition to the normal pectoral pair. The slow loris -(_Nycticebus tardigradus_) is a heavier built and larger animal, ranging -from eastern Bengal to Cochin China, Siam, the Malay Peninsula, Java and -Sumatra. There are several races, mostly grey in colour, but the -Sumatran _N. t. hilleri_ is reddish. (R. L.*) - - - - -LORIS-MELIKOV, MICHAEL TARIELOVICH, COUNT (1825?-1888), Russian -statesman, son of an Armenian merchant, was born at Tiflis in 1825 or -1826, and educated in St Petersburg, first in the Lazarev School of -Oriental Languages, and afterwards in the Guards' Cadet Institute. He -joined a hussar regiment, and four years afterwards (1847) he was sent -to the Caucasus, where he remained for more than twenty years, and made -for himself during troublous times the reputation of a distinguished -cavalry officer and an able administrator. In the latter capacity, -though a keen soldier, he aimed always at preparing the warlike and -turbulent population committed to his charge for the transition from -military to normal civil administration, and in this work his favourite -instrument was the schoolmaster. In the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 he -commanded a separate corps d'armee on the Turkish frontier in Asia -Minor. After taking the fortress of Ardahan, he was repulsed by Mukhtar -Pasha at Zevin, but subsequently defeated his opponent at Aladja Dagh, -took Kars by storm, and laid siege to Erzerum. For these services he -received the title of Count. In the following year he was appointed -temporary governor-general of the region of the Lower Volga, to combat -an outbreak of the plague. The measures he adopted proved so effectual -that he was transferred to the provinces of Central Russia to combat the -Nihilists and Anarchists, who had adopted a policy of terrorism, and had -succeeded in assassinating the governor of Kharkov. His success in this -struggle led to his being appointed chief of the Supreme Executive -Commission which had been created in St Petersburg to deal with the -revolutionary agitation in general. Here, as in the Caucasus, he showed -a decided preference for the employment of ordinary legal methods rather -than exceptional extra-legal measures, and an attempt on his own life -soon after he assumed office did not shake his convictions. In his -opinion the best policy was to strike at the root of the evil by -removing the causes of popular discontent, and for this purpose he -recommended to the emperor a large scheme of administrative and economic -reforms. Alexander II., who was beginning to lose faith in the efficacy -of the simple method of police repression hitherto employed, lent a -willing ear to the suggestion; and when the Supreme Commission was -dissolved in August 1880, he appointed Count Loris-Melikov Minister of -the Interior with exceptional powers. The proposed scheme of reforms was -at once taken in hand, but it was never carried out. On the very day in -March 1881 that the emperor signed a ukaz creating several commissions, -composed of officials and eminent private individuals, who should -prepare reforms in various branches of the administration, he was -assassinated by Nihilist conspirators; and his successor, Alexander -III., at once adopted a strongly reactionary policy. Count Loris-Melikov -immediately resigned, and lived in retirement until his death, which -took place at Nice on the 22nd of December 1888. (D. M. W.) - - - - -LORIUM, an ancient village of Etruria, Italy, on the Via Aurelia, 12 m. -W. of Rome. Antoninus Pius, who was educated here, afterwards built a -palace, in which he died. It was also a favourite haunt of Marcus -Aurelius. Remains of ancient buildings exist in the neighbourhood of the -road on each side (near the modern Castel di Guido) and remains of -tombs, inscriptions, &c., were excavated in 1823-1824. Two or three -miles farther west was probably the post-station of Bebiana, where -inscriptions show that some sailors of the fleet were stationed--no -doubt a detachment of those at Centumcellae, which was reached by this -road. - - - - -LORRACH, a town in the grand-duchy of Baden, in the valley of the Wiese, -6 m. by rail N.E. of Basel. Pop. (1905) 10,794. It is the seat of -considerable industry, its manufactures including calico, shawls, cloth, -silk, chocolate, cotton, ribbons, hardware and furniture, and has a -trade in wine, fruit and timber. There is a fine view from the -neighbouring Schutzenhaus, 1085 ft. high. In the neighbourhood also is -the castle of Rotteln, formerly the residence of the counts of Hachberg -and of the margraves of Baden; this was destroyed by the French in 1678, -but was rebuilt in 1867. Lorrach received market rights in 1403, but did -not obtain municipal privileges until 1682. - - See Hochstetter, _Die Stadt Lorrach_ (Lorrach, 1882). - - - - -LORRAINE, one of the former provinces of France. The name has designated -different districts in different periods. Lotharingia, or Lothringen, -i.e. _regnum Lotharii_, is derived from the _Lotharingi_ or -_Lotharienses_ (O.G. _Lotheringen_, Fr. _Loherains, Lorrains_), a term -applied originally to the Frankish subjects of Lothair, but restricted -at the end of the 9th century to those who dwelt north of the southern -Vosges. - -_Lorraine in Medieval Times._--The original kingdom of Lorraine was the -northern part of the territories allotted by the treaty of Verdun -(August 843) to the emperor Lothair I., and in 855 formed the -inheritance of his second son, King Lothair. This kingdom of Lorraine -was situated between the realms of the East and the West Franks, and -originally extended along the North Sea between the mouths of the Rhine -and the Ems, including the whole or part of Frisia and the cities on the -right bank of the Rhine. From Bonn the frontier followed the Rhine as -far as its confluence with the Aar, which then became the boundary, -receding from the left bank in the neighbourhood of Bingen so as to -leave the cities of Worms and Spires to Germany, and embracing the duchy -of Alsace. After crossing the Jura, the frontier joined the Saone a -little south of its confluence with the Doubs, and followed the Saone -for some distance, and finally the valleys of the Meuse and the Scheldt. -Thus the kingdom roughly comprised the region watered by the Moselle -and the Meuse, together with the dioceses of Cologne, Trier, Metz, -Toul, Verdun, Liege and Cambrai, Basel, Strassburg and Besancon, and -corresponded to what is now Holland and Belgium, parts of Rhenish -Prussia, of Switzerland, and of the old province of Franche-Comte, and -to the district known later as Upper Lorraine, or simply Lorraine. -Though apparently of an absolutely artificial character, this kingdom -corresponded essentially to the ancient Francia, the cradle of the -Carolingian house, and long retained a certain unity. It was to the -inhabitants of this region that the name of _Lotharienses_ or -_Lotharingi_ was primitively applied, although the word _Lotharingia_, -as the designation of the country, only appears in the middle of the -10th century. - -The reign of King Lothair (q.v.), which was continually disturbed by -quarrels with his uncles, Charles the Bald and Louis the German, and by -the difficulties caused by the divorce of his queen Teutberga, whom he -had forsaken for a concubine called Waldrada, ended on the 8th of August -869. His inheritance was disputed by his uncles, and was divided by the -treaty of Meersen (8th of August 870), by which Charles the Bald -received part of the province of Besancon and some land between the -Moselle and the Meuse. Then for a time the emperor Charles the Fat -united under his authority the whole of the kingdom of Lorraine with the -rest of the Carolingian empire. After the deposition of Charles in 888 -Rudolph, king of Burgundy, got himself recognized in Lorraine. He was -unable to maintain himself there, and succeeded in detaching -definitively no more than the province of Besancon. Lorraine remained in -the power of the emperor Arnulf, who in 895 constituted it a distinct -kingdom in favour of his son Zwentibold. Zwentibold quickly became -embroiled with the nobles and the bishops, and especially with Bishop -Radbod of Trier. Among the lay lords the most important was Regnier -(incorrectly called Long-neck), count of Hesbaye and Hainault, who is -styled duke by the Lotharingian chronicler Reginon, though he does not -appear ever to have borne the title. In 898 Zwentibold stripped Regnier -of his fiefs, whereupon the latter appealed to the king of France, -Charles the Simple, whose intervention, however, had no enduring effect. -After the death of Arnulf in 899, the Lotharingians appealed to his -successor, Louis the Child, to replace Zwentibold, who, on the 13th of -August 900, was killed in battle. In spite of the dissensions which -immediately arose between him and the Lotharingian lords, Louis retained -the kingdom till his death. The Lotharingians, however, refused to -recognize the new German king, Conrad I., and testified their attachment -to the Carolingian house by electing as sovereign the king of the West -Franks, Charles the Simple. Charles was at first supported by Giselbert, -son and successor of Regnier, but was abandoned by his ally, who in 919 -appealed to the German king, Henry I. The struggle ended in the treaty -of Bonn (921), by which apparently the rights of Charles over Lorraine -were recognized. The revolt of the Frankish lords in 922 and the -captivity of Charles finally settled the question. After an unsuccessful -attack by Rudolph or Raoul, king of France, Henry became master of -Lorraine in 925, thanks to the support of Giselbert, whom he rewarded -with the hand of his daughter Gerberga and the title of duke of -Lorraine. Giselbert at first remained faithful to Henry's son, Otto the -Great, but in 938 he appears to have joined the revolt directed against -Otto by Eberhard, duke of Franconia. In 939, in concert with Eberhard -and Otto's brother, Henry of Saxony, he declared open war against Otto -and appealed to Louis d'Outremer, who penetrated into Lorraine and -Alsace, but was soon called back to France by the revolt of the count of -Vermandois. In the same year Giselbert and Eberhard were defeated and -killed near Andernach, and Otto at once made himself recognized in the -whole of Lorraine, securing it by a treaty with Louis d'Outremer, who -married Giselbert's widow Gerberga, and entrusting the government of it -to Count Otto, son of Ricuin, until Giselbert's son Henry should have -attained his majority. - -After the deaths of the young Henry and Count Otto in 944, Otto the -Great gave Lorraine to Conrad the Red, duke of Franconia, the husband -of his daughter Liutgard, a choice which was not completely satisfactory -to the Lotharingians. In 953 Conrad, in concert with Liudulf, the son of -the German king, revolted against Otto, but was abandoned by his -supporters. Otto stripped Conrad of his duchy, and in 954 gave the -government of it to his own brother Bruno, archbishop of Cologne. Bruno -had to contend against the efforts of the last Carolingians of France to -make good their claims on Lorraine, as well as against the spirit of -independence exhibited by the Lotharingian nobles; and his attempts to -raze certain castles built by brigand lords and to compel them to -respect their oath of fidelity resulted in serious sedition. To obviate -these difficulties Bruno divided the ducal authority, assigning Lower -Lorraine to a certain Duke Godfrey, who was styled _dux Ripuariorum_, -and Upper Lorraine to Frederick (d. 959), count of Bar, a member of the -house of Ardenne and son-in-law of Hugh the Great, with the title of -_dux Mosellanorum_; and it is probable that the partition of the ancient -kingdom of Lorraine into two new duchies was confirmed by Otto after -Bruno's death in 965. In 977 the emperor Otto II. gave the government of -Lower Lorraine to Charles I., a younger son of Louis d'Outremer, on -condition that that prince should acknowledge himself his vassal and -should oppose any attempt of his brother Lothair on Lorraine. The -consequent expedition of the king of France in 978 against -Aix-la-Chapelle had no enduring result, and Charles retained his duchy -till his death about 992. He left two sons, Otto, who succeeded him and -died without issue, and Henry, who is sometimes regarded as the ancestor -of the landgraves of Thuringia. The duchy of Lower Lorraine, sometimes -called _Lothier_ (_Lotharium_), was then given to Godfrey (d. 1023), son -of Count Godfrey of Verdun, and for some time the history of Lorraine is -the history of the attempts made by the dukes of Lothier to seize Upper -Lorraine. Gothelon (d. 1043), son of Duke Godfrey, obtained Lorraine at -the death of Frederick II., duke of Upper Lorraine, in 1027, and -victoriously repulsed the incursions of Odo (Eudes) of Blois, count of -Champagne, who was defeated and killed in a battle near Bar (1037). At -Gothelon's death in 1043, his son Godfrey the Bearded received from the -emperor only Lower Lorraine, his brother Gothelon II. obtaining Upper -Lorraine. Godfrey attempted to seize the upper duchy, but was defeated -and imprisoned in 1045. On the death of Gothelon in 1046, Godfrey -endeavoured to take Upper Lorraine from Albert of Alsace, to whom it had -been granted by the emperor Henry III. The attempt, however, also -failed; and Godfrey was for some time deprived of his own duchy of Lower -Lorraine in favour of Frederick of Luxemburg. Godfrey took part in the -struggles of Pope Leo IX. against the Normans in Italy, and in 1053 -married Beatrice, daughter of Duke Frederick of Upper Lorraine and widow -of Boniface, margrave of Tuscany. On the death of Frederick of Luxemburg -in 1065 the emperor Henry IV. restored the duchy of Lower Lorraine to -Godfrey, who retained it till his death in 1069, when he was succeeded -by his son Godfrey the Hunchback (d. 1076), after whose death Henry IV. -gave the duchy to Godfrey of Bouillon, the hero of the first crusade, -son of Eustace, count of Boulogne, and Ida, sister of Godfrey the -Hunchback. On the death of Godfrey of Bouillon in 1100 Lower Lorraine -was given to Henry, count of Limburg. The new duke supported the emperor -Henry IV. in his struggles with his sons, and in consequence was deposed -by the emperor Henry V., who gave the duchy in 1106 to Godfrey, count of -Louvain, a descendant of the Lotharingian dukes of the beginning of the -10th century. This Godfrey was the first hereditary duke of Brabant, as -the dukes of Lower Lorraine came to be called. - -_Upper Lorraine._--The duchy of Upper Lorraine, or Lorraine _Mosellana_, -to which the name of Lorraine was restricted from the 11th century, -consisted of a tract of undulating country watered by the upper course -of the Meuse and Moselle, and bounded N. by the Ardennes, S. by the -table-land of Langres, E. by the Vosges and W. by Champagne. Its -principal fiefs were the countship of Bar which Otto the Great gave in -951 to Count Frederick of Ardenne, and which passed in 1093 to the lords -of Montbeliard; the countship of Chiny, formed at the end of the 10th -century, of which, since the 13th, Montmedy was the capital; the -lordship of Commercy, whose rulers bore the special title of -_damoiseau_, and which passed in the 13th century to the house of -Saarebrucken; and, finally the three important ecclesiastical lordships -of the bishops of Metz, Toul and Verdun. Theodoric, or Thierri (d. -1026), son of Frederick, count of Bar and first duke of Upper Lorraine, -was involved in a war with the emperor Henry II., a war principally -remarkable for the siege of Metz (1007). After having been the object of -numerous attempts on the part of the dukes of Lower Lorraine, Upper -Lorraine was given by the emperor Henry III. to Albert of Alsace, and -passed in 1048 to Albert's brother Gerard, who died by poison in 1069, -and who was the ancestor of the hereditary house of Lorraine. Until the -15th century the representatives of the hereditary house were Theodoric -II., called the Valiant (1069-1115), Simon (1115-1139), Matthew -(1139-1176), Simon II. (1176-1205), Ferri I. (1205-1206), Ferri II. -(1206-1213), Theobald (Thibaut) I. (1213-1220), Matthew II. (1220-1251), -Ferri III. (1251-1304), Theobald II. (1304-1312), Ferri IV., called the -Struggler (1312-1328), Rudolph, or Raoul (1328-1346), John (1346-1391) -and Charles II. or I., called the Bold (1391-1431). The 12th century and -the first part of the 13th were occupied with wars against the counts of -Bar and Champagne. Theobald I. intervened in Champagne to support Erard -of Brienne against the young count Theobald IV. The regent of Champagne, -Blanche of Navarre, succeeded in forming against the duke of Lorraine a -coalition consisting of the count of Bar and the emperor Frederick II., -who had become embroiled with Theobald over the question of Rosheim in -Alsace. Attacked by the emperor, the duke of Lorraine was forced at the -treaty of Amance (1218) to acknowledge himself the vassal of the count -of Champagne, and to support the count in his struggles against his -ancient ally the count of Bar. The long government of Ferri III. was -mainly occupied with wars against the feudal lords and the bishop of -Metz, which resulted in giving an impulse to the municipal movement -through Ferri's attempt to use the movement as a weapon against the -nobles. The majority of the municipal charters of Lorraine were derived -from the charter of Beaumont in Argonne, which was at first extended to -the Barrois and was granted by Ferri, in spite of the hostility of his -barons, to La Neuveville in 1257, to Frouard in 1263 and to Luneville in -1265. In the church lands the bishops of Toul and Metz granted liberties -from the end of the 12th century to the communes in their lordship, but -not the Beaumont charter, which, however, obtained in the diocese of -Verdun in the 14th and 15th centuries. - -By the will of Duke Charles the Bold, Lorraine was to pass to his -daughter Isabella, who married Rene of Anjou, duke of Bar, in 1420. But -Anthony of Vaudemont, Charles's nephew and heir male, disputed this -succession with Rene, who obtained from the king of France an army -commanded by Arnault Guilhem de Barbazan. Rene, however, was defeated -and taken prisoner at the battle of Bulgneville, where Barbazan was -killed (2nd of July 1431). The negotiations between Rene's wife and -Anthony had no result, in spite of the intervention of the council of -Basel and the emperor Sigismund, and it was not until 1436 that Rene -obtained his liberty by paying a ransom of 200,000 crowns, and was -enabled to dispute with Alfonso of Aragon the kingdom of Naples, which -he had inherited in the previous year. In 1444 Charles VII. of France -and the dauphin Louis went to Lorraine, accompanied by envoys from Henry -VI. of England, and procured a treaty (confirmed at Chalons in 1445), by -which Yolande, Rene's eldest daughter, married Anthony's son, Ferri of -Vaudemont, and Rene's second daughter Margaret became the wife of Henry -VI. of England. After his return to Lorraine in 1442, Rene was seldom in -the duchy. Like his successor John, duke of Calabria, who died in 1470, -he was continually occupied with expeditions in Italy or in Spain. -John's son and successor, Nicholas (d. 1473), who supported the duke of -Burgundy, Charles the Bold, against the king of France, died without -children, and his heir was Rene, son of Frederick of Vaudemont. The duke -of Burgundy, however, disputed this inheritance, and carried off the -young Rene and his mother, but on the intervention of Louis XI. had to -set them at liberty. Rene helped the Swiss during their wars with -Charles the Bold, who invaded Lorraine and was killed under the walls of -Nancy (1477). Rene's last years were mainly spent in expeditions in -Provence and Italy. He died in 1508, leaving by his second wife three -sons--Anthony, called the Good, who succeeded him; Claude, count (and -afterwards duke) of Guise, the ancestor of the house of Guise; and John -(d. 1550), known as the cardinal of Lorraine. Anthony, who was declared -of age at his father's death by the estates of Lorraine, although his -mother had tried to seize the power as regent, had been brought up from -the age of twelve at the French court, where he became the friend of -Louis XII., whom he accompanied on his Italian expeditions. In 1525 he -had to defend Lorraine against the revolted Alsatian peasants known as -_rustauds_ (boors), whom he defeated at Lupstein and Scherweiler; and he -succeeded in maintaining a neutral position in the struggle between -Francis I. of France and the emperor Charles V. He died on the 14th of -June 1544, and was succeeded by his son Francis I., who died of apoplexy -(August 1545) at the very moment when he was negotiating peace between -the king of France and the emperor. - -_Lorraine in Modern Times._--Francis's son Charles III. or II., called -the Great, succeeded under the tutelage of his mother and Nicholas of -Vaudemont, bishop of Metz. Henry II. of France took this opportunity to -invade Lorraine, and in 1552 seized the three bishoprics of Metz, Toul -and Verdun. In the same year the emperor laid siege to Metz, but was -forced to retreat with heavy loss before the energetic resistance of -Duke Francis of Guise. On leaving Lorraine, Henry II. took Charles to -France, brought him up at the court and married him to his daughter -Claude. After the accession of Francis II., the young duke returned to -Lorraine, and, while his cousins the Guises endeavoured to make good the -claims of the house of Lorraine to the crown of France by virtue of its -descent from the Carolingians through Charles, the son of Louis -d'Outremer, he devoted himself mainly to improving the administration of -his duchy. He reconstituted his domain by revoking the alienations -irregularly granted by his predecessors, instructed his _chambre des -comptes_ to institute inquiries on this subject, and endeavoured to -ameliorate the condition of industry and commerce by reorganizing the -working of the mines and saltworks, unifying weights and measures and -promulgating edicts against vagabonds. His duchy suffered considerably -from the passage of German bands on their way to help the Protestants in -France, and also from disturbances caused by the progress of Calvinism, -especially in the neighbourhood of the three bishoprics. To combat -Calvinism Charles had recourse to the Jesuits, whom he established at -Pont-a Mousson, and to whom he gave over the university he had founded -in that town in 1572. To this foundation he soon added chairs of -medicine and law, the first professor of civil law being the _maitre des -requetes_, the Scotsman William Barclay, and the next Gregory of -Toulouse, a pupil of the jurist Cujas. Charles died on the 14th of May -1608, and was succeeded by his eldest son Henry II., called the Good, -who rid Lorraine of the German bands and died in 1624 without issue. - -Henry was succeeded by his brother Francis II., who abdicated on the -26th of November 1624 in favour of his son Charles IV. or III. At the -beginning of the reign of Louis XIII. Charles embroiled himself with -France by harbouring French malcontents. Louis entered Lorraine, and by -the treaty of Vic (31st of December 1631) bound over Charles to desist -from supporting the enemies of France, and compelled him to cede the -fortress of Marsal. Charles's breach of this treaty led to a renewal of -hostilities, and the French troops occupied St Mihiel, Bar-le-duc, -Pont-a-Mousson and Nancy, which the duke was forced to cede for four -years (1633). In 1632, by the treaty of Liverdun, he had already had to -abandon the fortresses of Stenay and Clermont in Argonne. On the 19th of -January 1634 he abdicated in favour of his younger brother Francis -Nicholas, cardinal of Lorraine, and withdrew to Germany, the parlement -of Paris declaring him guilty of rebellion and confiscating his estates. -After vain attempts to regain his estates with the help of the emperor, -he decided to negotiate with France; and the treaty of St Germain (29th -of March 1641) re-established him in his duchy on condition that he -should cede Nancy, Stenay and other fortresses until the general peace. -This treaty he soon broke, joining the Imperialists in the Low Countries -and defeating the French at Tuttlingen (December 1643). He was restored, -however, to his estates in 1644, and took part in the wars of the -Fronde. He was arrested at Brussels in 1654, imprisoned at Toledo and -did not recover his liberty until the peace of the Pyrenees in 1659. On -the 28th of February 1661 the duchies of Lorraine and Bar were restored -to him by the treaty of Vincennes, on condition that he should demolish -the fortifications of Nancy and cede Clermont, Saarburg and Pfalzburg. -In 1662 Hugues de Lionne negotiated with him the treaty of Montmartre, -by which Charles sold the succession to the duchy to Louis XIV. for a -life-rent; but the Lorrainers, perhaps with the secret assent of their -prince, refused to ratify the treaty. Charles, too, was accused of -intriguing with the Dutch, and was expelled from his estates, Marshal de -Crequi occupying Lorraine. He withdrew to Germany, and in 1673 took an -active part in the coalition of Spain, the Empire and Holland against -France. After an unsuccessful invasion of Franche-Comte he took his -revenge by defeating Crequi at Conzer Brucke (11th of August 1675) and -forcing him to capitulate at Trier. On the 18th of September 1675 died -this adventurous prince, who, as Voltaire said, passed his life in -losing his estates. His brother Francis, in favour of whom he had -abdicated, was a cardinal at the age of nineteen and subsequently bishop -of Toul, although he had never taken orders. He obtained a dispensation -to marry his cousin, Claude of Lorraine, and died in 1670. He had one -son, Charles, who in 1675 took the title of duke of Lorraine and was -recognized by all the powers except France. After an unsuccessful -attempt to seize Lorraine in 1676, Charles vainly solicited the throne -of Poland, took an active part in the wars in Hungary, and married -Eleanor of Austria, sister of the emperor Leopold I., in 1678. At the -treaty of Nijmwegen France proposed to restore his estates on condition -that he should abandon a part of them; but Charles refused, and passed -the rest of his life in Austria, where he took part in the wars against -the Turks, whom he defeated at Mohacz (1687). He died in 1690. - -Leopold, Charles's son and successor, was restored to his estates by the -treaty of Ryswick (1697), but had to dismantle all the fortresses in -Lorraine and to disband his army with the exception of his guard. Under -his rule Lorraine flourished. While diminishing the taxes, he succeeded -in augmenting his revenues by wise economy. The population increased -enormously during his reign--that of Nancy, for instance, almost -trebling itself between the years 1699 and 1735. Leopold welcomed French -immigrants, and devoted himself to the development of commerce and -industry, particularly to the manufacture of stuffs and lace, glass and -paper. He was responsible, too, for the compilation of a body of law -which was known as the "Code Leopold." Some time after his death, which -occurred on the 27th of March 1729, his heir Francis III. was betrothed -to Maria Theresa of Austria, the daughter and heiress of the emperor -Charles VI. France, however, could not admit the possibility of a union -of Lorraine with the Empire; and in 1735, at the preliminaries of -Vienna, Louis XV. negotiated an arrangement by which Francis received -the duchy of Tuscany, which was vacant by the death of the last Medici, -in exchange for Lorraine, and Stanislaus Leszczynski, the dethroned king -of Poland and father-in-law of Louis XV., obtained Lorraine, which after -his death would pass to his daughter--in other words, to France. These -arrangements were confirmed by the treaty of Vienna (18th of November -1738). In 1736, by a secret agreement, Stanislaus had abandoned the -financial administration of his estates to Louis XV. for a yearly -subsidy. The intendant, Chaumont de la Galaiziere, was instructed to -apply the French system of taxation in Lorraine; and in spite of the -severity of the administration Lorraine preserved a grateful memory of -the good king Stanislaus, who held his brilliant little court at -Luneville, and founded an academy and several libraries and hospitals. -At his death in February 1766 the two duchies of Lorraine and Bar became -definitively incorporated in the kingdom of France. The treaties of 1735 -and 1736, however, guaranteed their legislation, the privileges enjoyed -by the three orders, and their common law and customs tariffs, which -they retained until the French Revolution. Lorraine and Barrois formed a -large government corresponding, together with the little government of -the three bishoprics, to the _intendance_ of Lorraine and the -_generalite_ of Metz. For legal purposes, Metz had been the seat of a -parlement since 1633, and the parlement of Nancy was created in 1776. -There was, too, a _chambre des comptes_ at Metz, and another at -Bar-le-duc. (For the later history see Alsace-Lorraine.) - - See Dom. A. Calmet, _Histoire ecclesiastique et civile de Lorraine_ - (2nd ed., Nancy, 1747-1757); A. Digot, _Histoire de Lorraine_ - (1879-1880); E. Huhn, _Geschichte Lothringens_ (Berlin, 1877); R. - Parisot, _Le Royaume de Lorraine sous les Carolingiens_ (Paris, 1899); - Comte D'Haussonville, _Histoire de la reunion de la Lorraine a la - France_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1860); E. Bonvalot, _Histoire du droit et des - institutions de la Lorraine et des Trois-Eveches_ (Paris, 1895); and - E. Duvernoy, _Les Etats Generaux des duches de Lorraine et de Bar - jusqu'a la majorite de Charles III_. (Paris, 1904). (R. Po.) - - - - -LORTZING, GUSTAV ALBERT (1801-1851), German composer, was born at Berlin -on the 23rd of October 1801. Both his parents were actors, and when he -was nineteen the son began to play youthful lover at the theatres of -Dusseldorf and Aachen, sometimes also singing in small tenor or baritone -parts. His first opera _Ali Pascha von Jannina_ appeared in 1824, but -his fame as a musician rests chiefly upon the two operas _Der -Wildschutz_ (1842) and _Czar und Zimmermann_ (1837). The latter, -although now regarded as one of the masterpieces of German comic opera, -was received with little enthusiasm by the public of Leipzig. Subsequent -performance in Berlin, however, provoked such a tempest of applause that -the opera was soon placed on all the stages of Germany. It was -translated into English, French, Swedish, Danish, Dutch, Bohemian, -Hungarian and Russian. _Der Wildschutz_ was based on a comedy of -Kotzebue, and was a satire on the unintelligent and exaggerated -admiration for the highest beauty in art expressed by the _bourgeois -gentilhomme_. Of his other operas it is only necessary to note _Der Pole -und sein Kind_, produced shortly after the Polish insurrection of 1831, -and _Undine_ (1845). Lortzing died at Berlin on the 21st of January -1851. - - - - -LORY, CHARLES (1823-1889), French geologist, was born at Nantes on the -30th of July 1823. He graduated _D. es Sc._ in 1847; in 1852 he was -appointed to the chair of geology at the University of Grenoble, and in -1881 to that of the _Ecole Normale Superieure_ in Paris. He was -distinguished for his researches on the geology of the French Alps, -being engaged on the geological survey of the departments of Isere, -Drome and the Hautes Alpes, of which he prepared the maps and -explanatory memoirs. He dealt with some of the disturbances in the Savoy -Alps, describing the fan-like structures, and confirming the views of J. -A. Favre with regard to the overthrows, reversals and duplication of the -strata. His contributions to geological literature include also -descriptions of the fossils and stratigraphical divisions of the Lower -Cretaceous and Jurassic rocks of the Jura. He died at Grenoble on the -3rd of May 1889. - - - - -LORY (a word of Malayan origin signifying parrot, in general use with -but slight variation of form in many European languages), the name of -certain birds of the order _Psittaci_, mostly from the Moluccas and New -Guinea, remarkable for their bright scarlet or crimson colouring, though -also, and perhaps subsequently, applied to some others in which the -plumage is chiefly green. The lories have been referred to a -considerable number of genera, of which _Lorius_ (the _Domicella_ of -some authors), _Eos_ and _Chalcopsittacus_ may be here particularized, -while under the name of "lorikeets" may be comprehended such genera as -_Trichoglossus_, _Charmosyna_, _Loriculus_ and _Coriphilus_. By most -systematists some of these forms have been placed far apart, even in -different families of _Psittaci_, but A. H. Garrod has shown (_Proc. -Zool. Society_, 1874, pp. 586-598, and 1876, p. 692) the many common -characters they possess, which thus goes some way to justify the -relationship implied by their popular designation. A full account of -these birds is given in the first part of Count T. Salvadori's -_Ornitologia della Papuasia e delle Molucche_ (Turin 1880), whilst a -later classification appeared in Salvadori's section of the British -Museum _Catalogue of Birds_, xx., 1891. - -Though the name lory has often been used for the species of _Eclectus_, -and some other genera related thereto, modern writers would restrict its -application to the birds of the genera _Lorius_, _Eos_, -_Chalcopsittacus_ and their near allies, which are often placed in a -subfamily, _Loriinae_, belonging to the so-called family of -_Trichoglossidae_ or "brush-tongued" parrots. Garrod in his -investigations on the anatomy of _Psittaci_ was led not to attach much -importance to the structure indicated by the epithet "brush-tongued" -stating (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1874, p. 597) that it "is only an -excessive development of the papillae which are always found on the -lingual surface." The birds of this group are very characteristic of the -New Guinea subregion,[1] in which occur, according to Count Salvadori, -ten species of _Lorius_, eight of _Eos_ and four of _Chalcopsittacus_; -but none seem here to require any further notice,[2] though among them, -and particularly in the genus _Eos_, are included some of the most -richly-coloured birds in the whole world; nor does it appear that more -need be said of the lorikeets. - - The family is the subject of an excellent monograph by St George - Mivart (London, 1896). (A. N.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] They extend, however, to Fiji, Tahiti and Fanning Island. - - [2] Unless it be _Oreopsittacus arfaki_, of New Guinea, remarkable as - the only parrot known as yet to have fourteen instead of twelve - rectrices. - - - - -LOS ANDES, a former state of Venezuela under the redivision of 1881, -which covered the extreme western part of the republic N. of Zamora and -S. of Zulia. In the redivision of 1904 Los Andes was cut up into three -states--Merida Tachira and Trujillo. - - - - -LOS ANGELES, a city and the county-seat of Los Angeles county, in -southern California, U.S.A., along the small Los Angeles river, in the -foothills of the San Gabriel Mountains; a narrow strip, 18 m. long, -joins the main part of the city to its water front on the ocean, San -Pedro Bay. Pop. (1880) 11,183, (1890) 50,395, (1900) 102,479, of whom -19,964 were foreign-born;[1] the growth in population since 1900 has -been very rapid and in 1910 it was 319,198. The city had in 1910 an area -of 85.1 sq. m., of which more than one-half has been added since 1890. -Los Angeles is served by the Southern Pacific, the Atchison, Topeka & -Santa Fe, and the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake railways; by -steamers to San Francisco; and by five systems of urban and suburban -electric railways, which have 300 m. of track within the city and 700 m. -within a radius of 30 m. beyond its limits. Inclined railways ascend -Third Street Hill and Court Street Hill, in the heart of the city; and a -system of subways extends from the centre of the city to its western -limits. The harbour, San Pedro Bay, originally open and naturally poor, -has been greatly improved by the Federal government; a breakwater 9250 -ft. long was begun in 1898 and the bar has been deepened, and further -improvements of the inner harbour at Wilmington (which is nearly -landlocked by a long narrow island lying nearly east and west across its -mouth) were begun in 1907. Important municipal docks have been built by -the city. - -The situation of the city between the mountains and the sea is -attractive. The site of the business district is level, and its plan -regular; the suburbs are laid out on hills. Although not specifically a -health resort, Los Angeles enjoys a high reputation for its climate. -From July 1877 to 1908 (inclusive) the mean of the minima for January, -the coldest month of the year, was 44.16 deg. F.; the mean of the minima -for August, the warmest month, was 60.1 deg. F.; and the difference of -the mean temperature of the coldest and the warmest month was about 18 -deg. F.; while on five days only in this period (and on no day in the -years 1904-1908) did the official thermometer fall below 32 deg. F. -There are various pleasure resorts in the mountains, and among seaside -resorts are Santa Monica, Ocean Park, Venice, Playa del Rey, Hermosa, -Redondo, Terminal Island, Long Beach, Alamitos Bay, Huntington Beach, -Newport, Balboa and Corona del Mar. There are excellent roads throughout -the country. Los Angeles has beautiful shade trees and a wealth of -semi-tropic vegetation. Its residential portions are characterized by -detached homes set in ample and beautiful grounds. Towering eucalyptus, -graceful pepper trees, tropic palms, rubber trees, giant bananas, yuccas -and a wonderful growth of roses, heliotrope, calla lilies in hedges, -orange trees, jasmine, giant geraniums and other flowers beautify the -city throughout the year. There are 22 parks, with about 3800 acres -within or on the borders of the city limits; among the parks are -Griffith (3015 acres), Elysian (532 acres), Eastlake (57 acres), -Westlake (35 acres) and Echo (38 acres). The old Spanish-Moorish mission -architecture has considerably influenced building styles. Among the -important buildings are the Federal Building, the County Court House, -the City Hall, a County Hall of Records, the Public Library with about -110,000 volumes in 1908, the large Auditorium and office buildings and -the Woman's Club. The exhibit in the Chamber of Commerce Building -illustrates the resources of southern California. Here also are the -Coronel Collection, given in 1901 by Dona Mariana, the widow of Don -Antonio Coronel, and containing relics of the Spanish and Mexican regime -in California; and the Palmer Collection of Indian antiquities. In Los -Angeles also are the collections of the Southwest Society (1904; for -southern California, Arizona and New Mexico) of the Archaeological -Institute of America. On the outskirts of the city, near Eastlake Park, -is the Indian Crafts Exhibition, which contains rare collections of -aboriginal handiwork, and where Indians may be seen making baskets, -pottery and blankets. Of interest to visitors is that part of the city -called Sonora Town, with its adobe houses, Mexican quarters, old Plaza -and the Church of Our Lady, Queen of the Angels (first erected in 1822; -rebuilt in 1861), which contains interesting paintings by early Indian -converts. Near Sonora Town is the district known as Chinatown. The -principal educational institutions are the University of Southern -California (Methodist Episcopal, 1880), the Maclay College of Theology -and a preparatory school; Occidental College (Presbyterian, 1887), St -Vincent's College (Roman Catholic, founded 1865; chartered 1869) and the -Los Angeles State Normal School (1882). - - The economic interests of Los Angeles centre in the culture of fruits. - The surrounding country is very fertile when irrigated, producing - oranges, lemons, figs and other semi-tropical fruits. Thousands of - artesian wells have been bored, the region between Los Angeles, Santa - Clara and San Bernardino being one of the most important artesian well - regions of the world. The city, which then got its water supply from - the Los Angeles river bed, in 1907 authorized the issue of $23,000,000 - worth of 4% bonds for the construction of an aqueduct 209 m. long, - bringing water to the city from the Owens river, in the Sierra Nevada - Mountains. It was estimated that the project would furnish water for - one million people, beside supplying power for lighting, manufacturing - and transportation purposes. All the water in excess of the city's - actual needs may be employed for irrigation. Work on the aqueduct was - begun in 1908, and it was to be completed in five years. From 1900 to - 1905 the value of the factory products increased from $15,133,696 to - $34,814,475 or 130%, and the capital employed in manufactures from - $10,045,095 to $28,181,418 or 180.5%. The leading manufacturing - industries in 1905, with the product-value of each in this year, were - slaughtering and meat-packing ($4,040,162), foundry and machine shop - work ($3,146,914), flour and grist milling ($2,798,740), lumber - manufacturing and planing ($2,519,081), printing and publishing - (newspapers and periodicals, $2,097,339; and book and job printing, - $1,278,841), car construction and repairing ($1,549,836)--in 1910 - there were railway shops here of the Southern Pacific, Pacific - Electric, Los Angeles Street, Salt Lake and Santa Fe railways--and the - manufacture of confectionery ($953,915), furniture ($879,910) and - malt liquors ($789,393). The canning and preserving of fruits and - vegetables are important industries. There is a large wholesale trade - with southern California, with Arizona and with the gold-fields of - Nevada, with which Los Angeles is connected by railway. Los Angeles is - a port of entry, but its foreign commerce is relatively unimportant. - The value of its imports increased from $721,705 in 1905 to $1,654,549 - in 1907; in 1908 the value was $1,193,552. The city's exports were - valued at $45,000 in 1907 and at $306,439 in 1908. The coastwise trade - is in lumber (about 700,000,000 ft. annually), shipped from northern - California, Oregon and Washington, and in crude oil and general - merchandise. There are rich oil-fields N. and W. of the city and wells - throughout the city; petroleum is largely employed as fuel in - factories. The central field, the Second Street Park field in the - city, was developed between 1892 and 1895 and wells were drilled - farther E. until in 1896 the eastern field was tapped with wells at - Adobe and College streets; the wells within the city are gradually - being abandoned. The western field and the western part of the central - field were first worked in 1899-1900. The Salt Lake field, controlled - by the Salt Lake Oil Company, near Rancho de Brea, W.S.W. of the city, - first became important in 1902 and in 1907 it was the most valuable - field in California, S. of Santa Barbara county, and the value of its - product was $1,749,980. In 1905 the value of petroleum refined in Los - Angeles was $461,281. - - Land has not for many years been cheap (i.e. absolutely) in the - southern Californian fruit country, and immigration has been, - generally, of the comparatively well-to-do. This fact has greatly - affected the character and development of the city. The assessed - valuation of property increased more than threefold from 1900 to 1910, - being $276,801,517 in the latter year, when the bonded city debt was - $17,259,312.50. Since 1896 there has been a strong independent - movement in politics, marked by the organization of a League for - Better City Government (1896) and a Municipal League (1900), and by - the organization of postal primaries to secure the co-operation of - electors pledged to independent voting. Since 1904 the public school - system has been administered by a non-partisan Board of Education - chosen from the city at large, and not by wards as theretofore. - -Los Angeles, like all other Californian cities, has the privilege of -making and amending its own charter, subject to the approval of the -state legislature. In 1902 thirteen amendments were adopted, including -provisions for the initiative, the referendum and the recall. The last -of these provides that 25% of the voters choosing a municipal officer -may, by signing a petition for his recall, force a new election during -his term of office and thereby remove him if another candidate receives -a greater number of votes. This provision, introducing an entirely new -principle into the American governmental system, came into effect in -January 1903, and was employed in the following year when a previously -elected councilman who was "recalled" by petition and was unsuccessful -in the 1904 election brought suit to hold his office, and on a mere -technicality the Supreme Court of the state declared the recall election -invalid. In 1909 there was a recall election at which a mayor was -removed and another chosen in his place. - -The Pueblo de Nuestra Senora la Reina de los Angeles was founded in -1781. The Franciscan mission of San Gabriel--still a famous -landmark--had been established ten years earlier a few miles eastward. -Beginning about 1827, Los Angeles, being the largest pueblo of the -territory, became a rival of Monterey for the honour of being the -capital of California, was the seat of conspiracies to overthrow the -Mexican authority, and the stronghold of the South California party in -the bickerings and struggles that lasted down to the American -occupation. In 1835 it was made a city by the Mexican Congress, and -declared the capital, but the last provision was not enforced and was -soon recalled. In 1836-1838 it was the headquarters of C. A. Carrillo, a -legally-named but never _de facto_ governor of California, whose -jurisdiction was never recognized in the north; and in 1845-1847 it was -the actual capital. The city was rent by factional quarrels when war -broke out between Mexico and the United States, but the appearance of -United States troops under Commodore Robert F. Stockton and General John -C. Fremont before Los Angeles caused both factions to unite against a -common foe. The defenders of Los Angeles fled at the approach of the -troops, and on the 13th of August 1846 the American flag was raised over -the city. A garrison of fifty men, left in control, was compelled in -October to withdraw on account of a revolt of the inhabitants, and Los -Angeles was not retaken until General Philip Kearny and Commodore -Stockton entered the city on the 18th of January 1847. This was the only -important overt resistance to the establishment of the new regime in -California. The city was chartered in 1850. It continued to grow -steadily thereafter until it attained railway connexion with the Central -Pacific and San Francisco in 1876, and with the East by the Santa Fe -system in 1885. The completion of the latter line precipitated one of -the most extraordinary of American railway wars and land booms, which -resulted in giving southern California a great stimulus. The growth of -the city since 1890 has been even more remarkable. In 1909 the township -of Wilmington (pop. in 1900, 2983), including the city of San Pedro -(pop. in 1900, 1787), Colegrove, a suburb W.N.W. of the city, Cahuenga -(pop. in 1900, 1586), a township N.W. of the former city limits, and a -part of Los Feliz were annexed to the city. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] In addition to the large foreign-born population (4023 Germans, - 3017 English, 2683 English Canadians, 1885 Chinese, 1720 Irish and - smaller numbers of French, Mexicans, Swedes, Italians, Scots, Swiss, - Austrians, Danes, French Canadians, Russians, Norwegians, Welsh and - Japanese) 26,105 of the native white inhabitants were of foreign - parentage (i.e. had one or both parents not native born), so that - only 54,121 white persons were of native parentage. German, French - and Italian weekly papers are published in Los Angeles. - - - - -LOS ISLANDS (ISLAS DE LOS IDOLOS), a group of islands off the coast of -French Guinea, West Africa, lying south of Sangarea Bay, between 9 deg. -25' and 9 deg. 31' N. and 13 deg. 46' and 13 deg. 51' W., and about 80 -m. N.N.W. of Freetown, Sierra Leone. There are five principal islands: -Tamara, Factory, Crawford, White (or Ruma) and Coral. The two largest -islands are Tamara and Factory, Tamara, some 8 m. long by 1 to 2 m. -broad, being the largest. These two islands lie parallel to each other, -Tamara to the west; they form a sort of basin, in the centre of which is -the islet of Crawford. The two other islands are to the south. The -archipelago is of volcanic formation, Tamara and Factory islands forming -part of a ruined crater, with Crawford Island as the cone. The highest -point is a knoll, some 450 ft. above sea-level, in Tamara. All the -islands are richly clothed with palm trees and flowering underwood. -Tamara has a good harbour, and contains the principal settlement. The -inhabitants, about 1500, are immigrants of the Baga tribe of Senegambian -negroes, whose home is the coast land between the Pongo and Nunez -rivers. These are chiefly farmers. The Church of England has a -flourishing mission, with a native pastorate. At one time the islands -were a great seat of slave-traders and pirates. The latter are supposed -to have buried large amounts of treasure in them. In an endeavour to -stop the slave trade and piracy, the islands were garrisoned (1812-1813) -by British troops, but the unhealthiness of the climate led to their -withdrawal. In 1818 Sir Charles McCarthy, governor of Sierra Leone, -obtained the cession of the islands to Great Britain from the chiefs of -the Baga country, and in 1882 France recognized them to be a British -possession. They were then the headquarters of several Sierra Leone -traders. By article 6 of the Anglo-French convention of the 8th of April -1904, the islands were ceded to France. They were desired by France -because of their geographical position, Konakry, the capital of French -Guinea, being built on an islet but 3 m. from Factory Island, and at the -mercy of long range artillery planted thereon. The islands derive their -name from the sacred images found on them by the early European -navigators. - - See A. B. Ellis, _West African Islands_ (London, 1885), and the works - cited under FRENCH GUINEA. - - - - -LOSSIEMOUTH, a police burgh of Elginshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 3904. -It embraces the villages of Lossiemouth, Branderburgh and Stotfield, at -the mouth of the Lossie, 5(1/2) m. N.N.E. of Elgin, of which it is the -port, by a branch line of the Great North of Scotland railway. The -industries are boat-building and fishing. Lossiemouth, or the Old Town, -dates from 1700; Branderburgh, farther north, grew with the harbour and -began about 1830; Stotfield is purely modern and contiguous to the -splendid golf-course. The cliffs at Covesea, 2 m. W., contain caves of -curious shape. Sir Robert Gordon of Gordonstown used one as a stable in -the rebellion of 1745; weapons of prehistoric man were found in another, -and the roof of a third is carved with ornaments and emblems of early -Celtic art. - - Kinneddar Castle in the parish of Drainie--in which Lossiemouth is - situated--was a seat of the bishops of Moray, and Old Duffus Castle, - 2(1/2) m. S.W., was built in the reign of David II. The estate of - Gordonstown, close by, was founded by Sir Robert Gordon (1580-1656), - historian of the Sutherland family, and grandfather of the baronet - who, because of his inventions and scientific attainments, was known - locally as "Sir Robert the Warlock" (1647-1704). Nearly midway between - Lossiemouth and Elgin stand the massive ruins of the palace of Spynie, - formerly a fortified residence of the bishops of Moray. "Davie's - Tower," 60 ft. high with walls 9 ft. thick, was built by Bishop David - Stewart about 1470. The adjacent loch is a favourite breeding-place - for the sea-birds, which resort to the coast of Elginshire in enormous - numbers. A mile S.E. of the lake lies Pitgaveny, one of the reputed - scenes of the murder of King Duncan by Macbeth. - - - - -LOSSING, BENSON JOHN (1813-1891), American historical writer, was born -in Beekman, New York, on the 12th of February 1813. After editing -newspapers in Poughkeepsie he became an engraver on wood, and removed to -New York in 1839 for the practice of his profession, to which he added -that of drawing illustrations for books and periodicals. He likewise -wrote or edited the text of numerous publications. His _Pictorial -Field-Book of the Revolution_ (first issued in 30 parts, 1850-1852, and -then in 2 volumes) was a pioneer work of value in American historical -literature. In its preparation he travelled some 9000 m. during a period -of nearly two years; made more than a thousand sketches of extant -buildings, battlefields, &c.; and presented his material in a form -serviceable to the topographer and interesting to the general reader. -Similar but less characteristic and less valuable undertakings were a -_Pictorial Field-Book of the War of 1812_ (1868), and a _Pictorial -History of the Civil War in the United States of America_ (3 vols. -1866-1869). His other books were numerous: an _Outline History of the -Fine Arts_; many illustrated histories, large and small, of the United -States; popular descriptions of Mount Vernon and other localities -associated with famous names; and biographical sketches of celebrated -Americans, of which _The Life and Times of Major-General Philip -Schuyler_ (2 vols. 1860-1873) was the most considerable. He died at -Dover Plains, New York, on the 3rd of June 1891. - - - - -LOSSNITZ, a district in the kingdom of Saxony, extending for about 5 m. -along the right bank of the Elbe, immediately N.W. of Dresden. Pop. -(1905) 6929. A line of vine-clad hills shelters it from the north winds, -and so warm and healthy is the climate that it has gained for the -district the appellation of the "Saxon Nice." Asparagus, peaches, -apricots, strawberries, grapes and roses are largely cultivated and find -a ready market in Dresden. - - - - -LOST PROPERTY. The man who loses an article does not lose his right -thereto, and he may recover it from the holder whoever he be, unless his -claim be barred by some Statute of Limitations or special custom, as -sale in market overt. The rights and duties of the finder are more -complex. If he know or can find out the true owner, and yet convert the -article to his own use, he is guilty of theft. But if the true owner -cannot be discovered, the finder keeps the property, his title being -superior to that of every one except the true owner. But this is only if -the find be in public or some public place. Thus if you pick up bank -notes in a shop where they have been lost by a stranger, and hand them -to the shopkeeper that he may discover and repossess the true owner, and -he fail to do so, then you can recover them from him. The owner of -private land, however, is entitled to what is found on it. Thus a man -sets you to clear out his pond, and you discover a diamond in the mud at -the bottom. The law will compel you to hand it over to the owner of the -pond. This applies even against the tenant. A gas company were lessees -of certain premises; whilst making excavations therein they came upon a -prehistoric boat; and they were forced to surrender it to their lessor. -An aerolite becomes the property of the owner of the land on which it -falls, and not of the person finding or digging it out. The principle of -these three last cases is that whatever becomes part of the soil belongs -to the proprietor of that soil. - -Property lost at sea is regulated by different rules. Those who recover -abandoned vessels are entitled to salvage. Property absolutely lost upon -the high seas would seem to belong to the finder. It has been claimed -for the crown, and the American courts have held, that apart from a -decree the finder is only entitled to salvage rights, the court -retaining the rest, and thus practically taking it for the state on the -original owner not being found. The modern English law on the subject of -wreck (including everything found on the shore of the sea or tidal -river) is contained in the Merchant Shipping Act 1894. The finder must -forthwith make known his discovery to the receiver of wreck under a -penalty. He is entitled to a salvage reward, but the property belongs to -the crown or its grantee unless the true owner claims within a year. In -the United States unclaimed wreck after a year generally becomes the -property of the state. In Scotland the right to lost property is -theoretically in the crown, but the finder would not in practice be -interfered with except under the provisions of the Burgh Police -(Scotland) Act 1892. Section 412 requires all persons finding goods to -deliver them forthwith to the police under a penalty. If the true owner -is not discovered within six months the magistrates may hand them over -to the finder. If the owner appears he must pay a reasonable reward. -Domestic animals, including swans, found straying without an owner may -be seized by the crown or lord of the manor, and if not claimed within a -year and a day they become the property of the crown or the lord, on the -observance of certain formalities. In Scotland they were held to belong -to the crown or its donatory, usually the sheriff of a county. By the -Burgh Police Act above quoted provision is made for the sale of lost -animals and the disposal of the free proceeds for the purposes of the -act unless such be claimed. In the United States there is diversity of -law and custom. Apart from special rule, lost animals become the -property of the finder, but in many cases the proceeds of their sale are -applied to public purposes. When property is lost by carriers, -innkeepers or railway companies, special provisions as to their -respective responsibilities apply. As to finds of money or the precious -metals, see TREASURE TROVE. - - - - -LOSTWITHIEL, a market town and municipal borough in the Bodmin -parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 30(1/2) m. W. of Plymouth -by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1379. It is pleasantly -situated on the banks of the river Fowey. The church of St Bartholomew -is remarkable for a fine Early English tower surmounted by a Decorated -spire; there are also beautiful Decorated windows and details in the -body of the church, and a richly carved octagonal font. A bridge of the -14th century crosses the river. The shire hall includes remains of a -building, called the Stannary prison, dating from the 13th century. The -Great Western railway has workshops at Lostwithiel. - -Lostwithiel owed its ancient liberties--probably its existence--to the -neighbouring castle of Restormel. The Pipe Rolls (1194-1203) show that -Robert de Cardinan, lord of Restormel, paid ten marks yearly for having -a market at Lostwithiel. By an undated charter still preserved with the -corporation's muniments he surrendered to the burgesses all the -liberties given them by his predecessors (_antecessores_) when they -founded the town. These included hereditary succession to tenements, -exemption from sullage, the right to elect a reeve (_praepositus_) if -the grantor thought one necessary and the right to marry without the -lord's interference. By Isolda, granddaughter of Robert de Cardinan, the -town was given to Richard, king of the Romans, who in the third year of -his reign granted to the burgesses a gild merchant sac and soc, toll, -team and infangenethef, freedom from pontage, lastage, &c., throughout -Cornwall, and exemption from the jurisdiction of the hundred and county -courts, also a yearly fair and a weekly market. Richard transferred the -assizes from Launceston to Lostwithiel. His son Edmund, earl of -Cornwall, built a great hall at Lostwithiel and decreed that the coinage -of tin should be at Lostwithiel only. In 1325 Richard's charter was -confirmed and the market ordered to be held on Thursdays. In 1386 the -assizes were transferred back to Launceston. In 1609 a charter of -incorporation provided for a mayor, recorder, six capital burgesses and -seventeen assistants and courts of record and pie powder. The boundaries -of the borough were extended in 1733. Under the reformed charter granted -in 1885 the corporation consists of a mayor, four aldermen and twelve -councillors. From 1305 to 1832 two members represented Lostwithiel in -parliament. The electors after 1609 were the twenty-five members of the -corporation. Under the Reform Act (1832) the borough became merged in -the county. For the Thursday market granted in 1326 a Friday market was -substituted in 1733, and this continues to be held. The fair granted in -1326 and the three fairs granted in 1733 have all given place to others. -The archdeacon's court, the sessions and the county elections were long -held at Lostwithiel, but all have now been removed. For the victory -gained by Charles I. over the earl of Essex in 1644, see GREAT -REBELLION. - - - - -LOT, in the Bible, the legendary ancestor of the two Palestinian -peoples, Moab and Ammon (Gen. xix. 30-38; cp. Ps. lxxxiii. 8); he -appears to have been represented as a Horite or Edomite (cp. the name -Lotan, Gen. xxxvi. 20, 22). As the son of Haran and grandson of Terah, -he was Abraham's nephew (Gen. xi. 31), and he accompanied his uncle in -his migration from Haran to Canaan. Near Bethel[1] Lot separated from -Abraham, owing to disputes between their shepherds, and being offered -the first choice, chose the rich fields of the Jordan valley which were -as fertile and well irrigated as the "garden of Yahweh" (i.e. Eden, Gen. -xiii. 7 sqq.). It was in this district that the cities of Sodom and -Gomorrah were situated. He was saved from their fate by two divine -messengers who spent the night in his house, and next morning led Lot, -his wife, and his two unmarried daughters out of the city. His wife -looked back and was changed to a pillar of salt,[2] but Lot with his two -daughters escaped first to Zoar and then to the mountains east of the -Dead Sea, where the daughters planned and executed an incest by which -they became the mothers of Moab and Ben-Ammi (i.e. Ammon; Gen. xix.). -The account of Chedorlaomer's invasion and of Lot's rescue by Abraham -belongs to an independent source (Gen. xiv.), the age and historical -value of which has been much disputed. (See further ABRAHAM; -MELCHIZEDEK.) Lot's character is made to stand in strong contrast with -that of Abraham, notably in the representation of his selfishness (xiii. -5 sqq.), and reluctance to leave the sinful city (xix. 16 sqq.); -relatively, however, he was superior to the rest (with the crude story -of his insistence upon the inviolable rights of guests, xix. 5 sqq.; cf. -Judges xix. 22 sqq.), and is regarded in 2 Pet. ii. 7 seq. as a type of -righteousness. - - Lot and his daughters passed into Arabic tradition from the Jews. The - daughters are named Zahy and Ra'wa by Mas'udi ii. 139; but other - Arabian writers give other forms. Paton (_Syria and Palestine_, pp. - 43, 123) identifies Lot-Lotan with _Ruten_, one of the Egyptian names - for Palestine; its true meaning is obscure. For traces of mythical - elements in the story see Winckler, _Altorient. Forsch._ ii. 87 seq. - See further, J. Skinner, _Genesis_, pp. 310 sqq. (S. A. C.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The district is thus regarded as the place where the Hebrews, on - the one side, and the Moabites and Ammonites, on the other, commence - their independent history. Whilst the latter settle across the - Jordan, Abraham moves down south to Hebron. - - [2] Tradition points to the _Jebel Usdum_ (cp. the name Sodom) at the - S.W. end of the Dead Sea. It consists almost entirely of pure - crystallized salt with pillars and pinnacles such as might have given - rise to the story (see Driver, Genesis, p. 201; and cf. also - _Palestine Explor. Fund, Quart. Statements_, 1871, p. 16, 1885, p. - 20; Conder, _Syrian Stone-lore_, p. 279 seq.). Jesus cites the story - of Lot and his wife to illustrate the sudden coming of the Kingdom of - God (Luke xvii. 28-32). The history of the interpretation of the - legend by the early and medieval church down to the era of rational - and scientific investigation will be found in A. D. White, _Warfare - of Science with Theology_, ii. ch. xviii. - - - - -LOT (Lat. _Oltis_), a river of southern France flowing westward across -the central plateau, through the departments of Lozere, Aveyron, Lot and -Lot-et-Garonne. Its length is about 300 m., the area of its basin 4444 -sq. m. The river rises in the Cevennes on the Mont du Goulet at a height -of 4918 ft. about 15 m. E. of Mende, past which it flows. Its upper -course lies through gorges between the Causse of Mende and Aubrac -Mountains on the north and the tablelands (_causses_) of Sauveterre, -Severac and Comtal on the south. Thence its sinuous course crosses the -plateau of Quercy and entering a wider fertile plain flows into the -Garonne at Aiguillon between Agen and Marmande. Its largest tributary, -the Truyere, rises in the Margeride mountains and after a circuitous -course joins it on the right at Entraygues (department of Aveyron), its -affluence more than doubling the volume of the river. Lower down it -receives the Dourdou de Bozouls (or du Nord) on the left and on the right -the Cele above Cahors (department of Lot), which is situated on a -peninsula skirted by one of the river's many windings. Villeneuve-sur-Lot -(department of Lot-et-Garonne) is the only town of any importance between -this point and its mouth. The Lot is canalized between Bouquies, above -which there is no navigation, and the Garonne (160 m.). - - - - -LOT, a department of south-western France, formed in 1790 from the -district of Quercy, part of the old province of Guyenne. It is bounded -N. by Correze, W. by Dordogne and Lot-et-Garonne, S. by Tarn-et-Garonne, -and E. by Aveyron and Cantal. Area 2017 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 216,611. The -department extends over the western portion of the Massif Central of -France; it slopes towards the south-west, and has a maximum altitude of -2560 ft. on the borders of Cantal with a minimum of 213 ft. at the point -where the river Lot quits the department. The Lot, which traverses it -from east to west, is navigable for the whole distance (106 m.) with the -help of locks; its principal tributary within the department is the Cele -(on the right). In the north of the department the Dordogne has a course -of 37 m.; among its tributaries are the Cere, which has its rise in -Cantal, and the Ouysse, a river of no great length, but remarkable for -the abundance of its waters. The streams in the south of Lot all flow -into the Tarn. The eastern and western portions of the department are -covered by ranges of hills; the north, the centre, and part of the south -are occupied by a belt of limestone plateaus or _causses_, that to the -north of the Dordogne is called the Causse de Martel; between the -Dordogne and the Lot is the Causse de Gramat or de Rocamadour; south of -the Lot is the Causse de Cahors. The _causses_ are for the most part -bare and arid owing to the rapid disappearance of the rain in clefts and -chasms in the limestone, which are known as _igues_. These are most -numerous in the Causse de Gramat and are sometimes of great beauty; the -best known is the Gouffre de Padirac, 7 m. N.E. of Rocamadour. The -altitude of the _causses_ (from 700 to 1300 ft., much lower than that of -the similar plateaus in Lozere, Herault and Aveyron) permits the -cultivation of the vine; they also yield a small quantity of cereals and -potatoes and some wood. The deep intervening valleys are full of -verdure, being well watered by abundant springs. The climate is on the -whole that of the Girondine region; the valleys are warm, and the -rainfall is somewhat above the average for France. The difference of -temperature between the higher parts of the department belonging to the -central plateau and the sheltered valleys of the south-west is -considerable. Wheat, maize, oats and rye are the chief cereals. Wine is -the principal product, the most valued being that of Cahors grown in the -valley of the Lot, which is, in general, the most productive portion of -the department. It is used partly for blending with other wines and -partly for local consumption. The north-east cantons produce large -quantities of chestnuts; walnuts, apples and plums are common, and the -department also grows potatoes and tobacco and supplies truffles. Sheep -are the most abundant kind of live stock; but pigs, horned cattle, -horses, asses, mules and goats are also reared, as well as poultry and -bees. Iron and coal are mined, and there are important zinc deposits -(Planioles). Limestone is quarried. There are oil-works and numerous -mills, and wool spinning and carding as well as cloth making, tanning, -currying, brewing and the making of agricultural implements are carried -on to some extent. The three arrondissements are those of Cahors, the -capital, Figeac and Gourdon; there are 29 cantons and 329 communes. - -Lot belongs to the 17th military district, and to the _academie_ of -Toulouse, and falls within the circumscription of the court of appeal at -Agen, and the province of the archbishop of Albi. It is served by the -Orleans railway. Cahors, Figeac and Rocamadour are the principal places. -Of the interesting churches and chateaux of the department, may be -mentioned the fine feudal fortress at Castelnau occupying a commanding -natural position, with an audience hall of the 12th century, and the -Romanesque abbey-church at Souillac with fine sculpturing on the -principal entrance. The plateau of Puy d'Issolu, near Vayrac, is -believed by most authorities to be the site of the ancient Uxcellodunum, -the scene of the last stand of the Gauls against Julius Caesar in 51 -B.C. Lot has many dolmens, the finest being that of Pierre Martine, near -Livernon (arr. of Figeac). - - - - -LOT-ET-GARONNE, a department of south-western France, formed in 1790 of -Agenais and Bazadais, two districts of the old province of Guienne, and -of Condomois, Lomagne, Brullois and pays d'Albret, formerly portions of -Gascony. It is bounded W. by Gironde, N. by Dordogne, E. by Lot and -Tarn-et-Garonne, S. by Gers and S.W. by Landes. Area 2079 sq. m. Pop. -(1906) 274,610. The Garonne, which traverses the department from S.E. to -N.W., divides it into two unequal parts. That to the north is a country -of hills and deep ravines, and the slope is from east to west, while in -the region to the south, which is a continuation of the plateau of -Lannemezan and Armagnac, the slope is directly from south to north. A -small portion in the south-west belongs to the sterile region of the -Landes (q.v.); the broad valleys of the Garonne and of its affluent the -Lot are proverbial for their fertility. The wildest part is towards the -north-east on the borders of Dordogne, where a region of _causses_ -(limestone plateaus) and forests begins; the highest point (896 ft.) is -also found here. The Garonne, where it quits the department, is only -some 20 ft. above the sea-level; it is navigable throughout, with the -help of its lateral canal, as also are the Lot and Baise with the help -of locks. The Drot, a right affluent of the Garonne in the north of the -department, is also navigable in the lower part of its course. The -climate is that of the Girondine region--mild and fine--the mean -temperature of Agen being 56.6 deg. Fahr., or 5 deg. above that of -Paris; the annual rainfall, which, in the plain of Agen, varies from 20 -to 24 in., is nearly the least in France. Agriculturally the department -is one of the richest. Of cereals wheat is the chief, maize and oats -coming next. Potatoes, vines and tobacco are important sources of -wealth. The best wines are those of Clairac and Buzet. Vegetable and -fruit-growing are prosperous. Plum-trees (_pruniers d'ente_) are much -cultivated in the valleys of the Garonne and Lot, and the apricots of -Nicole and Tonneins are well known. The chief trees are the pine and the -oak; the cork-oak flourishes in the Landes, and poplars and willows are -abundant on the borders of the Garonne. Horned cattle, chiefly of the -Garonne breed, are the principal live stock. Poultry and pigs are also -reared profitably. There are deposits of iron in the department. The -forges, blast furnaces and foundries of Fumel are important; and -agricultural implements and other machines are manufactured. The making -of lime and cement, of tiles, bricks and pottery, of confectionery and -dried plums (pruneaux d'Agen) and other delicacies, and brewing and -distilling, occupy many of the inhabitants. At Tonneins (pop. 4691 in -1906) there is a national tobacco manufactory. Cork cutting, of which -the centre is Mezin, hat and candle making, wool spinning, weaving of -woollen and cotton stuffs, tanning, paper-making, oil-making, dyeing and -flour and saw-milling are other prominent industries. The peasants still -speak the Gascon patois. The arrondissements are 4--Agen, Marmande, -Nerac and Villeneuve-sur-Lot--and there are 35 cantons and 326 communes. - -Agen, the capital, is the seat of a bishopric and of the court of appeal -for the department of Lot-et-Garonne. The department belongs to the -region of the XVII. army corps, the _academie_ of Bordeaux, and the -province of the archbishop of Bordeaux. Lot-et-Garonne is served by the -lines of the Southern and the Orleans railways, its rivers afford about -160 m. of navigable waterway, and the lateral canal of the Garonne -traverses it for 54 m. Agen, Marmande, Nerac and Villeneuve-sur-Lot, the -principal places, are treated under separate headings. The department -possesses Roman remains at Mas d'Agenais and at Aiguillon. The churches -of Layrac, Monsempron, Mas d'Agenais, Moirax, Mezin and Vianne are of -interest, as also are the fortifications of Vianne of the 13th century, -and the chateaux of Xaintrailles, Bonaguil, Gavaudun and of the -industrial town of Casteljaloux. - - - - -LOTHAIR I. (795-855), Roman emperor, was the eldest son of the emperor -Louis I., and his wife Irmengarde. Little is known of his early life, -which was probably passed at the court of his grandfather Charlemagne, -until 815 when he became ruler of Bavaria. When Louis in 817 divided the -Empire between his sons, Lothair was crowned joint emperor at -Aix-la-Chapelle and given a certain superiority over his brothers. In -821 he married Irmengarde (d. 851), daughter of Hugo, count of Tours; in -822 undertook the government of Italy; and, on the 5th of April 823, was -crowned emperor by Pope Paschal I. at Rome. In November 824 he -promulgated a statute concerning the relations of pope and emperor which -reserved the supreme power to the secular potentate, and he afterwards -issued various ordinances for the good government of Italy. On his -return to his father's court his stepmother Judith won his consent to -her plan for securing a kingdom for her son Charles, a scheme which was -carried out in 829. Lothair, however, soon changed his attitude, and -spent the succeeding decade in constant strife over the division of the -Empire with his father. He was alternately master of the Empire, and -banished and confined to Italy; at one time taking up arms in alliance -with his brothers and at another fighting against them; whilst the -bounds of his appointed kingdom were in turn extended and reduced. When -Louis was dying in 840, he sent the imperial _insignia_ to Lothair, who, -disregarding the various partitions, claimed the whole of the Empire. -Negotiations with his brother Louis and his half-brother Charles, both -of whom armed to resist this claim, were followed by an alliance of the -younger brothers against Lothair. A decisive battle was fought at -Fontenoy on the 25th of June 841, when, in spite of his personal -gallantry, Lothair was defeated and fled to Aix. With fresh troops he -entered upon a war of plunder, but the forces of his brothers were too -strong for him, and taking with him such treasure as he could collect, -he abandoned to them his capital. Efforts to make peace were begun, and -in June 842 the brothers met on an island in the Saone, and agreed to an -arrangement which developed, after much difficulty and delay, into the -treaty of Verdun signed in August 843. By this Lothair received Italy -and the imperial title, together with a stretch of land between the -North and Mediterranean Seas lying along the valleys of the Rhine and -the Rhone. He soon abandoned Italy to his eldest son, Louis, and -remained in his new kingdom, engaged in alternate quarrels and -reconciliations with his brothers, and in futile efforts to defend his -lands from the attacks of the Normans and the Saracens. In 855 he became -seriously ill, and despairing of recovery renounced the throne, divided -his lands between his three sons, and on the 23rd of September entered -the monastery of Prum, where he died six days later. He was buried at -Prum, where his remains were found in 1860. Lothair was entirely -untrustworthy and quite unable to maintain either the unity or the -dignity of the empire of Charlemagne. - - See "Annales Fuldenses"; Nithard, "Historiarum Libri," both in the - _Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, Bande_ i. and ii. (Hanover - and Berlin, 1826 fol.); E. Muhlbacher, _Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs - unter den Karolingern_ (Innsbruck, 1881); E. Dummler, _Geschichte des - ostfrankischen Reichs_ (Leipzig, 1887-1888); B. Simson, _Jahrbucher - des deutschen Reiches unter Ludwig dem Frommen_ (Leipzig, 1874-1876). - - - - -LOTHAIR II. or III. (c. 1070-1137), surnamed the "Saxon," Roman emperor, -son of Gebhard, count of Supplinburg, belonged to a family possessing -extensive lands around Helmstadt in Saxony, to which he succeeded on his -father's death in 1075. Gebhard had been a leading opponent of the -emperor Henry IV. in Saxony, and his son, taking the same attitude, -assisted Egbert II., margrave of Meissen, in the rising of 1088. The -position and influence of Lothair in Saxony, already considerable, was -increased when in 1100 he married Richenza, daughter of Henry, count of -Nordheim, who became an heiress on her father's death in 1101, and -inherited other estates when her brother Otto died childless in 1116. -Having assisted the German king, Henry V., against his father in 1104, -Lothair was appointed duke of Saxony by Henry, when Duke Magnus, the -last of the Billungs, died in 1106. His first care was to establish his -authority over some districts east of the Elbe; and quickly making -himself independent of the king, he stood forth as the representative of -the Saxon race. This attitude brought him into collision with Henry V., -to whom, however, he was forced to submit after an unsuccessful rising -in 1112. A second rising was caused when, on the death of Ulrich II., -count of Weimar and Orlamunde, without issue in 1112, Henry seized these -counties as vacant fiefs of the empire, while Lothair supported the -claim of Siegfried, count of Ballenstadt, whose mother was a relative of -Ulrich. The rebels were defeated, and Siegfried was killed at Warnstadt -in 1113, but his son secured possession of the disputed counties. After -the defeat by Lothair of Henry's forces at Welfesholz on the 11th of -February 1115, events called Henry to Italy; and Lothair appears to have -been undisturbed in Saxony until 1123, when the death of Henry II., -margrave of Meissen and Lusatia raised a dispute as to the right of -appointment to the vacant margraviates. A struggle ensued, in which -victory remained with the duke. The Saxony policy of Lothair during -these years had been to make himself independent, and to extend his -authority; to this end he allied himself with the papal party, and -easily revived the traditional hostility of the Saxons to the Franconian -emperors. - -When Henry V. died in 1125, Lothair, after a protracted election, was -chosen German king at Mainz on the 30th of August 1125. His election was -largely owing to the efforts of Adalbert, archbishop of Mainz, and the -papal party, who disliked the candidature of Henry's nephew and heir, -Frederick II. of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia. The new king was crowned -at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 13th of September 1125. Before suffering a -severe reverse, brought about by his interference in the internal -affairs of Bohemia, Lothair requested Frederick of Hohenstaufen to -restore to the crown the estates bequeathed to him by the emperor Henry -V. Frederick refused, and was placed under the ban. Lothair, unable to -capture Nuremberg, gained the support of Henry the Proud, the new duke -of Bavaria, by giving him his daughter, Gertrude, in marriage, and that -of Conrad, count of Zahringen, by granting him the administration of the -kingdom of Burgundy, or Arles. As a counterstroke, however, Conrad of -Hohenstaufen, the brother of Frederick, was chosen German king in -December 1127, and was quickly recognized in northern Italy. But Lothair -gained the upper hand in Germany, and by the end of 1129 the -Hohenstaufen strongholds, Nuremberg and Spires, were in his possession. -This struggle was accompanied by disturbances in Lorraine, Saxony and -Thuringia, but order was soon restored after the resistance of the -Hohenstaufen had been beaten down. In 1131 the king led an expedition -into Denmark, where one of his vassals had been murdered by Magnus, son -of the Danish king, Niels, and where general confusion reigned; but no -resistance was offered, and Niels promised to pay tribute to Lothair. - -The king's attention at the time was called to Italy where two popes, -Innocent II. and Anacletus II., were clamouring for his support. At -first Lothair, fully occupied with the affairs of Germany, remained -heedless and neutral; but in March 1131 he was visited at Liege by -Innocent, to whom he promised his assistance. Crossing the Alps with a -small army in September 1132, he reached Rome in March 1133, accompanied -by Innocent. As St Peter's was held by Anacletus, Lothair's coronation -as emperor took place on the 4th of June 1133 in the church of the -Lateran. He then received as papal fiefs the vast estates of Matilda, -marchioness of Tuscany, thus securing for his daughter and her Welf -husband lands which might otherwise have passed to the Hohenstaufen. His -efforts to continue the investiture controversy were not very serious. -He returned to Germany, where he restored order in Bavaria, and made an -expedition against some rebels in the regions of the lower Rhine. -Resuming the struggle against the Hohenstaufen, Lothair soon obtained -the submission of the brothers, who retained their lands, and a general -peace was sworn at Bamberg. The emperor's authority was now generally -recognized, and the annalists speak highly of the peace and order of his -later years. In 1135, Eric II., king of Denmark, acknowledged himself a -vassal of Lothair; Boleslaus III., prince of the Poles, promised -tribute and received Pomerania and Rugen as German fiefs; while the -eastern emperor, John Comnenus, implored Lothair's aid against Roger II. -of Sicily. - -The emperor seconded the efforts of his vassals, Albert the Bear, -margrave of the Saxon north mark, and Conrad I., margrave of Meissen and -Lusatia, to extend the authority of the Germans in the districts east of -the Elbe, and assisted Norbert, archbishop of Magdeburg, and Albert I., -archbishop of Bremen, to spread Christianity. In August 1136, attended -by a large army, Lothair set out upon his second Italian journey. The -Lombard cities were either terrified into submission or taken by storm; -Roger II. was driven from Apulia; and the imperial power enforced over -the whole of southern Italy. A mutiny among the German soldiers and a -breach with Innocent concerning the overlordship of Apulia compelled the -emperor to retrace his steps. An arrangement was made with regard to -Apulia, after which Lothair, returning to Germany, died at Breitenwang, -a village in the Tirol, on the 3rd or 4th of December 1137. His body was -carried to Saxony and buried in the monastery which he had founded at -Konigslutter. Lothair was a strong and capable ruler, who has been -described as the "imitator and heir of the first Otto." Contemporaries -praise his justice and his virtue, and his reign was regarded, -especially by Saxons and churchmen, as a golden age for Germany. - - The main authorities for the life and reign of Lothair are: "Vita - Norberti archiepiscopi Magdeburgensis"; Otto von Freising, "Chronicon - Annalista Saxo" and "Narratio de electione Lotharii" all in the - _Monumenta Germaniae historica_. _Scriptores_, Bande vi., xii. and xx. - (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). The best modern works are: L. von - Ranke, _Weltgeschichte_, pt. viii. (Leipzig, 1887-1888); W. von - Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der Deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band iv. - (Brunswick, 1877), Band v. (Leipzig, 1888); Ph. Jaffe, _Geschichte des - Deutschen Reiches unter Lothar_ (Berlin, 1843); W. Bernhardi, _Lothar - von Supplinburg_ (Leipzig, 1879); O. von Heinemann, _Lothar der Sachse - und Konrad III._ (Halle, 1869); and Ch. Volkmar, "Das Verhaltniss - Lothars III. zur Investiturfrage," in the _Forschungen zur Deutschen - Geschichte_, Band xxvi. (Gottingen, 1862-1886). - - - - -LOTHAIR (941-986), king of France, son of Louis IV., succeeded his -father in 954, and was at first under the guardianship of Hugh the -Great, duke of the Franks, and then under that of his maternal uncle -Bruno, archbishop of Cologne. The beginning of his reign was occupied -with wars against the vassals, particularly against the duke of -Normandy. Lothair then seems to have conceived the design of recovering -Lorraine. He attempted to precipitate matters by a sudden attack, and in -the spring of 978 nearly captured the emperor Otto II. at -Aix-la-Chapelle. Otto took his revenge in the autumn by invading France. -He penetrated as far as Paris, devastating the country through which he -passed, but failed to take the town, and was forced to retreat with -heavy loss. Peace was concluded in 980 at Margut-sur-Chiers, and in 983 -Lothair was even chosen guardian to the young Otto III. Towards 980, -however, Lothair quarrelled with Hugh the Great's son, Hugh Capet, who, -at the instigation of Adalberon, archbishop of Reims, became reconciled -with Otto III. Lothair died on the 2nd of March 986. By his wife Emma, -daughter of Lothair, king of Italy, he left a son who succeeded him as -Louis V. - - See F. Lot, _Les Derniers Carolingiens_ (Paris, 1891); and the - _Recueil des actes de Lothaire et de Louis V._, edited by L. Halphen - and F. Lot (1908). - - - - -LOTHAIR (825-869), king of the district called after him Lotharingia, or -Lorraine, was the second son of the emperor Lothair I. On his father's -death in 855, he received for his kingdom a district lying west of the -Rhine, between the North Sea and the Jura mountains, which was called -_Regnum Lotharii_ and early in the 10th century became known as -Lotharingia or Lorraine. On the death of his brother Charles in 863 he -added some lands south of the Jura to this inheritance, but, except for -a few feeble expeditions against the Danish pirates, he seems to have -done little for its government or its defence. The reign was chiefly -occupied by efforts on the part of Lothair to obtain a divorce from his -wife Teutberga, a sister of Hucbert, abbot of St Maurice (d. 864); and -his relations with his uncles, Charles the Bald and Louis the German, -were influenced by his desire to obtain their support to this plan. -Although quarrels and reconciliations between the three kings followed -each other in quick succession, in general it may be said that Louis -favoured the divorce, and Charles opposed it, while neither lost sight -of the fact that Lothair was without male issue. Lothair, whose desire -for the divorce was prompted by his affection for a certain Waldrada, -put away Teutberga; but Hucbert took up arms on her behalf, and after -she had submitted successfully to the ordeal of water, Lothair was -compelled to restore her in 858. Still pursuing his purpose, he won the -support of his brother, the emperor Louis II., by a cession of lands, -and obtained the consent of the local clergy to the divorce and to his -marriage with Waldrada, which was celebrated in 862. A synod of Frankish -bishops met at Metz in 863 and confirmed this decision, but Teutberga -fled to the court of Charles the Bald, and Pope Nicholas I. declared -against the decision of the synod. An attack on Rome by the emperor was -without result, and in 865 Lothair, convinced that Louis and Charles at -their recent meeting had discussed the partition of his kingdom, and -threatened with excommunication, again took back his wife. Teutberga, -however, either from inclination or compulsion, now expressed her desire -for a divorce, and Lothair went to Italy to obtain the assent of the new -pope Adrian II. Placing a favourable interpretation upon the words of -the pope, he had set out on the return journey, when he was seized with -fever and died at Piacenza on the 8th of August 869. He left, by -Waldrada, a son Hugo who was declared illegitimate, and his kingdom was -divided between Charles the Bald and Louis the German. - - See Hincmar, "Opusculum de divortio Lotharii regis et Tetbergae - reginae," in _Cursus completus patrologiae_, tome cxxv., edited by J. - P. Migne (Paris, 1857-1879); M. Sdralek, _Hinkmars von Rheims - Kanonistisches Gutachten uber die Ehescheidung des Konigs Lothar II._ - (Freiburg, 1881); E. Dummler, _Geschichte des ostfrankischen Reiches_ - (Leipzig, 1887-1888); and E. Muhlbacher, _Die Regenten des - Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern_ (Innsbruck, 1881). - - - - -LOTHIAN, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. MARK KERR, 1st earl of Lothian (d. -1609), was the eldest son of Mark Kerr (d. 1584), abbot, and then -commendator, of Newbattle, or Newbottle, and was a member of the famous -border family of Ker of Cessford. The earls and dukes of Roxburghe, who -are also descended from the Kers of Cessford, have adopted the spelling -Ker, while the earls and marquesses of Lothian have taken the form Kerr. -Like his father, the abbot of Newbattle, Mark Kerr was an extraordinary -lord of session under the Scottish king James VI.; he became Lord -Newbattle in 1587 and was created earl of Lothian in 1606. He was master -of inquests from 1577 to 1606, and he died on the 8th of April 1609, -having had, as report says, thirty-one children by his wife, Margaret -(d. 1617), daughter of John Maxwell, 4th Lord Herries. His son Robert, -the 2nd earl, died without sons in July 1624. He had, in 1621, obtained -a charter from the king enabling his daughter Anne to succeed to his -estates provided that she married a member of the family of Ker. -Consequently in 1631 she married William Ker, son of Robert, 1st earl of -Ancrum (1578-1654), a member of the family of Ker of Ferniehurst, whose -father, William Ker, had been killed in 1590 by Robert Ker, afterwards -1st earl of Roxburghe. Robert was in attendance upon Charles I. both -before and after he came to the throne, and was created earl of Ancrum -in 1633. He was a writer and a man of culture, and among his friends -were the poet Donne and Drummond of Hawthornden. His elder son William -was created earl of Lothian in 1631, the year of his marriage with Anne -Kerr, and Sir William Kerr of Blackhope, a brother of the 2nd earl, who -had taken the title of earl of Lothian in 1624, was forbidden to use it -(see _Correspondence of Sir Robert Ker, earl of Ancrum, and his son -William, third earl of Lothian_, 1875). - -WILLIAM KER (c. 1605-1675), who thus became 3rd earl of Lothian, signed -the Scottish national covenant in 1638 and marched with the Scots into -England in 1640, being present when the English were routed at Newburn, -after which he became governor of Newcastle-on-Tyne. During the Civil -War he was prominent rather as a politician than as a soldier; he -became a Scottish secretary of state in 1649, and was one of the -commissioners who visited Charles II. at Breda in 1650. He died at -Newbattle Abbey, near Edinburgh, in October 1675. William's eldest son -Robert, the 4th earl (1636-1703), supported the Revolution of 1688 and -served William III. in several capacities; he became 3rd earl of Ancrum -on the death of his uncle Charles in 1690, and was created marquess of -Lothian in 1701. His eldest son William, the 2nd marquess (c. -1662-1722), who had been a Scottish peer as Lord Jedburgh since 1692, -was a supporter of the union with England. His son William, the 3rd -marquess (c. 1690-1767), was the father of William Henry, the 4th -marquess, who was wounded at Fontenoy and was present at Culloden. He -was a member of parliament for some years and had reached the rank of -general in the army when he died at Bath on the 12th of April 1775. His -grandson William, the 6th marquess (1763-1824), married Henrietta -(1762-1805), daughter and heiress of John Hobart, 2nd earl of -Buckinghamshire, thus bringing Blickling Hall and the Norfolk estates of -the Hobarts into the Kerr family. In 1821 he was created a peer of the -United Kingdom as Baron Ker and he died on the 27th of April 1824. In -1900 Robert Schomberg Kerr (b. 1874) succeeded his father, Schomberg -Henry, the 9th marquess (1833-1900), as 10th marquess of Lothian. - - - - -LOTHIAN. This name was formerly applied to a considerably larger extent -of country than the three counties of Linlithgow, Edinburgh and -Haddington. Roxburghshire and Berwickshire at all events were included -in it, probably also the upper part of Tweeddale (at least Selkirk). It -would thus embrace the eastern part of the Lowlands from the Forth to -the Cheviots, i.e. all the English part of Scotland in the 11th century. -This region formed from the 7th century onward part of the kingdoms of -Bernicia and Northumbria, though we have no definite information as to -the date or events by which it came into English hands. In Roman times, -according to Ptolemy, it was occupied by a people called Otadini, whose -name is thought to have been preserved in Manaw Gododin, the home of the -British king Cunedda before he migrated to North Wales. There is no -reason to doubt that the district remained in Welsh hands until towards -the close of the 6th century; for in the _Historia Brittonum_ the -Bernician king Theodoric, whose traditional date is 572-579, is said to -have been engaged in war with four Welsh kings. One of these was -Rhydderch Hen who, as we know from Adamnan, reigned at Dumbarton, while -another named Urien is said to have besieged Theodoric in Lindisfarne. -If this statement is to be believed it is hardly likely that the English -had by this time obtained a firm footing beyond the Tweed. At all events -there can be little doubt that the whole region was conquered within the -next fifty years. Most probably the greater part of it was conquered by -the Northumbrian king Aethelfrith, who, according to Bede, ravaged the -territory of the Britons more often than any other English king, in some -places reducing the natives to dependence, in others exterminating them -and replacing them by English settlers. - -In the time of Oswic the English element became predominant in northern -Britain. His supremacy was acknowledged both by the Welsh in the western -Lowlands and by the Scots in Argyllshire. On the death of the Pictish -king Talorgan, the son of his brother Eanfrith, he seems to have -obtained the sovereignty over a considerable part of that nation also. -Early in Ecgfrith's reign an attempt at revolt on the part of the Picts -proved unsuccessful. We hear at this time also of the establishment of -an English bishopric at Abercorn, which, however, only lasted for a few -years. By the disastrous overthrow of Ecgfrith in 685 the Picts, Scots -and some of the Britons also recovered their independence. Yet we find a -succession of English bishops at Whithorn from 730 to the 9th century, -from which it may be inferred that the south-west coast had already by -this time become English. The Northumbrian dominions were again enlarged -by Eadberht, who in 750 is said to have annexed Kyle, the central part -of Ayrshire, with other districts. In conjunction with Oengus mac -Fergus, king of the Picts, he also reduced the whole of the Britons to -submission in 756. But this subjugation was not lasting, and the British -kingdom, though now reduced to the basin of the Clyde, whence its -inhabitants are known as Strathclyde Britons, continued to exist for -nearly three centuries. After Eadberht's time we hear little of events -in the northern part of Northumbria, and there is some reason for -suspecting that English influence in the south-west began to decline -before long, as our list of bishops of Whithorn ceases early in the 9th -century; the evidence on this point, however, is not so decisive as is -commonly stated. About 844 an important revolution took place among the -Picts. The throne was acquired by Kenneth mac Alpin, a prince of -Scottish family, who soon became formidable to the Northumbrians. He is -said to have invaded "Saxonia" six times, and to have burnt Dunbar and -Melrose. After the disastrous battle at York in 867 the Northumbrians -were weakened by the loss of the southern part of their territories, and -between 883 and 889 the whole country as far as Lindisfarne was ravaged -by the Scots. In 919, however, we find their leader Aldred calling in -Constantine II., king of the Scots, to help them. A few years later -together with Constantine and the Britons they acknowledged the -supremacy of Edward the Elder. After his death, however, both the Scots -and the Britons were for a time in alliance with the Norwegians from -Ireland, and consequently Aethelstan is said to have ravaged a large -portion of the Scottish king's territories in 934. Brunanburh, where -Aethelstan defeated the confederates in 937, is believed by many to have -been in Dumfriesshire, but we have no information as to the effects of -the battle on the northern populations. By this time, however, the -influence of the Scottish kingdom certainly seems to have increased in -the south, and in 945 the English king Edmund gave Cumberland, i.e. -apparently the British kingdom of Strathclyde, to Malcolm I., king of -the Scots, in consideration of his alliance with him. Malcolm's -successor Indulph (954-962) succeeded in capturing Edinburgh, which -thenceforth remained in possession of the Scots. His successors made -repeated attempts to extend their territory southwards, and certain late -chroniclers state that Kenneth II. in 971-975 obtained a grant of the -whole of Lothian from Edgar. Whatever truth this story may contain, the -cession of the province was finally effected by Malcolm II. by force of -arms. At his first attempt in 1006 he seems to have suffered a great -defeat from Uhtred, the son of earl Waltheof. Twelve years later, -however, he succeeded in conjunction with Eugenius, king of Strathclyde, -in annihilating the Northumbrian army at Carham on the Tweed, and Eadulf -Cudel, the brother and successor of Uhtred, ceded all his territory to -the north of that river as the price of peace. Henceforth in spite of an -invasion by Aldred, the son of Uhtred, during the reign of Duncan, -Lothian remained permanently in possession of the Scottish kings. In the -reign of Malcolm III. and his son, the English element appears to have -acquired considerable influence in the kingdom. Some three years before -he obtained his father's throne Malcolm had by the help of earl Siward -secured the government of Cumbria (Strathclyde) with which Lothian was -probably united. Then in 1068 he received a large number of exiles from -England, amongst them the Aetheling Eadgar, whose sister Margaret he -married. Four other sons in succession occupied the throne, and in the -time of the youngest, David, who held most of the south of Scotland as -an earldom from 1107-1124 and the whole kingdom from 1124-1153, the -court seems already to have been composed chiefly of English and -Normans. - - AUTHORITIES.--Bede, _Historia Ecclesiastica_ (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, - 1896); _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ (ed. Earle and Plummer, Oxford, 1899); - Simeon of Durham (Rolls Series, ed. T. Arnold, 1882); W. F. Skene, - _Chronicle of Picts and Scots_ (Edinburgh, 1867), and _Celtic - Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1876-1880); and J. Rhys, _Celtic Britain_ - (London). (F. G. M. B.) - - - - -LOTI, PIERRE [the pen-name of LOUIS MARIE JULIEN VIAUD] (1850- ), -French author, was born at Rochefort on the 14th of January 1850. The -Viauds are an old Protestant family, and Pierre Loti consistently -adhered, at least nominally, to the faith of his fathers. Of the -picturesque and touching incidents of his childhood he has given a very -vivid account in _Le Roman d'un enfant_ (1890). His education began in -Rochefort, but at the age of seventeen, being destined for the navy, he -entered the naval school, Le Borda, and gradually rose in his -profession, attaining the rank of captain in 1906. In January 1910 he -was placed on the reserve list. His pseudonym is said to be due to his -extreme shyness and reserve in early life, which made his comrades call -him after _le Loti_, an Indian flower which loves to blush unseen. He -was never given to books or study (when he was received at the French -Academy, he had the courage to say, "Loti ne sait pas lire"), and it was -not until 1876 that he was persuaded to write down and publish some -curious experiences at Constantinople, in _Aziyade_, a book which, like -so many of Loti's, seems half a romance, half an autobiography. He -proceeded to the South Seas, and on leaving Tahiti published the -Polynesian idyll, originally called _Rarahu_ (1880), which was reprinted -as _Le Mariage de Loti_, and which first introduced to the wider public -an author of remarkable originality and charm. _Le Roman d'un spahi_, a -record of the melancholy adventures of a soldier in Senegambia, belongs -to 1881. In 1882 Loti issued a collection of short studies under the -general title of _Fleurs d'ennui_. In 1883 he achieved the widest -celebrity, for not only did he publish _Mon frere Yves_, a novel -describing the life of a French bluejacket in all parts of the -world--perhaps his most characteristic production--but he was involved -in a public discussion in a manner which did him great credit. While -taking part as a naval officer in the Tongking War, Loti had exposed in -the _Figaro_ a series of scandals which followed on the capture of Hue -(1883), and was suspended from the service for more than a year. He -continued for some time nearly silent, but in 1886 he published a novel -of life among the Breton fisher-folk, called _Pecheur d'islande_, the -most popular of all his writings. In 1887 he brought out a volume of -extraordinary merit, which has not received the attention it deserves; -this is _Propos d'exil_, a series of short studies of exotic places, in -his peculiar semi-autobiographic style. The fantastic novel of Japanese -manners, _Madame Chrysantheme_, belongs to the same year. Passing over -one or two slighter productions, we come in 1890 to _Au Maroc_, the -record of a journey to Fez in company with a French embassy. A -collection of strangely confidential and sentimental reminiscences, -called _Le Livre de la pitie et de la mort_, belongs to 1891. Loti was -on board his ship at the port of Algiers when news was brought to him of -his election, on the 21st of May 1891, to the French Academy. In 1892 he -published _Fantome d'orient_, another dreamy study of life in -Constantinople, a sort of continuation of _Aziyade_. He described a -visit to the Holy Land, somewhat too copiously, in three volumes -(1895-1896), and wrote a novel, _Ramuntcho_ (1897), a story of manners -in the Basque province, which is equal to his best writings. In 1900 he -visited British India, with the view of describing what he saw; the -result appeared in 1903--_L'Inde_ (_sans les Anglais_). At his best -Pierre Loti was unquestionably the finest descriptive writer of the day. -In the delicate exactitude with which he reproduced the impression given -to his own alert nerves by unfamiliar forms, colours, sounds and -perfumes, he was without a rival. But he was not satisfied with this -exterior charm; he desired to blend with it a moral sensibility of the -extremest refinement, at once sensual and ethereal. Many of his best -books are long sobs of remorseful memory, so personal, so intimate, that -an English reader is amazed to find such depth of feeling compatible -with the power of minutely and publicly recording what is felt. In spite -of the beauty and melody and fragrance of Loti's books his mannerisms -are apt to pall upon the reader, and his later books of pure description -were rather empty. His greatest successes were gained in the species of -confession, half-way between fact and fiction, which he essayed in his -earlier books. When all his limitations, however, have been rehearsed, -Pierre Loti remains, in the mechanism of style and cadence, one of the -most original and most perfect French writers of the second half of the -19th century. Among his later works were: _La Troisieme jeunesse de Mme -Prune_ (1905); _Les Desenchantees_ (1906, Eng. trans. by C. Bell); _La -Mort de Philae_ (1908); _Judith Renaudin_ (Theatre Antoine, 1904), a -five-act historical play based on an earlier book; and, in -collaboration with Emile Vedel, a translation of _King Lear_, also -produced at the Theatre Antoine in 1904. (E. G.) - - - - -LOTSCHEN PASS, or LOTSCHBERG, an easy glacier pass (8842 ft.) leading -from Kandersteg in the Bernese Oberland to the Lotschen valley in the -Valais. It is a very old pass, first mentioned distinctly in 1352, but -probably crossed previously by the Valaisans who colonized various parts -of the Bernese Oberland. In 1384 and again in 1419 battles were fought -on it between the Bernese and the Valaisans, while in 1698 a mule path -(of which traces still exist) was constructed on the Bernese slope, -though not continued beyond owing to the fear of the Valaisans that the -Bernese would come over and alter their religion. In 1906 the piercing -of a tunnel (8(1/2) m. long) beneath this pass was begun, starting a -little above Kandersteg and ending at Goppenstein near the mouth of the -Lotschen valley. Subsidies were granted by both the confederation and -the canton of Bern. This pass is to be carefully distinguished from the -Lotschenlucke (10,512 ft.), another easy glacier pass which leads from -the head of the Lotschen valley to the Great Aletsch glacier. - (W. A. B. C.) - - - - -LOTTERIES. The word lottery[1] has no very definite signification. It -may be applied to any process of determining prizes by lot, whether the -object be amusement or gambling or public profit. In the Roman -Saturnalia and in the banquets of aristocratic Romans the object was -amusement; the guests received _apophoreta_. The same plan was followed -on a magnificent scale by some of the emperors. Nero gave such prizes as -a house or a slave. Heliogabalus introduced an element of absurdity--one -ticket for a golden vase, another for six flies. This custom descended -to the festivals given by the feudal and merchant princes of Europe, -especially of Italy; and it formed a prominent feature of the splendid -court hospitality of Louis XIV. In the Italian republics of the 16th -century the lottery principle was applied to encourage the sale of -merchandise. The lotto of Florence and the seminario of Genoa are well -known, and Venice established a monopoly and drew a considerable revenue -for the state. The first letters patent for a lottery in France were -granted in 1539 by Francis I., and in 1656 the Italian, Lorenzo Tonti -(the originator of "Tontines") opened another for the building of a -stone bridge between the Louvre and the Faubourg St Germain. The -institution became very popular in France, and gradually assumed an -important place in the government finance. The parlements frequently -protested against it, but it had the support of Mazarin, and L. -Phelypeaux, comte de Pontchartrain, by this means raised the expenses of -the Spanish Succession War. Necker, in his _Administration des -finances_, estimates the public charge for lotteries at 4,000,000 livres -per annum. There were also lotteries for the benefit of religious -communities and charitable purposes. Two of the largest were the -_Loteries de Piete_ and _Des Enfans Trouves_. These and also the great -_Loterie de l'Ecole militaire_ were practically merged in the _Loterie -Royale_ by the decree of 1776, suppressing all private lotteries in -France. The financial basis of these larger lotteries was to take -(5/24)ths for expenses and benefit, and return (19/24)ths to the public -who subscribed. The calculation of chances had become a familiar -science. It is explained in detail by Caminade de Castres in _Enc. meth. -finances_, ii. s.v. "Loterie." The names of the winning numbers in the -first drawing were (1) _extrait_, (2) _ambe_, (3) _terne_, (4) -_quaterne_, (5) _quine_. After this there were four drawings called -_primes gratuites_. The _extrait_ gave fifteen times the price of the -ticket; the _quine_ gave one million times the price. These are said to -be much more favourable terms than were given in Vienna, Frankfort and -other leading European cities at the end of the 18th century. The -_Loterie Royale_ was ultimately suppressed in 1836. Under the law of the -29th of May 1844 lotteries may be held for the assistance of charity and -the fine arts. In 1878 twelve million lottery tickets of one franc each -were sold in Paris to pay for prizes to exhibitors in the great -Exhibition and expenses of working-men visitors. The first prize was -worth L5000; the second, L4000, and the third and fourth L2000 each. The -Societe du Credit Foncier, and many of the large towns, are permitted to -contract loans, the periodical repayments of which are determined by -lot. This practice, which is prohibited in Germany and England, -resembles the older system of giving higher and lower rates of interest -for money according to lot. Lotteries were suppressed in Belgium in -1830, Sweden in 1841 and Switzerland in 1865, but they still figure in -the state budgets of Austria-Hungary, Prussia and other German States, -Holland, Spain, Italy and Denmark. In addition to lottery loans, -ordinary lotteries (_occasion lotteries_) are numerous in various -countries of the continent of Europe. They are of various magnitude and -are organized for a variety of purposes, such as charity, art, -agriculture, church-building, &c. It is becoming the tendency, however, -to discourage private and indiscriminate lotteries, and even state -lotteries which contribute to the revenue. In Austria-Hungary and -Germany, for instance, every year sees fewer places where tickets can be -taken for them receive licenses. In 1904 a proposal for combining a -working-class savings bank with a national lottery was seriously -considered by the Prussian ministry. The scheme, which owes its -conception to August Scherl, editor of the Berlin _Lokalanzeiger_, is an -endeavour to utilize the love of gambling for the purpose of promoting -thrift among the working-classes. It was proposed to make weekly -collections from subscribers, in fixed amounts, ranging from sixpence to -four shillings. The interest on the money deposited would not go to the -depositors but would be set aside to form the prizes. Three hundred -thousand tickets, divisible into halves, quarters and eighths, according -to the sum deposited weekly, would form a series of 12,500 prizes, of a -total value of L27,000. At the same time, the subscriber, while having -his ordinary lottery chances of these prizes, still has to his credit -intact the amount which he has subscribed week by week. - -In England the earliest lotteries sanctioned by government were for such -purposes as the repair of harbours in 1569, and the Virginia Company in -1612. In the lottery of 1569, 40,000 chances were sold at ten shillings -each, the prizes being "plate, and certain sorts of merchandises." In -1698 lotteries, with the exception of the Royal Oak lottery for the -benefit of the Royal Fishing Company, were prohibited as common -nuisances, by which children, servants and other unwary persons had been -ruined. This prohibition was in the 18th century gradually extended to -illegal insurances on marriages and other events, and to a great many -games with dice, such as faro, basset, hazard, except backgammon and -games played in the royal palace. In spite of these prohibitions, the -government from 1709 down to 1824 annually raised considerable sums in -lotteries authorized by act of parliament. The prizes were in the form -of terminable or perpetual annuities. The L10 tickets were sold at a -premium of say 40% to contractors who resold them in retail (sometimes -in one-sixteenth parts) by "morocco men," or men with red leather books -who travelled through the country. As the drawing extended over forty -days, a very pernicious system arose of insuring the fate of tickets -during the drawing for a small premium of 4d. or 6d. This was partly -cured by the Little Go Act of 1802, directed against the itinerant -wheels which plied between the state lotteries, and partly by Perceval's -Act in 1806, which confined the drawing of each lottery to one day. From -1793 to 1824 the government made an average yearly profit of L346,765. -Cope, one of the largest contractors, is said to have spent L36,000 in -advertisements in a single year. The English lotteries were used to -raise loans for general purposes, but latterly they were confined to -particular objects, such as the improvement of London, the disposal of -a museum, the purchase of a picture gallery, &c. Through the efforts of -Lord Lyttleton and others a strong public opinion was formed against -them, and in 1826 they were finally prohibited. An energetic proposal to -revive the system was made before the select committee on metropolitan -improvements in 1830, but it was not listened to. By a unique blunder in -legislation, authority was given to hold a lottery under an act of 1831 -which provided a scheme for the improvement of the city of Glasgow. -These "Glasgow lotteries" were suppressed by an act of 1834. Art Unions -were legalized by the Art Unions Act 1846. The last lottery prominently -before the public in England was that of Dethier's twelfth-cake lottery, -which was suppressed on the 27th of December 1860. As defined at the -beginning of this article, the word lottery has a meaning wide enough to -include missing-word competitions, distributions by tradesmen of prize -coupons, sweepstakes, &c. See _Report of Joint Select Committee on -Lotteries, &c._ (1908). The statute law in Scotland is the same as in -England. At common law in Scotland it is probable that all lotteries and -raffles, for whatever purpose held, may be indicted as nuisances. The -art unions are supposed to be protected by a special statute. - -_United States._--The American Congress of 1776 instituted a national -lottery. Most states at that time legalized lotteries for public -objects, and before 1820 the Virginia legislature passed seventy acts -authorizing lotteries for various public purposes, such as schools, -roads, &c.--about 85% of the subscriptions being returned in prizes. At -an early period (1795) the city of Washington was empowered to set up -lotteries as a mode of raising money for public purposes; and this -authorization from the Maryland legislature was approved by an act of -the Federal Congress in 1812. In 1833 they were prohibited in New York -and Massachusetts and gradually in the other states, until they survived -only in Louisiana. In that state, the Louisiana State Lottery, a company -chartered in 1868, had a monopoly for which it paid $40,000 to the state -treasury. Its last charter was granted in 1879 for a period of -twenty-five years, and a renewal was refused in 1890. In 1890 Congress -forbade the use of the mails for promoting any lottery enterprise by a -statute so stringent that it was held to make it a penal offence to -employ them to further the sale of Austrian government bonds, issued -under a scheme for drawing some by lot for payment at a premium (see -_Horner_ v. _United States_, 147 United States Reports, 449). This had -the effect of compelling the Louisiana State Lottery to move its -quarters to Honduras, in which place it still exists, selling its bonds -to a considerable extent in the Southern States. - - Since lotteries have become illegal there have been a great number of - judicial decisions defining a lottery. In general, where skill or - judgment is to be exercised there is no lottery, the essential element - of which is chance or lot. There are numerous statutes against - lotteries, the reason being given that they "tend to promote a - gambling spirit," and that it is the duty of the state to "protect the - morals and advance the welfare of the people." In New York the - Constitution of 1846 forbade lotteries, and by S 324 of the Penal Code - a lottery is declared "unlawful and a public nuisance." "Contriving" - and advertising lotteries is also penal. The following have been held - illegal lotteries: In New York, a concert, the tickets for which - entitled the holder to a prize to be drawn by lot; in Indiana, - offering a gold watch to the purchaser of goods who guesses the number - of beans in a bottle; in Texas, selling "prize candy" boxes; and - operating a nickel-in-the-slot machine--so also in Louisiana; in - Massachusetts, the "policy" or "envelope game," or a "raffle"; in - Kentucky (1905), prize coupon packages, the coupons having to spell a - certain word (_U.S._ v. _Jefferson_, 134 Fed. R. 299); in Kansas - (1907) it was held by the Supreme Court that the gift of a hat-pin to - each purchaser was not illegal as a "gift enterprise," there being no - chance or lot. In Oklahoma (1907) it was held that the making of - contracts for the payment of money, the certainty in value of return - being dependent on chance, was a lottery (_Fidelity Fund Co._ v. - _Vaughan_, 90 Pac. Rep. 34). The chief features of a lottery are - "procuring through lot or chance, by the investment of a sum of money - or something of value, some greater amount of money or thing of - greater value. When such are the chief features of any scheme whatever - it may be christened, or however it may be guarded or concealed by - cunningly devised conditions or screens, it is under the law a - lottery" (_U.S._ v. _Wallace_, 58, Fed. Rep. 942). In 1894 and 1897 - Congress forbade the importation of lottery tickets or advertisements - into the United States. In 1899, setting up or promoting lotteries in - Alaska was prohibited by Congress, and in 1900 it forbade any lottery - or sale of lottery tickets in Hawaii. In Porto Rico lotteries, raffles - and gift-enterprises are forbidden (Penal Code, 1902, S 291). - - AUTHORITIES.--_Critique hist. pol. mor. econ. et comm. sur les - loteries anc. et mod. spirituelles et temporelles des etats et des - eglises_ (3 vols., Amsterdam, 1697), by the Bolognese historian - Gregorio Leti; J. Dessaulx, _De la passion du jeu depuis les anciens - temps jusqu'a nos jours_ (Paris, 1779); Endemann, _Beitrage zur - Geschichte der Lottrie und zur heutigen Lotterie_ (Bonn, 1882); - Larson, _Lottrie und Volkswirtschaft_ (Berlin, 1894); J. Ashton, - _History of English Lotteries_ (1893); _Annual Report of the American - Historical Association_ (1892); _Journal of the American Social - Science Association_, xxxvi. 17. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The word "lottery" is directly derived from Ital. _lotteria_, cf. - Fr. _loterie_, formed from _lotto_, lot, game of chance. "Lot" is in - origin a Teutonic word, adopted into Romanic languages. In O. Eng. it - appears as _hlot_, cf. Dutch _lot_, Ger. _Loos_, Dan. _lod_, &c. The - meaning of the Teutonic root _hleut_ from which these words have - derived is unknown. Primarily "lot" meant the object, such as a disk - or counter of wood, a pebble, bean or the like, which was drawn or - cast to decide by chance, under divine guidance, various matters, - such as disputes, divisions of property, selection of officers and - frequently as a method of divination in ancient times. From this - original sense the meaning develops into that which falls to a person - by lot, chance or fate, then to any portion of land, &c., allotted to - a person, and hence, quite generally, of a quantity of anything. - - - - -LOTTI, ANTONIO (1667?-1740), Italian musical composer, was the son of -Matteo Lotti, Kapellmeister to the court of Hanover. He was born, -however, at Venice and as a pupil of Legrenzi. He entered the Doge's -chapel as a boy, and in 1689 was engaged as an alto singer, succeeding -later to the posts of deputy organist (1690), second organist (1692), -first organist (1704), and, finally, in 1736 Maestro di Cappella at St -Mark's church. He was also a composer of operas, and having attracted -the interest of the crown prince of Saxony during his visit to Venice in -1712, he was invited to Dresden, where he went in 1717. After producing -three operas there he was obliged to return to his duties at Venice in -1719. He died on the 5th of January 1740. Like many other Venetian -composers he wrote operas for Vienna, and enjoyed a considerable -reputation outside Italy. A volume of madrigals published in 1705 -contains the famous _In una siepe ombrosa_, passed off by Bononcini as -his own in London. Another is quoted by Martini in his _Saggio di -Contrappunto_. Among his pupils were Alberti, Bassani, Galuppi, -Gasparini and Marcello. Burney justly praises his church music, which is -severe in style, but none the less modern in its grace and pathos. A -fine setting of the _Dies Irae_ is in the Imperial Library at Vienna, -and some of his masses have been printed in the collections of Proske -and Luck. - - - - -LOTTO, LORENZO (c. 1480-1556), Italian painter, is variously stated to -have been born at Bergamo, Venice and Treviso, between 1475 and 1480, -but a document published by Dr Bampo proves that he was born in Venice, -and it is to be gathered from his will that 1480 was probably the year -of his birth. Overshadowed by the genius of his three great -contemporaries, Titian, Giorgione and Palma, he had been comparatively -neglected by art historians until Mr Bernhard Berenson devoted to him an -"essay in constructive art criticism," which not only restores to him -his rightful position among the great masters of the Renaissance, but -also throws clear light upon the vexed question of his artistic descent. -Earlier authorities have made Lotto a pupil of Giovanni Bellini -(Morelli), of Previtali (Crowe and Cavalcaselle), of Leonardo da Vinci -(Lomazzo), whilst others discovered in his work the influences of Cima, -Carpaccio, Durer, Palma and Francia. Mr Berenson has, however, proved -that he was the pupil of Alvise Vivarini, whose religious severity and -asceticism remained paramount in his work, even late in his life, when -he was attracted by the rich glow of Giorgione's and Titian's colour. -What distinguishes Lotto from his more famous contemporaries is his -psychological insight into character and his personal vision--his -unconventionality, which is sufficient to account for the comparative -neglect suffered by him when his art is placed beside the more typical -art of Titian and Giorgione, the supreme expression of the character of -the period. - -That Lotto, who was one of the most productive painters of his time, -could work for thirty years without succumbing to the mighty influence -of Titian's sumptuous colour, is explained by the fact that during these -years he was away from Venice, as is abundantly proved by documents and -by the evidence of signed and dated works. The first of these documents, -dated 1503, proves him to have lived at Treviso at this period. His -earliest authentic pictures, Sir Martin Conway's "Danae" (about 1498) -and the "St Jerome" of the Louvre (a similar subject is at the Madrid -Gallery ascribed to Titian), as indeed all the works executed before -1509, have unmistakable Vivarinesque traits in the treatment of the -drapery and landscape, and cool grey tonality. To this group belong the -Madonnas at Bridgewater House, Villa Borghese, Naples, and Sta Cristina -near Treviso, the Recanati altarpiece, the "Assumption of the Virgin" at -Asolo, and the portrait of a young man at Hampton Court. We find him at -Rome between 1508 and 1512, at the time Raphael was painting in the -Stanza della Signatura. A document in the Corsini library mentions that -Lotto received 100 ducats as an advance payment for fresco-work in the -upper floor of the Vatican, but there is no evidence that this work was -ever executed. In the next dated works, the "Entombment" at Jesi (1512), -and the "Transfiguration," "St James," and "St Vincent" at Recanati, -Lotto has abandoned the dryness and cool colour of his earlier style, -and adopted a fluid method and a blonde, joyful colouring. In 1513 we -find him at Bergamo, where he had entered into a contract to paint for -500 gold ducats an altarpiece for S. Stefano. The picture was only -completed in 1516, and is now at S. Bartolommeo. From the next years, -spent mostly at Bergamo, with intervals in Venice and Jesi in the -Marches, date the Dresden "Madonna," "Christ taking leave of his Mother" -at the Berlin Gallery, the "Bride and Bridegroom" at Madrid, the -National Gallery "Family Group" and portrait of the Protonothary -Giuliano, several portraits in Berlin, Milan and Vienna, numerous -altarpieces in and near Bergamo, the strangely misnamed "Triumph of -Chastity" at the Rospigliosi Palace in Rome, and the portrait of Andrea -Odoni at Hampton Court. In 1526 or 1527 Lotto returned to Venice, where -Titian ruled supreme in the world of art; and it was only natural that -the example of the great master should have fired him to emulation, -though his experiments in this direction were confined to an attempt at -rivalling the master's rich and ruddy colour-schemes. Even in the -Carmine altarpiece, the "St Nicholas of Bari," which is his nearest -approach to Titian, he retained his individualized, as opposed to -Titian's generalized, expression of emotion. But it was only a passing -phase, and he soon returned to the cooler schemes of his earlier work. -Among his chief pictures executed in Venice between 1529 and 1540 are -the "Christ and the Adulteress," now at the Louvre, the "Visitation" at -the Jesi Library, the "Crucifixion" at Monte S. Giusto, the Madonna at -the Uffizi, the "Madonna and Saints" at Cingoli, and some portraits at -the Berlin and Vienna museums, the Villa Borghese and Doria Palace in -Rome, and at Dorchester House. He is again to be found at Treviso from -1542-1545, at Ancona in 1550, the year in which he entirely lost his -voice; and in 1552 he "devoted his person and all his property to the -Holy Virgin of Loreto" and took up his abode with the monks of that -shrine. He died in 1556. A codex in his own handwriting, discovered in -the archives of Loreto, not only includes a complete statement of his -accounts from about 1539 to his death, but has a most interesting entry -from which we gather that in 1540 Lotto completed the portraits of -Martin Luther and his wife. These portraits could not have been painted -from life; they were presumably executed from some contemporary -engraving. - - See _Lorenzo Lotto_, by Bernard Berenson (London, 1901). - - - - -LOTTO (Ital. for "lot"), a gambling game usually called _Keno_ in -America, played by any number of persons upon large boards or cards, -each of which is divided into three horizontal rows of nine spaces, four -spaces in each row being left blank and the other five marked with -numbers up to 90. Each card is designated by a general number. The cards -usually lie on the gambling-table, and a player may buy from the bank as -many as he cares to use, each card being registered or _pegged_ on an -exposed table as soon as bought. Ninety small ivory markers, generally -balls flattened on one side, numbered from 1 to 90, are placed in a bag -and shaken out one by one, or, more usually, in a so-called -_keno-goose_, a kind of urn with a spout through which the balls are -allowed to roll by means of a spring. When a number falls out, the -banker, or _keno-roller_, calls it out distinctly, and each player upon -whose card that number occurs places a mark over it. This is repeated -until one player has all the numbers in one row of his card covered, -upon which he calls out "Keno!" and wins all the money staked excepting -a percentage to the bank. - - - - -LOTUS, a popular name applied to several plants. The lotus fruits of the -Greeks belonged to _Zizyphus Lotus_, a bush native in south Europe with -fruits as large as sloes, containing a mealy substance which can be used -for making bread and also a fermented drink. In ancient times the fruits -were an important article of food among the poor; whence "lotophagi" or -lotus-eaters. _Zizyphus_ is a member of the natural order Rhamnaceae to -which belongs the British buckthorn. The Egyptian lotus was a -water-lily, _Nymphaea Lotus_; as also is the sacred lotus of the Hindus, -_Nelumbium speciosum_. The lotus tree, known to the Romans as the Libyan -lotus, and planted by them for shade, was probably _Celtis australis_, -the nettle-tree (q.v.), a southern European tree, a native of the elm -family, with fruits like small cherries, which are first red and then -black. _Lotus_ of botanists is a genus of the pea-family -(_Leguminosae_), containing a large number of species of herbs and -undershrubs widely distributed in the temperate regions of the old -world. It is represented in Britain by _L. corniculatus_, bird's foot -trefoil, a low-growing herb, common in pastures and waste places, with -clusters of small bright yellow pea-like flowers, which are often -streaked with crimson; the popular name is derived from the pods which -when ripe spread like the toes of a bird's foot. - - - - -LOTUS-EATERS (Gr. [Greek: Lotophagoi]), a Libyan tribe known to the -Greeks as early as the time of Homer. Herodotus (iv. 177) describes -their country as in the Libyan district bordering on the Syrtes, and -says that a caravan route led from it to Egypt. Victor Berard identifies -it with the modern Jerba. When Odysseus reached the country of the -Lotophagi, many of his sailors after eating the lotus lost all wish to -return home. Both Greeks and Romans used the expression "to eat the -lotus" to denote forgetfulness (cf. Tennyson's poem "The Lotus-Eaters"). - - There has been considerable discussion as to the identification of the - Homeric lotus. Some have held that it is a prickly shrub, Zizyphus - Lotus, which bears a sweet-tasting fruit, and still grows in the old - home of the Lotophagi. It is eaten by the natives, who also make a - kind of wine from the juice. P. Champault (_Pheniciens et Grecs en - Italie d'apres l'Odyssee_, p. 400, note 2), however, maintains that - the lotus was a date; Victor Berard (_Les Pheniciens et l'Odyssee_, - 1902-1903, ii. 102) is doubtful, but contends that it was certainly a - tree-fruit. If either of these be correct, then the lotus of _Od._ iv. - 603-604 is quite a different plant, a kind of clover. Now Strabo - (xvii. 829a) calls the lotus [Greek: poan tina kai rhizan]. Putting - these two references together with Sulpicius Severus, _Dialogi_ i. 4. - 4, R. M. Henry suggests that the Homeric lotus was really the [Greek: - poa] of Strabo, i.e. a kind of clover (_Classical Review_, December - 1906, p. 435). - - - - -LOTZE, RUDOLF HERMANN (1817-1881), German philosopher, was born in -Bautzen on the 21st of May 1817, the son of a physician. He received his -education in the gymnasium of Zittau under teachers who inspired him -with an enduring love of the classical authors, as we see from his -translation of the _Antigone_ of Sophocles into Latin verse, published -when he had reached middle life. He went to the university of Leipzig as -a student of philosophy and natural sciences, but entered officially as -a student of medicine. He was then only seventeen. It appears that thus -early Lotze's studies were governed by two distinct interests. The first -was scientific, based upon mathematical and physical studies under the -guidance of E. H. Weber, W. Volckmann and G. T. Fechner. The other was -his aesthetical and artistic interest, which was developed under the -care of C. H. Weisse. To the former he owes his appreciation of exact -investigation and a complete knowledge of the aims of science, to the -latter an equal admiration for the great circle of ideas which had been -diffused by the teaching of Fichte, Schelling and Hegel. Each of these -influences, which early in life must have been familiar to him, tempered -and modified the other. The true method of science which he possessed -forced him to condemn as useless the entire form which Schelling's and -Hegel's expositions had adopted, especially the dialectic method of the -latter, whilst his love of art and beauty, and his appreciation of moral -purposes, revealed to him the existence of a trans-phenomenal world of -values into which no exact science could penetrate. It is evident how -this initial position at once defined to him the tasks which philosophy -had to perform. First there were the natural sciences, themselves only -just emerging from a confused conception of their true method; -especially those which studied the borderland of physical and mental -phenomena, the medical sciences; and pre-eminently that science which -has since become so popular, the science of biology. - -Lotze's first essay was his dissertation _De futurae biologiae -principibus philosophicis_, with which he gained (1838) the degree of -doctor of medicine, after having only four months previously got the -degree of doctor of philosophy. Then, secondly, there arose the question -whether the methods of exact science sufficed to explain the connexion -of phenomena, or whether for the explanation of this the thinking mind -was forced to resort to some hypothesis not immediately verifiable by -observation, but dictated by higher aspirations and interests. And, if -to satisfy these we were forced to maintain the existence of a world of -moral standards, it was, thirdly, necessary to form some opinion as to -the relation of these moral standards of value to the forms and facts of -phenomenal existence. These different tasks, which philosophy had to -fulfil, mark pretty accurately the aims of Lotze's writings, and the -order in which they were published. He laid the foundation of his -philosophical system very early in his _Metaphysik_ (Leipzig, 1841) and -his _Logik_ (1843), short books published while he was still a junior -lecturer at Leipzig, from which university he migrated to Gottingen, -succeeding Herbart in the chair of philosophy. But it was only during -the last decade of his life that he ventured, with much hesitation, to -present his ideas in a systematic and final form. The two books -mentioned remained unnoticed by the reading public, and Lotze first -became known to a larger circle through a series of works which aimed at -establishing in the study of the physical and mental phenomena of the -human organism in its normal and diseased states the same general -principles which had been adopted in the investigation of inorganic -phenomena. These works were his _Allgemeine Pathologie und Therapie als -mechanische Naturwissenschaften_ (Leipzig, 1842, 2nd ed., 1848), the -articles "Lebenskraft" (1843) and "Seele und Seelenleben" (1846) in Rud. -Wagner's _Handworterbuch der Physiologie_, his _Allgemeine Physiologie -des Korperlichen Lebens_ (Leipzig, 1851), and his _Medizinische -Psychologie oder Physiologie der Seele_ (Leipzig, 1852). - -When Lotze published these works, medical science was still much under -the influence of Schelling's philosophy of nature. The mechanical laws, -to which external things were subject, were conceived as being valid -only in the inorganic world; in the organic and mental worlds these -mechanical laws were conceived as being disturbed or overridden by other -powers, such as the influence of final causes, the existence of types, -the work of vital and mental forces. This confusion Lotze, who had been -trained in the school of mathematical reasoning, tried to dispel. The -laws which govern particles of matter in the inorganic world govern them -likewise if they are joined into an organism. A phenomenon _a_, if -followed by _b_ in the one case, is followed by the same _b_ also in the -other case. Final causes, vital and mental forces, the soul itself can, -if they act at all, only act through the inexorable mechanism of natural -laws. As we therefore have only to do with the study of existing -complexes of material and spiritual phenomena, the changes in these must -be explained in science by the rule of mechanical laws, such as obtain -everywhere in the world, and only by such. One of the results of these -investigations was to extend the meaning of the word mechanism, and -comprise under it all laws which obtain in the phenomenal world, not -excepting the phenomena of life and mind. Mechanism was the unalterable -connexion of every phenomenon a with other phenomena _b_, _c_, _d_, -either as following or preceding it; mechanism was the inexorable form -into which the events of this world are cast, and by which they are -connected. The object of those writings was to establish the -all-pervading rule of mechanism. But the mechanical view of nature is -not identical with the materialistic. In the last of the above-mentioned -works the question is discussed at great length how we have to consider -mind, and the relation between mind and body; the answer is--we have to -consider mind as an immaterial principle, its action, however, on the -body and vice versa as purely mechanical, indicated by the fixed laws -of a psycho-physical mechanism. These doctrines of Lotze--though -pronounced with the distinct and reiterated reserve that they did not -contain a solution of the philosophical question regarding the nature, -origin, or deeper meaning of this all-pervading mechanism, neither an -explanation how the action of external things on each other takes place -nor yet of the relation of mind and body, that they were merely a -preliminary formula of practical scientific value, itself requiring a -deeper interpretation--these doctrines were nevertheless by many -considered to be the last word of the philosopher who, denouncing the -reveries of Schelling or the idealistic theories of Hegel, established -the science of life and mind on the same basis as that of material -things. Published as they were during the years when the modern school -of German materialism was at its height,[1] these works of Lotze were -counted among the opposition literature which destroyed the phantom of -Hegelian wisdom and vindicated the independent and self-sufficing -position of empirical philosophy. Even philosophers of the eminence of -I. H. Fichte (the younger) did not escape this misinterpretation of -Lotze's true meaning, though they had his _Metaphysik_ and _Logik_ to -refer to, though he promised in his _Allgemeine Physiologie_ (1851) to -enter in a subsequent work upon the "bounding province between -aesthetics and physiology," and though in his _Medizinische Psychologie_ -he had distinctly stated that his position was neither the idealism of -Hegel nor the realism of Herbart, nor materialism, but that it was the -conviction that the essence of everything is the part it plays in the -realization of some idea which is in itself valuable, that the sense of -an all-pervading mechanism is to be sought in this, that it denotes the -ways and means by which the highest idea, which we may call the idea of -the good, has voluntarily chosen to realize itself. - -The misinterpretations which he had suffered induced Lotze to publish a -small pamphlet of a polemical character (_Streitschriften_, Leipzig, -1857), in which he corrected two mistakes. The opposition which he had -made to Hegel's formalism had induced some to associate him with the -materialistic school, others to count him among the followers of -Herbart. Lotze publicly and formally denied that he belonged to the -school of Herbart, though he admitted that historically the same -doctrine which might be considered the forerunner of Herbart's teachings -might lead to his own views, viz. the monadology of Leibnitz. - -When Lotze wrote these explanations, he had already given to the world -the first volume of his great work, _Mikrokosmus_ (vol. i. 1856, vol. -ii. 1858, vol. iii. 1864; 3rd ed., 1876-1880). In many passages of his -works on pathology, physiology, and psychology Lotze had distinctly -stated that the method of research which he advocated there did not give -an explanation of the phenomena of life and mind, but only the means of -observing and connecting them together; that the meaning of all -phenomena, and the reason of their peculiar connexions, was a -philosophical problem which required to be attacked from a different -point of view; and that the significance especially which lay in the -phenomena of life and mind would only unfold itself if by an exhaustive -survey of the entire life of man, individually, socially, and -historically, we gain the necessary data for deciding what meaning -attaches to the existence of this microcosm, or small world of human -life, in the macrocosm of the universe. This review, which extends, in -three volumes, over the wide field of anthropology, beginning with the -human frame, the soul, and their union in life, advancing to man, his -mind, and the course of the world, and concluding with history, -progress, and the connexion of things, ends with the same idea which was -expressed in Lotze's earliest work, his _Metaphysik_. The view peculiar -to him is reached in the end as the crowning conception towards which -all separate channels of thought have tended, and in the light of which -the life of man in nature and mind, in the individual and in society, -had been surveyed. This view can be briefly stated as follows: -Everywhere in the wide realm of observation we find three distinct -regions,--the region of facts, the region of laws and the region of -standards of value. These three regions are separate only in our -thoughts, not in reality. To comprehend the real position we are forced -to the conviction that the world of facts is the field in which, and -that laws are the means by which, those higher standards of moral and -aesthetical value are being realized; and such a union can again only -become intelligible through the idea of a personal Deity, who in the -creation and preservation of a world has voluntarily chosen certain -forms and laws, through the natural operation of which the ends of His -work are gained. - -Whilst Lotze had thus in his published works closed the circle of his -thought, beginning with a conception metaphysically gained, proceeding -to an exhaustive contemplation of things in the light it afforded, and -ending with the stronger conviction of its truth which observation, -experience, and life could afford, he had all the time been lecturing on -the various branches of philosophy according to the scheme of academical -instruction transmitted from his predecessors. Nor can it be considered -anything but a gain that he was thus induced to expound his views with -regard to those topics, and in connexion with those problems, which were -the traditional forms of philosophical utterance. His lectures ranged -over a wide field: he delivered annually lectures on psychology and on -logic (the latter including a survey of the entirety of philosophical -research under the title _Encyclopadie der Philosophie_), then at longer -intervals lectures on metaphysics, philosophy of nature, philosophy of -art, philosophy of religion, rarely on history of philosophy and ethics. -In these lectures he expounded his peculiar views in a stricter form, -and during the last decade of his life he embodied the substance of -those courses in his _System der Philosophie_, of which only two volumes -have appeared (vol. i. _Logik_, 1st ed., Leipzig, 1874, 2nd ed., 1880; -vol. ii. _Metaphysik_, 1879). The third and concluding volume, which was -to treat in a more condensed form the principal problems of practical -philosophy, of philosophy of art and religion, never appeared. A small -pamphlet on psychology, containing the last form in which he had begun -to treat the subject in his lectures (abruptly terminated through his -death on the 1st of July 1881) during the summer session of 1881, has -been published by his son. Appended to this volume is a complete list of -Lotze's writings, compiled by Professor Rehnisch of Gottingen. - - To understand this series of Lotze's writings, it is necessary to - begin with his definition of philosophy. This is given after his - exposition of logic has established two points, viz. the existence in - our mind of certain laws and forms according to which we connect the - material supplied to us by our senses, and, secondly, the fact that - logical thought cannot be usefully employed without the assumption of - a further set of connexions, not logically necessary, but assumed to - exist between the data of experience and observation. These connexions - of a real not formal character are handed to us by the separate - sciences and by the usage and culture of everyday life. Language has - crystallized them into certain definite notions and expressions, - without which we cannot proceed a single step, but which we have - accepted without knowing their exact meaning, much less their origin. - In consequence the special sciences and the wisdom of common life - entangle themselves easily and frequently in contradictions. A problem - of a purely formal character thus presents itself, viz. this--to try - to bring unity and harmony into the scattered thoughts of our general - culture, to trace them to their primary assumptions and follow them - into their ultimate consequences, to connect them all together, to - remodel, curtail or amplify them, so as to remove their apparent - contradictions, and to combine them in the unity of an harmonious view - of things, and especially to investigate those conceptions which form - the initial assumptions of the several sciences, and to fix the limits - of their applicability. This is the formal definition of philosophy. - Whether an harmonious conception thus gained will represent more than - an agreement among our thoughts, whether it will represent the real - connexion of things and thus possess objective not merely subjective - value, cannot be decided at the outset. It is also unwarranted to - start with the expectation that everything in the world should be - explained by one principle, and it is a needless restriction of our - means to expect unity of method. Nor are we able to start our - philosophical investigations by an inquiry into the nature of human - thought and its capacity to attain an objective knowledge, as in this - case we would be actually using that instrument the usefulness of - which we were trying to determine. The main proof of the objective - value of the view we may gain will rather lie in the degree in which - it succeeds in assigning to every element of culture its due position, - or in which it is able to appreciate and combine different and - apparently opposite tendencies and interests, in the sort of justice - with which it weighs our manifold desires and aspirations, balancing - them in due proportions, refusing to sacrifice to a one-sided - principle any truth or conviction which experience has proven to be - useful and necessary. The investigations will then naturally divide - themselves into three parts, the first of which deals with those to - our mind inevitable forms in which we are obliged to think about - things, if we think at all (metaphysics), the second being devoted to - the great region of facts, trying to apply the results of metaphysics - to these, specially the two great regions of external and mental - phenomena (cosmology and psychology), the third dealing with those - standards of value from which we pronounce our aesthetical or ethical - approval or disapproval. In each department we shall have to aim first - of all at views clear and consistent within themselves, but, secondly, - we shall in the end wish to form some general idea or to risk an - opinion how laws, facts and standards of value may be combined in one - comprehensive view. Considerations of this latter kind will naturally - present themselves in the two great departments of cosmology and - psychology, or they may be delegated to an independent research under - the name of religious philosophy. We have already mentioned the final - conception in which Lotze's speculation culminates, that of a personal - Deity, Himself the essence of all that merits existence for its own - sake, who in the creation and government of a world has voluntarily - chosen certain laws and forms through which His ends are to be - realized. We may add that according to this view nothing is real but - the living spirit of God and the world of living spirits which He has - created; the things of this world have only reality in so far as they - are the appearance of spiritual substance, which underlies everything. - It is natural that Lotze, having this great and final conception - always before him, works under its influence from the very beginning - of his speculations, permitting us, as we progress, to gain every now - and then a glimpse of that interpretation of things which to him - contains the solution of our difficulties. - - The key to Lotze's theoretical philosophy lies in his metaphysics, to - the exposition of which important subject the first and last of his - larger publications have been devoted. To understand Lotze's - philosophy, a careful and repeated perusal of these works is - absolutely necessary. The object of his metaphysics is so to remodel - the current notions regarding the existence of things and their - connexions with which the usage of language supplies us as to make - them consistent and thinkable. The further assumption, that the - modified notions thus gained have an objective meaning, and that they - somehow correspond to the real order of the existing world which of - course they can never actually describe, depends upon a general - confidence which we must have in our reasoning powers, and in the - significance of a world in which we ourselves with all the necessary - courses of our thoughts have a due place assigned. The principle - therefore of these investigations is opposed to two attempts - frequently repeated in the history of philosophy, viz.: (1) the - attempt to establish general laws or forms, which the development of - things must have obeyed, or which a Creator must have followed in the - creation of a world (Hegel); and (2) the attempt to trace the genesis - of our notions and decide as to their meaning and value (modern - theories of knowledge). Neither of these attempts is practicable. The - world of many things surrounds us; our notions, by which we manage - correctly or incorrectly to describe it, are also ready made. What - remains to be done is, not to explain how such a world manages to be - what it is, nor how we came to form these notions, but merely this--to - expel from the circle and totality of our conceptions those abstract - notions which are inconsistent and jarring, or to remodel and define - them so that they may constitute a consistent and harmonious view. In - this endeavour Lotze discards as useless and untenable many favourite - conceptions of the school, many crude notions of everyday life. The - course of things and their connexion is only thinkable by the - assumption of a plurality of existences, the reality of which (as - distinguished from our knowledge of them) can be conceived only as a - multitude of relations. This quality of standing in relation to other - things is that which gives to a thing its reality. And the nature of - this reality again can neither be consistently represented as a fixed - and hard substance nor as an unalterable something, but only as a - fixed order of recurrence of continually changing events or - impressions. But, further, every attempt to think clearly what those - relations are, what we really mean, if we talk of a fixed order of - events, forces upon us the necessity of thinking also that the - different things which stand in relations or the different phases - which follow each other cannot be merely externally strung together or - moved about by some indefinable external power, in the form of some - predestination or inexorable fate. The things themselves which exist - and their changing phases must stand in some internal connexion; they - themselves must be active or passive, capable of doing or suffering. - This would lead to the view of Leibnitz, that the world consists of - monads, self-sufficient beings, leading an inner life. But this idea - involves the further conception of Leibnitz, that of a pre-established - harmony, by which the Creator has taken care to arrange the life of - each monad, so that it agrees with that of all others. This - conception, according to Lotze, is neither necessary nor thoroughly - intelligible. Why not interpret at once and render intelligible the - common conception originating in natural science, viz. that of a - system of laws which governs the many things? But, in attempting to - make this conception quite clear and thinkable, we are forced to - represent the connexion of things as a universal substance, the - essence of which we conceive as a system of laws which underlies - everything and in its own self connects everything, but imperceptible, - and known to us merely through the impressions it produces on us, - which we call things. A final reflection then teaches us that the - nature of this universal and all-pervading substance can only be - imagined by us as something analogous to our own mental life, where - alone we experience the unity of a substance (which we call self) - preserved in the multitude of its (mental) states. It also becomes - clear that only where such mental life really appears need we assign - an independent existence, but that the purposes of everyday life as - well as those of science are equally served if we deprive the material - things outside of us of an independence, and assign to them merely a - connected existence through the universal substance by the action of - which alone they can appear to us. - - The universal substance, which we may call the absolute, is at this - stage of our investigations not endowed with the attributes of a - personal Deity, and it will remain to be seen by further analysis in - how far we are able--without contradiction--to identify it with the - object of religious veneration, in how far that which to metaphysics - is merely a postulate can be gradually brought nearer to us and become - a living power. Much in this direction is said by Lotze in various - passages of his writings; anything complete, however, on the subject - is wanting. Nor would it seem as if it could be the intention of the - author to do much more than point out the lines on which the further - treatment of the subject should advance. The actual result of his - personal inquiries, the great idea which lies at the foundation of his - philosophy, we know. It may be safely stated that Lotze would allow - much latitude to individual convictions, as indeed it is evident that - the empty notion of an absolute can only become living and significant - to us in the same degree as experience and thought have taught us to - realize the seriousness of life, the significance of creation, the - value of the beautiful and the good, and the supreme worth of personal - holiness. To endow the universal substance with moral attributes, to - maintain that it is more than the metaphysical ground of everything, - to say it is the perfect realization of the holy, the beautiful and - the good, can only have a meaning for him who feels within himself - what real not imaginary values are clothed in those expressions. - - We have still to mention that aesthetics formed a principal and - favourite study of Lotze's, and that he has treated this subject also - in the light of the leading ideas of his philosophy. See his essays - _Ueber den Begriff der Schonheit_ (Gottingen, 1845) and _Ueber - Bedingungen der Kunstschonheit_, ibid. (1847); and especially his - _Geschichte der Aesthetik in Deutschland_ (Munich, 1868). - - Lotze's historical position is of much interest. Though he disclaims - being a follower of Herbart, his formal definition of philosophy and - his conception of the object of metaphysics are similar to those of - Herbart, who defines philosophy as an attempt to remodel the notions - given by experience. In this endeavour he forms with Herbart an - opposition to the philosophies of Fichte, Schelling and Hegel, which - aimed at objective and absolute knowledge, and also to the criticism - of Kant, which aimed at determining the validity of all human - knowledge. But this formal agreement includes material differences, - and the spirit which breathes in Lotze's writings is more akin to the - objects and aspirations of the idealistic school than to the cold - formalism of Herbart. What, however, with the idealists was an object - of thought alone, the absolute, is to Lotze only inadequately - definable in rigorous philosophical language; the aspirations of the - human heart, the contents of our feelings and desires, the aims of art - and the tenets of religious faith must be grasped in order to fill the - empty idea of the absolute with meaning. These manifestations of the - divine spirit again cannot be traced and understood by reducing (as - Hegel did) the growth of the human mind in the individual, in society - and in history to the monotonous rhythm of a speculative schematism; - the essence and worth which is in them reveals itself only to the - student of detail, for reality is larger and wider than philosophy; - the problem, "how the one can be many," is only solved for us in the - numberless examples in life and experience which surround us, for - which we must retain a lifelong interest and which constitute the true - field of all useful human work. This conviction of the emptiness of - terms and abstract notions, and of the fulness of individual life, has - enabled Lotze to combine in his writings the two courses into which - German philosophical thought had been moving since the death of its - great founder, Leibnitz. We may define these courses by the terms - esoteric and exoteric--the former the philosophy of the school, - cultivated principally at the universities, trying to systematize - everything and reduce all our knowledge to an intelligible principle, - losing in this attempt the deeper meaning of Leibnitz's philosophy; - the latter the unsystematized philosophy of general culture which we - find in the work of the great writers of the classical period, - Lessing, Winkelmann, Goethe, Schiller and Herder, all of whom - expressed in some degree their indebtedness to Leibnitz. Lotze can be - said to have brought philosophy out of the lecture-room into the - market-place of life. By understanding and combining what was great - and valuable in those divided and scattered endeavours, he became the - true successor of Leibnitz. - - The age in which Lotze lived and wrote in Germany was not one - peculiarly fitted to appreciate the position he took up. Frequently - misunderstood, yet rarely criticized, he was nevertheless greatly - admired, listened to by devoted hearers and read by an increasing - circle. But this circle never attained to the unity of a philosophical - school. The real meaning of Lotze's teaching is reached only by - patient study, and those who in a larger or narrower sense call - themselves his followers will probably feel themselves indebted to him - more for the general direction he has given to their thoughts, for the - tone he has imparted to their inner life, for the seriousness with - which he has taught them to consider even small affairs and practical - duties, and for the indestructible confidence with which his - philosophy permits them to disregard the materialism of science, the - scepticism of shallow culture, the disquieting results of - philosophical and historical criticism. - - See E. Pfleiderer, _Lotze's philosophische Weltanschauung nach ihren - Grundzugen_ (Berlin, 1882; 2nd ed., 1884); E. von Hartmann, _Lotze's - Philosophie_ (Leipzig, 1888); O. Caspari, _H. Lotze in seiner Stellung - zu der durch Kant begrundeten neuesten Geschichte der Philosophie_ - (Breslau, 1883; 2nd ed., 1894); R. Falckenberg, _Hermann Lotze_ - (Stuttgart, 1901); Henry Jones, _A Critical Account of the Philosophy - of Lotze_ (Glasgow, 1895); Paul Lange, _Die Lehre vom Instincte bei - Lotze und Darwin_ (Berlin, 1896); A. Lichtenstein, _Lotze und Wundt_ - (Bern, 1900). (J. T. M.; H. St.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] See Vogt, _Physiologische Briefe_ (1845-1847); Moleschott, _Der - Kreislauf des Lebens_ (1852); Buchner, _Kraft und Stoff_ (1855). - - - - -LOUBET, EMILE FRANCOIS (1838- ), 7th president of the French republic, -was born on the 30th of December 1838, the son of a peasant proprietor -at Marsanne (Drome), who was more than once mayor of Marsanne. He was -admitted to the Parisian bar in 1862, and took his doctorate-in-law next -year. He was still a student when he witnessed the sweeping triumph of -the Republican party in Paris at the general election in 1863. He -settled down to the exercise of his profession in Montelimar, where he -married in 1869 Marie Louis Picard. He also inherited a small estate at -Grignan. At the crisis of 1870 he became mayor of Montelimar, and -thenceforward was a steady supporter of Gambetta's policy. Elected to -the Chamber of Deputies in 1876 by Montelimar he was one of the famous -363 who in June 1877 passed the vote of want of confidence in the -ministry of the duc de Broglie. In the general election of October he -was re-elected, local enthusiasm for him being increased by the fact -that the government had driven him from the mayoralty. In the Chamber he -occupied himself especially with education, fighting the clerical system -established by the Loi Falloux, and working for the establishment of -free, obligatory and secular primary instruction. In 1880 he became -president of the departmental council in Drome. His support of the -second Jules Ferry ministry and his zeal for the colonial expansion of -France gave him considerable weight in the moderate Republican party. He -had entered the Senate in 1885, and he became minister of public works -in the Tirard ministry (December 1887 to March 1888). In 1892 President -Sadi Carnot, who was his personal friend, asked him to form a cabinet. -Loubet held the portfolio of the interior with the premiership, and had -to deal with the anarchist crimes of that year and with the great strike -of Carmaux, in which he acted as arbitrator, giving a decision regarded -in many quarters as too favourable to the strikers. He was defeated in -November on the question of the Panama scandals, but he retained the -ministry of the interior in the next cabinet under Alexandre Ribot, -though he resigned on its reconstruction in January. His reputation as -an orator of great force and lucidity of exposition and as a safe and -honest statesman procured for him in 1896 the presidency of the Senate, -and in February 1899 he was chosen president of the republic in -succession to Felix Faure by 483 votes as against 279 recorded by Jules -Meline, his only serious competitor. He was marked out for fierce -opposition and bitter insult as the representative of that section of -the Republican party which sought the revision of the Dreyfus case. On -the day of President Faure's funeral Paul Deroulede met the troops under -General Roget on their return to barracks, and demanded that the general -should march on the Elysee. Roget sensibly took his troops back to -barracks. At the Auteuil steeplechase in June the president was struck -on the head with a cane by an anti-Dreyfusard. In that month President -Loubet summoned Waldeck-Rousseau to form a cabinet, and at the same time -entreated Republicans of all shades of opinion to rally to the defence -of the state. By the efforts of Loubet and Waldeck-Rousseau the Dreyfus -affair was settled, when Loubet, acting on the advice of General -Galliffet, minister of war, remitted the ten years' imprisonment to -which Dreyfus was condemned at Rennes. Loubet's presidency saw an acute -stage of the clerical question, which was attacked by Waldeck-Rousseau -and in still more drastic fashion by the Combes ministry. The French -ambassador was recalled from the Vatican in April 1905, and in July the -separation of church and state was voted in the Chamber of Deputies. -Feeling had run high between France and England over the mutual -criticisms passed on the conduct of the South African War and the -Dreyfus case respectively. These differences were composed by the -Anglo-French _entente_, and in 1904 a convention between the two -countries secured the recognition of French claims in Morocco in -exchange for non-interference with the English occupation of Egypt. -President Loubet was a typical example of the peasant-proprietor class, -and had none of the aristocratic, not to say monarchical, proclivities -of President Faure. He inaugurated the Paris Exhibition of 1900, -received the tsar Nicholas II. in September 1901 and paid a visit to -Russia in 1902. He also exchanged visits with King Edward VII., with the -king of Italy and the king of Spain. The king of Spain's visit in 1905 -was the occasion of an attempt on his life, a bomb being thrown under -his carriage as he was proceeding with his guest to the opera. His -presidency came to an end in January 1906, when he retired into private -life. - - - - -LOUDON, ERNST GIDEON, FREIHERR VON (1717-1790), Austrian soldier, was -born at Tootzen in Livonia, on the 2nd of February 1717. His family, of -Scottish origin,[1] had been settled in that country since before 1400. -His father was a lieutenant-colonel, retired on a meagre pension from -the Swedish service, and the boy was sent in 1732 into the Russian army -as a cadet. He took part in Field Marshal Munnich's siege of Danzig in -1734, in the march of a Russian corps to the Rhine in 1735 and in the -Turkish war 1738-1739. Dissatisfied with his prospects he resigned in -1741 and sought military employment elsewhere. He applied first to -Frederick the Great, who declined his services. At Vienna he had better -fortune, being made a captain in Trenck's free corps. He took part in -its forays and marches, though not in its atrocities, until wounded and -taken prisoner in Alsace. He was shortly released by the advance of the -main Austrian army. His next active service, still under Trenck, was in -the Silesian mountains in 1745, in which campaign he greatly -distinguished himself as a leader of light troops. He was present also -at Soor. He retired shortly afterwards, owing to his distaste for the -lawless habits of his comrades in the irregulars, and after long waiting -in poverty for a regular commission he was at last made a captain in one -of the frontier regiments, spending the next ten years in half-military, -half-administrative work in the Carlstadt district. At Bunich, where he -was stationed, he built a church and planted an oak forest now called by -his name. He had reached the rank of lieutenant-colonel when the -outbreak of the Seven Years' War called him again into the field. From -this point began his fame as a soldier. Soon promoted colonel, he -distinguished himself repeatedly and was in 1757 made a -General-feldwacht-meister (major-general of cavalry) and a knight of the -newly founded order of Maria Theresa. In the campaign of 1758 came his -first opportunity for fighting an action as a commander-in-chief, and he -used it so well that Frederick the Great was obliged to give up the -siege of Olmutz and retire into Bohemia (action of Dom-stadtl, 30th of -June). He was rewarded with the grade of lieutenant-field-marshal and -having again shown himself an active and daring commander in the -campaign of Hochkirch, he was created a Freiherr in the Austrian -nobility by Maria Theresa and in the peerage of the Holy Roman Empire by -her husband the emperor Francis. Maria Theresa gave him, further, the -grand cross of the order she had founded and an estate near Kuttenberg -in Bohemia. He was placed in command of the Austrian contingent sent to -join the Russians on the Oder. At Kunersdorf he turned defeat into a -brilliant victory, and was promoted Feldzeugmeister and made -commander-in-chief in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia. In 1760 he destroyed -a whole corps of Frederick's army under Fouque at Landshut and stormed -the important fortress of Glatz. In 1760 he sustained a reverse at -Frederick's hands in the battle of Liegnitz (Aug. 15th, 1760), which -action led to bitter controversy with Daun and Lacy, the commanders of -the main army, who, Loudon claimed, had left his corps unsupported. In -1761 he operated, as usual, in Silesia, but he found his Russian allies -as timid as they had been after Kunersdorf, and all attempts against -Frederick's entrenched camp of Bunzelwitz (see SEVEN YEARS' WAR) failed. -He brilliantly seized his one fleeting opportunity, however, and stormed -Schweidnitz on the night of Sept. 30/October 1st, 1761. His tireless -activity continued to the end of the war, in conspicuous contrast with -the temporizing strategy of Daun and Lacy. The student of the later -campaigns of the Seven Years' War will probably admit that there was -need of more aggressiveness than Daun displayed, and of more caution -than suited Loudon's genius. But neither recognized this, and the last -three years of the war are marked by an ever-increasing friction between -the "Fabius" and the "Marcellus," as they were called, of the Austrian -army. - -After the peace, therefore, when Daun became the virtual -commander-in-chief of the army, Loudon fell into the background. Offers -were made, by Frederick the Great amongst others, to induce Loudon to -transfer his services elsewhere. Loudon did not entertain these -proposals, although negotiations went on for some years, and on Lacy -succeeding Daun as president of the council of war Loudon was made -inspector-general of infantry. Dissensions, however, continued between -Loudon and Lacy, and on the accession of Joseph II., who was intimate -with his rival, Loudon retired to his estate near Kuttenberg. Maria -Theresa and Kaunitz caused him, however, to be made commander-in-chief -in Bohemia and Moravia in 1769. This post he held for three years, and -at the end of this time, contemplating retirement from the service, he -settled again on his estate. Maria Theresa once more persuaded him to -remain in the army, and, as his estate had diminished in value owing to -agrarian troubles in Bohemia, she repurchased it from him (1776) on -generous terms. Loudon then settled at Hadersdorf near Vienna, and -shortly afterwards was made a field-marshal. Of this Carlyle (_Frederick -the Great_) records that when Frederick the Great met Loudon in 1776 he -deliberately addressed him in the emperor's presence as "Herr -Feldmarschall." But the hint was not taken until February 1778. - -In 1778 came the War of the Bavarian Succession. Joseph and Lacy were -now reconciled to Loudon, and Loudon and Lacy commanded the two armies -in the field. On this occasion, however, Loudon seems to have in a -measure fallen below his reputation, while Lacy, who was opposed to -Frederick's own army, earned new laurels. For two years after this -Loudon lived quietly at Hadersdorf, and then the reverses of other -generals in the Turkish War called him for the last time into the field. -Though old and broken in health, he was commander-in-chief in fact as -well as in name, and he won a last brilliant success by capturing -Belgrade in three weeks, 1789. He died within the year, on the 14th of -July at Neu-Titschein in Moravia, still on duty. His last appointment -was that of commander-in-chief of the armed forces of Austria, which had -been created for him by the new emperor Leopold. Loudon was buried in -the grounds of Hadersdorf. Eight years before his death the emperor -Joseph had caused a marble bust of this great soldier to be placed in -the chamber of the council of war. - -His son JOHANN LUDWIG ALEXIUS, Freiherr von Loudon (1762-1822) fought in -the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars with credit, and rose to the rank -of lieutenant-field-marshal. - - See memoir by v. Arneth in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, s.v. - "Laudon," and life by G. B. Malleson. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] His name is phonetically spelt Laudon or Laudohn by Germans, and - the latter form was that adopted by himself and his family. In 1759, - however, he reverted to the original Scottish form. - - - - -LOUDOUN, JOHN CAMPBELL, 1ST EARL OF (1598-1663), Scottish politician, -eldest son of Sir James Campbell of Lawers, became Baron Loudoun in -right of his wife Margaret, granddaughter of Hugh Campbell, 1st Baron -Loudoun (d. 1622). He was created earl on the 12th of May 1633, but in -consequence of his opposition to Charles I.'s church policy in Scotland -the patent was stopped in Chancery. In 1637 he was one of the -supplicants against the introduction of the English liturgy; and with -John Leslie, 6th earl of Rothes, he took a leading part in the -promulgation of the Covenant and in the General Assembly which met at -Glasgow in the autumn of 1638. He served under General Leslie, and was -one of the Scottish commissioners at the Pacification of Berwick in June -1639. In November of that year and again in 1640 the Scottish estates -sent Loudoun with Charles Seton, 2nd earl of Dunfermline, to London on -an embassy to Charles I. Loudoun intrigued with the French ambassador -and with Thomas Savile, afterwards earl of Sussex, but without much -success. He was in London when John Stewart, earl of Traquair, placed in -Charles's hands a letter signed by Loudoun and six others and addressed -to Louis XIII. In spite of his protest that the letter was never sent, -and that it would in any case be covered by the amnesty granted at -Berwick, he was sent to the Tower. He was released in June, and two -months later he re-entered England with the Scottish invading army, and -was one of the commissioners at Ripon in October. In the following -August (1641) Charles opened parliament at Edinburgh in person, and in -pursuance of a policy of conciliation towards the leaders of the -Covenant Loudoun was made lord chancellor of Scotland, and his title of -earl of Loudoun was allowed. He also became first commissioner of the -treasury. In 1642 he was sent by the Scottish council to York to offer -to mediate in the dispute between Charles and the parliament, and later -on to Oxford, but in the second of these instances Charles refused to -accept his authority. He was constantly employed in subsequent -negotiations, and in 1647 was sent to Charles at Carisbrooke Castle, but -the "Engagement" to assist the king there made displeased the extreme -Covenanters, and Loudoun was obliged to retract his support of it. He -was now entirely on the side of the duke of Argyll and the preachers. He -assisted in the capacity of lord chancellor at Charles II.'s coronation -at Scone, and was present at Dunbar. He joined in the royalist rising of -1653, but eventually surrendered to General Monk. His estates were -forfeited by Cromwell, and a sum of money settled on the countess and -her heirs. At the Restoration he was removed from the chancellorship, -but a pension of L1000 granted him by Charles I. in 1643 was still -allowed him. In 1662 he was heavily fined. He died in Edinburgh on the -15th of March 1663. - - The earl's elder son, James (d. 1684), 2nd earl of Loudoun, passed his - life out of Great Britain, and when he died at Leiden was succeeded by - his son Hugh (d. 1731). The 3rd earl held various high positions in - England and Scotland, being chosen one of the representative peers for - Scotland at the union of the parliaments in 1707. He rendered good - service to the government during the rising of 1715, especially at the - battle of Sheriffmuir, and was succeeded as 4th earl by his son John - (1705-1782), who fought against the Jacobites in 1745, was - commander-in-chief of the British force in America in 1756 and died - unmarried. The title then passed to James Mure Campbell (d. 1786), a - grandson of the 2nd earl, and was afterwards borne by the marquesses - of Hastings, descendants of the 5th earl's daughter and heiress, Flora - (1780-1840). Again reverting to a female on the death of Henry, 4th - marquess of Hastings, in 1868, it came afterwards to Charles (b. - 1855), a nephew of this marquess, who became 11th earl of Loudoun. - - - - -LOUDUN, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in the -department of Vienne, on an eminence overlooking a fertile plain, 45 m. -by rail S.W. of Tours. Pop. (1906) 3931. It was formerly surrounded by -walls, of which a single gateway and two towers remain. Of the old -castle of the counts of Anjou which was destroyed under Richelieu, the -site now forming a public promenade, a fine rectangular donjon of the -12th century is preserved; at its base traces of Roman constructions -have been found, with fragments of porphyry pavement, mosaics and mural -paintings. The Carmelite convent was the scene of the trial of Urban -Grandier, who was burnt alive for witchcraft in 1634; the old Romanesque -church of Sainte Croix, of which he was cure, is now used as a market. -The church of St Pierre-du-Marche, Gothic in style with a Renaissance -portal, has a lofty stone spire. There are several curious old houses in -the town. Theophraste Renaudot (d. 1653), founder of the _Gazette de -France_, was born at Loudun, where there is a statue of him. The -manufacture of lace and upholstery trimming and of farm implements is -carried on, and there is a considerable trade in agricultural products, -wine, &c. Loudun (_Laudunum_ in ancient times) was a town of importance -during the religious wars and gave its name in 1616 to a treaty -favourable to the Protestants. - - - - -LOUGHBOROUGH, a market town and municipal borough in the Loughborough -(Mid) parliamentary division of Leicestershire, England, near the river -Soar and on the Loughborough canal. Pop. (1901) 21,508. It is 110 m. -N.N.W. of London by the Midland railway, and is served by the Great -Central and a branch of the London and North-Western railways. The -neighbourhood is a rich agricultural district, and to the S.W. lies the -hilly tract known as Charnwood Forest. The church of All Saints stands -on rising ground, and is a conspicuous object for many miles round; it -is of Decorated work, and the tower is Perpendicular. The other churches -are modern. Public buildings include the town hall and exchange, town -offices, county hall and free library. The grammar school, founded in -1495 under the charity of Thomas Burton, occupies modern buildings in -pleasant grounds. There is also a girls' grammar school partly dependent -on the same foundation. The principal industry is hosiery making; there -are also engineering, iron and dye works and bell foundries. The great -bell for St Paul's cathedral, London, was cast here in 1881. -Loughborough was incorporated in 1888. Area, 3045 acres. - -The manor of Loughborough (_Lucteburne, Lucteburg, Lughteburgh_) was -granted by William the Conqueror to Hugh Lupus, from whom it passed to -the Despensers. In 1226-1227 when it belonged to Hugh Despenser he -obtained various privileges for himself and his men and tenants there, -among which were quittance from suits at the county and hundred courts, -of sheriffs' aids and of view of frankpledge, and also a market every -Thursday and a fair on the vigil, day and morrow of St Peter ad vincula. -The market rights were purchased by the town in 1880 from the trustees -of Thomas Cradock, late lord of the manor. Edward II. visited the manor -several times when it belonged to his favourite, Hugh Despenser the -elder. Among the subsequent lords were Henry de Beaumont and Alice his -wife, Sir Edward Hastings, created Baron Hastings of Loughborough in -1558, Colonel Henry Hastings, created baron in 1645, and the earls of -Huntingdon. Alexander Wedderburn was created Baron Loughborough in 1780 -when he became chief justice of the common pleas. During the 19th -century most of the manorial rights were purchased by the local board. -Loughborough was at first governed by a bailiff, afterwards by a local -board, and was finally incorporated in 1888 under a mayor, 6 aldermen -and 18 councillors. It has never been represented in parliament. -Lace-making was formerly the chief industry, but machines for making -lace set up in the town by John Heathcote were destroyed by the Luddites -in 1816, and the manufacture lost its importance. Bell-founding was -introduced in 1840. John Cleveland, the Royalist poet, was born at -Loughborough in 1613, John Howe the painter in 1630 and Richard Pulteney -the botanist in 1730. - - See _Victoria County History, Leicestershire_; W. G. D. Fletcher, - _Chapters in the History of Loughborough_ (1883); Sir Thomas Pochin, - "Historical Description of Loughborough" (1770) (vol. viii. of - _Bibliotheca topographica Britannica_). - - - - -LOUGHREA, a market town of Co. Galway, Ireland, pleasantly situated on -the N. shore of Lough Rea, 116 m. W. from Dublin by a branch from -Attymon Junction on the Midland Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), -2815. There are slight remains of an Early English Carmelite friary -dating c. 1300, which escaped the Dissolution. Loughrea is the seat of -the Roman Catholic bishop of Clonfert, and has a cathedral built in -1900-1905. A part of the castle of Richard de Burgh, the founder of the -friary, still survives, and there are traces of the town fortifications. -In the neighbourhood are a cromlech and two ruined towers, and crannogs, -or ancient stockaded islands, have been discovered in the lough. Apart -from the surroundings of the lough, the neighbouring country is -peculiarly desolate. - - - - -LOUGHTON, an urban district in the Epping parliamentary division of -Essex, England, 11(1/2) m. N.N.E. of Liverpool Street station, London, -by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 4730. This is one of the -villages which has become the centre of a residential district, and is -frequented by holiday-makers from London, owing to its proximity to the -pleasant woodland scenery of Epping Forest. It lies on the eastern -outskirts of the Forest, near the river Roding. There are several modern -churches. The lordship of the manor was granted to Waltham Abbey. In the -vicinity are large earthworks, probably of British origin, known as -Loughton Camp. - - - - -LOUHANS, a town of east-central France in the old province of -Franche-Comte, now capital of an arrondissement in the department of -Saone-et-Loire, 34 m. N.N.E. of Macon by road. Pop. (1906), 3216. Its -church has a fine tower of the 15th century, of which the balustrade is -carved so as to form the first words of the Ave Maria. There are also a -hospital of the 17th century with a collection of ancient earthenware, a -town-hall of the 18th century and remains of ramparts of the 16th and -17th century. The town is the central market of the agricultural plain -of Bresse; chickens form the chief article of commerce. There is also a -large felt-hat manufactory. - - - - -LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish _Chlodowich_, _Chlodwig_, Latinized -as _Chlodowius_, _Lodhuwicus_, _Lodhuvicus_, whence--in the Strassburg -oath of 842--O. Fr. _Lodhuwigs_, then _Chlovis_, _Loys_ and later -_Louis_, whence Span. _Luiz_ and--through the Angevin kings--Hungarian -_Lajos_; cf. Ger. _Ludwig_ or _Ludewig_, from O. H. Ger. _Hluduwic_, -_Hludwig_, _Ludhuwig_, M. H. Ger. _Ludewic_; Ital. _Lodovico_), a -masculine proper name, meaning "Fame-fight" or "Famous in fight," from -old Frankish _chlud_, _chlod_ (O. H. Ger. _hlud_, _hlod_), "fame," and -_wich_ (O. H. Ger. _wic_., _wig_, A.S. _wig_) "war," "battle" (cf. Gr. -[Greek: Klytsmachos]). The name has been borne by numerous European -sovereigns and others, of whom some are noticed below in the following -order: (1) Roman emperors and Frankish and German kings, (2) kings of -Bavaria, (3) kings of France, (4) kings of Hungary, (5) kings of Naples, -(6) Louis of Nassau. (Louis Philippe, king of the French, is dealt with -separately.) - - - - -LOUIS I. (778-840), surnamed the "Pious," Roman emperor, third son of -the emperor Charlemagne and his wife Hildegarde, was born at Chasseneuil -in central France, and crowned king of Aquitaine in 781. He received a -good education; but as his tastes were ecclesiastical rather than -military, the government of his kingdom was mainly conducted by his -counsellors. Louis, however, gained sound experience in warfare in the -defence of Aquitaine, shared in campaigns against the Saxons and the -Avars, and led an army to Italy in 792. In 794 or 795 he married -Irmengarde, daughter of Ingram, count of Haspen. After the deaths of his -two elder brothers, Louis, at his father's command, crowned himself -co-emperor at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 11th of September 813, and was -formally associated in the government of the Empire, of which he became -sole ruler, in the following January. He earned the surname of "Pious" -by banishing his sisters and others of immoral life from court; by -attempting to reform and purify monastic life; and by showing great -liberality to the church. In October 816 he was crowned emperor at Reims -by Pope Stephen IV.; and at Aix in July 817, he arranged for a division -of his Empire among his sons. This was followed by a revolt of his -nephew, Bernard, king of Italy; but the rising was easily suppressed, -and Bernard was mutilated and killed. The emperor soon began to repent -of this cruelty, and when his remorse had been accentuated by the death -of his wife in 818, he pardoned the followers of Bernard and restored -their estates, and in 822 did public penance at Attigny. In 819 he -married Judith, daughter of Welf I., count of Bavaria, who in 823 bore -him a son Charles, afterwards called the Bald. Judith made unceasing -efforts to secure a kingdom for her child; and with the support of her -eldest step-son Lothair, a district was carved out for Charles in 829. -Discontent at this arrangement increased to the point of rebellion, -which broke out the following year, provoked by Judith's intrigues with -Bernard, count of Barcelona, whom she had installed as her favourite at -court. Lothair and his brother Pippin joined the rebels, and after -Judith had been sent into a convent and Bernard had fled to Spain, an -assembly was held at Compiegne, when Louis was practically deposed and -Lothair became the real ruler of the Empire. Sympathy was, however, soon -aroused for the emperor, who was treated as a prisoner, and a second -assembly was held at Nimwegen in October 830 when, with the concurrence -of his sons Pippin and Louis, he was restored to power and Judith -returned to court. - -Further trouble between Pippin and his father led to the nominal -transfer of Aquitaine from Pippin to his brother Charles in 831. The -emperor's plans for a division of his dominions then led to a revolt of -his three sons. Louis met them in June 833 near Kolmar, but owing -possibly to the influence of Pope Gregory IV., who took part in the -negotiations, he found himself deserted by his supporters, and the -treachery and falsehood which marked the proceedings gave to the place -the name of _Lugenfeld_, or the "field of lies." Judith, charged with -infidelity, was again banished; Louis was sent into the monastery of St -Medard at Soissons; and the government of the Empire was assumed by his -sons. The emperor was forced to confess his sins, and declare himself -unworthy of the throne, but Lothair did not succeed in his efforts to -make his father a monk. Sympathy was again felt for Louis, and when the -younger Louis had failed to induce Lothair to treat the emperor in a -more becoming fashion, he and Pippin took up arms on behalf of their -father. The result was that in March 834 Louis was restored to power at -St Denis; Judith once more returned to his side and the kingdoms of -Louis and Pippin were increased. The struggle with Lothair continued -until the autumn, when he submitted to the emperor and was confined to -Italy. To make the restoration more complete, a great assembly at -Diedenhofen declared the deposition of Louis to have been contrary to -law, and a few days later he was publicly restored in the cathedral of -Metz. In December 838 Pippin died, and a new arrangement was made by -which the Empire, except Bavaria, the kingdom of Louis, was divided -between Lothair, now reconciled to his father, and Charles. The emperor -was returning from suppressing a revolt on the part of his son Louis, -provoked by this disposition, when he died on the 20th of June 840 on an -island in the Rhine near Ingelheim. He was buried in the church of St -Arnulf at Metz. Louis was a man of strong frame, who loved the chase, -and did not shrink from the hardships of war. He was, however, easily -influenced and was unequal to the government of the Empire bequeathed to -him by his father. No sustained effort was made to ward off the inroads -of the Danes and others, who were constantly attacking the borders of -the Empire. Louis, who is also called _Le Debonnaire_, counts as Louis -I., king of France. - - See _Annales Fuldenses_; _Annales Bertiniani_; Thegan, _Vita - Hludowici_; the _Vita Hludowici_ attributed to Astronomus; Ermoldus - Nigellus, _In honorem Hludowici imperatoris_; Nithard, _Historiarum - libri_, all in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica_. _Scriptores_, - Bande i. and ii. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.); E. Muhlbacher, _Die - Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern_ (Innsbruck, 1881); - and _Deutsche Geschichte unter den Karolingern_ (Stuttgart, 1886); B. - Simson, _Jahrbucher des frankischen Reichs unter Ludwig dem Frommen_ - (Leipzig, 1874-1876); and E. Dummler, _Geschichte des ostfrankischen - Reiches_ (Leipzig, 1887-1888). (A. W. H.*) - - - - -LOUIS II. (825-875), Roman emperor, eldest son of the emperor Lothair -I., was designated king of Italy in 839, and taking up his residence in -that country was crowned king at Rome by Pope Sergius II. on the 15th of -June 844. He at once preferred a claim to the rights of an emperor in -the city, which was decisively rejected; but in 850 he was crowned joint -emperor at Rome by Pope Leo IV., and soon afterwards married his cousin, -Engelberga, a daughter of King Louis the German, and undertook the -independent government of Italy. He took the field against the Saracens; -quashed some accusations against Pope Leo; held a diet at Pavia; and on -the death of his father in September 855 became sole emperor. The -division of Lothair's dominions, by which he obtained no territory -outside Italy, aroused his discontent, and in 857 he allied himself with -Louis the German against his brother Lothair, king of Lorraine, and -King Charles the Bald. But after Louis had secured the election of -Nicholas I. as pope in 858, he became reconciled with his brother, and -received some lands south of the Jura in return for assistance given to -Lothair in his efforts to obtain a divorce from his wife, Teutberga. In -863, on the death of his brother Charles, Louis received the kingdom of -Provence, and in 864 came into collision with Pope Nicholas I. over his -brother's divorce. The archbishops, who had been deposed by Nicholas for -proclaiming this marriage invalid, obtained the support of the emperor, -who reached Rome with an army in February 864; but, having been seized -with fever, he made peace with the pope and left the city. In his -efforts to restore order in Italy, Louis met with considerable success -both against the turbulent princes of the peninsula and against the -Saracens who were ravaging southern Italy. In 866 he routed these -invaders, but could not follow up his successes owing to the want of a -fleet. So in 869 he made an alliance with the eastern emperor, Basil I., -who sent him some ships to assist in the capture of Bari, the -headquarters of the Saracens, which succumbed in 871. Meanwhile his -brother Lothair had died in 869, and owing to his detention in southern -Italy he was unable to prevent the partition of Lorraine between Louis -the German and Charles the Bald. Some jealousy between Louis and Basil -followed the victory at Bari, and in reply to an insult from the eastern -emperor Louis attempted to justify his right to the title "emperor of -the Romans." He had withdrawn into Benevento to prepare for a further -campaign, when he was treacherously attacked in his palace, robbed and -imprisoned by Adelchis, prince of Benevento, in August 871. The landing -of fresh bands of Saracens compelled Adelchis to release his prisoner a -month later, and Louis was forced to swear he would take no revenge for -this injury, nor ever enter Benevento with an army. Returning to Rome, -he was released from his oath, and was crowned a second time as emperor -by Pope Adrian II. on the 18th of May 872. He won further successes -against the Saracens, who were driven from Capua, but the attempts of -the emperor to punish Adelchis were not very successful. Returning to -northern Italy, he died, somewhere in the province of Brescia, on the -12th of August 875, and was buried in the church of St Ambrose at Milan, -having named as his successor in Italy his cousin Carloman, son of Louis -the German. Louis was an excellent ruler, of whom it was said "in his -time there was great peace, because every one could enjoy his own -possessions." - - See _Annales Bertiniani_, _Chronica S. Benedicti Casinensis_, both in - the _Monumenta Germaniae historica, Scriptores_, Bande i. and iii. - (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.); E. Muhlbacher, _Die Regesten des - Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern_ (Innsbruck, 1881); Th. Sickel, - _Acta regum et imperatorum Karolinorum, digesta et enarrata_ (Vienna, - 1867-1868); and E. Dummler, _Geschichte des ostfrankischen Reiches_ - (Leipzig, 1887-1888). (A. W. H.*) - - - - -LOUIS III. (c. 880-928), surnamed the "Blind," Roman emperor, was a son -of Boso, king of Provence or Lower Burgundy, and Irmengarde, daughter of -the emperor Louis II. The emperor Charles the Fat took Louis under his -protection on the death of Boso in 887; but Provence was in a state of -wild disorder, and it was not until 890, when Irmengarde had secured the -support of the Bavarian king Arnulf and of Pope Stephen V., that Louis -was recognized as king. In 900, after the death of the emperor Arnulf, -he went to Italy to obtain the imperial crown. He was chosen king of the -Lombards at Pavia, and crowned emperor at Rome in February 901 by Pope -Benedict IV. He gained a temporary authority in northern Italy, but was -soon compelled by his rival Berengar, margrave of Friuli, to leave the -country and to swear he would never return. In spite of his oath he went -again to Italy in 904, where he secured the submission of Lombardy; but -on the 21st of July 905 he was surprised at Verona by Berengar, who -deprived him of his sight and sent him back to Provence, where he passed -his days in enforced inactivity until his death in September 928. He -married Adelaide, possibly a daughter of Rudolph I., king of Upper -Burgundy. His eldest son, Charles Constantine, succeeded to no more than -the county of Vienne. - - See _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, Bande ix. and x. - (Gottingen, 1862-1886); E. Dummler, _Geschichte des ostfrankischen - Reichs_ (Leipzig, 1887-1888); and _Gesta Berengarii imperatoris_ - (Halle, 1871); and F. de Gingins-la-Sarra. _Memoires pour servir a - l'histoire de Provence et de Bourgogne Jurane_ (Zurich, 1851). - (A. W. H.*) - - - - -LOUIS IV., or V. (c. 1287-1347), surnamed the Bavarian, Roman emperor -and duke of Upper Bavaria, was the second son of Louis II., duke of -Upper Bavaria and count palatine of the Rhine, and Matilda, daughter of -the German king Rudolph I. Having lost his father in 1294 he inherited, -jointly with his elder brother Rudolph, Upper Bavaria and the -Palatinate, but passed his time mainly at the court of the Habsburgs in -Vienna, while his early experiences of warfare were gained in the -campaigns of his uncle, the German king Albert I. He was soon at -variance with his brother over their joint possessions. Albert taking -the part of Louis in this quarrel, Rudolph promised in 1301 to admit his -brother to a share in the government of Bavaria and the Palatinate. When -Albert was murdered in May 1308, Louis became a candidate for the German -throne; but his claim was not strongly supported. The new king, Henry -VII., was very friendly with Rudolph, and as the promise of 1301 had not -been carried out, Louis demanded a partition of their lands. Upper -Bavaria was accordingly divided in 1310, and Louis received the -north-western part of the duchy; but Rudolph refused to surrender any -part of the Palatinate. In 1310, on the death of Stephen I., duke of -Lower Bavaria, Louis undertook the guardianship of his two young sons. -This led to a war between the brothers, which lasted till June 1313, -when peace was made at Munich. Many of the nobles in Lower Bavaria, -however, angered at Louis, called in the aid of Frederick I. (the Fair), -duke of Austria; but he was defeated at Gammelsdorf on the 9th of -November 1313, a victory which not only led to peace, but conferred -considerable renown on Louis. - -In August 1313 the German throne had again become vacant, and Louis was -chosen at Frankfort on the 20th of October 1314 by a majority of the -electors, and his coronation followed at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 25th of -November. A minority of princes had, however, supported Frederick of -Austria; and a war followed between the rivals, during which Louis was -supported by the cities and the districts of the middle and lower Rhine. -His embarrassments were complicated by a renewal of the dispute with his -brother; but when this had been disposed of in 1317 by Rudolph's -renunciation of his claims on upper Bavaria and the Palatinate in -consideration of a yearly subsidy, Louis was able to give undivided -attention to the war with Frederick, and obtained several fresh allies. -On the 28th of September 1322 a battle was fought at Muhldorf, which -ended in a complete victory for Louis, owing mainly to the timely aid of -Frederick IV. of Hohenzollern, burgrave of Nuremburg. Frederick of -Austria was taken prisoner, but the struggle was continued by his -brother Leopold until the latter's death in 1326. Attempts to enable the -two kings to rule Germany jointly failed, and about 1326 Frederick -returned to Austria, leaving Louis in undisputed possession of the -country. Before this conclusion, however, a new enemy had taken the -field. Supported by Philip V. of France in his desire to free Italy -entirely from German influence, Pope John XXII. refused to recognize -either Frederick or Louis, and asserted his own right to administer the -empire during a vacancy. After the battle of Muhldorf Louis sent -Berthold of Neifen, count of Marstetten, into Italy with an army, which -soon compelled the papal troops to raise the siege at Milan. The pope -threatened Louis with excommunication unless he resigned his kingdom -within three months. The king thereupon appealed to a general council, -and was placed under the papal ban on the 23rd of March 1324, a sentence -which he answered by publishing his charges against the pope. In the -contest Louis was helped by the Minorites, who were upholding against -John the principal of clerical poverty, and by the writings of Marsilius -of Padua (who dedicated to Louis his _Defensor pacis_), William of -Occam, John of Jandun and others. Taking the offensive, Louis met his -Ghibelline supporters at Trent and reached Italy in March 1327; and in -May he received the Lombard crown at Milan. Although the pope renewed -his fulminations Louis compelled Pisa to surrender, and was hailed with -great rejoicing in Rome. On the 17th of January 1328 he was crowned -emperor in St Peter's by Sciarra Colonna, a Roman noble; and he answered -the continued attacks of Pope John by pronouncing his deposition, and -proclaiming Peter of Corvara pope as Nicholas V. He then undertook an -expedition against John's ally, Robert, king of Naples, but, disunion -among his troops and scarcity of money and provisions, drove him again -to Rome, where, finding that his exactions had diminished his -popularity, he left the city, and after passing six months at Pisa, -returned to Germany in January 1330. The struggle with the pope was -renewed in Germany, and when a formidable league had been formed against -Louis, his thoughts turned to a reconciliation. He was prepared to -assent to very humiliating terms, and even agreed to abdicate; but the -negotiations, which were prolonged by further demands on the part of the -pope, were interrupted by his death in December 1334. John's successor, -Benedict XII., seemed more anxious to come to an arrangement, but was -prevented from doing so by the influence of Philip VI. of France. -Overtures for peace were made to Philip, but without success; and in -July 1337 Louis concluded an alliance with Edward III., king of England, -and made active preparations for war. During these years his attention -was also occupied by a quarrel with John, king of Bohemia, over the -possession of Tirol, by a campaign in Lower Bavaria, and a futile -expedition against Nicholas I., bishop of Constance. But although his -position was shaken by the indifferent success which attended these -campaigns, it was improved when the electors meeting at Rense in July -1338 banded themselves together to defend their elective rights, and -when the diet at Frankfort confirmed a decree which declared that the -German king did not need the papal approbation to make his election -valid. - -Louis devoted considerable thought and time to extending the possessions -of the Wittelsbach family, to which he belonged. Tirol had for some time -been a subject of contention between the emperor and other princes. The -heiress of this county, Margaret Maultasch, had married John Henry, -margrave of Moravia, son of King John of Bohemia. Having quarrelled with -her husband, Margaret fled to the protection of Louis, who seized the -opportunity to declare her marriage void and to unite her in 1342 with -his son Louis. The emperor also increased his possessions by his own -marriage. In 1322 his first wife, Beatrice, daughter of Henry III., -count of Glogau, had died after thirteen years of married life, and -Louis then married Margaret, daughter of William III., count of Holland. -When her brother, count William IV., died childless in 1345, the emperor -obtained possession of Holland, Zealand and Friesland. In 1341 he -recovered a portion of the Palatinate, and soon deserted Edward of -England and came to terms with Philip of France. The acquisition of the -territories, and especially of Tirol, had provided Louis with many -enemies, prominent among whom were John of Bohemia and his family, that -of Luxemburg. John, therefore, entered into an alliance with Pope -Clement VI. The course of the war which ensued in Germany was such as to -compel the emperor to submit to humiliating terms, though he stopped -short of accepting the election of Charles, margrave of Moravia -(afterwards the emperor Charles IV.) as German king in July 1346. -Charles consequently attacked Tirol; but Louis, who appeared to have -considerable chances of success, died suddenly at a bear-hunt near -Munich on the 11th of October 1347. He was buried in the Frauenkirche at -Munich, where a statue was erected to his memory in 1622 by Maximilian -I., elector of Bavaria, and where a second was unveiled in 1905. He had -seven sons, three of whom were subsequently electors of Brandenburg, and -ten daughters. - -Various estimates have been formed of the character of Louis. As a -soldier he possessed skill as well as bravery, but he lacked -perseverance and decision in his political relations. At one time -haughtily defying the pope, at another abjectly craving his pardon, he -seems a very inglorious figure; and the fact that he remained almost -undisturbed in the possession of Germany in spite of the utmost efforts -of the popes, is due rather to the political and intellectual -tendencies of the time than to his own good qualities. Nevertheless he -ruled Bavaria with considerable success. He befriended the towns, -encouraged trade and commerce and gave a new system of laws to the -duchy. German took the place of Latin in the imperial charters, and -although not a scholar, the emperor was a patron of learning. Louis was -a man of graceful appearance, with ruddy countenance and prominent nose. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Many of the authorities for the life and reign of Louis - are found in the _Fontes rerum Germanicarum_, Bande i. and iv., edited - by J. F. Bohmer (Stuttgart, 1843-1868). Among these is the _Vita - Ludovici IV._, by an unknown author. A number of important documents - are found in the _Regesta imperii_ 1314-1347, edited by J. F. Bohmer - and J. Ficker (Innsbruck, 1865); _Acta imperii selecta_, edited by J. - F. Bohmer and J. Ficker (Innsbruck, 1870); _Urkunden zur Geschichte - des Romerzuges Konigs Ludwigs des Bayern_, edited by J. Ficker - (Innsbruck, 1865); _Urkundliche Beitrage zur Geschichte Kaisers - Ludwigs IV._, edited by C. Hofler (Munich, 1839); _Vatikanische - Urkunden zur Geschichte Kaisers Ludwigs des Bayern_, Bande v. and vi. - (Stuttgart, 1877-1888); _Vatikanische Akten zur Deutschen Geschichte - in der Zeit Kaisers Ludwigs des Bayern_, edited by S. Riezler - (Innsbruck, 1891). In the _Forschungen zur Deutschen Geschichte_ - (Gottingen, 1862-1886), Band xx., is found _Urkunden zur Bairischen - und Deutschen Geschichte 1256-1343_, edited by S. Riezler; and in Band - xiii. is C. Hautle's _Beitrage zum Itinerar Kaiser Ludwigs_. - - The following may also be consulted: C. Gewoldus, _Defensio Ludovici - IV. contra A. Bzovium_ (Ingolstadt, 1618); J. G. Herwartus, _Ludovicus - IV. imperator defensus_ (Mainz, 1618); N. Burgundus, _Historia - Bavarica sive Ludovicus IV. imperator_ (Ingolstadt, 1636). The best - modern authorities are F. von Weech, _Kaiser Ludwig der Bayer und - Konig Johann von Bohmen_ (Munich, 1860); S. Riezler, _Die - literarischen Widersacher der Papste zur Zeit Ludwigs des Bayern_ - (Leipzig, 1874); C. Muhling, _Die Geschichte der Doppelwahl des Jahres - 1314_ (Munich, 1882); R. Dobner, _Die Auseinandersetzung zwischen - Ludwig IV. dem Bayern und Friedrich dem Schonen von Oesterreich_ - (Gottingen, 1875); W. Altmann, _Der Romerzug Ludwigs des Bayern_ - (Berlin, 1886); A. Chroust, _Beitrage zur Geschichte Ludwigs des - Bayern und seiner Zeit_ (Gotha, 1877); K. Muller, _Der Kampf Ludwigs - des Bayern mit der romischen Curie_ (Tubingen, 1879-1880); W. Preger, - _Der Kirchenpolitische Kampf unter Ludwig dem Bayern_ (Munich, 1877); - Sievers, _Die politischen Beziehungen Kaiser Ludwigs des Bayern zu - Frankreich_ (Berlin, 1896); Steinberger, _Kaiser Ludwig der Bayer_ - (Munich, 1901); and Ueding, _Ludwig der Bayer und die - niederrheinischen Stadte_ (Paderborn, 1904). (A. W. H.*) - - - - -LOUIS (804-876) surnamed the "German," king of the East Franks, was the -third son of the emperor Louis I. and his wife Irmengarde. His early -years were partly spent at the court of his grandfather Charlemagne, -whose special affection he is said to have won. When the emperor Louis -divided his dominions between his sons in 817, Louis received Bavaria -and the neighbouring lands, but did not undertake the government until -825, when he became involved in war with the Slavonic tribes on his -eastern frontier. In 827 he married Emma, daughter of Welf I., count of -Bavaria, and sister of his stepmother Judith; and he soon began to -interfere in the quarrels arising from Judith's efforts to secure a -kingdom for her own son Charles, and the consequent struggles of Louis -and his brothers with the emperor Louis I. (q.v.). When the elder Louis -died in 840 and his eldest son Lothair claimed the whole Empire, Louis -in alliance with his half-brother, king Charles the Bald, defeated -Lothair at Fontenoy on the 25th of June 841. In June 842 the three -brothers met on an island in the Saone to negotiate a peace, and each -appointed forty representatives to arrange the boundaries of their -respective kingdoms. This developed into the treaty of Verdun concluded -in August 843, by which Louis received the bulk of the lands of the -Carolingian empire lying east of the Rhine, together with a district -around Spires, Worms and Mainz, on the left bank of the river. His -territories included Bavaria, where he made Regensburg the centre of his -government, Thuringia, Franconia and Saxony. He may truly be called the -founder of the German kingdom, though his attempts to maintain the unity -of the Empire proved futile. Having in 842 crushed a rising in Saxony, -he compelled the Abotrites to own his authority, and undertook campaigns -against the Bohemians, the Moravians and other tribes, but was not very -successful in freeing his shores from the ravages of Danish pirates. At -his instance synods and assemblies were held where laws were decreed -for the better government of church and state. In 853 and the following -years Louis made more than one attempt to secure the throne of -Aquitaine, which the people of that country offered him in their disgust -with the cruel misrule of Charles the Bald. But though he met with -sufficient success to encourage him to issue a charter in 858, dated -"the first year of the reign in West Francia," treachery and desertion -in his army, and the loyalty to Charles of the Aquitanian bishops -brought about the failure of the enterprise, which Louis renounced by a -treaty signed at Coblenz on the 7th of June 860. - -In 855 the emperor Lothair died, and was succeeded in Italy by his -eldest son Louis II., and in the northern part of his kingdom by his -second son, Lothair. The comparative weakness of these kingdoms, -together with the disorder caused by the matrimonial troubles of -Lothair, afforded a suitable opening for the intrigues of Louis and -Charles the Bald, whose interest was increased by the fact that both -their nephews were without male issue. Louis supported Lothair in his -efforts to divorce his wife Teutberga, for which he received a promise -of Alsace, while Charles opposed the divorce. But in 865 Louis and -Charles meeting near Toul, renewed the peace of Coblenz, and doubtless -discussed the possibility of dividing Lothair's kingdom. In 868 at Metz -they agreed definitely to a partition; but when Lothair died in 869, -Louis was lying seriously ill, and his armies were engaged with the -Moravians. Charles the Bald accordingly seized the whole kingdom; but -Louis, having recovered, compelled him by a threat of war to agree to -the treaty of Mersen, which divided it between the claimants. The later -years of Louis were troubled by risings on the part of his sons, the -eldest of whom, Carloman, revolted in 861 and again two years later; an -example that was followed by the second son Louis, who in a further -rising was joined by his brother Charles. A report that the emperor -Louis II. was dead led to peace between father and sons. The emperor, -however, was not dead, but a prisoner; and as he was not only the -nephew, but also the son-in-law of Louis, that monarch hoped to secure -both the imperial dignity and the Italian kingdom for his son Carloman. -Meeting his daughter Engelberga, the wife of Louis II., at Trent in 872, -Louis made an alliance with her against Charles the Bald, and in 874 -visited Italy doubtless on the same errand. The emperor, having named -Carloman as his successor, died in August 875, but Charles the Bald -reached Italy before his rival, and by persuading Carloman, when he did -cross the Alps, to return, secured the imperial crown. Louis was -preparing for war when he died on the 28th of September 876 at -Frankfort, and was buried at Lorsch, leaving three sons and three -daughters. Louis was in war and peace alike, the most competent of the -descendants of Charlemagne. He obtained for his kingdom a certain degree -of security in face of the attacks of Normans, Hungarians, Moravians and -others. He lived in close alliance with the Church, to which he was very -generous, and entered eagerly into schemes for the conversion of his -heathen neighbours. - - See _Annales Fuldenses_; _Annales Bertiniani_; Nithard, _Historiarum - Libri_, all in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica_. _Scriptores_, - Bande i. and ii. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 seq.); E. Dummler, - _Geschichte des ostfrankischen Reiches_ (Leipzig, 1887-1888); Th. - Sickel, _Die Urkunden Ludwigs des Deutschen_ (Vienna, 1861-1862); E. - Muhlbacher, _Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern_ - (Innsbruck, 1881); and A. Krohn, _Ludwig der Deutsche_ (Saarbrucken, - 1872). (A. W. H.*) - - - - -LOUIS I., king of Bavaria (1786-1868), son of the then prince, -afterwards duke and elector, Max Joseph of Zweibrucken and his wife -Princess Augusta of Hesse-Darmstadt ( -1796), was born at Strassburg on -the 25th of August 1786. He received a careful education at home, -afterwards (in 1803) going to the Bavarian national university of -Landshut and to Gottingen. As a young man he was drawn into the Romantic -movement then at its height; but both the classics and contemporary -classical poetry took hold upon his receptive mind (he visited Goethe in -1827). He had himself strong artistic tendencies, though his numerous -poems show but little proof of this, and as a patron of the arts he -proved himself as great as any who had ever occupied a German, throne, -and more than a mere dilettante. His first visit to Italy, in 1804, had -an important influence upon this side of his development. - -But even in Italy the crown prince (his father had become elector in -1799 and king of Bavaria in 1805) did not forget his nationality. He -soon made himself leader of the small anti-French party in Bavaria. -Napoleon sought in vain to win him over, and Louis fell more and more -out of favour with him. Napoleon was even reported to have said: "Qui -m'empeche de laisser fusiller ce prince?" Their relations continued to -be strained, although in the campaigns of 1807 and 1809, in which -Bavaria was among the allies of France, Louis won his laurels in the -field. - -The crown prince was also averse from a Napoleonic marriage, and -preferred to marry (October 12, 1810) the Princess Therese of -Saxe-Hildburghausen (1792-1854). Three daughters and four sons were born -of this marriage, one of whom succeeded him as Maximilian II., while -another, Luitpold, became prince regent of Bavaria on the death of Louis -II. - -During the time that he was crown prince Louis resided chiefly at -Innsbruck or Salzburg as governor of the circle of the Inn and Salzach. -In 1815 he attended the Congress of Vienna, where he was especially -occupied in endeavouring to obtain the restoration of Alsace and -Lorraine to Germany; and later in the year he was with the allies in -Paris, using his influence to secure the return of the art treasures -carried off by the French. - -After 1815 also the crown prince maintained his anti-French attitude, -and it was mainly his influence that in 1817 secured the fall of -Montgelas, the minister with French sympathies. Opposed to absolutism, -Louis took great interest in the work of organizing the Bavarian -constitution (1818) and defended it against Metternich and the Carlsbad -Decrees (1819); he was also one of the most zealous of the ardent -Philhellenes in Germany at the time. He succeeded to the crown of -Bavaria on the 12th of October 1825, and at once embarked upon a -moderate constitutional policy, in which he found himself in general -agreement with the parliament. Although he displayed a loyal attachment -to the Catholic Church, especially owing to his artistic sympathies, he -none the less opposed all its more exaggerated pretensions, especially -as represented by the Jesuits, whom he condemned as un-German. In the -year of his accession he abolished an old edict concerning the -censorship. He also furthered in many ways the internal administration -of the state, and especially that of the finances. His personal tastes, -apart from his activities as a Maecenas, being economical, he -endeavoured also to limit public expenditure, in a way which was not -always a benefit to the country. Bavaria's power of self-defence -especially was weakened by his economies and by his lack of interest in -the military aspect of things. - -He was a warm friend of learning, and in 1826 transferred the university -of Landshut to Munich, where he placed it under his special protection. -Prominent scholars were summoned to it, mostly belonging to the Romantic -School, such as Goerres, Schubert and Schelling, though others were not -discouraged. In the course of his visits to Italy he formed friendships -with famous artists such as Thorwaldsen and Cornelius. He was especially -anxious to obtain works of art, mainly sculpture, for the famous Munich -collections which he started, and in this he had the advantage of the -assistance of the painter Martin Wagner. He also set on foot movements -for excavation and the collection of works of art in Greece, with -excellent results. - -Under the influence of the July revolution of 1830, however, he also -began to be drawn into the current of reaction; and though he still -declared himself openly against absolutism, and never took up such a -hostile attitude towards constitutional ideas as his brother-in-law King -Frederick William IV., he allowed the reactionary system of surveillance -which commended itself to the German Confederation after 1830 to be -introduced into Bavaria (see BAVARIA: _History_). He continued, on the -other hand, to do much for the economic development of the country. As a -follower of the ideas of Friedrich List, he furthered the foundation of -the Zollverein in the year 1833 and the making of canals. Railways he -looked upon as a "necessary evil." - -In external politics peace was maintained on the whole after 1825. -Temporary diplomatic complications arose between Bavaria and Baden in -connexion with Louis's favourite project of winning back the part then -belonging to Baden of the old Palatinate, the land of his birth, which -was always very dear to him. - -Of European importance was his enthusiasm for the liberation of Greece -from the rule of Turkey. Not only did he erect the _Propylaen_ at Munich -in her honour, but he also helped her in the most generous way both with -money and diplomatic resources. And after his second son Otto had become -king of Greece in 1832, Greek affairs became from time to time the -central point of his foreign policy. In 1835 he made a visit to Greece, -partly political, partly inspired by his old interest in art. But his -son proved unequal to his task, and in 1862 was forced to abdicate (see -OTHO, KING OF GREECE). For this unfortunate issue Louis was not without -blame; for from the very first, owing to an exaggerated idealism and -love of antiquity, he had totally misunderstood the national character -of the Greeks and the problems involved in the attempts to govern them -by bureaucratic methods. - -In Bavaria, too, his government became more and more conservative, -especially after Karl Abel became the head of the ministry in 1837. The -king had not yet, it is true, altogether committed himself to the -clerical ultras, and on the occasion of the dispute about the bishops in -Prussia in the same year had taken up a wise attitude of compromise. But -in Bavaria itself the strict Catholic party influenced affairs more and -more decisively. For a while, indeed, this opposition did not impair the -king's popularity, due to his amiable character, his extraordinary -services in beautifying his capital of Munich, and to his benevolence -(it has been reckoned that he personally received about 10,000 letters -asking for help every year, and that the money he devoted to charity -amounted to about a fifth of his income). The year 1846, however, -brought a change which had sad consequences. This was due to the king's -relations with the Spanish dancer Lola Montez, who appeared in Munich in -October 1846, and soon succeeded by her beauty and wit in fascinating -the king, who was always susceptible to feminine charms. The political -importance of this lay in the fact that the royal mistress began to use -her great influence against the clerical policy of the Abel ministry. So -when the king was preparing the way for ennobling her, in order to -introduce her into court circles, which were unwilling to receive her, -the ministry protested in the famous memorandum of the 11th of February -1847 against the king's demand for her naturalization as a Bavarian, the -necessary preliminary to her ennoblement. The position was still further -embittered by the fact that, owing to an indiscretion, the memorandum -became known to the public. Thereupon the king, irritated and outraged, -replaced Abel's Clerical ministry by a more accommodating Liberal one -under Zu Rhein under which Lola Montez without more difficulty became -Countess Landsberg. Meanwhile, the criticism and opposition of the -people, and especially of the students, was turned against the new -leader of the court of Munich. On top of this came the revolutionary -movement of 1848. The king's position became more and more difficult, -and under the pressure of popular opposition he was forced to banish the -countess. But neither this nor the king's liberal proclamation of the -6th of March succeeded in establishing peace, and in the capital -especially the situation became increasingly threatening. All this made -such a deep impression on the king, that on the 20th of March 1848 he -abdicated in favour of his son Maximilian. - -He now retired entirely into private life, and continued to play the -Maecenas magnificently, frequently staying at his villa in Rome, the -Villa Malta, and enjoying extraordinary vigour of mind and body up to -the end of his days. His popularity, which had been shaken by the Montez -affair, he soon recovered, especially among artists. To him Munich owes -her finest art collections and most remarkable buildings. The monarch's -artistic sense led him not only to adorn his house with a number of -works of antique art, but also to study German medieval art, which he -did to good effect. To him Munich owes the acquisition of the famous -Rhenish collection of the Boisseree brothers. The king also worked with -great zeal for the care of monuments, and the cathedrals of Spires and -Cologne enjoyed his special care. He was also an unfailing supporter of -contemporary painting, in so far as it responded to his romantic -tendencies, and he gave a fresh impulse to the arts of working in metal -and glass. As visible signs of his permanent services to art Munich -possesses the Walhalla, the Glyptothek, the two Pinakotheken, the Odeon, -the University, and many other magnificent buildings both sacred and -profane. The role which the Bavarian capital now plays as the leading -art centre of Germany would have been an impossibility without the -splendid munificence of Louis I. - -He died on the 28th of February 1868 at Nice, and on the 9th of March -was buried in Munich, amid demonstrations of great popular feeling. - -The chief part of Louis's records is contained in seven sealed chests in -the archives of his family, and by the provisions of his will these were -not to be opened till the year 1918. These records contain an -extraordinarily large and valuable mass of historical material, -including, as one item, 246 volumes of the king's diary. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of the numerous pamphlets, especially of the years - 1846-1848, we need only mention here: P. Erdmann, _Lola Montez und die - Jesuiten_ (1847); _Geheimbericht uber Bayern_ (1847), published by - Fowmier in _Deutsche Revue_, vol. 27. See also F. v. Ritter, _Beitrage - zur Regierungsgeschichte Konig Ludwigs I._ (1825-1826) (2 vols., - 1853-1855); Sepp, _Ludwig I. Augustus, Konig von Bayern und das - Zeitalter der Wiedergeburt der Kunste_ (1869; 2nd ed., 1903); Ottokar - Lorenz, _Drei Bucher Geschichte_ (1876; 2nd ed., 1879); K. Th. v. - Heigel, _Ludwig I._ (1872; 2nd ed., 1888); "Ludwig I. und Martin - Wagner," _Neue historische Vortrage_ (1883); "Ludwig I.," _Allgemeine - deutsche Biographie_ (1884); "Ludwig I. als Freund der Geschichte" and - "Kronprinz Ludwig in den Feldzugen von 1807 und 1809," in _Historische - Vortrage und Studien_ (1887); _Die Verlegung der Universitat nach - Munchen_, Rektoratsrede (1887); "Ludwig I. und die Munchener - Hochschule," _Quellen und Abhandlungen zur Geschichte Bayerns_, n.s. - (1890); "Ludwig I. als Erzieher seines Volkes," ib.; Reidelbach, - _Ludwig I. und seine Kunstschopfungen_ (1887; 2nd ed., 1888); L. - Trose, _Ludwig I. in seinen Briefen an seinen Sohn, den Konig Otto von - Griechenland_ (1891); L. v. Kobell, _Unter den vier ersten Konigen - Bayerns_ (1894); A. Fournier, "Aus den Tagen der Lola Montez," _Neue - Deutsche Rundschau_ (1901); M. Doebere, "Ludwig I. und die deutsche - Frage," _Festgabe fur Heigel_ (1903); E. Fuchs, _Lola Montez in der - Karrikature_ (1904); L. Brunner, _Nurnberg 1848-1849_ (1907). - (J. Hn.) - - - - -LOUIS II., king of Bavaria (1845-1886), son of his predecessor -Maximilian II. and his wife Maria, daughter of Prince William of -Prussia, was born at Nymphenburg on the 25th of August 1845. Together -with his brother Otto, three years younger than himself, Louis received, -in accordance with the wishes of his learned father, a simple and -serious education modelled on that of the German _Gymnasien_, of which -the classical languages are the chief feature. Of modern languages the -crown prince learnt only French, of which he remained fond all his life. -The practical value of the prince's training was small. It was not till -he was eighteen years old that he received his first pocket-money, and -at that age he had no ideas about money and its value. Military -instruction, physical exercises and sport, in spite of the crown -prince's strong physique, received little attention. Thus Louis did not -come enough into contact with young men of his own age, and consequently -soon developed a taste for solitude, which was found at an early age to -be combined with the romantic tendencies and musical and theatrical -tastes traditional in his family. - -Louis succeeded to the throne on the 10th of March 1864, at the age of -eighteen. The early years of his reign were marked by a series of most -serious political defeats for Bavaria. In the Schleswig-Holstein -question, though he was opposed to Prussia and a friend of Duke -Frederick VIII. of Augustenburg, he did not command the material forces -necessary effectively to resist the powerful policy of Bismarck. Again, -in the war of 1866, Louis and his minister von der Pfordten took the -side of Austria, and at the conclusion of peace (August 22) Bavaria -had, in addition to the surrender of certain small portions of her -territory, to agree to the foundation of the North German Confederation -under the leadership of Prussia. The king's Bavarian patriotism, one of -the few steadfast ideas underlying his policy, was deeply wounded by -these occurrences, but he was face to face with the inevitable, and on -the 10th of August wrote a letter of reconciliation to King William of -Prussia. The defeat of Bavaria in 1866 showed clearly the necessity for -a reform of the army. Under the new Liberal ministry of Hohenlohe -(December 29, 1866--February 13, 1870) and under Prauckh as minister of -war, a series of reforms were carried through which prepared for the -victories of 1870. As regards his ecclesiastical policy, though Louis -remained personally true to the Catholic Church, he strove for a greater -independence of the Vatican. He maintained friendly relations with Ignaz -von Dollinger, the leader of the more liberal Catholics who opposed the -definition of papal infallibility, but without extending his protection -to the anti-Roman movement of the Old Catholics. In spite of this the -Old Bavarian opposition was so aroused by the Liberalism of the -Hohenlohe ministry that at the beginning of 1870 Louis had to form a -more Conservative cabinet under Count Bray-Steinburg. On the outbreak of -the Franco-Prussian War he at once took the side of Prussia, and gave -orders for mobilization. In 1871 it was he who offered the imperial -crown to the king of Prussia; but this was not done on his own -initiative. Bismarck not only determined the king of Bavaria to take the -decisive step which put an end to a serious diplomatic crisis, but -actually drafted the letter to King William which Louis copied and -despatched without changing a word. Louis placed very few difficulties -in the way of the new German Empire under the leadership of Prussia, -though his Bavarian particularism remained unchanged. - -Though up till the beginning of the year 1880 he did not cease to give -some attention to state affairs, the king's interests lay in quite other -spheres. His personal idiosyncrasies had, in fact, developed meanwhile -in a most unhappy direction. His enthusiasm for all that is beautiful -soon led him into dangerous bypaths. It found its most innocent -expression in the earliest years of his reign when he formed an intimate -friendship with Richard Wagner, whom from May 1864 to December 1865 he -had constantly in his company. Louis was entirely possessed by the -soaring ideas of the master, and was energetic in their realization. He -not only established Wagner's material position at the moment by paying -18,000 gulden of debts for him and granting him a yearly income of 4000 -gulden (afterwards increased to 8000), but he also proceeded to realize -the ambitious artistic plans of the master. A series of brilliant model -performances of the Wagnerian music-dramas was instituted in Munich -under the personal patronage of the king, and when the further plan of -erecting a great festival theatre in Munich for the performance of -Wagner's "music of the future" broke down in the face of the passive -resistance of the local circles interested, the royal enthusiast -conceived the idea of building at Bayreuth, according to Wagner's new -principles, a theatre worthy of the music-dramas. For a time Louis was -entirely under Wagner's influence, the fantastic tendencies of whose art -cast a spell over him, and there is extant a series of emotional letters -of the king to Wagner. Wagner, on the whole, used his influence in -artistic and not in political affairs.[1] In spite of this the -opposition to him became permanent. Public opinion in Bavaria for the -most part turned against him. He was attacked for his foreign origin, -his extravagance, his intrigues, his artistic utopias, and last but by -no means least, for his unwholesome influence over the king. Louis in -the end was compelled to give him up. But the relations between king and -artist were by no means at an end. In face of the war which was imminent -in 1866, and in the midst of the preparation for war, the king hastened -in May to Triebschen, near Lucerne, in order to see Wagner again.[2] In -1868 they were seen together in public for the last time at the festival -performances in Munich. In 1876 Wagner's _Ring des Nibelungen_ was -performed for the first time at Bayreuth in the presence of the king. -Later, in 1881, the king formed a similar friendship with Joseph Kainz -the actor, but it soon came to an end. In January 1867 the young king -became betrothed to Duchess Sophie of Bavaria (afterwards Duchesse -d'Alencon), daughter of Duke Max and sister of the empress of Austria; -but the betrothal was dissolved in October of the same year. - -Though even in his later years he remained interested in lofty and -intellectual pursuits, as may be gathered, apart from his enthusiasm for -art and nature, from his wide reading in history, serious poetry and -philosophy, yet in his private life there became increasingly marked the -signs of moral and mental weakness which gradually gained the mastery -over his once pure and noble nature. A prominent feature was his blind -craving for solitude. He cut himself off from society, and avoided all -intercourse with his family, even with his devotedly affectionate -mother. With his ministers he came to communicate in writing only. At -the end he was surrounded only by inferior favourites and servants. His -life was now spent almost entirely in his castles far from the capital, -which irked him more and more, or in short and hasty journeys, in which -he always travelled incognito. Even the theatre he could now only enjoy -alone. He arranged private performances in his castles or in Munich at -fabulous cost, and appointed an official poet to his household. Later -his avoidance of society developed into a dread of it, accompanied by a -fear of assassination and delusions that he was being followed. - -Side by side with this pathological development his inborn -self-consciousness increased apace, turning more and more to -megalomania, and impelling the weak-willed monarch to those -extraordinary displays of magnificence which can still be admired to-day -in the castles built or altered by him, such as Berg on the Starnberger -See, Linderhof, Herrenchiemsee, Hohenschwangau, Neuschwanstein, &c., -which are among the most splendid buildings in Germany. It is -characteristic of the extravagance of the king's ideas that he adopted -as his model the style of Louis XIV. and fell into the habit of -imitating the _Roi Soleil_. He no longer stayed for any length of time -in one castle. Often he scoured the country in wild nocturnal rides, and -madness gained upon him apace. His mania for buying things and making -presents was comparatively harmless, but more serious matters were the -wild extravagance which in 1880 involved him in financial ruin, his fits -of destructive rage, and the tendency to the most cruel forms of -abnormal vice. None the less, at the time when the king's mental -weakness was increasing, his character still retained lovable -traits--his simple sense of beauty, his kindliness, and his highly -developed understanding of art and artistic crafts. Louis's love of -beauty also brought material profit to Bavaria. - -But the financial and political dangers which arose from the king's way -of life were so great that interference became necessary. On the 8th of -June 1886 medical opinion declared him to be affected with chronic and -incurable madness and he was pronounced incapable of governing. On the -10th of June his uncle, Prince Luitpold, assumed the regency, and after -violent resistance the late king was placed under the charge of a mental -specialist. On the 13th of June 1886 he met with his death by drowning -in the Starnberger See, together with his doctor von Gudden, who had -unwisely gone for a walk alone with his patient, whose physical strength -was enormous. The details of his death will never be fully known, as the -only possible eye-witness died with him. An examination of the brain -revealed a condition of incurable insanity, and the faculty submitted a -report giving the terrible details of his malady. Louis's brother Otto, -who succeeded him as king of Bavaria, was also incurably insane. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--K. v. Heigel, _Ludwig II._ (1893); Luise v. Kobell, - _Unter den vier ersten Konigen Bayerns_ (1894); C. Bujer, _Ludwig II._ - (1897); Luise v. Kobell, "Wilhelm I. und Ludwig II." _Deutsche Revue, - 22; Ludwig II. und die Kunst_ (1898); _Ludwig II. und Bismarck_ (1870, - 1899); Anonym, _Endlich vollige Klarheit uber den Tod des Konigs - Ludwig II. ..._ (1900); Freiherr v. Volderndorff, "Aus meiner - Hofzeit," in _Velhagen und Klasings Monatshefte_ (1900); Francis - Gerard, _The Romance of Ludwig II. of Bavaria_; J. Bainville, _Louis - II. de Baviere_ (Paris, 1900); E. v. Possart, _Die - Separatvorstellungen von Konig Ludwig II._ (1901); O. Bray-Steinburg, - _Denkwurdigkeiten_ (1901); S. Rocke, _Ludwig II. und Richard Wagner_ - (1903); W. Busch, _Die Kampfe uber Reichsverfassung und Kaisertum_ - (1906); Chlodwig Hohenlohe, _Denkwurdigkeiten_ (2 vols., 1907); A. v. - Ruville, _Bayern und die Wiederaufrichtung des Deutschen Reiches_ - (1909); K. A. v. Muller, _Bayern im Jahre 1866 und die Berufung des - Fursten Hohenlohe_ (1909); G. Kuntzel, _Bismarck und Bayern in der - Zeit der Reichsgrundung_ (1910); Hesselbarth, _Die Enstehung des - deutsch-framozischen Krieges_ (1910); W. Strohmayer, "Die Ahnentafel - Ludwigs II. und Ottos I.," _Archiv fur Rassen- und - Gesellschaftsbiologie_, vol. vii. (1910). (J. Hn.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] It was on Wagner's advice that the king appointed Hohenlohe prime - minister in 1866. See Hohenlohe-Schillingfurst, Prince Chlodwig zu, - under HOHENLOHE. [ED.] - - [2] Hohenlohe (_Denkwurdigkeiten_) comments on the fact that the king - did not even take the trouble to review the troops proceeding to the - war. [ED.] - - - - -LOUIS II.[1] (846-879), king of France, called "le Begue" or "the -Stammerer," was a son of Charles II. the Bald, Roman emperor and king of -the West Franks, and was born on the 1st of November 846. After the -death of his elder brother Charles in 866 he became king of Aquitaine, -and in October 877 he succeeded his father as king of the West Franks, -but not as emperor. Having made extensive concessions to the nobles both -clerical and lay, he was crowned king by Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, -on the 8th of December following, and in September 878 he took advantage -of the presence of Pope John VIII. at the council of Troyes to be -consecrated afresh. After a feeble and ineffectual reign of eighteen -months Louis died at Compiegne on the 10th or 11th of April 879. The -king is described as "un homme simple et doux, aimant la paix, la -justice et la religion." By his first wife, Ansgarde, a Burgundian -princess, he had two sons, his successors, Louis III. and Carloman; by -his second wife, Adelaide, he had a posthumous son, Charles the Simple, -who also became king of France. (A. W. H.*) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The emperor Louis I. is counted as Louis I., king of France. - - - - -LOUIS III. (c. 863-882), king of France, was a son of Louis II. and with -his brother Carloman succeeded his father as king in April 879. A strong -party, however, cast some doubts upon the legitimacy of the young -princes, as the marriage of their parents had not been recognized by the -emperor Charles the Bald; consequently it was proposed to offer the -crown to the East Frankish ruler Louis, a son of Louis the German. But -this plan came to nothing, and in September 879 the brothers were -crowned at Ferrieres by Ansegisus, archbishop of Sens. A few months -later they divided their kingdom, Louis receiving the part of France -north of the Loire. They acted together against the Northmen, over whom -in August 881 they gained a memorable victory. They also turned against -Boso who had been set up as king in Burgundy and Provence. On the 5th of -August 882 Louis died at St Denis. He left no sons and Carloman became -sole king. (A. W. H.*) - - - - -LOUIS IV. (921-954), king of France, surnamed "d'Outremer" -(_Transmarinus_), was the son of Charles III. the Simple. In consequence -of the imprisonment of his father in 922, his mother Odgiva (Eadgyfu), -sister of the English king Aethelstan, fled to England with the young -Louis--a circumstance to which he owes his surname. On the death of the -usurper Rudolph (Raoul), Ralph of Burgundy, Hugh the Great, count of -Paris, and the other nobles between whom France was divided, chose Louis -for their king, and the lad was brought over from England and -consecrated at Laon on the 19th of June 936. Although his _de facto_ -sovereignty was confined to the town of Laon and to some places in the -north of France, Louis displayed a zeal beyond his years in procuring -the recognition of his authority by his turbulent vassals. The beginning -of his reign was marked by a disastrous irruption of the Hungarians into -Burgundy and Aquitaine (937). In 939 Louis became involved in a struggle -with the emperor Otto the Great on the question of Lorraine, the nobles -of which district had sworn an oath of fidelity to the king of France. -When Louis married Gerberga, sister of Otto, and widow of Giselbert, -duke of Lorraine, there seemed to be a fair prospect of peace; but the -war was resumed, Otto supporting the rebel lords of the kingdom of -France, and peace was not declared until 942, at the treaty of -Vise-sur-Meuse. On the death of William Longsword, duke of Normandy, who -had been assassinated by Arnulf, count of Flanders, in December 942, -Louis endeavoured to obtain possession of the person of Richard, the -young son and heir of the late duke. After an unsuccessful expedition -into Normandy, Louis fell into the hands of his adversaries, and was for -some time kept prisoner at Rouen (945), and subsequently handed over to -Hugh the Great, who only consented to release him on condition that he -should surrender Laon. Menaced, however, by Louis' brother-in-law, Otto -the Great, and excommunicated by the council of Ingelheim (948), the -powerful vassal was forced to make submission and to restore Laon to his -sovereign. The last years of the reign were troubled by fresh -difficulties with Hugh the Great and also by an irruption of the -Hungarians into the south of France. Louis died on the 10th of September -954, and was succeeded by his son Lothair. - - The chief authority for the reign is the chronicler Flodoard. See also - Ph. Lauer, _La Regne de Louis IV d'Outre-Mer_ (Paris, 1900); and A. - Heil, _Die politischen Beziehungen zwischen Otto dem Grossen und - Ludwig IV. von Frankreich_ (Berlin, 1904). (R. Po.) - - - - -LOUIS V. (967-987), king of France, succeeded his father Lothair in -March 986 at the age of nineteen, and finally embroiled the Carolingian -dynasty with Hugh Capet and Adalberon, archbishop of Reims. From the -absence of any important event in his one year's reign the medieval -chroniclers designated him by the words "qui nihil fecit," i.e. "le -Faineant" or "do-nothing." Louis died in May 987, his mother Emma being -accused of having poisoned him. He had married Adelaide, sister of -Geoffrey Grisegonelle, count of Anjou, but had no issue. His heir by -blood was Charles, duke of Lower Lorraine, son of Louis IV., but the -defection of the bishops and the treason of Adalberon (Ascelinus), -bishop of Laon, assured the success of Hugh Capet. - - See F. Lot, _Les Derniers Carolingiens_ (Paris, 1891); and the - _Recueil des actes de Lothaire et de Louis V_, edited by L. Halphen - and F. Lot (1908). (R. Po.) - - - - -LOUIS VI. (1081-1137), king of France, surnamed "the Fat," was the son -of Philip I. of France and Bertha of Holland. He was also surnamed the -"Wide-awake" and "the Bruiser," and lost none of his energy when he -earned the nickname by which he is known in history. In 1098 Louis was -made a knight, and about the same time was associated with his father in -the government, which the growing infirmities of Philip left more and -more to his son, in spite of the opposition of Bertrada, the queen, -whose criminal union with Philip had brought the anathema of the church. -From 1100 to 1108 Louis by his victorious wars on the English and -brigands had secured the army on his side, while the court supported -Bertrada. Unable to make headway against him in war she attempted to -poison him, and contemporary chroniclers attributed to this poison the -pallor of his face, which seems to have been in remarkable contrast to -his stalwart, and later his corpulent figure. Louis' reign is one of the -most important in the history of France. He is little less than the -second founder of the Capetian dynasty. When the feeble and incompetent -Philip I. died (29th of July 1108) Louis was faced by feudal barons as -powerful as himself, and ready to rise against him. He was forced to -have himself hurriedly crowned at Orleans, supported by a handful of -vassals and some ecclesiastics. As king he continued the policy he had -followed during the previous eight years, of securing the roads leading -to Paris by putting down feudal brigands and destroying their -strongholds in the Ile-de-France. The castle of the most notorious of -these, Hugues du Puiset, was three times taken and burned by the king's -men, but Hugues was spared to go back each time to his robber life, -until he died on a crusade. In the north, Thomas de Marle, son of -Enguerrand de Coucy, carried on a career of rapine and murder for almost -thirty years before the king succeeded in taking him prisoner (1130). -Twenty-four years of continuous war finally rooted out the robber barons -who lived on the plunder of the roads leading to Paris: the lords of -Montlheri, who commanded the roads to Orleans, Melun and the south, -those of Montmorency near St Denis on the north (who had to restore what -they had robbed the abbey of St Denis), those of Le Puiset toward the -west, on the way to Chartres, and many others. Parallel with this -consolidation of his power in the ancestral domains Louis met -energetically the Anglo-Norman danger, warring with Henry I. of England -for twenty-five years. After the victory of Tinchebray (1106) Louis -supported the claims of William Clito, son of Robert, duke of Normandy, -against Henry I. A ruthless war followed, in which Louis was at times -reduced to the sorest straits. In 1119, at a council held at Reims under -the presidency of Pope Calixtus II., the enemies were reconciled; but -William Clito's claims were not satisfied, and in 1123 war began again -on a larger scale. Henry I. induced the emperor Henry V. to join in the -attack upon France; and, his heir having been drowned in the loss of the -"White Ship," won the count of Anjou by marrying his only daughter -Matilda to Geoffrey, the Angevin heir (1127). The invasion of Henry V. -was met by something like a national army, which gathered under Louis at -Reims. "For a few days at least, the lord of the Ile-de-France was truly -a king of France" (Luchaire). Suger proudly gives the list of barons who -appeared. Henry V. came no farther than Metz. Royalty had won great -prestige. Even Theobald, count of Chartres, the king's greatest enemy, -the soul of feudal coalitions, came with his contingent. Shortly -afterwards (1126), Louis was able to overawe the great count of -Aquitaine, William IX., and force his vassal, the count of Auvergne, to -treat justly the bishop of Clermont. In Flanders Louis interfered upon -the assassination of Charles the Good. He caused the barons to elect as -their count in Arras the same William Clito who claimed Normandy, and -who was closely bound to the king. For a while Louis had Flanders -absolutely at his disposal, but he had hardly left William alone (1127) -when his brutal oppression roused both towns and nobles, who declared -that Louis had no right to interfere in Flanders. The death of William -Clito, and a savage war with his own seneschal, prevented Louis from -effectually resenting this attitude; but Thierry of Alsace, the new -count, consented in 1128 to receive from Louis the investiture of all -his French fiefs, and henceforth lived on good terms with him. In all -his wars--those mentioned are but a part of them--Louis fought in -person. Proud of his strength, reckless in the charge as on the march, -plunging into swollen rivers, entering blazing castles, he gained the -reputation of a national hero, the protector of the poor, the church, -the peasants and the towns. The communal movement grew during his reign, -and he encouraged it on the fiefs of his vassals in order to weaken -them; but the title "Father of the Communes" by which he was known in -history is not deserved, though he did grant some privileges to towns on -his domains. Neither was Louis the author of the movement for the -emancipation of the serfs, as was formerly claimed. His attitude toward -the movement was like that of his predecessors and contemporaries, to -favour emancipation when it promised greater chance of profit, greater -scope for exploitation of the peasants; otherwise to oppose it. He was a -great benefactor to the church, aided the new, reformed monastic -congregations of Citeau, Premontre and Fontevrault, and chose his two -chief ministers from the clergy. Etienne de Garlande, whom Louis raised -from obscurity to be archdeacon of Notre Dame at Paris, chancellor and -seneschal of France, was all-powerful with the king from 1108 to 1127. -His relatives monopolized the highest offices of the state. But the -queen Adelaide became his enemy; both Ivo of Chartres and St Bernard -bitterly attacked him; and the king suddenly stripped him of all his -offices and honours. Joining the rebellious barons, Etienne then led a -bitter war against the king for three years. When Louis had reduced him -to terms he pardoned him and restored him to the chancellorship (1132), -but not to his old power. Suger (q.v.), administrator of St Denis, -enters the scene toward the close of this reign, but his great work -belongs to the next. Louis VI. died on the 1st of August 1137, just a -few days after his son, Louis the Young, had set out for the far -south-west, the Aquitaine which had been won by the marriage with -Eleanor. His wife was Adelaide, or Alice, daughter of Humbert II., count -of Savoy, by whom he had seven sons and a daughter. - - See A. Luchaire, _Louis le Gros, annales de sa vie et son regne_ - (1890), and the same writer's volume, _Les Premiers Capetiens_, in E. - Lavisse's _Histoire de France._ (J. T. S.*) - - - - -LOUIS VII. (c. 1121-1180), king of France, son of Louis VI. the Fat, -was associated with his father and anointed by Innocent II. in 1131. In -1137 he succeeded his father, and in the same year married at Bordeaux -Eleanor, heiress of William II., duke of Aquitaine. In the first part of -his reign he was vigorous and jealous of his prerogatives, but after his -crusade his religiosity developed to such an extent as to make him -utterly inefficient. His accession was marked by no disturbances, save -the risings of the burgesses of Orleans and of Poitiers, who wished to -organize communes. But soon he came into violent conflict with Pope -Innocent II. The archbishopric of Bourges became vacant, and the king -supported as candidate the chancellor Cadurc, against the pope's nominee -Pierre de la Chatre, swearing upon relics that so long as he lived -Pierre should never enter Bourges. This brought the interdict upon the -king's lands. At the same time he became involved in a war with -Theobald, count of Champagne, by permitting Rodolphe (Raoul), count of -Vermandois and seneschal of France, to repudiate his wife, Theobald's -niece, and to marry Petronille of Aquitaine, sister of the queen of -France. The war, which lasted two years (1142-44), was marked by the -occupation of Champagne by the royal army and the capture of Vitry, -where many persons perished in the burning of the church. Geoffrey the -Handsome, count of Anjou, by his conquest of Normandy threatened the -royal domains, and Louis VII. by a clever manoeuvre threw his army on -the Norman frontier and gained Gisors, one of the keys of Normandy. At -his court which met in Bourges Louis declared on Christmas Day 1145 his -intention of going on a crusade. St Bernard assured its popularity by -his preaching at Vezelay (Easter 1146), and Louis set out from Metz in -June 1147, on the overland route to Syria. The expedition was -disastrous, and he regained France in 1149, overcome by the humiliation -of the crusade. In the rest of his reign he showed much feebleness and -poor judgment. He committed a grave political blunder in causing a -council at Beaugency (on the 21st of March 1152) to annul his marriage -with Eleanor of Aquitaine, under pretext of kinship, but really owing to -violent quarrels during the crusade. Eleanor married Henry II. of -England in the following May, and brought him the duchy of Aquitaine. -Louis VII. led a half-hearted war against Henry for having married -without the authorization of his suzerain; but in August 1154 gave up -his rights over Aquitaine, and contented himself with an indemnity. In -1154 Louis married Constance, daughter of the king of Castile, and their -daughter Marguerite he affianced imprudently by the treaty of Gisors -(1158) to Henry, eldest son of the king of England, promising as dowry -the Vexin and Gisors. Five weeks after the death of Constance, on the -4th of October 1160, Louis VII. married Adele of Champagne, and Henry -II. to counterbalance the aid this would give the king of France, had -the marriage of their infant children celebrated at once. Louis VII. -gave little sign of understanding the danger of the growing Angevin -power, though in 1159 he made an expedition in the south to aid Raymond -V., count of Toulouse, who had been attacked by Henry II. At the same -time the emperor Frederick I. in the east was making good the imperial -claims on Arles. When the schism broke out, Louis took the part of the -pope Alexander III., the enemy of Frederick, and after two comedy-like -failures of Frederick to meet Louis VII. at Saint Jean de Losne (on the -29th of August and the 22nd of September 1162), Louis definitely gave -himself up to the cause of Alexander, who lived at Sens from 1163 to -1165. Alexander gave the king, in return for his loyal support, the -golden rose. Louis VII. received Thomas Becket and tried to reconcile -him with King Henry II. He supported Henry's rebellious sons, but acted -slowly and feebly, and so contributed largely to the break up of the -coalition (1173-1174). Finally in 1177 the pope intervened to bring the -two kings to terms at Vitry. By his third wife, Adele, Louis had an -heir, the future Philip Augustus, born on the 21st of August 1165. He -had him crowned at Reims in 1179, but, already stricken with paralysis, -he himself was not able to be present at the ceremony, and died on the -18th of September 1180. His reign from the point of view of royal -territory and military power, was a period of retrogression. Yet the -royal authority had made progress in the parts of France distant from -the royal domains. More direct and more frequent connexion was made with -distant feudatories, a result largely due to the alliance of the clergy -with the crown. Louis thus reaped the reward for services rendered the -church during the least successful portion of his reign. - - See R. Hirsch, _Studien zur Geschichte Konig Ludwigs VII. von - Frankreich_ (1892); A. Cartellieri, _Philipp II. August von Frankreich - bis zum Tode seines Vaters, 1165-1180_ (1891); and A. Luchaire in E. - Lavisse's _Histoire de France_, tome iii. 1st part, pp. 1-81. - (J. T. S.*) - - - - -LOUIS VIII. (1187-1226), king of France, eldest son of Philip Augustus -and of Isabella of Hainaut, was born in Paris on the 5th of September -1187. Louis was short, thin, pale-faced, with studious tastes, cold and -placid temper, sober and chaste in his life. He left the reputation of a -saint, but was also a warrior prince. In 1213 he led the campaign -against Ferrand, count of Flanders; in 1214, while Philip Augustus was -winning the victory of Bouvines, he held John of England in check, and -was victorious at La Roche-aux-Moines. In the autumn of 1215 Louis -received from a group of English barons, headed by Geoffrey de -Mandeville, a request to "pluck them out of the hand of this tyrant" -(John). Some 7000 French knights were sent over to England during the -winter and two more contingents followed, but it was only after -twenty-four English hostages had arrived in Paris that Louis himself -prepared to invade England. The expedition was forbidden by the papal -legate, but Louis set out from Calais on the 20th and landed at Stonor -on the 22nd of May 1216. In three months he had obtained a strong -foothold in eastern England, and in the end of July he laid siege to -Dover, while part of his army besieged Windsor with a view to securing -the safety of London. The pretexts on which he claimed the English crown -were set down in a memorandum drawn up by French lawyers in 1215. These -claims--that John had forfeited the crown by the murder of his nephew, -Arthur of Brittany, and that the English barons had the right to dispose -of the vacant throne--lost their plausibility on the death of King John -and the accession of his infant son as Henry III. in October 1216. The -papal legate, Gualo, who had forbidden the enterprise, had arrived in -England at the same time as Louis. He excommunicated the French troops -and the English rebels, and Henry III. found a valiant defender in -William Marshal, earl of Pembroke. After the "Fair of Lincoln," in which -his army was defeated, Louis was compelled to resign his pretensions, -though by a secret article of the treaty of Lambeth (September 1217) he -secured a small war indemnity. Louis had assisted Simon de Montfort in -his war against the Albigenses in 1215, and after his return to France -he again joined the crusade. With Simon's son and successor, Amauri de -Montfort, he directed the brutal massacre which followed the capture of -Marmande. Philip II., suspicious of his son until the close of his life, -took precautions to assure his obedience, narrowly watched his -administration in Artois, which Louis held from his mother Isabella, -and, contrary to the custom of the kings of France, did not associate -his son with him by having him crowned. Philip Augustus dying on the -14th of July 1223, Louis VIII. was anointed at Reims on the 6th of -August following. He surrounded himself with councillors whom his father -had chosen and formed, and continued his father's policy. His reign was -taken up with two great designs: to destroy the power of the -Plantagenets, and to conquer the heretical south of France. An -expedition conquered Poitou and Saintonge (1224); in 1226 he led the -crusade against the Albigenses in the south, forced Avignon to -capitulate and received the submission of Languedoc. While passing the -Auvergne on his return to Paris, he was stricken with dysentery, and -died at Montpensier on the 8th of November 1226. His reign, short as it -was, brought gains both to the royal domains and to the power of the -crown over the feudal lords. He had married in 1200 Blanche of Castile, -daughter of Alphonso IX. of Castile and granddaughter of Henry II. of -England, who bore him twelve children; his eldest surviving son was his -successor, Louis IX. - - See C. Petit-Dutaillis, _Etude sur la vie et le regne de Louis VIII._ - (Paris, 1894); and E. Lavisse, _Histoire de France_, tome iii. (1901). - (M. Br.) - - - - -LOUIS IX. (1214-1270), king of France, known as Saint Louis, was born on -the 25th of April 1214, and was baptized at Poissy. His father, Louis -VIII., died in 1226, leaving the first minority since the accession of -the Capetians, but his mother, Queen Blanche of Castile, proved more -than a match for the feudal nobility. She secured her son's coronation -at Reims on the 29th of November 1226; and, mainly by the aid of the -papal legate, Romano Bonaventura, bishop of Porto (d. 1243), and of -Thibaut IV., count of Champagne, was able to thwart the rebellious plans -of Pierre Mauclerc, duke of Brittany, and Philippe Hurepel, a natural -son of Philip Augustus. Mauclerc's opposition was not finally overcome, -however, until 1234. Then in 1236 Thibaut, who had become king of -Navarre, turned against the queen, formed an alliance with Brittany, -marrying his daughter without royal consent to Jean le Roux, Mauclerc's -son, and attempted to make a new feudal league. The final triumph of the -regent was shown when the king's army assembled at Vincennes. His -summons met with such general and prompt obedience as to awe Thibaut -into submission without striking a blow. Thus the reign of Louis IX. -began with royal prerogatives fully maintained; the kingdom was well -under control, and Mauclerc and Thibaut were both obliged to go on -crusade. But the influence of the strong-willed queen-mother continued -to make itself felt to the close of her life. Louis IX. did not lack -independence of character, but his confidence in his mother had been -amply justified and he always acted in her presence like a child. This -confidence he withheld from his wife, Margaret, daughter of Raymond -Berenger, count of Provence, whom he married at Sens in May 1234. The -reign was comparatively uneventful. A rising of the nobles of the -south-west, stirred up by Isabella, widow of King John of England, and -her husband, Hugh de Lusignan, count of the Marche, upon the occasion of -the investment of Alphonse of Poitiers with the fiefs left him by Louis -VIII. as a result of the Albigensian crusade, reached threatening -dimensions in 1242, but the king's armies easily overran Count Hugh's -territories, and defeated Henry III. of England, who had come to his -aid, at Saintes. Isabella and her husband were forced to submit, and -Raymond VII., count of Toulouse, yielded without resistance upon the -advent of two royal armies, and accepted the peace of Lorris in January -1243. This was the last rising of the nobles in Louis's reign. - -At the end of 1244, during an illness, Louis took the cross. He had -already been much distressed by the plight of John of Brienne, emperor -at Constantinople, and bought from him the crown of thorns, parts of the -true cross, the holy lance, and the holy sponge. The Sainte Chapelle in -Paris still stands as a monument to the value of these relics to the -saintly king. But the quarrel between the papacy and the emperor -Frederick II., in which Louis maintained a watchful neutrality--only -interfering to prevent the capture of Innocent IV. at Lyons--and the -difficulties of preparation, delayed the embarkation until August 1248. -His defeat and capture at Mansura, in February 1250, the next four years -spent in Syria in captivity, in diplomatic intrigues, and finally in -raising the fortifications of Caesarea and Joppa,--these events belong -to the history of the crusades (q.v.). His return to France was urgently -needed, as Blanche of Castile, whom he had left as regent, had died in -November 1252, and upon the removal of her strong hand feudal turbulence -had begun to show itself. - -This period between his first and second crusades (1254-1269) is the -real age of Saint Louis in the history of France. He imposed peace -between warring factions of his nobility by mere moral force, backed up -by something like an awakened public opinion. His nobles often chafed -under his unrelenting justice but never dared rebel. The most famous of -his settlements was the treaty of Paris, drawn up in May 1258 and -ratified in December 1259, by which the claims of Henry III. of England -were adjusted. Henry renounced absolutely Normandy, Anjou, Touraine, -Maine and Poitou, and received, on condition of recognizing Louis as -liege suzerain, all the fiefs and domains of the king of France in the -dioceses of Limoges, Cahors and Perigueux, and the expectation of -Saintonge south of the Charente, and Agenais, if they should fall to the -crown of France by the death of Alphonse of Poitiers. In addition, Louis -promised to provide Henry with sufficient money to maintain 500 knights -for two years. This treaty was very unpopular in France, since the king -surrendered a large part of France that Henry had not won; but Louis was -satisfied that the absolute sovereignty over the northern provinces more -than equalled the loss in the south. Historians still disagree as to its -wisdom. Louis made a similar compromise with the king of Aragon in the -treaty of Corbeil, 1258, whereby he gave up the claims of kings of -France to Roussillon and Barcelona, which went back to the conquest of -Charlemagne. The king of Aragon in his turn gave up his claims to part -of Provence and Languedoc, with the exception of Narbonne. Louis's -position was strikingly shown in 1264 when the English barons submitted -their attempt to bind Henry III. by the Provisions of Oxford to his -arbitration. His reply in the "Dit" or Mise of Amiens was a flat denial -of all the claims of the barons and failed to avert the civil war. Louis -was more successful in preventing feuds between his own nobles: between -the counts of Brittany and Champagne over the succession to Navarre; the -dauphin of Vienne (Guigues VII.) and Charles of Anjou; the count of -Burgundy and the count of Chalons; Henry of Luxemburg and the duke of -Lorraine with the count of Bar. Upon the whole he maintained peace with -his neighbours, although both Germany and England were torn with civil -wars. He reluctantly consented to sanction the conquest of Naples by his -brother, Charles, duke of Anjou, and it is possible that he yielded here -in the belief that it was a step toward another crusade. - -On the 24th of March 1267, Louis called to Paris such of his knights as -were not with Charles of Anjou in Naples. No one knew why he had called -them; but when the king in full assembly proclaimed his purpose of going -on a second crusade, few ventured to refuse the cross. Three years of -preparation followed; then on the 1st of July 1270 they sailed from -Aigues Mortes for Tunis, whither the expedition seems to have been -directed by the machinations of Charles of Anjou, who, it is claimed, -persuaded his brother that the key to Egypt and to Jerusalem was that -part of Africa which was his own most dangerous neighbour. After -seventeen days' voyage to Carthage, one month of the summer's heat and -plague decimated the army, and when Charles of Anjou arrived he found -that Louis himself had died of the plague on the 25th of August 1270. - -Saint Louis stands in history as the ideal king of the middle ages. An -accomplished knight, physically strong in spite of his ascetic -practices, fearless in battle, heroic in adversity, of imperious -temperament, unyielding when sure of the justness of his cause, -energetic and firm, he was indeed "every inch a king." Joinville says -that he was taller by a head than any of his knights. His devotions -would have worn out a less robust saint. He fasted much, loved sermons, -regularly heard two masses a day and all the offices, dressing at -midnight for matins in his chapel, and surrounded even when he travelled -by priests on horseback chanting the hours. After his return from the -first crusade, he wore only grey woollens in winter, dark silks in -summer. He built hospitals, visited and tended the sick himself, gave -charity to over a hundred beggars daily. Yet he safeguarded the royal -dignity by bringing them in at the back door of the palace, and by a -courtly display greater than ever before in France. His naturally cold -temperament was somewhat relieved by a sense of humour, which however -did not prevent his making presents of haircloth shirts to his friends. -He had no favourite, nor prime minister. Louis was canonized in 1297. - -As a statesman Louis IX. has left no distinct monument. The famous -"_Etablissements_ of St Louis" has been shown in our own day to have -been private compilation. It was a _coutumier_ drawn up before 1273, -including, as well as some royal decrees, the civil and feudal law of -Anjou, Maine and the Orleanais. Recent researches have also denied Louis -the credit of having aided the communes. He exploited them to the full. -His standpoint in this respect was distinctly feudal. He treated his -clergy as he did his barons, enforcing the supremacy of royal justice, -and strongly opposing the exactions of the pope until the latter part of -his reign, when he joined forces with him to extort as much as possible -from the clergy. At the end of the reign most of the sees and -monasteries of France were in debt to the Lombard bankers. Finally, the -reign of Saint Louis saw the introduction of the pontifical inquisition -into France. - - There are numerous portraits of St Louis, but they are unauthentic and - contradictory. In 1903 M. Salomon Reinach claimed to have found in the - heads sculptured in the angles of the arches of the chapel at St - Germain portraits of St Louis, his brothers and sisters, and Queen - Marguerite, or Blanche, made between 1235 and 1240. This conjectured - portrait somewhat resembles the modern type, which is based upon a - statue of Charles V. once in the church of the Celestins in Paris, and - which Lenoir mistakenly identified as that of Louis IX. The king had - eleven children, six sons and five daughters, among them being his - successor, Philip III., and Robert, count of Clermont, the ancestor of - Henry IV. - - The best contemporary accounts of Louis IX. are the famous Memoirs of - the Sire Jean de Joinville (q.v.), published by N. de Wailly for the - _Soc. de l'Hist. de France_, under the title _Histoire de Saint Louis_ - (Paris, 1868), and again with translation (1874); English translation - by J. Hutton (1868). See also William of Nangis, _Gesta Ludovici IX._, - edited by M. Bouquet in vol. xx. of the _Recueil des historiens des - Gaules et de la France_. Of modern works may be mentioned C. V. - Langlois in E. Lavisse's _Histoire de France_, tome iii., with - references to literature; Frederick Perry, _Saint Louis, the Most - Christian King_ (New York, 1901); E. J. Davis, _The Invasion of Egypt - by Louis IX. of France_ (1898); H. A. Wallon, _Saint Louis et son - temps_ (1875); A. Lecoy de la Marche, _Saint Louis_ (Tours, 1891); and - E. Berger, _Saint Louis et Innocent IV_ (Paris, 1893), and _Histoire - de Blanche de Castille_ (1895). See also _The Court of a Saint_, by - Winifred F. Knox (1909). (J. T. S.*) - - - - -LOUIS X. (1289-1316), king of France and Navarre, called _le Hutin_ or -"the Quarreller," was the son of Philip IV. and of Jeanne of Navarre. He -was born at Paris on the 4th of October 1289, took the title king of -Navarre on the death of his mother, on the 2nd of April 1305, and -succeeded Philip IV. in France on the 29th of November 1314, being -crowned at Reims in August 1315. The origin of his surname is uncertain. -Louis X. is a somewhat indistinct figure among the kings of France, the -preponderating influence at court during his short reign being that of -his uncle, Charles of Valois. The reign began with reaction against the -policy of Philip IV. Private vengeance was wreaked on Enguerrand de -Marigny, who was hanged, Pierre de Latilli, bishop of Chalons and -chancellor, and Raoul de Presle, advocate of the parlement, who were -imprisoned. The leagues of the lesser country gentry, formed in 1314 -before the accession of Louis, continued to demand the ancient -privileges of the nobility,--tourneys, private wars and judgment of -nobles not by king's officers but by their peers--and to protest against -the direct call by the king of their vassals to the royal army. Louis X. -granted them charters in which he made apparent concessions, but used -evasive formulas which in reality ceded nothing. There was a charter to -the Normans, one to the Burgundians, one to the Languedocians (1315). -Robert de Bethune, count of Flanders, refused to do homage, and his -French fiefs were declared confiscate by a court of his peers. In August -1315 Louis X. led an army toward Lille, but the flooded Lys barred his -passage, the ground was so soaked with rains that the army could not -advance, and it was thrown back, without a battle, on Tournai. Need of -money inspired one famous ordinance of this reign; in 1315 the serfs of -the royal domains were invited to buy their civil liberty,--an -invitation which did not meet with great enthusiasm, as the freedman was -merely freed for further exploitation, and Philip V. was obliged to -renew it in 1318. Louis X. died suddenly on the 5th of June 1316. His -first wife was Margaret, daughter of Robert II., duke of Burgundy; she -was accused of adultery and died a prisoner in the chateau Gaillard. By -her he had one daughter, Jeanne, wife of Philip, count of Evreux and -king of Navarre. By his second wife Clemence, daughter of Charles -Martel, titular king of Hungary, he left a posthumous son, King John I. - - See Ch. Dufayard, "La reaction feodale sous les fils de Philippe le - Bel," in _Revue historique_ (1894); Paul Lehugeur, _Histoire de - Philippe le Long, roi de France_ (Paris, 1897); and Joseph Petit, - _Charles de Valois_ (Paris, 1900). (J. T. S.*) - - - - -LOUIS XI. (1423-1483), king of France, the son of Charles VII. and his -queen, Marie of Anjou, was born on the 3rd of July 1423, at Bourges, -where his father, then nicknamed the "King of Bourges," had taken refuge -from the English. At the birth of Louis XI. part of France was in -English hands; when he was five years old, Joan of Arc appeared; he was -just six when his father was crowned at Reims. But his boyhood was spent -apart from these stirring events, in the castle of Loches, where his -father visited him rarely. John Gerson, the foremost theologian of -France, wrote a manual of instructions (still extant) for the first of -his tutors, Jean Majoris, a canon of Reims. His second tutor, Bernard of -Armagnac, was noted for his piety and humility. If, as has been claimed, -Louis owed to them any of his tendency to prefer the society of the -poor, or rather of the _bourgeois_, to that of the nobility, their -example was his best lesson in the craft of kingship. In June 1436, when -scarcely thirteen, he was married to Margaret (_c_. 1425-1445), daughter -of James I. of Scotland, a princess of about his own age, but sickly and -romantic, and in every way his opposite. Three years after this unhappy -marriage Louis entered upon his stormy political career. Sent by his -father in 1439 to direct the defence of Languedoc against the English, -and to put down the brigandage in Poitou, he was induced by the -rebellious nobles to betray his trust and place himself at the head of -the Praguerie (q.v.). Charles VII. pardoned him this rebellion, due to -his ambition and the seductive proposal of the nobles to make him -regent. The following year he was fighting the English, and in 1443 -aided his father to suppress the revolt of the count of Armagnac. His -first important command, however, was in the next year, when he led an -army of from 15,000 to 20,000 mercenaries and brigands,--the product of -the Hundred Years' War,--against the Swiss of the canton of Basel. The -heroism of some two hundred Swiss, who for a while held thousands of the -French army at bay, made a great impression on the young prince. After -an ineffective siege of Basel, he made peace with the Swiss -confederation, and led his robber soldiers into Alsace to ravage the -country of the Habsburgs, who refused him the promised winter quarters. -Meanwhile his father, making a parallel campaign in Lorraine, had -assembled his first brilliant court at Nancy, and when Louis returned it -was to find the king completely under the spell of Agnes Sorel. He at -first made overtures to members of her party, and upon their rejection -through fear of his ambition, his deadly hatred of her and of them -involved the king. The death in 1445 of his wife Margaret, who was a -great favourite of Charles VII., made the rupture complete. From that -year until the death of the king father and son were enemies. Louis -began his rebellious career by a futile attempt to seduce the cities of -Agenais into treason, and then he prepared a plot to seize the king and -his minister Pierre de Breze. Antoine de Chabannes, who was to be the -instrument of the plot, revealed it to Charles, and Louis was mildly -punished by being sent off to Dauphine (1447). He never saw his father -again. - -Louis set out to govern his principality as though it were an -independent state. He dismissed the governor; he determined -advantageously to himself the boundaries between his state and the -territories of the duke of Savoy and of the papacy; and he enforced his -authority over perhaps the most unruly nobility in western Europe, both -lay and ecclesiastical. The right of private warfare was abolished; the -bishops were obliged to give up most of their temporal jurisdiction, the -scope of their courts was limited, and appeals to Rome were curtailed. -On the other hand, Louis granted privileges to the towns and -consistently used their alliance to overthrow the nobility. He watched -the roads, built new ones, opened markets, protected the only bankers of -the country, the Jews, and reorganized the administration so as to draw -the utmost revenue possible from the prosperity thus secured. His -ambition led him into foreign entanglements; he made a secret treaty -with the duke of Savoy which was to give him right of way to Genoa, and -made arrangements for a partition of the duchy of Milan. The alliance -with Savoy was sealed by the marriage of Louis with Charlotte, daughter -of Duke Lodovico, in 1452, in spite of the formal prohibition of Charles -VII. The king marched south, but withdrew again leaving his son -unsubdued. Four years later, as Charles came to the Bourbonnais, Louis, -fearing for his life, fled to Flanders to the court of Philip the Good, -duke of Burgundy, leaving Dauphine to be definitely annexed to the crown -of France. The policy of the dauphin was reversed, his ten years' work -was undone. Meanwhile he was installed in the castle of Genappe, in -Brabant, where he remained until the death of his father. For this he -waited impatiently five years, keeping himself posted by spies of every -stage of the king's last illness, and thus laying himself open to the -accusation, believed in by Charles himself, that he had hastened the end -by poison, a charge which modern historians deny. - -On the 15th of August 1461, Louis was anointed at Reims, and Philip of -Burgundy, as _doyen_ of the peers of France, placed the crown on his -head. For two months Philip acted as though the king were still his -protege. But in the midst of the festivities with which he was -entertaining Paris, the duke found that Louis ventured to refuse his -candidates for office, and on the 24th of September the new king left -abruptly for Touraine. His first act was to strike at the faithful -ministers of Charles VII. Pierre de Breze and Antoine de Chabannes were -captured and imprisoned, as well as men of sterling worth like Etienne -Chevalier. But the king's shrewdness triumphed before long over his -vengeance, and the more serviceable of the officers of Charles VII. were -for the most part soon reinstated, Louis' advisers were mostly men of -the middle class. He had a ready purse for men of talent, drawing them -from England, Scotland, Italy, Spain and Portugal. Such a motley throng -of competent men had never before been seen at the court of France. -Their origin, their previous crimes or virtues, their avarice or -brutality, were indifferent to him so long as they served him loyally. -Torture and imprisonment awaited them, whether of high or low degree, if -he fancied that they were betraying him. Among the most prominent of -these men in addition to Breze, Chevalier and Chabannes, were Tristan -Lermite, Jean de Daillon, Olivier le Dain (the barber), and after 1472, -Philippe de Commines, drawn from the service of Charles the Bold of -Burgundy, who became his most intimate adviser and biographer. -Surrounded by men like these Louis fought the last great battle of -French royalty with feudalism. - -Louis XI. began his reign with the same high-handed treatment of the -nobles which had marked his rule in Dauphine, going so far as to forbid -them to hunt without his permission. He forced the clergy to pay -long-neglected feudal dues, and intrigued against the great houses of -Anjou and Orleans in Italy. The malcontent nobles soon began to plan -revolt. Discharged officers of Charles VII. like Jean Dunois and John -II. duke of Bourbon, stirred up hostility to the new men of the king, -and Francis II. duke of Brittany was soon embroiled with Louis over an -attempt to assert royal control over that practically independent duchy. -The dissatisfied nobility found their greatest ally in Charles the Bold, -afterwards duke of Burgundy, and in 1465 formed a "league of public -welfare" and declared war on their king. The nominal head was the king's -brother Charles, duke of Berry, then eighteen years old, a weak -character, the tool of the rebels as he was later the dupe of the king. -Every great noble in France was in the league, except Gaston de -Foix--who kept the south of France for the king,--and the counts of -Vendome and Eu. The whole country seemed on the verge of anarchy. It was -saved by the refusal of the lesser gentry to rise, and by the alliance -of the king with the citizen class, which was not led astray by the -pretences of regard for the public weal which cloaked the designs of the -leaguers. After a successful campaign in the Bourbonnais, Louis fought -an indecisive battle with the Burgundians who had marched on Paris at -Montlhery, on the 16th of July 1465, and then stood a short siege in -Paris. On the 28th of September he made a truce with Charles the Bold, -and in October the treaties of Conflans and Saint Maur-les-Fosses, ended -the war. The king yielded at all points; gave up the "Somme towns" in -Picardy, for which he had paid 200,000 gold crowns, to Philip the Good, -thus bringing the Burgundians close to Paris and to Normandy. Charles, -the king's brother, was given Normandy as an apanage, thus joining the -territories of the rebellious duke of Brittany with those of Charles the -Bold. The public weal was no longer talked about, while the kingdom was -plundered both by royal tax gatherers and by unsubdued feudal lords to -pay the cost of the war. - -After this failure Louis set to work to repair his mistakes. The duke of -Bourbon was won over by the gift of the government of the centre of -France, and Dunois and Chabannes by restoring them their estates. Two -months after he had granted Normandy to Charles, he took advantage of a -quarrel between the duke of Brittany and his brother to take it again, -sending the duke of Bourbon "to aid" Charles, while Dunois and Chabannes -prepared for the struggle with Burgundy. The death of Duke Philip, on -the 15th of June 1467, gave Charles the Bold a free hand. He gained over -Edward IV. of England, whose sister Margaret he married; but while he -was celebrating the wedding Louis invaded Brittany and detached Duke -Francis from alliance with him. Normandy was completely reduced. The -king had won a great triumph. It was followed by his greatest mistake. -Eager as he always was to try diplomacy instead of war, Louis sent a -gift of 60,000 golden crowns to Charles and secured a safe conduct from -him for an interview. The interview took place on the 9th of October -1468 at Peronne. News came on the 11th that, instigated by the king of -France, the people of Liege had massacred their bishop and the ducal -governor. The news was false, but Charles, furious at such apparent -duplicity, took Louis prisoner, only releasing him, three days later, on -the king signing a treaty which granted Flanders freedom from -interference from the parlement of Paris, and agreeing to accompany -Charles to the siege of his own ally, Liege. Louis made light of the -whole incident in his letters, but it marked the greatest humiliation of -his life, and he was only too glad to find a scapegoat in Cardinal Jean -Balue, who was accused of having plotted the treason of Peronne. Balue -thereupon joined Guillaume de Harancourt, bishop of Verdun, in an -intrigue to induce Charles of France to demand Champagne and Brie in -accordance with the king's promise to Charles the Bold, instead of -distant Guienne where the king was determined to place him. The -discovery of this conspiracy placed these two high dignitaries in prison -(April 1469). Balue (q.v.) spent eleven years in prison quarters, -comfortable enough, in spite of the legend to the contrary, while -Harancourt was shut up in an iron cage until 1482. Then Louis, inducing -his brother to accept Guienne,--where, surrounded by faithful royal -officers, he was harmless for the time being,--undertook to play off the -Lancastrians against Edward IV. who, as the ally of Charles the Bold, -was menacing the coast of Normandy. Warwick, the king-maker, and Queen -Margaret were aided in the expedition which in 1470 again placed Henry -VI. upon the English throne. In the autumn Louis himself took the -offensive, and royal troops overran Picardy and the Maconnais to -Burgundy itself. But the tide turned against Louis in 1471. While Edward -IV. won back England by the battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury, Charles -the Bold besieged Amiens, and Louis was glad to make a truce, availing -himself of the double dealing of the constable, the count of Saint Pol, -who, trying to win an independent position for himself in Picardy, -refused his aid to Charles unless he would definitely join the French -nobility in another rising against the king. This rising was to be aided -by the invasion of France by John II. of Aragon, Yolande, duchess of -Savoy, and Edward IV. of England, who was to be given the old -Plantagenet inheritance. The country was saved a desperate civil war by -the death of the king's brother, Charles, the nominal head of the -coalition, on the 24th of May 1472. Louis' joy on receiving news of this -death knew no bounds. Charles the Bold, who had again invaded France, -failed to take Beauvais, and was obliged to make a lasting truce. His -projects were henceforth to be directed towards Germany. Louis then -forced the duke of Brittany to make peace, and turned against John V. -count of Armagnac, whose death at the opening of March 1473 ended the -power of one of the most dangerous houses of the south. The first period -of Louis' reign was closed, and with it closed for ever the danger of -dismemberment of France. John of Aragon continued the war in Roussillon -and Cerdagne, which Louis had seized ten years before, and a most -desperate rising of the inhabitants protracted the struggle for two -years. After the capture of Perpignan on the 10th of March 1475, the -wise and temperate government of Imbert de Batarnay and Boffile de Juge -slowly pacified the new provinces. The death of Gaston IV. count of Foix -in 1472 opened up the long diplomatic struggle for Navarre, which was -destined to pass to the loyal family of Albret shortly after the death -of Louis. His policy had won the line of the Pyrenees for France. - -The overthrow of Charles the Bold was the second great task of Louis XI. -This he accomplished by a policy much like that of Pitt against -Napoleon. Louis was the soul of all hostile coalitions, especially -urging on the Swiss and Sigismund of Austria, who ruled Tirol and -Alsace. Charles's ally, Edward IV., invaded France in June 1475, but -Louis bought him off on the 29th of August at Picquigny--where the two -sovereigns met on a bridge over the Somme, with a strong grille between -them, Edward receiving 75,000 crowns, and a promise of a pension of -50,000 crowns annually. The dauphin Charles was to marry Edward's -daughter. Bribery of the English ministers was not spared, and in -September the invaders recrossed to England. The count of Saint Pol, who -had continued to play his double part, was surrendered by Charles to -Louis, and executed, as was also Jacques d'Armagnac, duke of Nemours. -With his vassals terrorized and subdued, Louis continued to subsidize -the Swiss and Rene II. of Lorraine in their war upon Charles. The defeat -and death of the duke of Burgundy at Nancy on the 5th of January 1477 -was the crowning triumph of Louis' diplomacy. But in his eagerness to -seize the whole inheritance of his rival, Louis drove his daughter and -heiress, Mary of Burgundy, into marriage with Maximilian of Austria -(afterwards the emperor Maximilian I.), who successfully defended -Flanders after a savage raid by Antoine de Chabannes. The battle of -Guinegate on the 7th of August 1479 was indecisive, and definite peace -was not established until after the death of Mary, when by the treaty of -Arras (1482) Louis received Picardy, Artois and the Boulonnais, as well -as the duchy of Burgundy and Franche Comte. The Austrians were left in -Flanders, a menace and a danger. Louis failed here and in Spain; this -failure being an indirect cause of that vast family compact which -surrounded France later with the empire of Charles V. His interference -in Spain had made both John II. of Aragon and Henry IV. of Castile his -enemies, and so he was unable to prevent the marriage of their heirs, -Ferdinand and Isabella. But the results of these marriages could not be -foreseen, and the unification of France proved of more value than the -possession of so widespread an empire. This unification was completed -(except for Brittany) and the frontiers enlarged by the acquisition, -upon the death of Rene of Anjou in 1480, of the duchies of Anjou and -Bar, and in 1481 of Maine and Provence upon the death of Charles II., -count of Maine. Of the inheritance of the house of Anjou only Lorraine -escaped the king. - -Failure in Spain was compensated for in Italy. Without waging war Louis -made himself virtual arbiter of the fate of the principalities in the -north, and his court was always besieged by ambassadors from them. After -the death of Charles the Bold, Yolande, duchess of Savoy, was obliged to -accept the control of Louis, who was her brother. In Milan he helped to -place Lodovico il Moro in power in 1479, but he reaped less from this -supple tyrant than he had expected. Pope Sixtus IV. the enemy of the -Medici, was also the enemy of the king of France. Louis, who at the -opening of his reign had denounced the Pragmatic Sanction of 1438, had -played fast and loose with the papacy. When Sixtus threatened Florence -after the Pazzi conspiracy, 1478, Louis aided Lorenzo dei Medici to form -an alliance with Naples, which forced the papacy to come to terms. - -More than any other king of France, Louis XI. was a "bourgeois king." -The upper bourgeois, the aristocracy of his "good cities," were his -allies both against the nobles and against the artisan class, whenever -they revolted, driven to desperation by the oppressive royal taxes which -furnished the money for his wars or diplomacy. He ruled like a modern -capitalist; placed his bribes like investments in the courts of his -enemies; and, while draining the land of enormous sums, was pitiless -toward the two productive portions of his realm, the country population -and the artisans. His heartlessness toward the former provoked even an -accomplice like Commines to protest. The latter were kept down by -numerous edicts, tending to restrict to certain privileged families the -rank of master workman in the gilds. There was the paternalism of a -Frederick the Great in his encouragement of the silk industry,--"which -all idle people ought to be made to work at,"--in his encouragement of -commerce through the newly acquired port of Marseilles and the opening -up of market placed. He even dreamed of a great trading company "of two -hundred thousand livres or more," to monopolize the trade of the -Mediterranean, and planned to unify the various systems of weights and -measures. In 1479 he called a meeting of two burgesses from each "good -city" of his realm to consider means for preventing the influx of -foreign coin. Impatient of all restraint upon his personal rule, he was -continually in violent dispute with the parlement of Paris, and made -"justice" another name for arbitrary government; yet he dreamed of a -unification of the local customary laws (_coutumes_) of France. He was -the perfect model of a tyrant. The states-general met but once in his -reign, in 1468, and then no talk of grievances was allowed; his object -was only to get them to declare Normandy inalienable from the crown. -They were informed that the king could raise his revenue without -consulting them. Yet his budgets were enormously greater than ever -before. In 1481 the _taille_ alone brought in 4,600,000 livres, and even -at the peaceful close of his reign his whole budget was 4,655,000 -livres--as against 1,800,000 livres at the close of his father's reign. - -The king who did most for French royalty would have made a sorry figure -at the court of a Louis XIV. He was ungainly, with rickety legs. His -eyes were keen and piercing, but a long hooked nose lent grotesqueness -to a face marked with cunning rather than with dignity. Its ugliness was -emphasized by the old felt hat which he wore,--its sole ornament the -leaden figure of a saint. Until the close of his life, when he tried to -mislead ambassadors as to the state of his health by gorgeous robes, he -wore the meanest clothes. Dressed in grey like a pilgrim, and -accompanied by five or six trustworthy servants, he would set out on his -interminable travels, "ambling along on a good mule." Thus he traversed -France, avoiding all ceremony, entering towns by back streets, receiving -ambassadors in wayside huts, dining in public houses, enjoying the loose -manners and language of his associates, and incidentally learning at -first hand the condition of his people and the possibilities of using or -taxing them--his needs of them rather than theirs of him. He loved to -win men, especially those of the middle class, by affability and -familiarity, employing all his arts to cajole and seduce those whom he -needed. Yet his honied words easily turned to gall. He talked rapidly -and much, sometimes for hours at a time, and most indiscreetly. He was -not an agreeable companion, violent in his passions, nervous, restless, -and in old age extremely irascible. Utterly unscrupulous, and without a -trace of pity, he treated men like pawns, and was content only with -absolute obedience. - -But this Machiavellian prince was the genuine son of St Louis. His -religiosity was genuine if degenerate. He lavished presents on -influential saints, built shrines, sent gifts to churches, went on -frequent pilgrimages and spent much time in prayer--employing his -consummate diplomacy to win celestial allies, and rewarding them richly -when their aid secured him any advantage. St Martin of Tours received -1200 crowns after the capture of Perpignan. He tried to bribe the saints -of his enemies, as he did their ministers. An unfaltering faith taught -him the value of religion--as a branch of politics. Finally, more in the -spirit of orthodoxy, he used the same arts to make sure of heaven. When -the ring of St Zanobius and the blood of Cape Verde turtles gave him no -relief from his last illness, he showered gifts upon his patron saints, -secured for his own benefit the masses of his clergy, and the most -potent prayers in Christendom, those of the two most effective saints of -his day, Bernardin of Doulins and Francis of Paolo. - -During the last two or three years of his life Louis lived in great -isolation, "seeing no one, speaking with no one, except such as he -commanded," in the chateau of Plessis-les-Tours, that "spider's nest" -bristling with watch towers, and guarded only by the most trusty -servitors. A swarm of astrologers and physicians preyed upon his -fears--and his purse. But, however foolish in his credulity, he still -made his strong hand felt both in France and in Italy, remaining to the -last "the terrible king." His fervent prayers were interrupted by -instructions for the regency which was to follow. He died on the 30th of -August 1483, and was buried, according to his own wish, without royal -state, in the church at Clery, instead of at St Denis. He left a son, -his successor, Charles VIII., and two daughters. - - See the admirable resume by Charles Petit-Dutaillis in Lavisse's - _Histoire de France_, tome iv. pt. ii. (1902), and bibliographical - indications given there. Michelet's wonderful depiction in his - _Histoire de France_ (livres 13 to 17) has never been surpassed for - graphic word-painting, but it is inaccurate in details, and superseded - in scholarship. Of the original sources for the reign the _Lettres de - Louis XI_. (edited by Charavay and Vaesen, 8 vols., 1883-1902), the - celebrated _Memoires_ of Philippe de Commines and the _Journal_ of - Jean de Royl naturally come first. The great mass of literature on the - period is analysed in masterly fashion by A. Molinier, _Sources de - l'histoire de France_ (tome v. pp. 1-146), and to this exhaustive - bibliography the reader is referred for further research. See also C. - Hare, _The Life of Louis XI_. (London, 1907). (J. T. S.*) - - - - -LOUIS XII. (1462-1515), king of France, was grandson of Louis of -Orleans, the brother of Charles VI., and son of the poet prince, Charles -of Orleans, who, after the battle of Agincourt, spent twenty-five years -of captivity in England. Louis was duke of Orleans until his accession -to the throne, and he was fourteen years old when Louis XI. gave him the -hand of his second daughter, Joan the Lame. In the first years of the -reign of Charles VIII., Louis made a determined stand against the -government of the Beaujeus, stirred up coalitions of the feudal nobles -against them, and was finally defeated and taken prisoner at St Aubin du -Cormier in 1488. Charles VIII. set him at liberty in 1491. These -successive checks tamed him a little. In the Italian expedition of 1494 -he commanded the vanguard of the royal army, occupied Genoa, and -remained in the north of Italy, menacing Milan, on which he was already -dreaming of asserting his rights. The children of Charles VIII. having -died in infancy, he became heir-presumptive to the throne, and succeeded -Charles in 1499. Louis was then thirty-six years old, but he seems to -have grown old prematurely. He was fragile, narrow-shouldered and of a -sickly constitution. His intelligence was mediocre, his character weak, -and he allowed himself to be dominated by his wife, Anne of Brittany, -and his favourite the Cardinal d'Amboise. He was a good king, full of -moderation and humanity, and bent upon maintaining order and improving -the administration of justice. He enjoyed a genuine popularity, and in -1506 the estates of Tours conferred on him the surname of _Pere du -Peuple_. His foreign policy, which was directed wholly towards Italy, -was for the most part unskilful; to his claims on Naples he added those -on Milan, which he based on the marriage of his grandfather, Louis of -Orleans, with Valentina Visconti. He led in person several armies into -Italy, and proved as severe and pitiless towards his enemies as he was -gentle and clement towards his subjects. Louis had two daughters. After -his accession he had divorced his virtuous and ill-favoured queen, Joan, -and had married, in 1499, Anne of Brittany, the widow of Charles VIII. -On her death in January 1514, in order to detach England from the -alliance against him, he married on the 9th of October 1514, Mary Tudor, -sister of Henry VIII. of England (see MARY, queen of France). He died on -the 1st of January 1515. - - For a bibliography of the printed sources see Henri Hauser, _Les - Sources de l'histoire de France, XVI^e siecle_, vol. 1. (Paris, 1906). - The principal secondary authorities are De Maulde, _Histoire de Louis - XII_. (Paris, 1889-1893); Le Roux de Lincy, _Vie de la reine Anne de - Bretagne_ (Paris, 1860); H. Lemonnier, _Les Guerres d'Italie_ (Paris, - 1903) in the _Histoire de France_ by E. Lavisse. (J. I.) - - - - -LOUIS XIII. (1601-1643), king of France, was the son of Henry IV. and of -Marie de' Medici. He became king on his father's assassination in 1610; -but his mother at once seized the full powers of regent. She determined -to reverse the policy of her husband and to bring France into alliance -with Spain and the Austrian house, upon which power Henry had been -meditating an attack at the time of his death. Two marriages were -designed to cement this alliance. Louis was to marry Anne of Austria, -daughter of the Spanish king, Philip III., and the Spanish prince, -afterwards Philip IV., himself was to marry the Princess Elizabeth, the -king's sister. Notwithstanding the opposition of the Protestants and -nobles of France, the queen carried through her purpose and the -marriages were concluded in 1615. The next years were full of civil war -and political intrigue, during which the queen relied upon the Marshal -d'Ancre. Louis XIII. was a backward boy, and his education had been much -neglected. We have the fullest details of his private life, and yet his -character remains something of a mystery. He was fond of field sports -and seemed to acquiesce in his mother's occupation of power and in the -rule of her favourites. But throughout his life he concealed his -purposes even from his closest friends; sometimes it seems as if he were -hardly conscious of them himself. In 1617 he was much attached to -Charles d'Albert, sieur de Luynes; and with his help he arrested Marshal -d'Ancre, and on his resistance had him assassinated. From this time to -her death the relation between the king and his mother was one of -concealed or open hostility. The article on FRANCE must be consulted for -the intricate events of the following years. - -The decisive incident for his private life as well as for his reign was -the entrance of Cardinal Richelieu, hitherto the queen's chief adviser, -into the king's council in 1624. Henceforth the policy of France was -directed by Richelieu, who took up in its main features the system of -Protestant alliances and opposition to the power of Austria and Spain, -which had been begun by Henry IV. and had been interrupted by the -queen-mother during the regency; while he asserted the power of the -crown against all rivals at home. This policy had remarkable results for -the king's private life. It not only brought him into unremitting -conflict with the Protestants and the nobles of France, but also made -him the enemy of his mother, of his brother Gaston of Orleans, who made -himself the champion of the cause of the nobles, and sometimes even of -his wife. It is not easy to define his relations to Richelieu. He was -convinced of his loyalty and of his genius, and in the end always -supported his policy. But he disliked the friction with his family -circle which this policy produced. In the difficulty with which he -expressed himself and in a certain indecision of character the king was -curiously unlike his father, the frank and impetuous Henry of Navarre, -and his absolute son Louis XIV. He took a great interest in all the -externals of war. He was present, and is said to have played an -important part at the passage of Susa in 1629, and also eagerly -participated in the siege of Rochelle, which surrendered in the same -year. But for the most part his share in the great events of the reign -was a passive one. The one all-important fact was that he supported his -great minister. There were certain occasions when it seemed as if that -support would be denied. The chief of these was what is known as the -"Day of Dupes" (1630). Then the queen-mother and the king's brother -passionately attacked the minister, and for a moment it was believed -that Richelieu was dismissed and that the queen-mother and a Spanish -policy had triumphed. But the sequel only strengthened the power of the -minister. He regained his ascendancy over the king, punished his enemies -and forced Marie de' Medici and Gaston of Orleans to sue for pardon. In -1631 Gaston fled to Lorraine and the queen-mother to Brussels. Gaston -soon returned, to plot, to fail and to sue for pardon again and again; -but Marie de'Medici ended her life in exile. - -Richelieu's position was much strengthened by these incidents, but to -the end of life he had to struggle against conspiracies which were -designed to deprive him of the king's support, and usually Gaston of -Orleans had some share in these movements. In 1632 the duke of -Montmorency's conspiracy brought its leader to the scaffold. But the -last great effort to overthrow Richelieu was closely connected with the -king. Louis XIII. had from the beginning of his reign had -favourites--young men for the most part with whom he lived freely and -intimately and spoke of public affairs lightly and unreservedly; and who -in consequence often exaggerated their influence over him. Henri -d'Effiat, marquis de Cinq-Mars, was the last of these favourites. The -king is said to have allowed him to speak hostilely of Richelieu and -even to recall the assassination of Marshal d'Ancre. Cinq-Mars believed -himself secure of the king's favour. He entered into negotiations with -Spain and was secretly supported by Gaston of Orleans. But Richelieu -discovered his treasonous relations with Spain and by this means -defeated his plot. Louis was reconciled to his minister. "We have lived -too long together to be separated" he is reported to have said -(September 1642). Yet when Richelieu died in December of the same year -he allowed himself to speak of him in a jealous and satirical tone. He -died himself a few months later (May 1643). - -His nature was timid, lethargic and melancholy, and his court was not -marked by the scandals which had been seen under Henry IV. Yet -Mademoiselle de la Fayette and Madame d'Hautefort and others are said to -have been his mistresses. His brother Gaston survived him, but gave -unexpectedly little trouble during the wars of the Fronde which ensued -on the death of Louis XIII. - - The chief source of information on Louis XIII.'s life is to be found - in the contemporary memoirs, of which the chief are: Bassompierre, - Fontenay-Mareuil, Gaston d'Orleans, Montresor, Omer Talon. Richelieu's - own Memoirs are chiefly concerned with politics and diplomacy. Of - modern works those most directly bearing on the king's personal life - are R. de Beauchamp, _Louis XIII. d'apres sa correspondance avec le - cardinal de Richelieu_; G. Hanotaux, _Histoire du cardinal de - Richelieu_ (1893-1896); Rossignol, _Louis XIII. avant Richelieu_; M. - Topin, _Louis XIII. et Richelieu_ (1876). See too Professor R. Lodge, - _Richelieu_; J. B. H. R. Capefigue, _Richelieu, Mazarin et la Fronde_ - (1835-1836); and Dr J. H. Bridges, _Richelieu, Mazarin and Colbert_ - (1866). - - For full bibliography see G. Monod, _Bibliographie de l'histoire de - France_; _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. iv. ("The Thirty Years' - War"); Lavisse et Rambaud, _Histoire generale_, vol. v. ("Guerres de - religion"). (A. J. G.*) - - - - -LOUIS XIV. (1638-1715), king of France, was born at -Saint-Germain-en-Laye on the 5th of September 1638. His father, Louis -XIII., had married Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip III., king of -Spain, in 1615, but for twenty years the marriage had remained without -issue. The childlessness of the king was a constant threat to the policy -of his great minister Richelieu; for the king's brother and heir, Gaston -of Orleans, was a determined opponent of that policy. The birth of the -prince who was destined to reign as Louis XIV. was therefore hailed as a -triumph, not less important than any of those won by diplomacy or arms. -The death of his father made Louis XIV. king on the 14th of May 1643, -but he had to wait sixteen years before he began to rule. Power lay for -some time in the hands of the queen-mother and in those of her minister, -Cardinal Mazarin, who found it difficult to maintain the power of the -throne and the integrity of French territory during the domestic -troubles of the Fronde and the last stages of the Thirty Year's War. The -minister was hated as a foreigner, and the childhood of the king -weakened the royal authority. Twice the court had to flee from Paris; -once when there was a rumour of intended flight the populace was -admitted to see the king in his bed. The memory of these humiliations -played their part in developing later the autocratic ideas of Louis. -Mazarin, in spite of all disadvantages, triumphed alike over his -domestic and his foreign opponents. The Fronde was at an end by 1653; -the peace of Westphalia (1648) and the peace of the Pyrenees (1659) -marked the success of the arms and of the diplomacy of France. Louis -XIV. was now twenty-one years of age and was anxious to rule as well as -to reign. The peace of the Pyrenees was a decisive event in his personal -history as well as in that of France, for one of its most important -stipulations referred to his marriage. He had already been strongly -attracted to one of the nieces of Mazarin, but reasons of state -triumphed over personal impulse; and it was agreed that the new -friendship with Spain should be cemented by the marriage of Louis to his -cousin, the Infanta Maria Theresa. A large dowry was stipulated for; and -in consideration of this the king promised to forgo all claims that his -wife might otherwise possess to the Spanish crown or any part of its -territories. The dowry was never paid, and the king held himself free of -his promise. - -The marriage took place at once, and the king entered Paris in triumph -in 1660. Mazarin died in the next year; but so strong was the feeling -that the kings of France could only rule through a first minister that -it was generally expected that Mazarin would soon have a successor. The -king, however, at once announced his intention of being his own first -minister; and from this resolution he never swerved. Whatever great -qualities he may have lacked he certainly possessed industry and -patience in the highest degree. He built up a thoroughly personal system -of government, and presided constantly over the council and many of its -committees. He was fond of gaiety and of sport; but neither ever turned -him away from the punctual and laborious discharge of his royal duties. -Even the greatest of his ministers found themselves controlled by the -king. Fouquet, the finance minister, had accumulated enormous wealth -during the late disturbances, and seemed to possess power and ambition -too great for a subject. Louis XIV. found it necessary almost to -conspire against him; he was overthrown and condemned to perpetual -imprisonment. Those who had most of the king's confidence afterwards -were Colbert for home affairs; Lionne for diplomacy; Louvois for war; -but as his reign proceeded he became more self-confident and more -intolerant of independence of judgment in his ministers. - -His court was from the first one of great brilliance. In art and in -literature, the great period, which is usually called by the king's -name, had in some respects passed its zenith when he began to reign. But -France was unquestionably the first state in Europe both in arms and -arts, and within France the authority of the king was practically -undisputed. The nation, proud of its pre-eminence and weary of civil -war, saw in the king its true representative and the guarantee of its -unity and success. Louis was singularly well fitted by his physical and -intellectual gifts for the role of _Grand Monarque_ and he played it to -perfection. His wife Maria Theresa bore him children but there was no -community of tastes between them, and the chief influence at court is to -be found not in the queen but in the succession of avowed mistresses. -Mademoiselle de la Valliere held the position from 1662 to 1670; she was -then ousted by Madame de Montespan, who had fiercely intrigued for it, -and whose proud and ambitious temper offered a great contrast to her -rival. She held her position from 1670 to 1679 and then gave place to -the still more famous Madame de Maintenon, who ruled, however, not as -mistress but as wife. The events that brought about this incident form -the strangest episode in the king's private life. Madame de Maintenon -was the widow of the dramatist Scarron, and first came into relationship -with the king as governess to his illegitimate children. She was a woman -of unstained life and strongly religious temperament; and it was by this -that she gained so great an influence over the king. Through her -influence the king was reconciled to his wife, and, when Maria Theresa -died in 1683, Madame de Maintenon shortly afterwards (in 1684) became -the king's wife, though this was never officially declared. Under her -influence the court lost most of its gaiety, and religion came to -exercise much control over the life and the policy of the king. - -The first years of the king's rule were marked by the great schemes of -Colbert for the financial, commercial, industrial and naval -reorganization of France, and in these schemes Louis took a deep -interest. But in 1667 began the long series of wars, which lasted with -little real intermission to the end of the reign (see FRANCE). In the -steps that led to these wars and in their conduct the egotistic ambition -and the vanity of the king played an important part; though he never -showed real military skill and took no share in any military operations -except in certain sieges. The War of Devolution (or the Queen's War) in -1667-68 to enforce the queen's claim to certain districts in the Spanish -Netherlands, led to the Dutch War (1672-78), and in both these wars the -supremacy of the French armies was clearly apparent. The next decade -(1678-1688) was the real turning-point in the history of the reign, and -the strength of France was seriously diminished. The chief cause of this -is to be found in the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The church had -always opposed this settlement and had succeeded in altering it in many -points. Now the new religious zeal and the autocratic temper of Louis -XIV. came to the support of the church. The French Huguenots found their -privileges decreased, and then, in 1685, the edict was altogether -withdrawn. The results were ruinous to France. It was not only that she -lost many thousands of her best citizens, but this blow against -Protestantism deprived her of those Protestant alliances in Europe which -had been in the past her great diplomatic support. Then the English -Revolution came in 1688 and changed England from a wavering ally into -the most determined of the enemies of France. - -The war with the Grand Alliance, of which King William III. was the -heart and soul, lasted from 1688 to 1697; and the treaty of Ryswick, -which brought it to an end, deprived France of certain territories on -her frontier. But Louis saw in the Spanish question a chance of more -than making up for this loss. The Spanish king Charles II. was dying, -and the future of the possessions of Spain was doubtful. The astute -diplomacy of Louis succeeded in winning the inheritance for his grandson -Philip. But this involved France and Europe in an immense war (1700) and -by the peace of Utrecht (1713), though the French prince retained the -Spanish crown, France had again to make concessions of territory. - -Louis XIV. had shown wonderful tenacity of purpose during this -disastrous war, and sometimes a nobler and more national spirit than -during the years of his triumphs. But the condition of France was -terrible. She was burdened with debt; the reforms of Colbert were -ruined; and opposition to the king's regime began to make itself felt. -Peace brought some relief to France, but the last years of the king's -life were gloomy in the extreme. His numerous descendants seemed at one -time to place the succession beyond all difficulty. But his eldest son, -the dauphin, died in April 1711; his eldest grandson the duke of -Burgundy in February 1712; and his great-grandson the duke of Brittany -in March 1712. The heir to the throne was now the duke of Burgundy's -son, the duke of Anjou, afterwards Louis XV. The king died on the 1st of -September 1715, after the longest recorded reign in European history. -The judgment of posterity has not repeated the flattering verdict of his -contemporaries; but he remains the model of a great king in all that -concerns the externals of kingship. - - The reign of Louis XIV. is particularly rich in memoirs describing the - life of the court. The chief are Madame de Motteville's memoirs for - the period of the Fronde, and the letters cf Madame de Sevigne and the - memoirs of Saint-Simon for the later period. The king's ideas are best - seen in the _Memoires de Louis XIV. pour l'instruction du dauphin_ - (edited by Dreyss, 2 vols.). His private life is revealed in the - letters of Madame de Maintenon and in those of Madame, Duchesse - d'Orleans. Of the ordinary historians of France Michelet is fullest on - the private life of the king. Mention may also be made of Voltaire, - _Siecle de Louis XIV._; P. Clement, _Histoire de la vie et de - l'administration de Colbert_; Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries de lundi_. Full - bibliographies of the reign will be found in G. Monod's - _Bibliographie de l'histoire de France_; vol. v. ("The Age of Louis - XIV.") of the _Cambridge Modern History_; and vol. vi. ("Louis XIV.") - of the _Histoire generale_ of Lavisse and Rambaud. (A. J. G.*) - - - - -LOUIS XV. (1710-1774), king of France, was the great-grandson of Louis -XIV. and the third son of Louis, duke of Burgundy, and Marie Adelaide, -princess of Savoy. The first son had died in 1705, and in 1712 the -second son, the duke of Brittany, as well as his father and mother, was -carried off by a mysterious disease. Louis was thus unexpectedly brought -into the line of the succession, and was only five years old when Louis -XIV. died. The dead king had endeavoured by his will to control the -administration even after his death by a carefully selected council of -regency, in which the duke of Orleans should have only the nominal -presidency; but with the help of the parlement of Paris the arrangement -was at once set aside, and the duke was declared regent with full -traditional powers. The duke had capacity, but his life was so -licentious that what influence he had upon the king was for evil. -Fleury, bishop of Frejus, was appointed his tutor, and the little king -was sincerely attached to him. The king attained his legal majority at -the age of thirteen, shortly before the death of the duke of Orleans. -His first minister was the incapable duke of Bourbon, who in 1725 -procured the repudiation of the Spanish princess, to whom the king had -been betrothed, and his marriage to Maria Leszczynska, daughter of the -exiled king of Poland, then resident in Alsace. In 1726 the duke of -Bourbon was displaced by the king's tutor, Bishop (afterwards Cardinal) -Fleury, who exercised almost absolute power, for the king took little -interest in affairs of state. His administration was successful and -peaceful until the year 1734, when a disputed succession in Poland -brought about the interference of France on behalf of the queen's -father. France was unsuccessful in her immediate object, but at the -peace of Vienna (1735) secured the possession of Lorraine. Up to this -point the reign had been prosperous; but from this time on it is a -record of declining national strength, which was not compensated by some -days of military glory. Fleury's great age (he died still in office at -the age of ninety) prevented him from really controlling the policy of -France and of Europe. In 1740 the war of the Austrian Succession broke -out and France drifted into it as an ally of Frederick of Prussia and -the enemy of England, and of Maria Theresa of Austria. - -On Fleury's death in 1743 no one took his place, and the king professed -to adopt the example of Louis XIV. and to establish a personal -autocracy. But he was not strong enough in will or intellect to give -unity to the administration. The marquis d'Argenson writes that at the -council table Louis "opened his mouth, said little and thought not at -all," and again that "under the appearance of personal monarchy it was -really anarchy that reigned." He had followed too in his domestic life -the example of his predecessors. The queen for some time seems to have -secured his affections, and she bore him seven children. But soon we -hear of the royal mistresses. The first to acquire notoriety was the -duchess of Chateauroux, the third sister of one family who held this -position. She was at least in part the cause of the only moment of -popularity which the king enjoyed. She urged him to take part personally -in the war. France had just received a humiliating check at Dettingen, -and the invasion of the north-eastern frontier was feared. The king went -to Metz in 1744, and his presence there did something to ward off the -danger. While the nation felt genuine gratitude for his energy and its -success, he was reported to have fallen dangerously ill. The king, of -whom it was said that the fear of hell was the only part of religion -which had any reality for him, now dismissed the duchess of Chateauroux -and promised amendment. Prayers were offered everywhere for his -recovery, and the country was swept by a delirium of loyal enthusiasm, -which conferred on him the title of _Louis le bien aime_. But his future -life disappointed all these hopes. The duchess of Chateauroux died in -the same year, but her place was taken in 1745 by Madame de Pompadour. -This woman had philanthropic impulses and some real interest in art and -letters; but her influence on public affairs was a fatal one. She had -many rivals during her lifetime and on her death in 1764 she was -succeeded by Madame du Barry (q.v.). But the mention of these three -women gives no idea of the degradation of the king's life. There has -doubtless been exaggeration as to certain details, and the story of his -seraglio at the _Parc aux cerfs_ is largely apocryphal. But it would be -difficult to mention the name of any European king whose private life -shows such a record of vulgar vice unredeemed by higher aims of any -kind. He was not without ambition, but without sufficient tenacity of -purpose to come near to realizing it. To the last he maintained the -pretence of personal rule, but the machinery of government fell out of -gear, and the disorder of the finances was never remedied before the -revolution of 1789. - -The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), which ended the war of the Austrian -Succession, brought no gains to France in spite of her victories at -Fontenoy and Raucoux; and the king was blamed for the diplomatic -failure. The interval between this war and the Seven Years' War (1756) -saw that great reversal of alliances which is sometimes called the -"Diplomatic Revolution"; whereby France repudiated the alliance of -Frederick the Great and joined hands with her old enemy Austria. The -intrigues of Madame de Pompadour played in this change an important -though not a decisive part. It was the cause of immense disasters to -France; for after a promising beginning, both by land and sea, France -suffered reverses which lost her both India and Canada and deprived her -of the leading position which she had so long held in Europe. Her -humiliation was declared by the peace of Paris (1763). - -The article on the history of France (q.v.) shows how there arose during -the last years of Louis XV.'s reign a strong reaction against the -monarchy and its methods. Military success had given it its strength; -and its prestige was ruined by military failure. In the parlements, -provincial and Parisian; in religion and in literature, a note of -opposition is struck which was never to die until the monarchy was -overthrown. France annexed Corsica in 1768, but this was felt to be the -work of the minister Chauvelin, and reflected no credit on the king. He -died in 1774 of smallpox. If the reign of his predecessor shows us -almost the ideal of personal monarchy we may see in that of Louis XV. -all the vices and errors exemplified which lie in wait for absolute -hereditary rule which has survived the period of its usefulness. - - For the king's life generally see the memoirs of Saint-Simon, - d'Argenson, Villars and Barbier, and for the details of his private - life E. Boutaric, _Correspondance secrete de Louis XV._; Madame de - Pompadour's _Correspondance_ published by P. Malassi; Dietric, _Les - Maitresses de Louis XV._; and Fleury, _Louis XV. intimes et les - petites maitresses_ (1909). - - For the system of secret diplomacy and organized espionage, known as - the _Secret du roi_, carried on under the auspices of Louis XV., see - Albert duc de Broglie, _Le Secret du roi. Correspondance secrete de - Louis XV. avec ses agents diplomatiques 1752-1774_ (Paris, 1878); and - for a general account of the reign, H. Carre, _La France sous Louis - XV._ (Paris, 1891). For other works, general and special, see G. - Monod, _Bibliographie de la France_, and the bibliography in the - _Histoire generale_ of Lavisse and Rambaud, vol. vii., and the - _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. vi. (A. J. G.*) - - - - -LOUIS XVI. (1754-1793), king of France, was the son of Louis, dauphin of -France, the son of Louis XV., and of Marie Joseph of Saxony, and was -born at Versailles on the 23rd of August 1754, being baptized as Louis -Augustus. His father's death in 1765 made him heir to the throne, and in -1770 he was married to Marie Antoinette, daughter of the empress Maria -Theresa. He was just twenty years old when the death of Louis XV. on the -10th of May 1774 placed him on the throne. He began his reign under good -auspices, with Turgot, the greatest living French statesman, in charge -of the disorganized finances; but in less than two years he had yielded -to the demand of the vested interests attacked by Turgot's reforms, and -dismissed him. Turgot's successor, Necker, however, continued the regime -of reform until 1781, and it was only with Necker's dismissal that the -period of reaction began. Marie Antoinette then obtained that ascendancy -over her husband which was partly responsible for the extravagance of -the ministry of Calonne, and brought on the Revolution by the resulting -financial embarrassment.[1] The third part of his reign began with the -meeting of the states-general on the 4th of May 1789, which marked the -opening of the Revolution. The revolt of Paris and the taking of the -Bastille on the 14th of July were its results. The suspicion, not -without justification, of a second attempt at a _coup d'etat_ led on the -6th of October to the "capture" of the king and royal family at -Versailles by a mob from Paris, and their transference to the Tuileries. -In spite of the growing radicalism of the clubs, however, loyalty to the -king remained surprisingly strong. When he swore to maintain the -constitution, then in progress of construction, at the festival of the -federation on the 14th of July 1790, he was at the height of his -popularity. Even his attempted flight on the 20th of June 1791 did not -entirely turn the nation against him, although he left documents which -proved his opposition to the whole Revolution. Arrested at Varennes, and -brought back to Paris, he was maintained as a constitutional king, and -took his oath on the 13th of September 1791. But already a party was -forming in Paris which demanded his deposition. This first became -noticeable in connexion with the affair of the Champ de Mars on the 17th -of July 1791. Crushed for a time the party gained strength through the -winter of 1791-1792. The declaration of war against the emperor Francis -II., nephew of Marie Antoinette, was forced upon the king by those who -wished to discredit him by failure, or to compel him to declare himself -openly an enemy to the Revolution. Their policy proved effective. The -failure of the war, which intensified popular hatred of the Austrian -queen, involved the king; and the invasion of the Tuileries on the 20th -of June 1792 was but the prelude to the conspiracy which resulted, on -the 10th of August, in the capture of the palace and the "suspension" of -royalty by the Legislative Assembly until the convocation of a national -convention in September. On the 21st of September 1792 the Convention -declared royalty abolished, and in January it tried the king for his -treason against the nation, and condemned him to death. He was executed -on the 21st of January 1793. - -Louis XVI. was weak in character and mentally dull. His courage and -dignity during his trial and on the scaffold has left him a better -reputation than he deserves. His diary shows how little he understood, -or cared for, the business of a king. Days on which he had not shot -anything at the hunt were blank days for him. The entry on the 14th of -July 1789 was "nothing"! The greater part of his time was spent hunting. -He also amused himself making locks, and a little at masonry. Awkward -and uncourtly, at heart shy, he was but a poor figurehead for the -stately court of France. At first he did not care for Marie Antoinette, -but after he came under her influence, her thoughtless conduct -compromised him, and it was largely she who encouraged him in underhand -opposition to the Revolution while he pretended to accept it. The only -point on which he had of his own initiative shown a strong objection to -revolutionary measures was in the matter of the civil constitution of -the clergy. A devoted and sincere Roman Catholic, he refused at first to -sanction a constitution for the church in France without the pope's -approval, and after he had been compelled to allow the constitution to -become law he resolved to oppose the Revolution definitely by intrigues. -His policy was both feeble and false. He was singularly unfortunate even -when he gave in, delaying his acquiescence until it had the air of a -surrender. It is often said that Louis XVI. was the victim of the faults -of his predecessors. He was also the victim of his own. - -Having lost his elder son in 1789 Louis left two children, Louis -Charles, usually known as Louis XVII., and Marie Therese Charlotte -(1778-1851), who married her cousin, Louis, duke of Angouleme, son of -Charles X., in 1799. The "orphan of the Temple," as the princess was -called, was in prison for three years, during which time she remained -ignorant of the fate which had befallen her parents. She died on the -19th of October 1851. Her life by G. Lenotre has been translated into -English by J. L. May (1908). - - See the articles FRENCH REVOLUTION and MARIE ANTOINETTE. F. X. J. - Droz, _Histoire du regne de Louis XVI._ (3 vols., Paris, 1860), a sane - and good history of the period; and Arsene Houssaye, _Louis XVI._ - (Paris, 1891). See also the numerous memoirs of the time, and the - marquis de Segur's _Au couchant de la monarchie, Louis XVI. et Turgot_ - (1910). - - For bibliographies see G. Monod, _Bibl. de la France_; Lavisse et - Rambaud, _Hist. Univ._, vols. vii. and viii.; and the _Cambridge Modem - History_, vol. viii. (R. A.*) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The responsibility of Marie Antoinette for the policy of the king - before and during the Revolution has been the subject of much - controversy. In general it may be said that her influence on politics - has been much exaggerated. (See MARIE ANTOINETTE.) [ED.] - - - - -LOUIS XVII. (1785-1795?), titular king of France, second son of Louis -XVI. and Marie Antoinette, was born at Versailles on the 27th of March -1785, was christened the same day Louis Charles, and given the title of -duke of Normandy. Louis Charles became dauphin on the death of his elder -brother on the 4th of June 1789. It is only with his incarceration in -the Temple on the 13th of August 1792, that his history, apart from that -of his parents, becomes of interest. The royal party included, beside -the king and queen, their daughter Marie Therese Charlotte (Madame -Royale), the king's sister Madame Elisabeth, the valet Clery and others. -The prisoners were lodged at first in the smaller Tower, but were -removed to the larger Tower on the 27th of October. Louis Charles was -then separated from his mother and aunt to be put in his father's -charge, except for a few hours daily, but was restored to the women when -Louis was isolated from his family at the beginning of his trial in -December. - -On the 21st of January 1793 Louis became, for the royalists, king of -France, and a week later the comte de Provence arrogated to himself the -title of regent. From that moment began new plots for the escape of the -prisoners from the Temple, the chief of which were engineered by the -Chevalier de Jarjayes,[1] the baron de Batz,[2] and the faithful Lady -Atkyns.[3] On the 3rd of July the little dauphin was again separated -from his mother, this time to be given into the keeping of the cobbler -Antoine Simon[4] who had been named his guardian by the Committee of -General Security. The tales told by the royalist writers of the -barbarous cruelty inflicted by Simon and his wife on the child are not -proven. Marie Jeanne, in fact, took great care of the child's person, -and there is documentary evidence to prove that he had air and food. But -the Simons were obviously grotesquely unfit guardians for a prince, and -they doubtless caused much suffering to the impressionable child, who -was made on occasion to eat and drink to excess, and learnt the language -of the gutter. But the scenes related by A. de Beauchesne of the -physical martyrdom of the child are not supported by any other -testimony, though he was at this time seen by a great number of people. -On the 6th of October Pache, Chaumette, Hebert and others visited him -and secured from him admissions of infamous accusations against his -mother, with his signature to a list of her alleged crimes since her -entry in the Temple, and next day he was confronted with his sister -Marie Therese for the last time. - -Simon's wife now fell ill, and on the 19th of January 1794 the Simons -left the Temple, after securing a receipt for the safe transfer of their -prisoner, who was declared to be in good health. A large part of the -Temple records from that time onwards were destroyed under the -Restoration, so that exact knowledge of the facts is practically -impossible. Two days after the departure of the Simons the prisoner is -said by the Restoration historians to have been put in a dark room which -was barricaded like the cage of a wild animal. The story runs that food -was passed through the bars to the child, who survived in spite of the -accumulated filth of his surroundings. Robespierre[5] visited Marie -Therese on the 11th of May, but no one, according to the legend, entered -the dauphin's room for six months until Barras visited the prison after -the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794). Barras's account of the visit -describes the child as suffering from extreme neglect, but conveys no -idea of the alleged walling in. It is nevertheless certain that during -the first half of 1794 he was very strictly secluded; he had no special -guardian, but was under the charge of guards changed from day to day. -The child made no complaint to Barras of his treatment, probably because -he feared to do so. He was then cleansed and re-clothed, his room -cleaned, and during the day he was visited by his new attendant, a -creole and a compatriot of Josephine de Beauharnais, named Jean Jacques -Christophe Laurent (1770-1807), who had from the 8th of November onwards -assistance for his charge from a man named Gomin. The child was now -taken out to walk on the roof of the Tower. From about the time of -Gomin's entrance the prisoner was inspected, not by delegates of the -Commune, but by representatives of the civil committee of the 48 -sections of Paris. The rare recurrence of the same inspectors would -obviously facilitate fraud, if any such were intended. From the end of -October onwards the child maintained an obstinate silence, explained by -Laurent as a determination taken on the day he made his deposition -against his mother. On the 19th of December 1794 he was visited by three -commissioners from the Committee of General Security--J. B. Harmand de -la Meuse, J. B. C. Mathieu and J. Reverchon--who extracted no word from -him. On Laurent's retirement Etienne Lasne was appointed on the 31st of -March 1795 to be the child's guardian. In May 1795 the prisoner was -seriously ill, and a doctor, P. J. Desault, well acquainted with the -dauphin, having visited him seven months earlier, was summoned. Desault -died suddenly, not without suspicion of poison, on the 1st of June, and -it was some days before doctors Pelletan and Dumangin were called. Then -it was announced that on the 8th Louis Charles died. Next day an autopsy -was held at which it was stated that a child apparently about ten years -of age, "which the commissioners told us was the late Louis Capet's -son," had died of a scrofulous affection of long standing. He was buried -on the 10th in the cemetery of Ste Marguerite, but no stone was erected -to mark the spot. - -The weak parts of this story are the sudden and unexplained departure of -the Simons; the subsequent useless cruelty of treating the child like a -wild beast and keeping him in a dark room practically out of sight -(unless any doubt of his identity was possible), while his sister was in -comparative comfort; the cause of death, declared to be of long -standing, but in fact developed with such rapidity; the insufficient -excuse provided for the child's muteness under Gomin's regime (he had -answered Barras) and the irregularities in the formalities in attending -the death and the funeral, when a simple identification of the body by -Marie Therese would have prevented any question of resuscitated -dauphins. Both Barras and Harmand de la Meuse are said to have given -leave for the brother and sister to see each other, but the meeting was -never permitted. The argument from the sudden disappearance of persons -in a position to know something of the truth is of a less convincing -character. It may be noted that the more famous of the persons alleged -by partisans of subsequent pretenders to have been hustled out of the -world for their connexion with the secret are the empress Josephine, the -due d'Enghien and the duc de Berri. - -Immediately on the announcement of the dauphin's death there arose a -rumour that he had escaped. Simien-Despreaux, one of Louis XVIII.'s own -authors, stated at a later period (1814) that Louis XVII. was living and -that among the signatories of the treaty of April 13th were some who -possessed proofs of his existence; and Eckard, one of the mainstays of -the official account, left among his unpublished papers a statement that -many members of "an assembly of our wise men" obstinately named Louis -XVII. as the prince whom their wishes demanded. Unfortunately the -removal of the child suited the plans of the comte de Provence (now -Louis XVIII. for the _emigres_) as well as it suited the revolutionary -government, and no serious attempt was made by the royal family to -ascertain the truth, though they paid none of the tributes to the memory -of the dead king which might reasonably have been expected, had they -been convinced of his death. Even his sister wore no mourning for him -until she arrived at Vienna and saw that this was expected of her. In -spite of the massive literature which has accumulated on the subject, -neither his death in the Temple nor his escape therefrom has been -definitely established, though a very strong presumption is established -in favour of the latter. - -Some forty candidates for his honours were forthcoming under the -Restoration. The most important of these pretenders were Karl Wilhelm -Naundorff and the comte de Richemont. Naundorff's story rested on a -series of complicated intrigues. According to him Barras determined to -save the dauphin in order to please Josephine Beauharnais, the future -empress, having conceived the idea of using the dauphin's existence as a -means of dominating the comte de Provence in the event of a restoration. -The dauphin was concealed in the fourth storey of the Tower, a wooden -figure being substituted for him. Laurent, to protect himself from the -consequences of the substitution, replaced the wooden figure by a deaf -mute, who was presently exchanged for the scrofulous child of the death -certificate. The deaf mute was also concealed in the Temple. It was not -the dead child, but the dauphin who left the prison in the coffin, -whence he was extracted by his friends on the way to the cemetery. -Richemont's tale that the woman Simon, who was genuinely attached to -him, smuggled him out in a basket, is simple and more credible, and does -not necessarily invalidate the story of the subsequent operations with -the deaf mute and the scrofulous patient, Laurent in that case being -deceived from the beginning, but it renders them extremely unlikely. A -third pretender, Eleazar Williams, did not affect to know anything of -his escape. He possessed, he said, no consciousness of his early years, -only emerging from idiocy at the age of thirteen, when he was living -with an Indian family in New York State. He was a missionary to the -Indians when the prince de Joinville, son of Louis Philippe, met him, -and after some conversation asked him to sign a document abdicating his -rights in favour of Louis Philippe, in return for which he, the dauphin -(alias Eleazar Williams), was to receive the private inheritance which -was his. This Eleazar refused to do. The wildness of this tale refutes -itself. - -Richemont (Henri Ethelbert Louis Victor Hebert) was in prison in Milan -for seven years and began to put forward his claims in Paris in 1828. In -1833 he was again arrested, was brought to trial in the following year -and was condemned to twelve years' imprisonment. He escaped after a few -months and left the country, to return in 1840. He died at Gleize on the -10th of August 1853, the name of Louis Charles de France being inscribed -on his tomb until the government ordered its removal. - -Naundorff, or Naundorff, who had arrived from nowhere in Berlin in 1810, -with papers giving the name Karl Wilhelm Naundorff, in order to escape -the persecutions of which he declared himself the object, settled at -Spandau in 1812 as a clockmaker, and married in 1818 Johanna Einert. In -1822 he removed to Brandenburg, and in 1828 to Crossen, near Frankfort. -He was imprisoned from 1825 to 1828 for coining, though apparently on -insufficient evidence, and in 1833 came to push his claims in Paris, -where he was recognized as the dauphin by many persons formerly -connected with the court of Louis XVI. Expelled from France in 1836, the -day after bringing a suit against the duchess of Angouleme for the -restitution of the dauphin's private property, he lived in exile till -his death at Delft on the 10th of August 1845, and his tomb was -inscribed "Louis XVII., roi de France et de Navarre (Charles Louis, duc -de Normandie)." The Dutch authorities who had inscribed on his death -certificate the name of Charles Louis de Bourbon, duc de Normandie -(Louis XVII.) permitted his son to bear the name de Bourbon, and when -the family appealed in 1850-1851, and again in 1874, for the restitution -of their civil rights as heirs of Louis XVI. no less an advocate than -Jules Favre pleaded their cause. Of all the pretenders Naundorff has the -best case. He was certainly not the Jew of Prussian Poland which his -enemies declared him to be, and he has to this day a circle of devoted -adherents. Since he was sincerely convinced of his own rights, it is -surprising that he put forward no claim in 1814. - -If the dauphin did escape, it seems probable that he perished shortly -afterwards or lived in a safe obscurity. The account of the substitution -in the Temple is well substantiated, even to the names of the -substitutes. The curious imbroglio deceived royalists and republicans -alike. Lady Atkyns was trying by every possible means to get the dauphin -out of his prison when he was apparently already in safe hands, if not -outside the Temple walls. A child was in fact delivered to her agents, -but he was a deaf mute. That there was fraud, and complicated fraud, in -the guardians of the dauphin may be taken as proved by a succession of -writers from 1850 onwards, and more recently by Frederic Barbey, who -wisely attempts no ultimate solution. When the partisans of Richemont or -Naundorff come to the post-Temple careers of their heroes, they become -in most cases so uncritical as to be unconvincing. - - The official version of the dauphin's history as accepted under the - Restoration was drawn up by Simien Despreaux in his uncritical _Louis - XVII._ (1817), and is found, fortified by documents, in M. Eckard's - _Memoires historiques sur Louis XVII_. (1817) and in A. de - Beauchesne's _Louis XVII., sa vie, son agonie, sa mort. Captivite de - la famille royale au Temple_ (2 vols., 1852, and many subsequent - editions), containing copies of original documents, and essential to - the study of the question, although its sentimental pictures of the - boy martyr can no longer be accepted. L. de la Sicotiere, "Les faux - Louis XVII.," in _Revue des questions historiques_ (vol. xxxii., - 1882), deals with the pretenders Jean Marie Hervagault, Mathurin - Bruneau and the rest; see also Dr Cabanes, _Les Morts mysterieuses de - l'histoire_ (1901), and revised catalogue of the J. Sanford Saltus - collection of Louis XVII. books (New York, 1908). Catherine Welch, in - _The Little Dauphin_ (1908) gives a resume of the various sides of the - question. - - Madame Royale's own account of the captivity of the Temple was first - printed with additions and suppressions in 1817, and often - subsequently, the best edition being that from her autograph text by - G. Lenotre, _La Fille de Louis XVI., Marie Therese Charlotte de - France, duchesse d'Angouleme, le Temple, l'echange, l'exil_ (1907). - There are two collections of writings on the subject: _Marie Therese - de France_, compiled (1852) by the marquis de Pastoret, and comprising - beside the memoir written by Marie Therese herself, articles by M. de - Montbel, Sainte-Beuve, J. Lemoine, La Gueronniere and extracts from - Joseph Weber's memoirs; and _Memoires de Marie Therese duchesse - d'Angouleme_, comprising extracts from the narratives of Charles Goret - (_Mon Temoignage_, 1852), of C. F. Beaulieu (_Memoire adressee a la - nation_, 1795), of L. G. Michaud (_Opinion d'un Francais_, 1795) and - of Mme de Tourzel (_Memoires_ 1883). Cf. A. Lanne, _La Soeur de Louis - XVII._, and the articles on "Madame Royale," on the "Captivite de la - famille royale au Temple" and on the "Mise en liberte de Madame" in M. - Tourneux's _Bibliographie de l'histoire de Paris pendant la revolution - francaise_ (vol. iv., 1906, and vol. i., 1890). - - _Naundorff._--For the case of Naundorff see his own narrative, _Abrege - de l'histoire des infortunes du Dauphin_ (London, 1836; Eng. trans., - 1838); also Modeste Gruau de la Barre, _Intrigues devoilees ou Louis - XVII._ ... (3 vols., Rotterdam, 1846-1848); O. Friedrichs, - _Correspondance intime et inedite de Louis XVII._ (Naundorff) - 1834-1838 (2 vols., 1904); _Plaidoirie de Jules Favre devant la cour - d'appel de Paris pour les heritiers de feu Charles-Guillaume - Naundorff_ (1874); H. Provins, _Le Dernier roi legitime de France_ (2 - vols., the first of which consists of destructive criticism of - Beauchesne and his followers, 1889); A. Lanne, "Louis XVII. et le - secret de la Revolution," _Bulletin mensuel_ (1893 et seq.) of the - Societe des etudes sur la question Louis XVII., also _La Legitimite_ - (Bordeaux, Toulouse, 1883-1898). See further the article "Naundorff" - in M. Tourneux, _Bibl. de la ville de Paris pendant la Revolution_, - vol. iv. (1906). - - _Williams._--J. H. Hanson, _The Lost Prince: Facts tending to prove - the Identity of Louis XVII. of France and the Rev. Eleazer Williams_ - (London and New York, 1854). - - _De Richemont._--_Memoires du duc de Normandie, fils de Louis XVI., - ecrits et publies par lui-meme_ (Paris, 1831), compiled, according to - Querard, by E. T. Bourg, called Saint Edme; Morin de Gueriviere, - _Quelques souvenirs_ ... (Paris, 1832); and J. Suvigny, _La - Restauration convaincue ... ou preuves de l'existence du fils de Louis - XVI._ (Paris, 1851). - - The widespread interest taken in Louis XVII. is shown by the fact that - since 1905 a monthly periodical has appeared in Paris on this subject, - entitled _Revue historique de la question Louis XVII._, also by the - promised examination of the subject by the Societe d'Histoire - contemporaine. (M. Br.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] F. A. Regnier de Jarjayes (1745-1822). See P. Gaulot, _Un Complot - sous la Terreur_. - - [2] Jean, baron de Batz (1761-1822), attempted to carry off the - dauphin in 1794. See G. Lenotre, _Un Conspirateur royaliste pendant - la Terreur, le baron de Batz_ (1896). - - [3] Charlotte Walpole (c. 1785-1836), an English actress who married - in 1779 Sir Edward Atkyns, and spent most of her life in France. She - expended large sums in trying to secure the escape of the prisoners - of the Temple. See F. Barbey, _A Friend of Marie Antoinette_ (Eng. - ed. 1906). - - [4] Antoine Simon (1736-1794) married Marie Jeanne Aladame, and - belonged to the section of the Cordeliers. They owed their position - to Anaxagoras Chaumette, procureur of the Commune, and to the fact - that Simon had prevented one of the attempts of the baron de Batz. - Simon was sent to the guillotine with Robespierre in 1794, and two - years later Marie Jeanne entered a hospital for incurables in the rue - de Sevres, where she constantly affirmed the dauphin's escape. She - was secretly visited after the Restoration by the duchess of - Angouleme. On the 16th of November 1816, she was interrogated by the - police, who frightened her into silence about the supposed - substitution of another child for the dauphin. She died in 1819. See - G. Lenotre, _Vieilles maisons, vieux papiers_ (2nd series, 1903). - - [5] In a bulletin dated May 17-24, Paris, and enclosed by Francis - Drake (June 17, 1794) at Milan to Lord Grenville, it is stated (Hist. - MSS. Comm. Fortescue Papers at Dropmore, vol. ii. 576-577) that - Robespierre in the night of 23-24 May fetched the king (the dauphin) - from the Temple and took him to Meudon. "The fact is certain, - although only known to the Committee of Public Safety. It is said to - be ascertained that he was brought back to the Temple the night of - 24-25th, and that this was a test to assure the ease of seizing him." - This police report at least serves to show the kind of rumour then - current. - - - - -LOUIS XVIII. (LOUIS LE DESIRE) (1755-1824). Louis-Stanislas-Xavier, -comte de Provence, third son of the dauphin Louis, son of Louis XV., and -of Maria Josepha of Saxony, was born at Versailles on the 17th of -November 1755. His education was supervised by the devout duc de la -Vauguyon, but his own taste was for the writings of Voltaire and the -encyclopaedists. On the 14th of May 1771 took place his marriage with -Louise-Marie-Josephine of Savoy, by whom he had no children. His -position at court was uncomfortable, for though ambitious and conscious -of possessing greater abilities than his brother (Louis XVI.), his scope -for action was restricted; he consequently devoted his energies largely -to intrigue, especially against Marie Antoinette, whom he hated.[1] -During the long absence of heirs to Louis XVI., "Monsieur," as heir to -the throne, courted popularity and took an active part in politics, but -the birth of a dauphin (1781) was a blow to his ambitions.[2] He opposed -the revival of the _parlements_, wrote a number of political -pamphlets,[3] and at the Assembly of Notables presided, like the other -princes of the blood, over a bureau, to which was given the name of the -_Comite des sages_; he also advocated the double representation of the -_tiers_. At the same time he cultivated literature, entertaining poets -and writers both at the Luxembourg and at his chateau of Brunoy (see -Dubois-Corneau, _Le Comte de Provence a Brunoy_, 1909), and gaining a -reputation for wit by his verses and _mots_ in the salon of the charming -and witty comtesse de Balbi, one of Madame's ladies, who had become his -mistress,[4] and till 1793 exerted considerable influence over him. He -did not emigrate after the taking of the Bastille, but, possibly from -motives of ambition, remained in Paris. Mirabeau thought at one time of -making him chief minister in his projected constitutional government -(see _Corr. de Mirabeau et La Marck_, ed. Bacourt, i. 434, 436, 442), -but was disappointed by his caution and timidity. The _affaire Favras_ -(Dec. 1789) aroused great feeling against Monsieur, who was believed by -many to have conspired with Favras, only to abandon him (see Lafayette's -_Mems._ and _Corr. of Mirabeau_). In June 1791, at the time of the -flight to Varennes, Monsieur also fled by a different route, and, in -company with the comte d'Avaray[5]--who subsequently replaced Mme de -Balbi as his confidant, and largely influenced his policy during the -emigration--succeeded in reaching Brussels, where he joined the comte -d'Artois and proceeded to Coblenz, which now became the headquarters of -the emigration. - -Here, living in royal state, he put himself at the head of the -counter-revolutionary movement, appointing ambassadors, soliciting the -aid of the European sovereigns, and especially of Catherine II. of -Russia. Out of touch with affairs in France and surrounded by violent -anti-revolutionists, headed by Calonne and the comte d'Artois, he -followed an entirely selfish policy, flouting the National Assembly (see -his reply to the summons of the National Assembly, in Daudet, _op. cit._ -i. 96), issuing uncompromising manifestoes (Sept. 1791, Aug. 1792, &c.), -and obstructing in every way the representatives of the king and -queen.[6] After Valmy he had to retire to Hamm in Westphalia, where, on -the death of Louis XVI., he proclaimed himself regent; from here he went -south, with the idea of encouraging the royalist feeling in the south of -France, and settled at Verona, where on the death of Louis XVII. (8th of -June 1795) he took the title of Louis XVIII. At this time ended his -_liaison_ with Mme de Balbi, and the influence of d'Avaray reached its -height. From this time onward his life is a record of constant -wanderings, negotiations and conspiracies. In April 1796 he joined -Conde's army on the German frontier, but was shortly requested to leave -the country, and accepted the hospitality of the duke of Brunswick at -Blanckenberg till 1797, when, this refuge being no longer open to him, -the emperor Paul I. permitted him to settle at Mittau in Courland, where -he stayed till 1801. All this time he was in close communication with -the royalists in France, but was much embarrassed by the conflicting -policy pursued by the comte d'Artois from England, and was largely at -the mercy of corrupt and dishonest agents.[7] At Mittau was realized his -cherished plan of marrying Madame Royale, daughter of Louis XVI., to the -duc d'Angouleme, elder son of the comte d'Artois. From Mittau, too, was -sent his well-known letter to Bonaparte (1799) calling upon him to play -the part of Monk, a proposal contemptuously refused (E. Daudet, _Hist. -de l'emigration_, ii. 371, 436), though Louis in turn declined to accept -a pension from Bonaparte, and later, in 1803, though his fortunes were -at their lowest ebb, refused to abdicate at his suggestion and accept an -indemnity. - -Suddenly expelled from Mittau in 1801 by the capricious Paul I., Louis -made his way, in the depth of winter, to Warsaw, where he stayed for -three years. All this time he was trying to convert France to the -royalist cause, and had a "_conseil royal_" in Paris, founded at the end -of 1799 by Royer-Collard, Montesquiou and Clermont-Gallerande, the -actions of which were much impeded by the activity of the rival -committee of the comte d'Artois (see E. Daudet, _op. cit._ ii., and -Remacle, _Bonaparte et les Bourbons_, Paris, 1899), but after 1800, and -still more after the failure of the royalist conspiracy of Cadoudal, -Pichegru and Moreau, followed by the execution of the duc d'Enghien -(March 1804), and the assumption by Napoleon of the title of emperor -(May 1804), the royalist cause appeared quite hopeless. In September -1804 Louis met the comte d'Artois at Calmar in Sweden, and they issued a -protest against Napoleon's action, but being warned that he must not -return to Poland, he gained permission from Alexander I. again to retire -to Mittau. After Tilsit, however (1807), he was again forced to depart, -and took refuge in England, where he stayed first at Gosfield in Essex, -and afterwards (1809 onwards) at Hartwell in Buckinghamshire. In 1810 -his wife died, and in 1811 d'Avaray died, his place as favourite being -taken by the comte de Blacas.[8] After Napoleon's defeats in 1813 the -hopes of the royalists revived, and Louis issued a fresh manifesto, in -which he promised to recognize the results of the Revolution. -Negotiations were also opened with Bernadotte, who seemed willing to -support his cause, but was really playing for his own hand. - -In March 1814 the Allies entered Paris, and thanks to Talleyrand's -negotiations the restoration of the Bourbons was effected, Louis XVIII. -entering Paris on the 2nd of May 1814, after issuing the declaration of -St Ouen, in which he promised to grant the nation a constitution -(_octroyer une charte_). He was now nearly sixty, wearied by adversity, -and a sufferer from gout and obesity. But though clear-sighted, widely -read and a good diplomatist, his impressionable and sentimental nature -made him too subject to personal and family influences. His concessions -to the reactionary and clerical party of the _emigres_, headed by the -comte d'Artois and the duchesse d'Angouleme, aroused suspicions of his -loyalty to the constitution, the creation of his _Maison militaire_ -alienated the army, and the constant presence of Blacas made the -formation of a united ministry impossible. After the Hundred Days, -during which the king was forced to flee to Ghent, the dismissal of -Blacas was made one of the conditions of his second restoration. On the -8th of July he again entered Paris, "in the baggage train of the allied -armies," as his enemies said, but in spite of this was received with the -greatest enthusiasm[9] by a people weary of wars and looking for -constitutional government. He was forced to retain Talleyrand and Fouche -in his first ministry, but took the first opportunity of ridding himself -of them when the elections of 1815 assured him of a strong royalist -majority in the chamber (the _chambre introuvable_, a name given it by -Louis himself). At this time he came into contact with the young comte -(afterwards duc) Decazes, prefect of the police under Fouche, and -minister of police in Richelieu's ministry, who now became his favourite -and gained his entire confidence (see E. Daudet, _Louis XVIII. et le duc -Decazes_). Having obtained a ministry in which he could trust, having as -members the duc de Richelieu and Decazes, the king now gave it his loyal -support and did his best to shield his ministers from the attacks of the -royal family. In September 1816, alarmed at the violence of the _chambre -introuvable_, he was persuaded to dissolve it. An attempt on the part of -the Ultras to regain their ascendancy over the king, by conniving at the -sudden return of Blacas from Rome to Paris,[10] ended in failure. - -The events and ministerial changes of Louis XVIII.'s reign are described -under the article FRANCE: _History_, but it may be said here that the -king's policy throughout was one of prudence and common sense. His -position was more passive than active, and consisted in giving his -support as far as possible to the ministry of the day. While Decazes -was still in power, the king's policy to a large extent followed his, -and was rather liberal and moderate, but after the assassination of the -duc de Berry (1820), when he saw that Decazes could no longer carry on -the government, he sorrowfully acquiesced in his departure, showered -honours upon him, and transferred his support to Richelieu, the head of -the new ministry. In the absence of Decazes a new favourite was found to -amuse the king's old age, Madame du Cayla (Zoe Talon, comtesse du -Cayla), a protegee of the vicomte Sosthene de la Rochefoucauld and -consequently a creature of the Ultras. As the king became more and more -infirm, his power of resistance to the intrigues of the Ultras became -weaker. The birth of a posthumous son to the duc de Berry (Sept. 1820), -the death of Napoleon (5th of May 1821) and the resignation of Richelieu -left him entirely in their hands, and after Villele had formed a -ministry of a royalist character the comte d'Artois was associated with -the government, which passed more and more out of the king's hands. He -died on the 16th of September 1824, worn out in body, but still -retaining flashes of his former clear insight and scepticism. The -character of Louis XVIII. may be summed up in the words of Bonaparte, -quoted by Sorel (_L'Europe et la Rev. fr._ viii. 416 footnote), "C'est -Louis XVI. avec moins de franchise et plus d'esprit." He had all the -Bourbon characteristics, especially their love of power, combined with a -certain nobility of demeanour, and a consciousness of his dignity as -king. But his nature was cold, unsympathetic and calculating, combined -with a talent for intrigue, to which was added an excellent memory and a -ready wit. An interesting judgment of him is contained in _Queen -Victoria's Letters_, vol. i., in a letter of Leopold I., king of the -Belgians, to the queen before her accession, dated the 18th of November -1836, "Poor Charles X. is dead.... History will state that Louis XVIII. -was a most liberal monarch, reigning with great mildness and justice to -his end, but that his brother, from his despotic and harsh disposition, -upset all the other had done and lost the throne. Louis XVIII. was a -clever, hard-hearted man, shackled by no principle, very proud and -false. Charles X. an honest man, a kind friend," &c. &c. This seems -fairly just as a personal estimate, though it does not do justice to -their respective political roles. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--There is no trustworthy or complete edition of the - writings and correspondence of Louis XVIII. The _Memoires de Louis - XVIII. recueillis et mis en ordre par M. le duc de D. ..._ (12 vols., - Paris, 1832-1833) are compiled by Lamothe-Langon, a well-known - compiler of more or less apocryphal memoirs. From the hand of Louis - XVIII. are: _Relation d'un voyage a Bruxelles et a Coblentz_, 1791 - (Paris, 1823, with dedication to d'Avaray); and _Journal de - Marie-Therese de France, duchesse d'Angouleme, corrige et annote par - Louis XVIII._, ed. Imbert de St Amand (Paris, 1896). Some of his - letters are contained in collections, such as _Lettres d'Artwell; - correspondance politique et privee de Louis XVIII., roi de France_ - (Paris, 1830; letters addressed to d'Avaray); _Lettres et instructions - de Louis XVIII. au comte de Saint-Priest_, ed. Barante (Paris, 1845); - _Talleyrand et Louis XVIII., corr. pendant le congres de Vienne, - 1814-1815_, ed. Pallain (1881; trans., 2 vols., 1881); see also the - corr. of Castlereagh, Metternich, J. de Maistre, the Wellington - Dispatches, &c., and such collections as _Corr. diplomatique de Pozzo - di Borgo avec le comte de Nesselrode_ (2 vols., 1890-1897), the - correspondence of C. de Remusat, Villele, &c. The works of E. Daudet - are of the greatest importance, and based on original documents; the - chief are: _La Terreur Blanche_ (Paris, 1878); _Hist. de la - restauration 1814-1830_ (1882); _Louis XVIII. et le duc Decazes_ - (1899); _Hist. de l'emigration_, in three studies: (i.) _Les Bourbons - et la Russie_ (1886), (ii.) _Les Emigres et la seconde coalition_ - (1886), (iii.) _Coblenz_, 1789-1793 (1890). Developed from these with - the addition of much further material is his _Hist. de l'emigration_ - (3 vols., 1904-1907). Also based on original documents is E. Romberg - and A. Malet, _Louis XVIII. et les cent-jours a Gand_ (1898). See also - G. Stenger, _Le Retour des Bourbons_ (1908); Cte. L. de Remacle, - _Bonaparte et les Bourbons. Relations secrets des agents du cte. de - Provence sous le consulat_ (Paris, 1899). For various episodes, see - Vicomte de Reiset, _La Comtesse de Balbi_ (Paris, 1908; contains a - long bibliography, chiefly of memoirs concerning the emigration, and - is based on documents); J. B. H. R. Capefigue, _La Comtesse du Cayla_ - (Paris, 1866); J. Turquan, _Les Favorites de Louis XVIII._ (Paris, - 1900); see also the chief memoirs of the period, such as those of - Talleyrand, Chateaubriand, Guizot, duc de Broglie, Villele, Vitrolles, - Pasquier, the comtesse de Boigne (ed. Nicoullaud, Paris, 1907), the - Vicomte L. F. Sosthene de la Rochefoucauld (15 vols., Paris, - 1861-1864); and the writings of Benjamin Constant, Chateaubriand, &c. - - General Works.--See the histories of France, the Emigration, the - Restoration and especially the very full bibliographies to chapters - i., ii. and iii. of _Cambridge Modern History_, and Lavisse and - Rambaud, _Hist. generale_, vol. x. (C. B. P.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] See Arneth and Geffroy, _Corr. de Marie-Therese avec le comte de - Mercy-Argenteau_, vol. i., "Mercy to Maria Theresa, June 22nd, 1771," - also i. 261, ii. 186, 352, 393. Marie Antoinette says (ii. 393): "... - a un caractere tres faible, il joint une marche souterraine, et - quelquefois tres basse." - - [2] See his letters to Gustavus III. of Sweden in A. Geffroy, - _Gustave III et la cour de France_, vol. ii. appendix. - - [3] Two pamphlets at least are ascribed to him: "Les Mannequins, - conte ou histoire, comme l'on voudra" (against Turgot; anon., Paris, - 1776) and "Description historique d'un monstre symbolique pris vivant - sur les bords du lac Fagua, pres de Santa-Fe, par les soins de - Francisco Xaveiro de Neunris" (against Calonne; Paris, 1784) (A. - Debidour in _La Grande Encyclopedie_). - - [4] It has frequently been alleged that his relations with Mme de - Balbi, and indeed with women generally, were of a platonic nature. De - Reiset (_La Comtesse de Balbi_, pp. 152-161) produces evidence to - disprove this assertion. - - [5] Antoine-Louis-Francois de Besiade, comte, afterwards duc, - d'Avaray. In spite of his loyalty and devotion, the effect of his - influence on Louis XVIII. may be gathered from a letter of J. de - Maistre to Blacas, quoted by E. Daudet, _Hist. de l'emigration_, ii. - 11: "celui qui n'a pu dans aucun pays aborder aucun homme politique - sans l'aliener n'est pas fait pour les affaires." - - [6] See Klinckowstrom, _Le Comte de Fersen et la cour de France_. - Fersen says (i. 7), "Monsieur ferait mieux seul, mais il est - entierement subjugue par l'autre" (i.e. the comte d'Artois, who was - in turn under the influence of Calonne). See Daudet, _op. cit._ vol. - i. - - [7] See E. Daudet, _La Conjuration de Pichegru_ (Paris, 1901). - - [8] Pierre-Louis-Casimir, comte (afterwards duc) de Blacas d'Aulps, - was as rigidly royalist as d'Avaray, but more able. E. Daudet, _Hist. - de l'emigration_, i. 458, quotes a judgment of him by J. de Maistre: - "Il est ne homme d etat et ambassadeur." - - [9] See account by Decazes in E. Daudet, _Louis XVIII. et le duc - Decazes_, pp. 48-49, and an interesting "secret and confidential" - letter of Castlereagh to Liverpool (July 8, 1815) in the unpublished - Foreign Office records: "The king sent for the duke and me this - evening to the Thuilleries.... We found him in a state of great - emotion and exaltation at the reception he had met with from his - subjects, which appears to have been even more animated than on his - former entrance. Indeed, during the long audience to which we were - admitted, it was almost impossible to converse, so loud were the - shouts of the people in the Thuilleries Gardens, which were full, - though it was then dark. Previous to the king's dismissing us, he - carried the duke and me to the open window. Candles were then - brought, which enabled the people to see the king with the duke by - his side. They ran from all parts of the Gardens, and formed a solid - mass of an immense extent, rending the air with acclamations. The - town is very generally illuminated, and I understand from men who - have traversed the principal streets that every demonstration of joy - was manifested by the inhabitants." - - [10] It is as yet not proved that Blacas returned from his embassy in - response to a summons from the Ultras. But whether it was on his own - initiative or not, there can be no doubt as to the hopes which they - built on his arrival (see Daudet, _Louis XVIII. et le duc Decazes_). - - - - -LOUIS I. (1326-1382), called "the great," king of Hungary and Poland, -was the third son of Charles Robert, king of Hungary, and Elizabeth, -daughter of the Polish king, Ladislaus Lokietek. In 1342 he succeeded -his father as king of Hungary and was crowned at Szekesfehervar on the -21st of July with great enthusiasm. Though only sixteen he understood -Latin, German and Italian as well as his mother tongue. He owed his -relatively excellent education to the care of his mother, a woman of -profound political sagacity, who was his chief counsellor in diplomatic -affairs during the greater part of his long reign. Italian politics -first occupied his attention. As a ruler of a rising great power in -search of a seaboard he was the natural adversary of the Venetian -republic, which already aimed at making the Adriatic a purely Venetian -sea and resented the proximity of the Magyars in Dalmatia. The first -trial of strength began in 1345, when the city of Zara placed herself -under the protection of Hungary and was thereupon invested by the -Venetians. Louis fought a battle beneath the walls of Zara (July 1st, -1346), which has been immortalized by Tintoretto, but was defeated and -compelled to abandon the city to the republic. The struggle was renewed -eleven years later when Louis, having formed, with infinite trouble, a -league of all the enemies of Venice, including the emperor, the -Habsburgs, Genoa and other Italian towns, attacked his maritime rival -with such vigour that she sued for peace, and by the treaty of Zara -(February 18th, 1358) ceded most of the Dalmatian towns and renounced -the title of duke of Dalmatia and Croatia, hitherto borne by the doge. -Far more important than the treaty itself was the consequent voluntary -submission of the independent republic of Ragusa to the suzerainty of -the crown of St Stephen the same year, Louis, in return for an annual -tribute of 500 ducats and a fleet, undertaking to defend Ragusa against -all her enemies. Still more glorious for Hungary was Louis's third war -with Venice (1378-1381), when he was again aided by the Genoese. At an -early stage of the contest Venice was so hardly pressed that she offered -to do homage to Hungary for all her possessions. But her immense -resources enabled her to rally her forces, and peace was finally -concluded between all the powers concerned at the congress of Turin -(1381), Venice virtually surrendering Dalmatia to Louis and undertaking -to pay him an annual tribute of 7000 ducats. The persistent hostility of -Venice is partially attributable to her constant fear lest Louis should -inherit the crown of Naples and thus threaten her trade and her -sea-power from two sides simultaneously. Louis's younger brother Andrew -had wedded Joanna, granddaughter and heiress of old King Robert of -Naples, on whose death, in 1343, she reigned in her own right, refused -her consort any share in the government, and is very strongly suspected -of having secured his removal by assassination on the night of the 19th -of September 1345. She then married Prince Louis of Taranto, and strong -in the double support of the papal court at Avignon and of the Venetian -republic (both of whom were opposed to Magyar aggrandisement in Italy) -questioned the right of Louis to the two Sicilies, which he claimed as -the next heir of his murdered brother. In 1347, and again in 1350, Louis -occupied Naples and craved permission to be crowned king, but the papal -see was inexorable and he was compelled to withdraw. The matter was not -decided till 1378 when Joanna, having made the mistake of recognizing -the antipope Clement VII., was promptly deposed and excommunicated in -favour of Prince Charles of Durazzo, who had been brought up at the -Hungarian court. Louis, always inexhaustible in expedients, determined -to indemnify himself in the north for his disappointments in the south. -With the Habsburgs, Hungary's natural rivals in the west, Louis -generally maintained friendly relations. From 1358 to 1368, however, the -restless ambition of Rudolph, duke of Austria, who acquired Tirol and -raised Vienna to the first rank among the cities of Europe, caused Louis -great uneasiness. But Louis always preferred arbitration to war, and -the peace congresses of Nagyszombat (1360) and of Pressburg (1360) -summoned by him adjusted all the outstanding differences between the -central European powers. Louis's diplomacy, moreover, was materially -assisted by his lifelong alliance with his uncle, the childless Casimir -the Great of Poland, who had appointed him his successor; and on -Casimir's death Louis was solemnly crowned king of Poland at Cracow -(Nov. 17, 1370). This personal union of the two countries was more -glorious than profitable. Louis could give little attention to his -unruly Polish subjects and was never very happy among them. Immovably -entrenched behind their privileges, they rendered him only the minimum -of service; but he compelled their representatives, assembled at Kassa, -to recognize his daughter Maria and her affianced husband, Count -Sigismund of Brandenburg, as their future king and queen by locking the -gates of the city and allowing none to leave it till they had consented -to his wishes (1374). Louis is the first European monarch who came into -collision with the Turks. He seems to have arrested their triumphant -career (c. 1372), and the fine church erected by him at Maria-Zell is a -lasting memorial of his victories. From the first he took a just view of -the Turkish peril, but the peculiar local and religious difficulties of -the whole situation in the Balkans prevented him from dealing with it -effectually (see HUNGARY, _History_). Louis died suddenly at Nagyszombat -on the 10th of September 1382. He left two daughters Maria and Jadwiga -(the latter he destined for the throne of Hungary) under the -guardianship of his widow, the daughter of the valiant ban of Bosnia, -Stephen Kotromanic, whom he married in 1353, and who was in every way -worthy of him. - - See _Rationes Collectorum Pontif. in Hungaria, 1281-1375_ (Budapest, - 1887); Dano Gruber, _The Struggle of Louis I. with the Venetians for - Dalmatia_ (Croat.) (Agram, 1903); Antal Por, _Life of Louis the Great_ - (Hung.) (Budapest, 1892); and _History of the Hungarian Nation_ - (Hung.) (vol. 3, Budapest, 1895). (R. N. B.) - - - - -LOUIS II. (1506-1526), king of Hungary and Bohemia, was the only son of -Wladislaus II., king of Hungary and Bohemia, and the French princess -Anne of Candale. Prematurely born at Buda on the 1st of July 1506, it -required all the resources of medical science to keep the sickly child -alive, yet he developed so precociously that at the age of thirteen he -was well bearded and moustached, while at eighteen his hair was silvery -white. His parts were good and he could speak and write six languages at -a very early age, but the zeal of his guardians and tutors to make a man -of him betimes nearly ruined his feeble constitution, while the riotous -life led by him and his young consort, Maria of Austria, whom he wedded -on the 13th of January 1522, speedily disqualified him for affairs, so -that at last he became an object of ridicule at his own court. He was -crowned king of Hungary on the 4th of June 1508, and king of Bohemia on -the 11th of May 1509, and was declared of age when he succeeded his -father on the 11th of December 1521. But during the greater part of his -reign he was the puppet of the magnates and kept in such penury that he -was often obliged to pawn his jewels to get proper food and clothing. -His guardians, Cardinal Bakocz and Count George of Brandenburg-Anspach, -shamefully neglected him, squandered the royal revenues and distracted -the whole kingdom with their endless dissensions. Matters grew even -worse on the death of Bakocz, when the magnates Istvan Bathory, Janos -Zapolya and Istvan Verboczy fought each other furiously, and used the -diets as their tools. Added to these troubles was the ever-present -Turkish peril, which became acute after the king, with insensate levity, -arrested the Ottoman envoy Berham in 1521 and refused to unite with -Suleiman in a league against the Habsburgs. Nevertheless in the last -extremity Louis showed more of manhood than any of his counsellors. It -was he who restored something like order by intervening between the -magnates and the gentry at the diet of 1525. It was he who collected in -his camp at Tolna the army of 25,000 men which perished utterly on the -fatal field of Mohacs on the 29th of August 1526. He was drowned in the -swollen stream of Csele on his flight from the field, being the second -prince of the house of Jagiello who laid down his life for Hungary. - - See _Rerum Hungaricarum libri_ (vol. 2, ed. Ferencz Toldy, Budapest, - 1867); and Jozsef Podhradczky, _King Louis_ (Hung.) (Budapest, 1860). - (R. N. B.) - - - - -LOUIS, the name of three kings of Naples, members of the house of Anjou. - -LOUIS I., duke of Anjou and count of Maine (1339-1384), was the second -son of John II., king of France, and was born at Vincennes on the 23rd -of July 1339. Having been given the duchy of Anjou in 1356 he led a wing -of the French army at the battle of Poitiers and was sent to England as -a hostage after the conclusion of the treaty of Bretigny in 1360, but he -broke his parole in 1363 and so brought about King John's return into -captivity. He took part in the war against England which was renewed in -1369, uniting the rival houses of Foix and Armagnac in the common cause, -and in other ways rendering good service to his brother, King Charles V. -Anjou's entrance into the troubled politics of Italy was one result of -the papal schism which opened in 1378. Anxious to secure the support of -France, the antipope Clement VII. persuaded the queen of Naples, Joanna -I., to name Louis as her heir, and about the same time the death of -Charles V. (September 1380) placed the duke in the position of regent of -France. Neglecting France to prosecute his ambitions in Italy, he -collected money and marched on Naples; but although helped by Amadeus -VI., count of Savoy, he was unable to drive his rival, Charles, duke of -Durazzo, from Naples. His army was destroyed by disease and Louis -himself died at Biseglia, near Bari, on the 20th of September 1384, -leaving two sons, his successor, Louis II., and Charles, duke of -Calabria. - -LOUIS II., duke of Anjou (1377-1417), born at Toulon on the 7th of -October 1377, took up the struggle for Naples after his father's death -and was crowned king by Clement VII. in 1389. After carrying on the -contest for some years his enemies prevailed and he was compelled to -take refuge in France, where he took part in the intestine strife which -was desolating that kingdom. A few years later he made other attempts to -secure the kingdom of Naples, which was now in the possession of -Ladislas, a son of his father's foeman, Charles of Durazzo, and he -gained a victory at Roccoserra in May 1411. Soon, however, he was again -driven back to France, and after sharing anew in the civil wars of his -country he died at Angers on the 29th of April 1417. His wife was -Yolande, a daughter of John I., king of Aragon, and his son was his -successor, Louis III. - -LOUIS III., duke of Anjou (1403-1434), born on the 25th of September -1403, made in his turn an attempt to conquer Naples. This was in 1420, -and he had met with considerable success in his task when he died at -Cosenza on the 15th of November 1434. In 1424 Louis received from King -Charles VII. the duchy of Touraine. - -Another titular king of Naples of this name was Louis, a son of Philip, -prince of Taranto. In 1346 he became the husband of Joanna I., queen of -Naples, and in 1352 he was crowned king. After making an attempt to -conquer Sicily he died on the 26th of May 1362. - - - - -LOUIS (893-911), surnamed the "Child," king of the Franks, son of the -emperor Arnulf, was born at Ottingen, designated by Arnulf as his -successor in Germany in 897, and crowned on the 4th of February 900. -Although he never received the imperial crown, he is sometimes referred -to as the emperor Louis IV. His chief adviser was Hatto I., archbishop -of Mainz; and during his reign the kingdom was ravaged by Hungarians and -torn with internal strife. He appears to have passed his time in -journeys from place to place, and in 910 was the nominal leader of an -expedition against the Hungarians which was defeated near Augsburg. -Louis, who was the last of the German Carolingians, died in August or -September 911 and was buried at Regensburg. - - See Regino von Prum, "Chronicon," in the _Monumenta Germaniae - historica. Scriptores_, Band i. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826); E. - Dummler, _Geschichte des ostfrankischen Reichs_ (Leipzig, 1887-1888); - O. Dietrich, _Beitrage zur Geschichte Arnolfs von Karnthen und Ludwigs - des Kindes_ (Berlin, 1890); and E. Muhlbacher, _Die Regesten des - Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern_ (Innsbruck, 1881). (A. W. H.*) - - - - -LOUIS OF NASSAU (1538-1574), son of William, count of Nassau, and -Juliana von Stolberg, and younger brother of William the Silent, took an -active part in the revolt of the Netherlands against Spanish domination. -He was one of the leaders of the league of nobles who signed the -document known as "the Compromise" in 1566, and a little later was a -member of the deputation who presented the petition of grievances called -"the Request" to the regent, Margaret of Parma. It was on this occasion -that the appellation of "the Beggars" (_les Gueux_) was first given to -the opponents of King Philip's policy. On the arrival of Alva at -Brussels, Count Louis, with his brother William, withdrew from the -Netherlands and raised a body of troops in defence of the patriot cause. -In the spring of 1568 Louis invaded Friesland, and at Heiligerlee, on -the 23rd of May, completely defeated a Spanish force under Count -Aremberg, who was killed. Alva then advanced to meet the invaders with a -large army, and at Jemmingen (July 21), with very slight loss, -annihilated the levies of Louis, who himself escaped by swimming from -the field across an estuary of the Ems. He now joined the army of his -brother William, which had in October to beat a hasty retreat before -Alva's superior skill. Then Louis, in company with his brothers William -and Henry, made his way across the French frontier to the camp of the -Huguenot leader, Admiral Coligny. Louis took an active part in the -campaign and fought heroically at Jarnac and Moncontour. In 1572 Louis, -not deterred by previous disaster, raised a small force in France, and, -suddenly entering Hainaut, captured Mons (May 23). Here he was besieged -by Don Frederick of Toledo, Alva's natural son, who blockaded all -approach to the town. William made an attempt to relieve his brother, -but failed, and Mons had to surrender (September 17). Louis, who was -sick with fever, withdrew to his ancestral home, Dillenburg, to recruit -his health, and then once more to devote his energies to the raising of -money and troops for another invasion of the Netherlands. In the hope of -drawing away the Spaniards from the siege of Leiden by a diversion in -the south, Louis, with his brothers John and Henry, at the head of a -force of mixed nationalities and little discipline, crossed the frontier -near Maastricht, and advanced as far as the Mookerheide near Nijmwegen. -Here he was attacked by a body of Spanish veterans under an experienced -leader, Sancho d'Avila, and speedily routed. In the disorderly flight -both Louis and his younger brother Henry, refusing to abandon the field, -lost their lives. Their bodies were never recovered. Thus perished at -the age of thirty-six one of the most chivalrous and gifted of a gallant -band of brothers, four of whom laid down their lives in their country's -cause. - - See P. J. Blok, _Lodewijk von Nassau, 1538-1574_ (The Hague, 1689), - and the _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. iii. chs. vi. and vii., and - bibliography (1904); also A. J. Van der Aa, _Biographisch woordenboek - der Nederlanden_ (22 vols., Haarlem, 1852-1878). - - - - -LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837), French statesman and -financier, was born at Toul (Meurthe) on the 13th of November 1755. At -the outbreak of the Revolution the abbe Louis (he had early taken -orders) had already some reputation as a financial expert. He was in -favour of the constitutional movement, and on the great festival of -federation (July 14, 1790) he assisted Talleyrand, then bishop of Autun, -to celebrate mass at the altar erected in the Champ de Mars. In 1792, -however, he emigrated to England, where he spent his time studying -English institutions and especially the financial system of Pitt. -Returning to France on the establishment of the Consulate he served -successively in the ministry of war, the council of state, and in the -finance department in Holland and in Paris. Made a baron of the empire -in 1809 he nevertheless supported the Bourbon restoration and was -minister of finance in 1814-1815. Baron Louis was deputy from 1815 to -1824 and from 1827 to 1832. He resumed the portfolio of finance in 1815, -which he held also in the Decazes ministry of 1818; he was the first -minister of finance under the government of Louis Philippe, and held the -same portfolio in 1831-1832. In 1832 he was made a peer of France and he -died on the 26th of August 1837. - - - - -LOUIS PHILIPPE I., king of the French (1773-1850), was the eldest son of -Louis Philip Joseph, duke of Orleans (known during the Revolution as -Philippe Egalite) and of Louise Marie Adelaide de Bourbon, daughter of -the duc de Penthievre, and was born at the Palais Royal in Paris on the -6th of October 1773. On his father's side he was descended from the -brother of Louis XIV., on his mother's from the count of Toulouse, -"legitimated" son of Louis XIV. and Madame de Montespan. The legend that -he was a supposititious child, really the son of an Italian police -constable named Chiapponi, is dealt with elsewhere (see MARIA STELLA, -countess of Newborough). The god-parents of the duke of Valois, as he -was entitled till 1785, were Louis XVI. and Queen Marie Antoinette; his -governess was the famous Madame de Genlis, to whose influence he -doubtless owed many of the qualities which later distinguished him: his -wide, if superficial knowledge, his orderliness, and perhaps his -parsimony. Known since 1785 as the duc de Chartres, he was sixteen at -the outbreak of the Revolution, into which--like his father--he threw -himself with ardour. In 1790 he joined the Jacobin Club, in which the -moderate elements still predominated, and was assiduous in attendance at -the debates of the National Assembly. He thus became a _persona grata_ -with the party in power; he was already a colonel of dragoons, and in -1792 he was given a command in the army of the North. As a -lieutenant-general, at the age of eighteen, he was present at the -cannonade of Valmy (Sept. 20) and played a conspicuous part in the -victory of Jemappes (Nov. 6). - -The republic had meanwhile been proclaimed, and the duc de Chartres, who -like his father had taken the name of _Egalite_, posed as its zealous -adherent. Fortunately for him, he was too young to be elected deputy to -the Convention, and while his father was voting for the death of Louis -XVI. he was serving under Dumouriez in Holland. He shared in the -disastrous day of Neerwinden (March 18, 1793); was an accomplice of -Dumouriez in the plot to march on Paris and overthrow the republic, and -on the 5th of April escaped with him from the enraged soldiers into the -Austrian lines. He was destined not to return to France for twenty -years. He went first, with his sister Madame Adelaide, to Switzerland -where he obtained a situation for a few months as professor in the -college of Reichenau under an assumed name,[1] mainly in order to escape -from the fury of the _emigres_. The execution of his father in November -1793 had made him duke of Orleans, and he now became the centre of the -intrigues of the Orleanist party. In 1795 he was at Hamburg with -Dumouriez, who still hoped to make him king. With characteristic caution -Louis Philippe refused to commit himself by any overt pretensions, and -announced his intention of going to America; but in the hope that -something might happen in France to his advantage, he postponed his -departure, travelling instead through the Scandinavian countries as far -north as Lapland. But in 1796, the Directory having offered to release -his mother and his two brothers, who had been kept in prison since the -Terror, on condition that he went to America, he set sail for the United -States, and in October settled in Philadelphia, where in February 1797 -he was joined by his brothers the duc de Montpensier and the comte de -Beaujolais. Two years were spent by them in travels in New England, the -region of the Great Lakes, and of the Mississippi; then the news of the -_coup d'etat_ of 18 Brumaire decided them to return to Europe. They -returned in 1800, only to find Napoleon Bonaparte's power firmly -established. Immediately on his arrival, in February 1800, the duke of -Orleans, at the suggestion of Dumouriez, sought an interview with the -comte d'Artois, through whose instrumentality he was reconciled with the -exiled king Louis XVIII., who bestowed upon his brothers the order of -the Saint Esprit. The duke, however, refused to join the army of Conde -and to fight against France, an attitude in which he persisted -throughout, while maintaining his loyalty to the king.[2] He settled -with his brothers at Twickenham, near London, where he lived till -1807--for the most part in studious retirement. - -On the 18th of May 1807 the duc de Montpensier died at Christchurch in -Hampshire, where he had been taken for change of air, of consumption. -The comte de Beaujolais was ill of the same disease and in 1808 the duke -took him to Malta, where he died on the 29th of May. The duke now, in -response to an invitation from King Ferdinand IV., visited Palermo -where, on the 25th of November 1809 he married Princess Maria Amelia, -the king's daughter. He remained in Sicily until the news of Napoleon's -abdication recalled him to France. He was cordially received by Louis -XVIII.; his military rank was confirmed, he was named colonel-general of -hussars, and such of the vast Orleans estates as had not been sold were -restored to him by royal ordinance. The object may have been, as M. -Debidour suggests, to compromise him with the revolutionary parties and -to bind him to the throne; but it is more probable that it was no more -than an expression of the good will which the king had shown him ever -since 1800. The immediate effect was to make him enormously rich, his -wealth being increased by his natural aptitude for business until, after -the death of his mother in 1821, his fortune was reckoned at some -L8,000,000. - -Meanwhile, in the heated atmosphere of the reaction, his sympathy with -the Liberal opposition brought him again under suspicion. His attitude -in the House of Peers in the autumn of 1815 cost him a two years' exile -to Twickenham; he courted popularity by having his children educated _en -bourgeois_ at the public schools; and the Palais Royal became the -rendezvous of all the leaders of that middle-class opinion by which he -was ultimately to be raised to the throne. - -His opportunity came with the revolution of 1830. During the three "July -days" the duke kept himself discreetly in the background, retiring first -to Neuilly, then to Raincy. Meanwhile, Thiers issued a proclamation -pointing out that a Republic would embroil France with all Europe, while -the duke of Orleans, who was "a prince devoted to the principles of the -Revolution" and had "carried the tricolour under fire" would be a -"citizen king" such as the country desired. This view was that of the -rump of the chamber still sitting at the Palais Bourbon, and a -deputation headed by Thiers and Laffitte waited upon the duke to invite -him to place himself at the head of affairs. He returned with them to -Paris on the 30th, and was elected by the deputies lieutenant-general of -the realm. The next day, wrapped in a tricolour scarf and preceded by a -drummer, he went on foot to the Hotel de Ville--the headquarters of the -republican party--where he was publicly embraced by Lafayette as a -symbol that the republicans acknowledged the impossibility of realizing -their own ideals and were prepared to accept a monarchy based on the -popular will. Hitherto, in letters to Charles X., he had protested the -loyalty of his intentions,[3] and the king now nominated him -lieutenant-general and then, abdicating in favour of his grandson the -comte de Chambord appointed him regent. On the 7th of August, however, -the Chamber by a large majority declared Charles X. deposed, and -proclaimed Louis Philippe "King of the French, by the grace of God and -the will of the people." - -The career of Louis Philippe as King of the French is dealt with -elsewhere (see FRANCE: _History_). Here it must suffice to note -something of his personal attitude towards affairs and the general -effects which this produced. For the trappings of authority he cared -little. To conciliate the revolutionary passion for equality he was -content to veil his kingship for a while under a middle-class disguise. -He erased the royal lilies from the panels of his carriages; and the -Palais Royal, like the White House at Washington, stood open to all and -sundry who cared to come and shake hands with the head of the state. -This pose served to keep the democrats of the capital in a good temper, -and so leave him free to consolidate the somewhat unstable foundation of -his throne and to persuade his European fellow-sovereigns to acknowledge -in him not a revolutionary but a conservative force. But when once his -position at home and abroad had been established, it became increasingly -clear that he possessed all the Bourbon tenaciousness of personal power. -When a "party of Resistance" came into office with Casimir-Perier in -March 1831, the speech from the throne proclaimed that "France has -desired that the monarchy should become national, it does not desire -that it should be powerless"; and the migration of the royal family to -the Tuileries symbolized the right of the king not only to reign but to -rule. Republican and Socialist agitation, culminating in a series of -dangerous risings, strengthened the position of the king as defender of -middle-class interest; and since the middle classes constituted the -_pays legal_ which alone was represented in Parliament, he came to -regard his position as unassailable, especially after the suppression of -the risings under Blanqui and Barbes in 1839. Little by little his -policy, always supported by a majority in a house of representatives -elected by a corrupt and narrow franchise, became more reactionary and -purely dynastic. His position in France seeming to be unassailable, he -sought to strengthen it in Europe by family alliances. The fact that his -daughter Louise was the consort of Leopold I., king of the Belgians, had -brought him into intimate and cordial relations with the English court, -which did much to cement the _entente cordiale_ with Great Britain. -Broken in 1840 during the affair of Mehemet Ali (q.v.) the entente was -patched up in 1841 by the Straits Convention and re-cemented by visits -paid by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert to the Chateau d'Eu in 1843 and -1845 and of Louis Philippe to Windsor in 1844, only to be irretrievably -wrecked by the affair of the "Spanish marriages," a deliberate attempt -to revive the traditional Bourbon policy of French predominance in -Spain. If in this matter Louis Philippe had seemed to sacrifice the -international position of France to dynastic interests, his attempt to -re-establish it by allying himself with the reactionary monarchies -against the Liberals of Switzerland finally alienated from him the -French Liberal opinion on which his authority was based. When, in -February 1848, Paris rose against him, he found that he was practically -isolated in France. - -Charles X., after abdicating, had made a dignified exit from France, -marching to the coast surrounded by the cavalry, infantry and artillery -of his Guard. Louis Philippe was less happily situated. Escaping with -the queen from the Tuileries by a back entrance, he made his way with -her in disguise to Honfleur, where the royal couple found refuge in a -gardener's cottage. They were ultimately smuggled out of the country by -the British consul at Havre as Mr and Mrs Smith,[4] arriving at Newhaven -"unprovided with anything but the clothes they wore." They settled at -Claremont, placed at their disposal by Queen Victoria, under the -_incognito_ of count and countess of Neuilly. Here on the 26th of August -1850, Louis Philippe died. - -The character of Louis Philippe is admirably traced by Queen Victoria in -a memorandum of May 2, 1855, in which she compares him with Napoleon -III. She speaks of his "vast knowledge upon all and every subject," and -"his great activity of mind." He was, unlike Napoleon, "_thoroughly -French_ in character, possessing all the liveliness and talkativeness of -that people." But she also speaks of the "tricks and over-reachings" -practised by him, "who in great as well as in small things took a -pleasure in being cleverer and more cunning than others, often when -there was no advantage to be gained by it, and which was, -unfortunately, strikingly displayed in the transactions connected with -the Spanish marriages, which led to the king's downfall, and ruined him -in the eyes of all Europe" (_Letters_, pop. ed., iii. 122). - -Louis Philippe had eight children. His eldest son, the popular Ferdinand -Philippe, duke of Orleans (b. 1810), who had married Princess Helena of -Mecklenburg, was killed in a carriage accident on the 13th of July 1842, -leaving two sons, the comte de Paris and the duc de Chartres. The other -children were Louise, consort of Leopold I., king of the Belgians; -Marie, who married Prince Alexander of Wurttemberg and died in 1839; -Louis Charles, duc de Nemours; Clementine, married to the duke of -Coburg-Kohary; Francois Ferdinand, prince de Joinville; Henri Eugene, -duc d'Aumale (q.v.); Antoine Philippe, duc de Montpensier, who married -the Infanta, younger sister of Queen Isabella of Spain. - - AUTHORITIES.--F. A. Gruyer, _La Jeunesse du roi Louis-Philippe, - d'apres les pourtraits et des tableaux_ (Paris, 1909), edition de - luxe, with beautiful reproductions of portraits, miniatures, &c.; - Marquis de Flers, _Louis-Philippe, vie anecdotique, 1773-1850_ (Paris, - 1891); E. Daudet, _Hist. de l'emigration_ (3 vols., Paris, 1886-1890). - Of general works on Louis Philippe's reign may be mentioned Louis - Blanc, _Hist. de Dix Ans, 1830-1840_ (5 vols., Paris, 1841-1844), from - the republican point of view; J. O. d'Haussonville, _Hist. de la - politique exterieure de la monarchie de juillet, 1830-1848_ (2 vols., - Paris, 1850); V. de Nouvion, _Hist. de Louis-Philippe_ (4 vols., - Paris, 1857-1861); F. Guizot, _France under Louis Philippe, 1841-1847_ - (Eng. trans., 1865); Karl Hillebrand, _Geschichte Frankreichs von der - Thronbesteigung Louis Philippes, 1830-1841_ (2 vols., Gotha, - 1877-1879); V. du Bled, _Hist. de la monarchie de juillet_ (2 vols., - Paris, 1887); P. Thureau-Dangin, _Hist. de la monarchie de juillet_ - (Paris, 1887, &c.); A. Malet, "La France sous la monarchie de - juillet," in Lavisse and Rambaud's _Hist. Generale_, vol. x. ch. x. - (Paris, 1898); G. Weill, _La France sous la monarchie de juillet_ - (Paris, 1902); Emile Bourgeois, "The Orleans Monarchy," ch. xv. of - vol. x., and "The Fall of Constitutionalism in France," ch. ii. of - vol. xi. of the _Cambridge Modern History_ (Cambridge, 1907 and 1909). - Further works will be found in the bibliographies attached by M. - Bourgeois to his chapters (vol. x. p. 844, vol. xi. p. 874; the latter - including works on the revolution of 1848 and the Second Republic). To - the list of published correspondence and memoirs there mentioned may - be added the _Chronique_ of the duchesse de Dino (Paris, 1909). - - Louis Philippe himself published the _Journal du duc de Chartres, - 1790-1791; Mon Journal, evenements de 1815_ (2 vols., 1849); - _Discours, allocutions et reponses de S. M. Louis-Philippe, - 1830-1846_; and after his death was issued his _Correspondance, - memoire et discours inedits_ (Paris, 1863). (W. A. P.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] As M. Chabaud de la Tour. He was examined as to his fitness - before being appointed. Gruyer, p. 165. - - [2] This at least was his own claim and the _Orleanist_ view. The - matter became a question of partisan controversy, the legitimists - asserting that he frequently offered to serve against France, but - that his offers were contemptuously refused. A. Debidour in the - article "Louis-Philippe" in _La Grande Encyclopedie_ supports the - latter view; but see Gruyer, _La Jeunesse_, and E. Daudet, "Une - reconciliation de famille en 1800," in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_, - Sept. 15, 1905, p. 301. M. Daudet gives the account of the interview - left by the comte d'Artois, and he also makes it clear that Louis - Philippe, while protesting his loyalty to the head of his house, did - not disguise his opinion that a Restoration would only be possible if - the king accepted the essential changes made by the Revolution. - - [3] To say that these protestations were hypocritical is to assume - too much. Personal ambition doubtless played a part; but he must have - soon realized that the French people had wearied of "legitimism" and - that a regency in the circumstances was impossible. - - [4] There is a vivid account in Mr Featherstonhaugh to Lord - Palmerston, Havre, March 3, 1848, in _The Letters of Queen Victoria_ - (pop. ed., ii. 156). - - - - -LOUISBURG, a town and port of entry of Cape Breton county, Nova Scotia, -Canada, on the Sydney & Louisburg railway, 39 m. from Sydney. Pop. -(1901) 1588. Under the French _regime_, Louisburg was second only to -Quebec. A fortress was erected at enormous expense, and the city was the -centre of the cod-fisheries. The fortress was, however, captured in 1745 -by the American colonists, under Sir William Pepperrell (1696-1759), -assisted by the British fleet, and again in 1758 by a British land and -sea force under General Jeffrey Amherst (1717-1797) and Admiral -Boscawen. The jealousy of the British settlement of Halifax led to its -almost utter destruction, and only a few case-mates now remain. Under -English rule a fishing village grew up on the other side of the harbour, -and has now become the winter shipping port of the Dominion Coal -Company. The harbour is deep, spacious and open all the year round, -though occasionally blocked by drift ice in the spring. - - - - -LOUISE [AUGUSTE WILHELMINE AMALIE LUISE] (1776-1810), queen of Prussia, -was born on the 10th of March 1776 in Hanover, where her father, Prince -Charles of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, was field-marshal of the household -brigade. Her mother was a princess of Hesse-Darmstadt. In 1793 Louise -met at Frankfort the crown prince of Prussia, afterwards King Frederick -William III., who was so fascinated by her beauty, and by the nobleness -of her character, that he asked her to become his wife. They were -married on the 24th of December of the same year. As queen of Prussia -she commanded universal respect and affection, and nothing in Prussian -history is more pathetic than the dignity and unflinching courage with -which she bore the sufferings inflicted on her and her family during the -war between Prussia and France. After the battle of Jena she went with -her husband to Konigsberg, and when the battles of Eylau and Friedland -had placed Prussia absolutely at the mercy of France, she made a -personal appeal to Napoleon at his headquarters in Tilsit, but without -success. Early in 1808 she accompanied the king from Memel to -Konigsberg, whence, towards the end of the year, she visited St -Petersburg, returning to Berlin on the 23rd of December 1809. During the -war Napoleon attempted to destroy the queen's reputation, but the only -effect of his charges in Prussia was to make her more deeply beloved. On -the 19th of July 1810 she died in her husband's arms, while visiting her -father in Strelitz. She was buried in the garden of the palace at -Charlottenburg, where a mausoleum, containing a fine recumbent statue by -Rauch, was built over her grave. In 1840 her husband was buried by her -side. The Louise Foundation (Luisenstift) for the education of girls was -established in her honour, and in 1814 Frederick William III. instituted -the Order of Louise (Luisenorden). In 1880 a statue of Queen Louise was -erected in the Thiergarten at Berlin. - - See F. Adami, _Luise, Konigin von Preussen_ (7th ed., 1875); E. Engel, - _Konigin Luise_ (1876); A. Kluckhohn, _Luise, Konigin von Preussen_ - (1876); Mommsen and Treitschke, _Konigin Luise_ (1876); in English, - Hudson, _Life and Times of Louisa, Queen of Prussia_ (1874); G. Horn, - _Das Buch von der Konigin Luise_ (Berlin, 1883); A. Lonke, _Konigin - Luise von Preussen_ (Leipzig, 1903); H. von Petersdorff, "Konigin - Luise," _Frauenleben_, Bd. i. (Bielefeld, 1903, 2nd ed., 1904). - - - - -LOUISE OF SAVOY (1476-1531), duchess of Angouleme, mother of Francis I. -of France, was daughter of a cadet of the house of Savoy, Philip, count -of Bresse, afterwards duke of Savoy. Through her mother, Marguerite de -Bourbon, she was niece of Pierre de Bourbon, sire de Beaujeu, afterwards -duke of Bourbon. At the age of twelve she was married to Charles of -Valois, count of Angouleme, great-grandson of King Charles V. The count -died in 1496, leaving her the mother of two children, Marguerite (b. -1492) and Francis (b. 1494). The accession of Louis XII., who was -childless, made Francis of Angouleme the heir-presumptive to the throne -of France. Louise brought her children to the court, and received -Amboise as her residence. She lived henceforth in fear lest Louis should -have a son; and in consequence there was a secret rivalry between her -and the queen, Anne of Brittany. Finally, her son became king on the 1st -of January 1515 by the death of Louis XII. From him Louise received the -county of Angouleme, which was erected into a duchy, the duchy of Anjou, -and the counties of Maine and Beaufort. She was then given the title of -"Madame." From 1515 to her death, she took the chief share in the -government. The part she played has been variously judged, and is not -yet completely elucidated. It is certain that Louise had a clear head, -practical good sense and tenacity. In the critical situation after the -battle of Pavia (1525) she proved herself equal to the emergency, -maintained order in the kingdom, and manoeuvred very skilfully to detach -Henry VIII. of England from the imperial alliance. But she appears to -have been passionate, exceedingly rapacious and ever careful of her own -interest. In her malignant disputes with the constable de Bourbon on the -question of his wife's succession, she goaded him to extreme measures, -and her rapacity showed itself also in her dealings with the -_surintendant des finances_, J. de Beaune, baron de Samblancay (d. -1527), who diverted the money intended for the French soldiers in Italy -into the coffers of the queen, and suffered death in consequence. She -died in 1531, and Francis reunited to the crown her domains, which -comprised the Bourbonnais, Beaujolais, Auvergne, la Marche, Angoumois, -Maine and Anjou. - - There is extant a _Journal_ of Louise of Savoy, the authenticity of - which seems certain. It consists of brief notes--generally very exact - and sometimes ironical--which go as far as the year 1522. The only - trustworthy text is that published by Guichenon in his _Histoire - genealogique de la maison de Savoie_ (ed. of 1778-1780, vol. iv.). - - See _Poesies de Francois I^er et de Louise de Savoie ..._, ed. by - Champollion-Figeac (1847); De Maulde, _Louise de Savoie et Francois - I^er_ (1895); G. Jacqueton, _La Politique exterieure de Louise de - Savoie ..._ (1892); H. Hauser, "Etude critique sur le Journal de - Louise de Savoie," in the _Revue historique_, vol. 86 (1904). - - - - -LOUISIADE ARCHIPELAGO, a chain of islands in the Pacific Ocean, -extending south-eastward from the easternmost promontory of New Guinea, -and included in the Australian territory of Papua (British New Guinea). -The islands number over eighty, and are interspersed with reefs. They -are rich in tropical forest products, and gold has been discovered on -the chief island, Tagula or South-east (area 380 sq. m.) and on Misima -or St Aignan. The natives are of Papuan type, and practise cannibalism. -The islands were probably observed by Torres in 1606, but were named by -L. A. de Bougainville in 1768 after Louis XV. - - - - -LOUISIANA, one of the Southern States of the United States of America, -lying on the N. coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Beginning on the N., its -boundary follows eastward the parallel of 33 deg. N., separating -Louisiana from Arkansas; then descends the Mississippi river, separating -it from the state of Mississippi, southward to 31 deg.; passes eastward -on this parallel to the Pearl river, still with the state of Mississippi -on the E.; and descends this river to the Gulf. On the W. the Sabine -river, from the Gulf to 32 deg. N., and, thence to the parallel of 33 -deg., a line a little W. of (and parallel to) the meridian of 94 deg. -W., separate Louisiana from Texas. Including islands in the Gulf, the -stretch of latitude is approximately 4 deg. and of longitude 5 deg. The -total area is 48,506 sq. m., of which 3097 sq. m. are water surface -(including 1060 sq. m. of landlocked coastal bays called "lakes"). The -coast line is about 1500 m. - - _Physical Features._--Geologically Louisiana is a very recent - creation, and belongs to the "Coastal Plain Province." Most of the - rocks or soils composing its surface were formed as submarine - deposits; the easternmost and southernmost parts are true river - deposits. These facts are the key to the state's chorography. The - average elevation of the state above the sea is only about 75 ft., and - practically the only parts more than 400 ft. high are hills in Sabine, - Claiborne and Vernon parishes. The physiographic features are few and - very simple. The essential elements are five[1]: diluvial plains, - coast marshes, prairies, "bluffs" and "pine-hills" (to use the local - nomenclature). These were successive stages in the geologic process - which has created, and is still actively modifying, the state. They - are all seen, spread from N. to S., west of the Mississippi, and also, - save only the prairies, in the so-called "Florida parishes" E. of the - Mississippi. - - These different elements in the region W. of the Mississippi are - arranged from N. to S. in the order of decreasing geologic age and - maturity. Beginning with elevations of about 400 ft. near the Arkansas - line, there is a gentle slope toward the S.E. The northern part can - best be regarded as a low plateau (once marine sediments) sloping - southward, traversed by the large diluvial valleys of the Mississippi, - Red and Ouachita rivers, and recut by smaller tributaries into smaller - plateaus and rather uniform flat-topped hills. The "bluffs" (remnants - of an eroded plain formed of alluvion deposits over an old, mature and - drowned topography) run through the second tier of parishes W. of the - Mississippi above the Red river. Below this river prairie areas become - increasingly common, constituting the entire S.W. corner of the state. - They are usually only 20 to 30 ft. above the sea in this district, - never above 70, and are generally treeless except for marginal timber - along the sluggish, meandering streams. One of their peculiar - features--the sandy circular "mounds," 2 to 10 ft. high and 20 to 30 - or even 50 ft. in diameter, sometimes surmounted by trees in the midst - of a treeless plain and sometimes arranged in circles and on radii, - and decreasing in size with distance from the centre of the field--has - been variously explained. The mounds were probably formed by some - gentle eruptive action like that exhibited in the "mud hills" along - the Mississippi below New Orleans; but no explanation is generally - accepted. The prairies shade off into the coast marshes. This fringe - of wooded swamp and sea marsh is generally 20 to 30, but in places - even 50 and 60 m. in width. Where the marsh is open and grassy, - flooded only at high tides or in rainy seasons, and the ground firm - enough to bear cattle, it is used as range. Considerable tracts have - also been diked and reclaimed for cotton, sugar and especially for - rice culture. The tidal action of the gulf is so slight and the - marshes are so low that perfect drainage cannot be obtained through - tide gates, which must therefore be supplemented by pumping machinery - when rains are heavy or landward winds long prevail. Slight ridges - along the streams and bayous which traverse it, and occasional patches - of slightly elevated prairie, relieve in a measure the monotonous - expanse. It is in and along the borders of this coast swamp region - that most of the rice and much of the sugar cane of the state are - grown. Long bar-like "islands" (conspicuous high land rising above the - marsh and prairie)--Orange, Petite Anse, Grand Cote, Cote Blanche and - Belle Isle--offer very interesting topographical and geological - problems. "Trembling prairies"--land that trembles under the tread of - men or cattle--are common near the coast. Most of the swamp fringe is - reclaimable. The marshes encroach most upon the parishes of St - Charles, Orleans and Plaquemines. In St Charles the cultivable strip - of land along the river is only about 3 m. wide. In Orleans the city - of New Orleans occupies nearly all the high ground and encroaches on - the swamps. In Plaquemines there is practically no cultivable land - below Forts Jackson and St Philip, and above there is only a narrow - strip. - - The alluvial lands include the river flood plains. The principal - rivers are the Mississippi, which flows nearly 600 m. through and - along the border of the state, the Red river, the Ouachita (or - Washita), Sabine and Pearl; all except the last are navigable at all - stages of the water. There are many "bayous," several of which are of - great importance, both for navigation and for drainage. They may be - characterized as secondary outlets of the rivers or flood - distributaries. Among them are Bayou Teche, Bayou Plaquemine, - Atchafalaya Bayou,[2] Bayou Lafourche and Bayou Boeuf. Almost all - secondary water-courses, particularly if they have sluggish currents, - are known as bayous. Some might well be called lakes, and others - rivers. The alluvial portion of the state, especially below the mouth - of the Red river, is an intricate network of these bayous, which, - before their closure by a levee system, served partially, in time of - flood, to carry off the escaping surplus of river waters. They are - comparatively inactive at all seasons; indeed, the action of the tides - and back-waters and the tangle of vegetation in the sombre swamps and - forests through which they run, often render their currents almost - imperceptible at ordinary water. Navigable waters are said to - penetrate all but four of the parishes of the state, their total - length approximating 3800 m. - - Each of the larger streams, as well as a large proportion of the - smaller ones, is accompanied by a belt of bottom land, of greater or - less width, lying low as regards the stream, and liable to overflow at - times of high water. These flood plains form collectively what is - known as the alluvial region, which extends in a broad belt down the - Mississippi, from the mouth of the Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico, and up - the Ouachita and its branches and the Red river to and beyond the - limits of the state. Its breadth along the Mississippi within - Louisiana ranges from 10 to 50 or 60 m., and that along the Red river - and the Ouachita has an average breadth of 10 m. Through its great - flood-plain the Mississippi river winds upon the summit of a ridge - formed by its own deposits. In each direction the country falls away - in a succession of minor undulations, the summits of the ridges being - occupied by the streams and bayous. Nearly all of this vast - flood-plain lies below the level of high water in the Mississippi, - and, but for the protection afforded by the levees, every considerable - rise of its waters would inundate vast areas of fertile and cultivated - land. The low regions of Louisiana, including the alluvial lands and - the coast swamps, comprise about 20,000 sq. m., or nearly one-half the - area of the state. The remainder consists of the uplands of prairie - and forest. - - The alluvial region of the state in 1909 was mainly protected against - overflow from the Mississippi river by 754 m. of levee on the - Mississippi river within the state, and 84 m. on the Mississippi - river, Cypress and Amos Bayou in Arkansas, forming part of the general - system which extends through other states, 1000 m. up to the highlands - about the junction of the Ohio river. The state and the national - government co-operate in the construction and maintenance of this - system, but the Federal government did not give material aid (the only - exception being the grant of swamp lands in 1850) until the - exceptionally disastrous flood in 1882. For about a century and a half - before that time, levee building had been undertaken in a more or less - spasmodic and tentative way, first by riparian proprietors, then by - local combinations of public and private interests, and finally by the - state, acting through levee districts, advised by a Board of - Engineers. The Federal government, after its participation in the - work, acted through a Board of Engineers, known as the "Mississippi - River Commission." The system of 754 m. of Mississippi river levees, - within the state, was built almost entirely after 1866, and represents - an expenditure of about $43,000,000 for primary construction alone; of - this sum, the national government contributed probably a third (the - state expended about $24,000,000 on levees before the Civil War). Some - of the levees, especially those in swampy regions where outlet bayous - are closed, are of extraordinary solidity and dimensions, being 20 to - 40 ft. high, or even more, across streams or bayous--formerly - outlets--with bases of 8 or 10 ft. to one of height. The task of - maintenance consists almost entirely in closing the gaps which occur - when the banks on which the levees are built cave into the river. - Levee systems on some of the interior or tributary rivers, aggregating - some 602 m., are exclusively built and maintained by the state. - Louisiana also contributes largely to the 84 m. of levee in Arkansas, - necessary to its security from overflow. The improvement of bayous, - channels, the construction of canals and the drainage of swamp lands - also contribute to the protection of the state. - - The lakes are mainly in three classes. First come the coast lagoons, - many of which are merely landlocked salt-water bays, the waters of - which rise and fall with the tides. Of this class are Pontchartrain, - Borgne, Maurepas and Sabine. These are simply parts of the sea which - have escaped the filling-in process carried on by the great river and - the lesser streams. A second class, called "ox-bow" lakes, large in - numbers but small in area, includes ordinary cut-off meanders along - the Mississippi and Red rivers. A third class, those upon the Red - river and its branches, are caused mainly by the partial stoppage of - the water above Shreveport by the "raft," a mass of drift such as - frequently gathers in western rivers, which for a distance of 45 m. - almost completely closed the channel until it was broken up by - government engineers. These lakes are much larger at flood season than - at other times, and have been much reduced in size by the cutting of a - channel through the raft. Lakes of this class are sometimes formed by - the choking of the mouth of feeble tributaries by silt deposited by - the Red river where the currents meet. - - _Mineral Resources._--Mineral resources are few, but important. In the - Tertiary region are found small quantities of iron ore and an - indifferent brown coal. The important mineral products are salt, - sulphur, petroleum and natural gas. The deposit of rock salt on Petite - Anse Island, in the coast swamp region, has been extensively worked - since its discovery during the Civil War. The deposit is in places - 1000 ft. thick, and yields salt of extraordinary purity (sometimes 99% - pure). There are large deposits also on Orange Island (in places at - least 1800 ft. thick), on Week's Island, on Belle Isle and probably - beneath the intervening marshes. In 1907 Louisiana ranked sixth among - the salt-producing states of the country (after New York, Michigan, - Ohio, Kansas and California), its output being valued at $226,892, - only a few hundred dollars more than that of Texas. Near Lake Charles, - at Sulphur, are very extraordinary sulphur deposits. The beds lie - several (for the most part four to six) hundred feet underground and - are of disputed origin. Many regard them as products of an extinct - volcano; according to others they are of vegetable origin (they are - found in conjunction with gypsum). They were discovered before 1870 by - searchers after petroleum, but their exploitation remained in the - experimental stage until about 1900. The sulphur is dissolved by - superheated water forced down pipes, and the water with sulphur in - solution is forced upward by hot air pressure through other pipes; the - sulphur comes, 99% pure, to the surface of the ground, where it is - cooled in immense bins, and then broken up and loaded directly upon - cars for shipment. These mines divide with the Sicilian mines the - control of the sulphur market of the world. The value of the sulphur - taken from the mines of Louisiana in 1907 was a little more than - $5,000,000. Evidences of petroleum were discovered long ago, in the - very field where in recent years the Beaumont and Vinton wells were - bored. In 1909 Jennings was the chief field in Louisiana, lesser - fields being at Welsh, Anse la Butte, Caddo and Vinton. The Jennings - field, one of the greatest in the United States, produced up to and - including 1907 more than 26,000,000 barrels of high-grade oil, - twelve-thirteenths of which came from an area of only 50 acres, one - well producing a tenth of the entire output. In 1907 the state - produced 5,000,221 barrels of petroleum, valued at $4,063,033. Natural - gas is found in Caddo parish, about 20 m. N. of Shreveport. The depth - of the wells is from 840 to 2150 ft.; two wells completed in 1907 had - a daily capacity estimated at 35,000,000 to 50,000,000 ft. Shreveport, - Oil City, Blanchard, Mooringsport, Bossier City and Texarkana are - supplied with natural gas by pipe lines from this field. Kaolin is - found in the state; in 1907 the total value of all clay products was - $928,579. - - _Climate._--The climate is semi-tropical and exceptionally equable - over large areas. In the S. and S.E. the equable temperature is - largely the effect of the network of bays, bayous and lakes, and - throughout the state the climate is materially influenced by the - prevailing southerly winds from the Gulf of Mexico. Some daily - variation in the temperature of adjoining localities is caused by a - dark soil in the one and a light soil in the other, but the - differences of mean annual temperature are almost wholly due to - differences of latitude and elevation. The mean annual temperature for - a period of nineteen years (Jan. 1888 to Dec. 1906) ranged from 70 - deg. F. at Port Eads, in the extreme S.E., to 65 deg. F. at Lake - Providence, in the N.E. The mean temperature of July, the hottest - month, is comparatively uniform over the state, varying only from 81 - deg. to 83 deg.; the mean for January, the coldest month, varies from - 46 deg. in the extreme north to 56 deg. in the extreme south. Even in - the coldest localities eight or nine months are wholly free from - frost, and in the coast parishes frost occurs only a few days in each - year. Rainfall is usually heavy in the S.E., but it decreases toward - the N.W. As much as 85.6 in. have fallen within a year at New Orleans, - but in this locality the average for a year is about 57.6 in.; at - Shreveport the average is 46 in., and for the entire state it is 55 - in. Much more rain falls in summer than in any other season, but in - some parts the heaviest rainfall is in the spring and in others in the - winter. A light fall of snow is not uncommon in the northern parishes, - but in the southern part of the state snow falls not oftener than once - in three to five years. Hailstorms are infrequent everywhere, but - especially so in the south. Only a fourth to a half of the days of - the different months are wholly or partly clear even in the north, and - in the same district the monthly means of relative humidity vary from - 65 to 70. - - [Illustration: Map of Louisiana.] - - _Fauna._--The entire state is included within the Austro-riparian life - zone; the higher portions fall within the Carolinian area and the - lower portions, including the Gulf and the Mississippi embayment - almost to the N.E. corner of the state, constitute a special - semi-tropical region. The native fauna of the state resembles in its - general features that of the other Gulf states. The feral fauna was - once rather varied. Black bears, wolves and deer are not yet extinct, - and more rarely a "wild cat" (lynx) or "panther" (puma) is seen in the - swamps. Of smaller mammals, raccoons, squirrels and opossums are very - common. Every bayou contains alligators; and reptiles of various - species, such as turtles, lizards, horned toads, rattlesnakes and - moccasins are abundant. Shrimps, frogs (of great commercial - importance), terrapin, clams and oysters are common. Only in very - recent years have oysters, though plentiful, become of competitive - importance in the national market; they are greatly favoured by state - protective legislation. In 1904 a state oyster commission was created - to supplant the independent control by the parishes. An important - boundary dispute with Mississippi arose over beds lying near the state - line. The state leases the beds at a low annual rental in tracts - (limited for each person, firm or corporation to 1000 acres), and - draws from them a considerable revenue. The avifauna is varied and - abundant, comprising eagles, vultures (protected by law), hawks, owls, - pelicans, cranes, turkeys, geese, "partridges" (called quail or "Bob - White" elsewhere), ducks, &c., besides numerous smaller species, many - of which are brilliant of plumage but harsh of voice. - - _Flora._--Heavy rainfall, high temperature and fertile soil combine to - cover the greater part of the state, and particularly the alluvial - regions and the coast swamps, with a most luxuriant subtropical - vegetation, both arborescent and herbaceous. Louisiana is justly - celebrated for the beauty and fragrance of its flowers. The range of - temperature is not sufficient to give the variety of annual wild - flowers of more northern climates; nevertheless flowers cover the - bottom lands and uplands in great profusion. The upland flora is the - more diversified. Flowering annuals are mainly aquatic. Water lilies, - water hyacinths, which are an obstruction in many streams, and irises - in rich variety give colour to the coast wastes and sombre bayous. - Notable among the flora are roses, japonicas, hibiscus shrubs of - various species, poinsettias, tea olives, crepe myrtle, jasmines, - magnolias, camellias, oleanders, chrysanthemums, geraniums and - plumbagos. The value and variety of the timber are very great. Much of - the river swamp region is covered with cypress trees festooned with - Spanish moss. The most common species in the alluvial regions and, to - a less degree, in the drier portions of the swamps and in the stream - bottoms of the prairies are various oaks, black, sweet and tupelo gum, - holly, cotton-wood, poplar, magnolia sweet bay, the tulip tree, - catalpa, black walnut, pecans, hickories, ash, beech and short-leaf - pine. On drier and higher soils are the persimmon, sassafras, red - maple, elm, black haw, hawthorn, various oaks (in all 10 species - occur), hickories and splendid forests of long-leaf and loblolly - yellow pine. - - _Forestry._--These forests are the greatest and finest of their kind - remaining in the United States. In 1898 it was estimated by Henry - Gannett (followed by the Federal census of 1900) that the timbered - area covered 28,300 sq. m. Professor C. S. Sargent estimated in 1884 - that the stand of short-leaf and long-leaf pines aggregated - respectively 21,625 and 26,558 million feet. The timber product of - 1900 ($17,294,444) was almost ten times that of 1880 ($1,764,640); and - in 1905 the product value ($35,192,374) was more than twice that of - 1900. Nevertheless, in 1900 the cypress forests remained practically - untouched, only slight impression had been made upon the pine areas, - and the hard-wood forests, except that they had been culled of their - choicest oak, remained in their primal state (U.S. census). Between - 1900 and 1905 furniture factories and planing mills became somewhat - important. Pond pine occurs only near the Pearl river. Curly pine is - fairly abundant. The eastern pine belt is composed of the long-leaf - pine, interspersed with some loblolly. It covers an area of about 3900 - sq. m. The south-western pine belt contains the heaviest growth of - long-leaf pine timber in the world, covering an area of about 4200 sq. - m., and occasionally interspersed with short-leaf pine. The short-leaf - growth is especially heavy in the north-western portion of the state, - while the long-leaf is found mainly in large masses N. and S. of the - Red river around Alexandria as a centre. The cypress forests of the - alluvial and overflowed lands in the S. of the state are among the - largest and the most heavily timbered known. The hard-woods are found - in the river bottoms throughout the state. - -_Agriculture and Soils._--Agriculture is the chief industry of the -State. In 1900 26.2% of the land was in farms, and of this area about -two-fifths was improved. The size of the average farm decreased in the -two preceding decades from 171.3 to 95.4 acres. The percentage of farms -operated by owners (i.e. owners, part owners, owners and tenants, and -managers) fell from 64.8 to 42.1% from 1880 to 1900, and the percentage -operated by cash tenants increased from 13.8 in 1880 to 24.9 in 1900, -and by share tenants from 21.5 in 1880 to 33.0 in 1900; the percentage -of farms operated by white farmers was 49.8 in 1900. The value of farm -property, $198,536,906 in 1900, increased 79.8% in the preceding decade. -The value of live stock in the latter year was $28,869,506. The total -value of all farm products in 1899 was $72,667,302, of which $59,276,092 -was the value of the distinctive crops--cotton, sugar and rice. The -state bureau of agriculture in 1903 estimated that of the total area -14.9 millions of acres were timber land, 5.7 millions pasture and marsh, -and 5.0 millions cultivated farm land. - -In the N. there are many sandy districts in the uplands, also sandy -clays; in the "second bottoms" of the streams fertile sandy loams; -abundant tertiary marls in the north-central region; some gypsum in the -cretaceous "islands"; and some fossiliferous marls with decomposed -limestones. The prairies of south-western Louisiana have much yellow -marl underlying them. Alluvial soil and bluff, the location of which has -been indicated, are of primary agricultural importance. Reclaimed -marsh-land and fresh alluvium (the so-called "front-lands" on rivers and -bayous) are choice soil for Indian corn, sugar-cane, perique tobacco, -semi-tropical fruits and cotton. The bluff lands are simply old alluvium -now well drained and above all floods. The prairies of the S.W. are -devoted almost exclusively to rice. On the hills yellow-leaf tobacco can -be grown. Cereals and forage plants can be successfully grown -everywhere, and varied and profitable agriculture is possible even on -the "pine-barrens" or uplands of the N.; but more intelligent and more -intensive farming is necessary than that practised by the average -"piney-woods" farmer. The alluvial section of lower Louisiana is mostly -devoted to sugar, and farther northward to Indian corn and cotton. - - Cotton is the principal crop. In 1907 Louisiana ranked eighth in - acreage of cotton (1,622,000 acres) among the states of the United - States, and in 1907-1908 the cotton crop (675,428 bales) was eighth - among the crops of the states. The average yield per acre varies from - about .45 to .75 bale according to the season. In good seasons and - exceptional localities the yield may approach a bale per acre, as in - Assumption parish, and in the Mississippi valley at the junction of - Louisiana, Mississippi and Arkansas. For many years there has been a - reaction against the all-cotton farming system. In general, the small - cotton farmer was at the mercy of the commission merchant, to whom he - mortgaged his crops in advance; but this evil has lessened, and in - some districts the system of advancing is either non-existent or very - slightly developed. - - In 1907-1908 all the sugar produced from cane grown in the United - States came from Louisiana (335,000 long tons) and Texas (12,000 - tons); in the same year cane sugar from Hawaii amounted to 420,000 - tons, from Porto Rico to 217,000 tons and from the Philippines to - 135,000 tons; and the total yield of beet sugar from the United States - was 413,954 tons. Of all the cane grown, an amount between one-sixth - and one-quarter--and that the best--must be reserved for seed every - other year, and this is a great handicap to the state in competing - with other cane regions and with the sugar beet. Of the total sugar - consumption of the country in 1899-1904 Louisiana produced somewhat - more than a fifteenth. Since about 1880 there have been central - factories, and their increase has been a very prominent factor in the - development of the industry, as it has been in Cuba. Though very much - of the region S. of the Red river is fairly well suited to - sugar-growing, it is still true that sugar cannot, over much of this - area, be grown to so great advantage as other crops. Its hold upon the - delta region is, however, almost unchallenged, especially since the - rice farmers have found in the prairie lands that excel the delta for - their purposes. Sugar is grown also in St Landry and the eastern part - of Attakapas--a name formerly loosely applied to what are now St Mary, - Iberia, Vermilion, St Martin and Lafayette parishes. Though introduced - with success from Santo Domingo about the middle of the 18th century, - the sugar industry practically dates from 1796, when Etienne Bore - first succeeded in crystallizing and clarifying the syrup. Steam - motive power was first introduced on the plantations in 1822. The - average product of the ten seasons 1894-1904 was 299,745 tons. A state - sugar experiment station is maintained at Audubon Park in New Orleans, - its work embracing the development of seedlings, the improvement of - cane varieties, the study of fungus diseases of the cane, the - improvement of mill methods and the reconciliation of such methods - (for example, the use of sulphur as a bleaching and clarifying agent) - with the requirements of "pure food" laws. Good work has also been - done by the Audubon sugar school of the state university, founded "for - the highest scientific training in the growing of sugar cane and in - the technology of sugar manufacture." - - Tobacco might be grown profitably over a large part of the state, but - in reality very little is grown. The strong, black perique of the - delta--cultivated very generally in the lower alluvial region before - the Civil War, but now almost exclusively in St James parish--is a - famous leaf, grown since early colonial times. Bright or yellow plug - and smoking leaf are grown on the pine uplands and pine "flats," and a - small amount of cigar tobacco on the flats, prairies and "bluffs." The - total value of the tobacco crop of 35,000 lb. in 1907 was only - $10,000, an amount exceeded by each of the other 24 tobacco-growing - states, and the crop was about one-twentieth of 1% of the product of - the whole United States. - - Rice farming, which had its beginning immediately after the Civil War - and first became prominent in the 'seventies, has developed enormously - since 1880. From 1879 to 1899 the product increased twenty-five fold. - Formerly the grain was raised by preference in the river bottoms, - which still yield, almost invariably, the earliest rice of the season - and perhaps the finest. The "buckshot clays" of the backlands, which - are so stiff that they can scarcely be ploughed until flooded and - softened, and are remarkably retentive of moisture, are ideal rice - soil; but none of the alluvial lands has an underlying hardpan, and - they cannot as a rule be drained sufficiently to make the use of heavy - harvesting machinery possible. In 1880 the prairies of the S.W. were - opened to settlement by the railway. These prairies are traversed by - ridges, which facilitate irrigation, and are underlaid by an - impervious subsoil, which facilitates both effective storage and - drainage. Thus the use of machinery became possible, and this - revolutionized the entire industry. The year 1884 may be taken as the - initial date of the new period, and the grain is now harvested exactly - as is wheat in the west-central states. Previously the grain had - ordinarily been cut with sickles and harvested by hand. The farms were - also small, usually from 5 to 10 acres. They are now very much larger. - All the prairies district--the centre of which is Crowley--is becoming - one great rice field. Some rice also is grown on the lowlands of the - Mississippi valley, notably in Plaquemines, Jefferson and Lafourche - parishes. In the decade 1881-1890 Louisiana produced about half of the - total yield of the country, and from 1891 to 1900 about five-sevenths. - In 1904 and 1906 the Louisiana crop, about one-half of the total yield - of the country, was larger than that of any other state; but in 1905 - and in 1907 (6,192,955 lb. and 7,378,000 lb. respectively) the - Louisiana crop was second in size to that of Texas. Carolina and - Honduras rices were practically the only varieties until after 1896. - Since that time select Japanese species, chosen for superior milling - qualities, have been widely introduced, as the market prejudice in - favour of head rice made the large percentage of broken rice a heavy - handicap to the farmers. Hundreds of varieties have been tested by the - state and federal agricultural experiment stations. A strong tendency - to run to red rice (hardier, but not so marketable) has been a second - great difficulty to overcome. - - Irrigation is almost entirely confined to rice farms. In the prairie - region there is abundant water at depths of 100 to 400 ft. beneath the - surface, but this was little used for irrigation for the first few - years of the development of this field, when water was pumped from the - streams and canals. In 1902 nearly one-eighth of the acreage irrigated - was by systems supplied from wells. The irrigated rice area increased - 92.9% from 1899 to 1902, and the construction cost of irrigation works - ($4,747,359 in 1902; $12.25 per irrigated acre) 87.7% in the same - years. This increase was almost wholly in the prairie parishes. Of the - total irrigated area for rice of 387,580 acres in 1902, 310,670 acres - were in the parishes of Calcasieu, Acadia and Vermilion. In the - Mississippi valley water is taken from the river by flumes in the - levees or by siphons. The danger of floods and the difficulty of - drainage make the extension of the practice unprofitable, and the - opening of the prairies has made it unnecessary. - - Many of the fruits of warm-temperate and semi-tropical lands, whether - native or exotic, including oranges, olives, figs, grape-fruit, - kumquats and pomegranates are cultivated. Oranges are grown especially - on the coast. There are many fine groves on the Mississippi below New - Orleans. The fig is a common door-yard tree as in other Gulf and South - Atlantic states, and is never killed down by frost. Louisiana produced - in 1899 only a fifth as great a value in sub-tropic fruits as Arizona - and Texas combined. Orchard fruits are fairly varied, but, compared - with other states, unimportant; and the production of small fruits is - comparatively small, the largest crop being strawberries. Oranges and - pears are seriously damaged by insect and fungus pests. The total - value of fruit products in 1899 was $412,933. Among nuts the native - pecan is exceptionally abundant, the product (637,470 lb. in 1899) - being much greater than that of any other state save Texas. - - The total value of cereal products in 1899 was $14,491,796, including - Indian corn valued at $10,327,723 and rice valued at $4,044,489; in - 1907 it was more than $27,300,000, including Indian corn valued at - $19,600,000, rice valued at $7,378,000 and oats valued at $223,000. - Indian corn is grown only for home use. Dairying interests are not - largely developed, and in Texas and the adjoining states the "Texas - fever" and "charbon" have done great damage to cattle. Forage crops - are little grown, though soil conditions are favourable. Cowpeas are a - common fertilizer. Garden trucking is very slightly developed, but has - been successful where it has been tried. The state maintains a crop - pest commission, the duties of which include the inspection of all - nursery stock sold in the state. - -_Manufactures._--The state's manufacturing interests have during the -last few decades grown greatly in importance. From 1890 to 1900 the -capital invested, the cost of materials used and the value of output (in -1900, $121,181,683) increased respectively 225.4, 147.3 and 109.6%. The -value of the factory products in 1900 was $111,397,919; in 1905 it was -$186,379,592. Slightly above one-half of the product of 1900 was from -New Orleans, and in 1905 about 45.4%. A constitutional amendment of 1902 -exempted from parochial and municipal taxes between 1900 and 1910 -practically all factories and mines in the state, employing at least -five hands. Manufacturing industries are for the most part closely -related to the products of the soil, about two-thirds of the value of -all manufactures in 1900 and in 1905 being represented by sugar and -molasses refining, lumber and timber products, cotton-seed oil and cake, -and rice cleaned and polished. - - Rice is milled at New Orleans, Crowley, Abbeville, Gayden, Jennings - and Lake Charles. Ramie fibre and jute are available for coarse cloth; - cotton weaving is almost non-existent. The lumber industry is centred - chiefly in Calcasieu parish. Lake Charles, Westlake, Bogalusa, Bon - Ami, Carson, Fisher, Fullerton, Leesville, Oakdale and Pickering were - the leading sawmill towns of the state in 1908. Of the rarer woods - particular mention may be made of curly pine, yielding a wood of - beautiful figure and polish; magnolia, hard, close-grained, of fine - polish and of great lasting qualities; and cypress, light, strong, - easily worked and never-rotting. The timber cut of 1900 was officially - stated as 1,214,387 M. ft. B.M., of which two-thirds were of yellow - pine and most of the remainder of cypress. In some localities, - especially in the "Florida parishes," small quantities of rosin and - turpentine are taken from the long-leaf pine, but this industry was - unimportant in Louisiana before 1908. Sawdust, slabs, stumps and large - quantities of logs are wasted. Other manufactures with a product value - in 1905 of between $4,000,000 and $1,000,000 were: bags (not paper); - foundry and machine-shop products; planing-mill products; railway - cars, construction and repairs; malt liquors; men's clothing; - cooperage; food preparations; roasted and ground coffee and spice; - fertilizers; cigars and cigarettes; cotton goods; and manufactured - ice. - - _Communications._--The length of railway in the state was 1740 m. in - 1890 and 4943.55 m. at the end of 1908. By the state constitution of - 1898 and by amendments of 1902 and 1904 tax exemptions for ten years - were granted to newly-built railroads completed before 1909. The - principal roads are the Missouri Pacific (St Louis, Iron Mountain & - Southern, New Orleans & North-western and St Louis, Watkins & Gulf), - the Southern Pacific (Morgan's Louisiana & Texas Railroad & Steamship - Co. and the Louisiana Western), the Texas & Pacific, the Kansas City - Southern, the Vicksburg, Shreveport & Pacific, the Louisiana Railway & - Navigation Co., the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley, the Illinois Central, - and the Louisiana & Arkansas. The Illinois Central, the first railway - giving Louisiana connexion with the north, and of immense importance - in the trade of New Orleans, has only about 100 m. of double track in - the state. The problem of inland waterways has always been a most - important one in northern, eastern and southern Louisiana, where there - are systems of improved bayous, lakes and canals which, with the - levees, make this region something like Holland, on a greater scale. - Many bayous are convertible by improvement into excellent drainage and - irrigation canals. The canal system is especially well developed in - the parishes of the Mississippi delta, where, at the close of 1907, - there were about 50 m. of these waterways of decided commercial - importance. They serve the trade of Lake Pontchartrain and the Florida - parishes, the lumber, coal, fish, oyster and truck trade of New - Orleans, and to some extent are the highway of a miscellaneous - coasting trade. The most important canal is probably the new - Atchafalaya Bay canal (14 ft. deep), opened in 1907, connecting the - Atchafalaya river and Morgan City with the Gulf of Mexico. In 1907 - active preliminary work was begun on the Louisiana section of a great - interstate inland waterway projected by the national government - between the Mississippi and Rio Grande rivers, almost parallel to the - Gulf Coast and running through the rice and truck-farm districts from - the Teche to the Mermenton river (92 m.). The competition of the water - lines is felt by all the railways, and the importance of water - transportation is rapidly increasing. A state railroad commission, - organized in 1899, has power to regulate railway, steamer, - sleeping-car, express, telephone and telegraph rates within the state. - Foreign commerce is almost wholly centred at New Orleans. - -_Population._--The population of the state increased in the ten decades -from 1810 to 1910 successively by 100.4, 40.6, 63.4, 46.9, 36.7, 2.7, -29.3, 19.0, 23.5 and 19.9%. In 1910 it was 1,656,388 (36.5 per sq. -m.).[3] In 1900 47.1% was of negro blood, as compared with 51.5 in -1890. In 1910 there were nine cities with more than 5000 inhabitants -each: New Orleans (339, 075); Shreveport (28,015); Baton Rouge (14,897), -the capital; Lake Charles (11,449); Alexandria (11,213); Monroe -(10,209); New Iberia (7449); Morgan (5477); Crowley (5099). The urban -element is larger than in any other southern state, owing to the large -population of New Orleans. The Acadians (see S _History_ below) to-day -are settled mainly in St Mary, Acadia and Vermilion parishes; lesser -numbers are in Avoyelles and St Landry; and some are scattered in -various other parishes. The parishes of St Mary, Iberia, Vermilion, St -Martin and Lafayette are known as the Attakapas country from an Indian -name. A colony of Germans sent over by John Law to the Arkansas removed -to the Mississippi above New Orleans, and gave to its bank the name of -the "German Coast," by which it is still known. In recent years there -has been an immigration of Italians into Louisiana, which seems likely -to prove of great social and economic importance. The industrial -activity of the state has required more labour than has been available. -The negroes have moved more and more from the country to the towns, -where they easily secure work at good wages. Owing to the inadequate -supply of labour two important immigration leagues of business men were -formed in 1904 and 1905, and in 1907 the state government began -officially to attempt to secure desirable foreign immigration, sending -agents abroad to foster it. Roman Catholics greatly predominate among -religious denominations, having in 1906 477,774 members out of a total -of 778,901 for all denominations; in the same year there were 185,554 -Baptists, 79,464 Methodists, 9070 Protestant Episcopalians and 8350 -Presbyterians. - -_Administration._--Since the admission of the state to the Union in 1812 -there have been eight state constitutions (not counting that of 1861) -admirably illustrating--and not less the Territorial government -preceding them--the development of American democracy and the problems -connected with the negroes. Under the Territorial government the -legislative officers were not at first elective. The "parishes" date -from 1807; they were based on an earlier Spanish division for religious -purposes--whence the names of saints in parish nomenclature. The -constitution of 1812 allowed the General Assembly to name the governor -from the two candidates receiving the highest number of votes; gave the -governor large powers of appointment, even of local functionaries; and -required a property qualification for various offices, and even for -voters. The constitution of 1845 made the popular suffrage final in the -choice of the governor, abolished property qualifications, and began to -pare executive powers for the benefit of the General Assembly or the -people. From it dates also the constitutional recognition of the public -schools. In 1852 even the judges of the supreme court were placed among -the officers chosen by popular vote. The constitutions of 1864 and 1868 -were of importance primarily as bearing on negro status and national -politics. That of 1879 showed a profound distrust of legislative action, -bred of reconstruction experiences. Nearly all special legislation was -forbidden. The last constitution (1898, with 26 amendments 1898-1906), -unlike all others after that of 1812, was not submitted to the people -for ratification. - - Under this constitution sessions of the General Assembly are biennial - (meeting the second Monday in May in even-numbered years) and are - limited to sixty days. The number of senators is fixed by the - constitution at 39; the number of representatives is to be not more - than 116 or less than 98. Any elector is eligible for election as a - representative if he has been a citizen of the state for five years - and a resident of the district or parish from which he is elected for - two years immediately preceding the election; a change of residence - from the district or parish from which he was elected vacates the seat - of a representative or senator. A senator must be at least 25 years of - age. Members of the legislature are elected for four years. Revenue or - appropriation bills originate in the House of Representatives, but may - be amended by the Senate. Contingent appropriations are forbidden, and - the constitution contains a long list of subjects on which special - laws may not be passed. The chief executive officers have four-year - terms, neither the governor nor the treasurer being eligible for - immediate re-election. The governor must be at least 30 years old and - must have been a citizen of the United States and a resident of the - state for 10 years next preceding his election. Within five days after - the passage of any bill by the General Assembly he may veto this - measure, which then becomes a law only if passed by a two-thirds vote - of all members elected to each house of the General Assembly. The - lieutenant governor (and then the secretary of state) succeeds to the - office of governor if the governor is removed, dies or leaves the - state. The five judges of the supreme court of the state are elected - by the people for a term of twelve years. The supreme court is almost - without exception a court of appeal with jurisdiction in cases - involving at least $2000, in cases of divorce, in suits regarding - adoption, legitimacy and custody of children and as regards the - legality and constitutionality of taxes, fines, &c. The supreme court - appoints courts of appeal to judge cases involving less than $2000. - The constitution prohibits lotteries and the sale of lottery tickets. - - The suffrage clauses are of particular interest, as they accomplish - the practical disfranchisement of the negroes. The constitution - requires that a voter must (in addition to other qualifications) - either be able to show conclusively ability to read and write, or be - the owner of property within the state assessed at not less than $300, - on which, if personalty, all taxes are paid. But it excepts from these - requirements--thus letting down the bars for illiterate whites - excluded with negroes by the foregoing clauses--persons who were - entitled to vote in some state on or before the 1st of January 1867 - (i.e. before the adoption of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments - of the United States Constitution); also the sons or grandsons of such - voters, not under 21 years of age, on the 12th of May 1898; and males - of foreign birth who have resided in the state for five years next - preceding the date of application for registration and who were - naturalized prior to 1898. The constitution provides that no person - less than 60 years of age shall be permitted to vote unless he has - paid an annual poll-tax of one dollar for the two years next preceding - the year in which he offers to vote. Convicts not pardoned with an - explicit restoration of suffrage privileges are disfranchised--a rare - clause in the United States. Suffrage was by this constitution first - extended to women tax-payers in questions "submitted to the - tax-payers, as such." The creation of a railroad commission was - ordered and the preparation of a code of criminal law. - - The Louisiana Board of Levee Commissioners was organized in 1865. The - state board of health was the first one effectively organized (1855) - in the United States. It encountered many difficulties, and until the - definite proof of the stegomyia hypothesis of yellow-fever inoculation - made by the United States army surgeons in Cuba in 1900, the greatest - problem seemed insoluble. Since that time conditions of health in New - Orleans have been revolutionized (in 1907 state control of maritime - quarantine on the Mississippi was supplanted by that of the national - government), and smaller cities and towns have been stimulated to take - action by her example. Sanitary institutes are held by the state board - at various towns each year for the instruction of the public. Boards - of appraisers and equalization oversee the administration of the tax - system; the cost of collection, owing to the fee system for payment of - collectors, was higher than in any other state of the Union until - 1907, when the fees were greatly reduced. The state assessment in 1901 - totalled $301,215,222 and in 1907 was $508,000,000. Schools and levees - absorb about half of all revenues, leaving half for the payment of - interest on the state debt (bonded debt on 1st of April 1908, - $11,108,300) and for expenses of government. A general primary - election law for the selection, by the voters, of candidates for state - office came into effect in 1906. - -_Law._--Louisiana has been peculiar among the states of the Union in the -history of the development of its legal system. In Louisiana alone (as -the state is known to-day), out of all the territory acquired from -France as the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, was the civil law so -established under French and Spanish rule that it persisted under -American dominion. In all the other states formed from the Purchase, the -civil law, never existent practically, was early expressly abrogated, -and the common law of England established in its place. After O'Reilly -established his power in 1769 (see _History_, below), the Spanish law -was supreme. All the old codes of the Peninsula, as well as the laws of -the Indies and special royal decrees and schedules, were in force in the -colony. The United States left the task of altering the laws to the -people, as far as there was no conflict between them and the -Constitution of the United States and fundamental American legal -customs. Copies of the Spanish codes were very rare, and some of them -could not be had in the colonies. Discussions of the Roman Institute and -Pandects were common in the deliberations of the courts. Great confusion -prevailed in the first years of American dominion owing to the -diversities of languages and the grafting of such Anglo-Saxon -institutions as the jury upon the older system. A provisional code of -judicial procedure, prepared by Edward Livingston, was in effect in 1805 -to 1825. The earliest digest, completed in 1808, was mainly a -compilation of Spanish laws. The project of the _Code Napoleon_, -however--the _code_ itself not being available in Louisiana, though -promulgated in France in 1804--was used by the compilers in the -arrangement and substance of their work; and the French traditions of -the colony, thus illustrated, were naturally introduced more and more -into the organic commentaries and developments that grew up around the -_Code Napoleon_. This evolution was little marked, so similar in large -parts were the systems of France and Spain (although in other parts, due -to the Gothic element in the Spanish, they were very different)--a -similarity which explains the facility with which O'Reilly and his -successors introduced the Spanish laws after 1769. The Louisiana code of -1808 was not, however, exhaustive; and the courts continued to go back -to the old Spanish sources whenever the digest was inconclusive. Thus so -late as 1819, when the legislature ordered the compilation of such parts -of King Alfonso's _Siete Partidas_ (the most common authority in the -colony) as were considered in force, this compilation filled a -considerable volume. In 1821 the legislature authorized Livingston to -prepare the "Livingston Code" of criminal law and procedure, completed -in 1824 (in French and English) and published in 1833, but never adopted -by the state. In 1825 legislative sanction was given to the greater part -of a civil code prepared by a commission (including Livingston) -appointed in 1821, and the French element became steadily more -important. In its present form the law shows plainly the Latin and -English elements. English law has largely moulded, for example, criminal -and commercial law and the law of evidence; the development of the law -of corporations, damages, prohibitions and such extraordinary remedies -as the mandamus has been very similar to that in other states; while in -the fusion of law and equity, and the law of successions, family -relations, &c., the civil law of Spain and France has been unaffected. - - _Education._--Schooling was very scant before the creation of the - public schools in 1854. Very little was done for education in the - French and Spanish period, although the Spanish governors made - commendable efforts in this regard; the first American Territorial - legislature began the incorporation of feeble "colleges" and - "academies." To some of these the state gave financial aid - ($1,613,898) before 1845. The public schools were flourishing at the - outbreak of the Civil War. War and reconstruction threw upon them the - new burden of the black children. The constitution of 1879 was - illiberal in this respect, but a healthier public opinion soon - prevailed. The money given by the state to the public schools is - distributed among the parishes according to their school population, - and the constitution of 1898 set a generous _minimum_ to such aid. An - annual poll-tax is also collected for the schools from every adult - male. Local taxes, besides, are imposed, and these are becoming - heavier. The parishes retain primary control of the schools. - Institutes, summer schools and rural libraries have been introduced. - The salaries of white teachers advanced from a monthly average of - $38.87 in 1903 to $61.84 in 1906. The average attendance of enrolled - black and white pupils is practically identical, but the enrolment of - whites (about 52% in 1902) is somewhat higher and that of the blacks - about a third lower than their ratio in the population. The school - term for white children is much longer than for negroes, and white - teachers are paid much better salaries--in 1906 the average monthly - salary of a negro teacher was $29.15. The total enrolment is very low. - But progress is now being made very rapidly in the improvement of the - educational system. Higher schools include: the State University and - Agricultural and Mechanical College (1860) at Baton Rouge (q.v.); - Tulane University of Louisiana (1864) in New Orleans; Jefferson - College (1864; Roman Catholic) at Convent; the College of the - Immaculate Conception (1847; Roman Catholic) in New Orleans; St - Charles College (1835; Roman Catholic) at Grand Couteau; St Joseph's - College (1849; Roman Catholic) at Baton Rouge; the following colleges - for women--Silliman Collegiate Institute (1852; Presbyterian) at - Clinton, Mansfield Female College (1854; Methodist Episcopal, South) - at Mansfield, the H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for women (a part - of Tulane University) in New Orleans and the Louisiana Female College - (1856; Baptist) at Keatchie; the State Normal School of Louisiana - (1884) at Natchitoches and the New Orleans Normal and Training School; - the South-western Louisiana Industrial Institute at Lafayette; the - Louisiana Industrial Institute at Ruston; and, among schools for - negroes, the Peabody State Normal and Industrial School at Alexandria - and New Orleans University (1873; Methodist Episcopal), Luther College - (Evangelical Lutheran), Leland University (1870; Baptist), Straight - University (Congregational) and Southern University (1883; aided by - the state), all in New Orleans. - - _Charitable and Penal Institutions._--The State Board of Charities and - Correction, for which the constitution of 1898 first made provision, - and which was organized under an act of 1904, is composed of six - members, appointed by the governor for six years, with the governor as - _ex-officio_ chairman. The members of the board serve gratuitously, - but elect a salaried secretary. The board has no administrative or - executive power, but makes annual inspections of all public - charitable, correctional or reformatory institutions, all private - institutions which receive aid from, or are used by municipal or - parochial authorities, and all private asylums for the insane; and - reports annually to the governor on the actual condition of the - institutions. Any suggestions as to improvements in institutions must - be approved by the majority of the governing body of that institution - before they may be put into effect. The charitable institutions - include two charity hospitals--at New Orleans (1832) and Shreveport; - an Eye, Ear, Nose and Throat Hospital, a Hotel Dieu, the Touro - Infirmary and a Home for Incurables, all at New Orleans; an Institute - for the Deaf and Dumb (for whites--there is no state provision for - negro deaf and dumb) and an Institute for the Blind, both at Baton - Rouge; an Insane Hospital at Jackson and another at Pineville; and the - Louisiana Retreat for the Insane at New Orleans. At Monroe there is a - State Reform School, and at New Orleans a Coloured Industrial Home and - School. There is also a state home for disabled Confederate soldiers - at New Orleans on Bayou St John. The State Penitentiary is at Baton - Rouge, and a House of Detention at New Orleans; and there are parish - prisons. State convicts, and all places in which they are confined or - employed, are under the supervision of a Board of Control appointed by - the governor. This board may allow commutation or diminution of - sentence for good behaviour, meritorious services or exemplary - conduct. The leasing or hiring of state convicts is prohibited by the - constitution, but parish convicts may be hired or leased for farm and - factory work, work on roads and levees, and other public undertakings. - Such convicts are classified according to physical ability and a - minimum rate is fixed for their hire, for not more than ten hours a - day. Many state convicts are employed in levee construction, and there - are convict farms at Angola, Hope, Oakley and Monticello. - -_History._--The early history of Louisiana belongs to the romance of -American history. It is possible that the mouth of the Mississippi was -discovered in 1519 by Alonso Alvarez de Pineda, but this interpretation -of his vague manuscript remains conjectural; and that it was discovered -by the expedition of Panfilo de Narvaez cannot be established. That -Hernando de Soto entered the borders of the present state of Louisiana, -and that his burial place in the Mississippi was where that river takes -the waters of the Red, are probable enough, but incapable of conclusive -proof. Survivors of de Soto's expedition, however, descended the -Mississippi to its mouth in 1542. Spain set up no claim to the region, -and when Robert Cavalier, Sieur de la Salle, came down the river in 1682 -from the French possessions to the north, he took possession in the name -of France, which hereby gained her first title to the vast drainage -basin of the Mississippi. In honour of Louis XIV. the new possession was -named "Louisiana"--a name then and until 1812 applied to a much larger -area than that of the present state. La Salle attempted to settle a -colony in 1684, but missed the Mississippi's mouth and landed in Texas, -where he was murdered in 1687 by some of his followers. In 1697, after -Ryswick, Pierre le Moyne d'Iberville (1662-1706) was chosen to lead -another colony, which reached the Gulf coast early in 1699. Soon after -Iberville had built Fort Maurepas (near the present city of Biloxi, -Mississippi) in 1699, a fort was erected on the Mississippi river about -40 m. above the mouth. - -This was the earliest settlement in what is now the state of Louisiana. -It was unhealthy and unprosperous. From 1712 to 1717 "Louisiana," or the -French possessions of the Mississippi valley, was held by Antoine Crozat -(1655-1738) as a private grant from the king. It proved as great a drain -upon his purse as it had proved to the crown, and he willingly parted -with it to the so-called "Western Company," afterwards incorporated with -the great Company of the Indies. The head of this company was John Law, -who, after spreading glowing accounts of the new land, launched his -famous "Mississippi scheme" (see LAW, JOHN). The company accomplished -much for the colony of Louisiana. Jean Baptiste le Moyne, Sieur de -Bienville (1680-1768), a brother of Iberville, was sent out as governor. -For forty years he was the life of the colony. One of his first acts was -to found the city of New Orleans on its present site in 1718. In this -same year seven vessels were sent from France with stores and -immigrants; eleven followed during the next year. Five hundred negroes -from the Guinea coast were imported in 1719, and many hundreds more soon -followed. The Law company eventually came to an end fatal to its -creditors in France, but its misfortunes did not check the prosperity of -"Louisiana." The company retained its grant of the colony until 1731, -when it reverted to the crown. Meantime New Orleans had become the seat -of government in 1722. In 1766 an official census showed a total -population of 5552. The years of royal rule were uneventful. Cotton -culture began in 1740, and sugar-cane was successfully introduced from -Santo Domingo by the Jesuits in 1751. Tafia rum and a waxy, sticky sugar -syrup subsequently became important products; but not until the end of -the century were the means found to crystallize sugar and so give real -prosperity to the industry. - -By a secret treaty of the 3rd of November 1762, "Louisiana" was -transferred from France to Spain. This treaty was not made public for a -year and a half, and Spain did not take full possession of the colony -until 1769. By a treaty between Spain and France on the one hand and -Great Britain and Portugal on the other, signed at Paris in February -1763, all that portion lying E. of the Mississippi river, the Iberville -river, and Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain was ceded to Great Britain. -The international interests thus created, and others that sprang from -them, heavily burdened the diplomacy, and even threatened the safety of -the United States after they were placed in possession of the eastern -bank of the Mississippi down to 31 deg. in 1783. - -The news of the cession of the colony to Spain roused strong discontent -among the colonists. Antonio de Ulloa (1716-1795), a distinguished -Spanish naval officer and scholar, came to New Orleans in 1766 to take -possession for his king. Merchants, people, and many civil officers held -toward him from the beginning a hostile attitude; the military, -especially, refused to pass into the Spanish service as stipulated in -the treaty; and Ulloa was compelled to continue in an ambiguous and -anomalous position--which his lack of military force probably first -compelled him to assume--ruling the colony through the French governor, -Philippe Aubry (who loyally supported him throughout), without publicly -exhibiting his powers. The fear of Spanish commercial laws powerfully -stimulated resistance to the transfer, and though Ulloa made commercial -and monetary concessions, they were not sufficient. When the colonists -found protests at Paris unavailing, they turned to the idea of -independence, but sought in vain the armed support of the British at -Pensacola. Nevertheless they compelled Ulloa to leave the colony or -exhibit his credentials. He took his leave in November 1768. The open -resistance by the colonists (October 1768) was a carefully planned -revolt. There is no doubt that the men who led the Creole opposition -contemplated independence, and this gives the incident peculiar -interest. In the summer of 1769 Alejandro O'Reilly came to New Orleans -with a strong military force (3600 troops). Beginning his rule with an -affability that allayed suspicions and securing from Aubry proofs -against the popular leaders, he invited them to a reception and arrested -them while they were his guests. Five were put to death and others were -imprisoned at Havana. O'Reilly put down the rebellion with determination -and in accord with the instructions of his king. Regarded without -republican sympathies, and in the light of 18th-century doctrines of -allegiance, his acts, however severe, in no way deserve the stigma of -cruelty ordinarily put upon them. He was liberal and enlightened in his -general rule. - -Among the incidents of these troubled years was the arrival in Louisiana -(after 1765) of some hundreds of French exiles from Acadia, who made -their homes in the Attakapas country. There their descendants live -to-day, still somewhat primitively, and still in somewhat of the glamour -thrown over land and people by the _Evangeline_ of Longfellow. - -On the 18th of August 1769 Louisiana was formally transferred to Spain. -Spanish law and Spanish tongue replaced the French officially, but the -colony remained essentially French. The Spanish rulers made efforts to -govern wisely and liberally, showing great complaisance, particularly in -heeding the profit of the colony, even at the expense of Spanish -colonial commercial regulations. The judicial system was much improved, -a better grade of officials became the rule, many French Creoles were -appointed to office, intermarriages of French and Spanish and even -English were encouraged by the highest officials, and in general a -liberal and conciliatory policy was followed, which made Louisiana under -Spanish rule quiet and prosperous. Bernardo de Galvez (1756-1794), a -brilliant young officer of twenty-one, when he became the governor of -the colony, was one of the most liberal of the Spanish rulers and of all -the most popular. During the American War of Independence he gave -valuable aid to the United States; and when Spain finally joined in the -war against Great Britain, Galvez, in a series of energetic and -brilliant campaigns (1779-1781), captured all the important posts in the -British colony of West Florida. The chief interest of the Spanish period -lies in the advance of settlement in the western territories of the -United States, the international intrigues--British, French and -Spanish--involving the future of the valley, the demand of the United -States for free navigation on the Mississippi, and the growing -consciousness of the supreme importance of the river and New Orleans to -the Union. With the Spanish governor Estevan Miro, who succeeded Galvez -in 1785, James Wilkinson of Kentucky, arrested at New Orleans with a -flat-boat of supplies in 1787, intrigued, promising him that Kentucky -would secede from the United States and would join the Spanish; but -Wilkinson was unsuccessful in his efforts to carry out this plan. In -1794 Spain, hard pressed by Great Britain and France, turned to the -United States, and by the treaty of 1794 the Mississippi river was -recognized by Spain as the western boundary of the United States, -separating it from Louisiana, and free navigation of the Mississippi was -granted to citizens of the United States, to whom was granted for three -years the right "to deposit their merchandise and effects in the port of -New Orleans, and to export them from thence without paying any other -duty than a fair price for the hire of the stores." At the expiration of -the three years the Spanish governor refused the use of New Orleans as a -place of deposit, and contrary to the treaty named no other port in its -place. Spanish rule, however, came unexpectedly to an end by the -retrocession of Louisiana to France in 1800; and French dominion gave -way in turn in 1803--as the result of a chain of events even more -unexpected, startling, and for the United States fortunate--to the rule -of the last-named country. On the 30th of November 1803 the -representatives of the French republic received formal possession from -the Spanish governor, and on the 20th of December lower Louisiana was -transferred to the United States. (See LOUISIANA PURCHASE.) - -By an Act of Congress of the 25th of March 1804,[4] that portion of the -Louisiana Purchase S. of 33 deg. was organized as the Territory of -Orleans, and was given a government less democratic than might otherwise -have been the case, because it was intended to prepare gradually for -self-government the French and Spanish inhabitants of the territory, who -desired immediate statehood. The foreign slave-trade was forbidden by -this organic act. English was made the official language. The -introduction of English law, and the changes made in the judicial and -legal systems of Louisiana after 1804 have already been described. - -The machinations of Aaron Burr are of interest in connexion with -Louisiana annals, and likewise the settlement and revolutionizing of -West Florida by Americans. In November 1811 a convention met at New -Orleans and framed a constitution under which, on the 30th of April -1812, the Territory of Orleans became the state of Louisiana. A few days -later the portion of West Florida between the Mississippi and Pearl -rivers (the present "Florida Parishes") was included in its boundaries, -making them as they are to-day. In this same year the first steamboat -reached New Orleans. It descended the Ohio and Mississippi from -Pittsburg, whence there had already been a thriving river trade to New -Orleans for about thirty years. During the War of 1812 a decisive -victory was won by the American forces at Chalmette, near New Orleans, -on the 8th of January 1815. Up to 1860 the development of the state in -population, agriculture and commerce was very rapid. Donaldsonville was -the (nominal) capital in 1825-1831, Baton Rouge in 1849-1864 and again -after 1882. At other times New Orleans has been the capital, and here -too have always been various state offices which in other states -ordinarily are in the state capital. - -By an ordinance of secession passed on the 26th of January 1861, -Louisiana joined the Confederate States. In the first year there was -very little military activity in the state, but in April 1862 Admiral D. -G. Farragut, with a powerful fleet, ascended the Mississippi past Forts -Jackson and St Philip, which defended the approach to New Orleans, and a -military force under General B. F. Butler occupied that city. The -navigation of the river being secured by this success and by later -operations in the north ending in July 1863 with the capture of -Vicksburg and Port Hudson, the state was wholly at the mercy of the -Union armies. The intervening months were signalized by the capture of -Baton Rouge in May 1862--the Confederates vainly attempting to recapture -it in August. Later, in April 1864, the Confederates under General -Richard Taylor won a success against the Unionists under General N. P. -Banks at Sabine Cross Roads near Mansfield and were themselves repulsed -at Pleasant Hill, these battles being incidental to a campaign -undertaken by the Union forces to crush opposition in western Louisiana. -A large portion of the state was occupied by them in 1862-1865. There -were various minor skirmishes in 1862 and 1863 (including the capture of -the Federal camp at Berwick Bay in June 1863). - -As early as December 1862 the Union military government, at President -Lincoln's direction, had ordered elections for Congress, and the men -chosen were admitted in February 1863. In March 1864 also a state -government to supersede the military rule was established under the -president's auspices. By 1863 two parties had arisen among the loyal -classes: one of radicals, who demanded the calling of a constitutional -convention and the abolition of slavery; the other of conservatives. The -former prevailed, and by a convention that assembled in April 1864 a -constitution was framed closely following that of 1852 but repudiating -the debt incurred by Louisiana as one of the Confederate states and -abolishing slavery. Two-thirds of the delegates were from New Orleans. -The legislature was ordered to establish free schools for the blacks, -and was empowered to give them the suffrage: neither of these -provisions, however, was carried out. The extent of the Union control is -shown by the fact that the legislature of 1864 represented half of the -area and two-thirds of the population of the state. The army stood at -the back of the new government, and by the end of 1864 Louisiana was -apparently "reconstructed." But in 1864 the opposition of Congress to -presidential reconstruction had clearly developed, so that the electoral -votes of Louisiana (like those of Tennessee) for president were not -counted. By the spring of 1866 the ex-Confederates had succeeded in -gaining possession of most of the local government and most of the state -offices, although not of the governorship. The Republican party -naturally became extremely radical. The radicals wished to have negro -suffrage in order to get possession of the government. They, therefore, -wanted still another constitutional convention. A clause in the -constitution of 1864 provided for the reconvening of the convention in -certain circumstances, but this clause referred only to necessities -prior to the establishment of a government, and had therefore -determined. Nevertheless, the radicals, because it was impossible to -call a convention through the medium of the state government, took -advantage of this clause to reconvoke the old convention at New Orleans. -The day set was the 30th of July 1866. The ex-Confederate party -determined to prevent the gathering, but the idea of interference by -force seems to have been abandoned. A street riot was precipitated, -however, incidental to a procession of armed negroes; the metropolitan -police fired upon the assembled convention; and altogether some 200 -persons, mostly negroes, were killed. This incident raised the crucial -question of national politics in 1866: namely, whether the states -reconstructed by the president should not again be reconstructed. - -This being settled affirmatively, Louisiana was reconstructed with -vigour. A constitution of 1868 gave suffrage to the blacks, and -disfranchised all whites made ineligible to office under the proposed -Fourteenth Amendment to the national Constitution, and also -(practically) those who had by word, pen or vote defended secession. -Then the state ratified the Fourteenth Amendment, and was declared -readmitted to the Union in July 1868. Probably no other southern state -suffered equally with Louisiana from the corruption of "carpet-bag," -"scalawag," negro legislatures. For four years (1868-1872) the -government expenses increased to ten times their normal volume, taxation -was enormously increased, and about $57,000,000 of debt was created. But -a quarrel broke out among the Republicans (1872), the result of which -was the installation of two governors and legislatures, one supported by -the Democrats and Liberal Republicans and the other by the radical -Republicans, the former being certainly elected by the people. The -rivalry of these two state governments, clashes of arms, the recognition -by the Federal authorities of the radical Republican government -(Pinchback and Kellogg, successively governors) followed. One historic -clash in New Orleans (on the 14th of September 1874) between the "White -League" ("White Man's Party") and the Republican police is commemorated -by a monument, and the day is regarded by Louisianans as a sort of state -independence-day. Finally, in 1876, Francis Tillon Nicholls (b. 1834), a -Democrat, was chosen governor, but the Republican candidate, S. B. -Packard, claimed the election, and with a Republican legislature for a -time occupied the State House. In the national election of 1876 there -were double returns (Republican: 75,315 for Hayes and 70,508 for Tilden; -and Democratic: 83,723 for Tilden and 77,174 for Hayes) from Louisiana, -which, as was the case with the double electoral returns from Florida, -Oregon and South Carolina, were adjudicated by the Electoral Commission -in favour of the Republican electors voting for Hayes. Civil war being -threatened within the state President Hayes sent to Louisiana a -commission composed of Wayne McVeagh, Gen. J. R. Hawley, Charles B. -Lawrence, J. M. Harlan, and John C. Brown, ex-Governor of Tennessee, -which was instructed to promote "an acknowledgment of one government -within the state." The rival legislatures united, organizing under the -Nicholls government, which the commission found was upheld by public -opinion. The president ordered the withdrawal of Federal troops from the -capitol on the 20th of April 1877, and the white party was thus left in -control. - -After 1877 the state prospered markedly in all material respects. Of -subsequent political events perhaps the most notable, besides the -practical disfranchisement of the negroes, are those connected with the -Louisiana State Lottery Company (1868-1893). For the renewal of its -privileges in 1890 the company finally agreed to give the state -$1,250,000 yearly, and despite strenuous opposition by a powerful party -the legislature voted a renewal, but this measure was vetoed by the -governor. The United States government, however, forbade lotteries the -use of the mails, and the company withdrew its offers. The constitution -of 1898 prohibits lotteries and the sale of lottery tickets within the -state. In 1891 the lynching of eleven Italians at New Orleans gave rise -to grave difficulties involving Italy, the United States, and the state -of Louisiana. Since 1900 a white Republican Party has made some headway -in Louisiana politics, but in national and state elections the state has -been uninterruptedly and overwhelmingly Democratic since 1877. - - -GOVERNORS OF LOUISIANA[5] - -_French Domination 1682-1762._ - - A. le Moyne, Sieur de Sauvolle (died in office) 1699-1701 - J. B. le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville 1701-1713 - M. de Muys, appointed 1707, died en route, - Bienville continuing to serve. - Lamothe Cadillac 1713-1716 - Sieur de Bienville, acting governor 1716-1717 - De l'Epinay 1717-1718 - Sieur de Bienville 1718-1724 - Boisbriant, _ad interim_ 1724-1726 - Perier 1726-1733 - Sieur de Bienville 1733-1743 - Marquis de Vaudreuil 1743-1753 - L. Billouart, Chevalier de Kerlerec 1753-1763 - D'Abbadie 1763-1765 - Philippe Aubry 1765-1769 - -_Spanish Domination 1762 (1769)-1803._ - - Antonio de Ulloa[6] 1766-1768 - Alejandro O'Reilly[7] 1769-1770 - Luis de Unzaga 1770-1777 - Bernardo de Galvez[8] 1777-1785 - Estevan Miro (_ad interim_ 1785-1786) 1785-1791 - F. L. Hector, Baron de Carondelet 30 Dec. 1791-1797 - M. Gayoso de Lemos (died in office) 1797-1799 - Francisco Bouligny, Jose M. Vidal, acting - military and civil-political governors 1799 - Sebastian de Casa Calvo de la Puerta, Marquis - de Casa Calvo 1799-1801 - Juan M. de Salcedo 1801-1803 - -_French Domination 1800-1803._[9] - - Laussat, Colonial Prefect 30 Nov.-20 Dec. 1803 - -_American Domination since 1803._ - - _Territorial Period._ - - William C. C. Claiborne (appointed 1803) 1804-1812 - - _Statehood Period._ - - William C. C. Claiborne, Democratic Republican 1812-1816 - Jacques Villere, Democratic Republican 1816-1820 - Thomas B. Robertson, Democratic Republican - (resigned) 1820-1822 - Henry S. Thibodaux, Democratic Republican - (acting) 1822-1824 - Henry S. Johnson, Democratic Republican 1824-1828 - Pierre Derbigny, Democratic Republican (died - in office) 1828-1829 - Armand Beauvais and Jacques Dupre (acting) 1829-1831 - Andre B. Roman, Whig 1831-1835 - Edward D. White, Whig 1835-1839 - Andre B. Roman, Whig 1839-1843 - Alfred Mouton, Whig 1843-1846 - Isaac Johnson, Democrat 1846-1850 - Joseph Walker, Democrat 1850-1853 - Paul O. Hebert, Democrat 1853-1856 - Robert C. Wickliffe, Democrat 1856-1860 - Thomas O. Moore, Democrat 1860-1862 - George F. Shepley, Military Governor 1862-1864 - Henry W. Allen, Confederate 1864-1865 - Michael Hahn, Unionist and Military 1864-1865 - James M. Wells, Democrat (acting) 1865-1867 - Benjamin F. Flanders, Military 1867 - Joshua Baker, Military 1867-1868 - Henry C. Warmoth, Republican 1868-1873 - Pinckney B. S. Pinchback, Republican (acting) 1873 - John McEnery,[10] Democrat-Liberal Republican 1873 - William P. Kellogg, Radical Republican 1873-1877 - Stephen B. Packard,[11] Radical Republican - (contestant) 1877 - Francis T. Nicholls, Democrat 1877-1880 - Louis A. Wiltz, Democrat (died in office) 1880-1881 - Samuel D. McEnery, Democrat (Lieutenant-Governor, - succeeded) 1881-1884 - Samuel D. McEnery, Democrat 1884-1888 - Francis T. Nicholls, Democrat 1888-1892 - Murphy J. Foster, Democrat 1892-1900 - William W. Heard, Democrat 1900-1904 - Newton C. Blanchard, Democrat 1904-1908 - Jared Y. Sanders,[12] Democrat 1908 - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Compare the bibliography under NEW ORLEANS and consult - also the following. For general description: _The Geology and - Agriculture of Louisiana_ (Baton Rouge, Agric. Exper. Station, pts. - 1-6, 1892-1902); also publications of U.S. Geological Survey, _e.g. - Water Supply and Irrigation Papers_, No. 101, "Underground Waters of - Southern Louisiana." For fauna and flora: publications of U.S. - Biological Survey (Department of Agriculture, Bibliographies). For - climate: U.S. Department of Agriculture, _Climate and Crop Service_, - Louisiana series (monthly). For soil and agriculture: the above state - geological report and material on irrigation in publications of the - U.S. Geological Survey and in the U.S. Census publications; also - Commissioners of Agriculture of the State of Louisiana, _Annual - Report_ (Baton Rouge, biennial until 1899); State Agricultural - Society, _Proceedings_ (annual); Louisiana State University and - Agricultural and Mechanical College, _Bulletin of the Agricultural - Experiment Station_ and _Biennial Report_ of same (Baton Rouge); U.S. - Department of Agriculture, various publications of the divisions of - botany, agrostology, pomology, forestry, farmers' bulletins, &c. For - manufactures and other industries: primarily the publications of the - national Census, 1900, and preceding decades. For commerce and - communications: Railroad Commissioners of Louisiana, _Annual Report_ - (New Orleans, 1900 ff.); U.S. Interstate Commerce Commission, - _Statistics of Railways_ (annual, Washington); on river navigation and - river improvements, especially of the Mississippi, an enormous mass of - material in the _Annual Reports_ of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army - (consult _Index to Reports_ of same, 1866-1900, 3 vols., Washington, - 1902, and cp. article on MISSISSIPPI RIVER); on river commerce see - _U.S. Census of 1880_, vol. 4 (report on steam navigation of the - United States by T. C. Purdy), and _Census of 1890_ (report on - transportation by T. J. Vivian; Rivers of the Mississippi Valley). For - population: various national censuses and _Bulletins_ of the Bureau of - Census, 1900, e.g. No. 8, "Negroes in the United States"; on the - Acadians, _In Acadia, The Acadians in Song and Story_ (New Orleans, - 1893; compiled by M. A. Johnston). For pictures of Creole life and - traits, George W. Cable, _The Creoles of Louisiana_ (New York, 1884), - and his later writings; but Mr Cable's views of the Creoles are very - unpopular in Louisiana; for other views of them, and for a guide to - the English and Creole literature of Louisiana, consult Alcee Fortier, - _Louisiana Studies--Literature, Customs and Dialects, History and - Education_ (New Orleans, 1894). For administration: see reports of the - various executive officers of the state (Baton Rouge); the various - constitutions are printed in the report of the Secretary of State, as - well as in B. Perley Poore's _Constitutions_ (2 vols., Washington, - 1877); a special account of the government of the territorial period - may be found in D. Y. Thomas, _History of Military Government in Newly - Acquired Territory of the United States_ (Columbia University Studies - in History, Economics and Public Law, vol. xx. No. 2, 1904); for the - Civil War and Reconstruction period compare below, also American - Historical Association, _Annual Report_, 1892; (for courts during - Civil War); also John R. Ficklen, _History and Civil Government of - Louisiana_ (Chicago, New York, c. 1899), a brief and popular account; - on education, in addition to the Biennial Reports of the Board of - Education, consult annual reports of the U.S. Commissioner of - Education. - - For history: the standard work is that of Charles E. A. Gayarre, - coming down to the war, based on deep and scholarly research, and - greatly altered in successive editions. The style is that of the - classic school, that of Prescott and Motley, full of colour, - characterization and spirit. The editions are as follows: _Romance of - the History of Louisiana_ (New York, 1837, 1848); _Histoire de la - Louisiane_ (2 vols., Nouvelle Orleans, 1846-1847); _Louisiana: its - Colonial History and Romance_ (N.Y., 1851); _Louisiana: its History as - a French Colony_, Third Series of Lectures (N.Y., 1852); then, based - upon the preceding, _History of Louisiana: The French Domination_ (2 - vols., N.Y., 1854) and _The Spanish Domination_ (N.Y., 1854); _The - American Domination_ (N.Y., 1867); and third edition (4 vols., New - Orleans, 1885). More important for the recent period is Alcee Fortier; - _A History of Louisiana_ (N.Y., 4 vols., 1904) devoting two volumes to - American domination. The _History and General Description of New - France_ of P. F. X. de Charlevoix (best ed. by J. G. Shea, New York, - 1866, 6 vols.) is a famous old work, but now negligible. Judge F. X. - Martin's _History of Louisiana_ (2 vols., New Orleans, 1827-1829, - later ed. by J. F. Condon, continued to 1861, New Orleans, 1882) is - also valuable and supplements Gayarre. Le Page du Pratz, author of - _Histoire de la Louisiane_ (3 vols., Paris, 1758; 2 vols., London, - 1763), was the first historian of Louisiana. Berquin-Duvallon, _Vue de - la colonie espagnole du Mississippi_ (Paris, 1805; published in - English under the name of John Davis, New York, 1806); L. N. Baudry de - Lozieres, _Voyage a la Louisiane_ (Paris, 1802) and _Second Voyage a - la Louisiane_ (Paris, 1803) may be mentioned among the travels just - preceding, and A. Stoddard, _Sketches of Louisiana_ (New York, 1811), - among those just following the establishment of American dominion. The - _Histoire de la Louisiane, et de la cession de colonie par la France - aux Etats-Unis_ (Paris, 1829; in English, Philadelphia, 1830) by - Barbe-Marbois has great importance in diplomatic history. The rarest - and most valuable of early memoirs and much archive material are - embodied in Benj. F. French's _Historical Collections of Louisiana_ (5 - series, N.Y., 1846-1853) and _Historical Collections of Louisiana and - Florida_, New Series (N.Y., 1869, 1875). Documentary materials on the - greater "Louisiana" between the Gulf of Mexico and Canada will be - found in the _Jesuit Relations_, edited by R. G. Thwaites (Cleveland, - 1896 ff.); and on early voyages in Pierre Margry, _Decouvertes et - etablissements des Francais_ (6 vols., Paris, 1879-1888). John G. Shea - published an edition of Louis Hennepin's _Description of Louisiana ... - Translated from the Edition of 1683_, &c. (New York, 1880). On this - greater "Louisiana" the student should also, consult the works of - Francis Parkman. And see publications of the Louisiana Historical - Society (New Orleans). Of brief general histories there is that of J. - R. Ficklen above cited, another by the same author in collaboration - with Grace King (New Orleans, 1902) and another (more valuable) by - Albert Phelps (Boston, 1905), in the American Commonwealth Series. For - the Reconstruction period see bibliography under UNITED STATES. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] A sixth, less characteristic, might be included, viz. the "pine - flats," generally wet, which are N. of Lake Pontchartrain, between - the alluvial lands and the pine hills, and, in the S.E. corner of the - state, between the hills and the prairie. - - [2] The original channel of the Red river. It has been so useful in - relieving the Mississippi of floods, that the Red river may possibly - be permanently diverted again into the bayou artificially. - - [3] The population was 76,556 in 1810; 153,407 in 1820; 215,739 in - 1830; 352,411 in 1840; 517,762 in 1850; 708,002 in 1860; 726,915 in - 1870; 939,946 in 1880; 1,118,588 in 1890; and 1,381,825 in 1900. - - [4] Other acts bearing on Territorial government are those of the - 31st of October 1803 and the 23rd of March 1805. - - [5] Terms of _actual service in Louisiana_; Gayarre is the authority - for the French and Spanish period. - - [6] Did not openly assume power or supersede Aubry. - - [7] Captain-general charged to establish order and settle Unzaga as - governor. - - [8] At first, till 1779, only acting governor. - - [9] Actual exercise of power 20 days. - - [10] Counted out by partisan returning-board and not recognized by - U.S. government. - - [11] Not recognized by U.S. government. - - [12] Elected U.S. Senator 1910; accepted, but afterward withdrew. - - - - -LOUISIANA, a city of Pike county, Missouri, U.S.A., situated below the -mouth of the Salt river, on the western bank of the Mississippi, about -90 m. N. of St. Louis. Pop. (1900) 5131, including 1075 negroes and 161 -foreign-born; (1910) 4454; there is also a considerable suburban -population. Louisiana is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy and -the Chicago & Alton railways, and by several lines of river steamboats. -The river is spanned here by a railway bridge. The city is laid out -fairly regularly in the river valley and on bluffs along the river, and -has attractive residential districts, commanding good views. It has very -active and varied industries, and is a trade centre for a large grain- -and fruit-producing and stock-raising region, and has one of the largest -nurseries in the United States. Louisiana was laid out in 1818, was the -county-seat from that date until 1825, was incorporated as a town in -1845 and was chartered as a city in 1849. - - - - -LOUISIANA PURCHASE, a large portion of the area of the United States of -America, purchased from the French Republic in 1803. The territory to -which France held explorer's title originally included the entire valley -of the Mississippi (see Louisiana); but the "Louisiana" which was ceded -by her to Spain in 1762 (England refusing it, preferring the Floridas), -retroceded to France in 1800,[1] and ceded by Napoleon to the United -States--in violation of his pledge to Spain that he would not alienate -the province--embraced only the portion W. of the river and the island -of New Orleans on the E. (and, as might be claimed with some show of -argument, West Florida to the Perdido river). - -With the settlement of the trans-Alleghany region, the freedom of the -Mississippi had become of vital importance to the western settlements, -and Spain had recognized these interests in her treaty with the United -States of 1795, by guaranteeing freedom of navigation and the privilege -of deposit at New Orleans. The transfer of Louisiana from a weak -neighbour to so powerful and ambitious a state as France was naturally -unwelcome to the United States, and Robert R. Livingston, the American -minister in Paris, was instructed by Secretary-of-State Madison to -endeavour to prevent the consummation of the retrocession; or, should -that be irrevocable, to endeavour to buy the Floridas (either from -France, if they had passed with Louisiana, or through her goodwill from -Spain)--or at least West Florida--and if possible New Orleans, so as to -give the United States a secure position on the Mississippi, and insure -the safety of her commerce. The United States was also trying to collect -claims of her merchants for spoliations by French cruisers during the -late war between France and Great Britain. In his preliminary -propositions Livingston lightly suggested to Talleyrand a cession of -Louisiana to satisfy these claims; following it with the more serious -demand that France should pledge observance of the Spanish concession to -the Mississippi trade. This pledge Napoleon readily gave. But during -these negotiations a suspension by the Spanish governor of the right of -deposit aroused extreme apprehension in America and resulted in warlike -votes in Congress. Of these, and of London reports of a British -expedition against New Orleans preparing in anticipation of the imminent -rupture of the peace of Amiens, Livingston made most capable use; and -pressed for a cession of West Florida, New Orleans and Louisiana north -of the Arkansas river. But without New Orleans Louisiana was of little -present worth, and Napoleon--the collapse of whose American colonial -schemes seemed involved in his failure in Santo Domingo, who was -persuaded he could not hold Louisiana against Great Britain, and who was -already turning from projects of colonial empire toward his later -continental policy--suddenly offered to Livingston the whole of the -province. Livingston disclaimed wanting the part below the Arkansas. In -even mentioning Louisiana he had gone outside his instructions. At this -stage James Monroe became associated with him in the negotiations. They -were quickly closed, Barbe Marbois acting for Napoleon, and by three -conventions signed on the 30th of April 1803 the American ministers, -without instructions, boldly accepted for their country a territory -approximately 1,000,000 sq. m. in area--about five times the area of -continental France. For this imperial domain, perhaps the richest -agricultural region of the world, the United States paid 60,000,000 -francs ($11,250,000) outright, and assumed the claims of her citizens -against France to the extent of 20,000,000 francs ($3,750,000) -additional; the interest payments incidental to the final settlement -raising the total eventually to $27,267,622, or about four cents an -acre. - -Different writers have emphasized differently the various factors in -this extraordinary diplomatic episode. Unquestionably the western people -were ready to war for the navigation of the Mississippi; but, that being -guaranteed, it seems certain that France might peaceably have taken and -held the western shore. The acquisition was not a triumph of American -diplomacy, but a piece of marvellous diplomatic good fortune; for the -records abundantly prove, as Madison said, that the cause of success was -a sudden policy of Napoleon, forced by European contingencies. -Livingston alone of the public men concerned showed indubitably before -the event a conception of the feasibility and desirability of the -acquisition of a vast territory beyond the Mississippi. Jefferson had -wished to buy the Floridas, but alarmed by the magnitude of the cession, -declared his belief that the United States had no power to acquire -Louisiana. Though such strict construction of the constitution was a -cardinal dogma of the Democratic party, this dogma was abandoned -outright in practice, Jefferson finding "but one opinion as to the -necessity of shutting up the constitution" (or amending it, which was -not done) and seeking justification of the means in the end. The -Federalist party, heretofore broad-constructionists, became -strict-constructionists under the temptation of factious politics, and a -very notable political struggle was thus precipitated--notable among -other things for strong expressions of sectionalism. The net result was -the establishment of the doctrine of "implied powers" in interpreting -the constitution; a doctrine under which the Supreme Court presently -found power to acquire territory implied in the powers to wage war and -make peace, negotiate treaties, and "dispose of and make all needful -rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property -belonging to the United States." - -The exact limits of the acquisition were not definitely drawn. The -French archives show that Napoleon regarded the Rio Grande as the W. -boundary of the territory of which he was to take possession, and the -United States up to 1819 ably maintained the same claim. She also -claimed all West Florida as part of Louisiana--which, in the usage of -the second half of the 18th century, it apparently was not. When she -acquired the Floridas in 1819-1821 she abandoned the claim to Texas. The -line then adopted between the American and Spanish possessions on the W. -followed the Sabine river from the Gulf of Mexico to the parallel of 32 -deg. N., ran thence due N. to the Red river, followed this to the -meridian of 100 deg. W. and this line N. to the Arkansas river, thence -along this to its source, thence N. to the parallel of 42 deg., and -along this line to the Pacific. Such is the accepted description of the -W. boundary of the Louisiana Purchase--waiving Texas--thus -retrospectively determined, except that that boundary ran with the crest -of the Rocky Mountains N. of its intersection with the parallel of 42 -deg. No portion of the Purchase lay west of the mountains, although for -some years after 1870 the official maps of the United States government -erroneously included Oregon as so acquired--an error finally abandoned -by 1900. - -On the 20th of December 1803, at New Orleans, the United States took -possession of the lower part of the province, and on the 9th of March -1804, at St Louis, of the upper. The entire region then contained -possibly 80,000 residents. The treaty of cession required the -incorporation of Louisiana in the Union, and the admission of its -inhabitants, "as soon as possible, according to the principles of the -Federal Constitution, to the enjoyment of all the rights, advantages and -immunities of citizens of the United States." By act of the 26th of -March 1804 the region below 33 deg. N. was organized as the Territory of -Orleans (see Louisiana), and that above as the District of Louisiana. -The region above 33 deg., renamed in 1805 the Territory of Louisiana, -and in 1812 the Territory of Missouri, was divided as time went on into -many Indian reservations, territories and states. Thus were carved from -the great domain of the Purchase Louisiana, Missouri, Arkansas, Iowa, -Minnesota, North and South Dakota, Nebraska and Oklahoma in their -entirety, and much the greatest part of Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming and -Montana. There is justification for the saying of Thiers that the United -States were "indebted for their birth and for their greatness"--at least -for an early assurance of greatness--"to the long struggle between -France and England." The acquisition of so vast a territory proved thus -of immense influence in the history of the United States. It made it -possible for them to hold a more independent and more dignified position -between France and England during the Napoleonic wars; it established -for ever in practice the doctrine of implied powers in the -interpretation of the Federal Constitution; it gave the new republic a -grand basis for material greatness; assured its dominance in North -America; afforded the field for a magnificent experiment in expansion, -and new doctrines of colonization; fed the national land hunger; -incidentally moulded the slavery issue; and precipitated its final -solution. - -It is generally agreed that after the Revolution and the Civil War, the -Louisiana Purchase is the greatest fact in American history. In 1904 a -world's fair, the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, was held at St Louis in -commemoration of the cession. After one hundred years the wilderness -then acquired had become the centre of the power and wealth of the -Union. It contained in 1903 15,000,000 inhabitants, and its taxable -wealth alone was four hundred times the fifteen millions given to -Napoleon. - - AUTHORITIES.--The official literature is in the _American State - Papers, Foreign Relations_, vol. 2, and _Public Lands_, vol. 2; - diplomatic papers reprinted in _House Document 431, 57^th Congress, - 2nd Session_ (1903); to which add the _Histoire de la Louisiane et de - la cession_ (Paris, 1829; Eng. trans., Philadelphia, 1830), by - Francois Barbe-Marbois. This book abounds in supposed "speeches" of - Napoleon, and "sayings" by Napoleon and Livingston that would have - been highly prophetic in 1803, though no longer so in 1829. They have - been used liberally and indiscriminatingly by the most prominent - American historians. See also T. Donaldson, _The Public Domain, House - Miscellaneous Document 45, pt. 4, 47^th Congress_, _2nd Session_. For - the boundary discussions by J. Q. Adams and Don L. de Onis, 1818-1819, - _American State Papers, Foreign Relations_, vol. 4; also in Onis's - _Official Correspondence between Don Luis de Onis_ ... _and John - Quincy Adams_, &c. (London, 1818), or _Memoria sobre las negociaciones - entre Espana y los Estados Unidos que dieron motivo al tratado de - 1819_ (Madrid, 1820). See also discussion and map in _U.S. Census, - 1900, Bulletin 74_; and the letters of Thomas Jefferson, James - Madison, Rufus King and other statesmen of the time. By far the best - general account of the diplomacy is in Henry Adams's _History of the - United States_, vols. 1 and 2; and of Western conditions and American - sentiment in J. B. McMaster's _History of the United States_, vols. 2 - and 3. Consult also Justin Winsor, _Narrative and Critical History_, - vol. 7; and various valuable periodical articles, especially in the - _American Historical Review_, by F. J. Turner and others. Reference - may be made to B. Hermann, _The Louisiana Purchase_ (Washington, - 1898), and Theodore Roosevelt's _Winning of the West_, vol. 4. Of the - various special but popular accounts (by J. K. Hosmer, Ripley - Hitchcock, R. Blanchard, K. E. Winship, &c.), not one is worthy of its - subject, and all contain various inaccuracies. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] By the treaty of San Ildefonso, signed the 1st of October 1800. - This was never ratified by Charles IV. of Spain, but the treaty of - Madrid of the 21st of March 1801, which confirmed it, was signed by - him on the 15th of October 1802. - - - - -LOUISVILLE, the largest city of Kentucky, U.S.A., and the county-seat of -Jefferson county, on the Ohio river, 110 m. by rail and 130 m. by water -S.W. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890) 161,129; (1900) 204,731, of whom 21,427 -were foreign-born (including 12,383 Germans and 4198 Irish) and 39,139 -were negroes; (1910 census) 223,928. - -Louisville occupies 40 sq. m. of a plain, about 70 sq. m. in extent, -about 60 ft. above the low-water mark of the river, and nearly enclosed -by hills. The city extends for 8 m. along the river (spanned here by -three bridges), which falls 26 ft. in 2 m., but for 6 m. above the -rapids spreads out into a beautiful sheet of quiet water about 1 m. -wide. The streets intersect at right angles, are from 60 to 120 ft. -wide, and are, for the most part, well-shaded. The wholesale district, -with its great tobacco warehouses, is largely along Main Street, which -runs E. and W. not far from the river; and the heart of the shopping -district is along Fourth Street in the dozen blocks S. of Main Street. -Adjoining the shopping district on the S. is the old residence section; -the newer residences are on "The Highlands" at the E. end and also at -the W. end. The city is served by the Baltimore & Ohio South-Western, -the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, -the Louisville, Henderson & St Louis, the Illinois Central, the Chicago, -Indiana & Louisville, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the -Southern and the Louisville & Nashville railways; by steamboat lines to -Memphis, Cairo, Evansville, Cincinnati and Pittsburg; by an extensive -system of inter-urban electric lines; and by ferries to Jeffersonville -and New Albany, Indiana, two attractive residential suburbs. - -Many of the business houses are old-fashioned and low. The principal -public buildings are the United States government building, the -Jefferson county court house and the city hall. In front of the court -house stands a bronze statue of Thomas Jefferson, designed by Moses -Ezekiel (b. 1844), and inside of the court house a marble statue of -Henry Clay by Joel T. Hart (1810-1870). There are few or no large -congested tenement-house districts; most of the wage-earners own their -own homes or rent cottages. Louisville has an extensive park system, -most of which was acquired after 1889 and is on the outskirts. From the -heart of the city South Parkway, 150 ft. wide, extends S. 6 m. to the -entrance to Iroquois Park (670 acres) on a wooded hill. At the E. end of -Broadway is Cherokee Park (nearly 330 acres), near which is the -beautiful Cave Hill Cemetery, containing the grave of George Rogers -Clark, the founder of the city, and the graves of several members of the -family of George Keats, the poet's brother, who lived in Louisville for -a time; and at the W. end of Broadway, Shawnee Park (about 170 acres), -with a long sandy river beach frequented by bathers. Central Park -occupies the space of two city squares in the old fashionable residence -districts. Through the efforts of a Recreation League organized in 1901 -a few playgrounds are set apart for children. Louisville is a noted -racing centre and has some fine tracks; the Kentucky Derby is held here -annually in May. - -The United States government has a marine hospital, and a life-saving -station at the rapids of the river. The state has a school for the -blind, in connexion with which is the American Printing House for the -Blind. There are state hospitals and many other charitable institutions. - -The principal educational institutions are the university of Louisville, -which has a College of Liberal Arts (1907), a law department (1847), and -a medical department (1837)--with which in 1907 were consolidated the -Hospital College of Medicine (1873), the Medical Department of Kentucky -University (1898), the Louisville Medical College (1869), and the -Kentucky School of Medicine (1850); the Southern Baptist Theological -Seminary (1859); the Presbyterian Theological Seminary of Kentucky, -which was formed in 1901 by the consolidation of the Theological -Seminary of the Presbyterian Church at Danville (1853) and the -Louisville Presbyterian Theological Seminary (1893); the Louisville -College of Pharmacy (1871), and the Louisville College of Dentistry -(1887), a department of Central University. There are many musical -clubs, and a spring festival for which a local chorus furnishes the -nucleus, is held annually. The Louisville Public Library was established -in 1902, and 1904 acquired the library, the small museum (containing the -Troost collection of minerals) and the art gallery of the Polytechnic -Society of Louisville (1878), which for many years had maintained the -only public library in the city. The principal newspapers are the -_Courier Journal_ (Democratic, morning), the _Herald_ (Republican, -morning), the _Evening Post_ (Independent Democratic), and the _Times_ -(Democratic, evening). The _Courier Journal_ is one of the most -influential newspapers in the South. Henry Watterson became editor in -1868, when the _Courier_ (1843), established and owned by Walter N. -Haldeman, was consolidated with the _Journal_ (1830), of which Watterson -had become editor in 1867, and with the _Democrat_ (1844). - - The richness of the surrounding country in agricultural produce, - timber, coal and iron, and its transport facilities have made - Louisville a large commercial and manufacturing centre. The - leaf-tobacco market is the largest in the world, most of the - leaf-tobacco produced in Kentucky, which in 1900 was 34.9% of the - entire crop of the United States, being handled in Louisville; the - city's trade in whisky, mules and cement[1] is notably large, and that - in pork, wheat, Indian corn, coal and lumber is extensive. The total - value of the manufactured products increased from $54,515,226 in 1890 - to $78,746,390 in 1900 or 44.4%, and between 1900 and 1905 the value - of the factory-made product increased from $66,110,474 to $83,204,125, - an increase of 25.9%. Large quantities of fine bourbon whisky are - distilled here; in 1905 the value of the factory product of the city - was $3,878,004. The most valuable manufacture in the same year was - smoking and chewing tobacco (especially plug tobacco) and snuff valued - at $11,635,367--which product with that of cigars and cigarettes - ($1,225,347) constituted 15.5% of the value of the factory products of - the city. Other important manufactures in 1905 were: packed meats, - particularly pork; men's clothing, especially "Kentucky jeans"; flour - and grist mill products; cotton-seed oil and cake; leather, especially - sole leather; foundry and machine shop products; steam-railway cars; - cooperage; malt liquors; carriages and wagons, especially farm wagons; - and carriage and wagon materials; agricultural implements, especially - ploughs; and plumbers' supplies, including cast-iron gas and water - pipes. Besides, there were many other manufactures. - - The city's water-supply is taken from the Ohio river a few miles above - the city limits, and purified by large filtering plants. Nearly all - the capital stock of the water-works company is owned by the - municipality. - - Louisville is governed under a charter of 1893, which is in the form - of an act of the state legislature for the government of cities of the - first class (Louisville is the only city of the first class in the - state). The mayor is elected for four years, and appoints, subject to - the approval of the board of aldermen, the controller and the members - of the two principal executive boards--the board of public works and - the board of public safety. The legislative power is vested in a - general council composed of 12 aldermen and 24 councilmen. Both - aldermen and councilmen serve without pay, and are elected on a - general ticket for a term of two years; not more than two councilmen - may be residents of the same ward, but there is no such limitation in - regard to aldermen. The treasurer, tax-receiver, auditor, judge of the - police court, clerk of the police court, members of the board of - school trustees (1 from each legislative district) and members of the - park commission are elected by popular vote; the assessor, by the - general council. The duration of franchises given by the city is - limited to 20 years. - -_History._--The site of the city was probably visited by La Salle in -1669 or 1670. In July 1773, Captain Thomas Bullitt,[2] acting under a -commission from the College of William and Mary, surveyed a tract of -2000 acres, lying opposite the Falls of the Ohio, and laid out a town -site upon this tract. Colonel William Preston, county surveyor of -Fincastle county, within which the 2000-acre tract lay, refused to -approve Captain Bullitt's survey, and had the lands resurveyed in the -following year, nevertheless the tract was conveyed in December 1773 by -Lord Dunmore to his friend Dr John Connolly, a native of Lancaster -county, Pennsylvania, who had served in the British army, as commander -of Fort Pitt (under Dunmore's appointment), was an instigator of Indian -troubles which culminated in the Battle of Point Pleasant, and was -imprisoned from 1775 until nearly the close of the War of American -Independence for attempting under Dunmore's instructions to organize the -"Loyal Foresters," who were to be sent against the rebellious colonists -in the West. The city of Louisville was laid out on the upper half of -this Connolly tract. It is possible that there was a settlement on what -was afterward called Corn Island (which has now practically -disappeared), at the Falls of the Ohio, as early as 1775; in May 1778, -General George Rogers Clark, while proceeding, by way of the Ohio river, -against the British posts in the Illinois territory, landed on this -island and built block-houses for his stores and cabins for about twenty -families of emigrants who had come with him. These emigrants (or the -greater part of them) removed to the mainland in the winter of -1778-1779, and established themselves in a fort built within the present -limits of Louisville. A town government was organized by them in April -1779, the settlement at this time being known as "the Falls of the -Ohio." On the 14th of May 1780, the legislature of Virginia, in response -to a petition of the inhabitants, declared that Connolly had forfeited -his title, and incorporated the settlement under the name of Louisville, -in recognition of the assistance given to the colonies in the War of -Independence by Louis XVI. of France. In 1828 Louisville was chartered -as a city; in 1851 it received a second city charter; in 1870, a third; -and in 1893, a fourth. The city's growth was greatly promoted by the -introduction of successful steam navigation on the Ohio in 1811 and -still further by the opening of the canal around the rapids (generally -called the "Falls of the Ohio"). This canal, which is 2(1/2) m. in length -and is known as the Louisville and Portland canal, was authorized by the -legislature in 1825 and was opened in December 1830; between 1855 and -1872 Congress made appropriations for enlarging it, and in 1874 it -passed entirely under Federal control. The first railway to serve the -city, the Louisville & Frankfort, was completed in 1851. The 6th of -August is locally known as "Bloody Monday"; on this day in 1855 some -members of the Know Nothing Party incited a riot that resulted in the -loss of several lives and of considerable property. In March 1890 a -tornado caused great loss in life and property in the city. General -Clark made his home in Louisville and the vicinity after his return from -the Illinois country in 1779. Louisville was also the early home of the -actress Mary Anderson; John James Audubon lived here in 1808-1812; and 5 -m. E. of the city are the old home and the grave (with a monument) of -Zachary Taylor. - - See Reuben T. Durrett, _The Centenary of Louisville_ (Louisville, - 1893), being No. 8 of the Filson Club Publications; J. S. Johnston - (ed.), _Memorial History of Louisville_ (Chicago, 1896); and L. V. - Rule, "Louisville, the Gateway City to the South," in L. P. Powell's - _Historic Towns of the Southern States_ (New York, 1900). - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Louisville cement, one of the best-known varieties of natural - cement, was first manufactured in Shipping Port, a suburb of - Louisville, in 1829 for the construction of the Louisville & Portland - Canal; the name is now applied to all cement made in the Louisville - District in Kentucky and Indiana. There is a large Portland cement - factory just outside the city. - - [2] Captain Thomas Bullitt (1730-1778), a Virginian, commanded a - company under Washington at Great Meadows (July 4, 1754), was in - Braddock's disastrous expedition in 1755, and after the defeat of - Major James Grant in 1758 saved his disorganized army by a cleverly - planned attack upon the pursuers. He became Adjutant-General of - Virginia after the peace of 1763, and took part in the movements - which forced Lord Dunmore to leave Norfolk. Subsequently he served in - South Carolina under Colonel Lee. - - - - -LOULE, a town of southern Portugal, in the district of Faro (formerly -the province of Algarve); beautifully situated in an inland hilly -district, 10 m. N.N.W. of the seaport of Faro and 5 m. from Sao Joao da -Venda on the Lisbon-Faro railway. Pop. (1900) 22,478. Apart from Lisbon, -Oporto and Braga, Loule is the most populous town in the kingdom. It is -surrounded by walls and towers dating from the Moorish period. The -neighbouring church of Nossa Senhora da Piedade is a favourite resort of -pilgrims. Basket-making is the principal industry; leather, porcelain -and various products of the palm, agave and esparto grass are also -manufactured. - - - - -LOURDES, a town of south-western France in the department of -Hautes-Pyrenees, at the foot of the Pyrenees, 12 m. S.S.W. of Tarbes on -the main line of the Southern railway between that town and Pau. Pop. -(1906) 7228. Lourdes is divided into an old and a new town by the Gave -de Pau, which at this point leaves the valley of Argeles and turns -abruptly to the west. The old quarter on the right bank surrounds on -three sides a scarped rock, on which stands the fortress now used as a -prison. Its large square keep of the 14th century is the chief survival -of feudal times. Little is left of the old fortifications except a tower -of the 13th or 14th century, surmounting a gateway known as the Tour de -Garnabie. The old quarter is united with the new town by a bridge which -is continued in an esplanade leading to the basilica, the church of the -Rosary and the Grotto, with its spring of healing water. The present -fame of Lourdes is entirely associated with this grotto, where the -Virgin Mary is believed in the Roman Catholic world to have revealed -herself repeatedly to a peasant girl named Bernadette Soubirous in 1858. -A statue of the Virgin stands on a rock projecting above the grotto, the -walls of which are covered with crutches and other votive offerings; the -spot, which is resorted to by multitudes of pilgrims from all quarters -of the world, is marked by a basilica built above the grotto and -consecrated in 1876. In addition the church of the Rosary, a rich -building in the Byzantine style, was erected in front of and below the -basilica from 1884 to 1889. Not far from the grotto are several other -caves, where prehistoric remains have been found. The Hospice de -Notre-Dame de Douleurs is the chief of the many establishments provided -for the accommodation of pilgrims. - -Lourdes is a fortified place of the second class; and is the seat of the -tribunal of first instance of the arrondissement of Argeles. There are -marble and slate quarries near the town. The pastures of the -neighbourhood support a breed of Aquitaine cattle, which is most highly -valued in south-western France. - -The origin of Lourdes is uncertain. From the 9th century onwards it was -the most important place in Bigorre, largely owing to the fortress which -is intimately connected with its history. In 1360 it passed by the -treaty of Bretigny from French to English hands, and its governor was -murdered by Gaston Phoebus viscount of Bearn, for refusing to surrender -it to the count of Anjou. Nevertheless the fortress did not fall into -the possession of the French till 1406 after a blockade of eighteen -months. Again during the wars of religion the castle held out -successfully after the town had been occupied by the troops of the -Protestant captain Gabriel, count of Montgomery. From the reign of Louis -XIV. to the beginning of the 19th century the castle was used as a state -prison. Since the visions of Bernadette Soubirous, their authentication -by a commission of enquiry appointed by the bishop of Tarbes, and the -authorization by the pope of the cult of Our Lady of Lourdes, the -quarter on the left bank of the Gave has sprung up and it is estimated -that 600,000 pilgrims annually visit the town. The chief of the -pilgrimages, known as the national pilgrimage, takes place in August. - -Several religious communities have been named after Our Lady of Lourdes. -Of these one, consisting of sisters of the third order of St Francis, -called the Congregation of Our Lady of Lourdes (founded 1877), has its -headquarters in Rochester, Minnesota. Another, the Order of Our Lady of -Lourdes, was founded in 1883 for work in the archdiocese of New Orleans. - - See G. Mares, _Lourdes et ses environs_ (Bordeaux, 1894); Fourcade, - _L'Apparition de la grotte de Lourdes_ (Paris, 1862) and _L'Apparition - ... consideree au point de vue de l'art chretien_ (Bordeaux, 1862); - Boissarie, _Lourdes, histoire medicale_ (Paris, 1891); Bertrin, _Hist. - critique des evenements de Lourdes_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1905), written - under authority of the bishop of Tarbes; H. Lasserre, _Miraculous - Episodes of Lourdes_ (London, 1884, tr.); R. F. Clarke, _Lourdes and - its Miracles_ (_ib_., 1889) and _Medical Testimony to the Miracles_ - (_ib_., 1892); D. Barbe, _Lourdes hier, aujourd'hui, demain_ (Paris, - 1893; Eng. trans. by A. Meynell, London, 1894); J. R. Gasquet, _The - Cures at Lourdes_ (London, 1895); _Les Pelerinages de Lourdes. - Cantiques, insignes, costumes_ (Lourdes, 1897); W. Leschner, _The - Origin of Lourdes_ (London, 1900). Zola's _Lourdes_ (Paris, 1894), a - criticism from the sceptical point of view, in the form of a realistic - novel, has called forth many replies from the Catholic side. - - - - -LOURENCO MARQUES, capital of Portuguese East Africa, or Mozambique, on -the north bank of the Espirito Santo or English river, Delagoa Bay, and -396 m. by rail via Pretoria from Johannesburg. Pop. (1904) 9849, of whom -4691 were Europeans and 1690 Asiatics. The town is situated close to the -mouth of the river in 25 deg. 53' S. and 32 deg. 30' E., and is built -upon a low-lying spit of sand, formerly surrounded by swamps. The -streets are regularly laid out and adorned by several fine buildings. -The principal thoroughfare, the Avenida Aguiar, 2 m. long, goes from the -centre of the town to Reuben Point. The harbour is well equipped with -piers, quays, landing sheds and electric cranes, which enable large -steamers to discharge cargoes direct into the railway trucks. The depth -of water at low tide is 18 ft. The streets are lit by electricity and -there is an electric tramway system 7 m. in extent. At Reuben Point, -which marks the spot where the English river enters the bay, are the -lighthouse, barracks and the private residences of the wealthy citizens. -At its mouth the English river is about 2 m. across. Lourenco Marques is -the nearest seaport to the Rand gold mines. The port is 8374 m. from -Southampton via Cape Town and 7565 m. via the Suez canal. It is served -by British, Portuguese and German liners, the majority of the goods -imported being shipped at Southampton, Lisbon or Hamburg. Over 50% of -the import trade of Johannesburg is with Lourenco Marques. Great Britain -and British possessions take some 40% of the import trade, Portugal, -Germany, Norway, Sweden and America coming next in order. Most of the -imports, being forwarded to the Transvaal, figure also as exports. The -chief articles of import are food-stuffs and liquors, iron, mineral -oils, inks and dyes, timber and live stock. These all form part of the -transit trade. There is practically no export trade by sea save in coal, -which is brought chiefly from the collieries at Middelburg in the -Transvaal. At Port Matolla, 20 m. from the town, on the river of that -name, one of the feeders of the English river, is a flourishing timber -trade. The average value of the total trade of Lourenco Marques for the -five years 1897-1899 and 1902-1903 (1900 and 1901 being years during -which trade was disorganized by the Anglo-Boer War) was over L3,500,000. -In 1905 the value of the trade of the port was L5,682,000; of this total -the transit trade was worth over L4,500,000 and the imports for local -consumption L1,042,000. The retail trade, and trade with the natives, is -almost entirely in the hands of Indians. The chief import for local -consumption is cheap wine from Portugal, bought by the Kaffirs to the -extent of over L500,000 yearly. These natives form the bulk of the -Africans who work in the Rand gold mines. - -Lourenco Marques is named after a Portuguese navigator, who with a -companion (Antonio Calderia) was sent in 1544 by the governor of -Mozambique on a voyage of exploration. They explored the lower courses -of the rivers emptying their waters into Delagoa Bay, notably the -Espirito Santo. The various forts and trading stations which the -Portuguese established, abandoned and re-occupied on the north bank of -the river were all called Lourenco Marques. The existing town dates from -about 1850, the previous settlement having been entirely destroyed by -the natives. In 1871 the town was described as a poor place, with narrow -streets, fairly good flat-roofed houses, grass huts, decayed forts and -rusty cannon, enclosed by a wall 6 ft. high then recently erected and -protected by bastions at intervals. The growing importance of the -Transvaal led, however, to greater interest being taken in Portugal in -the port. A commission was sent by the Portuguese government in 1876 to -drain the marshy land near the settlement, to plant the blue gum tree, -and to build a hospital and a church. It was not, however, until the end -of the 19th century that any marked development took place in the town, -and up to 1903 cargo had to be discharged in tugs and lighters. - -In 1873-1877 Mr Burgers, president of the Transvaal, endeavoured, -unsuccessfully, to get a railway built from Pretoria to Delagoa Bay. In -1878-1879 a survey was taken for a line from Lourenco Marques to the -Transvaal, and in 1883 the Lisbon cabinet granted to Colonel Edward -McMurdo, an American citizen, a concession--which took the place of -others which had lapsed--for the building of a railway from Lourenco -Marques to the Transvaal frontier, the Boer government having agreed -(1883) to continue the line to Pretoria. Under this concession Colonel -McMurdo formed in London in 1887 a company--the Delagoa Bay and East -African Railway Company--to construct the line. Meantime a secret -agreement had been come to between President Kruger and Portugal for the -concession to the Transvaal of a "steam tramway" parallel to the -projected railway, should the company not complete the line in the time -specified. The company, however, built the line to the frontier shown on -the Portuguese maps of 1883 within the time limit, the railway being -opened on the 14th of December 1888. The frontier by this date had been -fixed at Komati Poort, 5 m. farther from the coast. Portugal had -previously agreed to grant the company "a reasonable extension of time" -to complete the line if the frontier should be traced farther inland -than shown on the 1883 maps. The Lisbon government required the -extension to Komati Poort to be completed in eight months (five of which -were in the rainy season), an impossible stipulation. The railway not -being finished, the Portuguese seized the line on the 25th of June 1889 -and cancelled the concession. Portugal in so doing acted, to all -appearance, under pressure from the Transvaal. Great Britain and America -at once protested, Portugal admitted the illegality of her act and -consented to refer the amount of compensation to the decision of three -Swiss jurists. This was in 1890, when Portugal paid L28,000 on account. -It was not until the 29th of March 1900 that the award was made known. -The arbitrators ordered Portugal to pay--in addition to the L28,000--a -sum, including interest, of L950,000. The damages were promptly paid. -Meantime the railway had been continued from Komati Poort and was opened -for through traffic to Pretoria on the 8th of July 1895. In 1906-1910 -another railway (47 m. long) was built from Lourenco Marques due west to -the Swaziland frontier, being a link in a new line to shorten the -distance by rail between the Rand and the sea by some 60 m. - - See also DELAGOA BAY and the authorities there cited. The text of the - railway arbitration award was published in French at Berne in 1900. - Annual reports on the trade of Lourenco Marques are issued by the - British Foreign Office. - - - - -LOUSE (O. Eng. _lus_, cf. Du. _luis_, Ger. _Laus_, Dan. and Swed. -_lus_), a term applied to small wingless insects, parasitic upon birds -and mammals, and belonging strictly speaking to the order Anoplura, -often included among the Hemiptera, though the term is frequently -extended to the bird-lice constituting the suborder Mallophaga, formerly -included among the Neuroptera. Both agree in having nothing that can be -termed a metamorphosis; they are active from the time of their exit from -the egg to their death, gradually increasing in size, and undergoing -several moults or changes of skin. The true lice (or Anoplura) are found -on the bodies of many Mammalia, and occasion by their presence -intolerable irritation. The number of genera is few. Two species of -_Pediculus_ are found on the human body, and are known ordinarily as the -head-louse (_P. capitis_) and the body-louse (_P. vestimenti_); _P. -capitis_ is found on the head, especially of children. The eggs, laid on -the hairs, and known as "nits," hatch in about eight days, and the lice -are full grown in about a month. Such is their fecundity that it has -been asserted that one female (probably of _P. vestimenti_) may in eight -weeks produce five thousand descendants. Want of cleanliness favours -their multiplication in a high degree--the idea once existed, and is -probably still held by the very ignorant, that they are directly -engendered from dirt. The irritation is caused by the rostrum of the -insect being inserted into the skin, from which the blood is rapidly -pumped up. A third human louse, known as the crab-louse (_Phthirius -pubis_) is found amongst the hairs on other parts of the body, -particularly those of the pubic region, but probably never on the head. -The louse of monkeys is now generally considered as forming a separate -genus (_Pedicinus_), but the greater part of those infesting domestic -and wild quadrupeds are mostly grouped in the large genus -_Haematopinus_, and very rarely is the same species found on different -kinds of animals. - -The bird-lice (Mallophaga) are far more numerous in species, although -the number of genera is comparatively small. With the exception of the -genus _Trichodectes_, the various species of which are found on -mammalia, all infest birds (as their English names implies) (see -BIRD-LOUSE). Louse-infestation is known as phthiriasis in medical and -veterinary terminology. - - AUTHORITIES.--The following works are the most important: Denny, - _Monographia Anoplurorum Britanniae_ (London, 1843); Giebel, _Insecta - Epizoa_ (which contains the working-up of Nitzsch's posthumous - materials; Leipzig, 1874); van Beneden, _Animal Parasites_ (London, - 1876); Piaget, _Les Pediculines_ (Leiden, 1880); Megnin, _Les - Parasites et les maladies parasitaires_ (Paris, 1880); Neumann, - _Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of Domesticated Animals_ (1892); - Osborn, _Pediculi and Mallophaga affecting Man and the Lower Animals_ - (Washington, 1891; U.S. Dept. Agr.); Enderlein, "Lause-Studien," - _Zool. Anz._ xxviii. (1904). - - - - -LOUTH, a maritime county in the province of Leinster, Ireland, bounded -N.E. by Carlingford Bay and Co. Down, E. by the Irish Sea, S.W. by -Meath, and N.W. by Monaghan and Armagh. It is the smallest county in -Ireland, its area being 202,731 acres or about 317 sq. m. The greater -part of the surface is undulating, with occasionally lofty hills; in the -north-east, on the borders of Carlingford Lough, there is a mountain -range approaching 2000 ft. in height. Many of the hills are finely -wooded, and towards the sea the scenery, in the more elevated districts, -is strikingly picturesque. With the exception of the promontory of -Clogher Head, which rises abruptly to a height of 180 ft., the coast is -for the most part low and sandy. The narrow and picturesque Carlingford -Lough is navigable beyond the limits of the county, and Carlingford and -Greenore are well-known watering-places on the county Louth shore. The -Bay of Dundalk stretches to the town of that name and affords convenient -shelter. The principal rivers, the Fane, the Lagan, the Glyde and the -Dee, flow eastwards. None of these is navigable, but the Boyne, which -forms the southern boundary of the county, is navigable for large -vessels as far as Drogheda. - - Almost all this county is occupied by an undulating lowland of - much-folded Silurian shales and fine-grained sandstones; but - Carboniferous Limestone overlies these rocks north and east of - Dundalk. Dolerite and gabbro, in turn invaded by granite, have broken - through the limestone north of Dundalk Bay, and form a striking and - mountainous promontory. There is now no doubt that these rocks, with - those on the adjacent moorland of Slieve Gullion, belong to the early - Cainozoic igneous series, and may be compared with similar masses in - the Isle of Skye. A raised beach provides a flat terrace at Greenore. - Lead ore has been worked in the county, as in the adjacent parts of - Armagh and Monaghan. - - In the lower regions the soil is a very rich deep mould, admirably - adapted both for cereals and green crops. The higher mountain regions - are covered principally with heath. Agriculture generally is in an - advanced condition, and the farms are for the most part well drained. - The acreage of tillage is but little below that of pasture. Oats, - barley, flax, potatoes and turnips are all satisfactorily cultivated. - Cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry represent the bulk of the live stock. - Linen manufactures are of some importance. The deep-sea and coast - fishery has its headquarters at Dundalk, and the salmon fisheries at - Dundalk (Castletown river) and Drogheda (river Boyne). These - fisheries, together with oyster beds in Carlingford Lough, are of - great value. The county is traversed from S. to N. by the Great - Northern railway, with a branch westward from Dundalk; while the same - town is connected with the port of Greenore by a line owned by the - London & North-Western railway of England. From Greenore the London & - North-Western railway passenger steamers run regularly to Holyhead. - The town of Ardee is served by a branch from the Great Northern line - at Dromin. - - The population (71,914 in 1891; 65,820 in 1901) decreases at about an - average rate, and a considerable number of the inhabitants emigrate. - Of the total population about 92% are Roman Catholics. The principal - towns are Dundalk (pop. 13,076), Drogheda (12,760) and Ardee (1883). - The county includes six baronies and sixty-four parishes. Assizes are - held at Dundalk and quarter sessions at Ardee, Drogheda and Dundalk. - Louth was represented by two county and ten borough members in the - Irish parliament; the two present divisions are the north and south, - each returning one member. The county is in the Protestant dioceses of - Armagh and Clogher and the Roman Catholic diocese of Armagh. - -The territory which afterwards became the county Louth was included in -the principality of Uriel, Orgial or Argial, which comprehended also the -greater part of Meath, Monaghan and Armagh. The chieftain of the -district was conquered by John de Courcy in 1183, and Louth or Uriel was -among the shires generally considered to have been created by King John, -and peopled by English settlers. Until the time of Elizabeth it was -included in the province of Ulster. County Louth is rich in antiquarian -remains. There are ancient buildings of all dates, and spears, swords, -axes of bronze, ornaments of gold, and other relics have been discovered -in quantities. Among Druidical remains is the fine cromlech of -Ballymascanlan, between Dundalk and Greenore. Danish raths and other -forts are numerous. It is said that there were originally twenty -religious houses in the county. Of the remains of these the most -interesting are at Monasterboice and Mellifont, both near Drogheda. At -the former site are two churches, the larger dating probably from the -9th century, the smaller from the 13th; a fine round tower, 110 ft. in -height, but not quite perfect; and three crosses, two of which, 27 and -15 ft. in height respectively, are adorned with moulding, sculptured -figures and tracery, and are among the finest in Ireland. At Mellifont -are the remains of the first Cistercian monastery founded in Ireland, in -1142, with a massive gatehouse, an octagonal baptistery and -chapter-house. Carlingford and Drogheda have monastic remains, and at -Dromiskin is a round tower, in part rebuilt. Ardee, an ancient town, -incorporated in 1376, has a castle of the 13th century. At Dunbar a -charter of Charles II. (1679) gave the inhabitants the right to elect a -sovereign. Louth, 5(1/2) m. S.W. from Dundalk, is a decayed town which -gave its name to the county, and contains ruins of an abbey to which was -attached one of the most noted early schools in Ireland. - - - - -LOUTH, a market-town and municipal borough in the E. Lindsey or Louth -parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England, on the river Lud, -141(1/2) m. N. of London by the Grimsby branch of the Great Northern -railway. Pop. (1901) 9518. By a canal, completed in 1763, there is water -communication with the Humber. The Perpendicular church of St James, -completed about 1515, with a spire 300 ft. in height, is one of the -finest ecclesiastical buildings in the county. Traces of a building of -the 13th century are perceptible. There are a town hall, a corn exchange -and a market-hall, an Edward VI. grammar school, which is richly -endowed, a commercial school founded in 1676, a hospital and several -almshouses. Thorpe Hall is a picturesque building dated 1584. In the -vicinity are the ruins of a Cistercian abbey (Louth Park). The -industries include the manufacture of agricultural implements, -iron-founding, brewing, malting, and rope and brick-making. The town is -governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 2749 acres. - -Louth (_Ludes, Loweth_) is first mentioned in the Domesday record as a -borough held, as it had been in Saxon times, by the bishop of Lincoln, -who had a market there. The see retained the manor until it was -surrendered by Bishop Holbeach to Henry VIII., who granted it to Edward, -earl of Lincoln, but it was recovered by the Crown before 1562. Louth -owed much of its early prosperity to the adjacent Cistercian abbey of -Louth Park, founded in 1139 by Alexander bishop of Lincoln. The borough -was never more than prescriptive, though burgesses were admitted -throughout the middle ages and until 1711, their sole privilege being -freedom from tolls. The medieval government of the town was by the manor -court under the presidency of the bishop's high steward, the custom -being for the reeve to be elected by eighteen ex-reeves. The original -parish church was built about 1170. During the 13th and 14th centuries -nine religious gilds were founded in the town. Fear of confiscation of -the property of these gilds seems to have been one of the chief local -causes of the Lincolnshire Rebellion, which broke out here in 1536. The -disturbance began by the parishioners seizing the church ornaments to -prevent their surrender. The bishop's steward, who arrived to open the -manorial court for the election of a reeve, agreed to ride to ask the -king the truth about the jewels, but this did not satisfy the people, -who, while showing respect to a royal commission, seized and burnt the -papers of the bishop's registrar. After swearing several country -gentlemen to their cause, the rebels dispersed, agreeing to meet on the -following day under arms. Edward VI. in 1551 incorporated Louth under -one warden and six assistants, who were to be managers of the school -founded by the same charter. This was confirmed in 1564 by Elizabeth, -who granted the manor of Louth to the corporation with all rights and -all the lands of the suppressed gilds at an annual fee-farm rent of L84. -James I. gave the commission of the peace to the warden and one -assistant in 1605; a further charter was obtained in 1830. Louth has -never been a parliamentary borough. The markets said to have been held -from ancient times and the three fairs on the third Sunday after Easter -and the feasts of St Martin and St James were confirmed in 1551. Louth -was a seat of the wool trade as early as 1297; the modern manufactures -seem to have arisen at the end of the 18th century, when, according to -the charter of 1830, there was a great increase in the population, -manufactures, trade and commerce of the town. - - See E. H. R. Tatham, _Lincolnshire in Roman Times_ (Louth, 1902); - Richard W. Goulding, _Louth Old Corporation Records_ (Louth, 1891). - - - - -LOUVAIN (Flem. _Leuven_), a town of Belgium in the province of Brabant, -of which it was the capital in the 14th century before the rise of -Brussels. Pop. (1904) 42,194. Local tradition attributes the -establishment of a permanent camp at this spot to Julius Caesar, but -Louvain only became important in the 11th century as a place of -residence for the dukes of Brabant. In 1356 Louvain was the scene of the -famous _Joyeuse Entree_ of Wenceslas which represented the principal -charter of Brabant. At that time it had a population of at least 50,000 -and was very prosperous as the centre of the woollen trade in central -Belgium. The gild of weavers numbered 2400 members. The old walls of -Louvain were 4(1/2) m. in circumference, and have been replaced by -boulevards, but within them there is a considerable extent of cultivated -ground. Soon after the _Joyeuse Entree_ a serious feud began between the -citizens and the patrician class, and eventually the duke threw in his -lot with the latter. After a struggle of over twenty years' duration the -White Hoods, as the citizens called themselves, were crushed. In 1379 -they massacred seventeen nobles in the town hall, but this crime brought -down on them the vengeance of the duke, to whom in 1383 they made the -most abject and complete surrender. With this civil strife the -importance and prosperity of Louvain declined. Many weavers fled to -Holland and England, the duke took up his residence in the strong castle -of Vilvorde, and Brussels prospered at the expense of Louvain. What it -lost in trade it partially recovered as a seat of learning, for in 1423, -Duke John IV. of Brabant founded there a university and ever since -Louvain University has enjoyed the first place in Belgium. It has always -prided itself most on its theological teaching. In 1679 the university -was established in the old Cloth Workers' Hall, a building dating from -1317, with long arcades and graceful pillars supporting the upper -storeys. The library contains 70,000 volumes and some 500 manuscripts. -Attached to the university are four residential colleges at which the -number of students average two thousand. In the 16th century when the -university was at the height of its fame it counted six thousand. - -The most remarkable building in Louvain is the Hotel de Ville, one of -the richest and most ornate examples of pointed Gothic in the country. -If less ornate than that of Oudenarde it is more harmonious in its -details. It was the work of Mathieu de Layens, master mason, who worked -at it from 1448 to 1463. The building is one of three storeys each with -ten pointed windows forming the facade facing the square. Above is a -graceful balustrade behind which is a lofty roof, and at the angles are -towers perforated for the passage of the light. The other three sides -are lavishly decorated with statuary. The interior is not noteworthy. - -Opposite the Hotel de Ville is the fine church of St Pierre, in the form -of a cross with a low tower to which the spire has never been added. The -existing edifice was built on the site of an older church between 1425 -and 1497. It contains seven chapels, in two of which are fine pictures -by Dierich Bouts formerly attributed to Memling. Much of the iron and -brass work is by Jean Matseys. There is also an ancient tomb, being the -monument of Henry I., duke of Brabant, who died in 1235. There are four -other interesting churches in Louvain, viz. Ste Gertrude, St Quentin, St -Michael and St Jacques. In the last-named is a fine De Crayer -representing St Hubert. Some ruins on a hill exist of the old castle of -the counts of Louvain whose title was merged in the higher style of the -dukes of Brabant. - - - - -LOUVER, LOUVRE or LUFFER, in architecture, the lantern built upon the -roof of the hall in ancient times to allow the smoke to escape when the -fire was made on the pavement in the middle of the hall. The term is -also applied to the flat overlapping slips of wood, glass, &c., with -which such openings are closed, arranged to give ventilation without the -admission of rain. Openings fitted with louvers are now utilized for the -purposes of ventilation in schools and manufactories. - - The word has been derived from the French _l'ouvert_, the "open" - space. This, Minsheu's guess, is now generally abandoned. The Old - French form, of which the English is an adaptation, was _lover_ or - _lovier_. The medieval Latin _lodium_, _lodarium_, is suggested as the - ultimate origin. Du Cange (_Glossarium_, s.v. "lodia") defines it as - _lugurium_, i.e. a small hut. The English form "louvre" is due to a - confusion with the name of the palace in Paris. The origin of that - name is also unknown; _louverie_, place of wolves, is one of the - suggestions, the palace being supposed to have originally been a - hunting-box (see PARIS). - - - - -LOUVET, JEAN (c. 1370-c. 1440), called the president of Provence, -occupied the position of president of the Chambre des Comptes at Aix in -1415. Towards the end of that year he went to Paris with Louis II. of -Anjou, king of Sicily, attached himself to the dauphin Charles, and -after having been chief steward of the household to Queen Isabella he -turned against her. He was one of the principal agents of the Armagnac -party, and became the most influential adviser of Charles VII. during -the first years of his reign. But his rapacity gained him enemies, and -when the constable Arthur, earl of Richmond, attained a preponderating -influence over Charles VII. Louvet retired to his captaincy of Avignon. -He still remained a personage of importance in his exile, and played an -influential part even in his last years. - - See Vallet de Viriville in the _Nouvelle Biographie generale_, and G. - du Fresne de Beaucourt, _Histoire de Claries VII._ (1881-1891). - (J. V.*) - - - - -LOUVET DE COUVRAI, JEAN BAPTISTE (1760-1797), French writer and -politician, was born in Paris on the 12th of June 1760, the son of a -stationer. He became a bookseller's clerk, and first attracted attention -with a not very moral novel called _Les Amours du chevalier de Faublas_ -(Paris, 1787-1789). The character of the heroine of this book, Lodoiska, -was taken from the wife of a jeweller in the Palais Royal, with whom he -had formed a _liaison_. She was divorced from her husband in 1792 and -married Louvet in 1793. His second novel, _Emilie de Varmont_, was -intended to prove the utility and necessity of divorce and of the -marriage of priests, questions raised by the Revolution. Indeed all his -works were directed to the ends of the Revolution. He attempted to have -one of his unpublished plays, _L'Anobli conspirateur_, performed at the -Theatre Francais, and records naively that one of its managers, M. -d'Orfeuil, listened to the reading of the first three acts "with mortal -impatience," exclaiming at last: "I should need cannon in order to put -that piece on the stage." A "sort of farce" at the expense of the army -of the _emigres, La Grande Revue des armees noire el blanche_, had, -however, better success: it ran for twenty-five nights. - -Louvet was, however, first brought into notice as a politician by his -_Paris justifie_, in reply to a "truly incendiary" pamphlet in which -Mounier, after the removal of the king to Paris in October 1789, had -attacked the capital, "at that time blameless," and argued that the -court should be established elsewhere. This led to Louvet's election to -the Jacobin Club, for which, as he writes bitterly in his Memoirs, the -qualifications were then "a genuine _civisme_ and some talent." A -self-styled _philosophe_ of the true revolutionary type, he now threw -himself ardently into the campaign against "despotism" and "reaction," -i.e. against the moderate constitutional royalty advocated by Lafayette, -the Abbe Maury and other "Machiavellians." On the 25th of December 1791 -he presented at the bar of the Assembly his _Petition contre les -princes_, which had "a prodigious success in the senate and the empire." -Elected deputy to the Assembly for the department of Loiret, he made his -first speech in January 1792. He attached himself to the Girondists, -whose vague deism, sentimental humanitarianism and ardent republicanism -he fully shared, and from March to November 1792 he published, at -Roland's expense, a bi-weekly _journal-affiche_, of which the title, _La -Sentinelle_, proclaimed its mission to be to "enlighten the people on -all the plots" at a time when, Austria having declared war, the court -was "visibly betraying our armies." On the 10th of August he became -editor of the _Journal des debats_, and in this capacity, as well as in -the Assembly, made himself conspicuous by his attacks on Robespierre, -Marat and the other Montagnards, whom he declares he would have -succeeded in bringing to justice in September but for the poor support -he received from the Girondist leaders. It is more probable, however, -that his ill-balanced invective contributed to their ruin and his own; -for him Robespierre was a "royalist," Marat "the principal agent of -England," the Montagnards Orleanists in masquerade. His courageous -attitude at the trial of Louis XVI., when he supported the "appeal to -the people," only served still further to discredit the Girondists. He -defended them, however, to the last with great courage, if with little -discretion; and after the crisis of the 31st of May 1793 he shared the -perils of the party who fled from Paris (see Girondists). His wife, -"Lodoiska," who had actively cooperated in his propaganda, was also in -danger. - -After the fall of Robespierre, he was recalled to the Convention, when -he was instrumental in bringing Carrier and the others responsible for -the _Noyades_ of Nantes to justice. His influence was now considerable; -he was elected a member of the Committee of the Constitution, president -of the Assembly, and member of the Committee of Public Safety, against -the overgrown power of which he had in earlier days protested. His -hatred of the Mountain had not made him reactionary; he was soon -regarded as one of the mainstays of the "Jacobins," and _La Sentinelle_ -reappeared, under his auspices, preaching union among republicans. Under -the Directory (1795) he was elected a member of the Council of Five -Hundred, of which he was secretary, and also a member of the Institute. -Meanwhile he had returned to his old trade and set up a bookseller's -shop in the Palais Royal. But, in spite of the fact that he had once -more denounced the Jacobins in _La Sentinelle_, his name had become -identified with all that the combative spirits of the _jeunesse doree_ -most disliked; his shop was attacked by the "young men" with cries of -"_A bas la Loupe, a bas la belle Lodoiska, a bas les gardes du corps de -Louvet!_" he and his wife were insulted in the streets and the theatres: -"_A bas les Louvets et les Louvetants!_" and he was compelled to leave -Paris. The Directory appointed him to the consulship at Palermo, but he -died on the 25th of August 1797 before taking up his post. - - In 1795 Louvet published a portion of his Memoirs under the title of - _Quelques notices pour l'histoire et le recit de mes perils depuis le - 31 mai 1793_. They were mainly written in the various hiding-places in - which Louvet took refuge, and they give a vivid picture of the - sufferings of the proscribed Girondists. They form an invaluable - document for the study of the psychology of the Revolution; for in - spite of their considerable literary art, they are artless in their - revelation of the mental and moral state of their author, a - characteristic type of the honest, sentimental, somewhat hysterical - and wholly unbalanced minds nurtured on the abstractions of the - _philosophes_. The first complete edition of the _Memoires de Louvet - de Couvrai_, edited, with preface, notes and tables, by F. A. Aulard, - was published at Paris in 1889. - - - - -LOUVIERS, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement -in the department of Eure, 17(1/2) m. S.S.E. of Rouen by road. Pop. -(1906) 9449. Louviers is pleasantly situated in a green valley -surrounded by wooded hills, on the Eure, which here divides into several -branches. The old part of the town, built of wood, stands on the left -bank of the river; the more modern portions, in brick and hewn stone, on -the right. There are spacious squares, and the place is surrounded by -boulevards. The Gothic church of Notre-Dame has a south portal which -ranks among the most beautiful works of the kind produced in the 15th -century; it contains fine stained glass of the 15th and 16th centuries -and other works of art. The hotel-de-ville, a large modern building, -contains a museum and library. The chief industry is cloth and flannel -manufacture. There are wool-spinning and fulling mills, thread factories -and manufactories of spinning and weaving machinery, and enamel ware; -leather-working, dyeing, metal-founding and bell-founding are also -carried on. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a court of -first instance, a tribunal of commerce, a chamber of arts and -manufactures, and a council of trade arbitrators. - - Louviers (_Lovera_) was originally a _villa_ of the dukes of Normandy - and in the middle ages belonged to the archbishops of Rouen; its - cloth-making industry first arose in the beginning of the 13th - century. It changed hands once and again during the Hundred Years' - War, and from Charles VII. it received extensive privileges, and the - title of Louviers le Franc for the bravery of its inhabitants in - driving the English from Pont de l'Arche, Verneuil and Harcourt. It - passed through various troubles successively at the period of the - League of the Public Weal under Louis XI., in the religious wars (when - the parlement of Rouen sat for a time at Louviers) and in the wars of - the Fronde. - - See G. Petit, _Hist. de Louviers_ (Louviers, 1877). - - - - -LOUVOIS, FRANCOIS MICHEL LE TELLIER, MARQUIS DE (1641-1691), French -statesman, war minister of Louis XIV., was born at Paris on the 18th of -January 1641. His father, Michel le Tellier (q.v.), married him to an -heiress, the marquise de Courtenvaux, and instructed him in the -management of state business. The young man won the king's confidence, -and in 1666 he succeeded his father as war minister. His talents were -perceived by Turenne in the war of Devolution (1667-68), who gave him -instruction in the art of providing armies. After the peace of -Aix-la-Chapelle, Louvois devoted himself to organizing the French army. -The years between 1668 and 1672, says Camille Rousset, "were years of -preparation, when Lionne was labouring with all his might to find -allies, Colbert to find money, and Louvois soldiers for Louis." The work -of Louvois in these years is bound up with the historical development of -the French army and of armies in general (see ARMY). Here need only be -mentioned Louvois's reorganization of the military orders of merit, his -foundation of the Hotel des Invalides, and the almost forcible enrolment -of the nobility and gentry of France, in which Louvois carried out part -of Louis's measures for curbing the spirit of independence by service in -the army or at court. The success of his measures is to be seen in the -victories of the great war of 1672-78. After the peace of Nijmwegen -Louvois was high in favour, his father had been made chancellor, and the -influence of Colbert was waning. The ten years of peace between 1678 and -1688 were distinguished in French history by the rise of Madame de -Maintenon, the capture of Strassburg and the revocation of the Edict of -Nantes, in all of which Louvois bore a prominent part. The surprise of -Strassburg in 1681 in time of peace was not only planned but executed by -Louvois and Monclar. A saving clause in the revocation of the Edict of -Nantes, which provided for some liberty of conscience, if not of -worship, Louvois sharply annulled with the phrase "Sa majeste veut qu'on -fasse sentir les dernieres rigueurs a ceux qui ne voudront pas se faire -de sa religion." He claimed also the credit of inventing the -dragonnades, and mitigated the rigour of the soldiery only in so far as -the licence accorded was prejudicial to discipline. Discipline, indeed, -and complete subjection to the royal authority was the political faith -of Louvois. Colbert died in 1683, and had been replaced by Le Pelletier, -an adherent of Louvois, in the controller-generalship of finances, and -by Louvois himself in his ministry for public buildings, which he took -that he might be the minister able to gratify the king's two favourite -pastimes, war and building. Louvois was able to superintend the -successes of the first years of the war of the League of Augsburg, but -died suddenly of apoplexy after leaving the king's cabinet on July 16, -1691. His sudden death caused a suspicion of poison. Louvois was one of -the greatest of the rare class of great war ministers. French history -can only point to Carnot as his equal. Both had to organize armies out -of old material on a new system, both were admirable contrivers of -campaigns, and both devoted themselves to the material well-being of the -soldiers. In private life and in the means employed for gaining his -ends, Louvois was unscrupulous and shameless. - - The principal authority for Louvois's life and times is Camille - Rousset's _Histoire de Louvois_ (Paris, 1872), a great work founded on - the 900 volumes of his despatches at the Depot de la Guerre. Saint - Simon from his class prejudices is hardly to be trusted, but Madame de - Sevigne throws many side-lights on his times. _Testament politique de - Louvois_ (1695) is spurious. - - - - -LOUYS, PIERRE (1870- ), French novelist and poet, was born in Paris -on the 10th of December 1870. When he was nineteen he founded a review, -_La Conque_, which brought him into contact with the leaders of the -Parnassians, and counted Swinburne, Maeterlinck, Mallarme and others -among its contributors. He won notoriety by his novel _Aphrodite_ -(1896), which gave a vivid picture of Alexandrian morals at the -beginning of the Christian era. His _Chansons de Bilitis, roman -lyrique_ (1894), which purported to be a translation from the Greek, is -a glorification of Sapphic love, which in subject-matter is -objectionable in the highest degree; but its delicate decadent prose is -typical of a modern French literary school, and some of the "songs" were -set to music by Debussy and others. Later books are: _La Femme et le -pantin_ (1898); _Les Aventures du roi Pausole_ (1900); _Sanguines_ -(1903); _Archipel_ (1906). Louys married in 1899 Louise de Heredia, -younger daughter of the poet. - - - - -LOVAT, SIMON FRASER, 12TH BARON (c. 1667-1747), Scottish chief and -Jacobite intriguer, was born about 1667 and was the second son of Thomas -Fraser, third son of the 8th Lord Lovat. The barony of Lovat dates from -about 1460, in the person of Hugh Fraser, a descendant of Simon Fraser -(killed at Halidon Hill in 1338) who acquired the tower and fort of -Lovat near Beauly, Inverness-shire, and from whom the clan Fraser was -called "Macshimi" (sons of Simon). Young Simon was educated at King's -College, Aberdeen, and his correspondence afterwards gives proof, not -only of a command of good English and idiomatic French, but of such an -acquaintance with the Latin classics as to leave him never at a loss for -an apt quotation from Virgil or Horace. Whether Lovat ever felt any real -loyalty to the Stuarts or was actuated by self-interest it is difficult -to determine, but that he was a born traitor and deceiver there can be -no doubt. One of his first acts on leaving college was to recruit three -hundred men from his clan to form part of a regiment in the service of -William and Mary, in which he himself was to hold a command,--his object -being to have a body of well-trained soldiers under his influence, whom -at a moment's notice he might carry over to the interest of King James. -Among other outrages in which he was engaged about this time was a rape -and forced marriage committed on the widow of the 10th Lord Lovat with -the view apparently of securing his own succession to the estates; and -it is a curious instance of influence that, after being subjected by him -to horrible ill-usage, she is said to have become seriously attached to -him. A prosecution, however, having been instituted against him by Lady -Lovat's family, Simon retired first to his native strongholds in the -Highlands, and afterwards to France, where he found his way in July 1702 -to the court of St Germain. In 1699, on his father's death, he assumed -the title of Lord Lovat. One of his first steps towards gaining -influence in France seems to have been to announce his conversion to the -Catholic faith. He then proceeded to put the project of restoring the -exiled family into a practical shape. Hitherto nothing seems to have -been known among the Jacobite exiles of the efficiency of the -Highlanders as a military force. But Lovat saw that, as they were the -only part of the British population accustomed to the independent use of -arms, they could be at once put in action against the reigning power. -His plan therefore was to land five thousand French troops at Dundee, -where they might reach the north-eastern passes of the Highlands in a -day's march, and be in a position to divert the British troops till the -Highlands should have time to rise. Immediately afterwards five hundred -men were to land on the west coast, seize Fort William or Inverlochy, -and thus prevent the access of any military force from the south to the -central Highlands. The whole scheme indicates Lovat's sagacity as a -military strategist, and his plan was continuously kept in view in all -future attempts of the Jacobites, and finally acted on in the outbreak -of 1745. The advisers of the Pretender seem to have been either slow to -trust their coadjutor or to comprehend his project. At last, however, he -was despatched (1703) on a secret mission to the Highlands to sound -those of the chiefs who were likely to rise, and to ascertain what -forces they could bring into the field. He found, however, that there -was little disposition to join the rebellion, and he then apparently -made up his mind to secure his own safety by revealing all that he knew -to the government of Queen Anne. He persuaded the duke of Queensberry -that his rival, the duke of Atholl, was in the Jacobite plot, and that -if Queensberry supported him he could obtain evidence of this at St -Germain. Queensberry foolishly entered into the intrigue with him -against Atholl, but when Lovat had gone to France with a pass from -Queensberry the affair was betrayed to Atholl by Robert Ferguson, and -resulted in Queensberry's discomfiture. The story is obscure, and is -complicated by partisanship on either side; but Lovat was certainly -playing a double game. His agility, however, was not remunerative. On -returning to Paris suspicions got afloat as to Lovat's proceedings, and -he was imprisoned in the castle of Angouleme. He remained nearly ten -years under supervision, till in November 1714 he made his escape to -England. For some twenty-five years after this he was chiefly occupied -in lawsuits for the recovery of his estates and the re-establishment of -his fortune, in both of which objects he was successful. The intervals -of his leisure were filled up by Jacobite and Anti-Jacobite intrigues, -in which he seems to have alternately, as suited his interests, acted -the traitor to both parties. But he so far obtained the confidence of -the government as to secure the appointments of sheriff of Inverness and -of colonel of an independent company. His disloyal practices, however, -soon led to his being suspected; and he was deprived of both his -appointments. When the rebellion of 1745 broke out, Lovat acted with -characteristic duplicity. He represented to the Jacobites--what was -probably in the main true--that though eager for their success his weak -health and advanced years prevented him from joining the standard of the -prince in person, while to the Lord President Forbes he professed his -cordial attachment to the existing state of things, but lamented that -his son, in spite of all his remonstrances, had joined the Pretender, -and succeeded in taking with him a strong force from the clan of the -Frasers. The truth was that the lad was unwilling to go, but was -compelled by his father. Lovat's false professions of fidelity did not -long deceive the government, and after the battle of Culloden he was -obliged to retreat to the Highlands, after seeing from a distant height -his castle of Dounie burnt by the royal army. Even then, broken down by -disease and old age, carried on a litter and unable to move without -assistance, his mental resources did not fail; and in a conference with -several of the Jacobite leaders he proposed that they should raise a -body of three thousand men, which would be enough to make their -mountains impregnable, and at length force the government to give them -advantageous terms. The project was not carried out, and Lovat, after -enduring incredible hardships in his wanderings, was at last arrested on -an island in Loch Morar. He was conveyed in a litter to London, and -after a trial of five days sentence of death was pronounced on the 19th -of March 1747. His execution took place on the 9th of April. His conduct -to the last was dignified and even cheerful. Just before submitting his -head to the block he repeated the line from Horace-- - - "Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori." - -His son SIMON FRASER, Master of Lovat (1726-1782) (not to be confused -with another Simon Fraser who saw somewhat similar service and was -killed in 1777 at the battle of Saratoga), was a soldier, who at the -beginning of the Seven Years' War raised a corps of Fraser Highlanders -for the English service, and at the outbreak of the American War of -Independence raised another regiment which took a prominent part in it. -He fought under Wolfe in Canada, and also in Portugal, and rose to be a -British major-general. The family estates were restored to him, but the -title was not revived till 1837. On his death without issue, and also of -his successor, his half-brother Archibald Campbell Fraser (1736-1815), -the Lovat estates passed to the Frasers of Strichen, Aberdeenshire. The -16th Baron Lovat (b. 1871) raised a corps of mounted infantry (Lovat's -Scouts) in the Boer war of 1899-1902. - - See _Memoirs of Lord Lovat_ (1746 and 1767); J. Hill Burton, _Life of - Simon, Lord Lovat_ (1847); J. Anderson, _Account of the Family of - Frizell or Fraser_ (Edinburgh, 1825); A. Mackenzie, _History of the - Frasers of Lovat_ (Inverness, 1896); Mrs A. T. Thomson, _Memoirs of - the Jacobites_ (1845-6); and W. C. Mackenzie, _Simon Fraser, Lord - Lovat_ (1908). - - - - -LOVE-BIRD, a name somewhat indefinitely bestowed, chiefly by dealers and -their customers, on some of the smaller short-tailed parrots, from the -affection which examples of opposite sexes exhibit towards each other. -By many ornithologists the birds thus named, brought almost entirely -from Africa and South America, have been retained in a single genus, -_Psittacula_, though those belonging to the former country were by -others separated as _Agapornis_. This separation, however, was neither -generally approved nor easily justified, until Garrod (_Proc. Zool. -Society_, 1874, p. 593) assigned good anatomical ground, afforded by the -structure of the carotid artery, for regarding the two groups as -distinct, and thus removed the puzzle presented by the geographical -distribution of the species of _Psittacula_ in a large sense, though -Huxley (_op. cit._ 1868, p. 319) had suggested one way of meeting the -difficulty. As the genus is now restricted, only one of the six species -of _Psittacula_ enumerated in the _Nomenclator Avium_ of Sclater and -Salvin is known to be found outside the Neotropical Region, the -exception being the Mexican _P. cyanopygia_, and not one of the seven -recognized by the same authors as forming the nearly allied genus -_Urochroma_. On the other hand, of _Agapornis_, from which the so-called -genus _Poliopsitta_ can scarcely be separated, five if not six species -are known, all belonging to the Ethiopian Region, and all but one, _A. -cana_ (which is indigenous to Madagascar, and thence has been widely -disseminated), are natives of Africa. In this group probably comes also -_Psittinus_, with a single species from the Malayan Subregion. One of -the birds most commonly called love-birds, but with no near relationship -to any of the above, being a long-tailed though very small parrot, is -the budgerigar (_Melopsittacus undulatus_) now more familiar in Europe -than most native birds, as it is used to "tell fortunes" in the streets, -and is bred by hundreds in aviaries. Its native country is Australia. - (A. N.) - - - - -LOVEDALE, a mission station in the Victoria East division of the Cape -province, South Africa. It lies 1720 ft. above the sea on the banks of -the Tyumie (Chumie) tributary of the Keiskama river, some 2 m. N. of -Alice, a town 88 m. N.W. by rail of East London. The station was founded -in 1824 by the Glasgow Missionary Society and was named after Dr John -Love, one of the leading members of, and at the time secretary to, the -society. The site first chosen was in the Ncera valley. But in 1834 the -mission buildings were destroyed by the Kaffirs. On rebuilding, the -station was removed somewhat farther north to the banks of the Tyumie. -In 1846 the work at Lovedale was again interrupted, this time by the War -of the Axe (see CAPE COLONY: _History_). On this occasion the buildings -were converted into a fort and garrisoned by regular troops. Once more, -in 1850, the Kaffirs threatened Lovedale and made an attack on the -neighbouring Fort Hare,[1] built during the previous war. - -Until 1841 the missionaries had devoted themselves almost entirely to -evangelistic work; in that year the Lovedale Missionary Institute was -founded by the Rev. W. Govan, who, save for brief intervals, continued -at its head until 1870. He was then succeeded by the Rev. James Stewart -(1831-1905), who had joined the mission in 1867, having previously -(1861-1863), and partly in company with David Livingstone, explored the -Zambezi regions. To Stewart, who remained at the head of the institute -till his death, is due the existing organization at Lovedale. The -institute, in addition to its purely church work--in which no sectarian -tests are allowed--provides for the education of natives of both sexes -in nearly all branches of learning (Stewart discontinued the teaching of -Greek and Latin, adopting English as the classic); it also takes -European scholars, no colour distinction being allowed in any department -of the work. The institute gives technical training in many subjects and -maintains various industries, including such diverse enterprises as -farming and printing-works. It also maintains a hospital. The school -buildings rival in accommodation and completeness those of the schools -in large English cities. The sum paid in fees by scholars (of whom fully -nine-tenths were Kaffirs) in the period 1841-1908 was L84,000. The -educational and industrial methods initiated at Lovedale have been -widely adopted by other missionary bodies. Lovedale is now a branch oL -the work of the United Free Church of Scotland. - - See R. Young, _African Wastes Reclaimed and Illustrated in the Story - of the Lovedale Mission_ (London, 1902); J. Stewart, _Lovedale, Past - and Present_ (London, 1884), and _Dawn in the Dark Continent_ (London, - 1903); J. Wells, _Stewart of Lovedale_ (London, 1908). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] This fort was named after Colonel John Hare (d. 1846) of the 27th - Regiment, from 1838 lieutenant-governor of the eastern provinces and - commander of the first division of the field force in the War of the - Axe. - - - - -LOVELACE, RICHARD (1618-1658), English poet, was born at Woolwich in -1618. He was a scion of a Kentish family, and inherited a tradition of -military distinction, maintained by successive generations from the time -of Edward III. His father, Sir William Lovelace, had served in the Low -Countries, received the honour of knighthood from James I., and was -killed at Grolle in 1628. His brother, Francis Lovelace, the "Colonel -Francis" of _Lucasta_, served on the side of Charles I., and defended -Caermarthen in 1644. His mother's family was legal; her grandfather had -been chief baron of the exchequer. Richard was educated at the -Charterhouse and at Gloucester Hall, Oxford, where he matriculated in -1634. Through the request of one of the queen's ladies on the royal -visit to Oxford he was made M.A., though only in his second year at the -university. Lovelace's fame has been kept alive by a few songs and the -romance of his career, and his poems are commonly spoken of as careless -improvisations, and merely the amusements of an active soldier. But the -unhappy course of his life gave him more leisure for verse-making than -opportunity of soldiering. Before the outbreak of the civil war in 1642 -his only active service was in the bloodless expedition which ended in -the Pacification of Berwick in 1640. On the conclusion of peace he -entered into possession of the family estates at Bethersden, Canterbury, -Chart and Halden in Kent. By that time he was one of the most -distinguished of the company of courtly poets gathered round Queen -Henrietta, who were influenced as a school by contemporary French -writers of _vers de societe_. He wrote a comedy, _The Scholar_, when he -was sixteen, and a tragedy, _The Soldier_, when he was twenty-one. From -what he says of Fletcher, it would seem that this dramatist was his -model, but only the prologue and epilogue to his comedy have been -preserved. When the rupture between king and parliament took place, -Lovelace was committed to the Gatehouse at Westminster for presenting to -the Commons in 1642 a petition from Kentish royalists in the king's -favour. It was then that he wrote his most famous song, "To Althea from -Prison." He was liberated, says Wood, on bail of L40,000 (more probably -L4000), and throughout the civil war was a prisoner on parole, with this -security in the hands of his enemies. He contrived, however, to render -considerable service to the king's cause. He provided his two brothers -with money to raise men for the Royalist army, and befriended many of -the king's adherents. He was especially generous to scholars and -musicians, and among his associates in London were Henry Lawes and John -Gamble, the Cottons, Sir Peter Lely, Andrew Marvell and probably Sir -John Suckling. He joined the king at Oxford in 1645, and after the -surrender of the city in 1646 he raised a regiment for the service of -the French king. He was wounded at the siege of Dunkirk, and with his -brother Dudley, who had acted as captain in his brother's command, -returned to England in 1648. It is not known whether the brothers took -any part in the disturbances in Kent of that year, but both were -imprisoned at Petre House in Aldersgate. During this second imprisonment -he collected and revised for the press a volume of occasional poems, -many if not most of which had previously appeared in various -publications. The volume was published in 1649 under the title of -_Lucasta_, his poetical name--contracted from _Lux Casta_--for a lady -rashly identified by Wood as Lucy Sacheverell, who, it is said, married -another during his absence in France, on a report that he had died of -his wounds at Dunkirk. The last ten years of Lovelace's life were passed -in obscurity. His fortune had been exhausted in the king's interest, and -he is said to have been supported by the generosity of friends. He died -in 1658 "in a cellar in Longacre," according to Aubrey, who, however, -possibly exaggerates his poverty. A volume of Lovelace's _Posthume -Poems_ was published in 1659 by his brother Dudley. They are of inferior -merit to his own collection. - - The world has done no injustice to Lovelace in neglecting all but a - few of his modest offerings to literature. But critics often do him - injustice in dismissing him as a gay cavalier, who dashed off his - verses hastily and cared little what became of them. It is a mistake - to class him with Suckling; he has neither Suckling's easy grace nor - his reckless spontaneity. We have only to compare the version of any - of his poems in _Lucasta_ with the form in which it originally - appeared to see how fastidious was his revision. In many places it - takes time to decipher his meaning. The expression is often - elliptical, the syntax inverted and tortuous, the train of thought - intricate and discontinuous. These faults--they are not of course to - be found in his two or three popular lyrics, "Going to the Wars," "To - Althea from Prison," "The Scrutiny"--are, however, as in the case of - his poetical master, Donne, the faults not of haste but of - over-elaboration. His thoughts are not the first thoughts of an - improvisatore, but thoughts ten or twenty stages removed from the - first, and they are generally as closely packed as they are - far-fetched. - - His poems were edited by W. C. Hazlitt in 1864. - - - - -LOVELL, FRANCIS LOVELL, VISCOUNT (1454-1487), supporter of Richard III., -was son of John, 8th Baron Lovell. As a young man he served under -Richard of Gloucester in the expedition to Scotland in 1480. After the -death of Edward IV. he became one of his patron's strongest supporters. -He had been created a viscount on the 4th of January 1483, and whilst -still Protector Richard made him Chief Butler. As soon as Richard became -king, Lovell was promoted to be Lord Chamberlain. Lovell helped in the -suppression of Buckingham's rebellion, and as one of Richard's most -trusted ministers was gibbeted in Collingbourne's couplet with Catesby -and Ratcliffe:-- - - "The catte, the ratte and Lovell our dogge - Rulyth all England under a hogge." - -He had command of the fleet which was to have stopped Henry Tudor's -landing in 1485, but fought for Richard at Bosworth and after the battle -fled to sanctuary at Colchester. Thence he escaped next year to organize -a dangerous revolt in Yorkshire. When that failed he fled to Margaret of -Burgundy in Flanders. As a chief leader of the Yorkist party he had a -foremost part in Lambert Simnel's enterprise. With John de la Pole, earl -of Lincoln, he accompanied the pretender to Ireland and fought for him -at Stoke on the 16th of June 1487. He was seen escaping from the battle, -but was never afterwards heard of; Bacon relates that according to one -report he lived long after in a cave or vault (_Henry VII._, p. 37, ed. -Lumby). More than 200 years later, in 1708, the skeleton of a man was -found in a secret chamber in the family mansion at Minster Lovell in -Oxfordshire. It is supposed that Francis Lovell had hidden himself there -and died of starvation. - - Collingbourne's couplet is preserved by Fabyan, _Chronicle_, p. 672. - For the discovery at Minster Lovell see _Notes and Queries_, 2nd ser. - i. and 5th ser. x. (C. L. K.) - - - - -LOVER, SAMUEL (1797-1868), Irish novelist, artist, songwriter and -musician, was born in Dublin on the 24th of February 1797. His father -was a stockbroker. Lover began life as an artist, and was elected in -1828 a member of the Royal Hibernian Academy--a body of which two years -afterwards he became secretary. He acquired repute as a miniature -painter, and a number of the local aristocracy sat to him for their -portraits. His love for music showed itself at an early age. At a dinner -given to the poet Tom Moore in 1818 Lover sang one of his own songs, -which elicited special praise from Moore. One of his best-known -portraits was that of Paganini, which was exhibited at the Royal -Academy. He attracted attention as an author by his _Legends and Stories -of Ireland_ (1832), and was one of the first writers for the _Dublin -University Magazine_. He went to London about 1835, where, among others, -he painted Lord Brougham in his robes as lord chancellor. His gifts -rendered him popular in society; and he appeared often at Lady -Blessington's evening receptions. There he sang several of his songs, -which were so well received that he published them (_Songs and Ballads_, -1839). Some of them illustrated Irish superstitions, among these being -"Rory O'More," "The Angel's Whisper," "The May Dew" and "The Four-leaved -Shamrock." In 1837 appeared _Rory O'More, a National Romance_, which at -once made him a reputation as a novelist; he afterwards dramatized it -for the Adelphi Theatre, London. In 1842 was published his best-known -work, _Handy Andy, an Irish Tale_. Meanwhile his pursuits had affected -his health; and in 1844 he gave up writing for some time, substituting -instead public entertainments, called by him "Irish Evenings," -illustrative of his own works. These were successful both in Great -Britain and in America. In addition to publishing numerous songs of his -own, Lover edited a collection entitled _The Lyrics of Ireland_, which -appeared in 1858. He died on the 6th of July 1868. Besides the novels -already mentioned he wrote _Treasure Trove_ (1844), and _Metrical Tales -and Other Poems_ (1860). - - His _Life_ was written in 1874 by Bayle Bernard. - - - - -LOVERE, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Bergamo, at the -north-west end of the Lago d'Iseo, 522 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) -3306. It is a picturesque town, the houses having the overhanging wooden -roofs of Switzerland united with the heavy stone arcades of Italy, while -the situation is beautiful, with the lake in front and the semicircle of -bold mountains behind. The church of Santa Maria in Valvendra, built in -1473, has frescoes by Floriano Ferramola of Brescia (d. 1528). The -Palazzo Tadini contains a gallery of old pictures, some sculptures by -Benzoni and Canova, and a zoological collection. Lovere possesses a -silk-spinning factory, and the Stablimento Metallurgico Gregorini, a -large iron-work and cannon foundry, employs 1600 workmen. Lovere is -reached by steamer from Sarnico at the south end of the lake, and there -is a steam tramway through the Val Camonica, which is highly cultivated, -and contains iron- and silk-works. From Cividate, the terminus, the road -goes on to Edolo (2290 ft.), whence passes lead into Tirol and the -Valtellina. - - - - -LOW, SETH (1850- ), American administrator and educationist, was born -in Brooklyn, New York, on the 18th of January 1850. He studied in the -Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn and in Columbia University, where he -graduated in 1870. He became a clerk (1870) and then a partner (1875) in -his father's tea and silk-importing house, A. A. Low & Brothers, which -went out of business in 1888. In 1878 he organized, and became president -of, the Brooklyn Bureau of Charities. In 1882-1886 he was mayor of the -city of Brooklyn, being twice elected on an independent ticket; and by -his administration of his office he demonstrated that a rigid "merit" -civil-service system was practicable--in September 1884 the first -municipal civil-service rules in the United Service were adopted in -Brooklyn. He was president of Columbia University from 1890 to 1901, and -did much for it by his business administration, his liberality (he gave -$1,000,000 for the erection of a library) and his especial interest in -the department of Political Science. In his term Columbia became a -well-organized and closely-knit university. Its official name was -changed from Columbia College to Columbia University. It was removed to -a new site on Morningside Heights, New York City. The New York College -for the Training of Teachers became its Teachers' College of Columbia; a -Faculty of Pure Science was added; the Medical School gave up its -separate charter to become an integral part of the university; Barnard -College became more closely allied with the university; relations were -entered into between the university and the General, Union and Jewish -theological seminaries of New York City and with Cooper Union, the -Metropolitan Museum of Fine Arts and the American Museum of Natural -History; and its faculty and student body became less local in -character. Dr Low was a delegate to the Hague Peace Conference in 1899. -He was prominent among those who brought about the chartering of Greater -New York in 1897, and in this year was an unsuccessful candidate, on an -independent ticket, for mayor of New York City; in 1900, on a fusion -ticket, he was elected mayor and served in 1901-1903. - - - - -LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- ), American artist and writer on art, was born -at Albany, New York, on the 31st of May 1853. In 1873 he entered the -atelier of J. L. Gerome in the Ecole des Beaux Arts at Paris, -subsequently joining the classes of Carolus-Duran, with whom he remained -until 1877. Returning to New York, he became a member of the Society of -American Artists in 1878 and of the National Academy of Design in 1890. -His pictures of New England types, and illustrations of Keats, brought -him into prominence. Subsequently he turned his attention to -decoration, and executed panels and medallions for the Waldorf-Astoria -Hotel, New York, a panel for the Essex County Court House, Newark, New -Jersey, panels for private residences and stained-glass windows for -various churches, including St Paul's Methodist Episcopal Church, -Newark, N.J. He was an instructor in the schools of Cooper Union, New -York, in 1882-1885, and in the school of the National Academy of Design -in 1889-1892. Mr Low, who is known to a wider circle as the friend of R. -L. Stevenson, published some reminiscences, _A Chronicle of Friendships, -1873-1900_ (1908). In 1909 he married Mary (Fairchild), formerly the -wife of the sculptor MacMonnies. - - - - -LOWBOY, a small table with one or two rows of drawers, so called in -contradistinction to the tallboy, or double chest of drawers. Both were -favourite pieces of the 18th century, both in England and America; the -lowboy was most frequently used as a dressing-table, but sometimes as a -side-table. It is usually made of oak, walnut or mahogany, with brass -handles and escutcheons. The more elegant examples of the Chippendale -period have cabriole legs, claw-and-ball feet and carved knees, and are -sometimes sculptured with the favourite shell motive beneath the centre -drawer. - - - - -LOW CHURCHMAN, a term applied to members of the Church of England or its -daughter churches who, while accepting the hierarchical and sacramental -system of the Church, do not consider episcopacy as essential to the -constitution of the Church, reject the doctrine that the sacraments -confer grace _ex opere operato_ (e.g. baptismal regeneration) and lay -stress on the Bible as the sole source of authority in matters of faith. -They thus differ little from orthodox Protestants of other -denominations, and in general are prepared to co-operate with them on -equal terms. - -The name was used in the early part of the 18th century as the -equivalent of "Latitudinarian," i.e. one who was prepared to concede -much latitude in matters of discipline and faith, in contradistinction -to "High Churchman," the term applied to those who took a high view of -the exclusive authority of the Established Church, of episcopacy and of -the sacramental system. It subsequently fell into disuse, but was -revived in the 19th century when the Tractarian movement had brought the -term "High Churchman" into vogue again in a modified sense, i.e. for -those who exalted the idea of the Catholic Church and the sacramental -system at the expense both of the Establishment and of the exclusive -authority of Scripture. "Low Churchman" now became the equivalent of -"Evangelical," the designation of the movement, associated with the name -of Simeon, which laid the chief stress on the necessity of personal -"conversion." "Latitudinarian" gave place at the same time to "Broad -Churchman," to designate those who lay stress on the ethical teaching of -the Church and minimize the value of orthodoxy. The revival of -pre-Reformation ritual by many of the High Church clergy led to the -designation "ritualist" being applied to them in a somewhat contemptuous -sense; and "High Churchman" and "Ritualist" have often been wrongly -treated as convertible terms. Actually many High Churchmen are not -Ritualists, though they tend to become so. The High Churchman of the -"Catholic" type is further differentiated from the "old-fashioned High -Churchman" of what is sometimes described as the "high and dry" type of -the period anterior to the Oxford Movement. - - - - -LOWE, SIR HUDSON (1769-1844), English general, was the son of an army -surgeon, John Lowe, and was born at Galway on the 28th of July 1769. His -mother was a native of that county. His childhood was spent in various -garrison towns but he was educated chiefly at Salisbury grammar school. -He obtained a post as ensign in the East Devon Militia before his -twelfth year, and subsequently entered his father's regiment, the 50th, -then at Gibraltar (1787) under Governor-General O'Hara. After the -outbreak of war with France early in 1793, Lowe saw active service -successively in Corsica, Elba, Portugal and Minorca, where he was -entrusted with the command of a battalion of Corsican exiles, called -The Corsican Rangers. With these he did good work in Egypt in 1800-1801. -After the peace of Amiens, Lowe, now a major, became assistant -quartermaster-general; but on the renewal of war with France in 1803 he -was charged, as lieutenant-colonel, to raise the Corsican battalion -again and with it assisted in the defence of Sicily. On the capture of -Capri he proceeded thither with his battalion and a Maltese regiment; -but in October 1808 Murat organized an attack upon the island, and Lowe, -owing to the unsteadiness of the Maltese troops and the want of succour -by sea, had to agree to evacuate the island. The terms in which Sir -William Napier and others have referred to Lowe's defence of Capri are -unfair. His garrison consisted of 1362 men, while the assailants -numbered between 3000 and 4000. In the course of the year 1809 Lowe and -his Corsicans helped in the capture of Ischia and Procida, as well as of -Zante, Cephalonia and Cerigo. For some months he acted as governor of -Cephalonia and Ithaca, and later on of Santa Maura. He returned to -England in 1812, and in January 1813 was sent to inspect a Russo-German -legion then being formed, and he accompanied the armies of the allies -through the campaigns of 1813 and 1814, being present at thirteen -important battles. He won praise from Blucher and Gneisenau for his -gallantry and judgment. He was chosen to bear to London the news of the -first abdication of Napoleon in April 1814. He was then knighted and -became major-general; he also received decorations from the Russian and -Prussian courts. Charged with the duties of quartermaster-general of the -army in the Netherlands in 1814-1815, he was about to take part in the -Belgian campaign when he was offered the command of the British troops -at Genoa; but while still in the south of France he received (on the 1st -of August 1815) news of his appointment to the position of custodian of -Napoleon, who had surrendered to H.M.S. "Bellerophon" off Rochefort. -Lowe was to be governor of St Helena, the place of the ex-emperor's -exile. - -On his arrival there at Plantation House he found that Napoleon had -already had scenes with Admiral Cockburn, of H.M.S. "Northumberland," -and that he had sought to induce the former governor, Colonel Wilks, to -infringe the regulations prescribed by the British government (see -_Monthly Review_, January 1901). Napoleon and his followers at Longwood -pressed for an extension of the limits within which he could move -without surveillance, but it was not in Lowe's power to grant this -request. Various matters, in some of which Lowe did not evince much -tact, produced friction between them. The news that rescue expeditions -were being planned by the Bonapartists in the United States led to the -enforcement of somewhat stricter regulations in October 1816, Lowe -causing sentries to be posted round Longwood garden at sunset instead of -at 9 P.M. This was his great offence in the eyes of Napoleon and his -followers. Hence their efforts to calumniate Lowe, which had a -surprising success. O'Meara, the British surgeon, became Napoleon's man, -and lent himself to the campaign of calumny in which Las Cases and -Montholon showed so much skill. In one of the suppressed passages of his -_Journal_ Las Cases wrote that the exiles had to "reduce to a system our -demeanour, our words, our sentiments, even our privations, in order that -we might thereby excite a lively interest in a large portion of the -population of Europe, and that the opposition in England might not fail -to attack the ministry." As to the privations, it may be noted that Lowe -recommended that the government allowance of L8000 a year to the -Longwood household should be increased by one-half. The charges of -cruelty brought against the governor by O'Meara and others have been -completely refuted; and the most that can be said against him is that he -was occasionally too suspicious in the discharge of his duties. After -the death of Napoleon in May 1821, Lowe returned to England and received -the thanks of George IV. On the publication of O'Meara's book he -resolved to prosecute the author, but, owing to an unaccountable delay, -the application was too late. This fact, together with the reserved -behaviour of Lowe, prejudiced the public against him, and the government -did nothing to clear his reputation. In 1825-1830 he commanded the -forces in Ceylon, but was not appointed to the governorship when it -fell vacant in 1830. In 1842 he became colonel of his old regiment, the -50th; he also received the G.C.M.G. He died in 1844. - - See W. Forsyth, _History of the Captivity of Napoleon at St Helena_ (3 - vols., London, 1853); Gourgaud, _Journal inedite de Sainte-Helene_ - (1815-1818; 2 vols., Paris, 1899); R. C. Seaton, _Napoleon's Captivity - in relation to Sir Hudson Lowe_ (London, 1903); Lieut.-Col. Basil - Jackson, _Notes and Reminiscences of a Staff-Officer_ (London, 1903); - the earl of Rosebery, _Napoleon; the Last Phase_ (London 1900); J. H. - Rose, _Napoleonic Studies_ (London, 1904). (J. Hl. R.) - - - - -LOWE, JOHANN KARL GOTTFRIED (1796-1869), German composer, was born at -Lobejun, near Halle, on the 30th of November 1796, and was a choir-boy -at Kothen from 1807 to 1809, when he went to the Franke Institute at -Halle, studying music with Turk. The beauty of Lowe's voice brought him -under the notice of Madame de Stael, who procured him a pension from -Jerome Bonaparte, then king of Westphalia; this stopped in 1813, on the -flight of the king. He entered the University of Halle as a theological -student, but was appointed cantor at Stettin in 1820, and director of -the town music in 1821, in which year he married Julie von Jacob, who -died in 1823. His second wife, Auguste Lange, was an accomplished -singer, and they appeared together in his oratorio performances with -great success. He retained his office at Stettin for 46 years, when, -after a stroke of paralysis, he was somewhat summarily dismissed. He -retired to Kiel, and died on the 20th of April 1869. He undertook many -concert tours during his tenure of the post at Stettin, visiting Vienna, -London, Sweden, Norway and Paris. His high soprano voice (he could sing -the music of the "Queen of Night" in _Die Zauberflote_ as a boy) had -developed into a fine tenor. Lowe was a voluminous composer, and wrote -five operas, of which only one, _Die drei Wunsche_, was performed at -Berlin in 1834, without much success; seventeen oratorios, many of them -for male voices unaccompanied, or with short instrumental interludes -only; choral ballads, cantatas, three string quartets, a pianoforte -trio; a work for clarinet and piano, published posthumously; and some -piano solos. But the branch of his art by which he is remembered, and in -which he must be admitted to have attained perfection, is the solo -ballad with pianoforte accompaniment. His treatment of long narrative -poems, in a clever mixture of the dramatic and lyrical styles, was -undoubtedly modelled on the ballads of Zumsteeg, and has been copied by -many composers since his day. His settings of the "Erlkonig" (a very -early example), "Archibald Douglas," "Heinrich der Vogler," "Edward" and -"Die Verfallene Muhle," are particularly fine. - - - - -LOWELL, ABBOTT LAWRENCE (1856- ), American educationalist, was born in -Boston, Massachusetts on the 13th of December 1856, the great-grandson -of John Lowell, the "Columella of New England," and on his mother's -side, a grandson of Abbott Lawrence. He graduated at Harvard College in -1877, with highest honours in mathematics; graduated at the Harvard Law -School in 1880; and practised law in 1880-1897 in partnership with his -cousin, Francis Cabot Lowell (b. 1855), with whom he wrote _Transfer of -Stock in Corporations_ (1884). In 1897 he became lecturer and in 1898 -professor of government at Harvard, and in 1909 succeeded Charles -William Eliot as president of the university. In the same year he was -president of the American Political Science Association. In 1900 he had -succeeded his father, Augustus Lowell (1830-1901), as financial head of -the Lowell Institute of Boston. He wrote _Essays on Government_ (1889), -_Governments and Parties in Continental Europe_ (2 vols., 1896), -_Colonial Civil Service_ (1900; with an account by H. Morse Stephens of -the East India College at Haileybury), and _The Government of England_ -(2 vols., 1908). - -His brother, PERCIVAL LOWELL (1855- ), the well-known astronomer, -graduated at Harvard in 1876, lived much in Japan between 1883 and 1893, -and in 1894 established at Flagstaff, Arizona, the Lowell Observatory, -of whose _Annals_ (from 1898) he was editor. In 1902 he became -non-resident professor of astronomy at the Massachusetts Institute of -Technology. He wrote several books on the Far East, including _Choson_ -(1885), _The Soul of the Far East_ (1886), _Noto, an Unexplored Corner -of Japan_ (1891), and _Occult Japan_ (1895), but he is best known for -his studies of the planet Mars--he wrote _Mars_ (1895), _Mars and Its -Canals_ (1907), and _Mars, the Abode of Life_ (1908)--and his contention -that the "canals" of Mars are a sign of life and civilization on that -planet (see MARS). He published _The Evolution of Worlds_ in 1909. - - - - -LOWELL, CHARLES RUSSELL (1835-1864), American soldier, was born on the -2nd of January 1835 in Boston, Massachusetts. His mother, Anna Cabot -Jackson Lowell (1819-1874), a daughter of Patrick Tracy Jackson, married -Charles Russell Lowell, a brother of James Russell Lowell; she wrote -verse and books on education. Her son graduated at Harvard in 1854, -worked in an iron mill in Trenton, New Jersey, for a few months in 1855, -spent two years abroad, and in 1858-1860 was local treasurer of the -Burlington & Missouri river railroad. In 1860 he took charge of the -Mount Savage Iron Works, in Cumberland, Maryland. He entered the Union -army in June 1861 (commission May 14) as captain of the 3rd (afterwards -6th) U.S. cavalry; on the 15th of April 1863 he became colonel of the -2nd Massachusetts cavalry; he was wounded fatally at Cedar Creek on the -19th of October 1864, when he was promoted brigadier-general of U.S. -Volunteers, and died on the next day at Middletown, Va. Lowell married -in October 1863, Josephine Shaw (1843-1905), a sister of Colonel R. G. -Shaw. Her home when she was married was on Staten Island, and she became -deeply interested in the social problems of New York City. She was a -member of the State Charities Aid Society, and from 1877 to 1889 was a -member of the New York State Board of Charities, being the first woman -appointed to that board. She founded the Charity Organization Society of -New York City in 1882, and wrote _Public Relief and Private Charity_ -(1884) and _Industrial Arbitration and Conciliation_ (1893). - - See Edward E. Emerson (ed.), _The Life and Letters of Charles Russell - Lowell_ (Boston, 1907). - - - - -LOWELL, JAMES RUSSELL (1819-1891), American author and diplomatist, was -born at Elmwood, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 22nd of February -1819, the son of Charles Lowell (1782-1861).[1] On his mother's side he -was descended from the Spences and Traills, who made their home in the -Orkney Islands, his great-grandfather, Robert Traill, returning to -England on the breaking out of hostilities in 1775. He was brought up in -a neighbourhood bordering on the open country, and from his earliest -years he found a companion in nature; he was also early initiated into -the reading of poetry and romance, hearing Spenser and Scott in -childhood, and introduced to old ballads by his mother. He had for -schoolmaster an Englishman who held by the traditions of English -schools, so that before he entered Harvard College he had a more -familiar acquaintance with Latin verse than most of his fellows--a -familiarity which showed itself later in his mock-pedantic accompaniment -to _The Biglow Papers_ and his macaronic poetry. He was a wide reader, -but a somewhat indifferent student, graduating at Harvard without -special honours in 1838. During his college course he wrote a number of -trivial pieces for a college magazine, and shortly after graduating -printed for private circulation the poem which his class asked him to -write for their graduation festivities. - -He was uncertain at first what vocation to choose, and vacillated -between business, the ministry, medicine and law. He decided at last to -practise law, and after a course at the Harvard law school, was admitted -to the bar. While studying for his profession, however, he contributed -poems and prose articles to various magazines. He cared little for the -law, regarding it simply as a distasteful means of livelihood, yet his -experiments in writing did not encourage him to trust to this for -support. An unhappy adventure in love deepened his sense of failure, but -he became betrothed to Maria White in the autumn of 1840, and the next -twelve years of his life were deeply affected by her influence. She was -a poet of delicate power, but also possessed a lofty enthusiasm, a high -conception of purity and justice, and a practical temper which led her -to concern herself in the movements directed against the evils of -intemperance and slavery. Lowell was already looked upon by his -companions as a man marked by wit and poetic sentiment; Miss White was -admired for her beauty, her character and her intellectual gifts, and -the two became thus the hero and heroine among a group of ardent young -men and women. The first-fruits of this passion was a volume of poems, -published in 1841, entitled _A Year's Life_, which was inscribed by -Lowell in a veiled dedication to his future wife, and was a record of -his new emotions with a backward glance at the preceding period of -depression and irresolution. The betrothal, moreover, stimulated Lowell -to new efforts towards self-support, and though nominally maintaining -his law office, he threw his energy into the establishment, in company -with a friend, Robert Carter, of a literary journal, to which the young -men gave the name of _The Pioneer_. It was to open the way to new ideals -in literature and art, and the writers to whom Lowell turned for -assistance--Hawthorne, Emerson, Whittier, Poe, Story and Parsons, none -of them yet possessed of a wide reputation--indicate the acumen of the -editor. Lowell himself had already turned his studies in dramatic and -early poetic literature to account in another magazine, and continued -the series in _The Pioneer_, besides contributing poems; but after the -issue of three monthly numbers, beginning in January 1843, the magazine -came to an end, partly because of a sudden disaster which befell -Lowell's eyes, partly through the inexperience of the conductors and -unfortunate business connexions. - -The venture confirmed Lowell in his bent towards literature. At the -close of 1843 he published a collection of his poems, and a year later -he gathered up certain material which he had printed, sifted and added -to it, and produced _Conversations on some of the Old Poets_. The -dialogue form was used merely to secure an undress manner of approach to -his subject; there was no attempt at the dramatic. The book reflects -curiously Lowell's mind at this time, for the conversations relate only -partly to the poets and dramatists of the Elizabethan period; a slight -suggestion sends the interlocutors off on the discussion of current -reforms in church and state and society. Literature and reform were -dividing the author's mind, and continued to do so for the next decade. -Just as this book appeared Lowell and Miss White were married, and spent -the winter and early spring of 1845 in Philadelphia. Here, besides -continuing his literary contributions to magazines, Lowell had a regular -engagement as an editorial writer on _The Pennsylvania Freeman_, a -fortnightly journal devoted to the Anti-Slavery cause. In the spring of -1845 the Lowells returned to Cambridge and made their home at Elmwood. -On the last day of the year their first child, Blanche, was born, but -she lived only fifteen months. A second daughter, Mabel, was born six -months after Blanche's death, and lived to survive her father; a third, -Rose, died an infant. Lowell's mother meanwhile was living, sometimes at -home, sometimes at a neighbouring hospital, with clouded mind, and his -wife was in frail health. These troubles and a narrow income conspired -to make Lowell almost a recluse in these days, but from the retirement -of Elmwood he sent forth writings which show how large an interest he -took in affairs. He contributed poems to the daily press, called out by -the Slavery question; he was, early in 1846, a correspondent of the -London _Daily News_, and in the spring of 1848 he formed a connexion -with the _National Anti-Slavery Standard_ of New York, by which he -agreed to furnish weekly either a poem or a prose article. The poems -were most frequently works of art, occasionally they were tracts; but -the prose was almost exclusively concerned with the public men and -questions of the day, and forms a series of incisive, witty and -sometimes prophetic diatribes. It was a period with him of great mental -activity, and is represented by four of his books which stand as -admirable witnesses to the Lowell of 1848, namely, the second series of -_Poems_, containing among others "Columbus," "An Indian Summer Reverie," -"To the Dandelion," "The Changeling"; _A Fable for Critics_, in which, -after the manner of Leigh Hunt's _The Feast of the Poets_, he -characterizes in witty verse and with good-natured satire American -contemporary writers, and in which, the publication being anonymous, he -included himself; _The Vision of Sir Launfal_, a romantic story -suggested by the Arthurian legends--one of his most popular poems; and -finally _The Biglow Papers_. - -Lowell had acquired a reputation among men of letters and a cultivated -class of readers, but this satire at once brought him a wider fame. The -book was not premeditated; a single poem, called out by the recruiting -for the abhorred Mexican war, couched in rustic phrase and sent to the -_Boston Courier_, had the inspiriting dash and electrifying rat-tat-tat -of this new recruiting sergeant in the little army of Anti-Slavery -reformers. Lowell himself discovered what he had done at the same time -that the public did, and he followed the poem with eight others either -in the _Courier_ or the _Anti-Slavery Standard_. He developed four -well-defined characters in the process--a country farmer, Ezekiel -Biglow, and his son Hosea; the Rev. Homer Wilbur, a shrewd old-fashioned -country minister; and Birdofredum Sawin, a Northern renegade who enters -the army, together with one or two subordinate characters; and his -stinging satire and sly humour are so set forth in the vernacular of New -England as to give at once a historic dignity to this form of speech. -(Later he wrote an elaborate paper to show the survival in New England -of the English of the early 17th century.) He embroidered his verse with -an entertaining apparatus of notes and mock criticism. Even his index -was spiced with wit. The book, a caustic arraignment of the course taken -in connexion with the annexation of Texas and the war with Mexico, made -a strong impression, and the political philosophy secreted in its lines -became a part of household literature. It is curious to observe how -repeatedly this arsenal was drawn upon in the discussions in America -about the "Imperialistic" developments of 1900. The death of Lowell's -mother, and the fragility of his wife's health, led Lowell, with his -wife, their daughter Mabel and their infant son Walter, to go to Europe -in 1851, and they went direct to Italy. The early months of their stay -were saddened by the death of Walter in Rome, and by the news of the -illness of Lowell's father, who had a slight shock of paralysis. They -returned in November 1852, and Lowell published some recollections of -his journey in the magazines, collecting the sketches later in a prose -volume, _Fireside Travels_. He took some part also in the editing of an -American edition of the _British Poets_, but the low state of his wife's -health kept him in an uneasy condition, and when her death (27th October -1853) released him from the strain of anxiety, there came with the grief -a readjustment of his nature and a new intellectual activity. At the -invitation of his cousin, he delivered a course of lectures on English -poets before the Lowell Institute in Boston in the winter of 1855. This -first formal appearance as a critic and historian of literature at once -gave him a new standing in the community, and was the occasion of his -election to the Smith Professorship of Modern Languages in Harvard -College, then vacant by the retirement of Longfellow. Lowell accepted -the appointment, with the proviso that he should have a year of study -abroad. He spent his time mainly in Germany, visiting Italy, and -increasing his acquaintance with the French, German, Italian and Spanish -tongues. He returned to America in the summer of 1856, and entered upon -his college duties, retaining his position for twenty years. As a -teacher he proved himself a quickener of thought amongst students, -rather than a close and special instructor. His power lay in the -interpretation of literature rather than in linguistic study, and his -influence over his pupils was exercised by his own fireside as well as -in the relation, always friendly and familiar, which he held to them in -the classroom. In 1856 he married Miss Frances Dunlap, a lady who had -since his wife's death had charge of his daughter Mabel. - -In the autumn of 1857 _The Atlantic Monthly_ was established, and Lowell -was its first editor. He at once gave the magazine the stamp of high -literature and of bold speech on public affairs. He held this position -only till the spring of 1861, but he continued to make the magazine the -vehicle of his poetry and of some prose for the rest of his life; his -prose, however, was more abundantly presented in the pages of _The -North American Review_ during the years 1862-1872, when he was -associated with Mr Charles Eliot Norton in its conduct. This magazine -especially gave him the opportunity of expression of political views -during the eventful years of the War of the Union. It was in _The -Atlantic_ during the same period that he published a second series of -_The Biglow Papers_. Both his collegiate and editorial duties stimulated -his critical powers, and the publication in the two magazines, followed -by republication in book form, of a series of studies of great authors, -gave him an important place as a critic. Shakespeare, Dryden, Lessing, -Rousseau, Dante, Spenser, Wordsworth, Milton, Keats, Carlyle, Thoreau, -Swinburne, Chaucer, Emerson, Pope, Gray--these are the principal -subjects of his prose, and the range of topics indicates the catholicity -of his taste. He wrote also a number of essays, such as "My Garden -Acquaintance," "A Good Word for Winter," "On a Certain Condescension in -Foreigners," which were incursions into the field of nature and society. -Although the great bulk of his writing was now in prose, he made after -this date some of his most notable ventures in poetry. In 1868 he issued -the next collection in _Under the Willows and other Poems_, but in 1865 -he had delivered his "Ode recited at the Harvard Commemoration," and the -successive centennial historical anniversaries drew from him a series of -stately odes. - -In 1877 Lowell, who had mingled so little in party politics that the -sole public office he had held was the nominal one of elector in the -Presidential election of 1876, was appointed by President Hayes minister -resident at the court of Spain. He had a good knowledge of Spanish -language and literature, and his long-continued studies in history and -his quick judgment enabled him speedily to adjust himself to these new -relations. Some of his despatches to the home government were published -in a posthumous volume--_Impressions of Spain_. In 1880 he was -transferred to London as American minister, and remained there till the -close of President Arthur's administration in the spring of 1885. As a -man of letters he was already well known in England, and he was in much -demand as an orator on public occasions, especially of a literary -nature; but he also proved himself a sagacious publicist, and made -himself a wise interpreter of each country to the other. Shortly after -his retirement from public life he published _Democracy and other -Addresses_, all of which had been delivered in England. The title -address was an epigrammatic confession of political faith as hopeful as -it was wise and keen. The close of his stay in England was saddened by -the death of his second wife in 1885. After his return to America he -made several visits to England. His public life had made him more of a -figure in the world; he was decorated with the highest honours Harvard -could pay officially, and with degrees of Oxford, Cambridge, St Andrews, -Edinburgh and Bologna. He issued another collection of his poems, -_Heartsease and Rue_, in 1888, and occupied himself with revising and -rearranging his works, which were published in ten volumes in 1890. The -last months of his life were attended by illness, and he died at Elmwood -on the 12th of August 1891. After his death his literary executor, -Charles Eliot Norton, published a brief collection of his poems, and two -volumes of added prose, besides editing his letters. - -The spontaneity of Lowell's nature is delightfully disclosed in his -personal letters. They are often brilliant, and sometimes very -penetrating in their judgment of men and books; but the most constant -element is a pervasive humour, and this humour, by turns playful and -sentimental, is largely characteristic of his poetry, which sprang from -a genial temper, quick in its sympathy with nature and humanity. The -literary refinement which marks his essays in prose is not conspicuous -in his verse, which is of a more simple character. There was an apparent -conflict in him of the critic and the creator, but the conflict was -superficial. The man behind both critical and creative work was so -genuine, that through his writings and speech and action he impressed -himself deeply upon his generation in America, especially upon the -thoughtful and scholarly class who looked upon him as especially their -representative. This is not to say that he was a man of narrow -sympathies. On the contrary, he was democratic in his thought, and -outspoken in his rebuke of whatever seemed to him antagonistic to the -highest freedom. Thus, without taking a very active part in political -life, he was recognized as one of the leaders of independent political -thought. He found expression in so many ways, and was apparently so -inexhaustible in his resources, that his very versatility and the ease -with which he gave expression to his thought sometimes stood in the way -of a recognition of his large, simple political ideality and the -singleness of his moral sight. - - WRITINGS.--The _Works of James Russell Lowell_, in ten volumes (Boston - and New York, Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1890); _edition de luxe_, 61 - vols. (1904); _Latest Literary Essays and Addresses_ (1891); _The Old - English Dramatists_ (1892); _Conversations on some of the Old Poets_ - (Philadelphia, David M'Kay; reprint of the volume published in 1843 - and subsequently abandoned by its author, 1893); _The Power of Sound: - a Rhymed Lecture_ (New York, privately printed, 1896); _Lectures on - English Poets_ (Cleveland, The Rowfant Club, 1899). - - MEMOIRS.--_Letters of James Russell Lowell_, edited by Charles Eliot - Norton, in two volumes (New York, Harper & Brothers, 1899); _Life of - James Russell Lowell_ (2 vols.), by Horace E. Scudder (Houghton, - Mifflin & Co., 1901); _James Russell Lowell and his Friends_ (Boston, - 1899), by Edward Everett Hale. (H. E. S.*) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] See under LOWELL, JOHN. - - - - -LOWELL, JOHN (1743-1802), American jurist, was born in Newburyport, -Massachusetts, on the 17th of June 1743, and was a son of the Reverend -John Lowell, the first pastor of Newburyport, and a descendant of -Perceval Lowle or Lowell (1571-1665), who emigrated from Somersetshire -to Massachusetts Bay in 1639 and was the founder of the family in New -England. John Lowell graduated at Harvard in 1760, was admitted to the -bar in 1763, represented Newburyport (1776) and Boston (1778) in the -Massachusetts Assembly, was a member of the Massachusetts Constitutional -Convention of 1779-1780 and, as a member of the committee appointed to -draft a constitution, secured the insertion of the clause, "all men are -born free and equal," which was interpreted by the supreme court of the -state in 1783 as abolishing slavery in the state. In 1781-1783 he was a -member of the Continental Congress, which in 1782 made him a judge of -the court of appeals for admiralty cases; in 1784 he was one of the -commissioners from Massachusetts to settle the boundary line between -Massachusetts and New York; in 1789-1801 he was a judge of the U.S. -District Court of Massachusetts; and from 1801 until his death in -Roxbury on the 6th of May 1802 he was a justice of the U.S. Circuit -Court for the First Circuit (Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts and -Rhode Island). - -His son, JOHN LOWELL (1769-1840), graduated at Harvard in 1786, was -admitted to the bar in 1789 (like his father, before he was twenty years -old), and retired from active practice in 1803. He opposed French -influence and the policies of the Democratic party, writing many -spirited pamphlets (some signed "The Boston Rebel," some "The Roxbury -Farmer"), including: _The Antigallican_ (1797), _Remarks on the Hon. J. -Q. Adams's Review of Mr Ames's Works_ (1809), _New England Patriot, -being a Candid Comparison of the Principles and Conduct of the -Washington and Jefferson Administrations_ (1810), _Appeals to the People -on the Causes and Consequences of War with Great Britain_ (1811) and _Mr -Madison's War_ (1812). These pamphlets contain an extreme statement of -the anti-war party and defend impressment as a right of long standing. -After the war Lowell abandoned politics, and won for himself the title -of "the Columella of New England" by his interest in agriculture--he was -for many years president of the Massachusetts Agricultural Society. He -was a benefactor of the Boston Athenaeum and the Massachusetts General -Hospital. - -Another son of the first John Lowell, FRANCIS CABOT LOWELL (1775-1817), -the founder in the United States of cotton manufacturing, was born in -Newburyport on the 7th of April 1775, graduated at Harvard in 1793, -became a merchant in Boston, and, during the war of 1812, with his -cousin (who was also his brother-in-law), Patrick Tracy Jackson, made -use of the knowledge of cotton-spinning gained by Lowell in England -(whither he had gone for his health in 1810) and devised a power loom. -Experiments were successfully carried on at Waltham in 1814. Lowell -worked hard to secure a protective tariff on cotton goods. The city of -Lowell, Massachusetts, was named in his honour. He died in Boston on the -10th of August 1817. - -CHARLES LOWELL (1782-1861), brother of the last named, was born in -Boston, graduated at Harvard in 1800, studied law and then theology, and -after two years in Edinburgh and one year on the Continent was from 1806 -until his death pastor of the West Congregational (Unitarian) Church of -Boston, a charge in which Cyrus A. Bartol was associated with him after -1837. Charles Lowell had a rare sweetness and charm, which reappeared in -his youngest son, James Russell Lowell (q.v.). - -Francis Cabot Lowell's son, JOHN LOWELL (1799-1836), was born in Boston, -travelled in India and the East Indies on business in 1816 and 1817, in -1832 set out on a trip around the world, and on the 4th of March 1836 -died in Bombay. By a will made, said Edward Everett, "on the top of a -palace of the Pharaohs," he left $237,000 to establish what is now known -as the Lowell Institute (q.v.). - - See the first lecture delivered before the Institute, Edward Everett's - _A Memoir of Mr John Lowell, Jr._ (Boston, 1840). - -A grandson of Francis Cabot Lowell, EDWARD JACKSON LOWELL (1845-1894), -graduated at Harvard in 1867, was admitted to the Suffolk county (Mass.) -bar in 1872, and practised law for a few years. He wrote _The Hessians -and the Other German Auxiliaries of Great Britain in the Revolutionary -War_ (1884), _The Eve of the French Revolution_ (1892) and the chapter, -"The United States of America 1775-1782: their Political Relations with -Europe," in vol. vii. (1888) of Winsor's _Narrative and Critical History -of America_. - - - - -LOWELL, a city and one of the county-seats (Cambridge being the other) -of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated in the N.E. part of -the county at the confluence of the Concord and Merrimack rivers, about -25 m. N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1890) 77,696; (1900) 94,969, of whom 40,974 -were foreign-born (14,674 being French Canadian, 12,147 Irish, 4485 -English Canadian, 4446 English, 1203 Greek, 1099 Scotch); (1910 census), -106,294. Lowell is served by the Boston & Maine and the New York, New -Haven & Hartford railways, and by inter-urban electric lines. The area -of Lowell is 14.1 sq. m., much the larger part of which is S. of the -Merrimack. The city is irregularly laid out. Its centre is Monument -Square, in Merrimack Street, where are a granite monument to the first -Northerners killed in the Civil War, Luther C. Ladd and A. O. Whitney -(both of Lowell), whose regiment was mobbed in Baltimore on the 19th of -April 1861 while marching to Washington; and a bronze figure of Victory -(after one by Rauch in the Valhalla at Ratisbon), commemorating the -Northern triumph in the Civil War. The Lowell textile school, opened in -1897, offers courses in cotton manufacturing, wool manufacturing, -designing, chemistry and dyeing, and textile engineering; evening -drawing schools and manual training in the public schools have -contributed to the high degree of technical perfection in the factories. -The power gained from the Pawtucket Falls in the Merrimack river has -long been found insufficient for these. A network of canals supplies -from 14,000 to 24,000 h.p.; and a small amount is also furnished by the -Concord river, but about 26,000 h.p. is supplied by steam. In factory -output ($46,879,212 in 1905; $41,202,984 in 1900) Lowell ranked fifth in -value in 1905 and fourth in 1900 among the cities of Massachusetts; more -than three-tenths of the total population are factory wage-earners, and -nearly 19 % of the population are in the cotton mills. Formerly Lowell -was called the "Spindle City" and the "Manchester of America," but it -was long ago surpassed in the manufacture of textiles by Fall River and -New Bedford: in 1905 the value of the cotton product of Lowell, -$19,340,925, was less than 60 % of the value of cotton goods made at -Fall River. Woollen goods made in Lowell in 1905 were valued at -$2,579,363; hosiery and knitted goods, at $3,816,964; worsted goods, at -$1,978,552. Carpets and textile machinery are allied manufactures of -importance. There are other factories for machinery, patent medicines, -boots and shoes, perfumery and cosmetics, hosiery and rubber heels. -Lowell was the home of the inventor of rubber heels, Humphrey -O'Sullivan. - -The founders of Lowell were Patrick Tracy Jackson (1780-1847), Nathan -Appleton (1779-1861), Paul Moody (1779-1831) and the business manager -chosen by them, Kirk Boott (1790-1837). The opportunity for developing -water-power by the purchase of the canal around Pawtucket Falls -(chartered for navigation in 1792) led them to choose the adjacent -village of East Chelmsford as the site of their projected cotton mills; -they bought the Pawtucket canal, and incorporated in 1822 the Merrimack -Manufacturing Company; in 1823 the first cloth was actually made, and in -1826 a separate township was formed from part of Chelmsford and was -named in honour of Francis Cabot Lowell, who with Jackson had improved -Cartwright's power loom, and had planned the mills at Waltham. In 1836 -Lowell was chartered as a city. Lowell annexed parts of Tewksbury in -1834, 1874, 1888 and 1906, and parts of Dracut in 1851, 1874 and 1879. -Up to 1840 the mill hands, with the exception of English dyers and -calico printers, were New England girls. The "corporation," as the -employers were called, provided from the first for the welfare of their -employees, and Lowell has always been notably free from labour -disturbances. - - The character of the early employees of the mills, later largely - displaced by French Canadians and Irish, and by immigrants from - various parts of Europe, is clearly seen in the periodical, _The - Lowell Offering_, written and published by them in 1840-1845. This - monthly magazine, organized by the Rev. Abel Charles Thomas - (1807-1880), pastor of the First Universalist Church, was from October - 1840 to March 1841 made up of articles prepared for some of the many - improvement circles or literary societies; it then became broader in - its scope, received more spontaneous contributions, and from October - 1842 until December 1845 was edited by Harriot F. Curtis (1813-1889), - known by her pen name, "Mina Myrtle," and by Harriet Farley - (1817-1907), who became manager and proprietor, and published - selections from the _Offering_ under the titles _Shells from the - Strand of the Sea of Genius_ (1847) and _Mind among the Spindles_ - (1849), with an introduction by Charles Knight. In 1854 she married - John Intaglio Donlevy (d. 1872). Famous contributors to the _Offering_ - were Harriet Hanson (b. 1825) and Lucy Larcom (1824-1893). Harriet - Hanson wrote _Early Factory Labor in New England_ (1883) and _Loom and - Spindle_ (1898), an important contribution to the industrial and - social history of Lowell. She was prominent in the anti-slavery and - woman suffrage agitations in Massachusetts, and wrote _Massachusetts - in the Woman Suffrage Movement_ (1881). She married in 1848 William - Stevens Robinson (1818-1876), who wrote in 1856-1876 the political - essays signed "Warrington" for the _Springfield Republican_. Lucy - Larcom,[1] born in Beverly, came to Lowell in 1835, where her widowed - mother kept a "corporation" boarding-house, and where she became a - "doffer," changing bobbins in the mills. She wrote much, especially - for the _Offering_; became an ardent abolitionist and (in 1843) the - friend of Whittier; left Lowell in 1846, and taught for several years, - first in Illinois, and then in Beverly and Norton, Massachusetts. _An - Idyl of Work_ (1875) describes the life of the mills and _A New - England Girlhood_ (1889) is autobiographical; she wrote many stories - and poems, of which _Hannah Binding Shoes_ is best known. - - Benjamin F. Butler was from boyhood a resident of Lowell, where he - began to practise law in 1841. James McNeill Whistler was born here in - 1834, and in 1907 his birthplace in Worthen Street was purchased by - the Art Association to be used as its headquarters and as an art - museum and gallery; it was dedicated in 1908, and in the same year a - replica of Rodin's statue of Whistler was bought for the city. - - See S. A. Drake, _History of Middlesex County_, 2, p. 53 et seq. - (Boston, 1880); _Illustrated History of Lowell, Massachusetts_ - (Lowell, 1897); the books of Harriet H. Robinson and Lucy Larcom - already named as bearing on the industrial conditions of the city - between 1835 and 1850; and the famous description in the fourth - chapter of Dickens's _American Notes_. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] See D. D. Addison, _Lucy Larcom; Life, Letters and Diary_ - (Boston, 1897). - - - - -LOWELL INSTITUTE, an educational foundation in Boston, Massachusetts, -U.S.A., providing for free public lectures, and endowed by the bequest -of $237,000 left by John Lowell, junior, who died in 1836. Under the -terms of his will 10% of the net income was to be added to the -principal, which in 1909 was over a million dollars. None of the fund -was to be invested in a building for the lectures; the trustees of the -Boston Athenaeum were made visitors of the fund; but the trustee of the -fund is authorized to select his own successor, although in doing so he -must "always choose in preference to all others some male descendant of -my grandfather John Lowell, provided there is one who is competent to -hold the office of trustee, and of the name of Lowell," the sole trustee -so appointed having the entire selection of the lecturers and the -subjects of lectures. The first trustee was John Lowell junior's cousin, -John Amory Lowell, who administered the trust for more than forty years, -and was succeeded in 1881 by his son, Augustus Lowell, who in turn was -succeeded in 1900 by his son Abbott Lawrence Lowell, who in 1909 became -president of Harvard University. - -The founder provided for two kinds of lectures, one popular, "and the -other more abstruse, erudite and particular." The popular lectures have -taken the form of courses usually ranging from half a dozen to a dozen -lectures, and covering almost every subject. The fees have always been -large, and many of the most eminent men in America and Europe have -lectured there. A large number of books have been published which -consist of those lectures or have been based upon them. As to the -advanced lectures, the founder seems to have had in view what is now -called university extension, and in this he was far in advance of his -time; but he did not realize that such work can only be done effectively -in connexion with a great school. In pursuance of this provision public -instruction of various kinds has been given from time to time by the -Institute. The first freehand drawing in Boston was taught there, but -was given up when the public schools undertook it. In the same way a -school of practical design was carried on for many years, but finally, -in 1903, was transferred to the Museum of Fine Arts. Instruction for -working men was given at the Wells Memorial Institute until 1908, when -the Franklin Foundation took up the work. A Teachers' School of Science -is maintained in co-operation with the Natural History Society. For many -years advanced courses of lectures were given by the professors of the -Massachusetts Institute of Technology, but in 1904 they were superseded -by an evening school for industrial foremen. In 1907, under the title of -"Collegiate Courses," a number of the elementary courses in Harvard -University were offered free to the public under the same conditions of -study and examination as in the university. - - For the earlier period, see Harriett Knight Smith, _History of the - Lowell Institute_ (Boston, 1898). - - - - -LOWENBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on -the Bober, 39 m. E. of Gorlitz by rail. Pop. 5682. It is one of the -oldest towns in Silesia; its town hall dates from the 16th century, and -it has a Roman Catholic church built in the 13th century and restored in -1862. The town has sandstone and gypsum quarries, breweries and woollen -mills, and cultivates fruit and vegetables. Lowenberg became a town in -1217 and has been the scene of much fighting, especially during the -Napoleonic wars. Near the town is the village and estate of Hohlstein, -the property of the Hohenzollern family. - - - - -LOWENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, capital of -the mediatized county of that name, situated under the north slope of -the Lowenstein range, 6 m. from Heilbronn. Pop. 1527. It is dominated by -the ruined castle of the counts of Lowenstein, and enclosed by medieval -walls. The town contains many picturesque old houses. There is also a -modern palace. The cultivation of vines is the chief industry, and there -is a brine spring (Theusserbad). - -Lowenstein was founded in 1123 by the counts of Calw, and belonged to the -Habsburgs from 1281 to 1441. In 1634 the castle was destroyed by the -imperialists. The county of Lowenstein belonged to a branch of the family -of the counts of Calw before 1281, when it was purchased by the German -king Rudolph I., who presented it to his natural son Albert. In 1441 -Henry, one of Albert's descendants, sold it to the elector palatine of -the Rhine, Frederick I., and later it served as a portion for Louis (d. -1524), a son of the elector by a morganatic marriage, who became a count -of the Empire in 1494. Louis's grandson Louis II. (d. 1611) inherited the -county of Wertheim and other lands by marriage and called himself count -of Lowenstein-Wertheim; his two sons divided the family into two -branches. The heads of the two branches, into which the older and -Protestant line was afterwards divided, were made princes by the king of -Bavaria in 1812 and by the king of Wurttemberg in 1813; the head of the -younger, or Roman Catholic line, was made a prince of the Empire in 1711. -Both lines are flourishing, their present representatives being Ernst (b. -1854) prince of Lowenstein-Wertheim-Freudenberg, and Aloyse (b. 1871) -prince of Lowenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg. The lands of the family were -mediatized after the dissolution of the Empire in 1806. The area of the -county of Lowenstein was about 53 sq. m. - - See C. Rommel, _Grundzuge einer Chronik der Stadt Lowenstein_ - (Lowenstein, 1893). - - - - -LOWESTOFT, a municipal borough, seaport and watering-place in the -Lowestoft parliamentary division of Suffolk, England, 117(1/2) m. N.E. -from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 29,850. It lies on -either side of the formerly natural, now artificial outlet of the river -Waveney to the North Sea, while to the west the river forms Oulton Broad -and Lothing Lake. The northern bank is the original site. South -Lowestoft arose on the completion of harbour improvements, begun in -1844, when the outlet of the Waveney, reopened in 1827, was deepened. -The old town is picturesquely situated on a lofty declivity, which -includes the most easterly point of land in England. The church of St -Margaret is Decorated and Perpendicular. South Lowestoft has a fine -esplanade, a park (Bellevue) and other adjuncts of a watering-place. -Bathing facilities are good. There are two piers enclosing a harbour -with a total area of 48 acres, having a depth of about 16 ft. at high -tide. The fisheries are important and some 600 smacks belong to the -port. Industries include ship and boat building and fitting, and motor -engineering. The town is governed by a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 -councillors. Area 2178 acres. - -Lowestoft (Lothu Wistoft, Lowistoft, Loistoft) owes its origin to its -fisheries. In 1086 it was a hamlet in the demesne of the royal manor of -Lothingland. The men of Lowestoft as tenants on ancient demesne of the -crown possessed many privileges, but had no definite burghal rights -until 1885. For several centuries before 1740 the fisheries were the -cause of constant dispute between Lowestoft and Yarmouth. During the -last half of the 18th century the manufacture of china flourished in the -town. A weekly market on Wednesdays was granted to John, earl of -Richmond, in 1308 together with an eight days' fair beginning on the -vigil of St Margaret's day, and in 1445 John de la Pole, earl of -Suffolk, one of his successors as lord of the manor, received a further -grant of the same market and also two yearly fairs, one on the feast of -St Philip and St James and the other at Michaelmas. The market is still -held on Wednesdays, and in 1792 the Michaelmas fair and another on -May-day were in existence. Now two yearly fairs for small wares are held -on the 13th of May and the 11th of October. In 1643 Cromwell performed -one of his earlier exploits in taking Lowestoft, capturing large -supplies and making prisoners of several influential royalists. In the -war of 1665 the Dutch under Admiral Opdam were defeated off Lowestoft by -the English fleet commanded by the duke of York. - - See _Victoria County History, Suffolk_; E. Gillingwater, _An - Historical Account of the Town of Lowestoft_ (ed. 1790). - - - - -LOWIN, JOHN (1576-1659), English actor, was born in London, the son of a -carpenter. His name frequently occurs in Henslowe's Diary in 1602, when -he was playing at the Rose Theatre in the earl of Worcester's company, -and he was at the Blackfriars in 1603, playing with Shakespeare, Burbage -and the others, and owning--by 1608--a share and a half of the twenty -shares in that theatre. About 1623 he was one of the managers. He lived -in Southwark, and Edward Alleyn speaks of his dining with him in 1620. -"Lowin in his latter days kept an inn (the Three Pigeons) at Brentford, -where he deyed very old." Two of his favourite parts were Falstaff, and -Melanteus in _The Maid's Tragedy_. - - - - -LOWLAND, in physical geography, any broad expanse of land with a general -low level. The term is thus applied to the landward portion of the -upward slope from oceanic depths to continental highlands, to a region -of depression in the interior of a mountainous region, to a plain of -denudation or to any region in contrast to a highland. The Lowlands and -Highlands of Scotland are typical. - - - - -LOWNDES, THOMAS (1692-1748), founder of the Lowndean professorship of -astronomy at Cambridge university, England, was born in 1692, both his -father and mother being Cheshire landowners. In 1725 he was appointed -provost marshal of South Carolina, a post he preferred to fill by -deputy. In 1727 Lowndes claimed to have taken a prominent part in -inducing the British government to purchase Carolina, but he surrendered -his patent when the transfer of the colony to the crown was completed. -His patent was renewed in 1730, but he resigned it in 1733. He then -brought various impractical schemes before the government to check the -illicit trade in wool between Ireland and France; to regulate the paper -currency of New England; and to supply the navy with salt from brine, -&c. He died on the 12th of May 1748. By his will he left his inherited -Cheshire properties to the university of Cambridge for the foundation of -a chair of astronomy and geometry. - - - - -LOWNDES, WILLIAM THOMAS (1798-1843), English bibliographer, was born -about 1798, the son of a London bookseller. His principal work, _The -Bibliographer's Manual of English Literature_--the first systematic work -of the kind--was published in four volumes in 1834. It took Lowndes -fourteen years to compile, but, despite its merits, brought him neither -fame nor money. Lowndes, reduced to poverty, subsequently became -cataloguer to Henry George Bohn, the bookseller and publisher. In 1839 -he published the first parts of _The British Librarian_, designed to -supplement his early manual, but owing to failing health did not -complete the work. Lowndes died on the 31st of July 1843. - - - - -LOW SUNDAY, the first Sunday after Easter, so called because of its -proximity to the "highest" of all feasts and Sundays, Easter. It was -also known formerly as White Sunday, being still officially termed by -the Roman Catholic Church _Dominica in albis_, "Sunday in white -garments," in allusion to the white garments anciently worn on this day -by those who had been baptized and received into the Church just before -Easter. Alb Sunday, Quasimodo and, in the Greek Church, Antipascha, and -[Greek: e deuteroprote Kuriake] (literally "second-first Sunday," i.e. -the second Sunday after the first) were other names for the day. - - - - -LOWTH, ROBERT (1710-1787), English divine and Orientalist, was born at -Winchester on the 27th of November 1710. He was the younger son of -William Lowth (1661-1732), rector of Buriton, Hampshire, a theologian of -considerable ability. Robert was educated on the foundation of -Winchester College, and in 1729 was elected to a scholarship at New -College, Oxford. He graduated M.A. in 1737, and in 1741 he was appointed -professor of poetry at Oxford, in which capacity he delivered the -_Praelectiones Academicae de Sacra Poesi Hebraeorum_. Bishop Hoadly -appointed him in 1744 to the rectory of Ovington, Hampshire, and in 1750 -to the archdeaconry of Winchester. In 1753 he was collated to the -rectory of East Woodhay, Hampshire, and in the same year he published -his lectures on Hebrew poetry. In 1754 he received the degree of doctor -of divinity from his university, and in 1755 he went to Ireland for a -short time as first chaplain to the lord-lieutenant, the 4th duke of -Devonshire. He declined a presentation to the see of Limerick, but -accepted a prebendal stall at Durham and the rectory of Sedgefield. In -1758 he published his _Life of William of Wykeham_; this was followed in -1762 by _A Short Introduction to English Grammar_. In 1765, the year of -his election into the Royal Societies of London and Gottingen, he -engaged in controversy with William Warburton on the book of Job, in -which he was held by Gibbon to have had the advantage. In June 1766 -Lowth was consecrated bishop of St David's, and about four months -afterwards he was translated to Oxford, where he remained till 1777, -when he became bishop of London and dean of the Chapel Royal. In 1778 -appeared his last work, _Isaiah, a new Translation, with a Preliminary -Dissertation, and Notes, Critical, Philological, and Explanatory_. He -declined the archbishopric of Canterbury in 1783, and died at Fulham on -the 3rd of November 1787. - - The _Praelectiones_, translated in 1787 by G. Gregory as _Lectures on - the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews_, exercised a great influence both in - England and on the continent. Their chief importance lay in the idea - of looking at the sacred poetry as poetry, and examining it by the - ordinary standards of literary criticism. Lowth's aesthetic criticism - was that of the age, and is now in great part obsolete, a more natural - method having been soon after introduced by Herder. The principal - point in which Lowth's influence has been lasting is his doctrine of - poetic parallelism, and even here his somewhat mechanical - classification of the forms of Hebrew sense-rhythm, as it should - rather be called, is open to serious objections. Editions of the - _Lectures_ and of the _Isaiah_ have been numerous, and both have been - translated into German. A volume of _Sermons and other Remains_, with - memoir by the topographer, Peter Hall (1802-1849), was published in - 1834, and an edition of the _Popular Works_ of Robert Lowth in 3 vols. - appeared in 1843. - - - - -LOXODROME (from Gr. [Greek: loxos], oblique, and [Greek: dromos], -course), the line on the earth's surface making a constant angle with -the meridian. - - - - -LOYALISTS or TORIES, in America, the name given to the colonists who -were loyal to Great Britain during the War of Independence. In New -England and the Middle Colonies loyalism had a religious as well as a -political basis. It represented the Anglican as opposed to the -Calvinistic influence. With scarcely an exception the Anglican ministers -were ardent Loyalists, the writers and pamphleteers were the ministers -and teachers of that faith, and virtually all the military or civil -leaders were members of that church. The Loyalists north of Maryland -represented the old Tory traditions. In the southern colonies, where -Anglicanism predominated, the division did not follow religious lines so -closely. In Virginia and South Carolina the Whig leaders were almost -without exception members of the established church. Out of twenty -Episcopal ministers in South Carolina only five were Loyalists. Although -many of the wealthy Anglican planters of the tide-water section fought -for the mother country, the Tories derived their chief support from the -non-Anglican Germans and Scotch in the upper country. The natural -leaders in these colonies were members of the same church as the -governor and vied with him in their zeal for the support of that church. -Since religion was not an issue, the disputes over questions purely -political in character, such as taxation, distribution of land and -appointment of officials, were all the more bitter. The settlers on the -frontier were snubbed both socially and politically by the low-country -aristocracy, and in North Carolina and South Carolina were denied courts -of justice and any adequate representation in the colonial assembly. -Naturally they refused to follow such leaders in a war in defence of -principles in which they had no material interest. They did not drink -tea and had little occasion for the use of stamps, since they were not -engaged in commerce and had no courts in which to use legal documents. -The failure of the British officers to realize that conditions in the -south differed from those in the north, and the tendency on their part -to treat all Dissenters as rebels, were partly responsible for the -ultimate loss of their southern campaign. The Scotch-Irish in the south, -influenced perhaps by memories of commercial and religious oppression in -Ulster, were mostly in sympathy with the American cause. - -Taking the Thirteen Colonies as a whole, loyalism drew its strength -largely from the following classes: (1) the official class--men holding -positions in the civil, military and naval services, and their immediate -families and social connexions, as, for example, Lieutenant-Governor -Bull in South Carolina, Governor Dunmore in Virginia and Governor Tryon -in New York; (2) the professional classes--lawyers, physicians, teachers -and ministers, such as Benjamin Kissam, Peter Van Schaack and Dr Azor -Betts of New York and Dr Myles Cooper, president of King's College (now -Columbia University); (3) large landed proprietors and their tenants, -e.g. William Wragg in South Carolina and the De Lanceys, De Peysters and -Van Cortlandts in New York; (4) the wealthy commercial classes in New -York, Albany, Philadelphia, Baltimore and Charleston, whose business -interests would be affected by war; (5) natural conservatives of the -type of Joseph Galloway of Pennsylvania, and numerous political trimmers -and opportunists. Before 1776 the Loyalists may be divided into two -groups. There was a minority of extremists led by the Anglican ministers -and teachers, who favoured an unquestioning obedience to all British -legislation. The moderate majority disapproved of the mother country's -unwise colonial policy and advocated opposition to it through legally -organized bodies. Many even sanctioned non-importation and -non-exportation agreements, and took part in the election of delegates -to the First Continental Congress. The aggressive attitude of Congress, -the subsequent adoption of the Declaration of Independence, and the -refusal to consider Lord Howe's conciliatory propositions finally forced -them into armed opposition. Very few really sanctioned the British -policy as a whole, but all felt that it was their first duty to fight -for the preservation of the empire and to leave constitutional questions -for a later settlement. John Adams's estimate that one-third of all the -people in the thirteen states in 1776 were Loyalists was perhaps -approximately correct. In New England the number was small, perhaps -largest in Connecticut and in the district which afterwards became the -state of Vermont. New York was the chief stronghold. The "De Lancey -party" or the "Episcopalian party" included the majority of the wealthy -farmers, merchants and bankers, and practically all communicants of the -Anglican church. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland and -Virginia contained large and influential Loyalist minorities; North -Carolina was about equally divided; South Carolina probably, and Georgia -certainly, had Loyalist majorities. Some of the Loyalists joined the -regular British army, others organized guerilla bands and with their -Indian allies inaugurated a reign of terror on the frontier from New -York to Georgia. New York alone furnished about 15,000 Loyalists to the -British army and navy, and about 8500 militia, making in all 23,500 -Loyalist troops. This was more than any other colony supplied, perhaps -more than all the others combined. Johnson's "Loyal Greens" and Butler's -"Tory Rangers" served under General St Leger in the Burgoyne campaign of -1777, and the latter took part in the Wyoming and Cherry Valley -massacres of 1778. The strength of these Loyalists in arms was weakened -in New York by General Sullivan's success at Newtown (now Elmira) on the -29th of August 1779, and broken in the north-west by George Rogers -Clark's victories at Kaskaskia and Vincennes in 1778 and 1779, and in -the south by the battles of King's Mountain and Cowpens in 1780. Severe -laws were passed against the Loyalists in all the states. They were in -general disfranchised and forbidden to hold office or to practise law. -Eight of the states formally banished certain prominent Tories either -conditionally or unconditionally, and the remaining five, Connecticut, -New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland and Virginia, did practically the same -indirectly. Social and commercial ostracism forced many others to flee. -Their property was usually confiscated for the support of the American -cause. They went to England, to the West Indies, to the Bahamas, to -Canada and to New York, Newport, Charleston and other cities under -British control. According to a trustworthy estimate 60,000 persons went -into exile during the years from 1775 to 1787. The great majority -settled in Nova Scotia and in Upper and Lower Canada, where they and -their descendants became known as "United Empire Loyalists." Those who -remained in the United States suffered for many years, and all the laws -against them were not finally repealed until after the War of 1812. The -British government, however, endeavoured to look after the interests of -its loyal colonists. During the war a number of the prominent Loyalists -(e.g. Joseph Galloway) were appointed to lucrative positions, and -rations were issued to many Loyalists in the cities, such as New York, -which were held by the British. During the peace negotiations at Paris -the treatment of the Loyalists presented a difficult problem, Great -Britain at first insisting that the United States should agree to remove -their disabilities and to act toward them in a spirit of conciliation. -The American commissioners, knowing that a treaty with such provisions -would not be accepted at home, and that the general government had, -moreover, no power to bind the various states in such a matter, refused -to accede; but in the treaty, as finally ratified, the United States -agreed (by Article V.) to recommend to the legislatures of the various -states that Loyalists should "have free liberty to go to any part or -parts of any of the thirteen United States, and therein to remain twelve -months, unmolested in their endeavours to obtain the restitution of such -of their estates, rights and properties as may have been confiscated," -that acts and laws in the premises be reconsidered and revised, and that -restitution of estates, &c., should be made. The sixth article provided -"that there shall be no future confiscations made, nor any prosecutions -commenced against any person" for having taken part in the war; and that -those in confinement on such charges should be liberated. In Great -Britain opponents of the government asserted that the Loyalists had -virtually been betrayed; in America the treaty aroused opposition as -making too great concessions to them. Congress made the promised -recommendations, but they were unheeded by the various states, in spite -of the advocacy by Alexander Hamilton and others of a conciliatory -treatment of the Loyalists; and Great Britain, in retaliation, refused -until 1796 to evacuate the western posts as the treaty prescribed. -Immediately after the war parliament appointed a commission of five to -examine the claims of the Loyalists for compensation for services and -losses; and to satisfy these claims and to establish Loyalists in Nova -Scotia and Canada the British government expended fully L6,000,000. - - See C. H. van Tyne, _The Loyalists in the American Revolution_ (New - York, 1902), which contains much valuable information but does not - explain adequately the causes of loyalism. More useful in this respect - is the monograph by A. C. Flick, _Loyalism in New York daring the - American Revolution_ (New York, 1901). On the biographical side see - Lorenzo Sabine, _Biographical Sketches of Loyalists of the American - Revolution_ (2 vols., Boston, 1864); on the literary side, M. C. - Tyler, _Literary History of the American Revolution_, 1763-1783 (2 - vols., New York, 1897). - - - - -LOYALTY, allegiance to the sovereign or established government of one's -country, also personal devotion and reverence to the sovereign and royal -family. The English word came into use in the early part of the 15th -century in the sense of fidelity to one's oath, or in service, love, -&c.; the later and now the ordinary sense appears in the 16th century. -The O. Fr. _loialte_, mod. _loyaute_, is formed from _loial_, loyal, -Scots _leal_, Lat. _legalis_, legal, from _lex_, law. This was used in -the special feudal sense of one who has full legal rights, a _legalis -homo_ being opposed to the _exlex_, _utlegatus_, or outlaw. Thence in -the sense of faithful, it meant one who kept faithful allegiance to his -feudal lord, and so loyal in the accepted use of the word. - - - - -LOYALTY ISLANDS (Fr. _Iles Loyalty_ or _Loyaute_), a group in the South -Pacific Ocean belonging to France, about 100 m. E. of New Caledonia, -with a total land area of about 1050 sq. m. and 20,000 inhabitants. It -consists of Uea or Uvea (the northernmost), Lifu (the largest island, -with an area of 650 sq. m.), Tiga and several small islands and Mare or -Nengone. They are coral islands of comparatively recent elevation, and -in no place rise more than 250 ft. above the level of the sea. Enough of -the rocky surface is covered with a thin coating of soil to enable the -natives to grow yams, taro, bananas, &c., for their support; cotton -thrives well, and has even been exported in small quantities, but there -is no space available for its cultivation on any considerable scale. -Fresh water, rising and falling with the tide, is found in certain large -caverns in Lifu, and by sinking to the sea-level a supply may be -obtained in any part of the island. The chief product of the islands are -bananas; the chief export sandal-wood. - -The Loyalty islanders are Melanesians; the several islands have each its -separate language, and in Uea one tribe uses a Samoan and another a New -Hebridean form of speech. The Loyalty group was discovered at the -beginning of the 19th century, and Dumont d'Urville laid down the -several islands in his chart. For many years the natives had a -reputation as dangerous cannibals, but they are now among the most -civilized Melanesians. Christianity was introduced into Mare by native -teachers from Rarotonga and Samoa; missionaries were settled by the -London Missionary Society at Mare in 1854, at Lifu in 1859 and at Uea in -1865: Roman Catholic missionaries also arrived from New Caledonia; and -in 1864 the French, considering the islands a dependency of that -colony, formally instituted a commandant. An attempt was made by this -official to put a stop to the English missions by violence; but the -report of his conduct led to so much indignation in Australia and in -England that the emperor Napoleon, on receipt of a protest from Lord -Shaftesbury and others, caused a commission of inquiry to be appointed -and free liberty of worship to be secured to the Protestant missions. A -further persecution of Christians in Uea, during 1875, called forth a -protest from the British government. - - - - -LOYOLA, ST IGNATIUS OF (1491-1556), founder of the Society of Jesus. -Inigo Lopez de Recalde, son of Beltran, lord of the noble houses of -Loyola and Onaz, was born, according to the generally accepted opinion, -on the 24th of December 1491 at the castle of Loyola, which is situated -on the river Urola, about 1 m. from the town of Azpeitia, in the -province of Guipuzcoa. He was the youngest of a family of thirteen. As -soon as he had learnt the elements of reading and writing, he was sent -as a page to the court of Ferdinand and Isabella; afterwards, until his -twenty-sixth year, he took service with Antonio Maurique, duke of -Nagera, and followed the career of arms. He was free in his relations -with women, gambled and fought; but he also gave indications of that -courage, constancy and prudence which marked his after life. In a -political mission to settle certain disputes in the province he showed -his dexterity in managing men. - -Despite the treaty of Noyon (1516), Charles V. kept Pampeluna, the -capital of Navarre. Andre de Foix, at the head of the French troops, -laid siege to the town in 1521 and Ignatius was one of the defending -garrison. In the hour of danger, the claims of religion reasserted -themselves on the young soldier, and, following a custom when no priest -was at hand, he made his confession to a brother officer, who in turn -also confessed to him. During the final assault on the 19th of May 1521 -a cannon ball struck him, shattering one of his legs and badly wounding -the other. The victorious French treated him kindly for nearly two -weeks, and then sent him in a litter to Loyola. The doctors declared -that the leg needed to be broken and set again; and the operation was -borne without a sign of pain beyond a clenching of his fist. His vanity -made him order the surgeons to cut out a bone which protruded below the -knee and spoilt the symmetry of his leg. He was lame for the rest of his -days. Serious illness followed the operations, and, his life being -despaired of, he received the last sacraments on the 28th of June. That -night, however, he began to mend, and in a few days he was out of -danger. During convalescence two books that were to influence his life -were brought to him. These were a Castilian translation of _The Life of -Christ_ by Ludolphus of Saxony, and the popular _Flowers of the Saints_, -a series of pious biographies. He gradually became interested in these -books, and a mental struggle began. Sometimes he would pass hours -thinking of a certain illustrious lady, devising means of seeing her and -of doing deeds that would win her favour; at other times the thoughts -suggested by the books got the upper hand. He began to recognize that -his career of arms was over: so he would become the knight of Christ. He -determined to make the pilgrimage to Jerusalem and to practise all the -austerities that he read of in _The Flowers of the Saints_. Expiating -his sins was not so much his aim as to accomplish great deeds for God. -During the struggle that went on in his soul, he began to take note of -his psychological state; and this was the first time that he exercised -his reason on spiritual things; the experience thus painfully gained he -found of great use afterwards in directing others. One night while he -lay awake, he tells us, he saw the likeness of the Blessed Virgin with -her divine Son; and immediately a loathing seized him for the former -deeds of his life, especially for those relating to carnal desires; and -he asserts that for the future he never yielded to any such desires. -This was the first of many visions. Ignatius proposed after returning -from Jerusalem to join the Carthusian order at Seville as a lay brother. -About the same time Martin Luther was in the full course of his protest -against the papal supremacy and had already burnt the pope's bull at -Worms. The two opponents were girding themselves for the struggle; and -what the Church of Rome was losing by the defection of the Augustinian -was being counterbalanced by the conversion of the founder of the -Society of Jesus. - -As soon as Ignatius had regained strength, he started ostensibly to -rejoin the duke of Nagera, but in reality to visit the great Benedictine -abbey of Montserrato, a famous place of pilgrimage. On the way, he was -joined by a Moor, who began to jest at some of the Christian doctrines, -especially at the perpetual virginity of the Blessed Virgin. Ignatius -was no controversialist; and the Moor rode off victorious. The -chivalrous nature of Ignatius was aroused. Seized with a longing to -pursue and kill the Moor on account of his insulting language, Ignatius, -still doubting as to his best course, left the matter to his mule, which -at the dividing of the ways took the path to the abbey, leaving the open -road which the Moor had taken. Before reaching Montserrato, Ignatius -purchased some sackcloth for a garment and hempen shoes, which, with a -staff and gourd, formed the usual pilgrim's dress. Approaching the abbey -he resolved to do as his favourite hero Amadis de Gaul did--keep a vigil -all night before the Lady altar and then lay aside his worldly armour to -put on that of Christ. He arrived at the abbey just about the feast of -St Benedict (the 21st of March 1522), and there made a confession of his -life to a priest belonging to the monastery. He found in use for the -pilgrims a translation of the _Spiritual Exercises_ of the former abbot, -Garcia di Cisneros (d. 1510); and this book evidently gave Ignatius the -first idea of his more famous work under the same title. Leaving his -mule to the abbey, and giving away his worldly clothes to a beggar, he -kept his watch in the church during the night of the 24th-25th of March, -and placed on the Lady altar his sword and dagger. Early the next -morning he received the Holy Eucharist and left before any one could -recognize him, going to the neighbouring town of Manresa, where he first -lived in the hospice. Here began a series of heavy spiritual trials -which assailed him for many months. Seven hours a day he spent on his -knees in prayer and three times a day he scourged his emaciated body. -One day, almost overcome with scruples, he was tempted to end his -miseries by suicide. At another time, for the same reason, he kept an -absolute fast for a week. He tells us that, at this time, God wrought -with him as a master with a schoolboy whom he teaches. But his energies -were not confined to himself. He assisted others who came to him for -spiritual advice; and seeing the fruit reaped from helping his -neighbour, he gave up the extreme severities in which he had delighted -and began to take more care of his person, so as not needlessly to -offend those whom he might influence for good. - -During his stay at Manresa, he lived for the most part in a cell at the -Dominican convent; and here, evidently, he had severe illnesses. He -recounts the details of at least two of these attacks, but says nothing -about the much-quoted swoon of eight days, during which he is supposed -to have seen in vision the scheme of the future Society. Neither does he -refer in any way to the famous cave in which, according to the Ignatian -myth, the _Spiritual Exercises_ were written. Fortunately we have the -first-hand evidence of his autobiography, which is a surer guide than -the lines written by untrustworthy disciples. Ignatius remained at -Manresa for about a year, and in the spring of 1523 set out for -Barcelona on his way to Rome, where he arrived on Palm Sunday. After two -weeks he left, having received the blessing of Pope Adrian VI., and -proceeded by Padua to Venice, where he begged his bread and slept in the -Piazza di San Marco until a rich Spaniard gave him shelter and obtained -an order from the doge for a passage in a pilgrim ship bound for Cyprus, -whence he could get to Jaffa. In due course Ignatius arrived at -Jerusalem, where he intended to remain, in order continuously to visit -the holy places and help souls. For this end he had obtained letters of -recommendation to the guardian, to whom, however, he only spoke of his -desire of satisfying his devotion, not hinting his other motive. The -Franciscans gave him no encouragement to remain; and the provincial -threatened him with excommunication if he persisted. Not only had the -friars great difficulty in supporting themselves, but they dreaded an -outbreak from the fanatical Turks who resented some imprudent -manifestations of Loyola's zeal. Ignatius returned to Venice in the -middle of January 1524; and, determining to devote himself for a while -to study, he set out for Barcelona, where he arrived in Lent. Here he -consulted Isabella Roser, a lady of high rank and piety, and also the -master of a grammar school. These both approved his plan; the one -promised to teach him without payment and the other to provide him with -the necessaries of life. Here, in his thirty-third year, he began to -learn Latin, and after two years his master urged him to go to Alcala to -begin philosophy. During his stay of a year and a half in this -university, besides his classes, he found occasion to give to some -companions his _Spiritual Exercises_ in the form they had then taken and -certain instructions in Christian doctrine. On account of these -discourses Ignatius came into conflict with the Inquisition. He and his -companions were denounced as belonging to the sects of _Sagati_ and -_Illuminati_. Their mode of life and dress was peculiar and hinted at -innovation. But, always ready to obey authority, Ignatius was able to -disarm any charges that, now and at other times, were brought against -him. The Inquisition merely advised him and his companions to dress in a -less extraordinary manner and to go shod. Four months later he was -suddenly cast into prison; and, after seventeen days, he learnt that he -was falsely accused of sending two noble ladies on a pilgrimage to Jaen. -During their absence, from the 21st of April 1527 to the 1st of June, he -remained in prison, and was then set free with a prohibition against -instructing others until he had spent four years in study. - -Seeing his way thus barred at Alcala, he went with his companions to -Salamanca. Here the Dominicans, doubting the orthodoxy of the -new-comers, had them put into prison, where they were chained foot to -foot and fastened to a stake set up in the middle of the cell. Some days -afterwards Ignatius was examined and found without fault. His patience -won him many friends; and when he and his companions remained in prison -while the other prisoners managed to escape, their conduct excited much -admiration. After twenty-two days they were called up to receive -sentence. No fault was found in their life and teaching; but they were -forbidden to define any sins as being mortal or venial until they had -studied for four years. Hampered again by such an order, Ignatius -determined to go to Paris to continue his studies. Up to the present he -was far from having any idea of founding a society. The only question -before him now was whether he should join an order, or continue his -wandering existence. He decided upon Paris for the present, and before -leaving Salamanca he agreed with his companions that they should wait -where they were until he returned; for he only meant to see whether he -could find any means by which they all might give themselves to study. -He left Barcelona and, travelling on foot to Paris, he arrived there in -February 1528. The university of Paris had reached its zenith at the -time of the council of Constance (1418), and was now losing its -intellectual leadership under the attacks of the Renaissance and the -Reformation. In 1521 the university had condemned Luther's _Babylonish -Captivity_, and in 1527 Erasmus's _Colloquies_ met with the same fate. -Soon after his arrival, Ignatius may have seen in the Place de Greve the -burning of Louis de Berquin for heresy.[1] At this period there were -between twelve and fifteen thousand students attending the university, -and the life was an extraordinary mixture of licentiousness and devout -zeal. When Ignatius arrived in Paris, he lodged at first with some -fellow-countrymen; and for two years attended the lectures on humanities -at the college de Montaigu, supporting himself at first by the charity -of Isabella Roser; but, a fellow-lodger defrauding him of his stock, he -found himself destitute and compelled to beg his bread. He retired to -the hospice of St Jacques; and, following the advice of a Spanish monk, -spent his vacations in Flanders, where he was helped by the rich Spanish -merchants. At Bruges he became acquainted with the famous Spanish -scholar, Juan Luis Vives, with whom he lodged. In the summer of 1530 he -went to London, where he received alms more abundantly than elsewhere. -As he could only support himself at Paris with difficulty, it was -impossible to send for his companions in Salamanca. Others, however, -joined him in Paris, and to some of them he gave the _Spiritual -Exercises_, with the result that the Inquisition made him give up -speaking on religious subjects during the time he was a student. At the -end of 1529 he came into contact with the men who were eventually to -become the first fathers of the Society of Jesus. He won over the -Savoyard Pierre Lefevre (Faber), whose room he shared, and the Navarrese -Francis Xavier, who taught philosophy in the college of St Barbara. -Afterwards he became acquainted with the young Castilian, Diego Laynez, -who had heard of him at Acala and found him out in Paris. With Laynez -came two other young men, the Toledan Alfonso Salmeron and the -Portuguese Simon Rodriguez. Nicholas Bobadilla, a poor Spaniard who had -finished his studies, was the next to join him. The little company of -seven determined to consecrate their union by vows. On the 15th of -August 1534, the Feast of the Assumption, they assembled in the crypt of -the church of St Mary on Montmartre, and Faber, the only one who was a -priest, said Mass. They then took the vows of poverty and chastity, and -pledged themselves to go to the Holy Land as missionaries or for the -purpose of tending the sick; or if this design should prove -impracticable, to go to Rome and place themselves at the disposal of the -pope for any purpose. But, whatever may have been the private opinion of -Ignatius, there was on this occasion no foundation of any society. The -vows were individual obligations which could be kept quite apart from -membership in a society. A provision was made that if, after waiting a -year at Venice, they were unable to go to Jerusalem, this part of the -vow should be cancelled and they should at once betake themselves to -Rome. - -At this time Ignatius was again suffering from his former imprudent -austerities; and he was urged to return for a while to his native air. -He left Paris for Spain in the autumn of 1535, leaving Faber in charge -of his companions to finish their studies. During the absence of -Ignatius, Faber gained three more adherents. But before leaving Paris -Ignatius heard once more that complaints had been lodged against him at -the Inquisition; but these like the others were found to be without any -foundation. When he arrived near Loyola he would not go to the castle, -but lived at the public hospice at Azpeitia, and began his usual life of -teaching Christian doctrine and reforming morals. Falling ill again he -went to other parts of Spain to transact business for his companions. -Then, sailing from Valencia to Genoa, he made his way to Venice, where -he arrived during the last days of 1535. Here he waited for a year until -his companions could join him, and meanwhile he occupied himself in his -usual good works, gaining several more companions and meeting Giovanni -Piero Caraffa, afterwards Paul IV., who had lately founded the -Theatines. What happened between the two does not appear; but henceforth -Caraffa seems to have borne ill will towards Ignatius and his -companions. At Venice Ignatius was again accused of heresy, and it was -said that he had escaped from the Inquisition in Spain and had been -burnt in effigy at Paris. These charges he met successfully by insisting -that the nuncio should thoroughly inquire into the matter. - -After a journey of fifty-four days his companions arrived at Venice in -January 1537; and here they remained until the beginning of Lent, when -Ignatius sent them to Rome to get money for the proposed voyage to -Palestine. He himself stayed behind, as he feared that, if he went with -them, Caraffa at Rome, together with Dr Ortiz, a German opponent in -Paris and now Charles V.'s ambassador at the Vatican, would prejudice -the pope against them. But Ortiz proved a friend and presented them to -Paul III., who gave them leave to go to Palestine to preach the Gospel, -bestowing upon them abundant alms. He likewise gave licence for those -not yet priests to be ordained by any catholic bishop on the title of -poverty. They had returned to Venice where Ignatius and the others were -ordained priests on the 24th of June 1537, after having renewed their -vows of poverty and chastity to the legate Verallo. Ignatius, now a -priest, waited for eighteen months before saying Mass, which he did for -the first time on the 25th of December 1538 in the church of Santa Maria -Maggiore in Rome. - -The year of waiting passed away without any chance of going to the Holy -Land. Finding it impossible to keep this part of their vow, the fathers -met at Vicenza, where Ignatius was staying in a ruined monastery; and -here after deliberation it was determined that he, Laynez and Faber -should go to Rome to place the little band at the disposal of the pope. -It was now that the Society began to take some visible form. A common -rule was devised and a name adopted. Ignatius declared that having -assembled in the name of Jesus, the association should henceforth bear -the name of the "Company of Jesus." The word used shows Loyola's -military ideal of the duties and methods of the nascent society. - -On the road to Rome a famous vision took place, as to which we have the -evidence of Ignatius himself. In a certain church, a few miles before -Rome, whilst in prayer he was aware of a stirring and a change in his -soul; and so openly did he see God the Father placing him with Christ, -that he could not dare to doubt that God the Father had so placed him. -Subsequent writers add that Christ, looking at him with a benign -countenance, said: "I shall be propitious to you"; while others add the -significant words, "at Rome." Ignatius, however, says nothing about so -important a matter; indeed he understood the vision to mean that many -things would be adverse to them, and told his companions when they -reached the city that he saw the windows there closed against him. He -also said: "We must of necessity proceed with caution; and we must not -make the acquaintance of women unless they be of very high rank." They -arrived in Rome in October 1537; and lived at first in a little cottage -in a vineyard and near the Trinita dei Monti. The pope appointed Faber -to teach Holy Scripture, and Laynez scholastic theology, in the -university of the Sapienza. Ignatius was left free to carry on his -spiritual work, which became so large that he was obliged to call his -other companions to Rome. During the absence of the pope, a certain -hermit began to spread heresy and was opposed by Ignatius and his -companions. In revenge the hermit brought up the former accusations -concerning the relations to the Inquisition, and proclaimed Ignatius and -his friends to be false, designing men and no better than concealed -heretics. The matter was examined and the legate ordered the suit to be -quashed. But this did not suit Ignatius. It was necessary for his own -good repute and the future of his work that a definitive sentence should -be pronounced and his name cleared once and for all. The legate -demurred; but on the pope's return sentence was formally given in his -favour. - -The life of Ignatius is now mainly identified with the formation and -growth of his Society (see JESUITS), but his zeal found other outlets in -Rome. He founded institutions for rescuing fallen women, started -orphanages and organized catechetical instructions. He obtained, after -difficulty, the official recognition of his Society from Paul III. on -the 27th of September 1540, and successfully steered it through many -perils that beset it in its early days. He was unanimously elected the -first general in April 1541; and on the 22nd of that month received the -first vows of the Society in the church of San Paolo _fuori la mura_. -Two works now chiefly occupied the remainder of his life: the final -completion of the _Spiritual Exercises_ and the drawing up of the -_Constitutions_, which received their final form after his death. These -two are so constantly connected that the one cannot be understood -without the other. The _Constitutions_ are discussed in the article on -the Jesuits. In these he taught his followers to respond to the call; by -the _Spiritual Exercises_ he moulded their character. - - The _Book of the Spiritual Exercises_ has been one of the world-moving - books. In its strict conception it is only an application of the - Gospel precepts to the individual soul. Its object is to convince a - man of sin, of justice and of judgment. The idea of the book is not - original to Ignatius At Montserrato he had found in use a popular - translation of the _Exercitatorio de la vida spiritual_ (1500), - written in Latin by Abbot Garcias de Cisneros (d. 1510), and divided - into three ways or periods during which purity of soul, enlightenment - and union are to be worked for; a fourth part is added on - contemplation. This book evidently afforded the root idea of the - Ignatian and more famous book. But the differences are great. While - taking the title, the idea of division by periods and the subjects of - most of the meditations from the older work, Ignatius skilfully - adapted it to his own requirements. Above all the methods of the two - are essentially different. The Benedictine work follows the old - monastic tradition of the direct intercourse of the soul with God. - Ignatius, with his military instinct and views of obedience, - intervenes with a director who gives the exercises to the person who - in turn receives them. If this introduction of the director is - essential to the end for which Ignatius framed his _Exercises_, in it - we also find dangers. A director, whose aim is only the personal - advantage of the one who is receiving the exercises, will be the - faithful interpreter of his founder's intentions: but in the case of - one whose _esprit de corps_ is unbalanced, the temporary and pecuniary - advantage of the Society may be made of more importance than that of - the exercitant. Another danger may come when minuteness of direction - takes away the wholesome sense of responsibility. Apart from these - abuses the _Spiritual Exercises_ have proved their value over and over - again, and have received the sincerest form of flattery in countless - imitations. The original parts of the book are principally to be found - in the meditations, which are clearly Ignatian in conception as well - as method. These are _The Reign of Christ_, wherein Christ as an - earthly king calls his subjects to war: and _Two Standards_, one of - Jesus Christ and the other of Lucifer. Besides these there are various - additions to the series of meditations, which are mostly the practical - results of the experiences which Ignatius went through in the early - stages of his conversion. He gives various methods of prayer; methods - of making an election; his series of rules for the discernment of - spirits; rules for the distribution of alms and the treatment of - scruples; tests of orthodoxy. These additions are skilfully worked - into the series of meditations; so that when the exercitant by - meditation has moved his soul to act, here are practical directions at - hand. - - The exercises are divided into four series of meditations technically - called "weeks," each of which may last as long as the director - considers necessary to achieve the end for which each week is - destined. But the whole period is generally concluded in the space of - a month. The first week is the foundation, and has to do with the - consideration of the end of man, sin, death, judgment and hell. Having - purified the soul from sin and obtained a detestation thereof, the - second week treats of the kingdom of Christ, and is meant to lead the - soul to make an election of the service of God. The third and fourth - weeks are intended to confirm the soul in the new way chosen, to teach - how difficulties can be overcome, to inflame it with the love of God - and to help it to persevere. - - _The Book of the Spiritual Exercises_ was not written at Manresa, - although there is in that place an inscription testifying to the - supposed fact. Ignatius was constantly adding to his work as his own - personal experience increased, and as he watched the effects of his - method on the souls of those to whom he gave the exercises. The latest - critics, even those of the Society itself, give 1548 as the date when - the book received its final touches; though Father Roothaan gives - Rome, the 9th of July 1541, as the date at the end of the ancient MS. - version. Ignatius wrote originally in Spanish, but the book was twice - translated into Latin during his lifetime. The more elegant version - (known as the common edition) differs but slightly from the Spanish. - Francisco Borgia, while duke of Gandia, petitioned Paul III. to have - the book examined and approved. The pope appointed censors for both - translations, who found the work to be replete with piety and - holiness, highly useful and wholesome. Paul III. on receiving this - report confirmed it on the 31st of July 1548 by the breve _Pastoralis - officii cura_. This book, which is rightly called the spiritual arm of - the Society, was the first book published by the Jesuits. - -The progress of the Society of Jesus in Loyola's lifetime was rapid (see -JESUITS). Having always had an attraction for a life of prayer and -retirement, in 1547 he tried to resign the generalship, and again in -1550, but the fathers unanimously opposed the project. One of his last -trials was to see in 1556 the election as pope of his old opponent -Caraffa, who soon showed his intention of reforming certain points in -the Society that Ignatius considered vital. But at this difficult crisis -he never lost his peace of mind. He said: "If this misfortune were to -fall upon me, provided it happened without any fault of mine, even if -the Society were to melt away like salt in water, I believe that a -quarter of an hour's recollection in God would be sufficient to console -me and to re-establish peace within me." It is clear that Ignatius never -dreamed of putting his Society before the church nor of identifying the -two institutions. - -In the beginning of 1556 Ignatius grew very weak and resigned the active -government to three fathers, Polanco, Madrid and Natal. Fever laid hold -of him, and he died somewhat suddenly on the 31st of July 1556, without -receiving or asking for the last sacraments. He was beatified in 1609 by -Paul V. and canonized in 1628 by Gregory XV. His body lies under the -altar in the north transept of the Gesu in Rome. - -His portrait is well known. The olive complexion, a face emaciated by -austerities, the large forehead, the brilliant and small eyes, the high -bald head tell their own tale. He was of medium height and carried -himself so well that his lameness was hardly noticeable. His character -was naturally impetuous and enthusiastic, but became marked with great -self-control as he gradually brought his will under his reason. There -was always that love of overcoming difficulty inherent in a chivalrous -nature; and this also accounts for that desire of surpassing every one -else that marked his early days. Whilst other Christians, following St -Paul, were content to do all things for the glory of God, Ignatius set -himself and his followers to strive after the greater glory. Learning by -his own experience and errors, he wisely developed a sovereign prudence -which nicely adjusted means to the end in view. He impressed on his -followers the doctrine that in all things the end was to be considered. -Never would Ignatius have countenanced so perverted an idea as that the -end justified the means, for with his spiritual light and zeal for God's -glory he saw clearly that means in themselves unjust were opposed to the -very end he held in view. As a ruler he displayed the same common sense. -Obedience he made one of his great instruments, yet he never intended it -to be a galling yoke. His doctrine on the subject is found in the -well-known letter to the Portuguese Jesuits in 1553, and if this be read -carefully together with the _Constitutions_ his meaning is clear. If he -says that a subject is to allow himself to be moved and directed, under -God, by a superior just as though he were a corpse or as a staff in the -hands of an old man, he is also careful to say that the obedience is -only due in all things "wherein it cannot be defined (as it is said) -that any kind of sin appears." The way in which his teaching on -obedience is practically carried out is the best corrective of the false -ideas that have arisen from misconceptions of its nature. His high ideas -on the subject made him a stern ruler. There are certain instances in -his life which, taken by themselves, show a hardness in treating -individuals who would not obey; but as a rule, he tempered his authority -to the capacity of those with whom he had to deal. When he had to choose -between the welfare of the Society and the feelings of an individual it -was clear to which side the balance would fall. - -There was in his character a peculiar mixture of conservatism and a keen -sense of the requirements of the day. In intellectual matters he was not -in advance of his day. The Jesuit system of education, set forth in the -_Ratio studiorum_, owes nothing to him. While he did not reject any -approved learning, he abhorred any intellectual culture that destroyed -or lessened piety. He wished to secure uniformity in the judgment of the -Society even in points left open and free by the church: "Let us all -think in the same way, let us all speak in the same manner if possible." -Bartole, the official biographer of Ignatius, says that he would not -permit any innovation in the studies; and that, were he to live five -hundred years, he would always repeat "no novelties" in theology, in -philosophy or in logic--not even in grammar. The revival of learning had -led many away from Christ; intellectual culture must be used as a means -of bringing them back. The new learning in religion had divided -Christendom; the old learning of the faith, once delivered to the -saints, was to reconcile them. This was the problem that faced Ignatius, -and in his endeavour to effect a needed reformation in the individual -and in society his work and the success that crowned it place him among -the moral heroes of humanity. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The Ignatian literature is very large. Fortunately we - have in the _Acta quaedam_ what is in effect the autobiography of the - saint. This has been translated into English under the title of _The - testament of Ignatius Loyola, being sundry acts of our Father - Ignatius, under God, the first founder of the Society of Jesus, taken - down from the Saint's own lips by Luis Gonzales_ (London, 1900); and - the above account of Ignatius is taken in most places directly from - this, which is not only the best of all sources but also a valuable - corrective of the later and more imaginative works. Next to the _Acta - quaedam_ comes in value Polanco's Vita Ignatii Loiolae, which is - published in the _Monumenta historica Societatis Jesu_ now in - progress. Polanco was the saint's secretary towards the end of his - life. Ribadeneira, who as a youth had been associated with the - founder, wrote his _Vida del S. Ignacio de Loyola_ (Madrid, 1594), - based on an early Latin work (Naples, 1572). Bartole, the official - biographer, wrote his _Della vita e dell' instituto di S. Ignatio_ - (Rome, 1650, 1659); Genelli wrote _Das Leben des heiligen Ignatius von - Loyola_ (Innsbruck, 1848); Nicolas Orlandinus gives a life in the - first volume of the _Historiae Societatis Jesu_ (Rome, 1615). It would - be impossible to give a list even of the other lives, most of which - are without value as histories, being written mainly for edification. - But the student may be referred to the modern books Henri Joli's _St - Ignace de Loyola_ (Paris, 1899), which is based on the best - authorities, and to H. Muller's curious _Les Origines de la Compagnie - de Jesus_ (Paris, 1898), in which the author tries to establish a - Mahommedan origin for many of the ideas adopted by the saint. - - The literature connected with the _Spiritual Exercises_ is also large. - It will be sufficient here to mention: _A Book of Spiritual Exercises, - written by Garcias de Cisneros_ (London, 1876); the official Latin - text in the third volume of the Avignon edition of the _Constitutions_ - (1830); Roothaan's _Exercitia spiritualia S. P. Ignatii de Loyola, cum - versione litterali ex autographo Hispanico, notis illustrata_ (Namur, - 1841); Diertino, _Historia exercitiorum S. P. Ignatii de Loyola_ - (1887). Especially worthy of notice is P. Watrigant's _La Genese des - exercices de Saint Ignace de Loyola_, republished from _Les Etudes_ - (20th May, 20th July, 20th October 1897). (E. Tn.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Louis de Berquin, who died on the 17th of April 1529, belonged to - a noble family of Artois. He was a man of exemplary life and a friend - of Erasmus and the humanists, besides being a _persona grata_ at the - court of Louise of Savoy and Francis I. His main offence was that he - attacked the monks and clergy, and that he advocated the reading of - the Scriptures by the people in the vulgar tongue.--(W. A. P.) - - - - -LOZENGE (from the Fr. _losenge_, or _losange_; the word also appears in -Span. _losanje_, and Ital. _losanga_; perhaps derived from a word -meaning a stone slab laid on a grave, which appears in forms such as -Provencal _lousa_, Span. _losa_, the ultimate origin of which is -unknown, the Lat. _lapis_, stone, or _laus_, praise, in the sense of -epitaph, have been suggested), properly a four equal-sided figure, -having two acute and two obtuse angles, a rhomb or "diamond." The figure -is frequently used as a bearing in heraldry and especially as a shield -so shaped on which the arms of a widow or spinster are emblazoned. It is -used also to denote the diamond-shaped facets of a precious stone when -cut, also the diamond panes of a casement window. In the 14th century -the "lozenge pattern" was a favourite design for decoration. The word is -also applied to a small tablet of sugar, originally diamond shaped, -containing either medical drugs or some simple flavouring, or to a -tablet of any concentrated substance, such as a meat-lozenge. In the -reign of James I. of Scotland (1406-1437) a Scotch gold coin having a -lozenge-shaped shield with the arms of Scotland on the obverse side was -called a "lozenge-lion." - - - - -LOZERE, a department of south-eastern France belonging to the central -plateau, composed of almost the whole of Gevaudan and of some portions -of the old dioceses of Uzes and Alais, districts all formerly included -in the province of Languedoc. Pop. (1906) 128,016. Area, 1999 sq. m. It -is bounded N. by Cantal and Haute-Loire, E. by Ardeche and Gard, S. by -Gard and Aveyron and W. by Aveyron and Cantal. Lozere is mountainous -throughout and in average elevation is the highest of all the French -departments. It has three distinct regions--the Cevennes proper to the -south-east, the _causses_ to the south-west and the mountain tracts -which occupy the rest of its area. The Cevennes begin (within Lozere) -with Mont Aigoual, which rises to a height of more than 5100 ft.; -parallel to this are the mountains of Bouges, bold and bare on their -southern face, but falling gently with wooded slopes towards the Tarn -which roughly limits the Cevennes on the north. To the north of the Tarn -is the range of Lozere, including the peak of Finiels, the highest point -of the department (5584 ft.). Farther on occurs the broad marshy plateau -of Montbel, which drains southward to the Lot, northwards to the Allier, -eastward by the Chassezac to the Ardeche. From this plateau extend the -mountains of La Margeride, undulating granitic tablelands partly clothed -with woods of oak, beech and fir, and partly covered with pastures, to -which flocks are brought from lower Languedoc in summer. The highest -point (Truc de Randon) reaches 5098 ft. Adjoining the Margeride hills on -the west is the volcanic range of Aubrac, a pastoral district where -horned cattle take the place of sheep; the highest point is 4826 ft. -The _causses_ of Lozere, having an area of about 564 sq. m., are -calcareous, fissured and arid, but separated from each other by deep and -well-watered gorges, contrasting with the desolate aspect of the -plateaus. The _causse_ of Sauveterre, between the Lot and the Tarn, -ranges from 3000 to 3300 ft. in height; that of Mejan has nearly the -same average altitude, but has peaks some 1000 ft. higher. Between these -two causses the Tarn valley is among the most picturesque in France. -Lozere is watered entirely by rivers rising within its own boundaries, -being in this respect unique. The climate of Lozere varies greatly with -the locality. The mean temperature of Mende (50 deg. F.) is below that -of Paris; that of the mountains is always low, but on the _causses_ the -summer is scorching and the winter severe; in the Cevennes the climate -becomes mild enough at their base (656 ft.) to permit the growth of the -olive. Rain falls in violent storms, causing disastrous floods. On the -Mediterranean versant there are 76 in., in the Garonne basin 46 and in -that of the Loire only 28. Sheep and cattle-rearing and cheese-making -are the chief occupations. Bees are kept, and, among the Cevennes, -silkworms. Large quantities of chestnuts are exported from the Cevennes, -where they form an important article of diet. In the valley of the Lot -wheat and fruit are the chief products; elsewhere rye is the chief -cereal, and oats, barley, meslin and potatoes are also grown. Fruit -trees and leguminous plants are irrigated by small canals (_beals_) on -terraces made and maintained with much labour. Lead, zinc and antimony -are found. Saw-milling, the manufacture of wooden shoes and -wool-spinning are carried on; otherwise industries are few and -unimportant. Of mineral springs, those of Bagnols-les-Bains are most -frequented. The line of the Paris-Lyon company from Paris to Nimes -traverses the eastern border of the department, which is also served by -the Midi railway with the line from Neussargues to Beziers via -Marvejols. The arrondissements are Mende, Florac and Marvejols; the -cantons number 24, the communes 198. Lozere forms the diocese of Mende -and part of the ecclesiastical province of Albi. It falls within the -region of the XVI. army corps, the circumscriptions of the _academie_ -(educational division) of Montpellier and the appeal court of Nimes. -Mende (q.v.) is its most important town. - - - - -LUANG-PRABANG, a town of French Indo-China, capital of the Lao state of -that name, on the left bank of the Me Kong river. It lies at the foot of -the pagoda hill which rises about 200 ft. above the plain on the -promontory of land round which the Nam Kan winds to the main river. It -has a population of about 9000 and contains the "palace" of the king of -the state and several pagodas. In 1887 it was taken and sacked by the -Haw or Black Flags, robber bands of Chinese soldiery, many of them -survivors of the Taiping rebellion. In 1893 Siam was compelled to -renounce her claims to the left bank of the Me Kong, including -Luang-Prabang and the magnificent highlands of Chieng Kwang. That -portion of the state which was on the right bank of the Me Kong was not -affected by the treaty, except in so far as a portion of it fell within -the sixteen miles' zone within which Siam agreed not to keep troops. -Trade is in the hands of Chinese or Shan traders; hill rice and other -jungle products are imported from the surrounding districts by the Kha -or hill people. The exports, which include rubber, gum benjamin, silk, -wax, sticklac, cutch, cardamon, a little ebony, cinnamon, indigo, -rhinoceros and deer horns, ivory and fish roe, formerly all passed by -way of Paklai to the Me Nam, and so to Bangkok, but have now almost -entirely ceased to follow that route, the object of the French -government being to deflect the trade through French territory. -Luang-Prabang is the terminus of navigation on the upper Me Kong and the -centre of trade thereon. - - - - -LUBAO, a town in the south-western part of the province of Pampanga, -Luzon, Philippine Islands, about 30 m. N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903) -19,063. Lubao is served by the Manila & Dagupan railway, and has water -communication with Manila by tidal streams and Manila Bay. Its products -are, therefore, readily marketed. It lies in a low, fertile plain, -suited to the growing of rice and sugar. Many of the inhabitants occupy -themselves in the neighbouring nipa swamps, either preparing the nipa -leaves for use in house construction, or distilling "nipa-wine" from the -juice secured by tapping the blossom stalks. The language is Pampangan. - - - - -LUBBEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, on -the Spree, 47 m. S.S.E. of Berlin, on the railway to Gorlitz. Pop. -(1905) 7173. It is the chief town of the Spreewald, and has saw-mills -and manufactories of hosiery, shoes and paper, and is famous for its -_gurken_, or small pickling cucumbers. The poet Paul Gerhardt -(1607-1676) was pastor here and is buried in the parish church. - - - - -LUBECK, a state and city (_Freie und Hansestadt Lubeck_) of Germany. The -_principality_ of Lubeck, lying north of the state, is a constituent of -the grand-duchy of Oldenburg (q.v.). The state is situated on an arm of -the Baltic between Holstein and Mecklenburg-Schwerin. It consists of the -city of Lubeck, the town of Travemunde, 49 villages and the country -districts, embraces 115 sq. m. of territory, and had a population in -1907 of 109,265, of which 93,978 were included in the city and its -immediate suburbs. The state lies in the lowlands of the Baltic, is -diversified by gently swelling hills, and watered by the Trave and its -tributaries, the Wakenitz and the Stecknitz. The soil is fertile, and, -with the exception of forest land (14% of the whole area), is mostly -devoted to market gardening. Trade is centred in the city of Lubeck. - -The constitution of the free state is republican, and, by the -fundamental law of 1875, amended in 1905 and again in 1907, consists of -two assemblies. (1) The Senate of fourteen members, of whom eight must -belong to the learned professions, and six of these again must be -jurists, while of the remaining six, five must be merchants. The Senate -represents the sovereignty of the state and is presided over by the -_Oberburgermeister_, who during his two years' term of office bears the -title of "magnificence." (2) The House of Burgesses (Burgerschaft), of -120 members, elected by free suffrage and exercising its powers partly -in its collective capacity and partly through a committee of thirty -members. Purely commercial matters are dealt with by the chamber of -commerce, composed of a _praeses_, eighteen members and a secretary. -This body controls the exchange and appoints brokers, shipping agents -and underwriters. The executive is in the hands of the Senate, but the -House of Burgesses has the right of initiating legislation, including -that relative to foreign treaties; the sanction of both chambers is -required to the passing of any new law. Lubeck has a court of first -instance (_Amtsgericht_) and a high court of justice (_Landgericht_); -from the latter appeals lie to the Hanseatic court of appeal -(_Oberlandesgericht_) at Hamburg, and from this again to the supreme -court of the empire (_Reichsgericht_) in Leipzig. The people are nearly -all Lutherans, and education is compulsory between the ages of six and -fourteen. - -The estimated revenue for the year 1908-1909 amounted to about L650,000, -and the expenditure to a like sum. The public debt amounted, in 1908, to -about L2,518,000. Lubeck has one vote in the federal council -(_Bundesrat_) of the German Empire, and sends one representative to the -imperial parliament (_Reichstag_). - -_History of the Constitution._--At the first rise of the town justice was -administered to the inhabitants by the _Vogt_ (_advocatus_) of the count -of Holstein. Simultaneously with its incorporation by Henry the Lion, -duke of Saxony, who presented the city with its own mint toll and market, -there appears a magistracy of six, chosen probably by the _Vogt_ from the -_Schoffen_ (_scabini, probi homines_). The members of the town council -had to be freemen, born in lawful wedlock, in the enjoyment of estates in -freehold and of unstained repute. Vassals or servants of any lord, and -tradespeople, were excluded. A third of the number had annually to retire -for a year, so that two-thirds formed the sitting council. By the middle -of the 13th century there were two burgomasters (_magistri burgensium_). -Meanwhile, the number of magistrates (_consules_) had increased, ranging -from twenty to forty and upwards. The council appointed its own officers -in the various branches of the administration. In the face of so much -self-government the _Vogt_ presently disappeared altogether. There were -three classes of inhabitants, full freemen, half freemen and guests or -foreigners. People of Slav origin being considered unfree, all -intermarriage with them tainted the blood; hence nearly all surnames -point to Saxon, especially Westphalian, and even Flemish descent. The -magistracy was for two centuries almost exclusively in the hands of the -merchant aristocracy, who formed the companies of traders or "nations," -such as the _Bergen-fahrer_, _Novgorod-fahrer_, _Riga-fahrer_ and -_Stockholm-fahrer_. From the beginning, however, tradesmen and -handicraftsmen had settled in the town, all of them freemen of German -parentage and with property and houses of their own. Though not eligible -for the council, they shared to a certain extent in the self-government -through the aldermen of each corporation or gild, of which some appear as -early as the statutes of 1240. Naturally, there arose much jealousy -between the gilds and the aristocratic companies, which exclusively ruled -the republic. After an attempt to upset the merchants had been suppressed -in 1384, the gilds succeeded, under more favourable circumstances, in -1408. The old patrician council left the city to appeal to the Hansa and -to the imperial authorities, while a new council with democratic -tendencies, elected chiefly from the gilds, took their place. In 1416, -however, owing to the pressure brought to bear by the Hansa, by the -emperor Sigismund and by Eric, king of Denmark, there was a restoration. -The aristocratic government was again expelled under the dictatorship of -Jurgen Wullenweber (c. 1492-1537), till the old order was re-established -in 1535. In the constitution of 1669, under the pressure of a large -public debt, the great companies yielded a specified share in the -financial administration to the leading gilds of tradesmen. Nevertheless, -the seven great companies continued to choose the magistrates by -co-optation among themselves. Three of the four burgomasters and two of -the senators, however, had henceforth to be graduates in law. The -constitution, set aside only during the French occupation, has -subsequently been slowly reformed. From 1813 the popular representatives -had some share in the management of the finances. But the reform -committee of 1814, whose object was to obtain an extension of the -franchise, had made little progress, when the events of 1848 led to the -establishment of a representative assembly of 120 members, elected by -universal suffrage, which obtained a place beside the senatorial -government. The republic has given up its own military contingent, its -coinage and its postal dues to the German Empire; but it has preserved -its municipal self-government and its own territory, the inhabitants of -which enjoy equal political privileges with the citizens. - -_The City of Lubeck._--Lubeck, the capital of the free state, was -formerly the head of the Hanseatic League. It is situated on a gentle -ridge between the rivers Trave and Wakenitz, 10 m. S.W. of the mouth of -the former in the bay of Lubeck, 40 m. by rail N.E. of Hamburg, at the -junction of lines to Eutin, Buchen, Travemunde and Strassburg (in -Mecklenburg-Schwerin) and consists of an inner town and three suburbs. -The former ramparts between the Trave and the old town ditch have been -converted into promenades. The city proper retains much of its ancient -grandeur, despite the tendency to modernize streets and private houses. -Foremost among its buildings must be mentioned its five chief churches, -stately Gothic edifices in glazed brick, with lofty spires and replete -with medieval works of art--pictures, stained glass and tombs. Of them, -the Marienkirche, built in the 13th century, is one of the finest -specimens of early Gothic in Germany. The cathedral, or _Domkirche_, -founded in 1173, contains some curious sarcophagi and a magnificent -altarpiece in one of the chapels, while the churches of St James -(_Jakobikirche_), of St Peter (_Petrikirche_) and of St Aegidius -(_Aegidienkirche_) are also remarkable. The _Rathaus_ (town hall) of red -and black glazed brick, dating from various epochs during the middle -ages, is famous for its staircase, the vaulted wine cellar of the city -council beneath and magnificent wood carving. There should also be -mentioned the _Schiffershaus_; the medieval gates (Holstentor, Burgtor); -and the Hospital of the Holy Ghost, remarkable for ancient frescoes and -altars in rich wood carving, the entrance hall of which is a -13th-century chapel, restored in 1866 and decorated in 1898. The museum -preserves the most remarkable municipal archives in existence as well as -valuable collections of historical documents. - -The poet, Emanuel Geibel (1889), and the painter, Johann Friedrich -Overbeck (1789-1869), were natives of Lubeck. This city is famous for -the number and wealth of its charitable institutions. Its position as -the first German emporium of the west end of the Baltic has been to some -extent impaired by Hamburg and Bremen since the construction of the -North Sea and Baltic Canal, and by the rapid growth and enterprise of -Stettin. In order to counterbalance their rivalry, the quays have been -extended, a canal was opened in 1900 between the Trave and the Elbe, the -river up to the wharves has been deepened to 23 ft. or more. The river -is kept open in winter by ice-breakers. A harbour was made in 1899-1900 -on the Wakenitz Canal for boats engaged in inland traffic, especially on -the Elbe and Elbe-Trave Canal. Lubeck trades principally with Denmark, -Sweden, Finland, Russia, the eastern provinces of Prussia, Great Britain -and the United States. The imports amounted in value to about L4,850,000 -in 1906 and the exports to over L10,000,000. The chief articles of -import are coal, grain, timber, copper, steel and wine, and the exports -are manufactured goods principally to Russia and Scandivania. The -industries are growing, the chief being breweries and distilleries, -saw-mills and planing-mills, shipbuilding, fish-curing, the manufacture -of machinery, engines, bricks, resin, preserves, enamelled and tin -goods, cigars, furniture, soap and leather. Pop. (1885) 55,399; (1905) -91,541. - -_History._--Old Lubeck stood on the left bank of the Trave, where it is -joined by the river Schwartau, and was destroyed in 1138. Five years -later Count Adolphus II. of Holstein founded new Lubeck, a few miles -farther up, on the peninsula Buku, where the Trave is joined on the -right by the Wakenitz, the emissary of the lake of Ratzeburg. An -excellent harbour, sheltered against pirates, it became almost at once a -competitor for the commerce of the Baltic. Its foundation coincided with -the beginning of the advance of the Low German tribes of Flanders, -Friesland and Westphalia along the southern shores of the Baltic--the -second great emigration of the colonizing Saxon element. In 1140 Wagria, -in 1142 the country of the Polabes (Ratzeburg and Lauenburg), had been -annexed by the Holtsaetas (the Transalbingian Saxons). From 1166 onwards -there was a Saxon count at Schwerin. Frisian and Saxon merchants from -Soest, Bardowiek and other localities in Lower Germany, who already -navigated the Baltic and had their factory in Gotland, settled in the -new town, where Wendish speech and customs never entered. About 1157 -Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, forced his vassal, the count of -Holstein, to give up Lubeck to him; and in 1163 he removed thither the -episcopal see of Oldenburg (Stargard), founding at the same time the -dioceses of Ratzeburg and Schwerin. He issued the first charter to the -citizens, and constituted them a free Saxon community having their own -magistrate, an advantage over all other towns of his dominions. He -invited traders of the north to visit his new market free of toll and -custom, providing his subjects were promised similar privileges in -return. From the beginning the king of Denmark granted them a settlement -for their herring fishery on the coast of Schoonen. Adopting the -statutes of Soest in Westphalia as their code, Saxon merchants -exclusively ruled the city. In concurrence with the duke's _Vogt_ -(_advocatus_) they recognized only one right of judicature within the -town, to which nobles as well as artisans had to submit. Under these -circumstances the population grew rapidly in wealth and influence by -land and sea, so that, when Henry was attainted by the emperor, -Frederick I., who came in person to besiege Lubeck in 1181, this -potentate, "in consideration of its revenues and its situation on the -frontier of the Empire," fixed by charter, dated the 19th of September -1188, the limits, and enlarged the liberties, of the free town. In the -year 1201 Lubeck was conquered by Waldemar II. of Denmark. But in 1223 -it regained its liberty, after the king had been taken captive by the -count of Schwerin. In 1226 it was made a free city of the Empire by -Frederick II., and its inhabitants took part with the enemies of the -Danish king in the victory of Bornhovede in July 1227. The citizens -repelled the encroachments of their neighbours in Holstein and in -Mecklenburg. On the other hand their town, being the principal emporium -of the Baltic by the middle of the 13th century, acted as the firm ally -of the Teutonic knights in Livonia. Emigrants founded new cities and new -sees of Low German speech among alien and pagan races; and thus in the -course of a century the commerce of Lubeck had supplanted that of -Westphalia. In connexion with the Germans at Visby, the capital of -Gotland, and at Riga, where they had a house from 1231, the people of -Lubeck with their armed vessels scoured the sea between the Trave and -the Neva. They were encouraged by papal bulls in their contest for the -rights of property in wrecks and for the protection of shipping against -pirates and slave-hunters. Before the close of the century the statutes -of Lubeck were adopted by most Baltic towns having a German population, -and Visby protested in vain against the city on the Trave having become -the court of appeal for nearly all these cities, and even for the German -settlement in Russian Novgorod. In course of time more than a hundred -places were embraced in this relation, the last vestiges of which did -not disappear until the beginning of the 18th century. From about 1299 -Lubeck presided over a league of cities, Wismar, Rostock, Stralsund, -Greifswald and some smaller ones, and this Hansa of towns became heir to -a Hansa of traders simultaneously on the eastern and the western sea, -after Lubeck and her confederates had been admitted to the same -privileges with Cologne, Dortmund and Soest at Bruges and in the -steelyards of London, Lynn and Boston. The union held its own, chiefly -along the maritime outskirts of the Empire, rather against the will of -king and emperor, but nevertheless Rudolph of Habsburg and several of -his successors issued new charters to Lubeck. As early as 1241 Lubeck, -Hamburg and Soest had combined to secure their highways against robber -knights. Treaties to enforce the public peace were concluded in 1291 and -1338 with the dukes of Brunswick, Mecklenburg and Pomerania, and the -count of Holstein. Though the great federal armament against Waldemar -IV., the destroyer of Visby, was decreed by the city representatives -assembled at Cologne in 1367, Lubeck was the leading spirit in the war -which ended with the surrender of Copenhagen and the peace concluded at -Stralsund on the 24th of May 1370. Her burgomaster, Brun Warendorp, who -commanded the combined naval and land forces, died on the field of -battle. In 1368 the seal of the city, a double-headed eagle, which in -the 14th century took the place of the more ancient ship, was adopted as -the common seal of the confederated towns (_civitates maritimae_), some -seventy in number. Towards the end of the 15th century the power of the -Hanseatic League began to decline, owing to the rise of Burgundy in the -west, of Poland and Russia in the east and the emancipation of the -Scandinavian kingdom from the union of Calmar. Still Lubeck, even when -nearly isolated, strove to preserve its predominance in a war with -Denmark (1501-12), supporting Gustavus Vasa in Sweden, lording it over -the north of Europe during the years 1534 and 1535 in the person of -Jurgen Wullenweber, the democratic burgomaster, who professed the most -advanced principles of the Reformation, and engaging with Sweden in a -severe naval war (1536-70). - -But the prestige and prosperity of the town were beginning to decline. -Before the end of the 16th century the privileges of the London -Steelyard were suppressed by Elizabeth. As early as 1425 the herring, a -constant source of early wealth, began to forsake the Baltic waters. -Later on, by the discovery of a new continent, commerce was diverted -into new directions. Finally, with the Thirty Years' War, misfortunes -came thick. The last Hanseatic diet met at Lubeck in 1630, shortly after -Wallenstein's unsuccessful attack on Stralsund; and from that time -merciless sovereign powers stopped free intercourse on all sides. Danes -and Swedes battled for the possession of the Sound and for its heavy -dues. The often changing masters of Holstein and Lauenburg abstracted -much of the valuable landed property of the city and of the chapter of -Lubeck. Towards the end of the 18th century there were signs of -improvement. Though the Danes temporarily occupied the town in 1801, it -preserved its freedom and gained some of the chapter lands when the -imperial constitution of Germany was broken up by the act of February -1803, while trade and commerce prospered for a few years. But in -November 1806, when Blucher, retiring from the catastrophe of Jena, had -to capitulate in the vicinity of Lubeck, the town was sacked by the -French. Napoleon annexed it to his empire in December 1810. But it rose -against the French in March 1813, was re-occupied by them till the 5th -of December, and was ultimately declared a free and Hanse town of the -German Confederation by the act of Vienna of the 9th of June 1815. The -Hanseatic League, however, having never been officially dissolved, -Lubeck still enjoyed its traditional connexion with Bremen and Hamburg. -In 1853 they sold their common property, the London Steelyard; until -1866 they enlisted by special contract their military contingents for -the German Confederation, and down to 1879 they had their own court of -appeal at Lubeck. Lubeck joined the North German Confederation in 1866, -profiting by the retirement from Holstein and Lauenburg of the Danes, -whose interference had prevented as long as possible a direct railway -between Lubeck and Hamburg. On the 27th of June 1867 Lubeck concluded a -military convention with Prussia, and on the 11th of August 1868 entered -the German Customs Union (_Zollverein_), though reserving to itself -certain privileges in respect of its considerable wine trade and -commerce with the Baltic ports. - - See E. Deecke, _Die Freie und Hansestadt Lubeck_ (4th ed., Lubeck, - 1881) and _Lubische Geschichten und Sagen_ (Lubeck, 1891); M. - Hoffmann, _Geschichte der Freien und Hansestadt Lubeck_ (Lubeck, - 1889-1892) and _Chronik von Lubeck_ (Lubeck, 1908); _Die Freie und - Hansestadt Lubeck_, published by _Die geographische Gesellschaft in - Lubeck_ (Lubeck, 1891); C. W. Pauli, _Lubecksche Zustande im - Mittelalter_ (Lubeck, 1846-1878); J. Geffcken, _Lubeck in der Mitte - des 16^ten Jahrhunderts_ (Lubeck, 1905); P. Hasse, _Die Anfange - Lubecks_ (Lubeck, 1893); H. Bodeker, _Geschichte der Freien und - Hansestadt Lubeck_ (Lubeck, 1898); A. Holm, _Lubeck, die Freie und - Hansestadt_ (Bielefeld, 1900); G. Waitz, _Lubeck unter Jurgen - Wullenweber_ (Berlin, 1855-1856); Klug, _Geschichte Lubecks wahrend - der Vereinigung mit dem franzosischen Kaiserreich_ (Lubeck, 1857); F. - Frensdorff, _Die Stadt- und Gerichtsverfassung Lubecks im 12. und 13. - Jahrhundert_ (Lubeck, 1861); the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Lubeck_ - (Lubeck, 1843-1904); the _Lubecker Chroniken_ (Leipzig, 1884-1903); - and the _Zeitschrift des Vereins fur lubeckische Geschichte_ (Lubeck, - 1860 fol.). (R. P.; P. A. A.) - - - - -LUBLIN, a government of Russian Poland, bounded N. by Siedlce, E. by -Volhynia (the Bug forming the boundary), S. by Galicia, and W. by Radom -(the Vistula separating the two). Area, 6499 sq. m. The surface is an -undulating plain of Cretaceous deposits, 800 to 900 ft. in altitude, and -reaching in one place 1050 ft. It is largely covered with forests of -oak, beech and lime, intersected by ravines and thinly inhabited. A -marshy lowland extends between the Vistula and the Wieprz. The -government is drained by the Vistula and the Bug, and by their -tributaries the Wieprz, San and Tanev. Parts of the government, being of -black earth, are fertile, but other parts are sandy. Agriculture is in -good condition. Many Germans settled in the government before -immigration was stopped in 1887; in 1897 they numbered about 26,000. -Rye, oats, wheat, barley and potatoes are the chief crops, rye and wheat -being exported. Flax, hemp, buckwheat, peas, millet and beetroot are -also cultivated. Horses are carefully bred. In 1897 the population was -1,165,122, of whom 604,886 were women. The Greek Orthodox (chiefly -Little Russians in the south-east) amounted to 20.1% of the whole; Roman -Catholics (i.e. Poles) to 62.8%; Jews to 14.2%; and Protestants to 2.8%. -The urban population was 148,196 in 1897. The estimated population in -1906 was 1,362,500. Industrial establishments consist chiefly of -distilleries, sugar-works, steam flour-mills, tanneries, saw-mills and -factories of bent-wood furniture. Domestic industries are widely -developed in the villages. River navigation employs a considerable -portion of the population. The government is divided into ten districts, -the chief towns of which, with their populations in 1897, are--Lublin, -capital of the province (50,152); Biegoray (6286); Cholm (19,236); -Hrubieszow (10,699); Yanow (7927); Krasnystaw or Kraznostav (8879); -Lubartow (5249); Nova-Alexandrya or Pulawy (3892); Samostye (12,400); -and Tomaszow (6224). - - - - -LUBLIN, a town of Russian Poland, capital of the government of the same -name, 109 m. by rail S.E. of Warsaw, on a small tributary of the Wieprz. -Pop. (1873) 28,900; (1897) 50,152. It is the most important town of -Poland after Warsaw and Lodz, being one of the chief centres of the -manufacture of thread-yarn, linen and hempen goods and woollen stuffs; -there is also trade in grain and cattle. It has an old citadel, several -palaces of Polish nobles and many interesting churches, and is the -headquarters of the XIV. army corps, and the see of a Roman Catholic -bishop. The cathedral dates from the 16th century. Of the former -fortifications nothing remains except the four gates, one dating from -1342. - -Lublin was in existence in the 10th century, and has a church which is -said to have been built in 986. During the time the Jagellon dynasty -ruled over Lithuania and Poland it was the most important city between -the Vistula and the Dnieper, having 40,000 inhabitants (70,000 according -to other authorities) and all the trade with Podolia, Volhynia and Red -Russia. Indeed, the present town is surrounded with ruins, which prove -that it formerly covered a much larger area. But it was frequently -destroyed by the Tatars (e.g. 1240) and Cossacks (e.g. 1477). In -1568-1569 it was the seat of the stormy convention at which the union -between Poland and Lithuania was decided. In 1702 another convention was -held in Lublin, in favour of Augustus II. and against Charles XII. of -Sweden, who carried the town by assault and plundered it. In 1831 Lublin -was taken by the Russians. The surrounding country is rich in -reminiscences of the struggle of Poland for independence. - - - - -LUBRICANTS. Machines consist of parts which have relative motion and -generally slide and rub against each other. Thus the axle of a cart or -railway vehicle is pressed against a metallic bearing surface supporting -the body of the vehicle, and the two opposed surfaces slide upon each -other and are pressed together with great force. If the metallic -surfaces be clean, the speed of rubbing high, and the force pressing the -surfaces together considerable, then the latter will abrade each other, -become hot and be rapidly destroyed. It is possible, however, to prevent -the serious abrasion of such opposing surfaces, and largely to reduce -the frictional resistance they oppose to relative motion by the use of -_lubricants_ (Lat. _lubricare_, _lubricus_, slippery). These substances -are caused to insinuate themselves between the surfaces, and have the -property of so separating them as to prevent serious abrasion. The solid -and semi-solid lubricants seem to act as rollers between the surfaces, -or form a film between them which itself suffers abrasion or friction. -The liquid lubricants, however, maintain themselves as liquid films -between the surfaces, upon which the bearing floats. The frictional -resistance is then wholly in the fluid. Even when lubricants are used -the friction, i.e. the resistance to motion offered by the opposing -surfaces, is considerable. In the article Friction will be found a -statement of how friction is measured and the manner in which it is -expressed. The coefficient of friction is obtained by dividing the force -required to cause the surfaces to slide over each other by the load -pressing them together. For clean unlubricated surfaces this coefficient -may be as great as 0.3, whilst for well-lubricated cylindrical bearings -it may be as small as 0.0006. Engineers have, therefore, paid particular -attention to the design of bearings with the object of reducing the -friction, and thus making use of as much as possible of the power -developed by prime movers. The importance of doing this will be seen -when it is remembered that the energy wasted is proportional to the -coefficient of friction, and that the durability of the parts depends -upon the extent to which they are separated by the lubricant and thus -prevented from injuring each other. - -There is great diversity in the shapes of rubbing surfaces, the loads -they have to carry vary widely, and the speed of rubbing ranges from -less than one foot to thousands of feet per minute. There is also a -large number of substances which act as lubricants, some being liquids -and others soft solids. In many instruments or machines where the -surfaces in contact which have to slide upon each other are only lightly -pressed together, and are only occasionally given relative motion, the -lubricant is only needed to prevent abrasion. Microscopes and -mathematical instruments are of this kind. In such cases, the lubricant -which keeps the surfaces from abrading each other is a mere -contamination film, either derived from the air or put on when the -surfaces are finished. When such lubricating films are depended upon, -the friction surfaces should be as hard as possible and, if practicable, -of dissimilar metals. In the absence of a contamination film, most -metals, if rubbed when in contact, will immediately adhere to each -other. A large number of experiments have been made to ascertain the -coefficient of friction under these imperfect conditions of lubrication. -Within wide limits of load, the friction is proportional to the pressure -normal to the surfaces and is, therefore, approximately independent of -the area of the surfaces in contact. Although the static coefficient is -often less than the kinetic at very low speeds, within wide limits the -latter coefficient decreases with increasing speed. These laws apply to -all bearings the velocity of rubbing of which is very small, or which -are lubricated with solid or semi-solid materials. - -When the speed of rubbing is considerable and the contamination film is -liable to be destroyed, resort is had to lubricants which possess the -power of keeping the surfaces apart, and thereby reducing the friction. -The constant application of such substances is necessary in the case of -such parts of machine tools as slide rests, the surfaces of which only -move relatively to each other at moderate speeds, but which have to -carry heavy loads. In all ordinary cases, the coefficient of friction of -flat surfaces, such as those of slide blocks or pivot bearings, is high, -owing to the fact that the lubricant is not easily forced between the -surfaces. In the case of cylindrical bearing surfaces, such as those of -journals and spindles, owing to the fact that the radius of the bearing -surface is greater than that of the journal or spindle, the lubricant, -if a liquid, is easily drawn in and entirely separates the surfaces (see -LUBRICATION). Fortunately, cylindrical bearings are by far the most -common and important form of bearing, and they can be so lubricated that -the friction coefficient is very low. The lubricant, owing to its -viscosity, is forced between the surfaces and keeps them entirely apart. -This property of viscosity is one of the most important possessed by -liquid lubricants. Some lubricants, such as the oils used for the light -spindles of textile machinery, are quite thin and limpid, whilst others, -suitable for steam engine cylinders and very heavy bearings, are, at -ordinary temperatures, as thick as treacle or honey. Generally speaking, -the greater the viscosity of the lubricant the greater the load the -bearing will carry, but with thick lubricants the frictional coefficient -is correspondingly high. True lubricants differ from ordinary liquids of -equal viscosity inasmuch as they possess the property of "oiliness." -This is a property which enables them to maintain an unbroken film -between surfaces when the loads are heavy. It is possessed most markedly -by vegetables and animal oils and fats, and less markedly by mineral -oils. In the case of mineral lubricating oils from the same source, the -lower the specific gravity the greater the oiliness of the liquid, as a -rule. Mixtures of mineral oil with animal or vegetable oil are largely -used, one class of oil supplying those qualities in which the other is -deficient. Thus the mineral oils, which are comparatively cheap and -possess the important property of not becoming oxidized into gummy or -sticky substances by the action of the air, which also are not liable to -cause spontaneous ignition of cotton waste, &c., and can be manufactured -of almost any desired viscosity, but which on the other hand are -somewhat deficient in the property of oiliness, are mixed with animal or -vegetable oils which possess the latter property in marked degree, but -are liable to gum and become acid and to cause spontaneous ignition, -besides being comparatively expensive and limited in quantity. Oils -which become acid attack the bearings chemically, and those which -oxidize may become so thick that they fail to run on to the bearings -properly. - -The following table shows that the permissible load on bearings varies -greatly:-- - - Description of Bearing. Load in lb. - per sq. in. - - Hard steel bearings on which the load is inter- - mittent, such as the crank pins of shearing - machines 3000 - Bronze crosshead neck journals 1200 - Crank pins of large slow engines 800-900 - Crank pins of marine engines 400-500 - Main crank-shaft bearings, slow marine 600 - Main crank-shaft bearings, fast marine 400 - Railway coach journals 300-400 - Fly-wheel shaft journals 150-200 - Small engine crank pins 150-200 - Small slide blocks, marine engines 100 - Stationary engine slide block 25-125 - Stationary engine slide block, usually 30-60 - Propeller thrust bearings 50-70 - Shafts in cast iron steps, high speed 15 - - _Solid Lubricants._--Solid substances, such as graphite or plumbago, - soapstone, &c., are used as lubricants when there is some objection to - liquids or soft solids, but the surfaces between which they are placed - should be of very hard materials. They are frequently mixed with oils - or greases, the lubricating properties of which they improve. - - _Semi-solid Lubricants._--The contrast in lubricating properties - between mineral and fatty oils exists also in the case of a pure - mineral grease like vaseline and an animal fat such as tallow, the - latter possessing in a far greater degree the property of greasiness. - A large number of lubricating greases are made by incorporating or - emulsifying animal and vegetable fats with soap and water; also by - thickening mineral lubricating oils with soap. Large quantities of - these greases are used with very good results for the lubrication of - railway waggon axles, and some of them are excellent lubricants for - the bearings of slow moving machinery. Care must be taken, however, - that they do not contain excess of water and are not adulterated with - such useless substances as china clay; also, that they melt as a - whole, and that the oil does not run down and leave the soap. This is - liable to occur with badly made greases, and hot bearings are the - result. Except in special cases, greases should not be used for - quick-running journals, shafts or spindles, on account of the high - frictional resistance which they offer to motion. In the case of fats - and greases whose melting points are not much above the temperature of - surrounding objects it generally happens that the lubricating films - are so warmed by friction that they actually melt and act as oils. - These lubricants are generally forced into the bearings by a form of - syringe fitted with a spring piston, or are squeezed between the faces - by means of a screw-plug. - - _Liquid Lubricants._--Generally speaking, all bearings which it is - necessary should run with as little friction as possible must be - supplied with liquid lubricants. These may be of animal, vegetable or - mineral origin. The mineral oils are mixtures of hydrocarbons of - variable viscosity, flashing-point, density and oiliness. They are - obtained by distillation from American, Russian and other petroleums. - The fixed oils obtained from animal and vegetable substances are not - volatile without decomposition, and are found ready made in the - tissues of animals and plants. Animal oils are obtained from the - adipose tissue by simple heat or by boiling with water. They are - usually either colourless or yellow. The oils of plants occur usually - in the seeds or fruit, and are obtained either by expression or by - means of solvents such as ether or petroleum. They are of various - shades of yellow and green, the green colour being due to the presence - of chlorophyll. The fundamental difference between fixed oils and - mineral oils exists in their behaviour towards oxygen. Mineral oils at - ordinary temperatures are indifferent to oxygen, but all fixed oils - combine with it and thicken or gum more or less, generating heat at - the same time. Such oils are, therefore, dangerous if dropped upon - silk, cotton or woollen waste or other combustible fibrous materials, - which are thus rendered liable to spontaneous ignition. - - Liquid lubricants are used for all high speed bearings. In some cases - the rubbing surfaces work in a bath of the lubricant, which can then - reach all the rubbing parts with certainty. Small engines for motor - cars or road waggons are often lubricated in this way. In the case of - individual bearings, such as those of railway vehicles, a pad of - cotton, worsted and horse hair is kept saturated with the lubricant - and pressed against the under side of the journal. The journal is thus - kept constantly wetted with oil, and the film is forced beneath the - brass as the axle rotates. In many cases, oil-ways and grooves are cut - in the bearings, and the lubricant is allowed to run by gravity into - them and thus finds its way between the opposing surfaces. To secure a - steady feed various contrivances are adopted, the most common being a - wick of cotton or worsted used as a siphon. In cases where it is - important that little if any wear should take place, the lubricant is - forced by means of a pump between the friction surfaces and a constant - film of oil is thereby maintained between them. - - For the spindles of small machines such as clocks, watches and other - delicate mechanisms, which are only lubricated at long intervals and - are often exposed to extremes of temperature, the lubricant must be a - fluid oil as free as possible from tendency to gum or thicken by - oxidation or to corrode metal, and must often have a low - freezing-point. It must also possess a maximum of "oiliness." The - lubricants mostly used for such purposes are obtained from porpoise or - dolphin jaw oils, bean oil, hazel nut oil, neatsfoot oil, sperm oil or - olive oil. These oils are exposed for some time to temperatures as low - as the mechanism is required to work at, and the portion which remains - fluid is separated and used. Free acid should be entirely eliminated - by chemical refining. A little good mineral oil may with advantage be - mixed with the fatty oil. - - For all ordinary machinery, ranging from the light ring spindles of - textile mills to the heavy shafts of large engines, mineral oils are - almost universally employed, either alone or mixed with fatty oils, - the general rule being to use pure mineral oils for bath, forced or - circulating pump lubrication, and mixed oils for drop, siphon and - other less perfect methods of lubrication. Pure mineral oils of - relatively low viscosity are used for high speeds and low pressures, - mixed oils of greater viscosity for low speeds and high pressures. In - selecting oils for low speeds and great pressures, viscosity must be - the first consideration, and next to that "oiliness." If an oil of - sufficiently high viscosity be used, a mineral oil may give a result - as good or better than a pure fixed oil; a mixed oil may give a better - result than either. If a mineral oil of sufficient viscosity be not - available, then a fixed oil or fat may be expected to give the best - result. - - In special cases, such as in the lubrication of textile machines, - where the oil is liable to be splashed upon the fabric, the primary - consideration is to use an oil which can be washed out without leaving - a stain. Pure fixed oils, or mixtures composed largely of fixed oils, - are used for such purposes. - - In other special cases, such as marine engines working in hot places, - mixtures are used of mineral oil with rape or other vegetable oil - artificially thickened by blowing air through the heated oil, and - known as "blown" oil or "soluble castor oil." - - In the lubrication of the cylinders and valves of steam, gas and oil - engines, the lubricant must possess as much viscosity as possible at - the working temperature, must not evaporate appreciably and must not - decompose and liberate fatty acids which would corrode the metal and - choke the steam passages with metallic soaps; for gas and oil engines - the lubricant must be as free as possible from tendency to decompose - and deposit carbon when heated. For this reason steam cylinders and - valves should be lubricated with pure mineral oils of the highest - viscosity, mixed with no more fixed oil than is necessary to ensure - efficient lubrication. Gas and oil engines also should be lubricated - with pure mineral oils wherever possible. - - For further information on the theory and practice of lubrication and - on the testing of lubricants, see _Friction and Lost Work in Machinery - and Mill Work_, by R. H. Thurston (1903); and _Lubrication and - Lubricants_, by L. Archbutt and R. M. Deeley (1906). (R. M. D.) - - - - -LUBRICATION. Our knowledge of the action of oils and other viscous -fluids in diminishing friction and wear between solid surfaces from -being purely empirical has become a connected theory, based on the known -properties of matter, subjected to the definition of mathematical -analysis and verified by experiment. The theory was published in 1886 -(_Phil. Trans._, 1886, 177, pp. 157-234); but it is the purpose of this -article not so much to explain its application, as to give a brief -account of the introduction of the misconceptions that so long -prevailed, and of the manner in which their removal led to its general -acceptance. - -Friction, or resistance to tangential shifting of matter over matter, -whatever the mode and arrangement, differs greatly according to the -materials, but, like all material resistance, is essentially limited. -The range of the limits in available materials has a primary place in -determining mechanical possibilities, and from the earliest times they -have demanded the closest attention on the part of all who have to do -with structures or with machines, the former being concerned to find -those materials and their arrangements which possess the highest limits, -and the latter the materials in which the limits are least. Long before -the reformation of science in the 15th and 16th centuries both these -limits had formed the subject of such empirical research as disclosed -numerous definite although disconnected circumstances under which they -could be secured; and these, however far from the highest and lowest, -satisfied the exigencies of practical mechanics at the time, thus -initiating the method of extending knowledge which was to be -subsequently recognized as the only basis of physical philosophy. In -this purely empirical research the conclusion arrived at represented the -results for the actual circumstance from which they were drawn, and thus -afforded no place for theoretical discrepancies. However, in the -attempts at generalization which followed the reformation of science, -opportunity was afforded for such discrepancies in the mere enunciation -of the circumstances in which the so-called laws of friction of motion -are supposed to apply. The circumstances in which the great amount of -empirical research was conducted as to the resistance between the clean, -plane, smooth surfaces of rigid bodies moving over each other under -pressure, invariably include the presence of air at atmospheric pressure -around, and to some extent between, the surfaces; but this fact had -received no notice in the enunciation of these laws, and this -constitutes a theoretical departure from the conditions under which the -experience had been obtained. Also, the theoretical division of the law -of frictional resistance into two laws--one dealing with the limit of -rest, and the other asserting that the friction of motion, which is -invariably less in similar circumstances than that of rest, is -independent of the velocity of sliding--involves the theoretical -assumption that there is no asymptotic law of diminution of the -resistance, since, starting from rest, the rate of sliding increases. -The theoretical substitution of ideal rigid bodies with geometrically -regular surfaces, sliding in contact under pressure at the common -regular surface, for the aerated surfaces in the actual circumstances, -and the theoretical substitution of the absolute independence of the -resistance of the rate of sliding for the limited independence in the -actual circumstances, prove the general acceptance of the -conceptions--(1) that matter can slide over matter under pressure at a -geometrically regular surface; (2) that, however much the resistance to -sliding under any particular pressure (the coefficient of friction) may -depend on the physical properties of the materials, the sliding under -pressure takes place at the geometrically regular surface of contact of -the rigid bodies; and (3) as the consequence of (1) and (2), that -whatever the effect of a lubricant, such as oil, might have, it could be -a physical surface effect. Thus not only did these general theoretical -conceptions, resulting from the theoretical laws of friction, fail to -indicate that the lubricant may diminish the resistance by the mere -mechanical separation of the surfaces, but they precluded the idea that -such might be the case. The result was that all subsequent attempts to -reduce the empirical facts, where a lubricant was used, to such general -laws as might reveal the separate functions of the complex circumstances -on which lubrication depends, completely failed. Thus until 1883 the -science of lubrication had not advanced beyond the empirical stage. - -This period of stagnation was terminated by an accidental phenomenon -observed by Beauchamp Tower, while engaged on his research on the -friction of the journals of railway carriages. His observation led him -to a line of experiments which proved that in these experiments the -general function of the lubricant was the mechanical separation of the -metal surfaces by a layer of fluid of finite thickness, thus upsetting -the preconceived ideas as expressed in the laws of the friction of -motion. On the publication of Tower's reports (_Proc. Inst. M.E._, -November 1883), it was recognized by several physicists (_B.A. Report_, -1884, pp. 14, 625) that the evidence they contained afforded a basis for -further study of the actions involved, indicating as it did the -circumstances--namely, the properties of viscosity and cohesion -possessed by fluids--account of which had not been taken in previous -conclusions. It also became apparent that continuous or steady -lubrication, such as that of Tower's experiments, is only secured when -the solid surfaces separated by the lubricant are so shaped that the -thickness at the ingoing side is greater than that at the outgoing side. - -When the general equations of viscous fluids had been shown as the -result of the labours of C. L. M. H. Navier,[1] A. L. Cauchy,[2] S. D. -Poisson,[3] A. J. C. Barre de St Venant,[4] and in 1845 of Sir G. -Gabriel Stokes,[5] to involve no other assumption than that the -stresses, other than the pressure equal in all directions, are linear -functions of the distortional rates of strain multiplied by a constant -coefficient, it was found that the only solutions of which the equations -admitted, when applied to fluids flowing between fixed boundaries, as -water in a pipe, were singular solutions for steady or steady periodic -motion, and that the conclusions they entailed, that the resistance -would be proportional to the velocity, were for the most part directly -at variance with the common experience that the resistances varied with -the square of the velocity. This discrepancy was sometimes supposed to -be the result of eddies in the fluid, but it was not till 1883 that it -was discovered by experiments with colour bands that, in the case of -geometrically similar boundaries, the existence or non-existence of such -eddies depended upon a definite relation between the mean velocity (U) -of the fluid, the distance between the boundaries, and the ratio of the -coefficient of viscosity to the density ([mu]/[rho]), expressed by -UD[rho]/[mu] = K, where K is a physical constant independent of units, -which has a value between 1900 and 2000, and for parallel boundaries D -is four times the area of the channel divided by the perimeter of the -section (_Phil. Trans._, 1883, part iii. 935-982). K is thus a criterion -at which the law of resistance to the mean flow changes suddenly (as U -increases), from being proportional to the flow, to a law involving -higher powers of the velocity at first, but as the rates increase -approaching an asymptote in which the power is a little less that the -square. - -This sudden change in the law of resistance to the flow of fluid between -solid boundaries, depending as it does on a complete change in the -manner of the flow--from direct parallel flow to sinuous eddying -motion--serves to determine analytically the circumstances as to the -velocity and the thickness of the film under which any fluid having a -particular coefficient of viscosity can act the part of a lubricant. For -as long as the circumstances are such that UD[rho]/[mu] is less than K, -the parallel flow is held stable by the viscosity, so that only one -solution is possible--that in which the resistance is the product of -[mu] multiplied by the rate of distortion, as [mu](du/dy); in this case -the fluid has lubricating properties. But when the circumstances are -such that UD[rho]/[mu] is greater than K, other solutions become -possible, and the parallel flow becomes unstable, breaks down into -eddying motion, and the resistance varies as [rho]u^n, which -approximates to [rho]u^(1.78) as the velocity increases; in this state -the fluid has no lubricating properties. Thus, within the limits of the -criterion, the rate of displacement of the momentum of the fluid is -insignificant as compared with the viscous resistance, and may be -neglected; while outside this limit the direct effects of the eddying -motion completely dominate the viscous resistance, which in its turn may -be neglected. Thus K is a criterion which separates the flow of fluid -between solid surfaces as definitely as the flow of fluid is separated -from the relative motions in elastic solids, and it is by the knowledge -of the limit on which this distinction depends that the theory of -viscous flow can with assurance be applied to the circumstance of -lubrication. - -Until the existence of this physical constant was discovered, any -theoretical conclusions as to whether in any particular circumstances -the resistance of the lubricant would follow the law of viscous flow or -that of eddying motion was impossible. Thus Tower, being unaware of the -discovery of the criterion, which was published in the same year as his -reports, was thrown off the scent in his endeavour to verify the -evidence he had obtained as to the finite thickness of the film by -varying the velocity. He remarks in his first report that, "according to -the theory of fluid motion, the resistance would be as the square of the -velocity, whereas in his results it did not increase according to this -law." The rational theory of lubrication does not, however, depend -solely on the viscosity within the interior of fluids, but also depends -on the surface action between the fluid and the solid. In many respects -the surface actions, as indicated by surface tension, are still obscure, -and there has been a general tendency to assume that there may be -discontinuity in the velocity at the common surface. But whatever these -actions may be in other respects, there is abundant evidence that there -is no appreciable discontinuity in the velocity at the surfaces as long -as the fluid has finite thickness. Hence in the case of lubrication the -velocities of the fluid at the surfaces of the solids are those of the -solid. In as far as the presence of the lubricant is necessary, such -properties as cause oil in spite of its surface tension to spread even -against gravity over a bright metal surface, while mercury will -concentrate into globules on the bright surface of iron, have an -important place in securing lubrication where the action is -intermittent, as in the escapement of a clock. If there is oil on the -pallet, although the pressure of the tooth causes this to flow out -laterally from between the surfaces, it goes back again by surface -tension during the intervals; hence the importance of using fluids with -low surface tension like oil, or special oils, when there is no other -means of securing the presence of the lubricant. - - The differential equations for the equilibrium of the lubricant are - what the differential equations of viscous fluid in steady motion - become when subject to the conditions necessary for lubrication as - already defined--(1) the velocity is below the critical value; (2) at - the surfaces the velocity of the fluid is that of the solid; (3) the - thickness of the film is small compared with the lateral dimensions of - the surfaces and the radii of curvature of the surfaces. By the first - of these conditions all the terms having [rho] as a factor may be - neglected, and the equations thus become the equations of equilibrium - of the fluid; as such, they are applicable to fluid whether - incompressible or elastic, and however the pressure may affect the - viscosity. But the analysis is greatly simplified by omitting all - terms depending on compressibility and by taking [mu] constant; this - may be done without loss of generality in a qualitative sense. With - these limitations we have for the differential equation of the - equilibrium of the lubricant:-- - - dp du dv dw \ - 0 = -- - [mu]^2 u, &c., &c., 0 = -- + -- + -- | - dx dx dy dz | - > (1) - / du dv \ | - 0 = p_yx - [mu] ( -- + -- ), &c., &c. | - \ dy dx / / - - These are subject to the boundary conditions (2) and (3). Taking x as - measured parallel to one of the surfaces in the direction of relative - motion, y normal to the surface and z normal to the plane of xy by - condition (3), we may without error disregard the effect of any - curvature in the surfaces. Also v is small compared with u and w, and - the variations of u and w in the directions x and z are small compared - with their variation in the direction y. The equations (1) reduce to - - dp d^2u dp dp d^2w du dv dw \ - 0 = -- - [mu]----, 0 = --, 0 = -- - [mu]----, 0 = -- + -- + -- | - dx dy^2 dy dz dy^2 dx dy dz | - > (2) - du dw | - 0 = p_yx - [mu]--, 0 = p_yz - [mu]--, p_xz = 0. | - dy dy / - - For the boundary conditions, putting f(x, z) as limiting the lateral - area of the lubricant, the conditions at the surfaces may be expressed - thus:-- - - when y = 0, u = U0, w = 0, v = 0 \ - dh | - when y = h, u = U1, w = 0, v1, = U1 -- + V1 > (3) - dx | - when f(x, z) = 0, p = p0 / - - Then, integrating the equations (2) over y, and determining the - constants by equations (3), we have, since by the second of equations - (2) p is independent of y, - - 1 dp h - y y \ - u = ----- -- (y - h)y + U0 ----- + U1 --- | - 2[mu] dx h h | - > (4) - 1 dp | - w = ----- -- (y - h)y | - 2[mu] dz / - - Then, differentiating equations (4) with respect to x and z - respectively, and substituting in the 4th of equations (2), and - integrating from y = 0 to y = h, so that only the values of v at the - surfaces may be required, we have for the differential equation of - normal pressure at any point x, z, between the boundaries:-- - _ _ - d / dp\ d / dp\ | dh | - --- ( h^3 -- ) + --- ( h^3-- ) = 6[mu] | (U0 + U1) -- + 2V1 | (5) - dx \ dz/ dz \ dz/ |_ dx _| - - Again differentiating equations (4), with respect to x and z - respectively, and substituting in the 5th and 6th of equations (2), - and putting f_x and f_z for the intensities of the tangential stresses - at the lower and upper surfaces:-- - - 1 h dp \ - f_x = [mu](U1 + U0) --- [+-] --- -- | - h 2 dx | - > (6) - h dp | - f_z = [+-] --- -- | - 2 dx / - - Equations (5) and (6) are the general equations for the stresses at - the boundaries at x, z, when h is a continuous function of x and z, - [mu] and [rho] being constant. - - For the integration of equations (6) to get the resultant stresses and - moments on the solid boundaries, so as to obtain the conditions of - their equilibrium, it is necessary to know how x and z at any point on - the boundary enter into h, as well as the equation f(x, z) = 0, which - determines the limits of the lubricating film. If y, the normal to one - of the surfaces, has not the same direction for all points of this - surface, in other words, if the surface is not plane, x and z become - curvilinear co-ordinates, at all points perpendicular to y. Since, for - lubrication, one of the surfaces must be plane, cylindrical, or a - surface of revolution, we may put x = R[theta], y = r - R, and z - perpendicular to the plane of motion. Then, if the data are - sufficient, the resultant stresses and moments between the surfaces - are obtained by integrating the intensity of the stress and moments of - intensity of stress over the surface. - - This, however, is not the usual problem that arises. What is generally - wanted is to find the thickness of the film where least (h0) and its - angular position with respect to direction of load, to resist a - definite load with a particular surface velocity. If the surfaces are - plane, the general solution involves only one arbitrary constant, the - least thickness (h0); since in any particular case the variation of h - with x is necessarily fixed, as in this case lubrication affords no - automatic adjustment of this slope. When both surfaces are curved in - the plane of motion there are at least two arbitrary constants, h0, - and [phi] the angular position of h0 with respect to direction of - load; while if the surfaces are both curved in a plane perpendicular - to the direction of motion as well as in the plane of motion, there - are three arbitrary constants, h0, [phi]0, z0. The only constraint - necessary is to prevent rotation in the plane of motion of one of the - surfaces, leaving this surface free to move in any direction and to - adjust its position so as to be in equilibrium under the load. - -The integrations necessary for the solutions of these problems are -practicable--complete or approximate--and have been effected for -circumstances which include the chief cases of practical lubrication, -the results having been verified by reference to Tower's experiments. In -this way the verified theory is available for guidance outside the -limits of experience as well as for determining the limiting conditions. -But it is necessary to take into account certain subsidiary theories. -These limits depend on the coefficient of viscosity, which diminishes as -the temperature increases. The total work in overcoming the resistance -is spent in generating heat in the lubricant, the volume of which is -very small. Were it not for the escape of heat by conduction through the -lubricant and the metal, lubrication would be impossible. Hence a -knowledge of the empirical law of the variation of the viscosity of the -lubricant with temperature, the coefficients of conduction of heat in -the lubricant and in the metal, and the application of the theory of the -flow of heat in the particular circumstances, are necessary adjuncts to -the theory of lubrication for determining the limits of lubrication. Nor -is this all, for the shapes of the solid surfaces vary with the -pressure, and more particularly with the temperature. - - The theory of lubrication has been applied to the explanation of the - slipperiness of ice (_Mem. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc._, 1899). - (O. R.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] _Mem. de l'Acad._ (1826), 6, p. 389. - - [2] _Mem. des sav. etrang._ l. 40. - - [3] _Mem. de l'Acad._ (1831), 10, p. 345. - - [4] _B.A. Report_ (1846). - - [5] _Cambridge Phil. Trans._ (1845 and 1857). - - - - -LUCAN [MARCUS ANNAEUS LUCANUS], (A.D. 39-65), Roman poet of the Silver -Age, grandson of the rhetorician Seneca and nephew of the philosopher, -was born at Corduba. His mother was Acilia; his father, Marcus Annaeus -Mela, had amassed great wealth as imperial procurator for the provinces. -From a memoir which is generally attributed to Suetonius we learn that -Lucan was taken to Rome at the age of eight months and displayed -remarkable precocity. One of his instructors was the Stoic philosopher, -Cornutus, the friend and teacher of Persius. He was studying at Athens -when Nero recalled him to Rome and made him quaestor. These friendly -relations did not last long. Lucan is said to have defeated Nero in a -public poetical contest; Nero forbade him to recite in public, and the -poet's indignation made him an accomplice in the conspiracy of Piso. -Upon the discovery of the plot he is said to have been tempted by the -hope of pardon to denounce his own mother. Failing to obtain a reprieve, -he caused his veins to be opened, and expired repeating a passage from -one of his poems descriptive of the death of a wounded soldier. His -father was involved in the proscription, his mother escaped, and his -widow Polla Argentaria survived to receive the homage of Statius under -Domitian. The birthday of Lucan was kept as a festival after his death, -and a poem addressed to his widow upon one of these occasions and -containing information on the poet's work and career is still extant -(Statius's _Silvae_, ii. 7, entitled _Genethliacon Lucani_). - -Besides his principal performance, Lucan's works included poems on the -ransom of Hector, the nether world, the fate of Orpheus, a eulogy of -Nero, the burning of Rome, and one in honour of his wife (all mentioned -by Statius), letters, epigrams, an unfinished tragedy on the subject of -Medea and numerous miscellaneous pieces. His minor works have perished -except for a few fragments, but all that the author wrote of the -_Pharsalia_ has come down to us. It would probably have concluded with -the battle of Philippi, but breaks off abruptly as Caesar is about to -plunge into the harbour of Alexandria. The _Pharsalia_ opens with a -panegyric of Nero, sketches the causes of the war and the characters of -Caesar and Pompey, the crossing of the Rubicon by Caesar, the flight of -the tribunes to his camp, and the panic and confusion in Rome, which -Pompey has abandoned. The second book describes the visit of Brutus to -Cato, who is persuaded to join the side of the senate, and his marriage -a second time to his former wife Marcia, Ahenobarbus's capitulation at -Corfinium and the retirement of Pompey to Greece. In the third book -Caesar, after settling affairs in Rome, crosses the Alps for Spain. -Massilia is besieged and falls. The fourth book describes the victories -of Caesar in Spain over Afranius and Petreius, and the defeat of Curio -by Juba in Africa. In the fifth Caesar and Antony land in Greece, and -Pompey's wife Cornelia is placed in security at Lesbos. The sixth book -describes the repulses of Caesar round Dyrrhachium, the seventh the -defeat of Pompey at Pharsalia, the eighth his flight and assassination -in Egypt, the ninth the operations of Cato in Africa and his march -through the desert, and the landing of Caesar in Egypt, the tenth the -opening incidents of the Alexandrian war. The incompleteness of the work -should not be left out of account in the estimate of its merits, for, -with two capital exceptions, the faults of the _Pharsalia_ are such as -revision might have mitigated or rendered. No such pains, certainly, -could have amended the deficiency of unity of action, or supplied the -want of a legitimate protagonist. The _Pharsalia_ is not true to -history, but it cannot shake off its shackles, and is rather a metrical -chronicle than a true epic. If it had been completed according to the -author's design, Pompey, Cato and Brutus must have successively enacted -the part of nominal hero, while the real hero is the arch-enemy of -liberty and Lucan, Caesar. Yet these defects, though glaring, are not -fatal or peculiar to Lucan. The false taste, the strained rhetoric, the -ostentatious erudition, the tedious harangues and far-fetched or -commonplace reflections so frequent in this singularly unequal poem, are -faults much more irritating, but they are also faults capable of -amendment, which the writer might not improbably have removed. Great -allowance should also be made in the case of one who is emulating -predecessors who have already carried art to its last perfection. -Lucan's temper could never have brooked mere imitation; his -versification, no less than his subject, is entirely his own; he avoids -the appearance of outward resemblance to his great predecessor with a -persistency which can only have resulted from deliberate purpose, but he -is largely influenced by the declamatory school of his grandfather and -uncle. Hence his partiality for finished antithesis, contrasting -strongly with his generally breathless style and turbid diction. -Quintilian sums up both aspects of his genius with pregnant brevity, -"Ardens et concitatus et sententiis clarissimus," adding with equal -justice, "Magis oratoribus quam poetis annumerandus." Lucan's oratory, -however, frequently approaches the regions of poetry, e.g. the -apotheosis of Pompey at the beginning of the ninth book, and the passage -in the same book where Cato, in the truest spirit of the Stoic -philosophy, refuses to consult the oracle of Jupiter Ammon. Though in -many cases Lucan's rhetoric is frigid, hyperbolical, and out of keeping -with the character of the speaker, yet his theme has a genuine hold upon -him; in the age of Nero he celebrates the republic as a poet with the -same energy with which in the age of Cicero he might have defended it as -an orator. But for him it might almost have been said that the Roman -republic never inspired the Roman muse. - -Lucan never speaks of himself, but his epic speaks for him. He must have -been endowed with no common ambition, industry and self-reliance, an -enthusiastic though narrow and aristocratic patriotism, and a faculty -for appreciating magnanimity in others. But the only personal trait -positively known to us is his conjugal affection, a characteristic of -Seneca also. - -Lucan, together with Statius, was preferred even to Virgil in the middle -ages. So late as 1493 his commentator Sulpitius writes: "Magnus profecto -est Maro, magnus Lucanus; adeoque prope par, ut quis sit major possis -ambigere." Shelley and Southey, in the first transport of admiration, -thought Lucan superior to Virgil; Pope, with more judgment, says that -the fire which burns in Virgil with an equable glow breaks forth in -Lucan with sudden, brief and interrupted flashes. Of late, -notwithstanding the enthusiasm of isolated admirers, Lucan has been -unduly neglected, but he has exercised an important influence upon one -great department of modern literature by his effect upon Corneille, and -through him upon the classical French drama. - - AUTHORITIES.--The _Pharsalia_ was much read in the middle ages, and - consequently it is preserved in a large number of manuscripts, the - relations of which have not yet been thoroughly made out. The most - recent critical text is that of C. Hosius (2nd ed. 1906), and the - latest complete commentaries are those of C. E. Haskins (1887, with a - valuable introduction by W. E. Heitland) and C. M. Francken (1896). - There are separate editions of book i. by P. Lejay (1894) and book - vii. by J. P. Postgate (1896). Of earlier editions those of Oudendorp - (which contains the continuation of the _Pharsalia_ to the death of - Caesar by Thomas May, 1728), Burmann (1740), Bentley (1816, - posthumous) and Weber (1829) may be mentioned. There are English - translations by C. Marlowe (book i. only, 1600), Sir F. Gorges (1614), - Thomas May (1626), N. Rowe (1718) and Sir E. Ridley (2nd ed. 1905), - the two last being the best. (R. G.; J. P. P.) - - - - -LUCANIA, in ancient geography, a district of southern Italy, extending -from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Gulf of Tarentum. To the north it -adjoined Campania, Samnium and Apulia, and to the south it was separated -by a narrow isthmus from the district of Bruttii. It thus comprised -almost all the modern province of the Basilicata, with the greater part -of the province of Salerno and a portion of that of Cosenza. The precise -limits were the river Silarus on the north-west, which separated it from -Campania, and the Bradanus, which flows into the Gulf of Tarentum, on -the north-east; while the two little rivers Laus and Crathis, flowing -from the ridge of the Apennines to the sea on the west and east, marked -the limits of the district on the side of the Bruttii. - -Almost the whole is occupied by the Apennines, here an irregular group -of lofty masses. The main ridge approaches the western sea, and is -continued from the lofty knot of mountains on the frontiers of Samnium, -nearly due south to within a few miles of the Gulf of Policastro, and -thenceforward is separated from the sea by only a narrow interval till -it enters the district of the Bruttii. Just within the frontier of -Lucania rises Monte Pollino, 7325 ft., the highest peak in the southern -Apennines. The mountains descend by a much more gradual slope to the -coastal plain of the Gulf of Tarentum. Thus the rivers which flow to the -Tyrrhenian Sea are of little importance compared with those that descend -towards the Gulf of Tarentum. Of these the most important are--the -Bradanus (Bradano), the Casuentus (Basiento), the Aciris (Agri), and the -Siris (Sinno). The Crathis, which forms at its mouth the southern limit -of the province, belongs almost wholly to the territory of the Bruttii, -but it receives a tributary, the Sybaris (Coscile), from the mountains -of Lucania. The only considerable stream on the western side is the -Silarus (Sele), which constitutes the northern boundary, and has two -important tributaries in the Calor (Calore) and the Tanager (Negro) -which joins it from the south. - -The district of Lucania was so called from the people bearing the name -Lucani (Lucanians) by whom it was conquered about the middle of the 5th -century B.C. Before that period it was included under the general name -of Oenotria, which was applied by the Greeks to the southernmost -portion of Italy. The mountainous interior was occupied by the tribes -known as Oenotrians and Chones, while the coasts on both sides were -occupied by powerful Greek colonies which doubtless exercised a -protectorate over the interior (see MAGNA GRAECIA). The Lucanians were a -southern branch of the Samnite or Sabelline race, who spoke the Osca -Lingua (q.v.). We know from Strabo that they had a democratic -constitution save in time of war, when a dictator was chosen from among -the regular magistrates. A few Oscan inscriptions survive, mostly in -Greek characters, from the 4th or 3rd century B.C., and some coins with -Oscan legends of the 3rd century (see Conway, Italic Dialects, p. 11 -sqq.; Mommsen, _C.I.L._ x. p. 21; Roehl, _Inscriptiones Graecae -Antiquissimae_, 547). The Lucanians gradually conquered the whole -country (with the exception of the Greek towns on the coast) from the -borders of Samnium and Campania to the southern extremity of Italy. -Subsequently the inhabitants of the peninsula, now known as Calabria, -broke into insurrection, and under the name of Bruttians established -their independence, after which the Lucanians became confined within the -limits already described. After this we find them engaged in hostilities -with the Tarentines, and with Alexander, king of Epirus, who was called -in by that people to their assistance, 326 B.C. In 298 B.C. (Livy x. 11 -seq.) they made alliance with Rome, and Roman influence was extended by -the colonies of Venusia (291 B.C.), Paestum (273), and above all -Tarentum (272). Subsequently they were sometimes in alliance, but more -frequently engaged in hostilities, during the Samnite wars. On the -landing of Pyrrhus in Italy (281 B.C.) they were among the first to -declare in his favour, and found themselves exposed to the resentment of -Rome when the departure of Pyrrhus left his allies at the mercy of the -Romans. After several campaigns they were reduced to subjection (272 -B.C.). Notwithstanding this they espoused the cause of Hannibal during -the Second Punic War (216 B.C.), and their territory during several -campaigns was ravaged by both armies. The country never recovered from -these disasters, and under the Roman government fell into decay, to -which the Social War, in which the Lucanians took part with the Samnites -against Rome (90-88 B.C.) gave the finishing stroke. In the time of -Strabo the Greek cities on the coast had fallen into insignificance, and -owing to the decrease of population and cultivation the malaria began to -obtain the upper hand. The few towns of the interior were of no -importance. A large part of the province was given up to pasture, and -the mountains were covered with forests, which abounded in wild boars, -bears and wolves. There were some fifteen independent communities, but -none of great importance. - -For administrative purposes under the Roman empire, Lucania was always -united with the district of the Bruttii. The two together constituted -the third region of Augustus. - - The towns on the east coast were--Metapontum, a few miles south of the - Bradanus; Heraclea, at the mouth of the Aciris; and Siris, on the - river of the same name. Close to its southern frontier stood Sybaris, - which was destroyed in 510 B.C., but subsequently replaced by Thurii. - On the west coast stood Posidonia, known under the Roman government as - Paestum; below that came Elea or Velia, Pyxus, called by the Romans - Buxentum, and Laus, near the frontier of the province towards - Bruttium. Of the towns of the interior the most considerable was - Potentia, still called Potenza. To the north, near the frontier of - Apulia, was Bantia (Aceruntia belonged more properly to Apulia); while - due south from Potentia was Grumentum, and still farther in that - direction were Nerulum and Muranum. In the upland valley of the - Tanagrus were Atina, Forum Popilii and Consilinum; Eburi (Eboli) and - Volceii (Buccino), though to the north of the Silarus, were also - included in Lucania. The Via Popillia traversed the district from N. - to S., entering it at the N.W. extremity; the Via Herculia, coming - southwards from the Via Appia and passing through Potentia and - Grumentum, joined the Via Popillia near the S.W. edge of the district: - while another nameless road followed the east coast and other roads of - less importance ran W. from Potentia to the Via Popillia, N.E. to the - Via Appia and E. from Grumentum to the coast at Heraclea. (T. As.) - - - - -LUCARIS, CYRILLUS (1572-1637), Greek prelate and theologian, was a -native of Crete. In youth he travelled, studying at Venice and Padua, -and at Geneva coming under the influence of the reformed faith as -represented by Calvin. In 1602 he was elected patriarch of Alexandria, -and in 1621 patriarch of Constantinople. He was the first great name in -the Orthodox Eastern Church since 1453, and dominates its history in the -17th century. The great aim of his life was to reform the church on -Calvinistic lines, and to this end he sent many young Greek theologians -to the universities of Switzerland, Holland and England. In 1629 he -published his famous _Confessio_, Calvinistic in doctrine, but as far as -possible accommodated to the language and creeds of the Orthodox Church. -It appeared the same year in two Latin editions, four French, one German -and one English, and in the Eastern Church started a controversy which -culminated in 1691 in the convocation by Dositheos, patriarch of -Jerusalem, of a synod by which the Calvinistic doctrines were condemned. -Lucaris was several times temporarily deposed and banished at the -instigation of his orthodox opponents and of the Jesuits, who were his -bitterest enemies. Finally, when Sultan Murad was about to set out for -the Persian War, the patriarch was accused of a design to stir up the -Cossacks, and to avoid trouble during his absence the sultan had him -killed by the Janissaries (June 1637). His body was thrown into the sea, -recovered and buried at a distance from the capital by his friends, and -only brought back to Constantinople after many years. - -The orthodoxy of Lucaris himself continued to be a matter of debate in -the Eastern Church, even Dositheos, in view of the reputation of the -great patriarch, thinking it expedient to gloss over his heterodoxy in -the interests of the Church. - - See the article "Lukaris" by Ph. Meyer in Herzog-Hauck, - _Realencyklop._ (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1902), which gives further - authorities. - - - - -LUCARNE, a French architectural term for a garret window, also for the -lights or small windows in spires. - - - - -LUCAS, SIR CHARLES (d. 1648), English soldier, was the son of Sir Thomas -Lucas of Colchester, Essex. As a young man he saw service in the -Netherlands under the command of his brother, and in the "Bishops' War" -he commanded a troop of horse in King Charles I.'s army. In 1639 he was -made a knight. At the outbreak of the Civil War Lucas naturally took the -king's side, and at the first cavalry fight, Powick Bridge, he was -wounded. Early in 1643 he raised a regiment of horse, with which he -defeated Middleton at Padbury on July 1st. In January 1644 he commanded -the forces attacking Nottingham, and soon afterwards, on Prince Rupert's -recommendation, he was made lieutenant-general of Newcastle's Northern -army. When Newcastle was shut up in York, Lucas and the cavalry remained -in the open country, and when Rupert's relieving army crossed the -mountains into Yorkshire he was quickly joined by Newcastle's squadrons. -At Marston Moor Lucas swept Fairfax's Yorkshire horse before him, but -later in the day he was taken prisoner. Exchanged during the winter, he -defended Berkeley Castle for a short time against Rainsborough, but was -soon in the field again. As lieutenant-general of all the horse he -accompanied Lord Astley in the last campaign of the first war, and, -taken prisoner at Stow-on-the-Wold, he engaged not to bear arms against -parliament in the future. This parole he must be held to have broken -when he took a prominent part in the seizure of Colchester in 1648. That -place was soon invested, and finally fell, after a desperate resistance, -to Fairfax's army. The superior officers had to surrender "at mercy," -and Lucas and Sir George Lisle were immediately tried by court martial -and sentenced to death. The two Royalists were shot the same evening in -the Castle of Colchester. - - See Lloyd, _Memoirs of Excellent Personages_ (1669); and Earl de Grey, - _A Memoir of the Life of Sir Charles Lucas_ (1845). - - - - -LUCAS, CHARLES (1713-1771), Irish physician and politician, was the son -of a country gentleman of small means in Co. Clare. Charles opened a -small business as an apothecary in Dublin, and between 1735 and 1741 he -began his career as a pamphleteer by publishing papers on professional -matters which led to legislation requiring inspection of drugs. Having -been elected a member of the common council of Dublin in 1741 he -detected and exposed encroachments by the aldermen on the electoral -rights of the citizens, and entered upon a controversy on the subject, -but failed in legal proceedings against the aldermen in 1744. With a -view to becoming a parliamentary candidate for the city of Dublin he -issued in 1748-1749 a series of political addresses in which he -advocated the principles of Molyneux and Swift; and he made himself so -obnoxious to the government that the House of Commons voted him an enemy -to the country, and issued a proclamation for his arrest, thus -compelling him to retire for some years to the continent. Having studied -medicine at Paris, Lucas took the degree of M.D. at Leiden in 1752. In -the following year he started practice as a physician in London, and in -1756 he published a work on medicinal waters, the properties of which he -had studied on the continent and at Bath. The essay was reviewed by Dr -Johnson, and although it was resented by the medical profession it -gained a reputation and a considerable practice for its author. In 1760 -he renewed his political pamphleteering; and having obtained a pardon -from George III., he proceeded to Dublin, where he received a popular -welcome and a Doctor's degree from Trinity College. He was elected -member for the city of Dublin in 1761, his colleague in the -representation being the recorder, Henry Grattan's father. On the -appointment of Lord Halifax as lord lieutenant in the same year Lucas -wrote him a long letter (19th of Sept. 1761, MSS. Irish State Paper -Office) setting forth the grievances which Ireland had suffered in the -past, chiefly on account of the exorbitant pensions enjoyed by -government officials. The cause of these evils he declared to be the -unrepresentative character of the Irish constitution; and among the -remedies he proposed was the shortening of parliaments. Lucas brought in -a bill in his first session to effect this reform, but was defeated on -the motion to have the bill sent to England for approval by the privy -council; and he insisted upon the independent rights of the Irish -parliament, which were afterwards in fuller measure successfully -vindicated by Grattan. He also defended the privileges of the Irish -Protestants in the press, and especially in the _Freeman's Journal_, -founded in 1763. His contributions to the press, and his _Addresses to -the Lord Mayor_ and other political pamphlets made him one of the most -popular writers in Ireland of his time, although he was anti-catholic in -his prejudices, and although, as Lecky observes, "there is nothing in -his remains to show that he possessed any real superiority either of -intellect or knowledge, or even any remarkable brilliancy of -expression." He died on the 4th of November 1771, and was accorded a -public funeral. As an orator Charles Lucas appears to have had little -power, and he made no mark in the House of Commons. - - See R. R. Madden, _Hist. of Irish Periodical Literature from the End - of the 17th to the Middle of the 19th Century_ (2 vols., London, - 1867); Francis Hardy, _Memoirs of the Earl of Charlemont_ (2 vols., - London, 1812); W. E. H. Lecky, _History of Ireland in the Eighteenth - Century_, vols. i. and ii. (5 vols., London, 1892). - - - - -LUCAS, JOHN SEYMOUR (1849- ), English painter, was born in London, and -was a student in the Royal Academy Schools. He was elected an associate -of the academy in 1886 and academician in 1898, and became a constant -exhibitor of pictures of historical and domestic incidents, notably of -the Tudor and Stuart periods, painted with much skill and with close -attention to detail. One of his most important works is a panel in the -Royal Exchange, presented by the corporation of London, representing -William the Conqueror granting the first charter to the city; and one of -his earlier pictures, "After Culloden: Rebel Hunting," is in the -National Gallery of British Art. - - - - -LUCAS VAN LEYDEN (c. 1494-1533), Dutch painter, was born at Leiden, -where his father Huig Jacobsz gave him the first lessons in art. He then -entered the painting-room of Cornelis Engelbrechtszen of Leiden, and -soon became known for his capacity in making designs for glass, -engraving copper-plates, painting pictures, portraits and landscapes in -oil and distemper. According to van Mander he was born in 1494, and -painted at the age of twelve a "Legend of St Hubert" for which he was -paid a dozen florins. He was only fourteen when he finished a plate -representing Mahomet taking the life of Sergius, the monk, and at -fifteen he produced a series of nine plates for a "Passion," a -"Temptation of St Anthony," and a "Conversion of St Paul." The list of -his engravings in 1510, when, according to van Mander, he was only -sixteen, includes subjects as various as a celebrated "Ecce Homo," "Adam -and Eve expelled from Paradise," a herdsman and a milkmaid with three -cows, and a little naked girl running away from a barking dog. Whatever -may be thought of the tradition embodied in van Mander's pages as to the -true age of Lucas van Leyden, there is no doubt that, as early as 1508, -he was a master of repute as a copperplate engraver. It was the time -when art found patrons among the public that could ill afford to buy -pictures, yet had enough interest in culture to satisfy itself by means -of prints. Lucas van Leyden became the representative man for the public -of Holland as Durer for that of Germany; and a rivalry grew up between -the two engravers, which came to be so close that on the neutral market -of Italy the products of each were all but evenly quoted. Vasari -affirmed that Durer surpassed Lucas as a designer, but that in the use -of the graver they were both unsurpassed, a judgment which has not been -reversed. But the rivalry was friendly. About the time when Durer -visited the Netherlands Lucas went to Antwerp, which then flourished as -an international mart for productions of the pencil and the graver, and -it is thought that he was the master who took the freedom of the Antwerp -gild in 1521 under the name of Lucas the Hollander. In Durer's diary -kept during his travels in the Low Countries, we find that at Antwerp he -met Lucas, who asked him to dinner, and that Durer accepted. He valued -the art of Lucas at its true figure, and exchanged the Dutchman's prints -for eight florins' worth of his own. In 1527 Lucas made a tour of the -Netherlands, giving dinners to the painters of the gilds of Middleburg, -Ghent, Malines and Antwerp. He was accompanied during the trip by -Mabuse, whom he imitated in his style as well as in his love of rich -costume. On his return home he fell sick and remained ailing till his -death in 1533, and he believed that poison had been administered to him -by some envious comrade. - -A few days before his death Lucas van Leyden was informed of the birth -of a grandson, first-born of his only daughter Gretchen. Gretchen's -fourth son JEAN DE HOEY followed the profession of his grandfather, and -became well known at the Parisian court as painter and chamberlain to -the king of France, Henry IV. - - As an engraver Lucas van Leyden deserves his reputation. He has not - the genius, nor had he the artistic tact, of Durer; and he displays - more cleverness of expression than skill in distribution or in - refinement in details. But his power in handling the graver is great, - and some of his portraits, especially his own, are equal to anything - by the master of Nuremberg. Much that he accomplished as a painter has - been lost, because he worked a good deal upon cloth in distemper. In - 1522 he painted the "Virgin and Child with the Magdalen and a Kneeling - Donor," now in the gallery of Munich. His manner was then akin to that - of Mabuse. The "Last Judgment" in the town-gallery of Leiden is - composed on the traditional lines of Cristus and Memling, with - monsters in the style of Jerom Bosch and figures in the stilted - attitudes of the South German school; the scale of colours in yellow, - white and grey is at once pale and gaudy, the quaintest contrasts are - produced by the juxtaposition of alabaster flesh in females and - bronzed skin in males, or black hair by the side of yellow, or - rose-coloured drapery set sharply against apple-green or black; yet - some of the heads are painted with great delicacy and modelled with - exquisite feeling. Dr Waagen gave a favourable opinion of a triptych - now at the Hermitage at St Petersburg, executed, according to van - Mander, in 1531, representing the "Blind Man of Jericho healed by - Jesus Christ." Here too the German critic observed the union of faulty - composition with great finish and warm flesh-tints with a gaudy scale - of colours. The same defects and qualities will be found in such - specimens as are preserved in public collections, among which may be - mentioned the "Card Party" at Wilton House, the "Penitent St Jerome" - in the gallery of Berlin, and the hermits "Paul" and "Anthony" in the - Liechtenstein collection at Vienna. There is a characteristic - "Adoration of the Magi" at Buckingham Palace. - - - - -LUCCA (anc. _Luca_), a town and archiepiscopal see of Tuscany, Italy, -capital of the province of Lucca, 13 m. by rail N.E. of Pisa. Pop. -(1901) 43,566 (town); 73,465 (commune). It is situated 62 ft. above the -level of the sea, in the valley of the Serchio, and looks out for the -most part on a horizon of hills and mountains. The fortifications, -pierced by four gates, were begun in 1504 and completed in 1645, and -long ranked among the most remarkable in the peninsula. They are still -well-preserved and picturesque, with projecting bastions planted with -trees. - -The city has a well-built and substantial appearance, its chief -attraction lying in the numerous churches, which belong in the main to a -well-marked basilican type, and present almost too richly decorated -exteriors, fine apsidal ends and quadrangular campaniles, in some cases -with battlemented summits, and windows increasing in number as they -ascend. In style they are an imitation of the Pisan. It is remarkable -that in the arcades a pillar generally occupies the middle of the -facade. The cathedral of St Martin was begun in 1063 by Bishop Anselm -(later Pope Alexander II.); but the great apse with its tall columnar -arcades and the fine campanile are probably the only remnants of the -early edifice, the nave and transepts having been rebuilt in the Gothic -style in the 14th century, while the west front was begun in 1204 by -Guidetto (lately identified with Guido Bigarelli of Como), and "consists -of a vast portico of three magnificent arches, and above them three -ranges of open galleries covered with all the devices of an exuberant -fancy." The ground plan is a Latin cross, the nave being 273 ft. in -length and 84 ft. in width, and the transepts 144 ft. in length. In the -nave is a little octagonal temple or chapel, which serves as a shrine -for the most precious of the relics of Lucca, a cedar-wood crucifix, -carved, according to the legend, by Nicodemus, and miraculously conveyed -to Lucca in 782. The Sacred Countenance (_Volto Santo_), as it is -generally called, because the face of the Saviour is considered a true -likeness, is only shown thrice a year. The chapel was built in 1484 by -Matteo Civitali, a local sculptor of the early Renaissance (1436-1501); -he was the only master of Tuscany outside Florence who worked thoroughly -in the Florentine style, and his creations are among the most charming -works of the Renaissance. The cathedral contains several other works by -him--the tomb of P. da Noceto, the altar of S. Regulus and the tomb of -Ilaria del Carretto by Jacopo della Quercia of Siena (described by -Ruskin in _Modern Painters_, ii.), the earliest of his extant works -(1406), and one of the earliest decorative works of the Renaissance. In -one of the chapels is a fine Madonna by Fra Bartolommeo; in the -municipal picture gallery are a fine "God the Father" and another -Madonna by him; also some sculptures by Civitali, and some good wood -carving, including choir stalls. In the cathedral choir is good stained -glass of 1485. The church of St Michael, founded in the 8th century, and -built of marble within and without, has a lofty and magnificent western -facade (1188)--an architectural screen rising much above the roof of the -church. The interior is good but rather bare. The church of St Martino -at Arliano near Lucca belongs to the first half of the 8th century; it -is of basilican plan (see G. T. Rivoira, _Origini dell' Architettura -Lombarda_, iii. [Rome, 1901] 138). St Frediano or Frigidian dates -originally from the 7th century, but was built in the Romanesque style -in 1112-1147, though the interior, originally with four aisles and nave, -shows traces of the earliest structure; the front occupies the site of -the ancient apse; in one of its chapels is the tomb of Santa Zita, -patroness of servants and of Lucca itself. In S. Francesco, a fine -Gothic church, is the tomb of Castruccio Castracane. San Giovanni -(originally of the 12th century), S. Cristoforo, San Romano (rebuilt in -the 17th century, by Vincenzo Buonamici), and Santa Maria Forisportam -(of the 12th century) also deserve mention. - -Among the secular buildings are the old ducal palace, begun in 1578 by -Ammanati, and now the residence of the prefect and seat of the -provincial officers and the public picture gallery; the early -Renaissance Palazzo Pretorio, or former residence of the podesta, now -the seat of the civil and correctional courts; the palace, erected in -the 15th century by a member of the Guinigi family, of brick, in the -Italian Gothic style, and now serving as a poor-house; the 16th-century -palace of the marquis Guidiccioni, now used as a depository for the -archives, the earliest documents going back to A.D. 790. The Palazzo -Mansi contains a collection of Dutch pictures. There are several other -fine late 16th-century palaces. The principal market-place in the city -(_Piazza del Mercato_) has taken possession of the arena of the ancient -amphitheatre, the outer arches of which can still be seen in the -surrounding buildings. The whole building, belonging probably to the -early Empire, measured 135 by 105 yds., and the arena 87(1/2) by 58 yds. -The outline of the ancient theatre can be traced in the Piazza delle -Grazie, and some of its substructure walls are preserved. The ancient -forum was on the site of the Piazza S. Michele in the centre of the -town; remains of a small public building or shrine were found not far -off in 1906 (L. Pernier in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1906, p. 117). The -rectangular disposition of the streets in the centre of the town is a -survival of Roman times. Besides the academy of sciences, which dates -from 1584, there are several institutions of the same kind--a royal -philomathic academy, a royal academy of arts and a public library of -50,000 volumes. The archiepiscopal library and archives are also -important, while the treasury contains some fine goldsmith's work, -including the 14th-century Croce dei Pisani, made by the Pisans for the -cathedral. - -The river Serchio affords water-power for numerous factories. The most -important industries are the manufacture of jute goods (carried on at -Ponte a Moriano in the Serchio valley, 6 m. N. of Lucca), tobacco, silks -and cottons. The silk manufacture, introduced at Lucca about the close -of the 11th century, and in the early part of the 16th the means of -subsistence for 30,000 of its inhabitants, now gives employment (in -reeling and throwing) to only about 1500. The bulk of the population is -engaged in agriculture. The water supply is maintained by an aqueduct -built in 1823-1832 with 459 arches, from the Pisan mountains. - -The ancient Luca, commanding the valley of the Serchio, is first -mentioned as the place to which Sempronius retired in 218 B.C. before -Hannibal; but there is some doubt as to the correctness of Livy's -statement, for, though there were continual wars with the Ligurians, -after this time, it is not mentioned again until we are told that in 177 -B.C. a Latin colony was founded there in territory offered by the Pisans -for the purpose.[1] It must have become a municipium by the _lex Julia_ -of 90 B.C., and it was here that Julius Caesar in 56 B.C. held his -famous conference with Pompey and Crassus, Luca then being still in -Liguria, not in Etruria. A little later a colony was conducted hither by -the triumvirs or by Octavian; whether after Philippi or after Actium is -uncertain. In the Augustan division of Italy Luca was assigned to the -7th region (Etruria); it is little mentioned in the imperial period -except as a meeting-point of roads--to Florentia (see Clodia, Via), Luna -and Pisae. The road to Parma given in the itineraries, according to some -authorities, led by Luna and the Cisa pass (the route taken by the -modern railway from Sarzana to Parma), according to others up the -Serchio valley and over the Sassalbo pass (O. Cuntz in _Jahreshefte des -oesterr. arch. Instituts_, 1904, 53). Though plundered and deprived of -part of its territory by Odoacer, Luca appears as an important city and -fortress at the time of Narses, who besieged it for three months in A.D. -553, and under the Lombards it was the residence of a duke or marquis -and had the privilege of a mint. The dukes gradually extended their -power over all Tuscany, but after the death of the famous Matilda the -city began to constitute itself an independent community, and in 1160 it -obtained from Welf VI., duke of Bavaria and marquis of Tuscany, the -lordship of all the country for 5 m. round, on payment of an annual -tribute. Internal discord afforded an opportunity to Uguccione della -Faggiuola, with whom Dante spent some time there, to make himself master -of Lucca in 1314, but the Lucchesi expelled him two years afterwards, -and handed over their city to Castruccio Castracane, under whose -masterly tyranny it became "for a moment the leading state of Italy," -until his death in 1328 (his tomb is in S. Francesco). Occupied by the -troops of Louis of Bavaria, sold to a rich Genoese Gherardino Spinola, -seized by John, king of Bohemia, pawned to the Rossi of Parma, by them -ceded to Martino della Scala of Verona, sold to the Florentines, -surrendered to the Pisans, nominally liberated by the emperor Charles -IV. and governed by his vicar, Lucca managed, at first as a democracy, -and after 1628 as an oligarchy, to maintain "its independence alongside -of Venice and Genoa, and painted the word Libertas on its banner till -the French Revolution." In the beginning of the 16th century one of its -leading citizens, Francesco Burlamacchi, made a noble attempt to give -political cohesion to Italy, but perished on the scaffold (1548); his -statue by Ulisse Cambi was erected on the Piazza San Michele in 1863. As -a principality formed in 1805 by Napoleon in favour of his sister Elisa -and her husband Bacchiocchi, Lucca was for a few years wonderfully -prosperous. It was occupied by the Neapolitans in 1814; from 1816 to -1847 it was governed as a duchy by Maria Luisa, queen of Etruria, and -her son Charles Louis; and it afterwards formed one of the divisions of -Tuscany. - -The bishops of Lucca, who can be traced back to 347, received -exceptional marks of distinction, such as the pallium in 1120, and the -archiepiscopal cross from Alexander II. In 1726 Benedict XIII. raised -their see to the rank of an archbishopric, without suffragans. - - See A. Mazzarosa, _Storia di Lucca_ (Lucca, 1833); E. Ridolfi, _L'Arte - in Lucca studiata nella sua Cattedrale_ (1882); _Guidi di Lucca; La - Basilica di S. Michele in Foro in Lucca_. (T. As.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Some confusion has arisen owing to the similarity of the names - Luca and Luna; the theory of E. Bormann in _Corp. Inscrip. Latin_. - (Berlin, 1888), xi. 295 is here followed. - - - - -LUCCA, BAGNI DI (Baths of Lucca, formerly _Bagno a Corsena_), a commune -of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Lucca, containing a number of -famous watering-places. Pop. (1901) 13,685. The springs are situated in -the valley of the Lima, a tributary of the Serchio; and the district is -known in the early history of Lucca as the Vicaria di Val di Lima. Ponte -Serraglio (16 m. N. of Lucca by rail) is the principal village (pop. -1312), but there are warm springs and baths also at Villa, Docce Bassi, -Bagno Caldo, &c. The springs do not seem to have been known to the -Romans. Bagno a Corsena is first mentioned in 1284 by Guidone de -Corvaia, a Pisan historian (Muratori, _R.I.S._ vol. xxii.). Fallopius, -who gave them credit for the cure of his own deafness, sounded their -praises in 1569; and they have been more or less in fashion since. The -temperature of the water varies from 98 deg. to 130 deg. Fahr.; in all -cases it gives off carbonic acid gas and contains lime, magnesium and -sodium products. In the village of Bagno Caldo there is a hospital -constructed largely at the expense of Nicholas Demidoff in 1826. In the -valley of the Serchio, 3 m. below Ponte a Serraglio, is the medieval -Ponte del Diavolo (1322) with its lofty central arch. - - - - -LUCCEIUS, LUCIUS, Roman orator and historian, friend and correspondent -of Cicero. A man of considerable wealth and literary tastes, he may be -compared with Atticus. Disgusted at his failure to become consul in 60, -he retired from public life, and devoted himself to writing a history of -the Social and Civil Wars. This was nearly completed, when Cicero -earnestly requested him to write a separate history of his (Cicero's) -consulship. Cicero had already sung his own praises in both Greek and -Latin, but thought that a panegyric by Lucceius, who had taken -considerable interest in the affairs of that critical period, would have -greater weight. Cicero offered to supply the material, and hinted that -Lucceius need not sacrifice laudation to accuracy. Lucceius almost -promised, but did not perform. Nothing remains of any such work or of -his history. In the civil war he took the side of Pompey; but, having -been pardoned by Caesar, returned to Rome, where he lived in retirement -until his death. - - Cicero's _Letters_ (ed. Tyrrell and Purser), especially _Ad Fam._ v. - 12; and Orelli, _Onomasticon Tullianum_. - - - - -LUCCHESINI, GIROLAMO (1751-1825), Prussian diplomatist, was born at -Lucca on the 7th of May 1751, the eldest son of Marquis Lucchesini. In -1779 he went to Berlin where Frederick the Great gave him a court -appointment, making use of him in his literary relations with Italy. -Frederick William II., who recognized his gifts for diplomacy, sent him -in 1787 to Rome to obtain the papal sanction for the appointment of a -coadjutor to the bishop of Mainz, with a view to strengthening the -German Furstenbund. In 1788 he was sent to Warsaw, and brought about a -rapprochement with Prussia and a diminution of Russian influence at -Warsaw. He was accredited ambassador to the king and republic of Poland -on the 12th of April 1789. Frederick William was at that time -intriguing with Turkey, then at war with Austria and Russia. Lucchesini -was to rouse Polish feeling against Russia, and to secure for Prussia -the concourse of Poland in the event of war with Austria and Russia. All -his power of intrigue was needed in the conduct of these hazardous -negotiations, rendered more difficult by the fact that Prussian policy -excluded the existence of a strong Polish government. A Prusso-Polish -alliance was concluded in March 1790. Lucchesini had been sent in -January of that year to secure the alliance of Saxony against Austria, -and in September he was sent to Sistova, where representatives of the -chief European powers were engaged in settling the terms of peace -between Austria and Turkey, which were finally agreed upon on the 4th of -August 1791. Before he returned to Warsaw the Polish treaty of which he -had been the chief author had become a dead letter owing to the -engagements made between Prussia and Austria at Reichenbach in July -1790, and Prussia was already contemplating the second partition of -Poland. He was recalled at the end of 1791, and in July 1792 he joined -Frederick William in the invasion of France. He was to be Prussian -ambassador in Paris when the allied forces should have reinstated the -authority of Louis XVI. He was opposed alike to the invasion of France -and the Austrian alliance, but his prepossessions did not interfere with -his skilful conduct of the negotiations with Kellermann after the allies -had been forced to retire by Dumouriez's guns at Valmy, nor with his -success in securing the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt's assistance -against France. In 1793 he was appointed ambassador to Vienna, with the -ostensible object of securing financial assistance for the Rhenish -campaign. He accompanied Frederick William through the Polish campaign -of 1793-94, and in the autumn returned to Vienna. His anti-Austrian bias -made him extremely unpopular with the Austrian court, which asked in -vain for his recall in 1795. In 1797, after a visit to Italy in which he -had an interview with Napoleon at Bologna, these demands were renewed -and acceded to. In 1800 he was sent by Frederick William III. on a -special mission to Paris. Despatches in which he expressed his distrust -of Bonaparte's peaceful professions and his conviction of the danger of -the continuance of a neutral policy were intercepted by the first -consul, who sought his recall, but eventually accepted him as regular -ambassador (1802). He consistently sought friendly relations between -France and Prussia, but he warned his government in 1806 of Napoleon's -intention of restoring Hanover to George III. and of Murat's aggressions -in Westphalia. He was superseded as ambassador in Paris in September -just before the outbreak of war. After the disaster of Jena on the 14th -of October he had an interview with Duroc near Wittenberg to seek terms -of peace. After two unsuccessful attempts at negotiation, the first -draft being refused by Napoleon, the second by Frederick William, he -joined the Prussian court at Konigsberg only to learn that his services -were no longer required. He then joined the court of Elisa, grand -duchess of Tuscany, at Lucca and Florence, and after Napoleon's fall -devoted himself to writing. He died on the 20th of October 1825. - - He published in 1819 three volumes, _Sulle cause et gli effetti della - confederazione rhenana_, at Florence, but revealed little that was not - already available in printed sources. His memoirs remained in MS. His - despatches are edited by Bailleu in _Preussen und Frankreich_ - (Leipzig, 1887, _Publikationen aus den preussischen Staatsarchiven_). - - - - -LUCENA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Cordova, 37 m. -S.S.E. of Cordova, on the Madrid-Algeciras railway. Pop. (1900) 21,179. -Lucena is situated on the Cascajar, a minor tributary of the Genil. The -parish church dates from the beginning of the 16th century. The chief -industries are the manufacture of matches, brandy, bronze lamps and -pottery, especially the large earthenware jars (_tinajas_) used -throughout Spain for the storage of oil and wine, some of which hold -more than 300 gallons. There is considerable trade in agricultural -produce, and the horse fair is famous throughout Andalusia. Lucena was -taken from the Moors early in the 14th century; it was in the attempt to -recapture it that King Boabdil of Granada was taken prisoner in 1483. - - - - -LUCERA, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, 12(1/2) m. W.N.W. by -rail of Foggia. Pop. (1901) 16,962. It is situated upon a lofty plateau, -the highest point of which (823 ft.), projecting to the W., was the -ancient citadel, and is occupied by the well-preserved castle erected by -Frederick II., and rebuilt by Pierre d'Angicourt about 1280. The -cathedral, originally Romanesque, but restored after 1300 is in the -Gothic style; the facade is good, and so is the ciborium. The interior -was restored in 1882. The town occupies the site of the ancient Luceria, -the key of the whole country. According to tradition the temple of -Minerva, founded by Diomede, contained the Trojan Palladium, and the -town struck numerous bronze coins; but in history it is first heard of -as on the Roman side in the Samnite Wars (321 B.C.), and in 315 or 314 -B.C. a Latin colony was sent here. It is mentioned in subsequent -military history, and its position on the road from Beneventum, via -Aecae (mod. _Troja_) to Sipontum, gave it some importance. Its wool was -also renowned. It now contains no ancient remains above ground, though -several mosaic pavements have been found and there are traces of the -foundations of an amphitheatre outside the town on the E. The town-hall -contains a statue of Venus, a mosaic and some inscriptions (but cf. Th. -Mommsen's remarks on the local neglect of antiquities in _Corp. Inscr. -Lat._ ix. 75). In 663 it was destroyed by Constans II., and was only -restored in 1223 by Frederick II., who transported 20,000 Saracens -hither from Sicily. They were at first allowed religious freedom, but -became Christians under compulsion in 1300. Up to 1806 Lucera was the -capital of the provinces of Basilicata and Molise. (T. As.) - - - - -LUCERNE (Ger. _Luzern_; Ital. _Lucerna_), one of the cantons of central -Switzerland. Its total area is 579.3 sq. m., of which 530.2 sq. m. are -classed as "productive" (forests covering 120.4 sq. m., and vineyards -.04 sq. m.). It contains no glaciers or eternal snows, its highest -points being the Brienzer Rothhorn (7714 ft.) and Pilatus (6995 ft.), -while the Rothstock summit (5453 ft.) and the Kaltbad inn, both on the -Rigi, are included in the canton, the loftiest point of the Rigi range -(the Kulm) being entirely in Schwyz. The shape of the canton is an -irregular quadrilateral, due to the gradual acquisition of rural -districts by the town, which is its historical centre. The northern -portion, about 15(1/2) sq. m., of the Lake of Lucerne is in the canton. -Its chief river is the Reuss, which flows through it for a short -distance only receiving the Kleine Emme that flows down through the -Entlebuch. In the northern part the Wigger, the Suhr and the Wynen -streams flow through shallow valleys, separated by low hills. The canton -is fairly well supplied with railways. The lakes of Sempach and Baldegg -are wholly within the canton, which also takes in small portions of -those of Hallwil and of Zug. - -In 1900 the population numbered 146,519, of which 143,337 were -German-speaking, 2204 Italian-speaking and 747 French-speaking, while -134,020 were Romanists, 12,085 Protestants and 319 Jews. Its capital is -Lucerne (q.v.); the other towns are Kriens (pop. 5951), Willisau (4131), -Ruswil (3928), Littau (3699), Emmen (3162) and Escholzmatt (3127). The -peasants are a fine race, and outside the chief centres for foreign -visitors have retained much of their primitive simplicity of manners and -many local costumes. In the Entlebuch particularly the men are of a -robust type, and are much devoted to wrestling and other athletic -exercises. That district is mainly pastoral and is famous for its butter -and cheese. Elsewhere in the canton the pastoral industry (including -swine-breeding) is more extended than agriculture, while chiefly in and -around Lucerne there are a number of industrial establishments. The -_industrie des etrangers_ is greatly developed in places frequented by -foreign visitors. The population as a whole is Conservative in politics -and devotedly Romanist in religion. But owing to the settlement of many -non-Lucerne hotel-keepers and their servants in the town of Lucerne the -capital is politically Radical. - -The canton ranks officially third in the Swiss confederation next after -Zurich and Bern. It was formerly in the diocese of Constance, and is now -in that of Basel. It contains 5 administrative districts and 107 -communes. The existing cantonal constitution dates in its main features -from 1875. The legislature or _Grossrath_ consists of members elected in -55 electoral circles, in the proportion of 1 to every 1000 souls (or -fraction over 500) of the Swiss population, and lasts for 4 years. On -the 4th of April 1909 proportional representation was adopted for -elections of members of the _Grossrath_. Since 1905 the executive of 7 -members is elected by a popular vote for 4 years, as are the 2 members -of the federal _Standerath_ and the 7 members of the federal -_Nationalrath_. Five thousand citizens can demand a facultative -referendum as to all legislative projects and important financial -decrees, or as to the revision of the cantonal constitution, while the -same number can also revoke the mandate of the cantonal legislature -before its proper term of office has ended, though this revocation does -not affect the executive. Four thousand citizens have the right of -"initiative" as to constitutional amendments or legislative projects. - -The canton is composed of the various districts which the town acquired, -the dates being those at which the particular region was finally -secured--Weggis (1380), Rothenburg, Kriens, Horw, Sempach and Hochdorf -(all in 1394), Wolhusen and the Entlebuch (1405), the so-called -"Habsburger region" to the N.E. of the town of Lucerne (1406), Willisau -(1407), Sursee and Beromunster (1415), Malters (1477) and Littau (1481), -while in 1803, in exchange for Hitzkirch, Merenschwand (held since 1397) -was given up. (W. A. B. C.) - - - - -LUCERNE, the capital of the Swiss canton of the same name. It is one of -the principal tourist centres of Switzerland, being situated on the St -Gotthard railway line, by which it is 59 m. from Basel and 180 m. from -Milan. Its prosperity has always been bound up with the St Gotthard -Pass, so that the successive improvements effected on that route (mule -path in the 13th century, carriage road 1820-1830, and railway tunnel in -1882) have had much effect on its growth. It is beautifully situated on -the banks of the river Reuss, just as it issues from the Lake of -Lucerne, while to the south-west rises the rugged range of Pilatus, -balanced on the east by the more smiling ridge of the Rigi and the calm -waters of the lake. The town itself is very picturesque. On the rising -ground to its north still stand nine of the towers that defended the old -town wall on the Musegg slope. The Reuss is still crossed by two quaint -old wooden bridges, the upper being the Kapellbrucke (adorned by many -paintings illustrating the history of Switzerland and the town and -clinging to the massive Wasserthurm) and the lower the Muhlenbrucke -(also with paintings, this time of the Dance of Death). The old -Hofbrucke (on the site of the Schweizerhof quay) was removed in 1852, -when the process of embanking the shore of the lake began, the result -being a splendid series of quays, along which rise palatial hotels. The -principal building is the twin-towered Hofkirche (dedicated to St Leger -or Leodegar) which, though in its present form it dates only from -1633-1635, was the centre round which the town gradually gathered; -originally it formed part of a Benedictine monastery, but since 1455 has -been held by a college of secular canons. It has a fine 17th-century -organ. The 16th-century town-hall (Rathhaus) now houses the cantonal -museum of antiquities of all dates. Both the cantonal and the town -libraries are rich in old books, the latter being now specially devoted -to works (MS. or printed) relating to Swiss history before 1848. The -Lion monument, designed by Thorwaldsen, dedicated in 1821, and -consisting of a dying lion hewn out of the living sandstone, -commemorates the officers and men of the Swiss Guard (26 officers and -about 760 men) who were slain while defending the Tuileries in Paris in -1792, and is reflected in a clear pool at its foot. In the immediate -neighbourhood is the Glacier Garden, a series of potholes worn in the -sandstone rock bed of an ancient glacier. Among modern buildings are the -railway station, the post office and the Museum of War and Peace, all in -the new quarter on the left bank of the Reuss. In the interior of the -town are many quaint old private houses. In 1799 the population numbered -but 4337, but had doubled by 1840. Since then the rise has been rapid -and continuous, being 29,255 in 1900. The vast majority are -German-speaking (in 1900 there were 1242 Italian-speaking and 529 -French-speaking persons) and Romanists (in 1900 there were 4933 -Protestants and 299 Jews). - -The nucleus of the town was a Benedictine monastery, founded about 750 -on the right bank of the Reuss by the abbey of Murbach in Alsace, of -which it long remained a "cell." It is first mentioned in a charter of -840 under the name of "Luciaria," which is probably derived from that of -the patron saint of the monastery, St Leger or Leodegar (in O. Ger. -_Leudegar_ or _Lutgar_)--the form "Lucerrun" is first found in 1252. -Under the shadow of this monastery there grew up a small village. The -germs of a municipal constitution appear in 1252, while the growing -power of the Habsburgs in the neighbourhood weakened the ties that bound -Lucerne to Murbach. In 1291 the Habsburgs finally purchased Lucerne from -Murbach, an act that led a few weeks later to the foundation of the -Swiss Confederation, of which Lucerne became the fourth member (the -first town to be included) in 1332. But it did not get rid of all traces -of Habsburg domination till after the glorious victory of Sempach -(1386). That victory led also to the gradual acquisition of territory -ruled by and from the town. At the time of the Reformation Lucerne clave -to the old faith, of which ever since it has been the great stronghold -in Switzerland. The papal nuncio resided here from 1601 to 1873. In the -16th century, as elsewhere in Switzerland, the town government fell into -the hands of an aristocratic oligarchy, whose power, though shaken by -the great peasant revolt (1653) in the Entlebuch, lasted till 1798. -Under the Helvetic republic (1798-1803) Lucerne was the seat of the -central government, under the Act of Mediation (1803-1814) one of the -six "Directorial" cantons and from 1815 to 1848 one of the three ruling -cantons. The patrician government was swept away by the cantonal -constitution of 1831. But in 1841 the Conservatives regained power, -called in the Jesuits (1844) and so brought about the Sonderbund War -(1847) in which they were defeated, the decisive battle taking place at -Gisikon, not far from Lucerne. Since 1848 Lucerne has been in disfavour -with the Radicals who control the federal government, and has not been -chosen as the site of any great federal institution. The Radicals lost -power in the canton in 1871, after which date the Conservatives became -predominant in the canton, though in the town the Radicals were in the -majority. - - See J. J. Blumer, _Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte d. Schweiz. - Demokratien_ (3 vols., St Gall, 1850-1859); A. L. Gassmann, _Das - Volkslied im Luzerner Wiggerthal u. Hinterland_ (Basel, 1906); - _Geschichtsfreund_ (organ of the Historical Society of the Forest - Cantons) from 1843. A. von Liebenau, _Charakterbilder aus Luzern's - Vergangenheit_ (2 vols., Lucerne, 1884-1891); T. von Liebenau, _Das - alte Luzern_ (Lucerne, 1881) and "Der luzernische Bauernkrieg vom - 1653" (3 articles in vols. xviii.-xx., 1893-1895, of the _Jahrbuch f. - Schweizerische Geschichte_); _Heimathkunde fur den Kanton Luzern_ (6 - vols., Lucerne, 1867-1883); A. Lutolf, _Sagen, Brauche, Legenden aus - d. Funf Orten_ (Lucerne, 1862); K. Pfyffer, _Der Kanton Luzern_ (2 - vols., 1858-1859) and _Geschichte d. Stadt u. Kanton Luzern_ (2 vols., - new ed., 1861); A. P. von Segesser, _Rechtsgeschichte d. Stadt u. - Republik Luzern_ (4 vols., 1850-1858) and _45 Jahre (1841-1887) im - Luzernischen Staatsdienst_ (Bern, 1887); J. Sowerby, _The Forest - Cantons of Switzerland_ (London, 1892). (W. A. B. C.) - - - - -LUCERNE, LAKE OF, the name usually given by foreigners to the principal -lake of Central Switzerland. In French it is called the _Lac des Quatre -Cantons_, and in German the _Vierwaldstattersee_, this term being often -wrongly translated "Lake of the Four Forest Cantons," whereas it means -the "Lake of the Four Valleys"--_valles_--which form the four Cantons of -Lucerne, Unterwalden, Uri and Schwyz. It takes its name from the town of -Lucerne, which is situated at its west end, just where the Reuss issues -from the lake, after having entered it at Fluelen at the east end and so -practically formed it; the Muota enters the lake at Brunnen (northern -shore) and the two mountain streams called the Engelberg and the Sarnen -Aa at Buochs and Alpnachstad respectively (S.). The lake is generally -supposed to be, on the whole, the most beautiful in Switzerland. This is -partly due to the steep limestone mountains between which it lies, the -best known being the Rigi (5906 ft.) to the N., and Pilatus (6995 ft.) -to the S.W., and to the great promontories that thrust themselves into -its waters, such as those of Horw (S.), of Burgenstock (S.), of -Meggenhorn (N.) and of Seelisberg (S.), and partly to the irregularity -of its shape. It is, in fact, composed of four main basins (with two -side basins), which represent four different valleys, orographically -distinct, and connected only by narrow and tortuous channels. There is, -first, the most easterly basin, the _Bay of Uri_, extending from Fluelen -on the south to Brunnen on the north. At Brunnen the great delta of the -Muota forces the lake to the west, so that it forms the _Bay of Gersau_ -or the _Gulf of Buochs_, extending from the promontory of Seelisberg -(E.) to that of the Burgenstock (W.). Another narrow strait between the -two "Noses" (_Nasen_) leads westwards to the _Basin of Weggis_, enclosed -between the Rigi (N.) and the Burgenstock promontory (S.). This last -named bay forms the eastern arm of what is called the Cross of Lucerne, -the western arm of which is formed by the Bay of Lucerne, while the -northern arm is the Bay of Kussnacht and the southern that of -_Hergiswil_, prolonged S.W. by the _Bay of Alpnach_, with which it is -joined by a very narrow channel, spanned by the Acher iron bridge. The -Bay of Uri offers the sternest scenery, but is the most interesting, by -reason of its connexion with early Swiss history--at Brunnen the -Everlasting League of 1315 was really made, while the legendary place of -meeting of the founders of Swiss freedom was the meadow of the Rutli on -the west (purchased by the Confederation in 1859), and the site of -Tell's leap is marked by the Chapel of Tell (E.). Nearly opposite -Brunnen, close to the west shore, an isolated rock (the _Schillerstein_ -or _Mythenstein_) now bears an inscription in honour of Friedrich -Schiller, the author of the famous play of _William Tell_ (1804). In the -Bay of Gersau the most interesting spot is the village of Gersau (N.), -which formed an independent republic from 1390 to 1798, but in 1818 was -finally united to the canton of Schwyz. In the next basin to the west is -Weggis (N.), also for long in the middle ages a small independent state; -to the S.E. of Weggis, on the north shore of the lake, is Vitznau, -whence a rack railway (1871) leads up to the top of the Rigi (4-1/4 m.), -while S.W. of Weggis, on the south shore of the lake, is Kehrsiten, -whence an electric railway leads up to the great hotels on the -Burgenstock promontory (2854 ft.). The town of Lucerne is connected with -Fluelen by the main line of the St Gotthard railway (32 m.), though only -portions of this line (from Lucerne to Kussnacht, 10(1/2) m., and from -Brunnen to Fluelen, 7 m.) run along the shore; Brunnen is also connected -with Fluelen by the splendid carriage road known as the Axenstrasse -(7-1/4 m.) and is the starting-point of an electric line (1905) up to -Morschach (S.E.) and the great hotels of Axenstein and Axenfels near it. -On the promontory between Lucerne and Kussnacht stands the castle of New -Habsburg (modern), while from Kussnacht a carriage road leads through -the remains of the "Hollow Way" (_Hohle Gasse_), the scene of the -legendary murder of Gessler by William Tell. The west shore of the -southern arm, or the basin of Hergiswil and the Bay of Alpnach, is -traversed from Horw to Alpnachstad by the Brunig railway (5-1/2 m.), -which continues towards Sarnen (Obwalden) and the Bernese Oberland, S.W. -from Alpnachstad, whence a rack railway leads N.W. up Pilatus (2-3/4 -m.). Opposite Hergiswil, but on the east shore of the Basin of -Hergiswil, is Stanstad, the port of Stans (Nidwalden), which is -connected by an electric line with Engelberg (14 m.). The first steamer -was placed on the lake in 1835. Lucerne is the only town of importance, -but several spots serve as ports for neighbouring towns or large -villages (Brunnen for Schwyz, Fluelen for Altdorf, Stanstad for Stans, -Alpnachstad for Sarnen). Most of the villages on the shores are -frequented in summer by visitors (Gersau also in winter), especially -Hertenstein, Weggis, Gersau, Brunnen, Beckenried and Hergiswil, while -great hotels, commanding magnificent views, have been built on heights -above it, such as the Burgenstock, Seelisberg, and near Morschach, above -Brunnen, besides those on the Rigi, Pilatus and the Stanserhorn. The -area of the lake is about 44(1/2) sq. m., its length about 24 m., its -greatest width only 2 m. and its greatest depth 702 ft., while the -surface of the water is 1434 ft. above sea-level. Of the total area -about 15(1/2) sq. m. are in the Canton of Lucerne, 13 sq. m. in that of -Nidwalden, 7(1/2) sq. m. in that of Uri, 7(1/2) sq. m. in that of -Schwyz, and about 1 sq. m. in that of Obwalden. (W. A. B. C.) - - - - -LUCERNE, PURPLE MEDICK or ALFALFA, known botanically as _Medicago -sativa_, a plant of the natural order Leguminosae. In England it is -still commonly called "lucerne," but in America "alfalfa," an Arabic -term ("the best fodder"), which, owing to its increasing cultivation in -the western hemisphere, has come into widening usage since the -introduction of the plant by the Spaniards. It is an erect perennial -herb with a branched hollow stem 1 to 2 ft. high, trifoliolate leaves, -short dense racemes of small yellow, blue or purple flowers, and downy -pods coiled two or three times in a loose spiral. It has a -characteristic long tap-root, often extending 15 ft. or more into the -soil. It is a native of the eastern Mediterranean region, but was -introduced into Italy in the 1st century A.D., and has become more -widely naturalized in Europe; it occurs wild in hedges and fields in -Britain, where it was first cultivated about 1650. It seems to have been -taken from Spain to Mexico and South America in the 16th century, but -the extension of its cultivation in the Western States of the American -Union practically dates from the middle of the 19th century, and in -Argentina its development as a staple crop is more recent. It is much -cultivated as a forage crop in France and other parts of the continent -of Europe, but has not come into such general use in Britain, where, -however, it is frequently met with in small patches in districts where -the soil is very light, with a dry subsoil. Its thick tap-roots -penetrate very deeply into the soil; and, if a good cover is once -obtained, the plants will yield abundant cuttings of herbage for eight -or ten years, provided they are properly top-dressed and kept free from -perennial weeds. The time to cut it is, as with clover and sainfoin, -when it is in early flower. - -[Illustration: Lucerne (_Medicago sativa_), 1/2 nat. size. - - 1, Flower, enlarged. - 2, Half-ripe fruit, 3/4 nat. size. - 3, Fruit, enlarged.] - -In the United States alfalfa has become the staple leguminous forage -crop throughout the western half of the country. Some idea of the -increase in its cultivation may be obtained from the figures for Kansas, -where in 1891 alfalfa was cultivated over 34,384 acres, while in 1907 -the number was 743,050. The progress of irrigation has been an important -factor in many districts. The plant requires a well-drained soil (deep -and permeable as possible), rich in lime and reasonably free from weeds. - - See, for practical directions as to cultivation, _Farmers' Bulletin_ - 339 of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, by J. M. Westgate - (Washington, December 1908). - - - - -LUCHAIRE, DENIS JEAN ACHILLE (1846-1908), French historian, was born in -Paris on the 24th of October 1846. In 1879 he became a professor at -Bordeaux and in 1889 professor of medieval history at the Sorbonne; in -1895 he became a member of the _Academie des sciences morales et -politiques_, where he obtained the Jean Reynaud prize just before his -death on the 14th of November 1908. The most important of Achille -Luchaire's earlier works is his _Histoire des institutions monarchiques -de la France sous les premiers Capetiens_ (1883 and again 1891); he also -wrote a _Manuel des institutions francaises: periode des Capetiens -directs_ (1892); _Louis VI. le Gros, annales de sa vie et de son regne_ -(1890); and _Etude sur les actes de Louis VII._ (1885). His later -writings deal mainly with the history of the papacy, and took the form -of an elaborate work on Pope Innocent III. This is divided into six -parts: (1.) _Rome et Italie_ (1904); (ii.) _La Croisade des Albigeois_ -(1905); (iii.) _La Papaute et l'empire_ (1905); (iv.) _La Question -d'Orient_ (1906); (v.) _Les Royautes vassales du Saint-Siege_ (1908); -and (vi.) _Le Concile de Latran et la reforme de l'Eglise_ (1908). He -wrote two of the earlier volumes of E. Lavisse's _Histoire de France_. - - - - -LUCHU ARCHIPELAGO (called also RIUKIU, LOO-CHOO and LIUKIU), a long -chain of islands belonging to Japan, stretching from a point 80 m. S. of -Kiushiu to a point 73 m. from the N.E. coast of Formosa, and lying -between 24 deg. and 30 deg. N. and 123 deg. and 130 deg. E. Japanese -cartographers reckon the Luchu islands as 55, having a total coast-line -of 768 m., an area of 935 sq. m., and a population of about 455,000. -They divide them into three main groups, of which the northern is called -Oshima-shoto; the central, Okinawa-gunto; and the southern, -Sakishima-retto. The terms _shoto_, _gunto_ and _retto_ signify -"archipelago," "cluster of islands" and "string of islands" -respectively. The last-named group is subdivided into Miyako-gunto and -Yayeyama-gunto. The principal islands of these various groups are:-- - -_Oshima-shoto_-- - - Amami-Oshima 34 m. long and 17 m. broad - Tokuno-shima 16 " 8(1/2) " - -_Okinawa-gunto_-- - - Okinawa-shima (Great Luchu) 63(1/2) m. long and 14(1/2) m. broad - Kume-shima 9(3/4) " 7(1/2) " - Okinoerabu-shima 9(1/2) " 5 " - Ihiya-shima 5 " 2(1/2) " - -_Miyako-gunto_-- - - Miyako-shima 12(1/4) m. long and 12 m. broad - Erabu-shima 4(3/4) " 3(1/2) " - -_Yayeyama-gunto_-- - - Ishigaki-shima 24(1/2) m. long and 14(1/2) m. broad - Iriomoto-shima 14(1/2) " 14 " - Yonakuni-shima 7(1/3) " 3(1/2) " - -The remaining islands of the archipelago are of very small size, -although often thickly populated. Almost at the extreme north of the -chain are two islands with active volcanoes: Nakano-shima (3485 ft.) and -Suwanose-shima (2697 ft.), but the remaining members of the group give -no volcanic indications, and the only other mountain of any size is -Yuwan-dake (2299 ft.) in Amami-Oshima. The islands "are composed chiefly -of Palaeozoic rocks--limestones and quartzites found in the west, and -clay, slate, sandstone and pyroxenite or amphibolite on the east.... -Pre-Tertiary rocks have been erupted through these. The outer -sedimentary zone is of Tertiary rocks."[1] The capital is Shuri in -Okinawa, an old-fashioned place with a picturesque castle. The more -modern town of Nafa, on the same island, possesses the principal harbour -and has considerable trade. - - The scenery of Luchu is unlike that of Japan. Though so close to the - tropics, the islands cannot be said to present tropical features: the - bamboo is rare; there is no high grass or tangled undergrowth; open - plains are numerous; the trees are not crowded together; lakes are - wanting; the rivers are insignificant; and an unusual aspect is - imparted to the scenery by numerous coral crags. The temperature in - Nafa ranges from a mean of 82 deg. F. in July to 60 deg. in January. - The climate is generally (though not in all the islands) pleasant and - healthy, in spite of much moisture, the rainfall being very heavy. - - The fauna includes wild boars and deer, rats and bats. Excellent small - ponies are kept, together with cattle, pigs and goats. The majority of - the islands are infested with venomous snakes called _habu_ - (_Trimeresurus_), which attain a length of 6 to 7 ft. and a diameter - of from 2(1/2) to 3 in. Their bite generally causes speedy death, and - in the island of Amami-Oshima they claim many victims every year. The - most important cultivated plant is the sugar-cane, which provides the - principal staple of trade. - - Luchu is noted for the production of particularly durable - vermilion-coloured lacquer, which is much esteemed for table utensils - in Japan. The islands also manufacture certain fabrics which are - considered a speciality. These are _Riukiu-tsumugi_, a kind of fine - pongee; the so-called _Satsuma-gasuri_, a cotton fabric greatly used - for summer wear; _basho-fu_, or banana-cloth (called also - _aka-basho_), which is woven from the fibre of a species of banana; - and _hoso-jofu_, a particularly fine hempen stuff, made in - Miyako-shima, and demanding such difficult processes that six months - are required to weave and dye a piece 9(1/2) yds. long. - - _People._--Although the upper classes in Luchu and Japan closely - resemble each other, there are palpable differences between the lower - classes, the Luchuans being shorter and better proportioned than the - Japanese; having higher foreheads, eyes not so deeply set, faces less - flattened, arched and thick eyebrows, better noses, less marked - cheek-bones and much greater hairiness. The last characteristic has - been attributed to the presence of Ainu blood, and has suggested a - theory that when the Japanese race entered south-western Japan from - Korea, they drove the Ainu northwards and southwards, one portion of - the latter finding their way to Luchu, the other to Yezo. Women of the - upper class never appear in public in Luchu, and are not even alluded - to in conversation, but women of the lower orders go about freely with - uncovered faces. The Luchu costume resembles that of Japan, the only - marked difference being that the men use two hairpins, made of gold, - silver, pewter or wood, according to the rank of the wearer. Men shave - their faces until the age of twenty-five, after which moustache and - beard are allowed to grow, though the cheeks are kept free from hair. - Their burial customs are peculiar and elaborate, and their large - sepulchres, generally mitre-shaped, and scattered all over the - country, according to Chinese fashion, form a striking feature of the - landscape. The marriage customs are also remarkable. Preliminaries are - negotiated by a middleman, as in China and Japan, and the subsequent - procedure extends over several days. The chief staple of the people's - diet is the sweet potato, and pork is the principal luxury. An ancient - law, still in force, requires each family to keep four pigs. In times - of scarcity a species of sago (obtained from the _Cycas revoluta_) is - eaten. There is a remarkable absence of religious influence in Luchu. - Places of worship are few, and the only function discharged by - Buddhist priests seems to be to officiate at funerals. The people are - distinguished by gentleness, courtesy and docility, as well as by - marked avoidance of crime. With the exception of petty thefts, their - Japanese administrators find nothing to punish, and for nearly three - centuries no such thing as a lethal weapon has been known in Luchu. - Professor Chamberlain states that the Luchuan language resembles the - Japanese in about the same degree as Italian resembles French, and - says that they are sister tongues, many words being identical, others - differing only by letter changes which follow certain fixed analogies, - and sentences in the one being capable of translation into the other - word for word, almost syllable for syllable. - -_History._--Tinsunshi, "Grandson of Heaven," is the mythical founder of -the Luchu monarchy. Towards the close of the 12th century his -descendants were driven from the throne by rebellion, but the old -national party soon found a victorious leader in Shunten, son of -Tametomo, a member of the famous Minamoto family, who, having been -expelled from Japan, had come to Luchu and married there. The -introduction of the arts of reading and writing are assigned to -Shunten's reign. Chinese invasions of Luchu may be traced back to A.D. -605, but they did not result in annexation; and it was in 1372 that -China first obtained from the Luchuans recognition of supremacy. Luchuan -relations with Japan had long been friendly, but at the end of the 16th -century the king refused Japan assistance against Korea, and in 1609 the -prince of Satsuma invaded the islands with 3000 men, took the capital by -storm, captured the king and carried him off to Kagoshima. A few years -later he was restored to his throne on condition of acknowledging -Japanese suzerainty and paying tribute. The Luchuans nevertheless -continued to pay tribute to China also. - -The Chinese government, however, though taking a benevolent interest in -the welfare of the islanders, never attempted to bring them under -military sway. The incongruity of this state of affairs did not force -itself upon Japan's attention so long as her own empire was divided into -a number of semi-independent principalities. But in 1879 the Japanese -government, treating Luchu as an integral part of the mikado's -dominions, dethroned its prince, pensioned him as the other feudal -chiefs had been pensioned, and converted Luchu into a prefecture under -the name of Okinawa. This name signifies "extended rope," and alludes to -the attenuated nature of the archipelago. China remonstrating, a -conference was held in Peking, when plenipotentiaries of the two empires -signed an agreement to the effect that the archipelago should be divided -equally between the claimants. The Chinese government, however, refused -to ratify this compromise, and the Japanese continued their measures for -the effective administration of all the islands. Ultimately (1895) -Formosa also came into Japan's possession, and her title to the whole -chain of islands ceased to be disputed. - -Though Captain Broughton, of H.M.S. "Providence," was wrecked on -Miyako-shima and subsequently visited Nafa in 1797, it was not till the -"Alceste" and "Lyra" expedition in 1816-1817, under Captains Basil Hall -and Murray Maxwell, that detailed information was obtained about Luchu. -The people at that time showed a curious mixture of courtesy and -shyness. From 1844 efforts were made by both Catholic (French) and -Protestant missionaries to Christianize them, but though hospitable they -made it clear that these efforts were unwelcome. Further visits were -made by British vessels under Captain Beechey (1826) and Sir Edward -Belcher (1845). The American expedition under Commodore M. C. Perry -(1853) added largely to knowledge of the islands, and concluded a treaty -with the Luchuan government. - - See Basil Hall, _Account of a Voyage of Discovery to the West Coast of - Corea and the Great Loo-choo Island_ (London, 1818); Comm. M. C. - Perry, _Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the - China Seas and Japan_, 1852-1854 (Washington, 1856); B. H. - Chamberlain, "The Luchu Islands and their Inhabitants," in the - _Geographical Journal_, vol. v. (1895); "Contributions to a - Bibliography of Luchu," in _Trans. Asiatic Soc. Japan_, xxiv. (1896); - C. S. Leavenworth, "History of the Loo-choo Islands," _Journ. China - Br. Royal Asiatic Soc._ xxxvi. (1905). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] Note in _Geographical Journal_, xx., on S. Yoshiwara, "Raised - Coral Reefs in the Islands of the Riukiu Curve," in _Journ. Coll. of - Science, Imp. Univ., Tokyo_ (1901). - - - - -LUCIA (or LUCY), ST, virgin and martyr of Syracuse, whose name figures -in the canon of the mass, and whose festival is celebrated on the 13th -of December. According to the legend, she lived in the reign of -Diocletian. Her mother, having been miraculously cured of an illness at -the sepulchre of St Agatha in Catania, was persuaded by Lucia to -distribute all her wealth to the poor. The youth to whom the daughter -had been betrothed forthwith denounced her to Pascasius, the prefect, -who ordered that she should be taken away and subjected to shameful -outrage. But it was found that no force which could be applied was able -to move her from the spot on which she stood; even boiling oil and -burning pitch had no power to hurt her, until at last she was slain with -the sword. The most important documents concerning St Lucy are the -mention in the _Martyrologium Hieronymianum_ and the ancient inscription -discovered at Syracuse, in which her festival is indicated. Many -paintings represent her bearing her eyes in her hand or on a salver. -Some artists have even represented her blind, but nothing in her _Acta_ -justifies this representation. It is probable that it originated in a -play upon words (Lucia, from Lat. _lux_, light), just as St Clair is -invoked in cases of eye-disease. - - See O. Caietanus, _Vitae sanctorum Siculorum_, i. 114-121 (Palermo, - 1657); Ioannes de Ioanne, _Acta sincera sanctae Luciae_ (Palermo, - 1758); _Analecta Bollandiana_, xxii. 492; Cahier, _Caracteristiques - des saints_, i. 105 (Paris, 1867). (H. De.) - - - - -LUCIAN (d. 312), Christian martyr, was born, like the famous, heathen -writer of the same name, at Samosata. His parents, who were Christians, -died when he was in his twelfth year. In his youth he studied under -Macarius of Edessa, and after receiving baptism he adopted a strictly -ascetic life, and devoted himself with zeal to the continual study of -scripture. Settling at Antioch when Malchion was master of the Greek -school he became a presbyter, and, while supporting himself by his skill -as a rapid writer, became celebrated as a teacher, so that he is -regarded as the founder of the famous theological school of Antioch. He -did not escape suspicion of heresy, and is represented as the connecting -link between Paul of Samosata and Arius. Indeed, on the deposition of -the former (A.D. 268) he was excluded from ecclesiastical fellowship by -three successive bishops of Antioch, while Arius seems to have been -among his pupils (Theodoret, _Hist. Eccl._ i. 3, 4). He was, however, -restored before the outbreak of persecution, and the reputation won by -his high character and learning was confirmed by his courageous -martyrdom. He was carried to Nicomedia before Maximin Daza, and -persisting in his faith perished on the 7th of January 312, under -torture and hunger, which he refused to satisfy with food offered to -idols. His defence is preserved by Rufinus (ix. 6; on Eusebius, _Hist. -Eccl._ ix. 9). His remains were conveyed to Drepanum in Bithynia, and -under Constantine the town was founded anew in his honour with the name -of Helenopolis, and exempted from taxes by the emperor (A.D. 327) (see -_Chron. Pasch._, Bonn ed., p. 527). Here in 387, on the anniversary of -his death, Chrysostom delivered the panegyrical homily from which, with -notices in Eusebius, Theodoret and the other ecclesiastical historians, -the life by Jerome (_Vir. Ill._ cap. 77), but especially from the -account by S. Metaphrastes (cited at length in Bernhardy's notes to -Suidas, _s.v._ [Greek: notheuei]), the facts above given are derived. -See also, for the celebration of his day in the Syriac churches, Wright, -_Cat. of Syr._ MSS. p. 283. - - Jerome says that Lucian wrote _Libelli de fide_ and several letters, - but only a short fragment of one epistle remains (_Chron. Pasch._, ed. - Dindorf, i. 516). The authorship of a confession of faith ascribed to - Lucian and put forth at the semi-Arian synod of Antioch (A.D. 341) is - questioned. Lucian's most important literary labour was his edition of - the Greek Old Testament corrected by the Hebrew text, which, according - to Jerome (_Adv. Ruf._ ii. 77), was in current use from Constantinople - to Antioch. That the edition of Lucian is represented by the text used - by Chrysostom and Theodoret, as well as by certain extant MSS., such - as the Arundelian of the British Museum, was proved by F. Field - (_Prol. ad Origenis Hexapla_, cap. ix.). - - Before the publication of Field's _Hexapla_, Lagarde had already - directed his attention to the Antiochian text (as that of Lucian may - be called) and ultimately published the first part (Genesis, 2 Esdras, - Esther) of a provisional reconstructed text. The distinguishing marks - of the Lucianic recension are thus summarized by S. R. Driver, _Notes - on Heb. Text of Samuel_, p. li. seq.: (1) The substitution of synonyms - for the words employed by the Septuagint; (2) the occurrence of double - renderings; (3) the occurrence of renderings "which presuppose a - Hebrew original self-evidently superior in the passages concerned to - the existing Massoretic text," a peculiarity which makes it very - important for the criticism of the Hebrew Bible. From a statement of - Jerome in his preface to the gospels it seems probable that Lucian had - also a share in fixing the Syrian recension of the New Testament text, - but of this it is impossible to speak with certainty. He was - associated in his work with the Hebraist Dorotheus. - - See, generally, A. Harnack's art. in Hauck-Herzog, _Realencyk_. vol. - xi., and for "remains" Routh, Rel. Sac. iv. 3-17. A full account of - his recension of the Septuagint is given in H. B. Swete's - _Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek_, p. 81 sqq.; and a good - account of his doctrinal position in the prolegomena to the volume on - _Athanasius_ in the series of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (p. - xxviii.) and A. Harnack's _History of Dogma_, especially vol. iv. - - - - -LUCIAN [[Greek: Loukianos]] (c. A.D. 120-180), Greek satirist of the -Silver Age of Greek literature, was born at Samosata on the Euphrates in -northern Syria. He tells us in the _Somnium_ or _Vita Luciani_, 1, that, -his means being small, he was at first apprenticed to his maternal -uncle, a statuary, or rather sculptor of the stone pillars called -Hermae. Having made an unlucky beginning by breaking a marble slab, and -having been well beaten for it, he absconded and returned home. Here he -had a dream or vision of two women, representing Statuary and -Literature. Both plead their cause at length, setting forth the -advantages and the prospects of their respective professions; but the -youth chooses [Greek: Paideia], and decides to pursue learning. For some -time he seems to have made money as a [Greek: rhetor], following the -example of Demosthenes, on whose merits and patriotism he expatiates in -the dialogue _Demosthenis Encomium_. He was very familiar with the rival -schools of philosophy, and he must have well studied their teachings; -but he lashes them all alike, the Cynics, perhaps, being the chief -object of his derision. Lucian was not only a sceptic; he was a scoffer -and a downright unbeliever. He felt that men's actions and conduct -always fall far short of their professions and therefore he concluded -that the professions themselves were worthless, and a mere guise to -secure popularity or respect. Of Christianity he shows some knowledge, -and it must have been somewhat largely professed in Syria at the close -of the 2nd century.[1] In the _Philopatris_ (q.v.), though the dialogue -so called is generally regarded as spurious, there is a statement of the -doctrine of the Trinity,[2] and the "Galilaean who had ascended to the -third heaven" (12), and "renewed" ([Greek: anekainisen]) by the waters -of baptism, may possibly allude to St Paul. The doctrines of the [Greek: -Logos] and the "Light of the world," and that God is in heaven making a -record of the good and bad actions of men,[3] seem to have come from -the same source, though the notion of a written catalogue of human -actions to be used in judgment was familiar to Aeschylus and Euripides. - -As a satirist and a wit Lucian occupies in prose literature the unique -position which Aristophanes holds in Greek poetry. But whether he is a -mere satirist, who laughs while he lashes, or a misanthrope, who hates -while he derides, is not very clear. In favour of the former view it may -be said that the two main objects of his ridicule are mythology and the -sects of philosophy; in favour of the latter, his bitter exposure of -imposture and chicanery in the _Alexander_, and the very severe attacks -he makes on the "humbug" of philosophy,[4] which he everywhere assails -with the most acrimonious and contemptuous epithets. - -As a writer Lucian is fluent, easy and unaffected, and a close follower -of the best Attic models, such as Plato and the orators. His style is -simpler than Plutarch's, and some of his compositions, especially the -_Dialogues of the Gods_ (pp. 204-287) and _of the Marine Deities_ -(288-327), and, above all, the _Dialogues of the Dead_ (329-454), are -models of witty, polished and accurate Greek composition. Not less -clever, though rather lax in morality, are the [Greek: hetairikoi -dialogoi] (pp. 280-325), which remind us somewhat of the letters of -Alciphron. The sarcasms on the popular mythology, the conversations of -Pluto, Hermes, Charon and others of the powers in Hades, show a positive -disbelief in any future state of existence. The model Lucian followed in -these dialogues, as well in the style as in the sparkling and playful -repartee, was the Platonic conversations, founded on the drama, of which -the dialogue may be called the prose representative. Aristotle never -adopted it, perhaps regarding it as beneath the true dignity of -philosophy. The dialogue, in fact, was revived and improved by -Lucian,[5] the old traditions of the [Greek: logopoioi] and [Greek: -logographoi], and, above all, the immense influence of rhetoric as an -art, having thrown some discredit on a style of composition which, as -introduced by Plato, had formed quite a new era in Greek prose -composition. For rhetoric loved to talk, expatiate and declaim, while -dialectic strove to refute by the employment of question and answer, -often in the briefest form. - -Lucian evinces a perfect mastery over a language as wonderful in its -inflections as in its immense and varied vocabulary; and it is a -well-merited praise of the author to say that to a good Greek scholar -the pages of Lucian are almost as easy and as entertaining as an English -or French novel. It is true that he employs some forms and compounds -which were not in use in the time of Plato or Demosthenes, and, as one -who lived under Roman rule, has a tendency towards Latinisms. But his -own sentiments on the propriety of diction are shown by his reproof to -Lexiphanes, "if anywhere you have picked up an out-of-the-way word, or -coined one which you think good, you labour to adapt the sense of it, -and think it a loss if you do not succeed in dragging it in somewhere, -even when it is not really wanted." - -Lucian founded his style, or obtained his fluency, from the successful -study of rhetoric, by which he appears to have made a good income from -composing speeches which attracted much attention. At a later period in -life he seems to have held a lucrative legal office in Egypt, which he -retained till his death. - -His extant works are so numerous that of some of the principal only a -short sketch can be given. More than 80 pieces have come down to us -under his name (including three collections of 71 shorter dialogues), of -which about 20 are spurious or of doubtful authorship. To understand -them aright we must remember that the whole moral code, the entire "duty -of man," was included, in the estimation of the pagan Greek, in the -various schools of philosophy. As these were generally rivals, and the -systems they taught were more or less directly antagonistic, truth -presented itself to the inquirer, not as one, but as manifold. The -absurdity and the impossibility of this forms the burden of all Lucian's -writings. He could only form one conclusion, viz. that there is no such -thing as truth. - -One of the best written and most amusing treatises of antiquity is -Lucian's _True History_, forming a rather long narrative in two books, -which suggested Swift's _Gulliver's Travels_, Rabelais's _Voyage of -Pantagruel_ and Cyrano de Bergerac's _Journey to the Moon_. It is -composed, the author tells us in a brief introduction, not only as a -pastime and a diversion from severer studies, but avowedly as a satire -on the poets and logographers who had written so many marvellous tales. -He names Ctesias and Homer; but Hellanicus and Herodotus, perhaps other -[Greek: logopoioi] still earlier, appear to have been in his mind.[6] -The only true statement in his _History_, he wittily says (p. 72), is -that it contains nothing but lies from beginning to end. - -The main purport of the story is to describe a voyage to the moon. He -set out, he tells us, with fifty companions, in a well-provisioned ship, -from the "Pillars of Hercules," intending to explore the western ocean. -After eighty days' rough sailing they came to an island on which they -found a Greek inscription, "This was the limit of the expedition of -Heracles and Dionysus"; and the visit of the wine-god seemed attested by -some miraculous vines which they found there. After leaving the island -they were suddenly carried up, ship and all, by a whirlwind into the -air, and on the eighth day came in sight of a great round island shining -with a bright light (p. 77), and lying a little above the moon. In a -short time they are arrested by a troop of gigantic "horse-vultures" and -brought as captives to the "man in the moon," who proves to be Endymion. -He is engaged in a war with the inhabitants of the sun, which is ruled -by King Phaethon, the quarrel having arisen from an attempt to colonize -the planet Venus (Lucifer). The voyagers are enlisted as "Moonites," and -a long description follows of the monsters and flying dragons engaged in -the contest. A fight ensues, in which the slaughter is so great that the -very clouds are tinged with red (p. 84). The long description of the -inhabitants of the moon is extremely droll and original. After -descending safely into the sea, the ship is swallowed by a huge "sea -serpent" more than 100 miles long. The adventures during the long -confinement in the creature's belly are most amusing; but at last they -sail out through the chinks between the monster's teeth, and soon find -themselves at the "Fortunate Islands." Here they meet with the spirits -of heroes and philosophers of antiquity, on whom the author expatiates -at some length. The tale comes to an abrupt end with an allusion to -Herodotus in the promise that he "will tell the rest in his next books." - -Another curious and rather long treatise is entitled [Greek: Loukios he -Onos], the authorship of which is regarded as doubtful. Parts of the -story are coarse enough; the point turns on one Lucius visiting in a -Thessalian family, in which the lady of the house was a sorceress. -Having seen her changed into a bird by anointing herself with some -potent drug, he resolves to try a similar experiment on himself, but -finds that he has become an ass, retaining, however, his human senses -and memory. The mistake arose from his having filched the wrong -ointment; however, he is assured by the attendant, Palaestra, that if he -can but procure roses to eat, his natural form will be restored. In the -night a party of bandits break into the house and carry off the stolen -goods into the mountains on the back of the unfortunate donkey, who gets -well beaten for stumbling on the rough road. Seeing, as he fancies, some -roses in a garden, he goes in quest of them, and again gets beaten as a -thief by the gardener (p. 585). After many adventures with the bandits, -he attempts to run away, but is caught. A council is held, and he is -condemned to die together with a captive girl who had essayed to escape -on his back. Suddenly, however, soldiers appear, and the bandits are -arrested (p. 595). Again the ass escapes "to the great and populous city -of Beroea in Macedonia" (p. 603). Here he is sold to a strolling -conjurer, afterwards to a market-gardener; and both experiences are -alike painful. Again he passes into the possession of a cook, where he -gets fat and sleek on food more suited to his concealed humanity than -the hard fare he has of late lived upon (p. 614). At last, during an -exhibition in the theatre, he sees some roses being carried past, and, -making a successful rush to devour them, he recovers his former shape. -"I am Lucius," he exclaims to the wondering president of the exhibition, -"and my brother's name is Caius. It was a Thessalian witch that changed -me into a donkey." Thus all ends well, and he returns safe to his -country. - -The treatise _On the Syrian Goddess_ (Mylitta, the moon-goddess, the -Semitic Aphrodite) is written in the Ionic dialect in imitation perhaps -of the style of Herodotus, though the resemblance is by no means close. -The writer professes to be an Assyrian (p. 452), and to describe the -wonders in the various temples of Palestine and Syria; he descants on -the eunuchs of Syria and the origin of the self-imposed privation of -manhood professed and practised by the Galli. The account of the -temples, altars and sacrifices is curious, if really authentic; after -the manner of Pausanias it is little more than a list, with the reasons -in most cases added, or the origin of the custom explained. - -_De Morte Peregrini_ is a narrative of one Proteus, a Cynic, who after -professing various doctrines, and among them those of Christianity, -ended his own life by ascending a burning pyre (see PEREGRINUS PROTEUS). - -_Bis accusatus_ ("Twice Accused") is a dialogue beginning with a satire -on the folly of the popular notion that the gods alone are happy. Zeus -is represented as disproving this by enumerating the duties that fall to -their lot in the government of the world, and Hermes remarks on the vast -crowds of philosophers of rival sects, by whose influence the respect -and worship formerly paid to the gods have seriously declined. A trial -is supposed to be held under the presidency of the goddess [Greek: -Dike], between the Academy, the Porch, the schools of the Cynics and -Epicureans, and Pleasure, Revelry, Virtue, Luxury, &c., as variously -impugned or defended by them. Then Conversation and Rhetoric come before -the court, each having an action for defamation to bring against Syrus -the essayist, who of course is Lucian himself (p. 823). His defence is -heard, and in both cases he is triumphantly acquitted. This essay is -brilliant from its clever parodies of Plato and Demosthenes, and the -satire on the Socratic method of arguing by short questions and answers. - -The _Lover of Lying_ ([Greek: Philopseudes]) discusses the reason why -some persons seem to take pleasure in falsehood for its own sake. Under -the category of lying all mythology (e.g. that of Homer and Hesiod) is -included, and the question is asked, why the hearers of such stories are -amused by them? Quack remedies, charms and miraculous cures are included -among the most popular kinds of falsehood; witchcraft, spiritualism, -exorcism, expulsion of devils, spectres, are discussed in turn, and a -good ghost story is told in p. 57. An anecdote is given of Democritus, -who, to show his disbelief in ghosts, had shut himself up in a tomb, and -when some young men, dressed up with death's heads, came to frighten him -at night, he did not even look up, but called out to them, "Stop your -joking" (p. 59). This treatise, a very interesting one, concludes with -the reflection that truth and sound reason are the only remedies for -vain and superstitious terrors. - -The dialogue _Navigium seu Vota_ ("The Ship or the Wishes") gives an -apparently authentic account of the measurements and fittings of an -Egyptian ship which has arrived with a cargo of corn at the Peiraeus, -driven out of its course to Italy by adverse winds. The full length is -180 ft., the breadth nearly 50, the depth from deck to the bottom of the -hold 43 ft. The "wishes" turn on a party of friends, who have been to -see the ship, declaring what they would most desire to possess. One -would have the ship filled with gold, another a fine house with gold -plate; a third would be a "tyrant" with a large force devoted to his -interests; a fourth would like to make himself invisible, enter any -house that he pleased, and be transported through the air to the objects -of his affection. After hearing them all, the first speaker, Lycinus -(Lucian), says that he is content with the privilege of laughing -heartily at the vanity of human wishes, especially when they are those -of professed philosophers. - -The dialogue between Philo and Lycinus, _Convivium seu Lapithae_, is a -very amusing description of a banquet, at which a party of dignified -philosophers quarrelled over their viands at a marriage feast, and came -to blows. The style is a good imitation of Plato, and the scene reminds -one of the "clients' dinner" in the fifth satire of Juvenal. Matters -come to a climax by the attempt of one of the guests, Zenothemis, to -secure for himself a fatter fowl which had been served to his next -neighbour Hermon. Each seizes his bird and hits the other with it in the -face, at the same time pulling his beard. Then a general fight ensues. -The story is a satire on philosophy, the favourite topic of a writer who -believed neither in gods nor in men. - -The _Piscator_ ("Fisherman"), a dialogue between Lucian, Socrates, -Pythagoras, Empedocles, Plato and others, commences with a general -attack on the author as the enemy of philosophy. Socrates proposes that -the culprit should be tried, and that Philosophia should assist in the -prosecution. Lucian declares that he does not know where such a person -lives, long as he has been looking for her (11). She is found at last, -but declares Lucian has never disparaged her, but only impostors and -pretenders under her name (15). He makes a long defence (pp. 598-606), -abusing the philosophers in the sort of language in which some schools -of theologians abuse the monks of the middle ages (34). The trial is -held in the Acropolis of Athens, and the sham philosophers, dreading a -verdict against them, throw themselves from the rock. A Cynic flings -away his scrip in the hurry, and on examination it is found to contain, -not books or loaves of bread, but gold coins, dice and fragrant essences -(44). At the end Lucian baits his hook with a fig and a gold coin, and -catches gluttonous strollers in the city while seated on the wall of the -Acropolis. - -The _Voyage Home_ ([Greek: Kataplous]) opens with the complaint that -Charon's boat is kept waiting for Hermes, who soon appears with his -troop of ghosts. Among them is a [Greek: tyrannos], one Megapenthes, -who, as his name is intended to express, mourns greatly over the life he -has just left. Amusing appeals are made by other souls for leave to -return to life, and even bribes are offered to the presiding goddess of -destiny, but Clotho is inexorable. The moral of the piece is closely -like that of the parable of Dives and Lazarus: the rich and prosperous -bewail their fate, while the poor and afflicted find rest from their -troubles, and have no desire to return to them. The [Greek: tyrannos] -here is the man clothed in purple and fine linen, and Lucian shows the -same bitter dislike of tyrants which Plato and the tragic writers -display. The heavy penalty is adjudged to Megapenthes that he may ever -remember in the other world the misdeeds done in life. - -The _Sales of Lives_ is an auction held by Zeus to see what price the -lives of philosophers of the rival sects will bring. A Pythagorean, who -speaks in the Ionic dialect, first undergoes an examination as to what -he can teach, and this contains an enumeration of the doctrines usually -ascribed to that sect, including metempsychosis. He is valued at 7s. -6d., and is succeeded by Diogenes, who avows himself the champion of -truth, a cosmopolitan (8), and the enemy of pleasure. Socrates brings -two talents, and is purchased by Dion, tyrant of Syracuse (19). -Chrysippus, who gives some specimens of his clever quibbles,[7] is -bought for fifty pounds, Aristotle for nearly a hundred, while Pyrrho -the sceptic (or one of his school), who professes to "know nothing," -brings four pounds, "_because_ he is dull and stupid and has no more -sense than a grub" (27). But the man raises a doubt, "whether or not he -has really been bought," and refuses to go with the purchaser till he -has fully considered the matter. - -_Timon_ is a very amusing and witty dialogue. The misanthrope, once -wealthy, has become a poor farm-labourer, and reproaches Zeus for his -indifference to the injustice of man. Zeus declares that the noisy -disputes in Attica have so disgusted him that he has not been there for -a long time (9). He tells Hermes to conduct Plutus to visit Timon, and -see what can be done to help him. Plutus, who at first refuses to go, is -persuaded after a long conversation with Hermes, and Timon is found by -them digging in his field (31). Poverty is unwilling to resign her -votary to wealth; and Timon himself is with difficulty persuaded to turn -up with his mattock a crock of gold coins. Now that he has once more -become rich, his former flatterers come cringing with their -congratulations and respects, but they are all driven off with broken -heads or pelted with stones. Between this dialogue and the _Plutus_ of -Aristophanes there are many close resemblances. - -_Hermotimus_ (pp. 739-831) is one of the longer dialogues, Hermotimus, a -student of the Stoic philosophy for twenty years (2), and Lucian -(Lycinus) being the interlocutors. The long time--forty years at the -least--required for climbing up to the temple of virtue and happiness, -and the short span of life, if any, left for the enjoyment of it, are -discussed. That the greatest philosophers do not always attain perfect -indifference, the Stoic _ultimatum_, is shown by the anecdote of one who -dragged his pupil into court to make him pay his fee (9), and again by a -violent quarrel with another at a banquet (11). Virtue is compared to a -city with just and good and contented inhabitants; but so many offer -themselves as guides to the right road to virtue that the inquirer is -bewildered (26). What is truth, and who are the right teachers of it? -The question is argued at length, and illustrated by a peculiar custom -of watching the pairs of athletes and setting aside the reserved -combatant ([Greek: paredros]) at the Olympian games by the marks on the -ballots (40-43). This, it is argued, cannot be done till all the ballots -have been examined; so a man cannot select the right way till he has -tried all the ways to virtue. But to know the doctrines of all the sects -is impossible in the term of a life (49). To take a taste of each, like -trying a sample of wine, will not do, because the doctrines taught are -not, like the crock of wine, the same throughout, but vary or advance -day by day (59). A suggestion is made (68) that the searcher after truth -should begin by taking lessons in the science of discrimination, so as -to be a good judge of truth before testing the rival claims. But who is -a good teacher of such a science? (70). The general conclusion is that -philosophy is not worth the pursuit. "If I ever again," says Hermotimus, -"meet a philosopher on the road, I will shun him, as I would a mad dog." - -The _Anacharsis_ is a dialogue between Solon and the Scythian -philosopher, who has come to Athens to learn the nature of the Greek -institutions. Seeing the young men performing athletic exercises in the -Lyceum, he expresses his surprise at such a waste of energy. This gives -Socrates an opportunity of descanting at length on training as a -discipline, and emulation as a motive for excelling. Love of glory, -Solon says, is one of the chief goods in life. The argument is rather -ingenious and well put; the style reminds us of the minor essays of -Xenophon. - -The _Alexander_ or _False Prophet_ is the subject of a separate article -(see ALEXANDER THE PAPHLAGONIAN). - -These are the chief of Lucian's works. Many others, e.g. _Prometheus_, -_Menippus_, _Life of Demonax_, _Toxaris_, _Zeus Tragoedus_, _The Dream -or the Cock_, _Icaromenippus_ (an amusing satire on the physical -philosophers), are of considerable literary value. (F. A. P.) - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Editio princeps (Florence, 1496); valuable editions - with notes by T. Hemsterhuis and J. F. Reitz (1743-1746, with _Lexicon - Lucianeum_ by C. C. Reitz) and J. T. Lehmann (1822-1831). Editions of - the text by C. Jacobitz (1886-1888) and J. Sommerbrodt (1886-1899). - The scholia have been edited by H. Rabe in the Teubner series (1906). - There are numerous editions of separate portions of Lucian's works and - translations in most European languages; amongst the latter may be - mentioned the German version by C. M. Wieland (1788), with valuable - notes and commentaries: English; one by several hands (1711), for - which Dryden had previously written an unsatisfactory life of the - author, by T. Francklin (1780) and W. Tooke (1820): and French; of - _The Ass_, by P. L. Courier, with full bibliography by A. J. Pons - (1887), and of the complete works by E. Talbot (1866) and Belin de - Ballu (1789; revised ed. by L. Humbert, 1896). A complete modern - English translation, racy and colloquial, appeared in 1905, _The Works - of Lucian of Samosata_, by H. W. Fowler and F. G. Fowler. On Lucian - generally, the best work is M. Croiset's _Essai sur la vie et les - oeuvres de Lucien_ (1882); see also E. Egger, "Parallele de Lucien et - Voltaire," in _Memoires de litterature ancienne_ (1862); C. Martha, - _Les Moralistes sous l'empire romain_ (1866); H. W. L. Hime, _Lucian, - the Syrian Satirist_ (1900); Sir R. C. Jebb, _Essays and Addresses_ - (1907); "Lucian," by W. L. Collins in Blackwood's _Ancient Classics - for English Readers_; the Prolegomena to editions of select works with - notes by Sommerbrodt; and the exhaustive bibliography of the earlier - literature in Engelmann, _Scriptores Graeci_ (1880). On some special - questions see E. Rohde, _Uber Lucians Schrift_ [Greek: Loukios he - Onos] (Leipzig, 1869); C. Buerger, _De Lucio Patrensi_ (Berlin, 1887); - J. Bernays, _Lucian und die Kyniker_ (Berlin, 1879); C. G. Jacob, - _Characteristik Lucians von Samosata_ (Hamburg, 1832); C. F. Hermann, - _Charakteristik Lucians_ (Gottingen, 1849); P. M. Bolderman, _Studia - Lucianea_ (Leiden, 1893); R. Helm, "Lucian und die - Philosophenschulen," in _Neue Jahrb. f. das klassische Altertum_ - (1901), pp. 188, 263, 367. - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] In the _Alexander_ (25) we are told that the province of Pontus, - due north of Syria, was "full of Christians." - - [2] _Philopatris_, 12, [Greek: hypsimedonta Theon megan ambroton - ouraniona, huion Patros, Pneuma ek patros ekporeuomenon, hen ek tpion - kai ex henos tria], a passage which bears on the controverted - procession "a Patre Filioque." - - [3] _Philopatris_, 13. Aesch. _Eum._ 265, [Greek: deltographo de - pant' epopa phreni]. - - [4] In _Hermotimus_ (51) Hermotimus says to Lycinus (who must be - assumed to represent Lucian himself), [Greek: hybristes aei su, kai - ouk oid' ho ti pathon miseis philosophian kai es tous philosophountas - aposkopteis]. In _Icaromenippus_ (5; see also 29) he says he always - guessed who were the best physical philosophers "by their sour-faced - looks, their paleness of complexion and the length of their beards." - - [5] He says (speaking as [Greek: Syros] in _Bis accusatus_, 34) that - he found dialogue somewhat out of repute from the too numerous - questions (i.e. employed by Plato), and brought it up to a more human - and natural standard, substituting banter and repartee for dialectic - quibbles and close logical reasoning. - - [6] He says (p. 127) that he saw punished in Hades, more severely - than any other sinners, writers of false narratives, among whom were - Ctesias of Cnidus and Herodotus. Yet in the short essay inscribed - _Herodotus_ (p. 831), he wishes it were possible for him to imitate - the many excellencies of that writer. - - [7] E.g. "A stone is a body; a living creature is a body; you are a - living creature; therefore you are a stone." Again: "Is _every_ body - possessed of life?" "No." "Is a stone possessed of life?" "No." "Are - _you_ a body?" "Yes." "A _living_ body?" "Yes." "Then, if a living - body, you are not a stone." - - - - -LUCIFER (d. 370/1), bishop of Cagliari (hence called _Caralitanus_), an -ardent supporter of the cause of Athanasius. After the unfavourable -result of the synod of Arles in 353 he volunteered to endeavour to -obtain a new and impartial council. He was accordingly sent by Pope -Liberius, with Pancratius the presbyter and Hilarius the deacon, but -could not prevent the condemnation of Athanasius, which was renewed at -Milan in 355. For his own persistent adherence to the orthodox creed he -was banished to Germanicia in Commagene; he afterwards lived at -Eleutheropolis in Palestine, and finally in the upper Thebaid. His exile -came to an end with the publication of Julian's edict in 362. From 363 -until his death in 371 he lived at Cagliari in a state of voluntary -separation from ecclesiastical fellowship with his former friends -Eusebius of Vercelli, Athanasius and the rest, on account of their mild -decision at the synod of Alexandria in 362 with reference to the -treatment of those who had unwillingly Arianized under the persecutions -of Constantius. Lucifer was hardly sufficiently educated to appreciate -the real question at issue, and the sect which he thus founded did not -continue long after his death. It is doubtful whether it ever formulated -any distinctive doctrine; certainly it developed none of any importance. -The memory of Lucifer is still cherished in Sardinia; but, although -popularly regarded there as a saint, he has never been canonized. - - The controversial writings of Lucifer, dating from his exile, are - chiefly remarkable for their passionate zeal, and for the boldness and - violence of the language addressed to the reigning emperor, whom he - did not scruple to call the enemy of God and a second Saul, Ahab and - Jeroboam. Their titles, in the most probable chronological order, are - _De non parcendis in Deum delinquentibus_, _De regibus apostaticis_, - _Ad Constantium Augustum pro Athanasio libri ii._, _De non conveniendo - cum haereticis and Moriendum esse pro Filio Dei_. Their quotations of - Scripture are of considerable value to the critical student of the - Latin text before Jerome. They were first collected and edited by - Tilius (Paris, 1568); the best edition is that of W. Hartel in the - Vienna _Corpus, Script. Eccl. Lat._ (1886). See also G. Kruger, - _Lucifer Bischof von Cagliari und das Schisma der Luciferianer_ - (Leipzig, 1886); F. G. Kenyon, _Textual Criticism_, pp. 181, 221. - - - - -LUCIFER (the Latinized form of Gr. [Greek: phosphoros], "light-bearer"), -the name given to the "morning star," i.e. the planet Venus when it -appears above the E. horizon before sunrise, and sometimes also to the -"evening star," i.e. the same planet in the W. sky after sundown, more -usually called Hesperus (q.v.). The term "day star" (so rendered in the -Revised Version) was used poetically by Isaiah for the king of Babylon: -"How art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, son of the morning! how art -thou cut down to the ground, which didst weaken the nations" (Is. xiv. -12, Authorized Version). The words ascribed to Christ in Luke x. 18: "I -beheld Satan as lightning fall from heaven" (cf. Rev. ix. 1), were -interpreted by the Christian Fathers as referring to the passage in -Isaiah; whence, in Christian theology, Lucifer came to be regarded as -the name of Satan before his fall. This idea finds its most magnificent -literary expression in Milton's _Paradise Lost_. In this sense the name -is most commonly associated with the familiar phrase "as proud as -Lucifer." - - - - -LUCILIUS, GAIUS (c. 180-103 B.C.), the earliest Roman satirist, of whose -writings only fragments remain, was born at Suessa Aurunca in Campania. -The dates assigned by Jerome for his birth and death are 148 and 103 or -102 B.C. But it is impossible to reconcile the first of these dates with -other facts recorded of him, and the date given by Jerome must be due to -an error, the true date being about 180 B.C. We learn from Velleius -Paterculus that he served under Scipio at the siege of Numantia in 134. -We learn from Horace that he lived on the most intimate terms of -friendship with Scipio and Laelius, and that he celebrated the exploits -and virtues of the former in his satires. Fragments of those books of -his satires which seem to have been first given to the world (books -xxvi.-xxix.) clearly indicate that they were written in the lifetime of -Scipio. Some of these bring the poet before us as either corresponding -with, or engaged in controversial conversation with, his great friend. -One line-- - - Percrepa pugnam Popilli, facta Corneli cane-- - -in which the defeat of M. Popillius Laenas, in 138, is contrasted with -the subsequent success of Scipio, bears the stamp of having been written -while the news of the capture of Numantia was still fresh. It is in the -highest degree improbable that Lucilius served in the army at the age of -fourteen; it is still more unlikely that he could have been admitted -into the familiar intimacy of Scipio and Laelius at that age. It seems a -moral impossibility that between the age of fifteen and nineteen--i.e. -between 133 and 129, the year of Scipio's death--he could have come -before the world as the author of an entirely new kind of composition, -and one which, to be at all successful, demands especially maturity of -judgment and experience. It may further be said that the well-known -words of Horace (_Satires_, ii. 1, 33), in which he characterizes the -vivid portraiture of his life, character and thoughts, which Lucilius -bequeathed to the world, - - quo fit ut omnis - Votiva pateat veluti descripta tabella - Vita senis,[1] - -lose much of their force unless _senis_ is to be taken in its ordinary -sense--which it cannot be if Lucilius died at the age of forty-six. He -spent the greater part of his life at Rome, and died, according to -Jerome, at Naples. Lucilius belonged to the equestrian order, a fact -indicated by Horace's notice of himself as "infra Lucili censum." Though -not himself belonging to any of the great senatorial families, he was in -a position to associate with them on equal terms. This circumstance -contributed to the boldness, originality and thoroughly national -character of his literary work. Had he been a "semi-Graecus," like -Ennius and Pacuvius, or of humble origin, like Plautus, Terence or -Accius, he would scarcely have ventured, at a time when the senatorial -power was strongly in the ascendant, to revive the role which had proved -disastrous to Naevius; nor would he have had the intimate knowledge of -the political and social life of his day which fitted him to be its -painter. Another circumstance determining the bent of his mind was the -character of the time. The origin of Roman political and social satire -is to be traced to the same disturbing and disorganizing forces which -led to the revolutionary projects and legislation of the Gracchi. - -The reputation which Lucilius enjoyed in the best ages of Roman -literature is proved by the terms in which Cicero and Horace speak of -him. Persius, Juvenal and Quintilian vouch for the admiration with which -he was regarded in the first century of the empire. The popularity which -he enjoyed in his own time is attested by the fact that at his death, -although he had filled none of the offices of state, he received the -honour of a public funeral. His chief claim to distinction is his -literary originality. He may be called the inventor of poetical satire, -as he was the first to impress upon the rude inartistic medley, known to -the Romans by the name of _satura_, that character of aggressive and -censorious criticism of persons, morals, manners, politics, literature, -&c. which the word satire has ever since denoted. In point of form the -satire of Lucilius owed nothing to the Greeks. It was a legitimate -development of an indigenous dramatic entertainment, popular among the -Romans before the first introduction of the forms of Greek art among -them; and it seems largely also to have employed the form of the -familiar epistle. But the style, substance and spirit of his writings -were apparently as original as the form. He seems to have commenced his -poetical career by ridiculing and parodying the conventional language of -epic and tragic poetry, and to have used the language commonly employed -in the social intercourse of educated men. Even his frequent use of -Greek words, phrases and quotations, reprehended by Horace, was probably -taken from the actual practice of men, who found their own speech as yet -inadequate to give free expression to the new ideas and impressions -which they derived from their first contact with Greek philosophy, -rhetoric and poetry. Further, he not only created a style of his own, -but, instead of taking the substance of his writings from Greek poetry, -or from a remote past, he treated of the familiar matters of daily life, -of the politics, the wars, the administration of justice, the eating and -drinking, the money-making and money-spending, the scandals and vices, -which made up the public and private life of Rome in the last quarter of -the 2nd century B.C. This he did in a singularly frank, independent and -courageous spirit, with no private ambition to serve, or party cause to -advance, but with an honest desire to expose the iniquity or -incompetence of the governing body, the sordid aims of the middle class, -and the corruption and venality of the city mob. There was nothing of -stoical austerity or of rhetorical indignation in the tone in which he -treated the vices and follies of his time. His character and tastes were -much more akin to those of Horace than of either Persius or Juvenal. But -he was what Horace was not, a thoroughly good hater; and he lived at a -time when the utmost freedom of speech and the most unrestrained -indulgence of public and private animosity were the characteristics of -men who took a prominent part in affairs. Although Lucilius took no -active part in the public life of his time, he regarded it in the spirit -of a man of the world and of society, as well as a man of letters. His -ideal of public virtue and private worth had been formed by intimate -association with the greatest and best of the soldiers and statesmen of -an older generation. - - The remains of Lucilius extend to about eleven hundred, mostly - unconnected lines, most of them preserved by late grammarians, as - illustrative of peculiar verbal usages. He was, for his time, a - voluminous as well as a very discursive writer. He left behind him - thirty books of satires, and there is reason to believe that each - book, like the books of Horace and Juvenal, was composed of different - pieces. The order in which they were known to the grammarians was not - that in which they were written. The earliest in order of composition - were probably those numbered from xxvi. to xxix., which were written - in the trochaic and iambic metres that had been employed by Ennius and - Pacuvius in their _Saturae_. In these he made those criticisms on the - older tragic and epic poets of which Horace and other ancient writers - speak. In them too he speaks of the Numantine War as recently - finished, and of Scipio as still living. Book i., on the other hand, - in which the philosopher Carneades, who died in 128, is spoken of as - dead, must have been written after the death of Scipio. Most of the - satires of Lucilius were written in hexameters, but, so far as an - opinion can be formed from a number of unconnected fragments, he seems - to have written the trochaic tetrameter with a smoothness, clearness - and simplicity which he never attained in handling the hexameter. The - longer fragments produce the impression of great discursiveness and - carelessness, but at the same time of considerable force. He appears, - in the composition of his various pieces, to have treated everything - that occurred to him in the most desultory fashion, sometimes adopting - the form of dialogue, sometimes that of an epistle or an imaginary - discourse, and often to have spoken in his own name, giving an account - of his travels and adventures, or of amusing scenes that he had - witnessed, or expressing the results of his private meditations and - experiences. Like Horace he largely illustrated his own observations - by personal anecdotes and fables. The fragments clearly show how often - Horace has imitated him, not only in expression, but in the form of - his satires (see for instance i. 5 and ii. 2), in the topics which he - treats of, and the class of social vices and the types of character - which he satirizes. For students of Latin literature, the chief - interest of studying the fragments of Lucilius consists in the light - which they throw on the aims and methods of Horace in the composition - of his satires, and, though not to the same extent, of his epistles. - They are important also as materials for linguistic study; and they - have considerable historical value. - - Editions by F. D. Gerlach (1846), L. Muller (1872), C. Lachmann (1876, - posthumous), F. Marx (1905); see also L. Muller, _Leben und Werke des - Lucilius_ (1876); "Luciliana," by H. A. J. Munro, in the _Journal of - Philology_, vii. (1877); Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_, bk. iv. ch. 13; - "Luciliana," by A. E. Housman, in _Classical Quarterly_ (April, 1907); - C. Cichorius, _Untersuchungen zu Lucilius_ (Berlin, 1908). - (W. Y. S.; X.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] "And so it happens that the whole life of the old man stands - clearly before us, as if it were represented on a votive picture." - - - - -LUCILIUS JUNIOR, a friend and correspondent of the younger Seneca, -probably the author of _Aetna_, a poem on the origin of volcanic -activity, variously attributed to Virgil, Cornelius Severus (epic poet -of the Augustan age) and Manilius. Its composition has been placed as -far back as 44 B.C., on the ground that certain works of art, known to -have been removed to Rome about that date, are referred to as being at a -distance from the city. But as the author appears to have known and made -use of the _Quaestiones Naturales_ of Seneca (written A.D. 65), and no -mention is made of the great eruption of Vesuvius (A.D. 79), the time of -its composition seems to lie between these two dates. In favour of the -authorship of Lucilius are the facts that he was a friend of Seneca and -acquainted with his writings; that he had for some time held the office -of imperial procurator of Sicily, and was thus familiar with the -locality; that he was the author of a poem on Sicilian subjects. It is -objected that in the 79th letter of Seneca, which is the chief authority -on the question, he apparently asks that Lucilius should introduce the -hackneyed theme of Aetna merely as an episode in his contemplated poem, -not make it the subject of separate treatment. The sources of the Aetna -are Posidonius of Apamea, and perhaps the pseudo-Aristotelian _De -Mundo_, while there are many reminiscences of Lucretius. It has come -down in a very corrupt state, and its difficulties are increased by the -unpoetical nature of the subject, the straining after conciseness, and -the obtrusive use of metaphor. - - Editions by J. Scaliger (1595), F. Jacob (1826), H. A. J. Munro - (1867), M. Haupt (in his edition of Virgil, 1873), E. Bahrens (in - _Poetae latini minores_, ii), S. Sudhaus (1898), R. Ellis (1901, - containing a bibliography of the subject); see also M. Haupt's - _Opuscula_, i. 40, ii. 27, 162, iii. 437 (notes, chiefly critical); R. - Ellis in _Journal of Philology_, xvi. 292; P. R. Wagler, _De Aetna - poemate quaestiones criticae_ (1884); B. Kruczkiewicz, _Poema de Aetna - Monte_ (1883, in which the ancient view of the authorship of Virgil is - upheld); L. Alzinger, _Studia in Aetnam collata_ (1896); R. - Hildebrandt, _Beitrage zur Erklarung des Gedichtes Aetna_ (1900); J. - Vessereau (text, translation and commentary, 1905); Teuffel-Schwabe, - _Hist. of Roman Literature_ (Eng. trans. SS 307, 308). - - - - -LUCINA, goddess of light, a title given to Juno and Diana as presiding -over childbirth and bringing children into the light of the world. The -full name is _lucina dea_, "the light-bringing goddess" (_lux_, light, -hence adj. _lucinus_). It is also given to Hecate (Tibullus 3. 4. 13), -as the bringer of terrible dreams, and is used metaphorically as a -synonym for child-birth (Virg. _Georg_, iii. 60; Ovid, _Ars. Amai._ iii. -785). - - - - -LUCIUS, the name of three popes. - -LUCIUS I., pope for eight months (253-254), spent a short period of his -pontificate in exile. He is referred to in several letters of Cyprian -(see _Epist._ lxviii. 5) as having been in agreement with his -predecessor Cornelius in preferring the milder view on the question as -to how the lapsed penitent should be treated. He is commemorated on the -4th of March. (L. D.*) - -LUCIUS II. (Gherardo Caccianemici dal Orso), pope from the 12th of March -1144 to the 15th of February 1145, a Bolognese, successively canon at -his native city, cardinal priest of Sta Croce in Gerusalemme, treasurer -of the Roman Church, papal legate in Germany for Honorius II., -chancellor and librarian under Innocent II., was the successor of -Celestine II. His stormy pontificate was marked by the erection of a -revolutionary republic at Rome which sought to deprive the pope of his -temporal power, and by the recognition of papal suzerainty over -Portugal. He was succeeded by Eugenius III. - - His letters are in J. P. Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ vol. 179. A single - unreliable writer, Godfrey of Viterbo (in J. M. Watterich, _Pontif. - Roman. Vitae_), is authority for the statement that Lucius II. - perished in an attempt to storm the Capitol. See Jaffe-Wittenbach, - _Regesta pontif. Roman_. (1885-1888); J. Langen, _Geschichte der - romischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III._ (Bonn, 1893); F. - Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G. W. - Hamilton (London, 1896). - -LUCIUS III. (Ubaldo Allucingoli), pope from the 1st of September 1181 to -the 25th of November 1185, a native of Lucca and a Cistercian monk, -named cardinal-priest of Sta Prassede by Innocent II. and -cardinal-bishop of Ostia and Velletri by Adrian IV., succeeded Alexander -III. He lived at Rome from November 1181 to March 1182, but dissensions -in the city compelled him to pass the remainder of his pontificate in -exile, mainly at Velletri, Anagni and Verona. He disputed with the -emperor Frederick I. the disposal of the territories of the Countess -Matilda. In November 1184 he held a synod at Verona which condemned the -Cathari, Paterines, Waldensians and Arnoldists, and anathematized all -heretics and their abettors. Lucius died in the midst of preparations -for a crusade in answer to appeals of Baldwin IV. of Jerusalem. His -successor was Urban III. - - His letters are in J. P. Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ vol. 201. Consult J. M. - Watterich, _Pontif. Roman. Vitae_, vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1862); and - Jaffe-Wattenbach, _Regesta Pontif. Roman_. (1885-1888). See J. Langen, - _Geschichte der romischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III._ - (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. 4, - trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896); P. Scheffer-Boichorst, - "Zu den mathildinischen Schenkungen," in _Mittheilungen des - osterreichen Instituts_ (1888). (C. H. Ha.) - - - - -LUCK, a term for good or bad fortune, the unforeseen or unrecognized -causes which bring success or failure in any enterprise, particularly -used of the result of chances in games of skill or chance (see -PROBABILITY). The word does not occur in English before the 16th -century. It was taken from the Low Ger. _luk_, a shortened form of -_geluk_, cf. Modern Ger. _Gluck_, happiness, good fortune. The _New -English Dictionary_ considers the word to have been introduced from the -Low Countries as a gambling term. The ultimate origin is doubtful; it -has been connected with the German _gelingen_, to succeed (cf. _Druck_, -pressure, from _dringen_), or with _locken_, to entice. - -At Eden Hall in Cumberland, the seat of the Musgrave family, has been -long preserved a vessel known as "the luck," supposed to be of Venetian -or Byzantine make, and dating from the 10th century. It is a chalice of -enamelled glass, and on its safe preservation the fortunes of the -Musgrave family are supposed to depend, in accordance with the rhyme:-- - - "Should this cup either break or fall, - Farewell the luck of Edenhall." - - - - -LUCKE, GOTTFRIED CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1791-1855), German theologian, was -born on the 24th of August 1791, at Egeln near Magdeburg, where his -father was a merchant. He studied theology at Halle and Gottingen. In -1813 he became _repetent_ at Gottingen, and in 1814 he received the -degree of doctor in philosophy from Halle; in 1816 he removed to Berlin, -where he became licentiate in theology, and qualified as -_privat-docent_. He soon became intimate with Schleiermacher and de -Wette, and was associated with them in 1819 in the redaction of the -_Theologische Zeitschrift_. Meanwhile his lectures and publications -(among the latter a _Grundriss der Neutestamentlichen Hermeneutik_, -1816) had brought him into considerable repute, and he was appointed -professor extraordinarius in the new university of Bonn in the spring of -1818; in the following autumn he became professor ordinarius. From Bonn, -where he had J. C. W. Augusti (1772-1841), J. K. L. Gieseler, and Karl -Immanuel Nitzsch for colleagues, he was called in 1827 to Gottingen to -succeed K. F. Staudlin (1761-1826). In that year he helped to found the -_Theologische Studien und Kritiken_, the chief organ of the "mediation" -theology (_Vermittelungstheologie_). At Gottingen he remained, declining -all further calls elsewhere, as to Erlangen, Kiel, Halle, Tubingen, Jena -and Leipzig, until his death, which occurred on the 4th of February -1855. - - Lucke, who was one of the most learned, many-sided and influential of - the so-called "mediation" school of evangelical theologians - (_Vermittelungstheologie_), is now chiefly known by his _Kommentar - uber die Schriften d. Evangelisten Johannes_ (4 vols., 1820-1832); it - has since passed through two new and improved editions (the last - volume of the 3rd edition by E. Bertheau, 1856). He is an intelligent - maintainer of the Johannine authorship of the Fourth Gospel; in - connexion with this thesis he was one of the first to argue for the - early date and non-apostolic authorship of the Apocalypse. His - _Einleitung in die Offenbarung Johannis_ was published in 1832 (2nd - ed., 1848-1852). He also published a _Synopsis Evangeliorum_, - conjointly with W. M. L. de Wette (1818, 2nd ed., 1840). See - Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_. - - - - -LUCKENWALDE, a town in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, on the -Nuthe, 30 m. S. of Berlin, on the main line to Dresden and Leipzig. Pop. -(1905) 22,263. Its cloth and wool manufactories are among the most -extensive in Prussia. Among its other industries are cotton printing and -dye works, brewing, and the making of metal and bronze goods. - -The site of Luckenwalde was occupied in the 12th century by a Cistercian -monastery, but the village did not spring up till the reign of Frederick -the Great. It was made a town in 1808. - - - - -LUCKNOW, a city, district and division of British India. The city was -the capital of Oudh from 1775 until it was merged in the United -Provinces in 1901. Pop. (1901) 264,049. It lies mainly on the right bank -of the winding river Gumti, which is crossed by two railway and three -road bridges. It contains the Canning college (1864), with an Oriental -department, and La Martiniere college, where about 100 boys are -educated, the institution being in part supported by an endowment left -by General Claude Martin in 1800. There are native manufactures of gold -and silver brocade, muslins, embroidery, brass and copper wares, pottery -and moulding in clay. There are also important European industrial -establishments, such as iron-works and paper-mills. Lucknow is the -centre of the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway system, with large workshops. -Lines radiate to Cawnpore, Bareilly, Gonda, Fyzabad and Rae Bareli. -Lucknow is the headquarters of the 8th division of the northern army. -The cantonments are situated 3 m. E. of the city. - -Lucknow is chiefly notable in the history of British India as the -capital of the nawabs who had dealings with Warren Hastings, and their -successors the kings of Oudh, whose deposition by Lord Dalhousie was one -of the chief causes of the Mutiny. Amongst the events of the Mutiny the -defence of the residency of Lucknow comes only second in historic -interest to the massacre at Cawnpore itself. For the two sieges, see -Indian Mutiny. The name of the residency is now applied not only to the -residency itself, but to the whole of the outbuildings and entrenchments -in which Sir Henry Lawrence concentrated his small force. These -entrenchments covered almost 60 acres of ground, and consisted of a -number of detached houses, public edifices, outhouses and casual -buildings, netted together, and welded by ditches, parapets, stockades -and batteries into one connected whole. On the summit of the plateau -stands the residency proper, the official residence of the chief -commissioner, a lofty building three storeys high, with a fine portico. -Near the residency comes the banqueting hall, and beyond the Baillie -Guardgate lie the ruins of the surgeon's house, where Sir Henry Lawrence -died of a shell-wound, and where the ladies of the garrison were -sheltered in underground rooms. Round the line of the entrenchments are -pillars marked with the name of the various "posts" into which the -garrison was distributed. The most dangerous of these was the Cawnpore -battery post, where the stockade was directly exposed to the enemy's -fire. The mutineers had rifles fixed in rests in the house opposite, and -swept the road that led through the residency enclosure at this point. -Close to the residency is the Lawrence Memorial, an artificial mound 30 -ft. high crowned by a marble cross. - -Among the other buildings of interest in Lucknow is the Imambara, which -is one of the largest rooms in the world (162 ft. by 54), having an -arched roof without supports. This room was built by the Nawab -Asaf-ud-dowlah in 1784, to afford relief to the famine-stricken people. -The many monuments of his reign include his country palace of Bibiapur, -outside the city. Among later bulldings are the two palaces of Chhattar -Manzil, erected for the wives of Ghazi-ud-din Haidar (1814), the remains -of the Farhat Baksh, dating from the previous reign, and adjoining the -greater Chhattar Manzil, the observatory (now a bank) of Nasir-ud-din -Haidar (1827), the imambara or mausoleum and the unfinished great mosque -(Jama Masjid) of Mahommed Ali Shah (1837), and the huge debased Kaisar -Bagh, the palace of Wajid Ali Shah (1847-1856). - - The DISTRICT OF LUCKNOW lies on both sides of the river Gumti, and has - an area of 967 sq. m. Its general aspect is that of an open champaign, - well studded with villages, finely wooded and in parts most fertile - and highly cultivated. In the vicinity of rivers, however, stretch - extensive barren sandy tracts (_bhur_), and there are many wastes of - saline efflorescence (_usar_). The country is an almost dead level, - the average slope, which is from N.W. to S.E., being less than a foot - per mile. The principal rivers are the Gumti and the Sai with their - tributaries. The population in 1901 was 793,241, showing an increase - of 2.5% in the preceding decade. - - The DIVISION OF LUCKNOW contains the western half of the old province - of Oudh. It comprises the six districts of Lucknow, Unao, Sitapur, Rae - Bareli, Hardoi and Kheri. Its area is 12,051 sq. m. and its population - in 1901 was 5,977,086, showing an increase of 2.06% in the decade. - - See _Lucknow District Gazetteer_ (Allahabad, 1904). For a fuller - description of the city see G. W. Forrest, _Cities of India_ (1903). - - - - -LUCON, a town of western France, in the department of Vendee, 23 m. S.E. -of La Roche-sur-Yon, on the railway from Nantes to Bordeaux, and on the -canal of Lucon (9 m. long), which affords communication with the sea in -the Bay of Aiguillon. Pop. (1906) 6163. Between Lucon and the sea -stretch marshy plains, the bed of the former gulf, partly drained by -numerous canals, and in the reclaimed parts yielding excellent -pasturage, while in other parts are productive salt-marshes, and ponds -for the rearing of mussels and other shell-fish. Lucon is the seat of a -bishopric, established in 1317, and held by Richelieu from 1607 to 1624. -The cathedral, partly of the 12th-century and partly of later periods, -was originally an abbey church. The facade and the clock tower date from -about 1700, and the tower is surmounted by a crocketed spire rising 275 -ft. above the ground, attributed to the architect Francois Leduc of -Tuscany. The cloisters are of the late 15th century. Adjacent is the -bishop's palace, possessing a large theological library and Titian's -"Disciples of Emmaus," and there is a fine public garden. A communal -college and an ecclesiastical seminary are among the public -institutions. During the Vendean wars, Lucon was the scene of several -conflicts, notably in 1793. - - - - -LUCRE (Lat. _lucrum_, gain; the Indo-European root is seen in Gr. -[Greek: apolauein], to enjoy, and in Ger. _Lohn_, wages), a term now -only used in the disparaging sense of unworthy profit, or money that is -the object of greed, especially in the expression "filthy lucre" (1 Tim. -iii. 3). In the adjective "lucrative," profitable, there is, however, no -sense of disparagement. In Scots law the term "lucrative succession" -(_lucrativa acquisitio_) is used of the taking by an heir, during the -lifetime of his ancestor, of a free grant of any part of the heritable -property. - - - - -LUCRETIA, a Roman lady, wife of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, -distinguished for her beauty and domestic virtues. Having been outraged -by Sextus Tarquinius, one of the sons of Tarquinius Superbus, she -informed her father and her husband, and, having exacted an oath of -vengeance from them, stabbed herself to death. Lucius Junius Brutus, her -husband's cousin, put himself at the head of the people, drove out the -Tarquins, and established a republic. The accounts of this tradition in -later writers present many points of divergence. - - Livy i. 57-59; Dion. Halic. iv. 64-67, 70, 82; Ovid, _Fasti_, ii. - 721-852; Dio Cassius, frag. 11 (Bekker); G. Cornewall Lewis, - _Credibility of Early Roman History_, i. - - - - -LUCRETILIS MONS, a mountain of the Sabine territory, mentioned by Horace -(_Od._ i. 17, 1) as visible from his Sabine farm, and probably identical -with the "Mons Lucretius" mentioned in the _Liber Pontificalis_ (ed. -Duchesne, i. 183), which speaks of "possessio in territorio Sabinensi -quae cognominatur ad duas casas sub monte Lucretio" in the time of -Constantine. The name "ad duas casas" is supposed to survive in the -chapel of the Madonna della Casa near Rocca Giovane, and the Mons -Lucretilis is generally (and rightly) identified with Monte Gennaro, a -limestone peak 4160 ft. high, which forms a prominent feature in the -view N.E. of Rome. Excavations on the supposed site of Horace's farm -were begun by Professor Pasqui in September 1909. (T. As.) - - - - -LUCRETIUS (TITUS LUCRETIUS CARUS) (c. 98-55 B.C.), the great Latin -didactic poet. Our sole information concerning his life is found in the -brief summary of Jerome, written more than four centuries after the -poet's death. Jerome followed, often carelessly, the accounts contained -in the lost work of Suetonius _De Viris Illustribus_, written about two -centuries after the death of Lucretius; and, although it is likely that -Suetonius used the information transmitted by earlier grammarians, there -is nothing to guide us to the original sources. According to this -account the poet was born in 95 B.C.; he became mad in consequence of -the administration of a love-philtre; and after composing several books -in his lucid intervals, which were subsequently corrected by Cicero, he -died by his own hand in the forty-fourth year of his age. Donatus states -in his life of Virgil, a work also based on the lost work of Suetonius, -that Lucretius died on the same day on which Virgil assumed the _toga -virilis_, that is, in the seventeenth year of Virgil's life, and on the -very day on which he was born, and adds that the consuls were the same, -that is Cn. Pompeius Magnus and M. Licinius Crassus, consuls in 70 and -again in 55. The statements cannot be perfectly reconciled; but we may -say with certainty that Lucretius was born between 98 and 95 B.C., and -died in 55 or 54. A single mention of his poem, the _De rerum natura_ -(which from the condition in which it has reached us may be assumed to -have been published posthumously) in a letter of Cicero's to his brother -Quintus, written early in 54 B.C., confirms the date given by Donatus as -that of the poet's death. The statements of Jerome have been questioned -or disbelieved on the ground of their intrinsic improbability. They have -been regarded as a fiction invented later by the enemies of -Epicureanism, with the view of discrediting the most powerful work ever -produced by any disciple of that sect. It is more in conformity with -ancient credulity than with modern science to attribute a permanent -tendency to derangement to the accidental administration of any drug, -however potent. A work characterized by such strength, consistency and -continuity of thought is not likely to have been composed "in the -intervals of madness" as Jerome says. Donatus, in mentioning the poet's -death, gives no hint of the act of suicide. The poets of the Augustan -age, who were deeply interested both in his philosophy and in his -poetry, are entirely silent about the tragical story of his life. -Cicero, by his professed antagonism to the doctrines of Epicurus, by his -inadequate appreciation of Lucretius himself and by the indifference -which he shows to other contemporary poets, seems to have been neither -fitted for the task of correcting the unfinished work of a writer whose -genius was so distinct from his own, nor likely to have cordially -undertaken such a task. - -Yet these considerations do not lead to the absolute rejection of the -story. The evidence afforded by the poem rather leads to the conclusion -that the tradition contains some germ of fact. It is remarkable that in -more than one passage of his poem Lucretius writes with extraordinary -vividness of the impression produced both by dreams and by waking -visions. It is true that the philosophy of Epicurus put great stress on -these, as affording the explanation of the origin of supernatural -beliefs. But the insistence with which Lucretius returns to the subject, -and the horror with which he recalls the effects of such abnormal -phenomena, suggest that he himself may have been liable to such -hallucinations, which are said to be consistent with perfect sanity, -though they may be the precursors either of madness or of a state of -despair and melancholy. Other passages, where he describes himself as -ever engaged, even in his dreams, on his task of inquiry and -composition, produce the impression of an unrelieved strain of mind and -feeling, which may have ended in some extreme reaction of spirit, or in -some failure of intellectual power, that may have led him to commit -suicide. But the strongest confirmation of the tradition is the -unfinished condition in which the poem has reached us. The subject -appears indeed to have been fully treated in accordance with the plan -sketched out in the introduction to the first book. But that book is the -only one which is finished in style and in the arrangement of its -matter. In all the others, and especially in the last three, the -continuity of the argument is frequently broken by passages which must -have been inserted after the first draft of the arguments was written -out. Thus, for instance, in his account of the transition from savage to -civilized life, he assumes at v. 1011 the discovery of the use of skins, -fire, &c., and the first beginning of civil society, and proceeds at -1028 to explain the origin of language, and then again returns, from -1090 to 1160, to speculate upon the first use of fire and the earliest -stages of political life. These breaks in continuity show what might -also be inferred from frequent repetitions of lines which have appeared -earlier in the poem, and from the rough workmanship of passages in the -later books, that the poem could not have received the final revision of -the author. Nor is there any great difficulty in believing that Cicero -edited it; the word "emendavit," need not mean more than what we call -"preparing for press." - -From the absence of any claim on the part of any other district of Italy -to the honour of having given birth to Lucretius it is inferred that he -was of purely Roman origin. No writer certainly is more purely Roman in -personal character and in strength of understanding. His silence on the -subject of Roman greatness and glory as contrasted with the prominence -of these subjects in the poetry of men of provincial birth such as -Ennius, Virgil and Horace, may be explained by the principle that -familiarity had made the subject one of less wonder and novelty to him. -The Lucretian gens to which he belonged was one of the oldest of the -great Roman houses, nor do we hear of the name, as we do of other great -family names, as being diffused over other parts of Italy, or as -designating men of obscure or servile origin. It may well be assumed -that Lucretius was a member of the Roman aristocracy, belonging either -to a senatorian or to one of the great equestrian families. If the Roman -aristocracy of his time had lost much of the virtue and of the governing -qualities of their ancestors, they showed in the last years before the -establishment of monarchy a taste for intellectual culture which might -have made Rome as great in literature as in arms and law. A new taste -for philosophy had developed among members of the governing class during -the youth of Lucretius, and eminent Greek teachers of the Epicurean sect -settled at Rome at the same time, and lived on terms of intimacy with -them. The inference that Lucretius belonged to this class is confirmed -by the tone in which he addresses Gaius Memmius, a man of an eminent -senatorian family, to whom the poem is dedicated. His tone is quite -unlike that in which Virgil or even Horace addresses Maecenas. He -addresses him as an equal; he expresses sympathy with the prominent part -he played in public life, and admiration for his varied accomplishments, -but on his own subject claims to speak to him with authority. - -Although our conception of the poet's life is necessarily vague and -meagre, yet his personal force is so remarkable and so vividly impressed -on his poem, that we seem able to form a consistent idea of his -qualities and characteristics. We know, for example, that the choice of -a contemplative life was not the result of indifference to the fate of -the world, or of any natural coldness or even calmness of temperament. -In the opening lines of the second and third books we can mark the -recoil of a humane and sensitive spirit from the horrors of the reign of -terror which he witnessed in his youth, and from the anarchy and -confusion which prevailed at Rome during his later years. We may also -infer that he had not been through his whole career so much estranged -from the social life of his day as he seems to have been in his later -years. Passages in his poem attest his familiarity with the pomp and -luxury of city life, with the attractions of the public games and with -the pageantry of great military spectacles. But much the greater mass of -the illustrations of his philosophy indicate that, while engaged on his -poem he must have passed much of his time in the open air, exercising at -once the keen observation of a naturalist and the contemplative vision -of a poet. He seems to have found a pleasure, more congenial to the -modern than to the ancient temperament, in ascending mountains or -wandering among their solitudes (vi. 469, iv. 575). References to -companionship in these wanderings, and the well-known description of the -charm of a rustic meal (ii. 29) speak of kindly sociality rather than of -any austere separation from his fellows. - -Other expressions in his poem (e.g. iii. 10, &c.) imply that he was also -a student of books. Foremost among these were the writings of Epicurus; -but he had also an intimate knowledge of the philosophical poem of -Empedocles, and at least an acquaintance with the works of Democritus, -Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Plato and the Stoical writers. Of other Greek -prose writers he knew Thucydides and Hippocrates; while of the poets he -expresses in more than one passage the highest admiration of Homer, whom -he imitated in several places. Next to Homer Euripides is most -frequently reproduced by him. But his poetical sympathy was not limited -to the poets of Greece. For his own countryman Ennius he expresses an -affectionate admiration; and he imitates his language, his rhythm and -his manner in many places. The fragments of the old tragedian Pacuvius -and of the satirist Lucilius show that Lucretius had made use of their -expressions and materials. In his studies he was attracted by the older -writers, both Greek and Roman, in whose masculine temperament and -understanding he recognized an affinity with his own. - -His devotion to Epicurus seems at first sight more difficult to explain -than his enthusiasm for Empedocles or Ennius. Probably he found in his -calmness of temperament, even in his want of imagination, a sense of -rest and of exemption from the disturbing influences of life; while in -his physical philosophy he found both an answer to the questions which -perplexed him and an inexhaustible stimulus to his intellectual -curiosity. The combative energy, the sense of superiority, the spirit of -satire, characteristic of him as a Roman, unite with his loyalty to -Epicurus to render him not only polemical but intolerant and -contemptuous in his tone toward the great antagonists of his system, the -Stoics, whom, while constantly referring to them, he does not condescend -even to name. With his admiration of the genius of others he combines a -strong sense of his own power. He is quite conscious of the great -importance and of the difficulty of his task; but he feels his own -ability to cope with it. - -It is more difficult to infer the moral than the intellectual -characteristics of a great writer from the personal impress left by him -on his work. Yet it is not too much to say that there is no work in any -literature that produces a profounder impression of sincerity. No writer -shows a juster scorn of all mere rhetoric and exaggeration. No one shows -truer courage, not marred by irreverence, in confronting the great -problems of human destiny, or greater strength in triumphing over human -weakness. No one shows a truer humanity and a more tender sympathy with -natural sorrow. - -The peculiarity of the poem of Lucretius, that which makes it unique in -literature, is that it is a reasoned system of philosophy, written in -verse. The prosaic title _De Rerum Natura_, a translation of the Gr. -[Greek: peri physeos], implies the subordination of the artistic to a -speculative motive. As in the case of nearly all the great works of -Roman literary genius, the form of the poem was borrowed from the -Greeks. The rise of speculative philosophy in Greece was coincident with -the beginning of prose composition, and many of the earliest -philosophers wrote in the prose of the Ionic dialect; others, however, -and especially the writers of the Greek colonies in Italy and Sicily, -expounded their systems in continuous poems composed in the epic -hexameter. Most famous in connexion with this kind of poetry are -Xenophanes and Parmenides, the Eleatics and Empedocles of Agrigentum. -The last was less important as a philosopher, but greater than the -others both as a poet and a physicist. On both of these grounds he had a -greater attraction to Lucretius. The fragments of the poem of Empedocles -show that the Roman poet regarded that work as his model. In accordance -with this model he has given to his own poem the form of a personal -address, he has developed his argument systematically, and has applied -the sustained impetus of epic poetry to the treatment of some of the -driest and abstrusest topics. Many ideas and expressions of the Sicilian -have been reproduced by the Roman poet; and the same tone of impassioned -solemnity and melancholy seems to have pervaded both works. But -Lucretius, if less original as a thinker, was probably a much greater -poet than Empedocles. What chiefly distinguishes him from his Greek -prototypes is that his purpose is rather ethical than purely -speculative; the zeal of a teacher and reformer is more strong in him -than even the intellectual passion of a thinker. His speculative ideas, -his moral teaching and his poetical power are indeed interdependent on -one another, and this interdependence is what mainly constitutes their -power and interest. But of the three claims which he makes to -immortality, the importance of his subject, his desire to liberate the -mind from the bonds of superstition and the charm and lucidity of his -poetry--that which he himself regarded as supreme was the second. The -main idea of the poem is the irreconcilable opposition between the truth -of the laws of nature and the falsehood of the old superstitions. But, -further, the happiness and the dignity of life are regarded by him as -absolutely dependent on the acceptance of the true and the rejection of -the false doctrine. In the Epicurean system of philosophy he believed -that he had found the weapons by which this war of liberation could be -most effectually waged. Following Epicurus he sets before himself the -aim of finally crushing that fear of the gods and that fear of death -resulting from it which he regards as the source of all the human ills. -Incidentally he desires also to purify the heart from other violent -passions which corrupt it and mar its peace. But the source even of -these--the passions of ambition and avarice--he finds in the fear of -death; and that fear he resolves into the fear of eternal punishment -after death. - -The selection of his subject and the order in which it is treated are -determined by this motive. Although the title of the poem implies that -it is a treatise on the "whole nature of things," the aim of Lucretius -is to treat only those branches of science which are necessary to clear -the mind from the fear of the gods and the terrors of a future state. In -the two earliest books, accordingly, he lays down and largely -illustrates the first principles of being with the view of showing that -the world is not governed by capricious agency, but has come into -existence, continues in existence, and will ultimately pass away in -accordance with the primary conditions of the elemental atoms which, -along with empty space, are the only eternal and immutable substances. -These atoms are themselves infinite in number but limited in their -varieties, and by their ceaseless movement and combinations during -infinite time and through infinite space the whole process of creation -is maintained. In the third book he applies the principles of the atomic -philosophy to explain the nature of the mind and vital principle, with -the view of showing that the soul perishes with the body. In the fourth -book he discusses the Epicurean doctrine of the images, which are cast -from all bodies, and which act either on the senses or immediately on -the mind, in dreams or waking visions, as affording the explanation of -the belief in the continued existence of the spirits of the departed. -The fifth book, which has the most general interest, professes to -explain the process by which the earth, the sea, the sky, the sun, moon -and stars, were formed, the origin of life, and the gradual advance of -man from the most savage to the most civilized condition. All these -topics are treated with the view of showing that the world is not itself -divine nor directed by divine agency. The sixth book is devoted to the -explanation, in accordance with natural causes, of some of the more -abnormal phenomena, such as thunderstorms, volcanoes, earthquakes, &c., -which are special causes of supernatural terrors. - -The consecutive study of the argument produces on most readers a mixed -feeling of dissatisfaction and admiration. They are repelled by the -dryness of much of the matter, the unsuitableness of many of the topics -discussed for poetic treatment, the arbitrary assumption of premises, -the entire failure to establish the connexion between the concrete -phenomena which the author professes to explain and these assumptions, -and the erroneousness of many of the doctrines which are stated with -dogmatic confidence. On the other hand, they are constantly impressed by -his power of reasoning both deductively and inductively, by the subtlety -and fertility of invention with which he applies analogies, by the -clearness and keenness of his observation, by the fulness of matter with -which his mind is stored, and by the consecutive force, the precision -and distinctness of his style, when employed in the processes of -scientific exposition. The first two books enable us better than -anything else in ancient literature to appreciate the boldness and, on -the whole, the reasonableness of the ancient mind in forming hypotheses -on great matters that still occupy the investigations of physical -science. The third and fourth books give evidence of acuteness in -psychological analysis; the fourth and sixth of the most active and -varied observation of natural phenomena; the fifth of original insight -and strong common sense in conceiving the origin of society and the -progressive advance of man to civilization. But the chief value of -Lucretius as a thinker lies in his firm grasp of speculative ideas, and -in his application of them to the interpretation of human life and -nature. All phenomena, moral as well as material, are contemplated by -him in their relation to one great organic whole, which he acknowledges -under the name of "Natura daedala rerum," and the most beneficent -manifestations of which he seems to symbolize and almost to deify in the -"Alma Venus," whom, in apparent contradiction to his denial of a divine -interference with human affairs, he invokes with prayer in the opening -lines of the poem. In this conception of nature are united the -conceptions of law and order, of ever-changing life and interdependence, -of immensity, individuality, and all-pervading subtlety, under which the -universe is apprehended both by his intelligence and his imagination. - -Nothing can be more unlike the religious and moral attitude of Lucretius -than the old popular conception of him as an atheist and a preacher of -the doctrine of pleasure. It is true that he denies the doctrines of a -supernatural government of the world and of a future life. But his -arguments against the first are really only valid against the limited -and unworthy conceptions of divine agency involved in the ancient -religions; his denial of the second is prompted by his vital realization -of all that is meant by the arbitrary infliction of eternal torment -after death. His war with the popular beliefs of his time is waged, not -in the interests of licence, but in vindication of the sanctity of human -feeling. The cardinal line of the poem, - - "Tantum religio potuit suadere malorum," - -is elicited from him as his protest against the sacrifice of Iphigenia -by her father. But in his very denial of a cruel, limited and capricious -agency of the gods, and in his imaginative recognition of an orderly, -all-pervading, all-regulating power, we find at least a nearer approach -to the higher conceptions of modern theism than in any of the other -imaginative conceptions of ancient poetry and art. But his conception -even of the ancient gods and of their indirect influence on human life -is more worthy than the popular one. He conceives of them as living a -life of eternal peace and exemption from passion, in a world of their -own; and the highest ideal of man is, through the exercise of his -reason, to realize an image of this life. Although they are conceived of -as unconcerned with the interest of our world, yet influences are -supposed to emanate from them which the human heart is capable of -receiving and assimilating. The effect of unworthy conceptions of the -divine nature is that they render a man incapable of visiting the -temples of the gods in a calm spirit, or of receiving the emanations -that "announce the divine peace" in peaceful tranquillity. The supposed -"atheism" of Lucretius proceeds from a more deeply reverential spirit -than that of the majority of professed believers in all times. - -His moral attitude is also far removed from that of ordinary ancient -Epicureanism or of modern materialism. Though he acknowledges pleasure -to be the law of life, yet he is far from regarding its attainment as -the end of life. What man needs is not enjoyment, but "peace and a pure -heart." The victory to be won by man is the triumph over fear, ambition, -passion, luxury. With the conquest over these nature herself supplies -all that is needed for happiness. Self-control and renunciation are the -lessons which he preaches. - -It has been doubted whether Cicero,[1] in his short criticism in the -letter already referred to, concedes to Lucretius both the gifts of -genius and the accomplishment of art or only one of them. Readers of a -later time, who could compare his work with the finished works of the -Augustan age, would certainly disparage his art rather than his power. -But with Cicero it was different. He greatly admired, or professed to -admire, the genius of the early Roman poets, while he shows indifference -to the poetical genius of his younger contemporaries. Yet he could not -have been insensible to the immense superiority in rhythmical smoothness -which the hexameter of Lucretius has over that of Ennius and Lucilius. -And no reader of Lucretius can doubt that he attached the greatest -importance to artistic execution, and that he took a great pleasure, not -only in "the long roll of his hexameter," but also in producing the -effects of alliteration, assonance, &c., which are so marked a -peculiarity in the style of Plautus and the earlier Roman poets. He -allows his taste for these tricks of style to degenerate into mannerism. -And this is the only drawback to the impression of absolute spontaneity -which his style produces. He was unfortunate in living before the -natural rudeness of Latin art had been successfully grappled with. His -only important precursors in serious poetry were Ennius and Lucilius, -and, though he derived from the first of these an impulse to shape the -Latin tongue into a fitting vehicle for the expression of elevated -emotion and imaginative conception, he could find in neither a guide to -follow in the task he set before himself. The difficulty and novelty of -his task enhances our sense of his power. His finest passages are thus -characterized by a freshness of feeling and enthusiasm of discovery. But -the result of these conditions and of his own inadequate conception of -the proper limits of his art is that his best poetry is clogged with a -great mass of alien matter, which no treatment in the world could have -made poetically endurable. (W. Y. S.) - - AUTHORITIES.--The two most ancient manuscripts of Lucretius, O and Q, - are both at Leiden, one being a folio (_oblongus_) and the other a - quarto (_quadratus_). Upon these alone the modern texts are founded. - The scientific editing of the text began with C. C. Lachmann (1852) - whose work still holds the field. The most important commentary is - that of H. A. J. Munro (4th ed., 1886) with a prose translation. For - the earlier editions it is sufficient to refer to the account in - Munro's _Introduction_, vol. i. pp. 3 sqq. Giussani's complete edition - (with Italian notes, 1896) and R. Heinze's edition of book iii. (1897) - are also of value. So too are A. Brieger's numerous contributions in - German periodicals and his text in the Teubner series (2nd ed., 1899). - - The philosophy of Lucretius has been much studied in recent times. - Amongst special treatises may be mentioned K. H. Usener's _Epicurea_ - (1887); J. Woltjer's _Lucretii philosophia cum fontibus comparata_ - (1877); John Masson's _Atomic Theory of Lucretius_ (1884) and - _Lucretius: Epicurean and Poet_ (1909); and several papers and - treatises by Brieger and Giussani. - - On the characteristics of the poet as a whole, C. Martha's _Le Poeme - de Lucrece_ (4th ed., Paris, 1885) and W. Y. Sellar in chaps. xi. sqq. - of the _Roman Poets of the Republic_, may be consulted. There are - useful bibliographies in W. S. Teuffel's _History of Roman Literature_ - (English trans. by G. C. W. Warr) and Martin v. Schanz's _Geschichte - der romischen Litteratur_. - - The following translations into English verse are known: T. Creech - (1683), J. M. Good (1805), T. Busby (1813), C. F. Johnson (New York, - 1872), T. C. Baring (1884). There is also a translation by Cyril - Bailey (Oxford, 1910). - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] _Ad Q. Fratr._ ii. 9 (11), 13. Both sense and words have been - much disputed. The general sense is probably that given by the - following restoration, "Lucretii poemata, ut scribis, ita sunt multis - hominibus ingenii multae etiam (MSS. tamen) artis, sed cum _ad - umbilicum_ (omitted in MSS.) veneris, virum te putabo, si Sallustii - Empedoclea legeris, hominem non putabo." This would concede Lucretius - both genius and art, but imply at the same time that he was not easy - reading. - - - - -LUCRINUS LACUS, or LUCRINE LAKE, a lake of Campania, Italy, about 1/2 m. -to the N. of Lake Avernus, and only separated from the sea (Gulf of -Pozzuoli) by a narrow strip of land, traversed by the coast road, Via -Herculanea, which runs on an embankment, the construction of which was -traditionally attributed to Heracles in Strabo's time--and the modern -railway. Its size has been much reduced by the rise of the crater of the -Montenuovo in 1538. Its greatest depth is about 15 ft. In Roman days its -fisheries were important and were let out by the state to contractors. -Its oyster-beds were, as at the present day, renowned; their foundation -is attributed to one Sergius Orata, about 100 B.C. It was also in favour -as a resort for pleasure excursions from Baiae (cf. Martial i. 63), and -its banks were covered with villas, of which the best known was Cicero's -Academia, on the E. bank. The remnants of this villa, with the village -of Tripergola, disappeared in 1538. - - See J. Beloch, _Campanien_, ed. 2 (Breslau, 1890), 172. - - - - -LUCULLUS, the name of a Roman plebeian family of the Licinian _gens_. By -far the most famous of its members was LUCIUS LICINIUS LUCULLUS (c. -110-56), surnamed Ponticus from his victories in Asia Minor over -Mithradates VI. of Pontus. His father, of the same name, had held an -important military command in Sicily, but on his return to Rome he was -prosecuted on a charge of bribery and condemned to exile. His mother was -Caecilia, of the family of the Metelli, and sister of Quintus Caecilius -Metellus Numidicus. Early in life he attached himself to the party of -Sulla, and to that party he remained constant. He attracted Sulla's -notice in the Social War (90) and in 88, when Sulla was appointed to the -command of the war against Mithradates, accompanied him as quaestor to -Greece and Asia Minor. While Sulla was besieging Athens, Lucullus raised -a fleet and drove Mithradates out of the Mediterranean. He won a -brilliant victory off Tenedos, and had he been more of a patriot and -less of a party man he might have ended a perilous war. In 84 peace was -concluded with Mithradates. Sulla returned to Rome, while Lucullus -remained in Asia, and by wise and generous financial reforms laid the -foundation of the prosperity of the province. The result of his policy -was that he became extremely popular with the provincials, but offended -many of the _publicani_, a powerful class which farmed the public -revenue. In 80 he returned to Rome as curule aedile, in which capacity -he exhibited games of exceptional magnificence. Soon afterwards (77) he -was elected praetor, and was next appointed to the province of Africa, -where he again won a good name as a just and considerate governor. In 74 -he became consul, and went to Asia at the head of about 30,000 foot and -2000 horse, to defend the province of Bithynia against Mithradates, who -was besieging his colleague, Marcus Aurelius Cotta, in Chalcedon on the -Propontis. Mithradates was forced to retire along the sea-coast till he -halted before the strong city of Cyzicus, which he besieged. Lucullus, -however, cut off his communications on the land side, and, aided by bad -weather, forced him to raise the siege. In the autumn of 73 Lucullus -marched to Cabeira or Neocaesarea, where the king had gone into winter -quarters with a vague hope that his son-in-law, Tigranes, king of -Armenia, and possibly even the Parthians, might come to his aid. -Although the forces of Mithradates were far superior in numbers, his -troops were no match for the Roman legionaries. A large detachment of -his army having been cut up by one of Lucullus's lieutenant-generals, -the king decided on instant retreat. The retreat soon became a -disorderly flight, Mithradates himself escaping with difficulty into -Lesser Armenia. - -Thus Pontus, with the exception of some of the maritime cities, such as -Sinope, Heraclea and Amisus, became Roman territory. Two years were -occupied in the capture of these strongholds, while Lucullus busied -himself with a general reform of the administration of the province of -Asia. His next step was to demand the surrender of Mithradates and to -threaten Tigranes with war in the event of refusal. In the spring of 69, -at the head of only two legions, he marched through Sophene, the -south-western portion of Armenia, crossed the Tigris, and pushed on to -the newly-built royal city, Tigranocerta, situated on one of the -affluents of that river. A motley host, made up out of the tribes -bordering on the Black Sea and the Caspian, hovered round his small -army, but failed to hinder him from laying siege to the town. Lucullus -showed consummate military capacity, contriving to maintain the siege -and at the same time to give battle to the enemy's vastly superior -forces. There might now have been peace but for the interference of -Mithradates, who pressed Tigranes to renew the war and to seek the aid -and alliance of Parthia. The Parthian king, however, preferred a treaty -with Rome to a treaty with Armenia, and desired simply to have the -Euphrates recognized as his western boundary. Mithradates next appealed -to the national spirit of the peoples of the East generally, and -endeavoured to rouse them to a united effort. The position of Lucullus -was critical. The home government was for recalling him, and his army -was disaffected. Nevertheless, though continually harassed by the enemy, -he persisted in marching northwards from Tigranocerta over the high -table-land of central Armenia, in the hope of reaching Artaxata on the -Araxes. But the open mutiny of his troops compelled him to recross the -Tigris into the Mesopotamian valley. Here, on a dark tempestuous night, -he surprised and stormed Nisibis, the capital of the Armenian district -of Mesopotamia, and in this city, which yielded him a rich booty, he -found satisfactory winter quarters. Meantime Mithradates was again in -Pontus, and in a disastrous engagement at Ziela the Roman camp was taken -and the army slaughtered to a man. Lucullus was obliged to retreat into -Asia Minor, leaving Tigranes and Mithradates masters of Pontus and -Cappadocia. The work of eight years of war was undone. In 66 Lucullus -was superseded by Pompey. He had fairly earned the honour of a triumph, -but his powerful enemies at Rome and charges of maladministration, to -which his immense wealth gave colour, caused it to be deferred till 63. -From this time, with the exception of occasional public appearances, he -gave himself up to elegant luxury, with which he combined a sort of -dilettante pursuit of philosophy, literature and art. As a general he -does not seem to have possessed the entire confidence of his troops, -owing probably to his natural hauteur and the strict discipline which he -imposed on them. The same causes made him unpopular with the Roman -capitalists, whose sole object was the accumulation of enormous fortunes -by farming the revenue of the provinces. - -Among the Roman nobles who revelled in the newly acquired riches of the -East, Lucullus stood pre-eminent. His park and pleasure grounds near -Rome, and the costly and laborious works in his parks and villas at -Tusculum, near Naples, earned for him from Pompey (it is said) the title -of the "Roman Xerxes." On one of his luxurious entertainments he is said -to have spent upwards of L2000. He was a liberal patron of Greek -philosophers and men of letters, and he collected a valuable library, to -which such men had free access. He himself is said to have been a -student of Greek literature, and to have written a history of the -Marsian war in Greek, inserting solecisms to show that he was a Roman. -He was one of the interlocutors in Cicero's _Academica_, the second book -(first edition) of which was called _Lucullus_. Sulla also entrusted him -with the revision of his _Memoirs_. The introduction of the cherry-tree -from Asia into Europe is attributed to him. It appears that he became -mentally feeble some years before his death, and was obliged to -surrender the management of his affairs to his brother Marcus. The usual -funeral panegyric was pronounced on him in the Forum, and the people -would have had him buried by the side of Sulla in the Campus Martius, -but at his brother's request he was laid in his splendid villa at -Tusculum. - - See Plutarch's _Lucullus_; Appian's _Mithridatic War_; the epitomes of - the lost books of Livy; and many passages in Cicero. Some allusions - will also be found in Dio Cassius, Pliny and Athenaeus. For the - Mithradatic wars, see bibliography under MITHRADATES (VI. of Pontus); - and generally G. Boissier, _Cicero and his Friends_ (Eng: trans. by A. - D. Jones, 1897); H. Peter, _Hist. Rom. Reliquiae_, i. p. cclxxxv.; W. - Drumann, _Geschichte Roms_, iv. His _Elogium_ is given in _C.I.L._ i. - 292. - -His brother, MARCUS LICINIUS LUCULLUS, was adopted by Marcus Terentius -Varro, and was hence known as Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus. In 82 -B.C. he served under Sulla against Marius. In 79 he was curule aedile -with his brother, in 77 praetor, in 73 consul with Gaius Cassius Varus. -When praetor he forbade the carrying of arms by slaves, and with his -colleague in the consulship passed the _lex Terentia Cassia_, to give -authority for purchasing corn with the public money and retailing it at -a fixed price at Rome. As proconsul in Macedonia he made war with great -cruelty against the Dardani and Bessi, and compelled them to acknowledge -the supremacy of Rome. Having enjoyed a triumph, he was sent out to the -East to settle the affairs of the provinces conquered by his brother. He -sided with Cicero during the Catilinarian conspiracy, did his utmost to -prevent his banishment, and subsequently supported his claim for the -restoration of his house. He was one of the better representatives of -the optimates, and enjoyed some reputation as an orator. - - See Cicero, _De Domo_, 52; _Pro Tullio_, 8; _In Verrem_, iii. 70, v. - 21; _Florus_, iii. 4, 7; Ammianus Marcellinus xxvii. 4, 11; Plutarch, - _Sulla_, 27; _Lucullus_, 35, 36, 43; Orelli's _Onomasticon Tullianum_. - - - - -LUCUS FERONIAE, an ancient shrine in Etruria. It was visited both by -Latins and Sabines even in the time of Tullus Hostilius and was -plundered by Hannibal in 211 B.C. It was undoubtedly in the territory of -Capena (q.v.); but in imperial times it became an independent community -receiving a colony of Octavian's veterans (_Colonia Iulia felix -Lucoferensis_) and possessing an amphitheatre. Its site has been -disputed. Some authorities place it on the Colle Civitucola (but see -CAPENA), others at the church of S. Abbondio near Rignano, others (and -probably rightly) at Nazzano, which was reached by a branch road from -the Via Flaminia, where remains of a circular temple have been found. - - See E. Bormann in _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ xi. 569 sqq.; H. Nissen, - _Italische Landeskunde_, ii. 369 sqq. (T. As.) - - - - -LUCY, RICHARD DE (d. 1179), called the "loyal," chief justiciar of -England, appears in the latter part of Stephen's reign as sheriff and -justiciar of the county of Essex. He became, on the accession of Henry -II., chief justiciar conjointly with Robert de Beaumont, earl of -Leicester; and after the death of the latter (1168) held the office -without a colleague for twelve years. The chief servant and intimate of -the king he was among the first of the royal party to incur -excommunication in the Becket controversy. In 1173 he played an -important part in suppressing the rebellion of the English barons, and -commanded the royalists at the battle of Fornham. He resigned the -justiciarship in 1179, though pressed by the king to continue in office, -and retired to Lesues Abbey in Kent, which he had founded and where he -died. Lucy's son, Godfrey de Lucy (d. 1204), was bishop of Winchester -from 1189 to his death in September 1204; he took a prominent part in -public affairs during the reigns of Henry II., Richard I. and John. - - See J. H. Round, _Geoffrey de Mandeville_ (1892); Sir J. H. Ramsay, - _Angevin Empire_ (1903); and W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. - i. - - - - -LUCY, SIR THOMAS (1532-1600), the English Warwickshire squire who is -traditionally associated with the youth of William Shakespeare, was born -on the 24th of April 1532, the son of William Lucy, and was descended, -according to Dugdale, from Thurstane de Cherlecote, whose son Walter -received the village of Charlecote from Henry de Montfort about 1190. -Walter is said to have married into the Anglo-Norman family of Lucy, and -his son adopted the mother's surname. Three of Sir Thomas Lucy's -ancestors had been sheriffs of Warwickshire and Leicestershire, and on -his father's death in 1552 he inherited Sherborne and Hampton Lucy in -addition to Charlecote, which was rebuilt for him by John of Padua, -known as John Thorpe, about 1558. By his marriage with Joyce Acton he -inherited Sutton Park in Worcestershire, and became in 1586 high sheriff -of the county. He was knighted in 1565. He is said to have been under -the tutorship of John Foxe, who is supposed to have imbued his pupil -with the Puritan principles which he displayed as knight of the shire -for Warwick in the parliament of 1571 and as sheriff of the county, but -as Mrs Carmichael Stopes points out Foxe only left Oxford in 1545, and -in 1547 went up to London, so that the connexion must have been short. -He often appeared at Stratford-on-Avon as justice of the peace and as -commissioner of musters for the county. As justice of the peace he -showed great zeal against the Catholics, and took his share in the -arrest of Edward Arden in 1583. In 1585 he introduced into parliament a -bill for the better preservation of game and grain, and his reputation -as a preserver of game gives some colour to the Shakespearian tradition -connected with his name. Nicholas Rowe, writing in 1710, told a story -that Lucy prosecuted Shakespeare for deer-stealing from Charlecote Park -in 1585, and that Shakespeare aggravated the offence by writing a ballad -on his prosecutor. The trouble arising from this incident is said to -have driven Shakespeare from Stratford to London. The tale was -corroborated by Archdeacon Davies of Sapperton, Gloucestershire, who -died in 1708. The story is not necessarily falsified by the fact that -there was no deer park at Charlecote at the time, since there was a -warren, and the term warren legally covers a preserve for other animals -than hares or rabbits, roe-deer among others. Shakespeare is generally -supposed to have caricatured the local magnate of Stratford in his -portrait of Justice Shallow, who made his first appearance in the second -part of _Henry IV._, and a second in the _Merry Wives of Windsor_. -Robert Shallow is a justice of the peace in the county of Gloucester and -his ancestors have the dozen white luces in their coats, the arms of the -Lucys being three luces, while in Dugdale's _Warwickshire_ (ed. 1656) -there is drawn a coat-of-arms in which these are repeated in each of the -four quarters, making twelve in all. There are many considerations which -make it unlikely that Shallow represents Lucy, the chief being the -noteworthy difference in their circumstances. Lucy died at Charlecote on -the 7th of July 1600. His grandson, Sir Thomas Lucy (1585-1640), was a -friend of Lord Herbert of Cherbury, and was eulogized by John Davies of -Hereford in 1610. The Charlecote estates eventually passed to the Rev. -John Hammond through his marriage with Alice Lucy, and in 1789 he -adopted the name of Lucy. - - For a detailed account of Sir Thomas Lucy, with his son and grandson - of the same name, see Mrs C. Carmichael Stopes, _Shakespeare's - Warwickshire Contemporaries_ (2nd ed., 1907). Cf. also an article by - Mrs Stopes in the _Fortnightly Review_ (Feb. 1903), entitled "Sir - Thomas Lucy not the Original of Justice Shallow," and J. O. - Halliwell-Phillipps, _Observations on the Charlecote Traditions_ - (Brighton, 1887). - - - - -LUDDITES, the name given to organized bands of English rioters for the -destruction of machinery, who made their first appearance in Nottingham -and the neighbouring districts towards the end of 1811. The origin of -the name is given in Pellew's _Life of Lord Sidmouth_ (iii. 80). In 1779 -there lived in a village in Leicestershire a person of weak intellect, -called Ned Ludd, who was the butt of the boys of the village. On one -occasion Ludd pursued one of his tormentors into a house where were two -of the frames used in stocking manufacture, and, not being able to catch -the boy, vented his anger on the frames. Afterwards, whenever any frames -were broken, it became a common saying that Ludd had done it. The riots -arose out of the severe distress caused by the war with France. The -leader of the riotous bands took the name of "General Ludd." The riots -were specially directed against machinery because of the widespread -prejudice that its use produced a scarcity in the demand for labour. -Apart from this prejudice, it was inevitable that the economic and -social revolution implied in the change from manual labour to work by -machinery should give rise to great misery. The riots began with the -destruction of stocking and lace frames, and, continuing through the -winter and the following spring, spread into Yorkshire, Lancashire, -Derbyshire and Leicestershire. They were met by severe repressive -legislation, introduced by Lord Liverpool's government, a notable -feature in the opposition to which was Lord Byron's speech in the House -of Lords. In 1816 the rioting was resumed, caused by the depression -which followed the peace of 1815 and aggravated by one of the worst of -recorded harvests. In that year, although the centre of the rioting was -again in Nottingham, it extended over almost the whole kingdom. The -rioters were also thoroughly organized. While part of the band destroyed -the machinery, sentinels were posted to give warning of the approach of -the military. Vigorous repressive measures, and, especially, reviving -prosperity, brought the movement to an end. - - See G. Pellew, _Life and Correspondence of H. Addington, 1st Viscount - Sidmouth_ (London, 1847); Spencer Walpole, _History of England_, vol. - i. (London, 1890); and the _Annual Register_ for 1811, 1812 and 1816. - - - - -LUDENSCHEID, a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia, 19 m. by -rail S.S.E. of Hagen. Pop. (1905) 28,921. It is the seat of various -hardware manufactures, among them metal-plated and tin-plated goods, -buckles, fancy nails and brooches, and has iron-foundries and machine -shops. From the counts of Altena Ludenscheid passed to the counts of the -Mark, with which district it was ceded to Brandenburg early in the 17th -century. - - - - -LUDHIANA, a town and district of British India, in the Jullundur -division of the Punjab. The town is 8 m. from the present left bank of -the Sutlej, 228 m. by rail N.W. of Delhi. Pop. (1901) 48,649. It is an -important centre of trade in grain, and has manufactures of shawls, &c., -by Kashmiri weavers, and of scarves, turbans, furniture and carriages. -There is an American Presbyterian mission, which maintains a medical -school for Christian women, founded in 1894. - -The DISTRICT OF LUDHIANA lies south of the river Sutlej, and north of -the native states of Patiala, Jind, Nabha and Maler Kotla. Area 1455 sq. -m. The district consists for the most part of a broad plain, without -hills or rivers, stretching northward from the native borders to the -ancient bed of the Sutlej. The soil is a rich clay, broken by large -patches of shifting sand. On the eastern edge, towards Umballa, the clay -is covered by a bed of rich mould, suitable for the cultivation of -cotton and sugar-cane. Towards the west the sand occurs in union with -the superficial clay, and forms a light friable soil, on which cereals -form the most profitable crop. Even here, however, the earth is so -retentive of moisture that good harvests are reaped from fields which -appear mere stretches of dry and sandy waste. These southern uplands -descend to the valley of the Sutlej by an abrupt terrace, which marks -the former bed of the river. The principal stream has shifted to the -opposite side of the valley, leaving an alluvial strip, 10 m. in width, -between its ancient and its modern bed. The Sutlej itself is here only -navigable for boats of small burden. A branch of the Sirhind canal -irrigates a large part of the western area. The population in 1901 was -673,097. The principal crops are wheat, millets, pulse, maize and -sugar-cane. The district is crossed by the main line of the -North-Western railway from Delhi to Lahore, with two branches. - -During the Mussulman epoch, the history of the district is bound up with -that of the Rais of Raikot, a family of converted Rajputs, who received -the country as a fief under the Sayyid dynasty, about 1445. The town of -Ludhiana was founded in 1480 by two of the Lodi race (then ruling at -Delhi), from whom it derives its name, and was built in great part from -the prehistoric bricks of Sunet. The Lodis continued in possession until -1620, when it again fell into the hands of the Rais of Raikot. -Throughout the palmy days of the Mogul empire the Raikot family held -sway, but the Sikhs took advantage of the troubled period which -accompanied the Mogul decadence to establish their supremacy south of -the Sutlej. Several of their chieftains made encroachments on the -domains of the Rais, who were only able to hold their own by the aid of -George Thomas, the famous adventurer of Hariana. In 1806 Ranjit Singh -crossed the Sutlej and reduced the obstinate Mahommedan family, and -distributed their territory amongst his co-religionists. Since the -British occupation of the Punjab, Ludhiana has grown in wealth and -population. - - See _Ludhiana District Gazetteer_ (Lahore, 1907). - - - - -LUDINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Mason county, Michigan, U.S.A., -on Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the Marquette river, about 85 m. N.W. -of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1900) 7166 (2259 foreign-born); (1904, state -census) 7259; (1910) 9132. It is served by the Pere Marquette, and the -Ludington and Northern railways, and by steamboat lines to Chicago, -Milwaukee and other lake ports. To Manitowoc, Milwaukee, Kewanee and Two -Rivers, Wisconsin, on the W. shore of Lake Michigan, cars, especially -those of the Pere Marquette railway, are ferried from here. Ludington -was formerly well known as a lumber centre, but this industry has -greatly declined. There are various manufactures, and the city has a -large grain trade. On the site of the city Pere Marquette died and was -buried, but his body was removed within a year to Point St Ignace. -Ludington was settled about 1859, and was chartered as a city in 1873. -It was originally named Pere Marquette, but was renamed in 1871 in -honour of James Ludington, a local lumberman. - - - - -LUDLOW, EDMUND (c. 1617-1692), English parliamentarian, son of Sir Henry -Ludlow of Maiden Bradley, Wiltshire, whose family had been established -in that county since the 15th century, was born in 1617 or 1618. He went -to Trinity College, Oxford, and was admitted to the Inner Temple in -1638. When the Great Rebellion broke out, he engaged as a volunteer in -the life guard of Lord Essex. His first essay in arms was at Worcester, -his next at Edgehill. He was made governor of Wardour Castle in 1643, -but had to surrender after a tenacious defence on the 18th of March -1644. On being exchanged soon afterwards, he engaged as major of Sir A. -Hesilrige's regiment of horse. He was present at the second battle of -Newbury, October 1644, at the siege of Basing House in November, and -took part in an expedition to relieve Taunton in December. In January -his regiment was surprised by Sir M. Langdale, Ludlow himself escaping -with difficulty. In 1646 he was elected M.P. for Wilts in the room of -his father and attached himself to the republican party. He opposed the -negotiations with the king, and was one of the chief promoters of -Pride's Purge in 1648. He was one of the king's judges, and signed the -warrant for his execution. In February he was elected a member of the -council of state. In January 1651 Ludlow was sent into Ireland as -lieutenant-general of horse, holding also a civil commission. Here he -spared neither health nor money in the public service. Ireton, the -deputy of Ireland, died on the 26th of November 1651; Ludlow then held -the chief command, and had practically completed the conquest of the -island when he resigned his authority to Fleetwood in October 1652. -Though disapproving Cromwell's action in dissolving the Long Parliament, -he maintained his employment, but when Cromwell was declared Protector -he declined to acknowledge his authority. On returning to England in -October 1655 he was arrested, and on refusing to submit to the -government was allowed to retire to Essex. After Oliver Cromwell's death -Ludlow was returned for Hindon in Richard's parliament of 1659, but -opposed the continuance of the protectorate. He sat in the restored -Rump, and was a member of its council of state and of the committee of -safety after its second expulsion, and a commissioner for the nomination -of officers in the army. In July he was sent to Ireland as -commander-in-chief. Returning in October 1659, he endeavoured to support -the failing republican cause by reconciling the army to the parliament. -In December he returned hastily to Ireland to suppress a movement in -favour of the Long Parliament, but on arrival found himself almost -without supporters. He came back to England in January 1660, and was met -by an impeachment presented against him to the restored parliament. His -influence and authority had now disappeared, and all chance of regaining -them vanished with Lambert's failure. He took his seat in the Convention -parliament as member for Hindon, but his election was annulled on the -18th of May. Ludlow was not excepted from the Act of Indemnity, but was -included among the fifty-two for whom punishment less than capital was -reserved. Accordingly, on the proclamation of the king ordering the -regicides to come in, Ludlow emerged from his concealment, and on the -20th of June surrendered to the Speaker; but finding that his life was -not assured, he succeeded in escaping to Dieppe, travelled to Geneva and -Lausanne, and thence to Vevey, then under the protection of the canton -of Bern. There he remained, and in spite of plots to assassinate him he -was unmolested by the government of that canton, which had also extended -its protection to other regicides. He steadily refused during thirty -years of exile to have anything to do with the desperate enterprises of -republican plotters. But in 1689 he returned to England, hoping to be -employed in Irish affairs. He was however remembered only as a regicide, -and an address from the House of Commons was presented to William III. -by Sir Edward Seymour, requesting the king to issue a proclamation for -his arrest. Ludlow escaped again, and returned to Vevey, where he died -in 1692. A monument raised to his memory by his widow is in the church -of St Martin. Over the door of the house in which he lived was placed -the inscription "Omne solum forti patria, quia Patris." Ludlow married -Elizabeth, daughter of William Thomas, of Wenvoe, Glamorganshire, but -left no issue. - - His _Memoirs_, extending to the year 1672, were published in 1698-1699 - at Vevey and have been often reprinted; a new edition, with notes and - illustrative material and introductory memoir, was issued by C. H. - Firth in 1894. They are strongly partisan, but the picture of the - times is lifelike and realistic. Ludlow also published "a letter from - Sir Hardress Waller ... to Lieutenant-General Ludlow with his answer" - (1660), in defence of his conduct in Ireland. See C. H. Firth's - article in _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Guizot's _Monk's Contemporaries_; A. - Stein's _Briefe Englischer Fluchtlinge in der Schweiz_. - - - - -LUDLOW, a market town and municipal borough in the Ludlow parliamentary -division of Shropshire, England, on the Hereford-Shrewsbury joint line -of the Great Western and London & North Western railways, 162 m. W.N.W. -from London. Pop. (1901) 4552. It is beautifully situated at the -junction of the rivers Teme and Corve, upon and about a wooded eminence -crowned by a massive ruined castle. Parts of this castle date from the -11th century, but there are many additions such as the late Norman -circular chapel, the Decorated state rooms, and details in Perpendicular -and Tudor styles. The parish church of St Lawrence is a cruciform -Perpendicular building, with a lofty central tower, and a noteworthy -east window, its 15th-century glass showing the martyrdom of St -Lawrence. There are many fine half-timbered houses of the 17th century, -and one of seven old town-gates remains. The grammar school, founded in -the reign of John, was incorporated by Edward I. The principal public -buildings are the guildhall, town-hall and market-house, and public -rooms, which include a museum of natural history. Tanning and -flour-milling are carried on. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 -aldermen and 12 councillors. Area 416 acres. - -The country neighbouring Ludlow is richly wooded and hilly, while the -scenery of the Teme is exquisite. Westward, Vinnal Hill reaches 1235 -ft., eastward lies Titterstone Clee (1749 ft.). Richard's Castle, 3 m. -S. on the borders of Herefordshire, dates from the reign of Edward the -Confessor, but little more than its great artificial mound remains. At -Bromfield, 3 m. above Ludlow on the Teme, the church and some remains of -domestic buildings belonged to a Benedictine monastery of the 12th -century. - -Ludlow is supposed to have existed under the name of Dinan in the time -of the Britons. Eyton in his history of Shropshire identifies it with -one of the "Ludes" mentioned in the Domesday Survey, which was held by -Roger de Lacy of Osbern FitzRichard and supposes that Roger built the -castle soon after 1086, while a chronicle of the FitzWarren family -attributes the castle to Roger earl of Shrewsbury. The manor afterwards -belonged to the Lacys, and in the beginning of the 14th century passed -by marriage to Roger de Mortimer and through him to Edward IV. Ludlow -was a borough by prescription in the 13th century, but the burgesses owe -most of their privileges to their allegiance to the house of York. -Richard, duke of York, in 1450 confirmed their government by 12 -burgesses and 24 assistants, and Edward IV. on his accession -incorporated them under the title of bailiffs and burgesses, granted -them the town at a fee-farm of L24, 3s. 4d., a merchant gild and freedom -from toll. Several confirmations of this charter were granted; the last, -dated 1665, continued in force (with a short interval in the reign of -James II.) until the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835. By the charter -of Edward IV. Ludlow returned 2 members to parliament, but in 1867 the -number was reduced to one, and in 1885 the town was disfranchised. The -market rights are claimed by the corporation under the charters of -Edward IV. (1461) and Edward VI. (1552). The court of the Marches was -established at Ludlow in the reign of Henry VII., and continued to be -held here until it was abolished in the reign of William III. Ludlow -castle was granted by Edward IV. to his two sons, and by Henry VII. to -Prince Arthur, who died here in 1502. In 1634 Milton's Comus was -performed in the castle under its original style of "A Masque presented -at Ludlow Castle," before the earl of Bridgewater, Lord President of -Wales. The castle was garrisoned in 1642 by Prince Rupert, who went -there after the battle of Naseby, but in 1646 it surrendered to -Parliament and was afterwards dismantled. - - See _Victoria County History_, Shropshire; Thomas Wright, _The History - of Ludlow and its Neighbourhood_ (1826). - - - - -LUDLOW GROUP, or LUDLOVIAN, in geology, the uppermost subdivision of the -Silurian rocks in Great Britain. This group contains the following -formations in descending order:--Tilestones, Downton Castle sandstones -(90 ft.), Ledbury shales (270 ft.), Upper Ludlow rocks (140 ft.), -Aymestry limestone (up to 40 ft.), Lower Ludlow rocks (350 to 780 ft.). -The Ludlow group is essentially shaly in character, except towards the -top, where the beds become more sandy and pass gradually into the base -of the Old Red Sandstone. The Aymestry limestone, which is irregular in -thickness, is sometimes absent, and where the underlying Wenlock -limestones are absent the shales of the Ludlow group graduate downwards -into the Wenlock shales. The group is typically developed between Ludlow -and Aymestry, and it occurs also in the detached Silurian areas between -Dudley and the mouth of the Severn. - - The _Lower Ludlow rocks_ are mainly grey, greenish and brown mudstones - and sandy and calcareous shales. They contain an abundance of fossils. - The series has been zoned by means of the graptolites by E. M. R. - Wood; the following in ascending order, are the zonal forms: - _Monograptus vulgaris_, _M. Nilssoni_, _M. scanicus_, _M. tumescens_ - and _M. leintwardinensis_. _Cyathaspis ludensis_, the earliest British - vertebrate fossil, was found in these rocks at Leintwardine in - Shropshire, a noted fossil locality. Trilobites are numerous (_Phacops - caudatus_, _Lichas anglicus_, _Homolonotus delphinocephalus_, - _Calymene Blumenbachii_); brachiopods (_Leptaena rhomboidalis_, - _Rhynchonella Wilsoni_, _Atrypa reticularis_), pelecypods (_Cardiola - interrupta_, _Ctenodonta sulcata_) and gasteropods and cephalopods - (many species of _Orthoceras_ and also _Gomphoceras_, _Trochoceras_) - are well represented. Other fossils are _Ceratiocaris_, _Pterygotus_, - _Protaster_, _Palaeocoma_ and _Palaeodiscus_. - - The _Upper Ludlow rocks_ are mainly soft mudstones and shales with - some harder sandy beds capable of being worked as building-stones. - These sandy beds are often found covered with ripple-marks and annelid - tracks; one of the uppermost sandy layers is known as the "Fucoid bed" - from the abundance of the seaweed-like impressions it bears. At the - top of this sub-group, near Ludlow, a brown layer occurs, from a - quarter of an inch to 4 in. in thickness, full of the fragmentary - remains of fish associated with those of _Pterygotus_ and mollusca. - This layer, known as the "Ludlow Bone bed," has been traced over a - very large area (see BONE BED). The common fossils include plants - (_Actinophyllum_, _Chondrites_), ostracods, phyllocarids, eurypterids, - trilobites (less common than in the older groups), numerous - brachiopods (_Lingula minima_, _Chonetes striatella_), gasteropods, - pelecypods and cephalopods (_Orthoceras bullatum_). Fish include - _Cephalaspis_, _Cyathaspis_, _Auchenaspis_. The Tilestones, Downton - Castle Sandstone and Ledbury shales are occasionally grouped together - under the term _Downtonian_. They are in reality passage beds between - the Silurian and Old Red Sandstone, and were originally placed in the - latter system by Sir R. I. Murchison. They are mostly grey, yellow or - red micaceous, shaly sandstones. _Lingula cornea_, _Platyschisma - helicites_ and numerous phyllocarids and ostracods occur among the - fossils. - - In Denbighshire and Merionethshire the upper portion of the - Denbighshire Grits belongs to this horizon: viz. those from below - upwards, the Nantglyn Flags, the Upper Grit beds, the _Monograptus - leintwardinensis_ beds and the Dinas Bran beds. In the Silurian area - of the Lake district the Coldwell beds, forming the upper part of the - Coniston Flags, are the equivalents of the Lower Ludlow; they are - succeeded by the Coniston Grits (4000 ft.), the Bannisdale Slates - (5200 ft.) and the Kirkby Moor Flags (2000 ft.). - - In the Silurian areas of southern Scotland, the Ludlow rocks are - represented in the Kirkcudbright Shore and Riccarton district by the - Raeberry Castle beds and Balmae Grits (500-750 ft.). In the northern - belt--Lanarkshire and the Pentland Hills--the lower portion (or - Ludlovian) consists of mudstones, flaggy shales and greywackes; but - the upper (or Downtonian) part is made up principally of thick red and - yellow sandstones and conglomerates with green mudstones. The Ludlow - rocks of Ireland include the "Salrock beds" of County Galway and the - "Croagmarhin beds" of Dingle promontory. - - See SILURIAN, and, for recent papers, the _Q. J. Geol. Soc._ (London) - and _Geological Literature_ (Geol. Soc., London) annual. - - - - -LUDOLF (or LEUTHOLF), HIOB (1624-1704), German orientalist, was born at -Erfurt on the 15th of June 1624. After studying philology at the Erfurt -academy and at Leiden, he travelled in order to increase his linguistic -knowledge. While in Italy he became acquainted with one Gregorius, an -Abyssinian scholar, and acquired from him an intimate knowledge of the -Ethiopian language. In 1652 he entered the service of the duke of -Saxe-Gotha, in which he continued until 1678, when he retired to -Frankfort-on-Main. In 1683 he visited England to promote a cherished -scheme for establishing trade with Abyssinia, but his efforts were -unsuccessful, chiefly through the bigotry of the authorities of the -Abyssinian Church. Returning to Frankfort in 1684, he gave himself -wholly to literary work, which he continued almost to his death on the -8th of April 1704. In 1690 he was appointed president of the _collegium -imperiale historicum_. - - The works of Ludolf, who is said to have been acquainted with - twenty-five languages, include _Sciagraphia historiae aethiopicae_ - (Jena, 1676); and the _Historia aethiopica_ (Frankfort, 1681), which - has been translated into English, French and Dutch, and which was - supplemented by a _Commentarius_ (1691) and by _Appendices_ - (1693-1694). Among his other works are: _Grammatica linguae amharicae_ - (Frankfort, 1698); _Lexicon amharico-latinum_ (Frankfort, 1698); - _Lexicon aethiopico-latinum_ (Frankfort, 1699); and _Grammatica - aethiopica_ (London, 1661, and Frankfort, 1702). In his _Grammatik der - athiopischen Sprache_ (1857) August Dillmann throws doubt on the story - of Ludolf's intimacy with Gregorius. - - See C. Juncker, _Commentarius de vita et scriptis Jobi Ludolfi_ - (Frankfort, 1710); L. Diestel, _Geschichte des alten Testaments in der - christlichen Kirche_ (Jena, 1868); and J. Flemming, "Hiob Ludolf," in - the _Beitrage zur Assyriologie_ (Leipzig, 1890-1891). - - - - -LUDWIG, KARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1816-1895), German physiologist, was -born at Witzenhausen, near Cassel, on the 29th of December 1816. He -studied medicine at Erlangen and Marburg, taking his doctor's degree at -Marburg in 1839. He made Marburg his home for the next ten years, -studying and teaching anatomy and physiology, first as prosector to F. -L. Fick (1841), then as _privat-docent_ (1842), and finally as -extraordinary professor (1846). In 1849 he was chosen professor of -anatomy and physiology at Zurich, and six years afterwards he went to -Vienna as professor in the Josephinum (school for military surgeons). In -1865 he was appointed to the newly created chair of physiology at -Leipzig, and continued there until his death on the 23rd of April 1895. -Ludwig's name is prominent in the history of physiology, and he had a -large share in bringing about the change in the method of that science -which took place about the middle of the 19th century. With his friends -H. von Helmholtz, E. W. Brucke and E. Du Bois-Reymond, whom he met for -the first time in Berlin in 1847, he rejected the assumption that the -phenomena of living animals depend on special biological laws and vital -forces different from those which operate in the domain of inorganic -nature; and he sought to explain them by reference to the same laws as -are applicable in the case of physical and chemical phenomena. This -point of view was expressed in his celebrated _Text-book of Human -Physiology_ (1852-1856), but it is as evident in his earliest paper -(1842) on the process of urinary secretion as in all his subsequent -work. Ludwig exercised enormous influence on the progress of physiology, -not only by the discoveries he made, but also by the new methods and -apparatus he introduced to its service. Thus in regard to secretion, he -showed that secretory glands, such as the submaxillary, are more than -mere filters, and that their secretory action is attended by chemical -and thermal changes both in themselves and in the blood passing through -them. He demonstrated the existence of a new class of secretory nerves -that control this action, and by showing that if the nerves are -appropriately stimulated the salivary glands continue to secrete, even -though the animal be decapitated, he initiated the method of -experimenting with excised organs. He devised the kymograph as a means -of obtaining a written record of the variations in the pressure of the -blood in the blood-vessels; and this apparatus not only conducted him to -many important conclusions respecting the mechanics of the circulation, -but afforded the first instance of the use of the graphic method in -physiological inquiries. For the purpose of his researches on the gases -in the blood, he designed the mercurial blood-pump which in various -modifications has come into extensive use, and by its aid he made many -investigations on the gases of the lymph, the gaseous interchanges in -living muscle, the significance of oxidized material in the blood, &c. -There is indeed scarcely any branch of physiology, except the physiology -of the senses, to which he did not make important contributions. He was -also a great power as a teacher and the founder of a school. Under him -the Physiological Institute at Leipzig became an organized centre of -physiological research, whence issued a steady stream of original work; -and though the papers containing the results usually bore the name of -his pupils only, every investigation was inspired by him and carried out -under his personal direction. Thus his pupils gained a practical -acquaintance with his methods and ways of thought, and, coming from all -parts of Europe, they returned to their own countries to spread and -extend his doctrines. Possessed himself of extraordinary manipulative -skill, he abhorred rough and clumsy work, and he insisted that -experiments on animals should be planned and prepared with the utmost -care, not only to avoid the infliction of pain (which was also guarded -against by the use of an anaesthetic), but to ensure that the deductions -drawn from them should have their full scientific value. - - - - -LUDWIG, OTTO (1813-1865), German dramatist, novelist and critic, was -born at Eisfeld in Thuringia, on the 11th of February 1813. His father, -who was syndic of Eisfeld, died when the boy was twelve years old, and -he was brought up amidst uncongenial conditions. He had devoted his -leisure to poetry and music, which unfitted him for the mercantile -career planned for him. The attention of the duke of Meiningen was -directed to one of his musical compositions, an opera, _Die Kohlerin_, -and Ludwig was enabled in 1839 to continue his musical studies under -Mendelssohn in Leipzig. But ill-health and constitutional shyness caused -him to give up a musical career, and he turned exclusively to literary -studies, and wrote several stories and dramas. Of the latter, _Der -Erbforster_ (1850) attracted immediate attention as a masterly -psychological study. It was followed by _Die Makkabaer_ (1852), in which -the realistic method of _Der Erbforster_ was transferred to an -historical _milieu_, which allowed more brilliant colouring and a freer -play of the imagination. With these tragedies, to which may be added -_Die Rechte des Herzens_ and _Das Fraulein von Scuderi_, the comedy -_Hans Frey_, and an unfinished tragedy on the subject of Agnes Bernauer, -Ludwig ranks immediately after Hebbel as Germany's most notable dramatic -poet at the middle of the 19th century. Meanwhile he had married and -settled permanently in Dresden, where he turned his attention to -fiction. He published a series of admirable stories of Thuringian life, -characterized by the same attention to minute detail and careful -psychological analysis as his dramas. The best of these are _Die -Heiteretei und ihr Widerspiel_ (1851), and Ludwig's masterpiece, the -powerful novel, _Zwischen Himmel und Erde_ (1855). In his -_Shakespeare-Studien_ (not published until 1891) Ludwig showed himself a -discriminating critic, with a fine insight into the hidden springs of -the creative imagination. So great, however, was his enthusiasm for -Shakespeare, that he was led to depreciate Schiller in a way which found -little favour among his countrymen. He died at Dresden on the 25th of -February 1865. - - Ludwig's _Gesammelte Schriften_ were published by A. Stern and E. - Schmidt in 6 vols. (1891-1892); also by A. Bartels (6 vols., 1900). - See A. Stern, _Otto Ludwig, ein Dichterleben_ (1891; 2nd ed., 1906), - and A. Sauer, _Otto Ludwig_ (1893). - - - - -LUDWIGSBURG, a town in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, 9 m. to the N. of -Stuttgart by rail and 1(1/2) m. from the river Neckar. Pop. (1905) -23,093. It was founded and laid out at the beginning of the 18th century -by the duke of Wurttemberg, Eberhard Louis, and was enlarged and -improved by Duke Charles Eugene. Constructed as the adjunct of a palace -the town bears the impress of its origin, with its straight streets and -spacious squares. It is now mainly important as the chief military depot -in Wurttemberg. The royal palace, one of the finest in Germany, stands -in a beautiful park and contains a portrait gallery and the burial vault -of the rulers of Wurttemberg. The industries include the manufacture of -organs and pianos, of cotton, woollen and linen goods, of chemicals, -iron and wire goods, and brewing and brick-making. In the vicinity is -the beautiful royal residence of Monrepos, which is connected with the -park of Ludwigsburg by a fine avenue of lime trees. From 1758 to 1824 -the town was famous for the production of a special kind of porcelain. - - See Belschner, _Ludwigsburg in zwei Jahrhunderten_ (Ludwigsburg, - 1904). - - - - -LUDWIGSHAFEN, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate, on the left -bank of the Rhine, immediately opposite to Mannheim, with which it is -connected by a steam ferry and a railway bridge. Pop. (1885) 21,042, -(1900) 61,905, (1905) 72,168. It has an increasing trade in iron, -timber, coal and agricultural products, a trade which is fostered by a -harbour opened in 1897; and also large factories for making aniline dyes -and soda. Other industries are the manufacture of cellulose, artificial -manure, flour and malt; and there are saw-mills, iron foundries and -breweries in the town. The place, which was founded in 1843 by Louis I., -king of Bavaria, was only made a town in 1859. - - See J. Esselborn, _Geschichte der Stadt Ludwigshafen_ (Ludwigshafen, - 1888). - - - - -LUDWIGSLUST, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of -Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 22 m. by rail S. by E. of Schwerin. Pop. (1905) -6728. The castle was built by the duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, -Frederick II., in 1772-1776. There is also another ducal residence, a -fine park and a monument of the grand duke, Frederick Francis I. (d. -1837). The town has a church constructed on the model of a Greek temple. -It has manufactures of chemicals and other small industries. Ludwigslust -was founded by the duke Frederick, being named after this duke's father, -Christian Louis II. It became a town in 1876. - - - - -LUG, a verb meaning to pull a heavy object, to drag, now mainly used -colloquially. It is probably Scandinavian in origin; the Swedish _lugg_, -forelock, lock of hair, gives _lugga_, to pull, tug; and "lug" in some -north-eastern English dialects is still chiefly used in the sense of -pulling a person's hair. "Luggage," passengers' baggage, means by origin -that which has to be "lugged" about. The Scandinavian word may be also -the source of "lug," in the sense of "ear," in Scotland the regular -dialectical word, and in English commonly applied to the ear-shaped -handles of metal or earthenware pots, pitchers, &c. If so the word means -something that can be pulled or tugged. This is also possibly the origin -of the "lug" or "lug-sail," a four-sided sail attached to a yard which -is hung obliquely to the mast, whence probably the name "lugger" of a -sailing-vessel with two or three masts and fore and aft lug-sails. The -word may, however, be connected with the Dutch _logger_, a fishing-boat -using drag-nets. "Lug" is also the name of a marine worm, _Arenicola -marina_, used as bait. - - - - -LUGANO (Ger. _Lauis_), the most populous and most thriving town in the -Swiss canton of Ticino or Tessin, situated (906 ft.) on the northern -shore of the lake of Lugano. Pop. (1900) 9394, almost all -Italian-speaking and Romanists. To the S. it is dominated by the Monte -Salvatore (3004 ft.) and on the S.E. (across the lake) by the Monte -Generoso (5591 ft.)--a magnificent view point. Both mountains are -accessible by railways. By rail Lugano is 124 m. from Lucerne and 51(1/2) m. -from Milan. Situated on the main St Gotthard railway line, Lugano is now -easily reached, so that it is much frequented by visitors (largely -German) in spring and in autumn. Though politically Swiss since 1512, -Lugano is thoroughly Italian in appearance and character. Of recent -years many improvements have been made in the town, which has two -important suburbs--Paradiso to the south and Cassarate to the east. The -railway station (1109 ft.) is above the town, and is connected with the -fine quays by a funicular railway. On the main quay is a statue of -William Tell by the sculptor Vincenzo Vela (1820-1891), a native of the -town, while other works by him are in the gardens of private villas in -the neighbourhood. The principal church, San Lorenzo, in part dates back -earlier than the 15th century, while its richly sculptured facade bears -the figures 1517. This church is now the cathedral church of the bishop -of Lugano, a see erected in 1888, with jurisdiction over the Italian -parts of Switzerland. The church of Santa Maria degli Angioli, built -about 1499, and till 1848 occupied by Franciscans, contains several very -fine frescoes (particularly a Crucifixion) painted 1529-1530 by -Bernardino Luini. A gallery containing modern pictures has been built on -the site of the old palace of the bishops of Como. During the struggle -of 1848-1866 to expel the Austrians from Lombardy, Lugano served as -headquarters for Mazzini and his followers. Books and tracts intended -for distribution in Italy were produced there and at Capolago (9 m. -distant, at the S.E. end of the lake), and the efforts of the Austrian -police to prevent their circulation were completely powerless. - (W. A. B. C.) - - - - -LUGANO, LAKE OF (also called CERESIO), one of the smaller lakes in -Lombardy, N. Italy, lying between Lago Maggiore (W.) and the Lake of -Como (E). It is of very irregular shape, the great promontory of Monte -Salvatore (3004 ft.) nearly cutting off the western arm from the main -lake. The whole lake has an area of 19(1/2) sq. m., its greatest length -is about 22 m., its greatest width 2 m., and its greatest depth 945 ft., -while its surface is 899 ft. above sea-level. Between Melide (S. of the -town of Lugano) and Maroggia (on the east shore) the lake is so shallow -that a great stone dam has been built across for the St Gotthard railway -line and the carriage road. The chief town is Lugano (at its northern -end), which by the St Gotthard line is 19 m. from Bellinzona and 9 m. -from Capolago, the station at the south-eastern extremity of the lake, -which is but 8 m. by rail from Como. At the south-western extremity a -railway leads S.W. from Porto Ceresio to Varese (9 m.). Porlezza, at the -east end of the lake, is 8 m. by rail from Menaggio on the Lake of Como, -while Ponte Tresa, at the west end of the lake, is about the same -distance by a steam tramway from Luino on Lago Maggiore. Of the total -area of the lake, about 7(1/2) sq. m. are in the Swiss Canton of Ticino -(Tessin), formed in 1803 out of the conquests made by the Swiss from the -Milanese in 1512. The remainder of the area is in Italy. The lake lies -among the outer spurs of the Alps that divide the Ticino (Tessin) basin -from that of the Adda, where the calcareous strata have been disturbed -by the intrusion of porphyry and other igneous rocks. It is not -connected with any considerable valley, but is fed by numerous torrents -issuing from short glens in the surrounding mountains, while it is -drained by the Tresa, an unimportant stream flowing into Lago Maggiore. -The first steamer was placed on the lake in 1856. (W. A. B. C.) - - - - -LUGANSK (also LUGAN and LUGANSKIY ZAVOD), a town of southern Russia, in -the government of Ekaterinoslav. Pop. (1900) 34,175. It has a technical -railway school and a meteorological observatory, stands on the small -river Lugan, 10 m. from its confluence with the northern Donets, in the -Lugan mining district, 213 m. E. of the city of Ekaterinoslav, and has -prospered greatly since 1890. This district, which comprises the -coal-mines of Lisichansk and the anthracite mines of Gorodishche, -occupies about 110,000 acres on the banks of the Donets river. Although -it is mentioned in the 16th century, and coal was discovered there at -the time of Peter the Great, it was not until 1795 that an Englishman, -Gascoyne or Gaskoin, established its first iron-works for supplying the -Black Sea fleet and the southern fortresses with guns and shot. This -proved a failure, owing to the great distance from the sea; but during -the Crimean War the iron-works of Lugan again produced shot, shell and -gun-carriages. Since 1864 agricultural implements, steam-engines, and -machinery for beetroot sugar-works, distilleries, &c., have been the -chief manufactures. There is an active trade in cattle, tallow, wools, -skins, linseed, wine, corn and manufactured wares. - - - - -LUGARD, SIR FREDERICK JOHN DEALTRY (1858- ), British soldier, African -explorer and administrator, son of the Rev. F. G. Lugard, was born on -the 22nd of January 1858. He entered the army in 1878, joining the -Norfolk regiment. He served in the Afghan War of 1879-80, in the Sudan -campaign of 1884-85, and in Burma in 1886-87. In May 1888, while on -temporary half-pay, he took command of an expedition organized by the -British settlers in Nyasaland against the Arab slave traders on Lake -Nyasa, and was severely wounded. He left Nyasaland in April 1889, and in -the same year was engaged by the Imperial British East Africa Company. -In their service he explored the Sabaki river and the neighbouring -region, and elaborated a scheme for the emancipation of the slaves held -by the Arabs in the Zanzibar mainland. In 1890 he was sent by the -company to Uganda, where he secured British predominance and put an end -to the civil disturbances, though not without severe fighting, chiefly -notable for an unprovoked attack by the "French" on the "British" -faction. While administering Uganda he journeyed round Ruwenzori to -Albert Edward Nyanza, mapping a large area of the country. He also -visited Albert Nyanza, and brought away some thousands of Sudanese who -had been left there by Emin Pasha and H. M. Stanley. In 1892 Lugard -returned to England, where he successfully opposed the abandonment of -Uganda by Great Britain, a step then contemplated by the fourth -Gladstone administration. In 1894 Lugard was despatched by the Royal -Niger Company to Borgu, where, distancing his French and German rivals -in a country up to then unvisited by any Europeans, he secured treaties -with the kings and chiefs acknowledging the sovereignty of the British -company. In 1896-1897 he took charge of an expedition to Lake Ngami on -behalf of the British West Charterland Company. From Ngami he was -recalled by the British government and sent to West Africa, where he was -commissioned to raise a native force to protect British interests in the -hinterland of Lagos and Nigeria against French aggression. In August -1897 he raised the West African Frontier Force, and commanded it until -the end of December 1899. The differences with France were then -composed, and, the Royal Niger Company having surrendered its charter, -Lugard was chosen as high commissioner of Northern Nigeria. The part of -Northern Nigeria under effective control was small, and Lugard's task in -organizing this vast territory was rendered more difficult by the -refusal of the sultan of Sokoto and many other Fula princes to fulfil -their treaty obligations. In 1903 a successful campaign against the emir -of Kano and the sultan of Sokoto rendered the extension of British -control over the whole protectorate possible, and when in September 1906 -he resigned his commissionership, the whole country was being peacefully -administered under the supervision of British residents (see NIGERIA). -In April 1907 he was appointed governor of Hong-Kong. Lugard was created -a C.B. in 1895 and a K.C.M.G. in 1901. He became a colonel in 1905, and -held the local rank of brigadier-general. He married in 1902 Flora -Louise Shaw (daughter of Major-General George Shaw, C.B., R.A.), who for -some years had been a distinguished writer on colonial subjects for _The -Times_. Sir Frederick (then Captain) Lugard published in 1893 _The Rise -of our East African Empire_ (partly autobiographical), and was the -author of various valuable reports on Northern Nigeria issued by the -Colonial Office. Throughout his African administrations Lugard sought -strenuously to secure the amelioration of the condition of the native -races, among other means by the exclusion, wherever possible, of -alcoholic liquors, and by the suppression of slave raiding and slavery. - - - - -LUGO, a maritime province of north-western Spain, formed in 1833 of -districts taken from the old province of Galicia, and bounded N. by the -Atlantic, E. by Oviedo and Leon, S. by Orense, and W. by Pontevedra and -Corunna. Pop. (1900) 465,386; area, 3814 sq. m. The coast, which extends -for about 40 m. from the estuary of Rivadeo to Cape de Vares, is -extremely rugged and inaccessible, and few of the inlets, except those -of Rivadeo and Vivero, admit large vessels. The province, especially in -the north and east, is mountainous, being traversed by the Cantabrian -chain and its offshoots; the sierra which separates it from Leon attains -in places a height of 6000 ft. A large part of the area is drained by -the Mino. This river, formed by the meeting of many smaller streams in -the northern half of the province, follows a southerly direction until -joined by the Sil, which for a considerable distance forms the southern -boundary. Of the rivers flowing north into the Atlantic, the most -important are the Navia, which has its lower course through Oviedo; the -Eo, for some distance the boundary between the two provinces; the Masma, -the Oro and the Landrove. - -Some of the valleys of Lugo are fertile, and yield not only corn but -fruit and wine. The principal agricultural wealth, however, is on the -Mino and Sil, where rye, maize, wheat, flax, hemp and a little silk are -produced. Agriculture is in a very backward condition, mainly owing to -the extreme division of land that prevails throughout Galicia. The -exportation of cattle to Great Britain, formerly a flourishing trade, -was ruined by American and Australian competition. Iron is found at -Caurel and Incio, arsenic at Castroverde and Cervantes, argentiferous -lead at Riotorto; but, although small quantities of iron and arsenic are -exported from Rivadeo, frequent strikes and lack of transport greatly -impeded the development of mining in the earlier years of the 20th -century. There are also quarries of granite, marble and various kinds of -slate and building-stone. The only important manufacturing industries -are those connected with leather, preserves, coarse woollen and linen -stuffs, timber and osier work. About 250 coasting vessels are registered -at the ports, and about as many boats constitute the fishing fleet, -which brings in lampreys, soles, tunny and sardines, the last two being -salted and tinned for export. The means of communication are -insufficient, though there are over 100 m. of first-class roads, and the -railways from Madrid and northern Portugal to Corunna run through the -province. - - Lugo the capital (pop. 1900, 26,959) and the important towns of - Chantada (15,003), Fonsagrada (17,302), Mondonedo (10,590), Monforte - (12,912), Panton (12,988), Villalba (13,572) and Vivero (12,843) are - described in separate articles. The province contained in 1900 - twenty-six towns of more than 7000 inhabitants, the largest being - Sarria (11,998) and Savinao (11,182). For a general description of the - people and the history of this region see GALICIA. - - - - -LUGO, capital of the above Spanish province, is situated on the left -bank of the river Mino and on the railway from Corunna to Madrid. Pop. -(1900) 26,959. Lugo is an episcopal see, and was formerly the capital of -Galicia. Suburbs have grown up round the original town, the form of -which, nearly quadrangular, is defined by a massive Roman wall 30 to 40 -ft. high and 20 ft. thick, with projecting semi-circular towers which -numbered 85 as late as 1809, when parts of the fortifications were -destroyed by the French. The wall now serves as a promenade. The Gothic -cathedral, on the south side of the town, dates from the 12th century, -but was modernized in the 18th, and possesses no special architectural -merit. The conventual church of Santo Domingo dates from the 14th -century. The principal industries are tanning, and the manufacture of -linen and woollen cloth. About 1 m. S., on the left bank of the Mino, -are the famous hot sulphur baths of Lugo. - -Lugo (_Lucus Augusti_) was a flourishing city under Roman rule (c. 19 -B.C.-A.D. 409) and was made by Augustus the seat of a _conventus -juridicus_ (assize). Its sulphur baths were even then well known. It was -sacked by barbarian invaders in the 5th century, and suffered greatly in -the Moorish wars of the 8th century. The bishopric dates from a very -early period, and it is said to have acquired metropolitan rank in the -middle of the 6th century; it is now in the archiepiscopal province of -Santiago de Compostela. - - - - -LUGOS, the capital of the county of Krasso-Szoreny, Hungary, 225 m. S.E. -of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,126. It is situated on both banks of -the river Temes, which divides the town in two quarters, the Rumanian on -the right and the German on the left bank. It is the seat of a -Greek-United (Rumanian) bishop. Lugos carries on an active trade in -wine, and has several important fairs, while the surrounding country, -which is mountainous and well-wooded, produces large quantities of -grapes and plums. Lugos was once a strongly fortified place and of -greater relative importance than at present. It was the last seat of the -Hungarian revolutionary government (August 1849), and the last resort of -Kossuth and several other leaders of the national cause, previous to -their escape to Turkey. - - - - -LUGUDUNUM, or LUGDUNUM, an old Celtic place-name (fort or hill of the -god Lugos or Lug) used by the Romans for several towns in ancient Gaul. -The most important was the town at the confluence of the Saone and Rhone -now called Lyons (q.v.). This place had in Roman times two elements. One -was a Roman _colonia_ (municipality of Roman citizens, self-governing) -situated on the hill near the present Fourvieres (_Forum vetus_). The -other, territorially distinct from it for reasons of statecraft, was the -Temple of Roma and Augustus, to which the inhabitants of the 64 Gallic -cantons in the three Roman provinces of Aquitania, Lugudunensis and -Belgica--the so-called Tres Galliae--sent delegates every summer to hold -games and otherwise celebrate the worship of the emperor which was -supposed to knit the provincials to Rome. The two elements together -composed the most important town of western Europe in Roman times. -Lugudunum controlled the trade of its two rivers, and that which passed -from northern Gaul to the Mediterranean or vice versa; it had a mint; it -was the capital of all northern Gaul, despite its position in the south, -and its wealth was such that, when Rome was burnt in Nero's reign, its -inhabitants subscribed largely to the relief of the Eternal City. - (F. J. H.) - - - - -LUINI, BERNARDINO (?1465-?1540), the most celebrated master of the -Lombard school of painting founded upon the style of Leonardo da Vinci, -was born at Luino, a village on Lago Maggiore. He wrote his name as -"Bernardin Lovino," but the spelling "Luini" is now generally adopted. -Few facts are known regarding his life, and until a comparatively recent -date many even of his works had, in the lapse of years and laxity of -attribution, got assigned to Leonardo da Vinci. It appears that Luini -studied painting at Vercelli under Giovenone, or perhaps under Stephano -Scotto. He reached Milan either after the departure of Da Vinci in 1500, -or shortly before that event; it is thus uncertain whether or not the -two artists had any personal acquaintance, but Luini was at any rate in -the painting-school established in Milan by the great Florentine. In the -later works of Luini a certain influence from the style of Raphael is -superadded to that, far more prominent and fundamental, from the style -of Leonardo; but there is nothing to show that he ever visited Rome. His -two sons are the only pupils who have with confidence been assigned to -him; and even this can scarcely be true of the younger, who was born in -1530, when Bernardino was well advanced in years. Guadenzio Ferrari has -also been termed his disciple. One of the sons, Evangelista, has left -little which can now be identified; the other, Aurelio, was accomplished -in perspective and landscape work. There was likewise a brother of -Bernardino, named Ambrogio, a competent painter. Bernardino, who hardly -ever left Lombardy, had some merit as a poet, and is said to have -composed a treatise on painting. The precise date of his death is -unknown; he may perhaps have survived till about 1540. A serene, -contented and happy mind, naturally expressing itself in forms of grace -and beauty, seems stamped upon all the works of Luini. The same -character is traceable in his portrait, painted in an upper group in his -fresco of "Christ crowned with Thorns" in the Ambrosian library in -Milan--a venerable bearded personage. The only anecdote which has been -preserved of him tells a similar tale. It is said that for the single -figures of saints in the church at Saronno he received a sum equal to 22 -francs per day, along with wine, bread and lodging; and he was so well -satisfied with this remuneration that, in completing the commission, he -painted a Nativity for nothing. - -A dignified suavity is the most marked characteristic of Luini's works. -They are constantly beautiful, with a beauty which depends at least as -much upon the loving self-withdrawn expression as upon the mere -refinement and attractiveness of form. This quality of expression -appears in all Luini's productions, whether secular or sacred, and -imbues the latter with a peculiarly religious grace--not ecclesiastical -unction, but the devoutness of the heart. His heads, while extremely -like those painted by Leonardo, have less subtlety and involution and -less variety of expression, but fully as much amenity. He began indeed -with a somewhat dry style, as in the "Pieta" in the church of the -Passione; but this soon developed into the quality which distinguishes -all his most renowned works; although his execution, especially as -regards modelling, was never absolutely equal to that of Leonardo. -Luini's paintings do not exhibit an impetuous style of execution, and -certainly not a negligent one; yet it appears that he was in fact a very -rapid worker, as his picture of the "Crowning with Thorns," painted for -the College del S. Sepolcro, and containing a large number of figures, -is recorded to have occupied him only thirty-eight days, to which an -assistant added eleven. His method was simple and expeditious, the -shadows being painted with the pure colour laid on thick, while the -lights are of the same colour thinly used, and mixed with a little -white. The frescoes exhibit more freedom of hand than the oil pictures; -and they are on the whole less like the work of Da Vinci, having at an -early date a certain resemblance to the style of Mantegna, as later on -to that of Raphael. Luini's colouring is mostly rich, and his light and -shade forcible. - - Among his principal works the following are to be mentioned. At - Saronno are frescoes painted towards 1525, representing the life of - the Madonna--her "Marriage," the "Presentation of the Infant Saviour - in the Temple," the "Adoration of the Magi" and other incidents. His - own portrait appears in the subject of the youthful "Jesus with the - Doctors in the Temple." This series--in which some comparatively - archaic details occur, such as gilded nimbuses--was partly repeated - from one which Luini had executed towards 1520 in S. Croce. In the - Brera Gallery, Milan, are frescoes from the suppressed church of La - Pace and the Convent della Pelucca--the former treating subjects from - the life of the Virgin, the latter, of a classic kind, more decorative - in manner. The subject of girls playing at the game of "hot-cockles," - and that of three angels depositing St Catherine in her sepulchre, are - particularly memorable, each of them a work of perfect charm and grace - in its way. In the Casa Silva, Milan, are frescoes from Ovid's - _Metamorphoses_. The Monastero Maggiore of Milan (or church of S. - Maurizio) is a noble treasure-house of Luini's art--including a large - Crucifixion, with about one hundred and forty figures; "Christ bound - to the Column," between figures of Saints Catherine and Stephen, and - the founder of the chapel kneeling before Catherine; the martyrdom of - this saint; the "Entombment of Christ," and a large number of other - subjects. In the Ambrosian library is the fresco (already mentioned), - covering one entire wall of the Sala della S. Corona, of "Christ - crowned with Thorns," with two executioners, and on each side six - members of a confraternity; in the same building the "Infant Baptist - playing with a Lamb"; in the Brera, the "Virgin Enthroned, with - Saints" (dated 1521); in the Louvre, the "Daughter of Herodias - receiving the Head of the Baptist"; in the Esterhazy Gallery, Vienna, - the "Virgin between Saints Catherine and Barbara"; in the National - Gallery, London, "Christ disputing with the Doctors" (or rather, - perhaps, the Pharisees). Many or most of these gallery pictures used - to pass for the handiwork of Da Vinci. The same is the case with the - highly celebrated "Vanity and Modesty" in the Sciarra Palace, Rome, - which also may nevertheless in all probability be assigned to Luini. - Another singularly beautiful picture by him is in the Royal Palace in - Milan--a large composition of "Women Bathing." That Luini was also - pre-eminent as a decorative artist is shown by his works in the - Certosa of Pavia. - - A good account of Luini by Dr G. C. Williamson was published in 1900. - (W. M. R.) - - - - -LUKE, the traditional author of the third Gospel and of the Book of -Acts, and the most literary among the writers of the New Testament. He -alone, too, was of non-Jewish origin (Col. iv. 11, 14), a fact of great -interest in relation to his writings. His name, a more familiar form of -Lucanus (cf. Silas for Silvanus, Acts xvii. 4, 1 Thess. i. 1, and see -_Encycl. Bibl._ s.v., for instances of [Greek: Doukas] on Egyptian -inscriptions), taken together with his profession of physician (Col. iv. -14), suggests that he was son of a Greek freedman possibly connected -with Lucania in south Italy; and as Julius Caesar gave Roman citizenship -to all physicians in Rome (Sueton. _Jul._ 42), Luke may even have -inherited this status from his father. But in any case such a man would -have the attitude to things Roman which appears in the works attributed -to Luke. He was a fellow-worker of Paul's when in Rome (Philemon 24), -where he seems to have remained in constant attendance on his leader, as -physician as well as attached friend (Col. iv. 14; 2 Tim. iv. 11). That -Luke, before he became a Christian, was an adherent of the -synagogue--not a full proselyte, but one of those "worshippers" of God -to whom Acts makes frequent reference--is fairly certain from the -familiarity with the Septuagint indicated in Acts, as well as from its -sympathy with the Hellenistic type of piety as distinct from specific -Paulinism, of which there is but little trace. - -The earliest extra-biblical reference to him is perhaps in the -Muratonian Canon, which implies that his name already stood in MSS. of -both Gospel (probably so even in Marcion's day) and Acts, and says that -Paul took him for his companion _quasi ut juris studiosum_ ("as being a -student of law"). Here _juris_ is almost certainly corrupt; and whether -we take the sense to have been "as being devoted to travel" (_ut juris_ -= _itineris_) or "as skilled in disease" ([Greek: nosou] passing into -[Greek: nomou] in the Greek original), it is probably a mere inference -from biblical data. Beyond references in Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria -(cf. HEBREWS) and Tertullian, which add nothing to our knowledge, we -have the belief to which Origen (_Hom._ i. _in Lucam_) witnesses as -existing in his day, that Luke was the "brother" of 2 Cor. viii. 18, -"whose praise in the Gospel" (as preached) was "throughout all the -churches." Though the basis of the identification be a mistake, yet that -this "brother," "who was also appointed by the churches (note the -generality of this) to travel with us in the matter of the charity," was -none other than Paul's constant companion Luke is quite likely; e.g. he -seems to have been almost the only non-Macedonian (as demanded by 2 Cor. -ix. 2-4) of Paul's circle available[1] at the time (see Acts xx. 4). Our -next witness, a prologue to the Lucan writings (originally in Greek, now -known only in Latin, see _Nov. Test. Latine_ (Oxford), I. iii., II. i.), -perhaps preserves a genuine tradition in stating that Luke died in -Bithynia at the age of seventy-four. It is hard to see why this should -be fiction, which usually took the form of martyrdom, as in a later -tradition touching his end. The same prologue, and indeed all early -tradition, connects him originally with Antioch (see Euseb. _Hist. -Eccl._ iii. 4, 6, possibly after Julius Africanus in the first half of -the 3rd century). - - That he was actually a native of Antioch is as doubtful as the - statement that he was a Syrian by race (Prologue). But internal - evidence bears out the view that he practised his profession in - Antioch, where (or in Tarsus) he probably first met Paul. Whether any - of his information in Acts as to the Gospel in Antioch (xi. 19 ff., - xiii. 1 ff., xiv. 26-xv. 35) was due to an Antiochene document used by - him (cf. A. Harnack, _The Acts of the Apostles_, 245 ff.) or not, this - knowledge in any case suggests Luke's connexion with that church. He - shows, too, local knowledge on points unlikely to have stood in any - such source (e.g. it was in Antioch that the name "Christians" was - first coined, xi. 26), which points to his share in early Church life - there. The Bezan reading in Acts xi. 27, "when _we_ were assembled," - may imply memory of this. - - But while Luke probably met Paul in Antioch, and thence started with - him on his second great missionary enterprise (xv. 36 ff.), partly at - least as his medical attendant (cf. Gal. iv. 13), it is possible that - he had also some special connexion with the north-eastern part of the - Aegean. Sir W. M. Ramsay and others fancy that Luke's original home - was Philippi, and that in fact he may have been the "certain - Macedonian" seen in vision by Paul at Troas, inviting help for his - countrymen (xvi. 9 f.). But this is as precarious as the view that, - because "we" ceases at Philippi in xvi. 17, and then reemerges in xx. - 6, Luke must have resided there during all the interval. The use and - disuse of the first person plural, identifying Paul and his party, has - probably a more subtle and psychological[2] meaning (see ACTS). The - local connexion in question may have been subsequent to that with - Antioch, dating from his work with Paul in the province of Asia, and - being resumed after Paul's martyrdom. This accords at once with - Harnack's argument that Luke wrote Acts in Asia[3] (_Luke the - Physician_, p. 149 ff.), and with the early tradition, above cited, - that he died in Bithynia at the age of seventy-four, without ever - having married (this touch may be due to an ascetic feeling current - already in the 2nd century). - - The later traditions about Luke's life are based on fanciful inference - or misunderstanding, e.g. that he was one of the Seventy (Adamantius - _Dial. de recta fide_, 4th century), or the story (in Theodorus - Lector, 6th century) that he painted a portrait of the Virgin Mother. - But a good deal can still be gathered by sympathetic study of his - writings as to the manner of man he was. It was a beautiful soul from - which came "the most beautiful book" ever written, as Renan styled his - Gospel. The selection of stories which he gives us--especially in the - section mainly peculiar to himself (ix. 51-xviii. 14)--reflects his - own character as well as that of the source he mainly follows. His was - indeed a _religio medici_ in its pity for frail and suffering - humanity, and in its sympathy with the triumph of the Divine "healing - art" upon the bodies and souls of men (cf. Harnack, _The Acts, - Excursus_, iii.). His was also a humane[4] spirit, a spirit so tender - that it saw further than almost any save the Master himself into the - soul of womanhood. In this, as in his joyousness, united with a - feeling for the poor and suffering, he was an early Francis of Assisi. - Luke, "the physician, the beloved physician," that was Paul's - characterization of him; and it is the impression which his writings - have left on humanity. How great his contribution to Christianity has - been, in virtue of what he alone preserved of the historical Jesus and - of the embodiment of his Gospel in his earliest followers, who can - measure? Harnack even maintains (_The Acts_, p. 301) that his story of - the Apostolic age was the indispensable condition for the - incorporation of the Pauline epistles in the Church's canon of New - Testament scriptures. Certainly his conception of the Gospel, viz. a - Christian Hellenistic universalism (with some slight infusion of - Pauline thought) passed through a Graeco-Roman mind, proved more easy - of assimilation, and so more directly influential for the ancient - Church, than Paul's own distinctive teaching (ib. 281 ff.; cf. _Luke - the Physician_, pp. 139-145). - - LITERATURE.--Introductions to commentaries like A. Plummer's on Luke's - Gospel in the "Intern. Crit." series, R. B. Rackham's _Acts of the - Apostles_ ("Oxford Comm."); the article "Luke" in Hastings's _Dict. of - the Bible_ and _Dict. of Christ and the Gospels_, the _Encycl. - Biblica_ and Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_, vol. xi.; Sir W. M. Ramsay's - _Paul the Traveller_ and _Pauline and other Studies_, and A. Harnack's - _Lukas der Arzt_ (1906, Eng. trans. 1907) and _Die Apostelgeschichte_ - (1908, Eng. trans. 1909). For the Luke of legend, see authorities - quoted under MARK. (J. V. B.) - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Tychicus may be the other "brother," in viii. 22. - - [2] So also A. Hilgenfeld, _Zeit. f. theol. Wissenschaft_ (1907), p. - 214, argues that "we" marks the author's wish to give his narrative - more vividness at great turning-points of the story--the passage from - Asia to Europe, and again the real beginning of the solemn progress - of Paul towards the crisis in Jerusalem, as yet later towards Rome, - xxvii. 1 ff. - - [3] Note that Luke is at pains to explain why Paul passed by Asia and - Bithynia in the first instance (xvi. 6 f.). - - [4] Compare what A. W. Verrall has said of the poet Statius and "the - gentle doctrine of humanity" on Hellenic soil, as embodied in his - description of The Altar of Mercy at Athens (_Oxford and Cambridge - Review_, i. 101 ff.). - - - - -LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST, the third of the four canonical Gospels of the -Christian Church. - -1. _Authorship and Date._--The earliest indication which we possess of -the belief that the author was Luke, the companion of the Apostle Paul -(Col. iv. 14; Philem. 24; 2 Tim. iv. 11), is found in Justin Martyr, -who, in his _Dialogue with Trypho_ (c. 103), when making a statement -found only in our Luke, instead of referring for it simply to the -"Apostolic Memoirs," his usual formula, says that it is contained in the -memoirs composed by "the Apostles and _those that followed them_." But -the first distinct mention of Luke as the author of the Gospel is that -by Irenaeus in his famous passage about the Four Gospels (_Adv. Haer._ -III. i. 2, c. A.D. 180). - -This tradition is important in spite of the fact that it first comes -clearly before us in a writer belonging to the latter part of the 2nd -century, because the prominence and fame of Luke were not such as would -of themselves have led to his being singled out to have a Gospel -attributed to him. The question of the authorship cannot, however, be -decided without considering the internal evidence, the interpretation of -which in the case of the Third Gospel and the Acts (the other writing -attributed to Luke) is a matter of peculiar interest. It is generally -admitted that the same person is the author of both works in their -present form. This is intimated at the beginning of the second of them -(Acts i. 1); and both are marked, broadly speaking throughout, though in -some parts much more strongly than in others, by stylistic -characteristics which we may conveniently call "Lucan" without making a -premature assumption as to the authorship. The writer is more versed -than any other New Testament writer except the author of the Epistle to -the Hebrews, and very much more than most of them, in the literary Greek -of the period of the rise of Christianity; and he has, also, like other -writers, his favourite words, turns of expression and thoughts. The -variations in the degree to which these appear in different passages are -in the main to be accounted for by his having before him in many cases -documents or oral reports, which he reproduces with only slight -alterations in the language, while at other times he is writing freely. - -We have next to observe that there are four sections in Acts (xvi. 9-17, -xx. 4-16, xxi. 1-17, xxvii. 1-xxviii. 16) in which the first person -plural is used. Now it is again generally admitted that in these -sections we have the genuine account of one who was a member of Paul's -company, who may well have been Luke. But it has been and is still held -by many critics that the author of Acts is a different person, and that -as in the Third Gospel he has used documents for the Life of Christ, and -perhaps also in the earlier half of the Acts for the history of the -beginnings of the Christian Church, so in the "we" sections, and -possibly in some other portions of this narrative of Paul's missionary -life, he has used a kind of travel-diary by one who accompanied the -Apostle on some of his journeys. That neither this, nor any other, -companion of Paul can have been the author of the whole work is supposed -to follow both from its theological temper and from discrepancies -between its statements and those of the Pauline Epistles on matters of -fact. - -A careful examination, however, of the "we" sections shows that words -and expressions characteristic of the author of the third Gospel and the -Acts are found in them to an extent which is very remarkable, and that -in many instances they belong to the very texture of the passages. This -linguistic evidence, which is of quite unusual force, has never yet been -fairly faced by those who deny Luke's authorship of Acts. Moreover, the -difficulties in the way of supposing that the author of Acts could at an -earlier period of his life have been a companion of St Paul do not seem -to be so serious as some critics think. Indeed it is easier to explain -some of the differences between the Acts and St Paul's Epistles on this -assumption than on that of authorship by a writer who would have felt -more dependent upon the information which might be gathered from those -Epistles, and who would have been more likely to have had a collection -of them at hand, if his work was composed c. A.D. 100, as is commonly -assumed by critics who reject the authorship by Luke. - -There is then strong reason for believing the tradition that Luke, the -companion of the Apostle Paul, was the author of our third Gospel and -the Acts. Another argument in support of this belief, upon which much -reliance has been placed, is found in the descriptions of diseases, and -the words common in Greek medical writers, contained in these two works. -These, it is said, point to the author's having been a physician, as -Luke (Col. iv. 14) was (see esp. Hobart, _The Medical Language of St -Luke_, 1882). The instances alleged are, many of them at least, not very -distinctive. Yet they have some value as confirming the conclusion based -on a comparison of the "we" sections of the Acts, with the remainder of -the two books. - -If we may assume that the writer who uses the first person plural in -Acts xvi. 10 sqq. was the author of the two works, they can hardly have -been composed later than A.D. 96; he would then have been about 65 years -old, even if he was a very young man when he first joined the Apostle. -An earlier date than A.D. 96 cannot be assigned if it is held that his -writings show acquaintance with the _Antiquities of the Jewish People_ -by Josephus. The grounds for supposing this appear, however, to be -wholly insufficient (see article on Acts by Bishop Lightfoot in 2nd ed. -of Smith's _Dict. of Bible_, p. 39) and it is not easy to see why he -should have deferred writing so long. On the other hand, a comparison of -Luke xxi. 20-24 with Mark xiii. 14 seq. seems to show that in using his -document Luke here mingled with the prophecy the interpretation which -events had suggested and that the siege of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 and -dispersion of its inhabitants had already taken place some little time -before. _Circa_ A.D. 80 may with probability be given as the time of the -composition of his Gospel. - -2. _Contents, Sources and Arrangement._--In the preface to his Gospel, -i. 1-4, Luke alludes to other Gospel-records which preceded his own. He -does not say whether he made any use of them, but he seems to imply that -his own was more complete. And this was true in regard to the two which, -from a comparison of his Gospel with the other two Synoptics, we know -that he did use. These we may call his Marcan and his Logian document. -Luke also claims that he has written "in order." The instances in which -he has departed from the Marcan order, and the manner in which he has -introduced his additional matter into the Marcan outline, do not suggest -the idea that he had any independent knowledge of an exact kind of the -chronological sequence of events. By the phrase "in order" he may -himself have intended chiefly to contrast the orderliness and -consecutiveness of his account with the necessarily fragmentary -character of the catechetical instruction which Theophilus had received. -He may, also, have had in view the fact that he has prefixed a narrative -of the birth and infancy of Jesus and of John and so begun the history -at what he considered to be its true point of departure; to this he -plainly alludes when he says that he has "traced the course of all -things accurately from the first." He may, also, in part be thinking of -those indications which he--and he alone among the evangelists--has -given of the points in the course of secular history at which Jesus was -born and the Baptist began to preach (ii. 1-3, iii. 1, 2), though it may -be doubted whether these are in all respects accurate. - - Chap. i. 5-ii. 52. _The Birth and Infancy of John and of Jesus._--This - portion of the Gospel differs in style and character from all the - remainder. Its source may be an Aramaic or a Hebrew document. Some - critics, however, hold that it is wholly Luke's own composition, and - that the Hebraic style--in which he was able to write in consequence - of his familiarity with the LXX.--has been adopted by him as suitable - to the subject in hand. Perhaps an intermediate view may be the most - probable one; he may have obtained part of his materials, especially - the hymns, from some source, and have skilfully worked these into his - narrative. - - Chap. iii. 1-iv. 13. _From the Commencement of the Preaching of the - Baptist to the End of the Temptation in the Wilderness._--The accounts - of the Baptist's preaching and of the temptation are taken from the - Logian document. The genealogy of Jesus here given is peculiar to this - Gospel. - - Chap. iv. 14-vi. 16 _From the Commencement of the Ministry of Jesus in - Galilee to the Appointment of the Twelve._--In the main Luke here - follows his Marcan document. He has, however, independent narratives - of the visit of Jesus to Nazareth (iv. 16-30) and the call of the - first disciples (v. 1-11). The former, which in Mark is placed some - way on in the Galilean ministry (vi. 1-6_a_), is given by Luke at the - very beginning of it, perhaps because of the previous connexion of - Jesus with Nazareth. But that it is not in its right position here, - before any mention of the work in Capernaum, appears from verse 23. - Luke has also slightly altered the position of the call of the first - disciples in the sequence of events. - - Chap. vi. 17-viii. 3.--This is an insertion into the Marcan outline of - matter chiefly taken from the Logian document (the Address, Luke vi. - 20-49, corresponds with portions of the Sermon on the Mount in Matt, - v.-vii.; the healing of the centurion's servant, Luke vii. 1-10 = - Matt. viii. 5-13; the message of the Baptist and the discourse for - which it gave occasion, Luke vii. 18-35 = Matt. xi. 2-19). He includes - besides, a few pieces peculiar to this Gospel which Luke had probably - himself collected. - - Chap. viii. 4-ix. 50. _From the Adoption of Parabolic Teaching to the - End of the Ministry in Galilee._--He begins again to follow his Marcan - document for what he gives. Many sections, however, contained in the - corresponding part of Mark have no parallel in Luke, while the - parallel to one of them is placed later and differs considerably in - form. Possibly this fact points to his Marcan document having been - briefer than our Mark, and to its having afterwards received - interpolations (see MARK, GOSPEL OF ST). - - Chap. ix. 51-xviii. 14. _Incidents and Teaching connected with Journey - towards Jerusalem._--This is another insertion into the Marcan - outline, much longer than the previous one, and consisting partly of - matter taken from the Logian document (warnings to men who offer to - become disciples, Luke ix. 57-60 = Matt. viii. 19-22; a - mission-charge, Luke x. 2-16 = Matt. ix. 37 and x. 7-16, 40; - thanksgiving that the Father reveals to the simple that which is - hidden from the wise, Luke x. 21-24 = Matt. xi. 25-27 and xiii. 16, - 17, &c., &c.) and partly of sections peculiar to Luke, about which the - same remark may be made as before. - - Chap. xviii. 15-xxii. 13. _From the Bringing of young Children to - Jesus to the Preparation for the Passover._--Luke again takes up his - Marcan document, nearly at the point at which he left it, and follows - it in the main, though he adds the story of Zacchaeus and the parable - of the Minae (the Ten Pieces of Money), and omits the withering of the - fig-tree and some matter at the end of the discourse on the Last - Things, which are given in Mark. - - Chap. xxii. 14 to end. _The Last Supper, Passion and Resurrection._-- - Though in this portion of his Gospel signs of use of Mark are not - wanting, he also has much that is peculiar to himself. It is supposed - by some that he here made use of another document. It seems more - likely that he had a good many distinct oral traditions for this part - of the history and that he used them freely, sometimes substituting - them for passages of the Marcan document, sometimes altering the - latter in accordance therewith. - -3. _Doctrinal, Ethical and Literary Characteristics._--The thought of -divine forgiveness, as set forth in the teaching of Jesus and manifested -in His own attitude towards, and power over, the hearts of the outcasts -among the people, is peculiarly prominent in this Gospel. This feature -of Christ's ministry appears only in one passage of Mark; some other -illustrations of it are mentioned in Matthew, but in Luke there are -several more which are peculiar to himself (see the three individual -cases vii. 36 sqq.; xix. 1 sqq., xxiii. 40 sqq.; also the description at -xv. 1, and the three parables that follow). These were "lost sheep of -the house of Israel"; but Christ's freedom from Jewish exclusiveness is -also brought out (1) as regards Samaritans, by the rebuke administered -to the disciples at ix. 52 sqq., the parable in x. 30 sqq., and the -incident at xvii. 15-19; whereas they are not mentioned in Mark, and in -Matthew only in the saying (x. 5) in which the Twelve are forbidden to -enter any village of theirs; (2) as regards Gentiles, by the words of -Jesus at iv. 25-27, not to mention sayings which have parallels in the -other Gospels. The promises of Old Testament prophets that the Gentiles -would share in the blessing of the coming of Christ are also recalled, -ii. 32-iii. 6. Once more the word [Greek: euangelizesthai] ("to proclaim -good tidings") is a favourite one with Luke. These are all traits which -we should expect to find in one who was a companion of Paul and a -Gentile (Col. iv. 11, 14). - -With the breadth and depth of the Saviour's sympathy, which are so fully -exhibited in this Gospel, we may connect the clearness with which His -true humanity is here portrayed. An incident of His boyhood is related -in which His sense of vocation is revealed, and this is followed by the -years of quiet growth that succeeded (ii. 41-52). Further, during the -years of His public ministry more glimpses of His inner life are given -us than in either Matthew or Mark. His being engaged in prayer is -mentioned several times where there is no parallel in those Gospels -(iii. 21, v. 16, vi. 12, ix. 18, 28, 29, xi. 1). Again, besides -narrating the Temptation in the Wilderness and the Agony in the Garden, -this evangelist gives a saying which implies that Jesus had undergone -many temptations, or rather a life of temptation (xxii. 28). Once more -he records a saying that shows Christ's sense of the intense painfulness -of the work He was sent into the world to do, arising from the divisions -which it caused (xii. 49 sqq.). - -Among practical duties, the stress laid on that of almsgiving is -remarkable (see especially xi. 41, xii. 33, xvi. 9 sqq., which are -peculiar to this Gospel). In the second of these passages the disciples -are exhorted to choose a life of voluntary poverty; the nearest parallel -is the ideal set before the rich young man at Mark x. 21 = Matt. xix. 21 -= Luke xviii. 22. In the Beatitudes in Luke vi. 20, 21 a condition of -physical want is contemplated, not, as in Matt. v. 3, 6, poverty of -spirit and spiritual hunger, while woes are denounced against the rich -and the full (vi. 24, 25). The folly of absorption in the amassing and -enjoyment of wealth is also shown (xii. 15 sqq. and xvi. 19 sqq.). But -it would be an exaggeration to say, as some have done, that the poor are -represented as being the heirs of a blessed hereafter, simply on the -ground that they are now poor. In the Beatitudes Christ's own disciples -are addressed, who were blessed _though_ poor, whereas the rich as a -class were opposed or indifferent to the kingdom of God. Again, the -contrast between Lazarus and Dives in the future state pictures vividly -the reversals that are in store; but it is unreasonable to take it as -implying that every poor man, whatever his moral character, will be -blessed. - -But while there is in Luke's Gospel this strain of asceticism--as to -many in modern times it will appear to be--the prevailing spirit is -gentle and tender, and there is in it a note of spiritual gladness, -which is begun by the song and the messages of angels and the hymns and -rejoicing of holy men and women, accompanying the birth of the Christ -(chaps. i. and ii., _passim_), and prolonged by the expressions of joy, -the ascriptions of thanksgiving and praise, called forth by the words -and works of Christ and the wonders of the cross and resurrection, which -are peculiarly frequent and full (iv. 15, v. 25, 26, vii. 16, x. 17, -xiii. 13, 17, xvii. 15-18, xviii. 43, xix. 6, 37, 38, xxiii. 47, xxiv. -41, 52, 53. Cf. also xv. 5, 7, 10, 32). - -The peculiar charm which this Gospel has been generally felt to possess -is largely due to the spiritual and ethical traits which have been -noted. But from a purely literary point of view, also, it is -distinguished by great excellences. The evangelist's phraseology is -indeed affected to some extent by the rhetorical style of the period -when he wrote. Nevertheless his mode of narration is simple and direct. -And the many fascinating character-sketches, which he has added to the -portrait gallery of Scripture, are drawn clearly and without signs of -effort. In some cases he has skilfully suggested parallelisms and -contrasts. The chief instance is his careful interweaving of the -accounts of the births and early years of John the Baptist and of Jesus. -Later examples are the two sisters, Martha and Mary (x. 38-42), and the -penitent and the impenitent thief (xxiii. 39-48). That he was a man of -great versatility appears in the Acts from the speeches introduced on -various occasions, if (as is probable) they were in part, at least, his -own composition. In the Gospel he had no opportunity for showing his -power in a manner strictly analogous. But if the hymns in the two -introductory chapters owe even their Greek form in any measure to him, -he was a poet of no mean order. His style varies greatly; at times, as -in i. 1-4, it is Hellenistic; at others, as in i. 5 to end of ii., it is -strongly Hebraic. Such differences are largely due, no doubt, to the -degree in which he was in various parts independent of, or dependent -upon, sources. But he would seem in some degree to have adapted his -manner of writing to the subject-matter in hand. And at all events it is -worthy of note that we pass without any sense of jar from passages in -one style to those in another. - - See Godet, _Commentaire sur l'evangile de S. Luc_ (Eng. trans., 1875); - Plummer's _Comm. on St Luke_ (in international Series, 4th ed., 1906); - W. Ramsay, _Was Christ born in Bethlehem?_ (3rd ed., 1905); A. - Harnack, _Lukas der Arzt_ (1906); B. Weiss, _Die Quellen des - Lukas-Evangeliums_ (1907); also books on the Four Gospels, or the - Synoptic Gospels, mentioned at end of article GOSPEL. (V. H. S.) - - - - -LULEA, a seaport of Sweden, capital of the district (_lan_) of -Norrbotten, on the peninsula of Sando, at the mouth of the Lule river -and the north-west corner of the Gulf of Bothnia. Pop. (1900) 9484. It -is connected at Boden (22 m. N.) with the main line of railway from -Stockholm to Gellivara and Narvik on Ofoten Fjord in Norway. By this -line Lulea is 723 m. N.N.E. of Stockholm. It is the shipping place for -the iron ore mined at Gellivara, 127 m. N. by W., and there are smelting -works at Karlsvik in the vicinity. Timber is also exported, being -floated in large quantities down the Lule. As a rule the port is closed -by ice from November to the end of May. The town was almost entirely -burnt down in 1887, and its buildings are new--the church (1888-1893), -the Norrbotten Museum and a technical school being the most important. -Lulea as founded by Gustavus Adolphus was 7 m. higher up the river, but -was moved to the present site in 1649. - - - - -LULL (or LULLY), RAIMON, or RAYMOND (c. 1235-1315), Catalan author, -mystic and missionary, was born at Palma (Majorca). Inheriting the -estate conferred upon his father for services rendered during the -victorious expedition (1229) against the Balearic Islands, Lull was -married at an early age to Bianca Picany, and, according to his own -account, led a dissipated life till 1266 when, on five different -occasions, he beheld the vision of Christ crucified. After his -conversion, he resolved to devote himself to evangelical work among the -heathen, to write an exposure of infidel errors, and to promote the -teaching of foreign tongues in seminaries. He dedicated nine years to -the study of Arabic, and in 1275 showed such signs of mental exaltation -that, at the request of his wife and family, an official was appointed -to administer his estate. He withdrew to Randa, there wrote his _Ars -major_ and _Ars generalis_, visited Montpellier, and persuaded the king -of Majorca to build a Franciscan monastery at Miramar. There for ten -years he acted as professor of Arabic and philosophy, and composed many -controversial treatises. After a fruitless visit to Rome in 1285-1286, -he journeyed to Paris, residing in that city from 1287 to 1289, and -expounding his bewildering theories to auditors who regarded him as half -insane. In 1289 he went to Montpellier, wrote his _Ars veritatis -inventiva_, and removed to Genoa where he translated this treatise into -Arabic. In 1291, after many timorous doubts and hesitations for which he -bitterly blamed himself, Lull sailed for Tunis where he publicly -preached Christianity for a year; he was finally imprisoned and -expelled. In January 1293 he reached Naples where tradition alleges that -he studied alchemy; there appears to be no foundation for this story, -and the treatises on alchemy which bear his name are all apocryphal.[1] -His efforts to interest Clement V. and Boniface VIII. in his favourite -project of establishing missionary colleges were unavailing; but a visit -to Paris in 1298 was attended with a certain measure of success. He was, -however, disappointed in his main object, and in 1300 he sailed to -Cyprus to seek support for his plan of teaching Oriental languages in -universities and monasteries. He was rebuffed once more, but continued -his campaign with undiminished energy. Between 1302 and 1305 he wrote -treatises at Genoa, lectured at Paris, visited Lyons in the vain hope of -enlisting the sympathies of Pope Clement V., crossed over to Bougie in -Africa, preached the gospel, and was imprisoned there for six months. On -being released he lectured with increasing effect at Paris, attended the -General Council at Vienne in 1311, and there witnessed the nominal -adoption of his cherished proposals. Though close on eighty years of -age, Lull's ardour was unabated. He carried on his propaganda at -Majorca, Paris, Montpellier and Messina, and in 1314 crossed over once -more to Bougie. Here he resumed his crusade against Mahommedanism, -raised the fanatical spirit of the inhabitants, was stoned outside the -city walls and died of his wounds on the 29th of June 1315. There can be -no reasonable doubt that these events actually occurred, but the scene -is laid by one biographer at Tunis instead of Bougie. - - The circumstances of Lull's death caused him to be regarded as a - martyr, local patriotism helped to magnify his merits, and his - fantastic doctrines found many enthusiastic partisans. The _doctor - illuminatus_ was venerated throughout Catalonia and afterwards - throughout Spain, as a saint, a thinker and a poet; but his doctrines - were disapproved by the powerful Dominican order, and in 1376 they - were formally condemned in a papal bull issued at the instance of the - inquisitor, Nicolas Emeric. The authenticity of this document was - warmly disputed by Lull's followers, and the bull was annulled by - Martin V. in 1417. The controversy was renewed in 1503 and again in - 1578; but the general support of the Jesuits and the staunch fidelity - of the Majorcans saved Lull from condemnation. His philosophical - treatises abound with incoherent formulae to which, according to their - inventor, every demonstration in every science may be reduced, and - posterity has ratified Bacon's disdainful verdict on Lull's - pretensions as a thinker; still the fact that he broke away from the - scholastic system has recommended him to the historians of philosophy, - and the subtle ingenuity of his dialectic has compelled the admiration - of men so far apart in opinion as Giordano Bruno and Leibniz. - - The speculations of Lull are now obsolete outside Majorca where his - philosophy still flourishes, but his more purely literary writings are - extremely curious and interesting. In _Blanquerna_ (1283), a novel - which describes a new Utopia, Lull renews the Platonic tradition and - anticipates the methods of Sir Thomas More, Campanella and Harrington, - and in the _Libre de Maravelles_ (1286) he adopts the Oriental - apologue from _Kalilah and Dimnah_. And as a poet Lull takes a - prominent position in the history of Catalan literature; such pieces - as _El Desconort_ (1295) and _Lo Cant de Ramon_ (1299) combine in a - rare degree simple beauty of expression with sublimity of thought and - impassioned sincerity. - - BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Histoire litteraire de la France_ (Paris, 1885), vol. - xxix.; _Obras rimadas de Ramon Lull_ (Palma, 1859), edited by G. - Rossello; _Obras de Ramon Lull_ (Palma, in progress), edited by G. - Rossello; Jose R. de Luanco, _Ramon Lull, considerado como alquimista_ - (Barcelona, 1870) and _La Alquimia en Espana_ (2 vols., Barcelona, - 1889-1897); K. Hofmann, "Ein Katalanische Thierepos," in the Bavarian - Academy's _Abhandlungen_ (Munich, 1872), vol. xii. pp. 173-240; M. - Menendez y Pelayo, _Origenes de la novela_ (Madrid, 1905), pp. 72-86; - Havelock Ellis in _Contemporary Review_ (May 1906). (J. F.-K.) - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The alchemical works ascribed to Lull, such as _Testamentum_, - _Codicillus seu Testamentum_ and _Experimenta_, are of early although - uncertain date. De Luanco ascribes some of them to a Raimundo de - Tarraga (c. 1370), a converted Jew who studied the occult. Others are - ascribed by Morhof to a Raymundus Lullius Neophytus, who lived about - 1440. See ALCHEMY, and also J. Ferguson, _Bibliotheca chemica_ - (1906). - - - - -LULLABY, a cradle-song, a song sung to children to "lull" them to sleep; -the melody being styled in Fr. _berceuse_ and in Ger. _Wiegenlied_. -"Lull," cf. Swed. _lulla_, Du. _lullen_, &c., is of echoic or -onomatopoeic origin, cf. Lat. _lallare_, to chatter. - - - - -LULLY, JEAN-BAPTISTE (c. 1633-1687), Italian composer, was born in -Florence. Through the duc de Guise he entered the services of Madame de -Montpensier as scullery-boy, and with the help of this lady his musical -talents were cultivated. A scurrilous poem on his patroness resulted in -his dismissal. He then studied the theory of music under Metra and -entered the orchestra of the French court, being subsequently appointed -director of music to Louis XIV. and director of the Paris opera. The -influence of his music produced a radical revolution in the style of the -dances of the court itself. Instead of the slow and stately movements -which had prevailed until then, he introduced lively ballets of rapid -rhythm. In December 1661 he was naturalized as a Frenchman, his original -name being Giovanni Battista Lulli. In 1662 he was appointed music -master to the royal family. In 1681 he was made a court secretary to the -king and ennobled. While directing a _Te Deum_ on the 8th of January -1687 with a rather long baton he injured his foot so seriously that a -cancerous growth resulted which caused his death on the 22nd of March. -Having found a congenial poet in Quinault, Lully composed twenty operas, -which met with a most enthusiastic reception. Indeed he has good claim -to be considered the founder of French opera, forsaking the Italian -method of separate recitative and aria for a dramatic consolidation of -the two and a quickened action of the story such as was more congenial -to the taste of the French public. He effected important improvements in -the composition of the orchestra, into which he introduced several new -instruments. Lully enjoyed the friendship of Moliere, for some of whose -best plays he composed illustrative music. His _Miserere_, written for -the funeral of the minister Sequier, is a work of genius; and very -remarkable are also his minor sacred compositions. On his death-bed he -wrote _Bisogna morire, peccatore_. - - - - -LUMBAGO, a term in medicine applied to a painful aliment affecting the -muscles of the lower part of the back, generally regarded as of -rheumatic origin. An attack of lumbago may occur alone, or be associated -with rheumatism in other parts of the body. It usually comes on by a -seizure, often sudden, of pain in one or both sides of the small of the -back, of a severe cutting or stabbing character, greatly aggravated on -movement of the body, especially in attempting to rise from the -recumbent posture and also in the acts of drawing a deep breath, -coughing or sneezing. So intense is the suffering that it is apt to -suggest the existence of inflammation in some of the neighbouring -internal organs, such as the kidneys, bowels, &c., but the absence of -the symptoms specially characteristic of these latter complaints, or of -any great constitutional disturbance beyond the pain, renders the -diagnosis a matter of no great difficulty. Lumbago seems to be brought -on by exposure to cold and damp, and by the other exciting causes of -rheumatism. Sometimes it follows a strain of the muscles of the loins. -The attack is in general of short duration, but occasionally it -continues for a long time, as a feeling of soreness and stiffness on -movement. The treatment includes that for rheumatic affections in -general (see RHEUMATISM) and the application of local remedies to allay -the pain. - - - - -LUMBER, a word now meaning (1) useless discarded furniture or other -rubbish, particularly if of a bulky or heavy character; (2) timber, when -roughly sawn or cut into logs or beams (see TIMBER); (3) as a verb, to -make a loud rumbling noise, to move in a clumsy heavy way, also to -burden with useless material, to encumber. "Lumber" and "lumber-house" -were formerly used for a pawnbroker's shop, being in this sense a -variant of "Lombard," a name familiar throughout Europe for a banker, -money-changer or pawnbroker. This has frequently been taken to be the -origin of the word in sense (1), the reference being to the store of -unredeemed and unsaleable articles accumulating in pawnbrokers' shops. -Skeat adopts this in preference to the connexion with "lumber" in sense -(3), but thinks that the word may have been influenced by both sources -(_Etym. Dict._, 1910). This word is probably of Scandinavian origin, and -is cognate with a Swedish dialect word _lomra_, meaning "to roar," a -frequentative of _ljumma_, "to make a noise." The English word may be of -native origin and merely onomatopoeic. The _New English Dictionary_, -though admitting the probability of the association with "Lombard," -prefers the second proposed derivation. The application of the word to -timber is of American origin; the _New English Dictionary_ quotes from -_Suffolk_ (Mass.) _Deeds_ of 1662--"Freighted in Boston, with beames ... -boards ... and other lumber." - - - - -LUMBINI, the name of the garden or grove in which Gotama, the Buddha, -was born. It is first mentioned in a very ancient Pali ballad preserved -in the _Sutta Nipata_ (verse 583). This is the _Song of Nalaka_ (the -Buddhist Simeon), and the words put in the mouth of the angels who -announce the birth to him are: "The Wisdom-child, that jewel so -precious, that cannot be matched, has been born at Lumbini, in the -Sakiya land, for weal and for joy in the world of men." The commentaries -on the _Jatakas_ (i. 52, 54), and on a parallel passage in the -_Majjhima_ (_J.R.A.S._, 1895, p. 767), tell us that the mother of the -future Buddha was on her way from Kapilavastu (Kapilavatthu), the -capital of the Sakiyas, to her mother's home at Devadaha, the capital of -the adjoining tribe, the Koliyas, to be confined there. Her pains came -upon her on the way, and she turned aside into this grove, which lay not -far from Devadaha, and gave birth there to her son. All later Buddhist -accounts, whether Pali or Sanskrit, repeat the same story. - -A collection of legends about Asoka, included in the _Divyavadana_, a -work composed probably in the 1st or 2nd century A.D., tells us (pp. -389, 390) how Asoka, the Buddhist emperor, visited the traditional site -of this grove, under the guidance of Upagupta. This must have been about -248 B.C. Upagupta (Tissa: see PALI) himself also mentions the site in -his _Katha Vatthu_ (p. 559). The Chinese pilgrims, Fa Hien and Hsuan -Tsang, visiting India in the 5th and 7th centuries A.D., were shown the -site; and the latter (ed. Watters, ii. 15-19) mentions that he saw there -an Asoka pillar, with a horse on the top, which had been split, when -Hsuan Tsang saw it, by lightning. This pillar was rediscovered under the -following circumstances. - -The existence, a few miles beyond the Nepalese frontier, of an inscribed -pillar had been known for some years when, in 1895, the discovery of -another inscribed pillar at Nigliva, near by, led to the belief that -this other, hitherto neglected, one must also be an Asoka pillar, and -very probably the one mentioned by Hsuan Tsang. At the request of the -Indian government the Nepalese government had the pillar, which was -half-buried, excavated for examination; and Dr Fuhrer, then in the -employ of the Archaeological Survey, arrived soon afterwards at the -spot. - -The stone was split into two portions, apparently by lightning, and was -inscribed with Pali characters as used in the time of Asoka. Squeezes of -the inscription were sent to Europe, where various scholars discussed -the meaning, which is as follows: "His Majesty, Piyadassi, came here in -the 21st year of his reign and paid reverence. And on the ground that -the Buddha, the Sakiya sage, was born here, he (the king) had a flawless -stone cut, and put up a pillar. And further, since the Exalted One was -born in it, he reduced taxation in the village of Lumbini, and -established the dues at one-eighth part (of the crop)." - -The inscription, having been buried for so many centuries beneath the -soil, is in perfect preservation. The letters, about an inch in height, -have been clearly and deeply cut in the stone. No one of them is -doubtful. But two words are new, and scholars are not agreed in their -interpretation of them. These are the adjective _vigadabhi_ applied to -the stone, and rendered in our translation "flawless"; and secondly, the -last word, rendered in our translation "one-eighth part (of the crop)." -Fortunately these words are of minor importance for the historical value -of this priceless document. The date, the twenty-first year after the -formal coronation of Asoka, would be 248 B.C. The name Piyadassi is the -official epithet always used by Asoka in his inscriptions when speaking -of himself. The inscription confirms in every respect the Buddhist -story, and makes it certain that, at the time when it was put up, the -tradition now handed down in the books was current at the spot. Any -further inference that the birth really took place there is matter of -probability on which opinions will differ. - -The grove is situate about 3 m. north of Bhagwanpur, the chief town of a -district of the same name in the extreme south of Nepal, just over the -frontier dividing Nepal from the district of Basti in British territory. -It is now called Rummin-dei, i.e. the shrine of the goddess of Rummin, a -name no doubt derived from the ancient name Lumbini. There is a small -shrine at the spot, containing a bas-relief representing the birth of -the Buddha. But the Buddha is now forgotten there, and the bas-relief is -reverenced only for the figure of the mother, who has been turned into a -tutelary deity of the place. Except so far as the excavation of the -pillar is concerned the site has not been explored, and four small -stupas there (already noticed by Hsuan Tsang) have not been opened. - - AUTHORITIES.--_Sutta Nipata_, ed. V. Fansboll (London Pali Text - Society, 1884); _Katha Vatthu_, ed. A. C. Taylor (London, 1897); - _Jataka_, ed. V. Fansboll, vol. i. (London, 1877); _Divyavadana_, ed. - Cowell and Niel (Cambridge, 1886); G. Buhler in the _Proceedings of - the Vienna Academy_ for Jan. 1897, in _Epigraphia Indica_, vol. v. - (London, 1898) and in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1897), - p. 429. See also ibid. (1895), pp. 751 ff.; (1897) pp. 615, 644; - (1898) pp. 199-203; A. Barth in the _Journal des savants_ (Paris, - 1897); R. Pischel in _Sitzungsberichte der konigl. preussischen - Akademie_ for the 9th July 1903; Babu P. Mukherji, _Report on a Tour - of Exploration of the Antiquities in the Terai_ (Calcutta, 1903); V. - A. Smith in _Indian Antiquary_ (Bombay, 1905). (T. W. R. D.) - - - - -LUMP-SUCKER, or LUMP-FISH (_Cyclopterus lumpus_), a marine fish, which -with another British genus (_Liparis_) and a few other genera forms a -small family (Cyclopteridae). Like many littoral fishes of other -families, the lump-suckers have the ventral fins united into a circular -concave disk, which, acting as a sucker, enables them to attach -themselves firmly to rocks or stones. The body (properly so called) is -short and thick, with a thick and scaleless skin, covered with rough -tubercles, the larger of which are arranged in four series along each -side of the body. The first dorsal fin is almost entirely concealed by -the skin, appearing merely as a lump on the back. The lump-sucker -inhabits the coasts of both sides of the North Atlantic; it is not rare -on the British coasts, but becomes more common farther north. It is so -sluggish in its habits that individuals have been caught with sea-weed -growing on their backs. In the spring the fish approaches the shores to -spawn, clearing out a hollow on a stony bottom in which it deposits an -immense quantity of pink-coloured ova. Fishermen assert that the male -watches the spawn until the young are hatched, a statement which -receives confirmation from the fact that the allied gobies, or at least -some of them, take similar care of their progeny. The vernacular name, -"cock and hen paddle," given to the lump-fish on some parts of the -coast, is probably expressive of the difference between the two sexes in -their outward appearance, the male being only half or one-third the size -of the female, and assuming during the spawning season a bright blue -coloration, with red on the lower parts. This fish is generally not -esteemed as food, but Franz Faber (_Fische Islands_, p. 53) states that -the Icelanders consider the flesh of the male as a delicacy.[1] The -bones are so soft, and contain so little inorganic matter, that the old -ichthyologists placed the lump-sucker among the cartilaginous fishes. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] The "cock-padle" was formerly esteemed also in Scotland, and - figures in the _Antiquary_, chap. xi. - - - - -LUMSDEN, SIR HARRY BURNETT (1821-1896), Anglo-Indian soldier, son of -Colonel Thomas Lumsden, C.B., was born on the 12th of November 1821. He -joined the 59th Bengal Native Infantry in 1838, was present at the -forcing of the Khyber Pass in 1842, and went through the first and -second Sikh wars, being wounded at Sobraon. Having become assistant to -Sir Henry Lawrence at Lahore in 1846, he was appointed in 1847 to raise -the Corps of Guides. The object of this corps, composed of horse and -foot, was to provide trustworthy men to act as guides to troops in the -field, and also to collect intelligence beyond as well as within the -North-West frontier of India. The regiment was located at Mardan on the -Peshawar border, and has become one of the most famous in the Indian -army. For the equipment of this corps, Lumsden originated the _khaki_ -uniform. In 1857 he was sent on a mission to Kandahar with his younger -brother, Sir Peter Lumsden, in connexion with the subsidy paid by the -Indian government to the amir, and was in Afghanistan throughout the -Mutiny. He took part in the Waziri Expedition of 1860, was in command of -the Hyderabad Contingent from 1862, and left India in 1869. He became -lieutenant-general in 1875, and died on the 12th of August 1896. - - See Sir Peter Lumsden and George Elsmie, _Lumsden of the Guides_ - (1899). - - - - -LUNA, ALVARO DE (d. 1453), Constable of Castile, Grand Master of -Santiago, and favourite of King John II. of Castile, was the natural son -of Alvaro de Luna, a Castilian noble. He was introduced to the court as -a page by his uncle Pedro de Luna, archbishop of Toledo, in 1410. Alvaro -soon secured a commanding influence over John II., then a mere boy. -During the regency of the king's uncle Ferdinand, which ended in 1412, -he was not allowed to be more than a servant. When, however, Ferdinand -was elected king of Aragon, and the regency remained in the hands of the -king's mother, Constance, daughter of John of Gaunt, a foolish and -dissolute woman, Alvaro became a very important person. The young king -regarded him with an affection which the superstition of the time -attributed to witchcraft. As the king was surrounded by greedy and -unscrupulous nobles, among whom his cousins, the sons of Ferdinand, -commonly known as the Infantes (princes) of Aragon, were perhaps the -worst, his reliance on a favourite who had every motive to be loyal to -him is quite intelligible. Alvaro too was a master of all the -accomplishments the king admired--a fine horseman, a skilful lance and a -writer of court verse. Until he lost the king's protection he was the -central figure of the Castilian history of the time. It was a period of -constant conflict conducted by shifting coalitions of the nobles, who -under pretence of freeing the king from the undue influence of his -favourite were intent on making a puppet of him for their own ends. The -part which Alvaro de Luna played has been diversely judged. To Mariana -he appears as a mere self-seeking favourite. To others he has seemed to -be a loyal servant of the king who endeavoured to enforce the authority -of the crown, which in Castile was the only alternative to anarchy. He -fought for his own hand, but his supremacy was certainly better than the -rule of gangs of plundering nobles. His story is in the main one of -expulsions from the court by victorious factions, and of his return when -his conquerors fell out among themselves. Thus in 1427 he was solemnly -expelled by a coalition of the nobles, only to be recalled in the -following year. In 1431 he endeavoured to employ the restless nobles in -a war for the conquest of Granada. Some successes were gained, but a -consistent policy was impossible with a rebellious aristocracy and a -king of indolent character. In 1445 the faction of the nobles allied -with Alvaro's main enemies, the Infantes de Aragon, were beaten at -Olmedo, and the favourite, who had been constable of Castile and count -of Santesteban since 1423, became Grand Master of the military order of -Santiago by election of the Knights. His power appeared to be thoroughly -established. It was, however, based on the personal affection of the -king. The king's second wife, Isabella of Portugal, was offended at the -immense influence of the constable, and urged her husband to free -himself from slavery to his favourite. In 1453 the king succumbed, -Alvaro was arrested, tried and condemned by a process which was a mere -parody of justice, and executed at Valladolid on the 2nd of June 1453. - - The _Chronicle of Alvaro de Luna_ (Madrid, 1784), written by some - loyal follower who survived him, is a panegyric and largely a romance. - The other contemporary authority--the _Chronicle of John II._--is much - less favourable to the constable. Don Jose Quintana has summarized the - two chronicles in his life of Luna in the _Vidas de Espanoles - celebres; Biblioteca de Aulores Espanoles_ (Madrid, 1846-1880), vol. - xix. - - - - -LUNA (mod. _Luni_), an ancient city of Etruria, Italy, 4(1/2) m. S.E. of -the modern Sarzana. It was the frontier town of Etruria, on the left -bank of the river, Macra, the boundary in imperial times between Etruria -and Liguria. When the Romans first appeared in these parts, however, the -Ligurians were in possession of the territory as far as Pisa. It derived -its importance mainly from its harbour, which was the gulf now known as -the Gulf of Spezia, and not merely the estuary of the Macra as some -authors have supposed. The town was apparently not established until 177 -B.C., when a colony was founded here, though the harbour is mentioned by -Ennius, who sailed hence for Sardinia in 205 B.C. under Manlius -Torquatus. An inscription of 155 B.C., found in the forum of Luna in -1857, was dedicated to M. Claudius Marcellus in honour of his triumph -over the Ligurians and Apuani. It lost much of its importance under the -Empire, though traversed by the coast road (Via Aurelia), and it was -renowned for the marble from the neighbouring mountains of Carrara, -which bore the name of Luna marble. Pliny speaks of the quarries as only -recently discovered in his day. Good wine was also produced. There are -some remains of the Roman period on the site, and a theatre and an -amphitheatre may be distinguished. No Etruscan remains have come to -light. O. Cuntz's investigations (_Jahreshefte des Osterr. Arch. -Instituts_, 1904, 46) seem to lead to the conclusion that an ancient -road crossed the Apennines from it, following the line of the modern -road (more or less that of the modern railway from Sarzana to Parma), -and dividing near Pontremoli, one branch going to Borgotaro, Veleia and -Placentia, and the other over the Cisa pass to Forum Novum (Fornovo) and -Parma. The town was destroyed by the Arabs in 1016, and the episcopal -see transferred to Sarzana in 1204. - - See G. Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_ (London, 1883), ii. - 63. (T. As.) - - - - -LUNATION, the period of return of the moon (_luna_) to the same position -relative to the sun; for example, from full moon to full moon. Its -duration is 29.5305884 days. - - - - -LUNAVADA, a native state in India, in the Gujarat division of Bombay. -Area, 388 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 63,967, showing a decrease of 28% in the -decade, due to famine. The chief, whose title is maharana, is a Rajput -of high lineage. Estimated revenue, L12,000; tribute, L1000. The capital -is Lunavada town, said to have been founded in 1434; pop. (1901) 10,277. - - - - -LUNCHEON, in present usage the name given to a meal between breakfast -and tea or dinner. When dinner was taken at an early hour, or when it is -still the principal midday meal, luncheon was and is still a light -repast. The derivation of the word has been obscured, chiefly owing to -the attempted connexion with "nuncheon," with which the word has nothing -to do etymologically. "Luncheon" is an extended form of "lunch" (another -form of "lump," as "hunch" is of "hump"). Lunch and luncheon in the -earliest meanings found are applied to a thick piece of bread, bacon, -meat, &c. - - The word "nuncheon," or "nunchion," with which "luncheon" has been - frequently connected, appears as early as the 14th century in the form - _noneschenche_. This meant a refreshment or distribution, properly of - drink, but also accompanied with some small quantity of meat, taken in - the early afternoon. The word means literally "noon-drink," from none - or noon, i.e. _nona hora_, the ninth hour, originally 3 o'clock P.M., - but later "midday"--the church office of "nones," and also the second - meal of the day, having been shifted back--and _schenchen_, to pour - out; cf. German _schenken_, which means to retail drink and to give, - present. _Schenche_ is the same as "shank," the shin-bone, and the - sense development appears to be shin-bone, pipe, hence tap for drawing - liquor. See also Skeat, _Etymological Dict. of English Language_ - (1910), s.v. "nunchion." - - - - -LUND, TROELS FREDERIK (1840- ), Danish historian, was born in -Copenhagen on the 5th of September 1840. He entered the university of -Copenhagen in 1858. About the age of thirty he took a post which brought -before his notice the treasures of the archives of Denmark. His first -important work, _Historiske Skitser_, did not appear until 1876, but -after that time his activity was stupendous. In 1879 was published the -first volume of his _Danmarks og Norges Historie i Slutningen af det -xvi. Aarhundrede_, a history of daily life in Denmark and Norway at the -close of the 16th century. Troels Lund was the pioneer of the remarkable -generation of young historians who came forward in northern Europe about -1880, and he remained the most original and conspicuous of them. Saying -very little about kings, armies and governments, he concentrates his -attention on the life, death, employments, pleasures and prejudices of -the ordinary men and women of the age with which he deals, using to -illustrate his theme a vast body of documents previously neglected by -the official historian. Lund was appointed historiographer-royal to the -king of Denmark and comptroller of the Order of the Dannebrog. There was -probably no living man to whom the destruction of the archives, when -Christiansborg Castle was accidentally burned in 1884, was so acute a -matter of distress. But his favourite and peculiar province, the MSS. of -the 16th century, was happily not involved in that calamity. - - - - -LUND, a city of Sweden, the seat of a bishop, in the district (_lan_) of -Malmohus, 10 m. N.E. of Malmo by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,621. A university -was founded here in 1668 by Charles XI., with faculties of law, -medicine, theology and philosophy. The number of students ranges from -600 to 800, and there are about 50 professors. Its library of books and -MSS. is entitled to receive a copy of every work printed in Sweden. -Important buildings include the university hall (1882), the academic -union of the students (1851) containing an art museum; the astronomical -observatory, built in 1866, though observations have been carried on -since 1760; the botanical museum, and ethnographical and industrial art -collections, illustrating life in southern Sweden from early times. Each -student belongs to one of twelve nations (_landskap_), which mainly -comprises students from a particular part of the country. The Romanesque -cathedral was founded about the middle of the 10th century. The crypt -under the raised transept and choir is one of the largest in the world, -and the church is one of the finest in Scandinavia. A statue of the poet -Esaias Tegner stands in the Tegners Plads, and the house in which he -lived from 1813 to 1826 is indicated by an inscribed stone slab. The -chief industries are sugar-refining, iron and brick works, and the -manufacture of furniture and gloves. - -Lund (_Londinum Gothorum_), the "Lunda at Eyrarsund" of Egil's Saga, was -of importance in Egil's time (c. 920). It appears that, if not actually -a seaport, it was at least nearer the Sound than now. In the middle of -the 11th century it was made a bishopric, and in 1103 the seat of an -archbishop who received primatial rank over all Scandinavia in 1163, but -in 1536 Lund was reduced to a bishopric. Close to the town, at the hill -of Sliparabacke, the Danish kings used to receive the homage of the -princes of Skare, and a monument records a victory of Charles XI. over -the Danes (1676), which extinguished the Danish claim to suzerainty over -this district. - - - - -LUNDY, BENJAMIN (1789-1839), American philanthropist, prominent in the -anti-slavery conflict, was born of Quaker parentage, at Hardwick, Warren -county, New Jersey, on the 4th of January 1789. As a boy he worked on -his father's farm, attending school for only brief periods, and in -1808-1812 he lived at Wheeling, Virginia (now W. Va.), where he served -an apprenticeship to a saddler, and where--Wheeling being an important -headquarters of the inter-State slave trade--he first became deeply -impressed with the iniquity of the institution of slavery, and -determined to devote his life to the cause of abolition. In 1815, while -living at Saint Clairsville, Ohio, he organized an anti-slavery -association, known as the "Union Humane Society," which within a few -months had a membership of more than five hundred men. For a short time -he assisted Charles Osborne in editing the _Philanthropist_; in 1819 he -went to St Louis, Missouri, and there in 1810-1820 took an active part -in the slavery controversy; and in 1821 he founded at Mount Pleasant, -Ohio, an anti-slavery paper, the _Genius of Universal Emancipation_. -This periodical, first a monthly and later a weekly, was published -successively in Ohio, Tennessee, Maryland, the District of Columbia and -Pennsylvania, though it appeared irregularly, and at times, when Lundy -was away on lecturing tours, was issued from any office that was -accessible to him. From September 1829 until March 1830 Lundy was -assisted in the editorship of the paper by William Lloyd Garrison -(q.v.). Besides travelling through many states of the United States to -deliver anti-slavery lectures, Lundy visited Haiti twice--in 1825 and -1829, the Wilberforce colony of freedmen and refugee slaves in Canada in -1830-1831, and in 1832 and again in 1833 Texas, all these visits being -made, in part, to find a suitable place outside the United States to -which emancipated slaves might be sent. Between 1820 and 1830, according -to a statement made by Lundy himself, he travelled "more than 5000 m. on -foot and 20,000 in other ways, visited nineteen states of the Union, and -held more than 200 public meetings." He was bitterly denounced by -slaveholders and also by such non-slaveholders as disapproved of all -anti-slavery agitation, and in January 1827 he was assaulted and -seriously injured by a slave-trader, Austin Woolfolk, whom he had -severely criticized in his paper. In 1836-1838 Lundy edited in -Philadelphia a new anti-slavery weekly, _The National Enquirer_, which -he had founded, and which under the editorship of John G. Whittier, -Lundy's successor, became _The Pennsylvania Freeman_. In 1838 Lundy -removed to Lowell, La Salle county, Illinois, where he printed several -copies of the _Genius of Universal Emancipation_. There, on the 22nd of -August 1839, he died. Lundy is said to have been the first to deliver -anti-slavery lectures in the United States. - - See _The Life, Travels and Opinions of Benjamin Lundy_ (Philadelphia, - 1847), compiled (by Thomas Earle) "under the direction and on behalf - of his children." - - - - -LUNDY, ROBERT (fl. 1689), governor of Londonderry. Nothing is known of -Lundy's parentage or early life; but he had seen service in the foreign -wars before 1688, when he was at Dublin with the rank of -lieutenant-colonel in the regiment of Lord Mountjoy. When the -apprentices of Derry closed the gates in the face of the earl of Antrim, -who was approaching the city at the head of an Irish Catholic force in -the interests of James II., the viceroy Tyrconnel despatched Mountjoy to -pacify the Protestants. Mountjoy and his regiment were well received in -the north, and the citizens of Derry permitted him to leave within their -walls a small Protestant garrison under the command of Lundy, who -assumed the title of governor. Popular feeling in Derry ran so strongly -in favour of the prince of Orange that Lundy quickly declared himself an -adherent of William; and he obtained from him a commission confirming -his appointment as governor. Whether Lundy was a deliberate traitor to -the cause he had embraced with explicit asseveration of fidelity in a -signed document, or whether, as Macaulay suggests, he was only a -cowardly poltroon, cannot certainly be known. What is certain is that -from the moment Londonderry was menaced by the troops of King James, -Lundy used all his endeavours to paralyse the defence of the city. In -April 1689 he was in command of a force of Protestants who encountered -some troops under Richard Hamilton at Strabane, when, instead of holding -his ground, he told his men that all was lost and ordered them to shift -for themselves; he himself was the first to take flight back to Derry. -King James, then at Omagh on his way to the north, similarly turned in -flight towards Dublin on hearing of the skirmish, but returned next day -on receiving the true account of the occurrence. On the 14th of April -English ships appeared in the Foyle with reinforcements for Lundy under -Colonel Cunningham. Lundy dissuaded Cunningham from landing his -regiments, representing that a defence of Londonderry was hopeless; and -that he himself intended to withdraw secretly from the city. At the same -time he sent to the enemy's headquarters a promise to surrender the city -at the first summons. As soon as this became known to the citizens -Lundy's life was in danger, and he was vehemently accused of treachery. -When the enemy appeared before the walls Lundy gave orders that there -should be no firing. But all authority had passed out of his hands. The -people flew to arms under the direction of Major Henry Baker and Captain -Adam Murray, who organized the famous defence in conjunction with the -Rev. George Walker (q.v.). Lundy, to avoid popular vengeance, hid -himself until nightfall, when by the connivance of Walker and Murray he -made his escape in disguise. He was apprehended in Scotland and sent to -the Tower of London. He was excluded from the Act of Indemnity in 1690, -but his subsequent fate is unknown. - - See Lord Macaulay, _History of England_, vol. iii. (Albany edition of - complete works, London, 1898); Rev. George Walker, _A True Account of - the Siege of Londonderry_ (London, 1689); J. Mackenzie, _Narrative of - the Siege of Londonderry_ (London, 1690); John Hempton, _The Siege and - History of Londonderry_ (Londonderry, 1861); Rev. John Graham, _A - History of the Siege of Derry and Defence of Enniskillen, 1688-9_ - (Dublin, 1829). (R. J. M.) - - - - -LUNDY, an English island at the entrance of the Bristol Channel, 12 m. -N.W. by N. of the nearest point on the mainland, namely Hartland Point -on the Devonshire coast. The nearest ports are Clovelly and Bideford. -The extreme length of the island is 3 m. from N. to S., the mean breadth -about half a mile, but at the south the breadth is nearly 1 m. The area -is about 1150 acres. The component rock is a hard granite, except at the -south, where slate occurs. This granite was used in the construction of -the Victoria Embankment, London. An extreme elevation of about 450 ft. -is found in the southern half of the island; the northern sloping gently -to the sea, but the greater part of the coast is cliff-bound and very -beautiful. The landing, at the south-east, is sheltered by the small Rat -Island, where the once common black rat survives. There are a few -prehistoric remains on Lundy, and the foundations of an ancient chapel -of St Helen. There are also ruins, and the still inhabited keep, of -Marisco Castle, occupying a strong precipitous site on the south-east, -held in the reign of Henry II. by Sir Jordan de Marisco. The Mariscos, -in their inaccessible retreat, lived lawlessly until in 1242 Sir William -Marisco was hanged for instigating an attempt on the life of Henry III. -In 1625 the island was reported to be captured by Turkish pirates, and -in 1633 by Spaniards. Later it became an object of attack and a hiding -place for French privateers. The island, which is reckoned as -extra-parochial, has some cultivable land and heath pasture, and had a -population in 1901 of 94. - - - - -LUNEBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, -situated near the foot of a small hill named the Kalkberg, on the -navigable Ilmenau, 14 m. above its confluence with the Elbe and 30 m. by -rail S.E. of Hamburg by the main line to Hanover. Pop. (1905) 26,751. -Numerous handsome medieval buildings testify to its former prosperity as -a prominent member of the Hanseatic league, and its many quaint houses -with high gables and overhanging eaves have gained for it the -appellation "the Nuremberg of the North." Portions of the old walls -survive, but the greater part of the former circumvallation has been -converted into promenades and gardens, outside which a modern town has -sprung up. The finest of its squares are the market-place and the -so-called Sand. The churches of St John, with five aisles and a spire -375 ft. in height; of St Michael, containing the tombs of the former -princes of Luneburg, and of St Nicolas, with a huge nave and a lofty -spire, are fine Gothic edifices of the 14th and 15th centuries. The old -town-hall in the market square is a huge pile, dating originally from -the 13th century, but with numerous additions. It has an arcade with -frescoes, restored by modern Munich artists, and contains a magnificent -hall--the Furstensaal--richly decorated with wood-carving and -stained-glass windows. Galvanoplastic casts of the famous Luneburg -silver plate, consisting of 36 pieces which were acquired in 1874 by the -Prussian government for L33,000 and are now housed in the art museum in -Berlin, are exhibited here. Among other public edifices are the old -palace; the convent of St Michael (now converted into a school and law -court), and the Kaufhaus (merchants' hall). There are a museum, a -library of 36,000 volumes, classical and commercial schools, and a -teachers' seminary. Luneburg owes its importance chiefly to the gypsum -and lime quarries of the Kalkberg, which afford the materials for its -cement works, and to the productive salt-spring at its base which has -been known and used since the 10th century. Hence the ancient saying -which, grouping with these the commercial facilities afforded by the -bridge over the Ilmenau, ascribes the prosperity of Luneburg to its -_mons, fons, pons_. Other industries are the making of chemicals, -ironware, soda and haircloth. There is a considerable trade in French -wines, for which Luneburg has for centuries been one of the chief -emporia in north Germany, and also in grain and wool. Celebrated are its -lampreys, _Luneburger Bricken_. - -Luneburg existed in the days of Charlemagne, but it did not gain -importance until after the erection of a convent and a castle on the -Kalkberg in the 10th century. After the destruction of Bardowiek, then -the chief commercial centre of North Germany, by Henry the Lion, duke of -Saxony, in 1189, Luneburg inherited much of its trade and subsequently -became one of the principal towns of the Hanseatic league. Having -belonged to the extensive duchy of Saxony it was the capital of the -duchy of Brunswick-Luneburg from 1235 to 1369; later it belonged to one -or other of the branches of the family of Brunswick, being involved in -the quarrels, and giving its name to cadet lines, of this house. From -the junior line of Brunswick-Luneburg the reigning family of Great -Britain is descended. The reformed doctrines were introduced into the -town in 1530 and it suffered heavily during the Thirty Years' War. It -reached the height of its prosperity in the 15th century, and in the -17th century it was the depot for much of the merchandise exported from -Saxony and Bavaria to the mouth of the Elbe; then after a period of -decay the 19th century witnessed a revival of its prosperity. In 1813 -the German war of liberation was begun by an engagement with the French -near Luneburg. - - See W. F. Volger, _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Luneburg_ (3 vols., - Luneburg, 1872-1877); E. Bodemann, _Die alteren Zunfturkunden der - Stadt Luneburg_ (Hanover, 1883); O. Jurgens, _Geschichte der Stadt - Luneburg_ (Luneburg, 1891); _Des Propstes Jakob Schomaker Luneburger - Chronik_, edited by T. Meyer (Hanover, 1904); A. Wrede, _Die - Einfuhrung der Reformation in Luneburg_ (Gottingen, 1887), and W. - Reinecke, _Luneburgs altestes Stadtbuch und Verfasstungsregister_ - (Hanover, 1903). For the history of the principality see von Leuthe, - _Archiv fur Geschichte und Verfassung des Furstentums Luneburg_ - (Celle, 1854-1863). - - - - -LUNEBURGER HEIDE, a district of Germany, in the Prussian province of -Hanover, lying between the Aller and the Elbe and intersected by the -railways Harburg-Hanover and Bremen-Stendal. Its main character is that -of a broad saddle-back, running for 55 m. from S.E. to N.W. of a mean -elevation of about 250 ft. and attaining its greatest height in the -Wilseder Berg (550 ft.) at its northern end. The soil is quartz sand and -is chiefly covered with heather and brushwood. In the north, and in the -deep valleys through which the streams descend to the plain, there are -extensive forests of oak, birch and beech, and in the south, of fir and -larch. Though the climate is raw and good soil rare, the heath is not -unfertile. Its main products are sheep--the celebrated Heidschnucken -breed,--potatoes, bilberries, cranberries and honey. The district is -also remarkable for the numerous Hun barrows found scattered throughout -its whole extent. - - See Rabe, _Die Luneburger Heide und die Bewirthschaftung der Heidhofe_ - (Jena, 1900); Kniep, _Fuhrer durch die Luneburger Heide_ (Hanover, - 1900); Linde, _Die Luneburger Heide_ (Luneburg, 1905), and Kuck, _Das - alte Bauernleben der Luneburger Heide_ (Leipzig, 1906). - - - - -LUNETTE (French diminutive of _lune_, moon), a crescent-shaped, -semi-circular object. The term is particularly applied in architecture -to a circular opening at the intersection of vaulting by a smaller -vault, as in a ceiling for the entrance of light or in the lower stories -of towers for the passage of bells. It is also used of a panel space of -semi-circular shape, filled by a fresco or other decorative treatment. -In fortification a "lunette" was originally an earthwork of half-moon -shape; later it became a redan with short flanks, in trace somewhat -resembling a bastion standing by itself without curtains on either side. -The gorge was generally open. - - - - -LUNEVILLE, an industrial and garrison town of north-eastern France, -capital of an arrondissement in the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, 21 -m. E.S.E. of Nancy on the railway to Strassburg. Pop. (1906) town, -19,199; commune, 24,266 (including troops). The town stands on the right -bank of the Meurthe between that river and its affluent the Vezouze, a -little above their confluence. Its chateau, designed early in the 18th -century by the royal architect Germain Boffrand, was the favourite -residence of Duke Leopold of Lorraine, where he gathered round him an -academy composed of eminent men of the district. It is now a cavalry -barracks, and the gardens form a public promenade. Luneville is an -important cavalry station with a large riding school. The church of St -Jacques with its two domed towers dates from 1730-1745. There are -statues of General Count Antoine de Lasalle, and of the Conventional -Abbe Henri Gregoire. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect, and has a -tribunal of first instance and a communal college. It carries on -cotton-spinning and the manufacture of railway material, motor vehicles, -porcelain, toys, hosiery, embroidery, straw-hats and gloves. Trade is in -grain, wine, tobacco, hops and other agricultural produce. - -The name of Luneville (_Lunae villa_) is perhaps derived from an ancient -cult of Diana, the moon goddess, a sacred fountain and medals with the -effigy of this goddess having been found at Leormont, some 2 m. E. of -the town. Luneville belonged to Austrasia, and after various changes -fell, in 1344, to the house of Lorraine. A walled town in the middle -ages, it suffered in the Thirty Years' War and in the campaigns of Louis -XIV. from war, plague and famine. The town flourished again under Dukes -Leopold and Stanislas, on the death of the latter of whom, which took -place at Luneville, Lorraine was united to France (1766). The treaty of -Luneville between France and Austria (1801) confirmed the former power -in the possession of the left bank of the Rhine. - -LUNG, in anatomy, the name of each of the pair of organs of respiration -in man and other air-breathing animals, the corresponding organs in -fishes being the _branchiae_ or gills (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM). The word -in Old English was _lungen_; it appears in many Teutonic languages, cf. -Ger. _Lunge_, Du. _long_, Swed. _lunga_; the Teutonic root from which -these are derived meant "light," and the lungs were so-called from their -lightness. The word "lights" was formerly used as synonymous with -"lungs," but is now confined to the lungs of sheep, pigs or cattle; it -is etymologically connected with "lung," the pre-Teutonic root being -seen in Sansk. _laghu_, Gr. [Greek: elaphros]. - - SURGERY OF THE LUNG AND PLEURA.--When a person meets with a severe - injury to the chest, as from a wheel passing over him, the ribs may be - broken and driven into the lung. Air then entering into the pleural - space, the lung collapses, and breathing becomes so difficult that - death may ensue from asphyxia. Short of this, however, there is a - cough with the spitting of frothy, blood-stained mucus or of bright - red blood. All that can be done is to place the person on his back, - slightly propped up by pillows, and to combat syncope by subcutaneous - injections of ether and strychnia. - - _Empyema_ means the presence of an abscess between the lung and the - chest wall, i.e. in the pleural space; it is the result of a septic - inflammation of the pleura by the micro-organisms of pneumonia or of - typhoid fever, or by some other germs. As the abscess increases in - size, the lung is pushed towards the spine, and that side of the chest - gives a dull note on percussion. If much fluid collects the heart may - be pushed out of its place, and, the lung-space being taken up, - respiration is embarrassed. Having made sure of the presence of an - abscess by exploring with syringe and hollow needle, the surgeon opens - and drains it. The drainage is made more effectual by removing an inch - or so of one of the ribs, for, unless this is done, there is a risk of - the rubber drainage tube being compressed as the ribs come closer - together again. - - The lung itself has sometimes to be operated on, as when it is the - seat of an hydatid cyst, or when it contains an abscess cavity which - cannot otherwise be drained, or when it becomes necessary to remove a - foreign body the exact situation of which has been revealed by the - X-rays. Portions of some of the ribs having been resected, the pleural - cavity is opened, and if the lung has not already become glued to the - chest-wall by inflammatory adhesions, it is stitched up to the - chest-wall, and in a few days, when adhesions have taken place, an - incision is safely made into the lung-tissue. See also RESPIRATORY - SYSTEM. (E. O.*) - - - - -LUNG, one of the four symbolical creatures of Chinese legend. It is a -dragon with a scaly snake-like body, long claws, horns, a bristly face, -and its back-bone armed with spikes. Originally three-clawed, it has -become, as the official dragon of the present dynasty, a five-clawed -beast. The form is embroidered on the state robes of the emperor of -China, and it is traditionally connected with the dynasty's history and -fortunes. - - - - -LUNGCHOW, a town in the province of Kwangsi, China, in 22 deg. 21' N., -106 deg. 45' E., near the Tongking frontier, and at the junction of the -Sung-chi and Kao-ping rivers. Pop. (estimate) 22,000. The town is -prettily situated in a circular valley. From a military point of view it -is considered important, and considerable bodies of troops are stationed -here. It was selected as the seat of frontier trade by the French -convention of 1886, and was opened in 1889. In 1898 the total value of -its trade amounted to only L20,000, but in 1904 the figures increased to -L56,692. - - - - -LUNGE, GEORG (1839- ), German chemist, was born at Breslau on the 15th -of September 1839. He studied at Heidelberg (under R. W. Bunsen) and -Breslau, graduating at the latter university in 1859. Turning his -attention to technical chemistry, he became chemist at several works -both in Germany and England, and in 1876 he was appointed professor of -technical chemistry at Zurich polytechnic. Lunge's original -contributions cover a very wide field, dealing both with technical -processes and analysis. In addition, he was a voluminous writer, -enriching scientific literature with many standard works. His treatises -_Coal Tar and Ammonia_ (5th ed. 1909; 1st ed. 1867), _Destillation des -Steinkohlentheers_ and _Sulphuric Acid and Alkali_ (1st ed. 1878, 4th -ed. 1909), established his position as the highest authority on these -subjects, while the _Chemische-technische Untersuchungs-Methoden_ -(1899-1900; Eng. trans.), to which he contributed, testified to his -researches in technical analysis. His jubilee was celebrated at Zurich -on the 15th of September 1909. - - - - -LUPERCALIA, a very ancient, possibly pre-Roman, pastoral festival in -honour of Lupercus. Its rites were under the superintendence of a -corporation of priests called Luperci,[1] whose institution is -attributed either to the Arcadian Evander, or to Romulus and Remus. In -front of the Porta Romana, on the western side of the Palatine hill, -close to the Ficus Ruminalis and the Casa Romuli, was the cave of -Lupercus; in it, according to the legend, the she-wolf had suckled the -twins, and the bronze wolf, which is still preserved in the Capitol, was -placed in it in 296 B.C. But the festival itself, which was held on -February 15th, contains no reference to the Romulus legend, which is -probably later in origin, though earlier than the grecizing Evander -legend. The festival began with the sacrifice by the Luperci (or the -flamen dialis) of goats and a dog; after which two of the Luperci were -led to the altar, their foreheads were touched with a bloody knife, and -the blood wiped off with wool dipped in milk; then the ritual required -that the two young men should laugh. The smearing of the forehead with -blood probably refers to human sacrifice originally practised at the -festival. The sacrificial feast followed, after which the Luperci cut -thongs from the skins of the victims and ran in two bands round the -walls of the old Palatine city, the line of which was marked with -stones, striking the people who crowded near. A blow from the thong -prevented sterility in women. These thongs were called _februa_, the -festival Februatio, and the day _dies februatus_ (_februare_ = to -purify); hence the name of the month February, the last of the old Roman -year. The object of the festival was, by expiation and purification, to -secure the fruitfulness of the land, the increase of the flocks and the -prosperity of the whole people. The Lupercal (cave of Lupercus), which -had fallen into a state of decay, was rebuilt by Augustus; the -celebration of the festival had been maintained, as we know from the -famous occurrence of it in 44 B.C. It survived until A.D. 494, when it -was changed by Gelasius into the feast of the Purification. Lupercus, in -whose honour the festival was held, is identified with Faunus or Inuus, -Evander ([Greek: Euandros]), in the Greek legend being a translation of -Faunus (the "kindly"). The Luperci were divided into two _collegia_, -called Quinctiliani (or Quinctiales) and Fabiani, from the gens -Quinctilia (or Quinctia)[2] and Fabia; at the head of each of these -colleges was a magister. In 44 B.C. a third college, Luperci Julii, was -instituted in honour of Julius Caesar, the first magister of which was -Mark Antony. In imperial times the members were usually of equestrian -standing. - - See Marquardt, _Romische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. (1885) p. 438; W. - Warde Fowler, _Roman Festivals_ (1899), p. 390 foll., and article in - Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_ (3rd ed. 1891). - - -FOOTNOTES: - - [1] Many derivations are suggested, but it seems most probable that - Luperci simply means "wolves" (the last part of the word exhibiting a - similar formation to _nov-erca_), the name having its origin in the - primitive worship of the wolf as a wolf-god. - - [2] Mommsen considers the Quinctia to be the older gens, and the - Quinctilia a later introduction from Alba. - - - - -LUPINE (_Lupinus_), in botany, a genus of about 100 species of annual -and perennial herbaceous plants of the tribe _Genisteae_, of the order -Leguminosae. Species with digitate leaves range along the west side of -America from British Columbia to northern Chile, while a few occur in -the Mediterranean regions. A few others with entire leaves are found in -Brazil and eastern North America. The leaves are remarkable for -"sleeping" in three different ways. From being in the form of a -horizontal star by day, the leaflets either fall and form a hollow cone -with their bases upwards (_L. pilosus_), or rise and the cone is -inverted (_L. luteus_), or else the shorter leaflets fall and the longer -rise, and so together form a vertical star as in many species; the -object in every case being to protect the surfaces of the leaflets from -radiation and consequent wetting with dew (Darwin, _Movements of -Plants_, p. 340). The flowers are of the usual "papilionaceous" or -pea-like form, blue, white, purple or yellow, in long terminal spikes. -The stamens are monadelphous and bear dimorphic anthers. The species of -which earliest mention is made is probably _L. Termis_, which was -cultivated by the ancient Egyptians. It is wild in some parts of the -Mediterranean area and is extensively cultivated in Egypt. Its seeds are -eaten by the poor after being steeped in water to remove their -bitterness; the stems furnish fuel and charcoal for gunpowder. The -lupine of the ancient Greeks and Romans was probably _L. albus_, which -is still extensively cultivated in Italy, Sicily and other Mediterranean -countries for forage, for ploughing in to enrich the land, and for its -round flat seeds, which form an article of food. Yellow lupine (_L. -luteus_) and blue lupine (_L. angustifolius_) are also cultivated on the -European continent as farm crops for green manuring. - - Lupines are easily cultivated in moderately good garden soil; they - include annuals which are among the most ornamental and most easily - grown of summer flowering plants (sow in open borders in April and - May), and perennials, which are grown from seed or propagated by - dividing strong plants in March and April. Many of the forms in - cultivation are hybrid. One of the best known of the perennial species - is _L. polyphyllus_, a western North American species. It grows from 3 - to 6 ft. high, and has numerous varieties, including a charming - white-flowered one. The tree lupine (_L. arboreus_) is a Californian - bush, 2 to 4 ft. high, with fragrant yellow flowers. It is only hardy - in the most favoured parts of the kingdom. - - - - -LUPUS, PUBLIUS RUTILIUS, Roman rhetorician, flourished during the reign -of Tiberius. He was the author of a treatise on the figures of speech -([Greek: Schemata lexeos]), abridged from a similar work by the -rhetorician Gorgias (of Athens, not the well-known sophist of Leontini), -the tutor of Cicero's son. In its present form it is incomplete, as is -clearly shown by the express testimony of Quintilian (_Instit._ ix. 2, -103, 106) that Lupus also dealt with figures of sense, rhetorical -figures ([Greek: Schemata dianoias]). The work is valuable chiefly as -containing a number of examples, well translated into Latin, from the -lost works of Greek rhetoricians. The author has been identified with -the Lupus mentioned in the Ovidian catalogue of poets (_Ex Ponto_, iv. -16), and was perhaps the son of the Publius Rutilius Lupus, who was a -strong supporter of Pompey. - - Editions by D. Ruhnken (1768), F. Jacob (1837), C. Halm in _Rhetores - latini minores_ (1863); see also monographs by G. Dzialas (1860 and - 1869), C. Schmidt (1865), J. Draheim (1874), Thilo Krieg (1896). - - - - -LUPUS (Lat. _lupus_, wolf), a disease characterized by the formation in -the skin or mucous membrane of small tubercles or nodules consisting of -cell growth which has an inclination to retrograde change, leading to -ulceration and destruction of the tissues, and, if it heals, to the -subsequent formation of permanent white scars. _Lupus vulgaris_ is most -commonly seen in early life, and occurs chiefly on the face, about the -nose, cheeks or ears. But it may also affect the body or limbs. It first -shows itself as small, slightly prominent, nodules covered with thin -crusts or scabs. These may be absorbed and removed at one point whilst -spreading at another. Their disappearance is followed by a permanent -white cicatrix. The disease may be superficial, in which case both the -ulceration and the resulting scar are slight (_lupus non-exedens_); or -the ulcerative process may be deep and extensive, destroying a large -portion of the nose or cheek, and leaving much disfigurement (_lupus -exedens_). A milder form, _lupus erythematosus_, occurs on the nose and -adjacent portions of the cheeks in the form of red patches covered with -thin scales, underneath which are seen the widened openings of the -sebaceous ducts. With a longitudinal patch on the nose and spreading -symmetrical patches on each cheek the appearance is usually that of a -large butterfly. It is slow in disappearing, but does not leave a scar. -Lupus is more frequently seen in women than in men; it is connected with -a tuberculous constitution. In the superficial variety the application -of soothing ointments when there is much redness, and linear incisions, -or scrapings with a sharp spoon, to destroy the increased blood supply, -are often serviceable. In the ordinary form the local treatment is to -remove the new tissue growth by solid points of caustic thrust into the -tubercles to break them up, or by scraping with a sharp spoon. The -light-treatment has been successfully applied in recent years. As -medicines, cod-liver oil, iron and arsenic are useful. (E. O.*) - - - - -LUQMAN, or LOKMAN, the name of two, if not of three (cf. note to -Terminal Essay in Sir Rd. Burton's translation of the _Arabian Nights_), -persons famous in Arabian tradition. The one was of the family of 'Ad, -and is said to have built the great dike of Marib and to have received -the gift of life as long as that of seven vultures, each of which lived -eighty years. The name of the seventh vulture--Lubad--occurs in -proverbial literature. The name of the second Luqman, called "Luqman the -Sage," occurs in the Koran (31, 11). Two accounts of him are current in -Arabian literature. According to Mas'udi (i. 110) he was a Nubian -freedman who lived in the time of David in the district of Elah and -Midian. According to some commentators on the Koran (e.g., Baidawi) he -was the son of Ba'ura, one of the sons of Job's sister or maternal aunt. -Derenbourg in his _Fables de Loqman le sage_ (1850) identifies Ba'ura -with Beoi, and believes the name Luqman to be a translation of _Balaam_. -The grave of _Luqman_ was shown on the east coast of the lake of -Tiberias, also in Yemen (cf. Yaqut, vol. iii. p. 512). - - The so-called _Fables of Luqman_ are known to have existed in the 13th - century, but are not mentioned by any Arabian writer. They were edited - by Erpenius (Leiden, 1615) and have been reprinted many times. For the - relation of these to similar literature in other lands, see J. - Jacobs's edition of Caxton's _Fables of Aesop_, vol. i. (London, - 1889). The name of Luqman also occurs in many old verses, anecdotes - and proverbs; cf. G. Freytag's _Arabum Proverbia_ (Bonn, 1838-1843) - and such Arabian writers as Tabari, Mas'udi, Damiri and the _Kitab - al-Mu'ammarin_ (ed. by I. Goldziher, Leiden, 1899). (G. W. T.) - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th -Edition, Volume 17, Slice 1, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** - -***** This file should be named 43427.txt or 43427.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/4/2/43427/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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