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diff --git a/43427-0.txt b/43427-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f357af7 --- /dev/null +++ b/43427-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,21085 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43427 *** + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE LOTHAIR I.: "He was alternately master of the Empire, and + banished and confined to Italy; at one time taking up arms in + alliance with his brothers and at another fighting against them + ..." 'alternately' amended from 'alternetely'. + + ARTICLE LOTI, PIERRE: "He proceeded to the South Seas, and on + leaving Tahiti published the Polynesian idyll, originally called + Rarahu (1880) ..." 'idyll' amended from 'idyl'. + + ARTICLE LOUIS XIV.: "His numerous descendants seemed at one time to + place the succession beyond all difficulty." 'beyond' amended from + 'beyong'. + + ARTICLE LOUVET DE COUVRAI, JEAN BAPTISTE: "They were mainly written + in the various hiding-places in which Louvet took refuge, and they + give a vivid picture of the sufferings of the proscribed + Girondists." 'took' amended from 'rook'. + + ARTICLE LUGO: "The bishopric dates from a very early period, and it + is said to have acquired metropolitan rank in the middle of the 6th + century; it is now in the archiepiscopal province of Santiago de + Compostela." 'is' amended from 'it'. + + + + + THE + + ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA + + + + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768-1771. + SECOND " " ten " 1777-1784. + THIRD " " eighteen " 1788-1797. + FOURTH " " twenty " 1801-1810. + FIFTH " " twenty " 1815-1817. + SIXTH " " twenty " 1823-1824. + SEVENTH " " twenty-one " 1830-1842. + EIGHTH " " twenty-two " 1853-1860. + NINTH " " twenty-five " 1875-1889. + TENTH " ninth edition and eleven + supplementary volumes, 1902-1903. + ELEVENTH " published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911. + + + COPYRIGHT + + in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention + + by + + THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS + of the + UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE + + _All rights reserved_ + + + + + THE + + ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF + ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + VOLUME XVII + LORD CHAMBERLAIN to MECKLENBURG + + New York + + Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. + 342 Madison Avenue + + Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910, + by + The Encyclopædia Britannica Company. + + + + + VOLUME XVII, SLICE I + + Lord Chamberlain to Luqman + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + LORD CHAMBERLAIN LÖWE, JOHANN KARL GOTTFRIED + LORD CHIEF JUSTICE LOWELL, ABBOTT LAWRENCE + LORD GREAT CHAMBERLAIN LOWELL, CHARLES RUSSELL + LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR LOWELL, JAMES RUSSELL + LORD HIGH CONSTABLE LOWELL, JOHN + LORD HIGH STEWARD LOWELL (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) + LORD HIGH TREASURER LOWELL INSTITUTE + LORD HOWE LÖWENBERG + LORD JUSTICE CLERK LÖWENSTEIN + LORD JUSTICE-GENERAL LOWESTOFT + LORD KEEPER OF THE GREAT SEAL LOWIN, JOHN + LORD MAYOR'S DAY LOWLAND + LORD PRESIDENT OF THE COUNCIL LOWNDES, THOMAS + LORDS JUSTICES OF APPEAL LOWNDES, WILLIAM THOMAS + LORDS OF APPEAL IN ORDINARY LOW SUNDAY + LORD STEWARD LOWTH, ROBERT + LORÉ, AMBROISE DE LOXODROME + LORE LOYALISTS or TORIES + LORELEI LOYALTY + LORETO (Italy) LOYALTY ISLANDS + LORETO (Peru) LOYOLA, ST IGNATIUS OF + LORIENT LOZENGE + LORINER LOZÈRE + LORIS LUANG-PRABANG + LORIS-MELIKOV, TARIELOVICH LUBAO + LORIUM LÜBBEN + LÖRRACH LÜBECK + LORRAINE LUBLIN (government of Poland) + LORTZING, GUSTAV ALBERT LUBLIN (town of Poland) + LORY, CHARLES LUBRICANTS + LORY LUBRICATION + LOS ANDES LUCAN + LOS ANGELES LUCANIA + LOS ISLANDS LUCARIS, CYRILLUS + LOSSIEMOUTH LUCARNE + LOSSING, BENSON JOHN LUCAS, SIR CHARLES + LÖSSNITZ LUCAS, CHARLES + LOST PROPERTY LUCAS, JOHN SEYMOUR + LOSTWITHIEL LUCAS VAN LEYDEN + LOT (Biblical) LUCCA + LOT (Franch river) LUCCA, BAGNI DI + LOT (Franch department) LUCCEIUS, LUCIUS + LOT-ET-GARONNE LUCCHESINI, GIROLAMO + LOTHAIR I. LUCENA (southern Spain) + LOTHAIR II. or III. LUCERA (Italy) + LOTHAIR (king of France) LUCERNE (Swiss canton) + LOTHAIR (king of Lotharingia) LUCERNE (Swiss town) + LOTHIAN, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF LUCERNE, LAKE OF + LOTHIAN LUCERNE (plant) + LOTI, PIERRE LUCHAIRE, DENIS JEAN ACHILLE + LÖTSCHEN PASS LUCHU ARCHIPELAGO + LOTTERIES LUCIA (or Lucy), ST + LOTTI, ANTONIO LUCIAN (Christian martyr) + LOTTO, LORENZO LUCIAN (Greek satirist) + LOTTO LUCIFER (bishop of Cagliari) + LOTUS LUCIFER (planet) + LOTUS-EATERS LUCILIUS, GAIUS + LOTZE, RUDOLF HERMANN LUCILIUS JUNIOR + LOUBET, ÉMILE FRANÇOIS LUCINA + LOUDON, ERNST GIDEON LUCIUS + LOUDOUN, JOHN CAMPBELL LUCK + LOUDUN LÜCKE, GOTTFRIED CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH + LOUGHBOROUGH LUCKENWALDE + LOUGHREA LUCKNOW + LOUGHTON LUÇON + LOUHANS LUCRE + LOUIS (name) LUCRETIA + LOUIS I. (Roman emperor) LUCRETILIS MONS + LOUIS II. (Roman emperor) LUCRETIUS + LOUIS III. (Roman emperor) LUCRINUS LACUS + LOUIS IV., or V. (Roman emperor) LUCULLUS + LOUIS (king of the East Franks) LUCUS FERONIAE + LOUIS I. (king of Bavaria) LUCY, RICHARD DE + LOUIS II. (king of Bavaria) LUCY, SIR THOMAS + LOUIS II. (king of France) LUDDITES + LOUIS III. (king of France) LÜDENSCHEID + LOUIS IV. (king of France) LUDHIANA + LOUIS V. LUDINGTON + LOUIS VI. LUDLOW, EDMUND + LOUIS VII. LUDLOW (town) + LOUIS VIII. LUDLOW GROUP + LOUIS IX. LUDOLF (or Leutholf), HIOB + LOUIS X. LUDWIG, KARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM + LOUIS XI. LUDWIG, OTTO + LOUIS XII. LUDWIGSBURG + LOUIS XIII. LUDWIGSHAFEN + LOUIS XIV. LUDWIGSLUST + LOUIS XV. LUG + LOUIS XVI. LUGANO + LOUIS XVII. LUGANO, LAKE OF + LOUIS XVIII. LUGANSK + LOUIS I. (king of Hungary) LUGARD, SIR FREDERICK JOHN DEALTRY + LOUIS II. (king of Hungary) LUGO (Spanish province) + LOUIS (kings of Naples) LUGO (Spanish town) + LOUIS (king of the Franks) LUGOS + LOUIS OF NASSAU LUGUDUNUM + LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE LUINI, BERNARDINO + LOUIS PHILIPPE I. LUKE + LOUISBURG LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST + LOUISE LULEÅ + LOUISE OF SAVOY LULL (or Lully), RAIMON + LOUISIADE ARCHIPELAGO LULLABY + LOUISIANA (U.S.A. state) LULLY, JEAN-BAPTISTE + LOUISIANA (U.S.A. city) LUMBAGO + LOUISIANA PURCHASE LUMBER + LOUISVILLE LUMBINI + LOULÉ LUMP-SUCKER + LOURDES LUMSDEN, SIR HARRY BURNETT + LOURENÇO MARQUES LUNA, ÁLVARO DE + LOUSE LUNA + LOUTH (Leinster, Ireland) LUNATION + LOUTH (Lincolnshire, England) LUNAVADA + LOUVAIN LUNCHEON + LOUVER LUND, TROELS FREDERIK + LOUVET, JEAN LUND + LOUVET DE COUVRAI, JEAN BAPTISTE LUNDY, BENJAMIN + LOUVIERS LUNDY, ROBERT + LOUVOIS, FRANÇOIS LE TELLIER LUNDY + LOU[:Y]S, PIERRE LÜNEBURG + LOVAT, SIMON FRASER LÜNEBURGER HEIDE + LOVE-BIRD LUNETTE + LOVEDALE LUNÉVILLE + LOVELACE, RICHARD LUNG (anatomy) + LOVELL, FRANCIS LOVELL LUNG (symbolical creature) + LOVER, SAMUEL LUNGCHOW + LOVERE LUNGE, GEORG + LOW, SETH LUPERCALIA + LOW, WILL HICOK LUPINE + LOWBOY LUPUS, PUBLIUS RUTILIUS + LOW CHURCHMAN LUPUS + LOWE, SIR HUDSON LUQMAN + + + + +INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XVII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,[1] +WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. + + A. C. G. + ALBERT CHARLES LEWIS GOTTHILF GUNTHER, M.A., M.D., PH.D., F.R.S. + + Keeper of Zoological Department, British Museum, 1875-1895. Gold + Medalist, Royal Society, 1878. Author of _Catalogues of Colubrine + Snakes, Batrachia salientia, and Fishes in the British Museum_; + &c. + + Mackerel (_in part_). + + A. C. S. + ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. + + See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES. + + Marlowe, Christopher; + Mary, Queen of Scots. + + A. E. J. + ARTHUR ERNEST JOLLIFFE, M.A. + + Fellow, Tutor and Mathematical Lecturer, Corpus Christi College, + Oxford. Senior Mathematical Scholar, 1892. + + Maxima; + Minima. + + A. F. P. + ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HIST.SOC. + + Professor of English History in University of London. Fellow of + All Souls' College, Oxford. Author of _England under the Protector + Somerset_; _Henry VIII._; &c. + + Macalpine, John. + + A. G. D. + ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., LITT.D., F.R.HIST.S. + + Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of + Canada. Author of _The Cradle of New France_; &c. Joint-editor of + _Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada_. + + McGee, T. A. + + A. Ha. + ADOLF HARNACK. + + See the biographical article: HARNACK, ADOLF. + + Manichaeism (_in part_); + Marcion. + + A. H. F. + REV. ANDREW HOLLINGSWORTH FROST, M.A. + + Principal of Church Missionary College, Islington, 1870-1874. + + Magic Square. + + A. H. S. + REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, LL.D., LITT.D. + + See the biographical article: SAYCE, ARCHIBALD HENRY. + + Lycia; + Lydia. + + A. H.-S. + SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. + + General in the Persian Army. Author of _Eastern Persian Irak_. + + Mazandaran. + + A. J. G.* + ARTHUR JAMES GRANT, M.A. + + King's College, Cambridge. Professor of History in the University + of Leeds. + + Louis XIII., XIV. and XV. of France. + + A. J. H. + ALFRED J. HIPKINS, F.S.A. (1826-1903). + + Formerly Member of Council and Hon. Curator of the Royal College + of Music, London. Member of Committee of the Inventions and Music + Exhibition, 1885; of the Vienna Exhibition, 1892; and of the Paris + Exhibition, 1900. Author of _Musical Instruments_; &c. + + Lute (_in part_); + Lyre (_in part_). + + A. M. C. + AGNES MARY CLERKE. + + See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. + + Maskelyne; + Mayer, Johann Tobias. + + A. M. Cl. + AGNES MURIEL CLAY (Mrs Edward Wilde). + + Formerly Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. + Joint-editor of _Sources of Roman History, 133-79 B.C._ + + Magistrate. + + A. M. F. + REV. ANDREW MARTIN FAIRBAIRN, M.A., D.D., LL.D. + + See the biographical article: FAIRBAIRN, A. M. + + Martineau, James. + + A. N. + ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. + + See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. + + Lory; + Love-Bird; + Lyre-Bird; + Macaw; + Magpie; + Mallemuck; + Manakin; + Manucode; + Martin. + + A. N. W. + ALFRED NORTH WHITEHEAD, M.A., D.SC, F.R.S. + + Fellow and Senior Lecturer in Mathematics, Trinity College, + Cambridge. Author of _A Treatise on Universal Algebra_. + + Mathematics. + + A. R. C. + ALEXANDER ROSS CLARKE, C.B., F.R.S. + + Colonel R.E. Royal Medal of Royal Society, 1887. In charge of + Trigonometrical Operations of the Ordnance Survey, 1854-1881. + + Map: _Projections_ (_in part_). + + A. R. L.* + ARTHUR ROBERT LING, F.I.C. + + Editor of the _Journal of the Institute of Brewing_. Lecturer on + Brewing and Malting at the Sir John Cass Institute, London. + Vice-President of the Society of Chemical Industry. + + Malt. + + A. Sl. + ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D. + + Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of _The + London Water-Supply_; _Industrial Efficiency_; _Drink, Temperance + and Legislation_. + + Malaria (_in part_); + Massage. + + A. Sy. + ARTHUR SYMONS. + + See the biographical article: SYMONS, ARTHUR. + + Mallarmé, Stéphane. + + A. Wa. + ARTHUR WAUGH, M.A. + + Managing Director of Chapman & Hall, Ltd., Publishers. Formerly + Literary Adviser to Kegan Paul & Co. Author of _Alfred Lord + Tennyson_; _Legends of the Wheel_; _Robert Browning_ in + "Westminster Biographies." Editor of Johnson's _Lives of the + Poets_. + + Lytton, 1st Baron. + + A. W. H.* + ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. + + Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of + Gray's Inn, 1900. + + Louis I., II., III. and IV.: _Roman Emperors_; + Louis the German; + Louis II. and III. of France; + Louis the Child; + Magna Carta; + Maximilian I.: _Roman Emperor_. + + A. W. Hu. + REV. ARTHUR WOLLASTON HUTTON, M.A. + + Rector of Bow Church, London. Formerly Librarian of the National + Liberal Club. Author of _Life of Cardinal Manning_; &c. + + Manning, Cardinal. + + A. W. M. + ARTHUR WILLIAM MOORE, C.V.O., M.A. (1853-1909). + + Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly Speaker of the House of Keys, + and J.P. for the Isle of Man. Author of _A History of the Isle of + Man_; &c. + + Man, Isle of. + + A. W. R. + ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. + + Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of + _Encyclopaedia of the Laws of England_. + + Maxims, Legal. + + B. W. + BENJAMIN WILLIAMSON, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. + + Professor of Natural Philosophy, and Vice-Provost of Trinity + College, Dublin. Author of _Differential Calculus_; &c. + + Maclaurin, Colin. + + C. A. M. F. + CHARLES AUGUSTUS MAUDE FENNELL, M.A., LITT.D. + + Formerly Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge. Editor of Pindar's + _Odes and Fragments_, and of the _Stanford Dictionary of + Anglicized Words and Phrases_. + + Magic Square (_in part_). + + C. B. P. + CATHERINE BEATRICE PHILLIPS, B.A. (Mrs W. Alison Phillips). + + Associate of Bedford College, London. + + Louis XVIII. of France; + Marie Antoinette. + + C. Ch. + CHARLES CHREE, M.A., LL.D., D.SC., F.R.S. + + Superintendent, Kew Observatory. Formerly Fellow of King's + College, Cambridge. President of Physical Society of London. Watt + Medallist, Institute of Civil Engineers, 1905. + + Magnetism, Terrestrial. + + C. F. A. + CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. + + Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of + London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of _The Wilderness and Cold + Harbour_. + + Machine-Gun. + + C. F. Cl. + CHARLES FREDERICK CLOSE, C.M.G. + + Lieutenant-Colonel, R.E. Head of the Geographical Section, British + General Staff. Formerly British Representative on the + Nyasa-Tanganyika Boundary Commission. Author of _Text-Book of + Topographical Surveying_; &c. + + Map: _Projections_ (_in part_). + + C. G. Cr. + CHARLES GEORGE CRUMP, M.A. + + Balliol College, Oxford. Clerk in H.M. Public Record Office, + London. Editor of _Landor's Works_; &c. + + Manor: _in England_. + + C. H. Ha. + CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. + + Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York + City. Member of the American Historical Association. + + Matilda, Countess of Tuscany; + Lucius. + + C. L. K. + CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HIST.S., F.S.A. + + Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of _Life of + Henry V._ Editor of _Chronicles of London_ and Stow's _Survey of + London_. + + Lovell, Viscount; + Margaret of Anjou. + + C. M. + CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.TH. + + Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author + of _Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregor VII._; _Quellen zur Geschichte + des Papstthums_; &c. + + Lyons, Councils of; + Marburg, Colloquy of. + + C. Pf. + CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. ÈS L. + + Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of + Honour. Author of _Études sur le règne de Robert le Pieux_. + + Mayor of the Palace. + + C. R. B. + CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT. + + Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. + Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford. University Lecturer in + the History of Geography. Author of _Henry the Navigator_; _The + Dawn of Modern Geography_; &c. + + Magellan; + Marignolli (_in part_). + + D. B. Ma. + DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. + + Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, + U.S.A. Author of _Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence + and Constitutional Theory_; _Religious Attitude and Life in + Islam_; &c. + + Mahommedan Institutions; + Mahommedan Law; + Malik Ibn Anas. + + D. F. T. + DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. + + Author of _Essays in Musical Analysis_, comprising _The Classical + Concerto_, _The Goldberg Variations_ and analyses of many other + classical works. + + Madrigal (_in music_); + Mass (_in music_). + + D. G. H. + DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. + + Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. + Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; + Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907; + Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900; Director, Cretan + Exploration Fund, 1899. + + Magnesia; + Malatia; + Manisa; + Marash; + Maronites. + + D. H. + DAVID HANNAY. + + Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of _Short + History of the Royal Navy_; _Life of Emilio Castelar_; &c. + + Marryat, Frederick; + Mast; + Mathews, Thomas. + + D. Mn. + REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. + + Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of + _Constructive Congregational Ideals_; &c. + + Mackennal, Alexander. + + D. M. W. + SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O. + + Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of + the Foreign Department of The Times, 1891-1899. Member of Institut + de Droit International and Officier de l'Instruction Publique of + France. Joint-editor of New Volumes (10th ed.) of the + _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. Author of _Russia_; _Egypt and the + Egyptian Question_; _The Web of Empire_; &c. + + Loris-Melikov. + + D. S. M.* + DAVID SAMUEL MARGOLIOUTH, M.A., D.LITT. + + Laudian Professor of Arabic, Oxford. Fellow of New College. Author + of _Arabic Papyri of the Bodleian Library_; _Mohammed and the Rise + of Islam_; _Cairo, Jerusalem and Damascus_. + + Mahomet. + + E. A. J. + E. ALFRED JONES. + + Author of _Old English Gold Plate_; _Old Church Plate of the Isle + of Man_; _Old Silver Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant + Churches in England_; _Illustrated Catalogue of Leopold de + Rothschild's Collection of Old Plate_; _A Private Catalogue of the + Royal Plate at Windsor Castle_; &c. + + Mace. + + E. Bn. + EDUARD BERNSTEIN. + + Member of the German Reichstag, 1902-1906. Author of _Zur Theorie + und Geschichte des Socialismus_; &c. + + Marx. + + E. C. B. + RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.LITT. (Dubl.). + + Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of the _Lausiac History of + Palladius_, in "Cambridge Texts and Studies." + + Mabillon; + Maurists; + Mechitharists. + + E. G. + EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L. + + See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND. + + Loti, Pierre; + Lyrical Poetry; + Macaronics; + Madrigal (_in verse_); + Maeterlinck. + + E. Gr. + ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. + + See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. + + Mantinela (_in part_); + Marathon (_in part_). + + E. G. R. + ERNEST GEORGE RAVENSTEIN, M.A., PH.D. + + Professor of Geography at Bedford College, London, 1882-1883. + Formerly in Topographical (now Intelligence) Department of the War + Office. Author of _The Russians on the Amur_; _A Systematic + Atlas_; &c. + + Map (_in part_). + + E. H. M. + ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. + + University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and + Assistant Librarian at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly + Fellow of Pembroke College. + + Massagetae. + + E. L. W. + SIR EDWARD LEADER WILLIAMS (1828-1910). + + Formerly Vice-President, Institute of Civil Engineers. Consulting + Engineer, Manchester Ship Canal. Chief Engineer of the Manchester + Ship Canal during its construction. Author of papers printed in + _Proceedings of Institute of Civil Engineers_. + + Manchester Ship Canal. + + E. M. T. + SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, G.C.B., I.S.O., D.C.L., LITT.D., LL.D. + + Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum, 1898-1909. + Sandars Reader in Bibliography, Cambridge, 1895-1896. Hon. Fellow + of University College, Oxford. Correspondent of the Institute of + France and of the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences. Author of + _Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography_. Editor of _Chronicon + Angliae_. + + Manuscript. + + E. O.* + EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.SC. + + Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the + Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the + Legion of Honour. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of + Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of _A Manual of Anatomy for + Senior Students_. + + Lung; + Lupus; + Mammary Gland: _Diseases_. + + E. Pr. + EDGAR PRESTAGE. + + Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of + Manchester. Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, + Manchester, &c. Commendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. + Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon + Geographical Society, &c. Editor of _Letters of a Portuguese Nun_; + _Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea_; &c. + + Macedo; + Manuel de Mello. + + E. R. B. + EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A. + + Formerly Scholar of New College, Oxford. Author of _House of + Seleucus_; _Jerusalem under the High Priests_. + + Macedonian Empire; + Lysimachus. + + E. Tn. + REV. ETHELRED LUKE TAUNTON (d. 1907). + + Author of _The English Black Monks of St Benedict_; _History of + the Jesuits in England_. + + Loyola. + + E. W. B. N. + EDWARD WILLIAMS BYRON NICHOLSON, M.A. + + Librarian of the Bodleian Library, Oxford. Principal Librarian and + Superintendent of the London Institution, 1873-1882. Author of + _Keltic Researches_. + + Mandevllle, Sir John. + + F. A. P. + FREDERICK APTHORP PALEY, LL.D. + + See the biographical article: PALEY, F. A. + + Lucian. + + F. C. C. + FREDERIC CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Giessen). + + Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University + College, Oxford. Author of _The Ancient Armenian Texts of + Aristotle_; _Myth, Magic and Morals_; &c. + + Manichaeism (_in part_). + + F. G. M. B. + FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. + + Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. + + Lothian. + + F. G. P. + FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R. ANTHROP. INST. + + Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. + Lecturer on Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School + of Medicine for Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal + College of Surgeons. + + Lymphatic System (_in part_); + Mammary Gland: _Anatomy_. + + F. J. H. + FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D. + + Camden Professor of Ancient History at Oxford University. Fellow + of Brasenose College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. + Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. Formerly + Senior Censor, Student, Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, + Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1906. Author of Monographs on Roman + History, &c. + + Lugudunum; + Mancunium. + + F. J. S. + FREDERICK JOHN SNELL, M.A. + + Balliol College, Oxford. Author of _The Age of Chaucer_; &c. + + Lydgate. + + F. K. + FERNAND KHNOPFF. + + See the biographical article: KHNOPFF, FERNAND E. J. M. + + Madou. + + F. Ll. G. + FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. + + Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the + Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt + Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial German Archaeological + Institute. + + Luxor; + Manetho. + + F. Po. + SIR FREDERICK POLLOCK, BART., LL.D., D.C.L. + + See the article: POLLOCK (family). + + Maine, Sir Henry. + + F. R. C. + FRANK R. CANA. + + Author of _South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union_. + + Mandingo. + + F. W. R.* + FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. + + Curator and Librarian at the Museum of Practical Geology, London, + 1879-1902. President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. + + Magnetite; + Malachite. + + G. A. Gr. + GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.LITT. (Dublin). + + Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of + India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. + Vice-President of the Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of + Calcutta University. Author of _The Languages of India_; &c. + + Marathi. + + G. Br. + REV. GEORGE BRYCE, M.A., D.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Canada). + + President of the Royal Society of Canada. Head of Faculty of + Science and Lecturer in Biology and Geology in Manitoba + University, 1891-1904. Author of _Manitoba_; _A Short History of + the Canadian People_; &c. + + Manitoba (_in part_). + + G. B. S. + GEORGE BARNETT SMITH. + + Author of _William I. and the German Empire_; _Life of Queen + Victoria_; &c. + + Macmahon. + + G. C. L. + GEORGE COLLINS LEVEY, C.M.G. + + Member of Board of Advice to Agent-General of Victoria. Formerly + Editor and Proprietor of the _Melbourne Herald_. Secretary to + Commissioners for Victoria at the Exhibitions in London, Paris, + Vienna, Philadelphia and Melbourne. + + McCulloch, Sir James. + + G. G.* + GEORGE GLADDEN. + + Associate Editor of _Current Literature_, 1904-1905. Editor of + Biography, _New International Encyclopaedia_, 1901-1904, + 1906-1907, and _New International Year Book_, 1907-1908; &c. + + Martha's Vineyard. + + G. G. S. + GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. + + Professor of English Literature, Queen's University of Belfast. + Author of _The Days of James IV._; _The Transition Period_; + _Specimens of Middle Scots_; &c. + + Lyndsay, Sir David. + + G. H. C. + GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.SC. + + Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. + Author of _Insects: their Structure and Life_. + + May-Fly (_in part_). + + G. R. P. + GEORGE ROBERT PARKIN, LL.D., D.C.L. + + See the biographical article: PARKIN, GEORGE ROBERT. + + Macdonald, Sir John Alexander. + + G. Sa. + GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.C.L. + + See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE E. B. + + Maistre, Joseph de; + Malherbe, Franois de; + Marguerite de Valois; + Marivaux, Pierre; + Marot, Clement. + + G. W. T. + REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. + + Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew + and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. + + Luqman; + Mahommedan Religion; + Mandaeans (_in part_); + Maqqari; + Maqrizi; + Mas'udi. + + H. B. Wo. + HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S. + + Formerly Assistant Director, Geological Survey of England and + Wales. Wollaston Medallist, Geological Society. Author of _The + History of the Geological Society of London_; &c. + + Lyell, Sir Charles. + + H. Cl. + SIR HUGH CHARLES CLIFFORD, K.C.M.G. + + Colonial Secretary, Ceylon. Fellow of the Royal Colonial + Institute. Formerly Resident, Pahang. Colonial Secretary, Trinidad + and Tobago, 1903-1907. Author of _Studies in Brown Humanity_; + _Further India_; &c. Joint-author of _A Dictionary of the Malay + Language_. + + Malacca; + Malay Peninsula; + Malays; + Malay States: _Federated_. + + H. C. H. + REV. HORACE CARTER HOVEY, A.M., D.D. + + Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, + Geological Society of America, National Geographic Society and + Société de Spéléologie (France). Author of _Celebrated American + Caverns_; _Handbook of Mammoth Cave of Kentucky_; &c. + + Luray Cavern; + Mammoth Cave. + + H. De. + REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE S.J. S.J. + + Bollandist. Joint-editor of the _Acta Sanctorum_. + + Lucia, St; + Marcellinus, St; + Margaret, St; + Martyrology. + + H. E. S.* + HORACE ELISHA SCUDDER (D. 1902). + + Formerly Editor of the _Atlantic Monthly_. Author of _Life of + James Russell Lowell_; _History of the United States_; &c. + + Lowell, James Russell. + + H. Fr. + HENRI FRANTZ. + + Art Critic, _Gazette des Beaux-Arts_ (Paris). + + Manet. + + H. Le. + HERBERT MARTIN JAMES LOEWE, M.A. + + Queen's College, Cambridge. Curator of Oriental Literature, + University Library, Cambridge. Formerly Chief English Master at + the Schools of the Alliance at Cairo and Abyassiyyeh, Egypt. + Author of _Kitab el Ansab of Samani_; &c. + + Maimonides. + + H. Lb. + HORACE LAMB, M.A., LL.D., D.SC, F.R.S. + + Professor of Mathematics, University of Manchester. Formerly + Fellow and Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member + of Council of Royal Society, 1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902. + President of London Mathematical Society, 1902-1904. Author of + _Hydrodynamics_; &c. + + Mechanics: _Theoretical_. + + H. L. H. + HARRIET L. HENNESSY, M.D. (BRUX.), L.R.C.S.I., L.R.C.P.I. + + Malaria (_in part_). + + H. M. S. + HENRY MORSE STEPHENS, M.A., LITT.D. + + Balliol College, Oxford. Professor of History in the University of + California. Author of _History of the French Revolution_; &c. + + Maintenon, Madame de; + Mazarin. + + H. S.* + SIR HERBERT STEPHEN, BART., M.A., LL.M. + + Trinity College, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law. Clerk of Assize for + the Northern Circuit. + + Lytton, 1st Earl of. + + H. St. + HENRY STURT, M.A. + + Author of _Idola Theatri_; _The Idea of a Free Church_; _Personal + Idealism_; &c. + + Lotze (_in part_). + + H. W. C. D. + HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. + + Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' + College, Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of _England under the Normans + and Angevins_; _Charlemagne_. + + Mandeville, Geoffrey de; + Marsh, Adam; + Matilda, Queen; + Matthew of Paris. + + H. W. R.* + REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A. + + Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior + Kennicott Scholar, Oxford, 1901. Author of _Hebrew Psychology in + Relation to Pauline Anthropology_ (in _Mansfield College Essays_); + &c. + + Malachi (_in part_). + + H. Y. + SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B. + + See the biographical article: YULE, SIR HENRY. + + Mandeville, Sir John (_in part_); + Marignolli (_in part_). + + I. A. + ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. + + Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of + Cambridge. Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of + England. Author of _A Short History of Jewish Literature_; _Jewish + Life in the Middle Ages_; _Judaism_; &c. + + Luria; + Luzzatto, Moses Hayim; + Luzzatto, Samuel David; + Mapu; + Marano. + + J. A. C. + SIR JOSEPH ARCHER CROWE, K.C.M.G. + + See the biographical article: CROWE, SIR J. A. + + Mabuse. + + J. A. S. + JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS. + + See the biographical article: SYMONDS, J. A. + + Machiavelli; + Manutius. + + J. A. V.* + JOHN AUGUSTUS VOELCKER, M.A., PH.D., F.I.C., F.L.S. + + Consulting Chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, + &c. Author of _The Woburn Experiments_; &c. + + Manures. + + J. Bt. + JAMES BARTLETT. + + Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, + &c., at King's College, London. Member of Society of Architects. + Member of Institute of Junior Engineers. + + Masonry. + + J. C. R. C. + SIR JOHN CHARLES READY COLOMB, K.C.M.G. + + See the biographical article: COLOMB, P. H. + + Marines. + + J. D. B. + JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. + + King's College. Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in + South-Eastern Europe. Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of + Montenegro and of the Saviour of Greece, and Officer of the Order + of St Alexander of Bulgaria. + + Macedonia. + + J. F.-K. + JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HIST.S. + + Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool + University. Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow + of the British Academy. Member of the Council of the Hispanic + Society of America. Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. + Author of _A History of Spanish Literature_. + + Lull, Raimon; + Maupassant. + + J. Ga. + JAMES GAIRDNER, C.B., LL.D. + + See the biographical article: GAIRDNER, JAMES. + + Mary I., Queen. + + J. G. Sc. + SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E. + + Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author + of _Burma_; _The Upper Burma Gazetteer_. + + Mandalay. + + J. Hn. + JUSTUS HASHAGEN, PH.D. + + Privatdozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. + Author of _Das Rheinland unter die franzosische Herrschaft_. + + Louis I. and II. of Bavaria. + + J. H. F. + JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. + + Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. + + Lycaon. + + J. H. R. + JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (EDIN.). + + Author of _Feudal England_; _Studies in Peerage and Family + History_; _Peerage and Pedigree_. + + Lord Great Chamberlain; + Mar, Earldom of; + Marquess. + + J. Hl. R. + JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D. + + Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the + Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of _Life of + Napoleon I._; _Napoleonic Studies_; _The Development of the + European Nations_; _The Life of Pitt_; chapters in the _Cambridge + Modern History_. + + Lowe, Sir Hudson; + Maret. + + J. I. + JULES ISAAC. + + Professor of History at the Lycée of Lyons. + + Louis XII. of France. + + J. J. T. + SIR JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON, D.SC., LL.D., PH.D., F.R.S. + + Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics and Fellow of Trinity + College, Cambridge. President of the British Association, + 1909-1910. Author of _A Treatise on the Motion of Vortex Rings_; + _Application of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry_; _Recent + Researches in Electricity and Magnetism_; &c. + + Magneto-Optics; + Matter. + + J. L. W. + JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON. + + Author of _Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory_. + + Malory, Sir Thomas; + Map, Walter. + + J. M. Gr. + JAMES MONCRIEFF GRIERSON, C.B., C.M.G., C.V.O. + + Major-General, R.A. Commanding 1st Division Aldershot Command. + Director of Military Operations at Headquarters, 1904-1906. Served + through South African War, 1900-1901. _Author of Staff Duties in + the Field_; &c. + + Manoevres, Military. + + J. M. M. + JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. + + Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, + East London College (University of London). Joint-editor of + Grote's _History of Greece_. + + Mandeville, Bernard de; + Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. + + J. P. P. + JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., LITT.D. + + Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of + Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor + of the _Classical Quarterly_. Editor-in-chief of the _Corpus + Poetarum Latinorum_; &c. + + Lucan (_in part_). + + Jno. S. + SIR JOHN SCOTT, K.C.M.G., D.C.L. (1841-1904). + + Deputy Judge Advocate-General to the Forces, 1898-1904. Judicial + Adviser to the Khedive of Egypt, 1890-1898. Hon. Fellow of + Pembroke College, Oxford. + + Martial Law. + + J. Si.* + REV. JAMES SIBREE, F.R.G.S. + + Principal Emeritus, United College (L.M.S. and F.F.M.A.), + Antanànarivo, Madagascar. Membre de l'Académie Malgache. Author of + _Madagascar and its People_; _Madagascar before the Conquest_; _A + Madagascar Bibliography_; &c. + + Madagascar; + Mauritius. + + J. S. Bl. + JOHN SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A., LL.D. + + Assistant-editor of the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia + Britannica. Joint-editor of the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_. + + Mary: Mother of Jesus (_in part_). + Mazzini. + + J. S. Co. + JAMES SUTHERLAND COTTON, M.A. + + Editor of the Imperial Gazetteer of India. Hon. Secretary of the + Egyptian Exploration Fund. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Queen's + College, Oxford. Author of _India_; &c. + + Mahrattas (_in part_). + + J. S. F. + JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.SC, F.G.S. + + Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on + Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal + Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society + of London. + + Marble; + Marl. + + J. T. Be. + JOHN THOMAS BEALBY. + + Joint-author of Stanford's _Europe_. Formerly Editor of the + _Scottish Geographical Magazine_. Translator of Sven Hedin's + _Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet_; &c. + + Maritime Province (_in part_). + + J. T. C. + JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. + + Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. + Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor + of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh and Naturalist + to the Marine Biological Association. + + Mackerel (_in part_). + + J. T. M. + JOHN THEODORE MERZ, LL.D., PH.D., D.C.L. + + Chairman of the Newcastle-upon-Tyne Electric Supply Co., Ltd. + Author of _History of European Thought in the XIXth Century_; &c. + + Lotze (_in part_). + + J. T. S.* + JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D. + + Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. + + Louis VI., VII., IX., X. and XI. of France. + + J. V.* + JULES VIARD. + + Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public + Instruction, France. Author of _La France sous Philippe VI de + Valois_; &c. + + Lore, Ambroise de; + Louvet, Jean; + Marcel, Étienne. + + J. V. B. + JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. (St Andrews). + + Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of + _The Apostolic Age_; &c. + + Mark, St (_in part_); + Matthew, St; + Luke, St. + + K. G. J. + KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNE. + + Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Matthew Arnold + Prizeman, 1903. Author of _Vasco da Gama and his Successors_. + + Malay Archipelago. + + K. K. + KONRAD KESSLER, PH.D. + + Formerly Professor of Semitic Languages at the University of + Greifswald. + + Mandaeans (_in part_). + + K. L. + REV. KIRSOPP LAKE, M.A. + + Lincoln College, Oxford. Professor of Early Christian Literature + and New Testament Exegesis in the University of Leiden. Author of + _The Text of the New Testament_; _The Historical Evidence for the + Resurrection of Jesus Christ_; &c. + + Mary, Mother of Jesus (_in part_). + + K. S. + KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. + + Editor of Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of _The + Instruments of the Orchestra_. + + Lute (_in part_); + Lyre (_in part_); + Mandoline. + + L. J. S. + LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A., F.G.S. + + Assistant, Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, South + Kensington. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, + and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_. + + Manganite; + Marcasite. + + L. V.* + LUIGI VILLARI. + + Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper + Correspondent in East of Europe. Author of _Italian Life in Town + and Country_; &c. + + Mazzini: _Bibliography_. + + L. W. V-H. + L. W. VERNON-HARCOURT (d. 1909). + + Barrister-at-Law. Author of _His Grace the Steward and the Trial + of Peers_. + + Lord High Steward. + + M. A. W. + MARY A. WARD (MRS HUMPHRY WARD). + + See the biographical article: WARD, MARY AUGUSTA. + + Lyly. + + M. Br. + MARGARET BRYANT. + + Louis VIII. and XVII. of France. + + M. Ja. + MORRIS JASTROW, JR., PH.D. + + Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania. Author + of _Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians_; &c. + + Marduk. + + M. N. T. + MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. + + Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in + Epigraphy. Joint-author of _Catalogue of the Sparta Museum_. + + Lycurgus: _Spartan Lawgiver_; + Lysander. + + M. O. B. C. + MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. (OXON.). + + Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek + at Birmingham University, 1905-1908. + + Mantineia (_in part_); + Manuel I., Comnenus; + Marathon (_in part_). + + M. P. + MARK PATTISON, LL.D. + + See the biographical article: PATTISON, MARK. + + Macaulay. + + N. D. M. + NEWTON DENNISON MERENESS, A.M., PH.D. + + Author of _Maryland as a Proprietary Province_. + + Maryland. + + N. V. + JOSEPH MARIE NOEL VALOIS. + + Member of Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, Paris. + Honorary Archivist at the Archives Nationales. Formerly President + of the Société de l'Histoire de France, and of the Société de + l'École des Chartes. + + Marsilius of Padua; + Martin I.-V.: _Popes_. + + N. W. T. + NORTHCOTE WHITRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. + + Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding + Member of the Société d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of _Thought + Transference_; _Kinship and Marriage in Australia_; &c. + + Lycanthropy; + Magic. + + O. R. + OSBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. M.INST.C.E. + + Formerly Professor of Engineering, Victoria University, + Manchester. Honorary Fellow of Queens' College, Cambridge. + + Lubrication. + + P. A. A. + PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., DOC. JURIS. + + New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. + + Lübeck (_in part_). + + P. A. K. + PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. + + See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE, P. A. + + Maritime Province (_in part_). + + P. G. + PERCY GARDNER, M.A., LITT.D., LL.D. + + See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. + + Lysippus. + + P. Gi. + PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. + + Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and + University Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of + the Cambridge Philological Society. + + M. + + P. G. T. + PETER GUTHRIE TAIT, LL.D. + + See the biographical article: TAIT, PETER GUTHRIE. + + Maxwell, James Clerk. + + P. Vi. + PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L., LL.D. + + See the biographical article: VINOGRADOFF, PAUL. + + Manor (_in part_). + + R. A.* + ROBERT ANCHEL. + + Archivist to the Department de l'Eure. + + Louis XVI.; + Marat. + + R. B. McK. + RONALD BRUNLEES MCKERROW, M.A. + + Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of _The Works of Thomas Nashe_; + &c. + + Marprelate Controversy. + + R. C. J. + SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, D.C.L., LL.D. + + See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE. + + Lysias (_in part_). + + R. G. + RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D., D.C.L. + + See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. + + Lucan (_in part_); + Max Müller. + + R. H. C. + REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.LITT. + + Grinfield Lecturer on the Septuagint at Oxford, 1905-1907. Fellow + of the British Academy. Professor of Biblical Greek at Trinity + College, Dublin, 1898-1906. Hibbert Lecturer at Oxford, 1898; + Jowett Lecturer, 1898-1899. Author of _Critical History of a + Future Life_; &c. + + Manasses, Prayer of. + + R. J. M. + RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. + + Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-law. Formerly Editor of the + _St James's Gazette_, London. + + Lundy, Robert; + Macdonnell, Sorley Boy; + McNeile, Hugh; + Manchester, Earls and Dukes of; + March, Earls of; + Margaret, Queen of Scotland; + Masham, Abigail. + + R. K. D. + SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS. + + Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Keeper of + Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at British Museum, 1892-1907. + Member of the Chinese Consular Service, 1858-1865. Author of _The + Language and Literature of China_; _China_; _Europe and the Far + East_; &c. + + Manchuria. + + R. L.* + RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. + + Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. + Author of _Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the + British Museum_; _The Deer of all Lands_; _The Game Animals of + Africa_; &c. + + Loris; + Macaque; + Machaerodus; + Mammalia (_in part_); + Mammoth (_in part_); + Manati; + Mandrill; + Marmot; + Marsupialia; + Mastodon. + + R. M'L. + ROBERT M'LACHLAN, F.R.S. + + Editor of the _Entomologists' Monthly Magazine_. + + May-Fly (_in part_). + + R. M. D. + RICHARD MOUNTFORD DEELEY, M.INST.CE., M.I.MECH.E., F.G.S. + + Late Locomotive Superintendent, Midland Railway. Joint-author of + _Lubrication and Lubricants_. + + Lubricants. + + R. N. B. + ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). + + Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of + _Scandinavia, the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, + 1513-1900_; _The First Romanovs, 1613 to 1725_; _Slavonic Europe, + the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796_; &c. + + Louis I. and II. of Hungary; + Malachowski; + Margaret, Queen; + Martinuzzi; + Matthias I., Hunyadi; + Matvyeev; + Mazepa-Koledinsky. + + R. P. + REINHOLD PAULI. + + See the biographical article: PAULI, REINHOLD. + + Lübeck (_in part_). + + R. P. S. + R. PHENÉ SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. + + Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, + London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and + Fellow of King's College, London. Corresponding Member of the + Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's _History of + Architecture_. Author of _Architecture: East and West_; &c. + + Manor-House. + + R. Po. + RENÉ POUPARDIN, D. ÈS L. + + Secretary of the École des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the + Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. Author of _Le Royaume de Provence + sous les Carolingiens_; _Recueil des chartes de Saint-Germain_; + &c. + + Lorraine; + Louis IV. and V. of France. + + R. S. C. + ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. (CANTAB.). + + Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University + of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, + Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. + Author of _The Italic Dialects_. + + Mamertini; + Marrucini; + Marsi. + + R. T. + SIR RICHARD TEMPLE. + + See the biographical article: TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD. + + Mahrattas (_in part_). + + R. We. + RICHARD WEBSTER, A.M. (PRINCETON). + + Formerly Fellow in Classics, Princeton University. Editor of _The + Elegies of Maximianus_; &c. + + Mather, Increase; + Mather, Richard. + + S. A. C. + STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. + + Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and + Caius College, Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. + Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. + Author of _Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions_; _The Laws of Moses + and the Code of Hammurabi_; _Critical Notes on Old Testament + History_; _Religion of Ancient Palestine_; &c. + + Lot; + Manasseh. + + S. Bi. + SHELFORD BIDWELL, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. (1848-1909). + + Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the + Physical Society and Member of Council of the Royal Society. + + Magnetism. + + S. C. + SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D. + + See the biographical article: COLVIN, SIDNEY. + + Marcantonio. + + S. N. + SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.SC. + + See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON. + + Mars: _Planet_. + + T. As. + THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT., F.S.A. + + Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. + Corresponding Member of the Imperial German Archaeological + Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford; Craven + Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of _The Classical Topography of the + Roman Campagna_; &c. + + Lucania; + Lucca; + Lucena; + Lucretilis, Mons; + Lucus Feroniae; + Luna; + Magna Graecia; + Manduria; + Manfredonia; + Marches, The; + Marino; + Marzabotto. + + T. Ba. + SIR THOMAS BARCLAY. + + Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the + Supreme Council of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of + Honour. Author of _Problems of International Practice and + Diplomacy_; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910. + + Mare Clausum. + + T. F. C. + THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D. + + Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, + Mass., U.S.A. + + Marcellus. + + T. G. Br. + THOMAS GREGOR BRODIE, M.D., F.R.S. + + Professor of Physiology in the University of Toronto. Author of + _Essentials of Experimental Physiology_. + + Lymph and Lymph Formation. + + T. H. H.* + SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.SC. + + Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold + Medallist, R.G.S., London, 1887. Author of _The Indian + Borderland_; _The Countries of the King's Award_; _India_; + _Tibet_. + + Makran. + + T. M. L. + THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, LL.D., D.D. + + Principal of the United Free Church College, Glasgow. Formerly + Assistant to the Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the + University of Edinburgh. Author of _History of the Reformation_; + _Life of Luther_; &c. + + Luther, Martin; + Lutherans. + + T. R. R. S. + THOMAS ROSCOE REDE STEBBING, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S. + + Fellow of King's College, London. Hon. Fellow of Worcester + College, Oxford. Zoological Secretary of Linnaean Society, + 1903-1907. Author of _A History of Crustacea_; _The Naturalist of + Cumbrae_; &c. + + Malacostraca. + + T. Se. + THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. + + Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and + Birkbeck Colleges, University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, + Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of _Dictionary of National + Biography_, 1891-1901. Author of _The Age of Johnson_; &c. + + Marlowe, Christopher (_in part_); + Marston, Philip Bourke. + + T. W. R. D. + THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, M.A., PH.D., LL.D. + + Professor of Comparative Religion in the University of Manchester. + Professor of Pali and Buddhist Literature, University College, + London, 1882-1904. President of the Pali Text Society. Fellow of + the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal Asiatic + Society, 1885-1902. Author of _Buddhism_; &c. + + Lumbini; + Mahavamsa; + Maitreya. + + V. H. S. + REV. VINCENT HENRY STANTON, M.A., D.D. + + Ely Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge. Canon of + Ely. Formerly Fellow, Dean, Tutor and Lecturer of Trinity College, + Cambridge. Author of The _Jewish and the Christian Messiahs_; &c. + + Mark, Gospel of St; + Matthew, Gospel of St; + Luke, Gospel of St. + + W. A. B. C. + REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S. + + Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, + St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of _Guide to + Switzerland_; _The Alps in Nature and in History_; &c. Editor of + the _Alpine Journal_, 1880-1889. + + Lötschen Pass; + Lucerne: Canton, Town, Lake of; + Lugano, Lake of; + Maggiore, Lago. + + W. A. G. + WALTER ARMSTRONG GRAHAM. + + His Siamese Majesty's Resident Commissioner for the Siamese Malay + State of Kelantan. Adviser to his Siamese Majesty's Minister for + Lands and Agriculture. Author of _Kelantan, a Handbook_; &c. + + Malay States: _Non-Federated_. + Malay States: _Siamese_. + + W. A. P. + WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. + + Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St + John's College, Oxford. Author of _Modern Europe_; &c. + + Louis Philippe; + Mahmud II.; + Mass: _Church_. + + W. D. L. + WILLIAM DRAPER LEWIS, LL.B., PH.D. + + Dean of the Law School, University of Pennsylvania. Lecturer on + Economics, Haverford College, Pennsylvania, 1890-1896. Editor of + _Great American Lawyers_; &c. + + Marshall, John. + + W. E. A. A. + WILLIAM EDMUND ARMYTAGE AXON, LL.D. + + Formerly Deputy Chief Librarian of the Manchester Free Libraries. + On Literary Staff of Manchester Guardian, 1874-1905. Member of the + Gorsedd, with the bardic name of Manceinion. Author of _Annals of + Manchester_; &c. + + Manchester. + + W. E. D. + WILLIAM ERNEST DALBY, M.A., M.INST.C.E., M.I.M.E. + + Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering at the City and + Guilds of London Institute Central Technical College, South + Kensington. Formerly University Demonstrator in the Engineering + Department, Cambridge. Author of _The Balancing of Engines_; + _Valves and Valve-Gear Mechanism_; &c. + + Mechanics: _Applied_ (_in part_). + + W. E. G. F. + WILLIAM EDWARD GARRETT FISHER, M.A. + + Author of _The Transvaal and the Boers_. + + Marbles. + + W. F.* + REV. WILLIAM FAIRWEATHER, M.A., D.D. + + Minister of Dunnikier United Free Church, Kirkcaldy, N.B. Author + of _Maccabees_ (Cambridge Bible for Schools); _The Background of + the Gospels_; &c. + + Maccabees; + Maccabees, Books of. + + W. Ho. + WYNNARD HOOPER, M.A. + + Clare College, Cambridge. Financial Editor of _The Times_, London. + + Market. + + W. H. F. + SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. + + See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. + + Mammalia (_in part_); + Mammoth (_in part_); + Mandrill (_in part_); + Marten. + + W. J. M. R. + WILLIAM JOHN MACQUORN RANKINE, LL.D. + + See the biographical article: RANKINE, WILLIAM JOHN MACQUORN. + + Mechanics: _Applied_ (_in part_). + + W. L. C.* + WILLIAM LEE CORBIN, A.M. + + Associate Professor of English, Wells College, Aurora, New York. + + Mather, Cotton. + + W. L. F. + WALTER LYNWOOD FLEMING, A.M., PH.D. + + Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Author of + _Documentary History of Reconstruction_; &c. + + Lynch Law; + McGillivray, Alexander. + + W. L. G. + WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. + + Professor at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit + Lecturer in Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of _Acts + of the Privy Council_, ("Colonial" series); _Canadian + Constitutional Development_ (in collaboration). + + Mackenzie, William Lyon; + Manitoba (_in part_). + + W. M. R. + WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. + + See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE G. + + Luini; + Mantegna; + Martini; + Masaccio; + Masolino da Panicale. + + W. M. Ra. + SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL RAMSAY, LL.D., D.C.L. + + See the biographical article: RAMSAY, SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL. + + Lycaonia. + + W. P. C. + WILLIAM PRIDEAUX COURTNEY, D.C.L. + + See the article: COURTNEY, L. H., BARON. + + Marlborough, 1st Duke of. + + W. R. S. + WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. + + See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON. + + Malachi (_in part_); + Mecca. + + W. Wn. + WILLIAM WATSON, D.SC, F.R.S. + + Assistant Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. + Vice-President of the Physical Society. + + Magnetograph; + Magnetometer. + + W. W. F.* + WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A. + + Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-Rector, 1881-1904. Gifford + Lecturer, Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of _The City-State of + the Greeks and Romans_; _The Roman Festivals of the Republican + Period_; &c. + + Mars: _Mythology_; + Mauretania. + + W. Y. S. + WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D. + + See the biographical article: SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG. + + Martial; + Lucilius (_in part_); + Lucretius. + + + + +PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES + + Lord Chamberlain. Mafia. March. + Lotteries. Magnesium. Marengo. + Louisiana. Magnolia. Marionettes. + Lourdes. Maine, U.S.A. Marriage. + Loyalists. Maize. Marseilles. + Luchu Archipelago. Malplaquet. Marshal. + Lützen. Malta. Marston Moor. + Lyons. Mandamus. Maryland. + Macabre. Manganese. Massachusetts. + McKinley, William. Manila. Match. + Madeira. Manipur. Mayo. + Madison, James. Manna. Mayor. + Madras. Maori. Measles. + Madrid. Maple. Mecklenburg. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in + the final volume. + + + + +LORD CHAMBERLAIN, in England, an important officer of the king's +household, to be distinguished from the lord great chamberlain (q.v.). +He is the second dignitary of the court, and is always a member of the +government of the day (before 1782 the office carried cabinet rank), a +peer and a privy councillor. He carries a white staff, and wears a +golden or jewelled key, typical of the key of the palace, which is +supposed to be in his charge, as the ensigns of his office. He is +responsible for the necessary arrangements connected with state +ceremonies, such as coronations and royal marriages, christenings and +funerals; he examines the claims of those who desire to be presented at +court; all invitations are sent out in his name by command of the +sovereign, and at drawing-rooms arid levees he stands next to the +sovereign and announces the persons who are approaching the throne. It +is also part of his duty to conduct the sovereign to and from his +carriage.[1] The bedchamber, privy chamber and presence chamber, the +wardrobe, the housekeeper's room, the guardroom and the chapels royal +are in the lord chamberlain's department. He is regarded as chief +officer of the royal household, and he has charge of a large number of +appointments, such as those of the royal physicians, tradesmen and +private attendants of the sovereign. All theatres in the cities of +London and Westminster (except patent theatres), in certain of the +London boroughs and in the towns of Windsor and Brighton, are licensed +by him and he is also licenser of plays (see THEATRE: _Law_; and REVELS, +MASTER OF THE). His salary is £2000 a year. + + The vice-chamberlain of the household is the lord chamberlain's + assistant and deputy. He also is one of the ministry, a white-staff + officer and the bearer of a key; and he is generally a peer or the son + of a peer as well as a privy councillor. He receives £700 a year. Next + to the vice-chamberlain comes the groom of the stole, an office only + in use during the reign of a king. He has the charge of the vestment + called the stole worn by the sovereign on state occasions. In the lord + chamberlain's department also are the master, assistant master, + marshal of the ceremonies and deputy-marshal of the ceremonies, + officers whose special function it is to enforce the observance of the + _etiquette_ of the court. The reception of foreign potentates and + ambassadors is under their particular care, and they assist in the + ordering of all entertainments and festivities at the palace.[2] The + gentleman usher of the black rod--the black rod which he carries being + the ensign of his office--is the principal usher of the court and + kingdom. He is one of the original functionaries of the order of the + Garter, and is in constant attendance on the House of Lords, from + whom, either personally or by his deputy, the yeoman usher of the + black rod, it is part of his duty to carry messages and summonses to + the House of Commons. There are six lords and six grooms "in waiting" + who attend on the sovereign throughout the year and whose terms of + attendance are of a fortnight's or three weeks' duration at a time. + Usually "extra" lords and grooms in waiting are nominated by the + sovereign, who, however, are unpaid and have no regular duties. Among + the serjeants-at-arms there are two to whom special duties are + assigned: the one attending the speaker in the House of Commons, and + the other attending the lord chancellor in the House of Lords, + carrying their maces and executing their orders.[3] The comptroller + and examiner of accounts, the paymaster of the household, the licenser + of plays, the dean and subdean of the chapels royal, the clerk and + deputy clerks of the closet, the groom of the robes, the pages of the + backstairs, of the chamber and of the presence, the poet laureate, the + royal physicians and surgeons, chaplains, painters and sculptors, + librarians and musicians, &c., are all under the superintendence of + the lord chamberlain of the household.[4] + + The queen consort's household is also in the department of the lord + chamberlain of the household. It comprises a lord chamberlain, a + vice-chamberlain and treasurer, equerry and the various ladies of the + royal household, a groom and a clerk of the robes. The ladies of the + household are the mistress of the robes, the ladies of the bedchamber, + the bedchamber women and the maids of honour. The mistress of the + robes in some measure occupies the position of the groom of the + stole.[5] She is the only lady of the court who comes into office and + goes out with the administration. She is always a duchess, and attends + the queen consort at all state ceremonies and entertainments, but is + never in permanent residence at the palace.[6] The ladies of the + bedchamber share the personal attendance on the queen consort + throughout the year. Of these there are eight, always peeresses, and + each is in waiting for a fortnight or three weeks at a time. But the + women of the bedchamber, of whom there are also eight, appear only at + court ceremonies and entertainments according to a roster annually + issued under the authority of the lord chamberlain of the queen + consort. They are usually the daughters of peers or the wives of the + sons of peers, and formerly, like the mistress of the robes and the + ladies of the bedchamber, habitually assisted the queen at her daily + toilette. But this has long ceased to be done by any of them. The + eight maids of honour have the same terms of waiting as the ladies of + the bedchamber. They are commonly if not always the daughters or + granddaughters of peers, and when they have no superior title and + precedence by birth are called "honourable" and placed next after the + daughters of barons. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The lord chamberlain of the household at one time discharged some + important political functions, which are described by Sir Harris + Nicolas (_Proceedings of the Privy Council_, vol. vi., Preface, p. + xxiii). + + [2] The office of master of the ceremonies was created by James I. + The master of the ceremonies wears a medal attached to a gold chain + round his neck, on one side being an emblem of peace with the motto + "Beati pacifici," and on the other an emblem of war with the motto + "Dieu et mon droit" (see _Finetti Philoxensis_, by Sir John Finett, + master of the ceremonies to James I. and Charles I., 1656; and + D'Israeli's _Curiosities of Literature_, 10th ed., p. 242 seq.). + + [3] See May, _Parliamentary Practice_, pp. 236, 244. + + [4] The offices of master of the great wardrobe and master of the + jewel house in the lord chamberlain's department were abolished in + 1782. + + [5] In the reign of Queen Anne, Sarah duchess of Marlborough from + 1704, and Elizabeth duchess of Somerset from 1710, held the combined + offices of mistress of the robes and groom of the stole. + + [6] Since the great "bedchamber question" of 1839 the settled + practice has been for all the ladies of the court except the mistress + of the robes to receive and continue in their appointments + independently of the political connexions of their husbands, fathers + and brothers (see Gladstone's _Gleanings of Past Years_, i. 40; and + Torrens's _Memoirs of Lord Melbourne_, ii. 304). + + + + +LORD CHIEF JUSTICE, in England, the presiding judge of the king's bench +division of the High Court of Justice, and in the absence of the lord +chancellor, president of the High Court. He traces his descent from the +justiciar of the Norman kings. This officer appears first as the +lieutenant or deputy of the king, exercising all the functions of the +regal office in the absence of the sovereign. "In this capacity William +Fitz-Osbern, the steward of Normandy, and Odo of Bayeux, acted during +the Conqueror's visit to the continent in 1067; they were left, +according to William of Poitiers, the former to govern the north of +England, the latter to hold rule in Kent, vice sua; Florence of +Worcester describes them as "custodes Angliae," and Ordericus Vitalis +gives to their office the name of "praefectura." It would seem most +probable that William Fitz-Osbern at least was left in his character of +steward, and that the Norman seneschalship was thus the origin of the +English justiciarship" (Stubbs's _Constitutional History_, i. 346). The +same authority observes that William of Warenne and Richard Clare +(Bienfaite), who were left in charge of England in 1074, are named by a +writer in the next generation "praecipui Angliae justitiarii"; but he +considers the name to have not yet been definitely attached to any +particular office, and that there is no evidence to show that officers +appointed to this trust exercised any functions at all when the king was +at home, or in his absence exercised supreme judicial authority to the +exclusion of other high officers of the court. The office became +permanent in the reign of William Rufus, and in the hands of Ranulf +Flambard it became coextensive with the supreme powers of government. +But it was not till the reign of Henry II. that the chief officer of the +crown acquired the exclusive right to the title of _capitalis_ or +_totius Angliae justitiarius_. Stubbs considers that the English form of +the office is to be accounted for by the king's desire to prevent the +administration falling into the hands of an hereditary noble. The early +justiciars were clerics, in whom the possession of power could not +become hereditary. The justiciar continued to be the chief officer of +state, next to the king, until the fall of Hubert de Burgh (in the reign +of King John), described by Stubbs as the last of the great justiciars. +Henceforward, according to Stubbs, the office may be said to have +survived only in the judicial functions, which were merely part of the +official character of the chief justiciar. He was at the head of the +curia regis, which was separating itself into the three historical +courts of common law about the time when the justiciarship was falling +from the supreme place. The chancellor took the place of the justiciar +in council, the treasurer in the exchequer, while the two offshoots from +the curia regis, the common pleas and the exchequer, received chiefs of +their own. The king's bench represented the original stock of the curia +regis, and its chief justice the great justiciar. The justiciar may, +therefore, be said to have become from a political a purely judicial +officer. A similar development awaited his successful rival the +chancellor. Before the Judicature Act the king's bench and the common +pleas were each presided over by a lord chief justice, and the lord +chief justice of the king's bench was nominal head of all the three +courts, and held the title of lord chief justice of England. The titles +of lord chief justice of the common pleas and lord chief baron were +abolished by the Judicature Act 1873, and all the common law divisions +of the High Court united into the king's bench division, the president +of which is the lord chief justice of England. + + The lord chief justice is, next to the lord chancellor, the highest + judicial dignitary in the kingdom. He is an _ex-officio_ judge of the + court of appeal. He holds office during good behaviour, and can only + be removed by the crown (by whom he is appointed) after a joint + address of both houses of parliament. He is now the only judicial + functionary privileged to wear the collar of SS. There has been much + discussion as to the origin and history of this collar;[1] it was a + badge or insignia attached to certain offices entitling the holders to + wear it only so long as they held those offices. The collar of SS. was + worn by the chiefs of the three courts previous to their amalgamation + in 1873, and that now worn by the lord chief justice of England was + provided by Sir A. Cockburn in 1859 and entailed by him on all holders + of the office. The salary is £8000 a year. + + In the United States the supreme court consists of a chief justice and + eight associate justices, any six of whom make a quorum. The salary of + the chief justice is $13,000 and that of the associates $12,500. The + chief justice takes rank next after the president, and he administers + the oath on the inauguration of a new president and vice-president. + The principal or presiding judge in most of the state judicatures also + takes the title of chief justice. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Notes and Queries_, series 1, vol. ii.; series 4, vols. ii. ix. + x.; series 6, vols. ii. iii.; Planché, _Dictionary of Costume_, p. + 126; Foss, _Lives of the Judges_, vol. vii.; Dugdale, _Orig. Jud._ + fol. 102. + + + + +LORD GREAT CHAMBERLAIN, in England, a functionary who must be carefully +distinguished from the lord chamberlain; he is one of the great officers +of state, whose office dates from Norman times; and the only one who +still holds it under a creation of that period. As his name implies, he +was specially connected by his duties with the king's chamber (_camera +curie_); but this phrase was also used to denote the king's privy purse, +and the chamberlain may be considered as originally the financial +officer of the household. But as he was always a great baron, deputies +performed his financial work, and his functions became, as they are now, +mainly ceremonial, though the emblem of his office is still a key. The +office had been held by Robert Malet, son of a leading companion of the +Conqueror, but he was forfeited by Henry I., who, in 1133, gave the +great chamberlainship to Aubrey de Vere and his heirs. Aubrey's son was +created earl of Oxford, and the earls held the office, with some +intermission, till 1526, when the then earl left female heirs. His +heir-male succeeded to the earldom, but the crown, as is now +established, denied his right to the office, which was thenceforth held +under grants for life till Queen Mary and Elizabeth admitted in error +the right of the earls on the strength of their own allegation. So +matters continued till 1626, when an earl died and again left an +heir-male and an heir-female. After an historic contest the office was +adjudged to the former, Lord Willoughby d'Eresby. No further question +arose till 1779, when his heirs were two sisters. In 1781 the House of +Lords decided that it belonged to them jointly, and that they could +appoint a deputy, which they did. Under a family arrangement the heirs +of the two sisters respectively appointed deputies in alternate reigns +till the death of Queen Victoria, when Lord Ancaster, the heir of the +elder, who was then in possession, claimed that he, as such, had sole +right to the office. Lord Cholmondeley and Lord Carrington as coheirs of +the younger sister, opposed his claim, and the crown also claimed for +itself on the ground of the action taken by the king in 1526. After a +long and historic contest, the House of Lords (1902) declined to re-open +the question, and merely re-affirmed the decision of 1781, and the +office, therefore, is now vested jointly in the three peers named and +their heirs. + +The lord great chamberlain has charge of the palace of Westminster, +especially of the House of Lords, in which he has an office; and when +the sovereign opens parliament in person he is responsible for the +arrangements. At the opening or closing of the session of parliament by +the sovereign in person he disposes of the sword of state to be carried +by any peer he may select, and walks himself in the procession on the +right of the sword of state, a little before it and next to the +sovereign. He issues the tickets of admission on the same occasions. He +assists at the introduction of all peers into the House of Lords on +their creation, and at the homage of all bishops after their +consecration. At coronations he emerges into special importance; he +still asserts before the court of claims his archaic right to bring the +king his "shirt, stockings and drawers" and to dress him on coronation +day and to receive his ancient fees, which include the king's bed and +"night robe." He also claims in error to serve the king ~~3 with water +before and after the banquet, which was the function of the "ewry," a +distinct office held by the earls of Oxford. At the actual coronation +ceremony he takes an active part in investing the king with the royal +insignia. + + See J. H. Round, "The Lord Great Chamberlain" (_Monthly Review_, June + 1902) and "Notes on the Lord Great Chamberlain Case" (_Ancestor_, No. + IV.). (J. H. R.) + + + + +LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR, one of the great officers of state of the United +Kingdom, and in England the highest judicial functionary. The history of +the office and of the growth of the importance of the lord chancellor +will be found under CHANCELLOR. The lord chancellor is in official rank +the highest civil subject in the land outside the royal family, and +takes precedence immediately after the archbishop of Canterbury. His +functions have sometimes been exercised by a lord keeper of the great +seal (see LORD KEEPER), the only real difference between the two offices +being in the appointment of the keeper by mere delivery of the seal, +while a lord chancellor receives letters patent along with it. He is by +office a privy councillor, and it has long been the practice to make him +a peer and also a cabinet minister. He is by prescription Speaker or +prolocutor of the House of Lords, and as such he sits upon the woolsack, +which is not strictly within the House. Unlike the Speaker of the House +of Commons, the lord chancellor takes part in debates, speaking from his +place in the House. He votes from the woolsack instead of going into the +division lobby. The only function which he discharges as Speaker +practically is putting the question; if two debaters rise together, he +has no power to call upon one, nor can he rule upon points of order. +Those taking part in debates address, not the lord chancellor, but the +whole House, as "My Lords." The lord chancellor always belongs to a +political party and is affected by its fluctuations. This has often been +denounced as destructive of the independence and calm deliberativeness +essential to the purity and efficiency of the bench. In defence, +however, of the ministerial connexion of the chancellor, it has been +said that, while the other judges should be permanent, the head of the +law should stand or fall with the ministry, as the best means of +securing his effective responsibility to parliament for the proper use +of his extensive powers. The transference of the judicial business of +the chancery court to the High Court of Justice removed many of the +objections to the fluctuating character of the office. As a great +officer of state, the lord chancellor acts for both England and +Scotland, and in some respects for the United Kingdom, including Ireland +(where, however, an Irish lord chancellor is at the head of the legal +system). By Article XXIV. of the Act of Union (1705) one great seal was +appointed to be kept for all public acts, and in this department the +lord chancellor's authority extends to the whole of Britain, and thus +the commissions of the peace for Scotland as well as England issue from +him.[1] As an administrative officer, as a judge and as head of the law, +he acts merely for England. His English ministerial functions are thus +briefly described by Blackstone: "He became keeper of the king's +conscience, visitor, in right of the king, of all hospitals and colleges +of the king's foundation, and patron of all the king's livings under the +value of twenty marks per annum in the king's books. He is the general +guardian of all infants, idiots and lunatics, and has the general +superintendence of all charitable uses in the kingdom." But these duties +and jurisdiction by modern statutes have been distributed for the most +part among other offices or committed to the judges of the High Court +(see CHARITY AND CHARITIES; INFANT; INSANITY). Under the Judicature Act +1873 the lord chancellor is a member of the court of appeal, and, when +he sits, its president, and he is also a judge of the High Court of +Justice. He is named as president of the chancery division of the latter +court. His judicial patronage is very extensive, and he is by usage the +adviser of the crown in the appointment of judges[2] of the High Court. +He presides over the hearing of appeals in the House of Lords. His +proper title is "Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain and Ireland." His +salary is £10,000 per annum, and he is entitled to a pension of £5000 +per annum. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Observations concerning the Office of Lord Chancellor_ + (1651), attributed to Lord Chancellor Ellesmere; Blackstone's + _Commentaries_; Campbell's _Lives of the Chancellors_; and D. M. + Kerly, _Historical Sketch of the Equitable Jurisdiction of the Court + of Chancery_ (1890). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The great seal, which exists in duplicate for Irish use, is the + great seal of the United Kingdom. + + [2] Except the lord chief justice, who is appointed on the nomination + of the prime minister. + + + + +LORD HIGH CONSTABLE, in England, the seventh of the great officers of +state. His office is now called out of abeyance for coronations alone. +The constable was originally the commander of the royal armies and the +master of the horse. He was also, in conjunction with the earl marshal, +president of the court of chivalry or court of honour. In feudal times +martial law was administered in the court of the lord high constable. +The constableship was granted as a grand serjeanty with the earldom of +Hereford by the empress Maud to Milo of Gloucester, and was carried by +his heiress to the Bohuns, earls of Hereford and Essex. Through a +coheiress of the Bohuns it descended to the Staffords, dukes of +Buckingham; and on the attainder of Edward Stafford, third duke of +Buckingham, in the reign of Henry VIII. it became merged in the crown. +The Lacys and Verduns were hereditary constables of Ireland from the +12th to the 14th century, and the Hays, earls of Erroll, have been +hereditary constables of Scotland from early in the 14th century. + + + + +LORD HIGH STEWARD. The Lord High Steward of England, who must not be +confused with the Lord Steward, ranks as the first of the great officers +of state. Appointments to this office are now made only for special +occasions, such as the coronation of a sovereign or the trial of a peer +by his peers. The history of the office is noteworthy. The household of +the Norman and Angevin kings of England included certain persons of +secondary rank, styled dapifers, seneschals or stewards (the prototypes +of the lord steward), who were entrusted with domestic and state duties; +the former duties were those of purveyors and sewers to the king, the +latter were undefined. At coronations, however, and great festivals it +became the custom in England and elsewhere to appoint magnates of the +first rank to discharge for the occasion the domestic functions of the +ordinary officials. In accordance with this custom Henry II. appointed +both Robert II., earl of Leicester, and Hugh Bigod, earl of Norfolk, to +be his honorary hereditary stewards; and at the Christmas festival of +1186 the successors in title of these two earls, with William, earl of +Arundel, who held the similar honorary office of hereditary butler, are +described as serving the king at the royal banqueting table. +Subsequently the earls of Leicester bought out the rights of the earls +of Norfolk for ten knights' fees. + +The last of these earls of Leicester to inherit the hereditary +stewardship was Simon V. de Montfort; how he served as steward at the +coronation of Eleanor, queen of Henry III., is described in the +Exchequer Red Book. The office of steward in France, then recently +suppressed, had for some time been the highest office of state in that +kingdom, and Simon de Montfort appears to have considered that his +hereditary stewardship entitled him to high official position in +England; and after his victory at Lewes he repeatedly figures as steward +of England in official documents under the great seal. After Simon's +death at Evesham his forfeited estates were conferred on his son Edmund +of Lancaster, who also obtained a grant of the stewardship, but only for +life. Edmund was succeeded by Thomas, earl of Lancaster, who received a +fresh grant of the stewardship to himself and the heirs of his body from +Edward II.; and this earl it was who, during the weak administration of +the last-mentioned king, first put forward in a celebrated tract the +claim of the steward to be the second personage in the realm and supreme +judge in parliament, a claim which finds some slight recognition in the +preamble to the statute passed against the Despencers in the first year +of Edward III. + +Earl Thomas was executed for treason, and though his attainder was +reversed he left no issue, and was succeeded in the earldom by his +brother Henry. The subsequent earls and dukes of Lancaster were all +recognized as stewards of England, the office apparently being treated +as annexed to the earldom, or honor, of Leicester. John of Gaunt, +indeed, at a time when it was possible that he would never obtain the +Leicester moiety of the Lancastrian estates, seems to have made an +ingenious but quite unfounded claim to the office as annexed to the +honor of Hinckley. Strictly speaking, none of the Lancasters after +Thomas had any clear title either by grant or otherwise; such title as +they had merged in the crown when Henry IV. usurped the throne. +Meanwhile the stewardship had increased in importance. On the accession +of Edward III., Henry, earl of Lancaster, as president of the council, +had superintended the coronation of the infant king; John of Gaunt did +the same for the infant Richard II.; and, as part of the duties +involved, sat in the White Hall of Westminster to hear and determine the +claims to perform coronation services. The claims were made by petition, +and included amongst others: the claim of Thomas of Woodstock to act as +constable, the rival claims of John Dymock and Baldwin de Frevile to act +as champion, and the claim of the barons of the Cinque Ports to carry a +canopy over the king. Minutes of these proceedings, in which the duke is +stated to have sat "as steward of England," were enrolled by his order. +This is the origin of what is now called the Court of Claims. The +precedent of Richard II. has been followed on all subsequent occasions, +except that in modern times it has been the practice to appoint +commissioners instead of a steward to superintend this court. In 1397 +John of Gaunt created a notable precedent in support of the steward's +claim to be supreme judge in parliament by presiding at the trial of the +earl of Arundel and others. + +When Henry IV. came to the throne he appointed his young son Thomas, +afterwards duke of Clarence, to the office of steward. Clarence held the +office until his death. He himself never acted as judge in parliament; +but in 1415 he was appointed to preside at the judgment of peers +delivered in Southampton against Richard, earl of Cambridge, and Lord +Scrope of Masham, who had been previously tried by commissioners of oyer +and terminer. No permanent steward was ever again created; but a steward +was always appointed for coronations to perform the various ceremonial +services associated with the office, and, until the Court of Claims was +entrusted to commissioners, to preside over that court. Also, in the +15th century, it gradually became the custom to appoint a steward _pro +hac vice_ to preside at the trial, or at the proceedings upon the +attainder of a peer in parliament; and later, to preside over a court, +called the court of the lord high steward, for the trial of peers when +parliament was not sitting. To assist in establishing the latter court a +precedent of 1400 appears to have been deliberately forged. This +precedent is reported in the printed _Year-Book_ of 1400, first +published in 1553; it describes the trial of "the earl of H" for +participation in the rebellion of that year, and gives details of +procedure. John Holand, earl of Huntingdon, is undoubtedly the earl +indicated, but the evidence is conclusive that he was murdered in Essex +without any trial. The court of the lord high steward seems to have been +first definitely instituted in 1499 for the trial of Edward Plantagenet, +earl of Warwick; only two years earlier Lord Audley had been condemned +by the court of chivalry, a very different and unpopular tribunal. The +Warwick trial was most carefully schemed: the procedure, fundamentally +dissimilar to that adopted in 1415, follows exactly the forged +precedent; but the constitution of the court was plainly derived from +the Southampton case. The record of the trial was consigned to a new +repository (commonly but wrongly called the Baga de Secretis), which +thenceforth became the regular place of custody for important state +trials. Latterly, and possibly from its inception, this repository +consisted of a closet with three locks, of which the keys were +entrusted, one to the chief justice of England, another to the +attorney-general and the third to the master of the crown office, or +coroner. Notwithstanding the irregular origin of the steward's court, +for which Henry VII. must be held responsible, the validity of its +jurisdiction cannot be questioned. The Warwick proceedings were +confirmed by act of parliament, and ever since this court has been fully +recognized as part of the English constitution. + +For about a century and a half prior to the reign of James I. the +criminal jurisdiction of parliament remained in abeyance, and bills of +attainder were the vogue. The practice of appointing a steward on these +occasions to execute judgment upon a peer was kept up till 1477, when +George, duke of Clarence, was attainted, and then dropped. Under the +Stuarts the criminal jurisdiction of parliament was again resorted to, +and when the proceedings against a peer were founded on indictment the +appointment of a steward followed as a matter of settled practice. The +proper procedure in cases of impeachment had, on the contrary, never +been defined. On the impeachment of Strafford the lords themselves +appointed Arundel to be high steward. In Danby's case a commission under +the great seal issued in the common form adopted for the court of the +steward; this was recalled, and the rule agreed to by a joint committee +of both houses that a steward for trials of peers upon impeachments was +unnecessary. But, as such an appointment was obviously convenient, the +lords petitioned for a steward; and a fresh commission was accordingly +issued in an amended form, which recited the petition, and omitted words +implying that the appointment was necessary. This precedent has been +treated as settling the practice of parliament with regard to +impeachments. + +Of the proceedings against peers founded upon indictment very few trials +antecedent to the revolution took place in parliament. The preference +given to the steward's court was largely due to the practice, founded +upon the Southampton case, of summoning only a few peers selected by the +steward, a practice which made it easy for the king to secure a +conviction. This arrangement has been partially abrogated by the Treason +Act of William III., which in cases of treason and misprision of treason +requires that all peers of parliament shall be summoned twenty days at +least before every such trial. The steward's court also differed in +certain other particulars from the high court of parliament. For +example, it was ruled by Lord Chancellor Jeffreys, as steward at the +trial of Lord Delamere, that, in trials of peers which take place during +the recess of parliament in the steward's court, the steward is the +judge of the court, the court is held before him, his warrant convenes +the prisoner to the bar, his summons convenes the peers for the trial, +and he is to determine by his sole authority all questions of law that +arise in the course of the trial, but that he is to give no vote upon +the issue of guilty or not guilty; during a session of parliament, on +the contrary, all the peers are both triers and judges, and the steward +is only as chairman of the court and gives his vote together with the +other lords. Lord Delamere was tried in 1685 in the steward's court; +since then all trials of peers have taken place before the lords in +parliament. The most recent trial was that of Earl Russell in 1901, when +Lord Chancellor Halsbury was made lord high steward. The steward is +addressed as "his grace," he has a rod of office, and the commission +appointing him is dissolved according to custom by breaking this rod. + +A court of claims sat and a steward was appointed for the coronation of +Edward VII.; and during the procession in Westminster Abbey the duke of +Marlborough, as steward, carried "St Edward's crown" in front of the +bearer of the Bible (the bishop of London), who immediately preceded the +king; this function of the steward is of modern origin. The steward's +ancient and particular services at coronations are practically obsolete; +the full ceremonies, procession from Westminster Hall and banquet in +which he figured prominently, were abandoned on the accession of William +IV. + + For the early history of the steward see L. W. Vernon-Harcourt, _His + Grace the Steward and Trial of Peers_ (1907); for the later history of + the office see Sir E. Coke, _Institutes_ (1797); Cobbett and Howell, + _State Trials_ (1809, seq.); S. M. Phillipps, _State Trials_ (1826); + John Hatsell, _Precedents_, vol. 4 (1818); and Sir M. Foster, _Crown + Law_ (1809). See also the various works on _Coronations_ for the + steward's services on these occasions. (L. W. V.-H.) + + + + +LORD HIGH TREASURER, in England, once the third great officer of state. +The office was of Norman origin and dated from 1216. The duty of the +treasurer originally was to act as keeper of the royal treasure at +Winchester, while as officer of the exchequer he sat at Westminster to +receive the accounts of the sheriffs, and appoint officers to collect +the revenue. The treasurer was subordinate to both the justiciar and the +chancellor, but the removal of the chancery from the exchequer in the +reign of Richard I., and the abolition of the office of justiciars in +the reign of Henry III., increased his importance. Indeed, from the +middle of the reign of Henry III. he became one of the chief officers of +the crown. He took an important part in the equitable jurisdiction of +the exchequer, and was now styled not merely king's treasurer or +treasurer of the exchequer, but lord high treasurer and treasurer of the +exchequer. The first office was conferred by delivery of a white staff, +the second by patent. Near the end of the 16th century he had developed +into an official so occupied with the general policy of the country as +to be prevented from supervising personally the details of the +department, and Lord Burleigh employed a secretary for this purpose. On +the death of Lord Salisbury in 1612 the office was put in commission; it +was filled from time to time until 1714, when the duke of Shrewsbury +resigned it; since that time it has always been in commission (see +TREASURY). The Scottish treasury was merged with the English by the Act +of Union, but the office of lord high treasurer for Ireland was +continued until 1816. + + + + +LORD HOWE, an island of the southern Pacific Ocean, lying about 31° 36´ +S., 159° 5´ E., 520 m. E.N.E. of Sydney. Pop. 120. It was discovered in +1778 by Lieutenant Ball (whose name is commemorated in the adjacent +islet of Ball's Pyramid), and is a dependency of New South Wales. It +measures about 5½ m. by 1 m., and is well wooded and hilly (reaching a +height of 2840 ft. at the southern end), being of volcanic formation, +while there are coral reefs on the western shore. It has a pleasant +climate. The name Lord Howe is given also to an islet of the Santa Cruz +group, and to two islands, also known under other names--Mopiha, of the +Society group, and Ongtong Java of the Solomon Islands. + + + + +LORD JUSTICE CLERK, in Scotland, a judge next in rank to the lord +justice-general. He presides in the second division of the court of +session, and in the absence of the lord justice-general, presides in the +court of justiciary. The justice clerk was originally not a judge at +all, but simply clerk and legal assessor of the justice court. In course +of time he was raised from the clerk's table to the bench, and by custom +presided over the court in the absence of the justice-general. Up to +1672 his position was somewhat anomalous, as it was doubtful whether he +was a clerk or a judge, but an act of that year, which suppressed the +office of justice-depute, confirmed his position as a judge, forming +him, with the justice-general and five of the lords of session into the +court of justiciary. The lord justice clerk is also one of the officers +of state for Scotland, and one of the commissioners for keeping the +Scottish Regalia. His salary is £4800 a year. + + + + +LORD JUSTICE-GENERAL, the highest judge in Scotland, head of the court +of justiciary, called also the lord president, and as such head of the +court of session and representative of the sovereign. The office of +justice-general was for a considerable time a sinecure post held by one +of the Scottish nobility, but by the Court of Session Act 1830, it was +enacted that, at the termination of the existing interest, the office +should be united with that of lord president of the court of session, +who then became presiding judge of the court of justiciary. The salary +is £5000 a year. + + + + +LORD KEEPER OF THE GREAT SEAL, in England, formerly a great officer of +state. The Great Seal of England, which is affixed on all solemn +occasions to documents expressing the pleasure of the sovereign, was +first adopted by Edward the Confessor (see SEALS), and entrusted to a +chancellor for keeping. The office of chancellor from the time of Becket +onwards varied much in importance; the holder being an ecclesiastic, he +was not only engaged in the business of his diocese, but sometimes was +away from England. Consequently, it became not unusual to place the +personal custody of the great seal in the hands of a vice-chancellor or +keeper; this, too, was the practice followed during a temporary vacancy +in the chancellorship. This office gradually developed into a permanent +appointment, and the lord keeper acquired the right of discharging all +the duties connected with the great seal. He was usually, though not +necessarily, a peer, and held office during the king's pleasure, he was +appointed merely by delivery of the seal, and not, like the chancellor, +by patent. His status was definitely fixed (in the case of lord keeper +Sir Nicholas Bacon) by an act of Elizabeth, which declared him entitled +to "like place, pre-eminence, jurisdiction, execution of laws, and all +other customs, commodities, and advantages" as the lord chancellor. In +subsequent reigns the lord keeper was generally raised to the +chancellorship, and retained the custody of the seal. The last lord +keeper was Sir Robert Henley (afterwards Lord Northington), who was made +chancellor on the accession of George III. + + + + +LORD MAYOR'S DAY, in England, the 9th of November, the date of the +inauguration of the lord mayor of London (see Vol. XVI., p. 966), marked +by a pageant known as the Lord Mayor's Show. The first of these pageants +was held in 1215. The idea originated in the stipulation made in a +charter then granted by John that the citizen chosen to be mayor should +be presented to the king or his justice for approval. The crowd of +citizens who accompanied the mayor on horseback to Westminster developed +into a yearly pageant, which each season became more elaborate. Until +the 15th century the mayor either rode or walked to Westminster, but in +1453 Sir John Norman appears to have set a fashion of going by water. +From 1639 to 1655 the show disappeared owing to Puritan opposition. With +the Restoration the city pageant was revived, but interregnums occurred +during the years of the plague and fire, and in 1683 when a quarrel +broke out between Charles and the city, ending in the temporary +abrogation of the charter. In 1711 an untoward accident befell the show, +the mayor Sir Gilbert Heathcote (the original of Addison's Sir Andrew +Freeport) being thrown by his horse. The next year a coach was, in +consequence, provided for the chief magistrate. In 1757 this was +superseded by a gilded and elaborately decorated equipage costing +£10,065 which was used till 1896, when a replica of it was built to +replace it. + + + + +LORD PRESIDENT OF THE COUNCIL, in England, one of the great officers of +state, and a member of the ministry. It was only in 1679 that the office +of lord president became permanent. Previously either the lord +chancellor, the lord keeper of the seal, or some particular court +official took formal direction of the Privy Council. In the reign of +Charles I. a special lord president of the council was appointed, but in +the following reign the office was left unfilled. The office was of +considerable importance when the powers of the Privy Council, exercised +through various committees, were of greater extent than at the present +time. For example, a committee of the lords of the council was formerly +responsible for the work now dealt with by the secretary of state for +foreign affairs; so also with that now discharged by the Board of Trade. +The lord president up to 1855--when a new post of vice-president of the +council was created--was responsible for the education department. He +was also responsible for the duties of the council in regard to public +health, now transferred to the Local Government Board, and for duties in +regard to agriculture, now transferred to the Board of Agriculture and +Fisheries. The duties of the office now consist of presiding on the not +very frequent occasions when the Privy Council meets, and of the drawing +up of minutes of council upon subjects which do not belong to any other +department of state. The office is very frequently held in conjunction +with other ministerial offices, for example, in Gladstone's fourth +ministry the secretary of state for India was also lord president of the +council, and in the conservative ministry of 1903 the holder of the +office was also president of the Board of Education. The lord president +is appointed by a declaration made in council by the sovereign. He is +invariably a member of the House of Lords, and he is also included in +the cabinet. + + + + +LORDS JUSTICES OF APPEAL, in England, the ordinary judges of the court +of appeal, the appellate division of the High Court of Justice. Their +style was provided for by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1877. The +number was fixed at five by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1881, s. +3. Their salary is £5000 a year (see APPEAL). + + + + +LORDS OF APPEAL IN ORDINARY, in England, certain persons (limited to +four), who, having held high judicial office or practised at the bar for +not less than fifteen years, sit as members of the House of Lords to +adjudicate in cases before that House in its legal capacity, and also to +aid the judicial committee of the Privy Council in hearing appeals. Of +the four lords of appeal in ordinary one is usually appointed from the +Irish bench or bar and one from Scotland. Their salary is £6000 a year. +They hold office on the same conditions as other judges. By the +Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, under which they are appointed, lords +of appeal in ordinary are, by virtue of and according to the date of +their appointment, entitled during life to rank as barons and during the +time that they continue in office are entitled to a writ of summons to +attend, and to sit and vote in the House of Lords. They are life peers +only. The patent of a lord of appeal in ordinary differs from that of a +baron in that he is not "created" but "nominated and appointed to be a +Lord of Appeal in Ordinary by the style of Baron." + + + + +LORD STEWARD, in England, an important official of the king's household. +He is always a member of the government, a peer and a privy councillor. +Up to 1782, the office was one of considerable political importance and +carried cabinet rank. The lord steward receives his appointment from the +sovereign in person, and bears a white staff as the emblem and warrant +of his authority. He is the first dignitary of the court. In the +_Statutes of Eltham_ he is called "the lord great master," but in the +_Household Book_ of Queen Elizabeth "the lord steward," as before and +since. In an act of Henry VIII. (1539) "for placing of the lords," he is +described as "the grand master or lord steward of the king's most +honourable household." He presides at the Board of Green Cloth.[1] In +his department are the treasurer and comptroller of the household, who +rank next to him. These officials are usually peers or the sons of peers +and privy councillors. They sit at the Board of Green Cloth, carry white +staves, and belong to the ministry. But the duties which in theory +belong to the lord steward, treasurer and comptroller of the household +are in practice performed by the master of the household, who is a +permanent officer and resides in the palace. He is a white-staff officer +and a member of the Board of Green Cloth but not of the ministry, and +among other things he presides at the daily dinners of the suite in +waiting on the sovereign. In his case history repeats itself. He is not +named in the _Black Book_ of Edward IV. or in the _Statutes_ of Henry +VIII., and is entered as "master of the household and clerk of the green +cloth" in the _Household Book_ of Queen Elizabeth. But he has superseded +the lord steward of the household, as the lord steward of the household +at one time superseded the lord high steward of England. + +In the lord steward's department are the officials of the Board of Green +Cloth, the coroner ("coroner of the verge"), and paymaster of the +household, and the officers of the almonry (see ALMONER). Other offices +in the department were those of the cofferer of the household, the +treasurer of the chamber, and the paymaster of pensions, but these, with +six clerks of the Board of Green Cloth, were abolished in 1782. The lord +steward had formerly three courts besides the Board of Green Cloth under +him. First, the lord steward's court, superseded (1541) by--second--the +Marshalsea court, a court of record having jurisdiction, both civil and +criminal within the verge (the area within a radius of 12 m. from where +the sovereign is resident), and originally held for the purpose of +administering justice between the domestic servants of the sovereign, +"that they might not be drawn into other courts and their service lost." +Its criminal jurisdiction had long fallen into disuse and its civil +jurisdiction was abolished in 1849. Third, the palace court, created by +letters patent in 1612 and renewed in 1665 with jurisdiction over all +personal matters arising between parties within 12 m. of Whitehall (the +jurisdiction of the Marshalsea court, the City of London, and +Westminster Hall being excepted). It differed from the Marshalsea court +in that it had no jurisdiction over the sovereign's household nor were +its suitors necessarily of the household. The privilege of practising +before the palace court was limited to four counsel. It was abolished in +1849. The lord steward or his deputies formerly administered the oaths +to the members of the House of Commons. In certain cases (messages from +the sovereign under the sign-manual) "the lords with white staves" are +the proper persons to bear communications between the sovereign and the +houses of parliament. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Statutes of Eltham; Household Book_ of Queen Elizabeth; + Coke, _Institutes_; Reeves, _History of the Law of England_; Stephen, + _Commentaries on the Laws of England_; Hatsell, _Precedents of + Proceedings in the House of Commons_; May, _Parliamentary Practice_. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A committee of the king's household, consisting of the lord + steward and his subordinates, charged with the duty of examining and + passing all the accounts of the household. The board had also power + to punish all offenders within the verge or jurisdiction of the + palace, which extended in every direction for 200 yds. from the gates + of the court yard. The name is derived from the green-covered table + at which the transactions of the board were originally conducted. + + + + +LORÉ, AMBROISE DE (1396-1446), baron of Ivry in Normandy and a French +commander, was born at the château of Loré (Orne, arrondissement of +Domfront). His first exploit in arms was at the battle of Agincourt in +1415; he followed the party of the Armagnacs and attached himself to the +dauphin Charles. He waged continual warfare against the English in Maine +until the advent of Joan of Arc. He fought at Jargeau, at +Meung-sur-Loire and at Patay (1429). Using his fortress of Saint Céneri +as a base of operations during the next few years, he seized upon +Matthew Gough near Vivoin in 1431, and made an incursion as far as the +walls of Caen, whence he brought away three thousand prisoners. Taken +captive himself in 1433, he was exchanged for Talbot. In 1435 he and +Dunois defeated the English near Meulan, and in 1436 he helped the +constable Arthur, earl of Richmond (de Richmond), to expel them from +Paris. He was appointed provost of Paris in February 1437, and in 1438 +he was made "judge and general reformer of the malefactors of the +kingdom." He was present in 1439 at the taking of Meaux, in 1441 at that +of Pontoise, and he died on the 24th of May 1446. + + See the _Nouvelle Biographie Générale_, vol. xxxi., and the _Revue + Historique du Maine_, vols. iii. and vi. (J. V.*) + + + + +LORE, properly instruction, teaching, knowledge. The O. Eng. _lár_, as +the Dutch _leer_ and Ger. _Lehre_, represents the Old Teutonic root, +meaning to impart or receive knowledge, seen in "to learn," "learning." +In the _Gentleman's Magazine_ for June 1830 it was suggested that "lore" +should be used as a termination instead of the Greek derivative -_ology_ +in the names of the various sciences. This was never done, but the word, +both as termination and alone, is frequently applied to the many +traditional beliefs, stories, &c., connected with the body of knowledge +concerning some special subject; e.g. legendary lore, bird-lore, &c. The +most familiar use is in "folk-lore" (q.v.). + + + + +LORELEI (from Old High Ger. _Lur_, connected with modern Ger. _lauern_, +"to lurk," "be on the watch for," and equivalent to elf, and _lai_, "a +rock"). The Lorelei is a rock in the Rhine near St Goar, which gives a +remarkable echo, which may partly account for the legend. The tale +appears in many forms, but is best known through Heinrich Heine's poem, +beginning _Ich weiss nicht was soll es bedeuten_. In the commonest form +of the story the Lorelei is a maiden who threw herself into the Rhine in +despair over a faithless lover, and became a siren whose voice lured +fishermen to destruction. The 13th-century minnesinger, known as Der +Marner, says that the Nibelungen treasure was hidden beneath the rock. +The tale is obviously closely connected with the myth of Holda, queen of +the elves. On the Main she sits combing her locks on the Hullenstein, +and the man who sees her loses sight or reason, while he who listens is +condemned to wander with her for ever. The legend, which Clemens +Brentano claimed as his own invention when he wrote his poem "Zu +Bacharach am Rheine" in his novel of _Godwi_ (1802), bears all the marks +of popular mythology. In the 19th century it formed material for a great +number of songs, dramatic sketches, operas and even tragedies, which +are enumerated by Dr Hermann Seeliger in his _Loreleysage in Dichtung +und Musik_ (Leipzig-Reudnitz, 1898). The favourite poem with composers +was Heine's, set to music by some twenty-five musicians, the settings by +Friedrich Silcher (from an old folk-song) and by Liszt being the most +famous. + + + + +LORETO, an episcopal see and pilgrimage resort of the Marches, Italy, in +the province of Ancona, 15 m. by rail S.S.E. of that town. Pop. (1901) +1178 (town), 8033 (commune). It lies upon the right bank of the Musone, +at some distance from the railway station, on a hill-side commanding +splendid views from the Apennines to the Adriatic, 341 ft. above +sea-level. The town itself consists of little more than one long narrow +street, lined with shops for the sale of rosaries, medals, crucifixes +and similar objects, the manufacture of which is the sole industry of +the place. The number of pilgrims is said to amount to 50,000 annually, +the chief festival being held on the 8th of September, the Nativity of +the Virgin. The principal buildings, occupying the four sides of the +piazza, are the college of the Jesuits, the Palazzo Apostolico, now +Reale (designed by Bramante), which contains a picture gallery with +works of Lorenzo Lotto, Vouet and Caracci and a collection of majolica, +and the cathedral church of the Holy House (Chiesa della Casa Santa), a +Late Gothic structure continued by Giuliano da Maiano, Giuliano da +Sangallo and Bramante. The handsome façade of the church was erected +under Sixtus V., who fortified Loreto and gave it the privileges of a +town (1586); his colossal statue stands in the middle of the flight of +steps in front. Over the principal doorway is a life-size bronze statue +of the Virgin and Child by Girolamo Lombardo; the three superb bronze +doors executed at the latter end of the 16th century and under Paul V. +(1605-1621) are also by Lombardo, his sons and his pupils, among them +Tiburzio Vergelli, who also made the fine bronze font in the interior. +The doors and hanging lamps of the Santa Casa are by the same artists. +The richly decorated campanile, by Vanvitelli, is of great height; the +principal bell, presented by Leo X. in 1516, weighs 11 tons. The +interior of the church has mosaics by Domenichino and Guido Reni and +other works of art. In the sacristies on each side of the right transept +are frescoes, on the right by Melozzo da Forli, on the left by Luca +Signorelli. In both are fine intarsias. + +But the chief object of interest is the Holy House itself. It is a plain +stone building, 28 ft. by 12½ and 13½ ft. in height; it has a door on +the north side and a window on the west; and a niche contains a small +black image of the Virgin and Child, in Lebanon cedar, and richly +adorned with jewels. St Luke is alleged to have been the sculptor; its +workmanship suggests the latter half of the 15th century. Around the +Santa Casa is a lofty marble screen, designed by Bramante, and executed +under Popes Leo X., Clement VII. and Paul III., by Andrea Sansovino, +Girolamo Lombardo, Bandinelli, Guglielmo della Porta and others. The +four sides represent the Annunciation, the Nativity, the Arrival of the +Santa Casa at Loreto and the Nativity of the Virgin respectively. The +treasury contains a large variety of rich and curious votive offerings. +The architectural design is finer than the details of the sculpture. The +choir apse is decorated with modern German frescoes, which are somewhat +out of place. + +The legend of the Holy House seems to have sprung up (how is not exactly +known) at the close of the crusading period. + +It is briefly referred to in the _Italia Illustrata_ of Flavius Blondus, +secretary to Popes Eugenius IV., Nicholas V., Calixtus III. and Pius II. +(_ob._ 1464); it is to be read in all its fullness in the "Redemptoris +mundi Matris Ecclesiae Lauretana historia," by a certain Teremannus, +contained in the _Opera Omnia_ (1576) of Baptista Mantuanus. According +to this narrative the house at Nazareth in which Mary had been born and +brought up, had received the annunciation, and had lived during the +childhood of Jesus and after His ascension, was converted into a church +by the apostles. In 336 the empress Helena made a pilgrimage to Nazareth +and caused a basilica to be erected over it, in which worship continued +until the fall of the kingdom of Jerusalem. Threatened with destruction +by the Turks, it was carried by angels through the air and deposited +(1291) in the first instance on a hill at Tersatto in Dalmatia, where +an appearance of the Virgin and numerous miraculous cures attested its +sanctity, which was confirmed by investigations made at Nazareth by +messengers from the governor of Dalmatia. In 1294 the angels carried it +across the Adriatic to a wood near Recanati; from this wood (lauretum), +or from the name of its proprietrix (Laureta), the chapel derived the +name which it still retains ("sacellum gloriosae Virginis in Laureto"). +From this spot it was afterwards (1295) removed to the present hill, one +other slight adjustment being required to fix it in its actual site. +Bulls in favour of the shrine at Loreto were issued by Pope Sixtus IV. +in 1491 and by Julius II. in 1507, the last alluding to the translation +of the house with some caution ("ut pie creditur et fama est"). The +recognition of the sanctuary by subsequent pontiffs has already been +alluded to. In the end of the 17th century Innocent XII. appointed a +"missa cum officio proprio" for the feast of the Translation of the Holy +House, and the feast is still enjoined in the Spanish Breviary as a +"greater double" (December 10). + + See also U. Chevalier, _Notre-Dame de Lorette_ (Paris, 1906). + + + + +LORETO, an inland department of Peru, lying E. of the Andean Cordilleras +and forming the N.E. part of the republic. Extensive territories, +nominally parts of this department, are in dispute between Peru and the +neighbouring republics of Brazil, Colombia and Ecuador (see PERU), and +the northern and eastern boundaries of the territory are therefore not +definitely determined. Loreto is bounded W. by the departments of +Amazonas and San Martin (the latter a new department, with an area of +30,744 sq. m., taken from Loreto, lying between the central and eastern +Cordilleras and extending from the 6th to the 9th parallels, +approximately), and S. by Huánuco and Cuzco. The area of the department, +including the territories claimed by Peru, is estimated at 257,798 sq. +m. The population is estimated (1906) at 120,000. The aboriginal +population is not numerous, as the thick, humid forests are inhabited +only where lakes and streams make open spaces for sunlight and +ventilation. With the exception of the eastern Andean slopes and a +little-known range of low mountains on the Brazilian frontier, called +the Andes Conomamas, the surface is that of a thickly wooded plain +sloping gently towards the Marañon, or Upper Amazon, which crosses it +from W. to E. There are open plains between the Ucayali and Huallaga, +known as the Pampas del Sacramento, but otherwise there are no extensive +breaks in the forest. The elevation of the plain near the base of the +Andes is 526 ft. on the Ucayali, 558 on the Huallaga, and 453 at +Barranca, on the Marañon, a few miles below the Pongo de Manseriche. The +eastward slope of the plain is about 250 ft. in the 620 m. (direct) +between this point and Tabatinga, on the Brazilian frontier; this not +only shows the remarkably level character of the Amazon valley of which +it forms a part, but also the sluggish character of its drainage. From +the S. the principal rivers traversing Loreto are the Ucayali and +Huallaga, the former entering from Cuzco across its southern boundary +and skirting the eastern base of the Andes for about four degrees of +latitude before it turns away to the N.E. to join the Marañon, and the +latter breaking through the Eastern Cordillera between the 6th and 7th +parallels and entering the Marañon 143 m. below Yurimaguas, where +navigation begins. The lower Ucayali, which has a very tortuous course, +is said to have 868 m. of navigable channel at high water and 620 m. at +low water. North of the Marañon several large rivers pass through +Peruvian territory between the Santiago and Napo (see Ecuador), nearly +all having navigable channels. On the level plains are a number of +lakes, some are formed by the annual floods and are temporary in +character. Among the permanent lakes are the Gran Cocama, of the Pampas +del Sacramento, the Caballococha--a widening of the Amazon itself about +60 m. N.W. of Tabatinga--and Rimachuma, on the north side of the +Marañon, near the lower Pastaza. + +The natural resources of this extensive region are incalculable, but +their development has been well nigh impossible through lack of +transport facilities. They include the characteristic woods of the +Amazon valley, rubber, nuts, cinchona or Peruvian bark, medicinal +products, fish, fruits and fibres. The cultivated products include +cocoa, coffee, tobacco and fruits. Straw hats and hammocks are +manufactured to some extent. The natural outlet of this region is the +Amazon river, but this involves 2500 m. of river navigation from Iquitos +before the ocean is reached. Communication with the Pacific coast cities +and ports of Peru implies the crossing of three high, snow-covered +ranges of the Andes by extremely difficult trails and passes. A rough +mountain road has been constructed from Oroya to Puerto Bermudez, at the +head of navigation on the Pachitea, and is maintained by the government +pending the construction of a railway, but the distance is 210 m. and it +takes nine days for a mule train to make the journey. At Puerto Bermudez +a river steamer connects with Iquitos, making the distance of 930 m. in +seven days. From Lima to Iquitos by this route, therefore, involves 17 +days travel over a distance of 1268 m. The most feasible route from the +department to the Pacific coast is that which connects Puerto Limon, on +the Marañon, with the Pacific port of Payta, a distance of 410 m., it +being possible to cross the Andes on this route at the low elevation of +6600 ft. The climate of Loreto is hot and humid, except on the higher +slopes of the Andes. The year is divided into a wet and a dry season, +the first from May to October, and the average annual rainfall is +estimated at 70 in. though it varies widely between distant points. The +capital and only town of importance in the department is Iquitos. + + + + +LORIENT, a maritime town of western France, capital of an arrondissement +in the department of Morbihan, on the right bank of the Scorff at its +confluence with the Blavet, 34 m. W. by N. of Vannes by rail. Pop. +(1906) 40,848. The town is modern and regularly built. Its chief objects +of interest are the church of St Louis (1709) and a statue by A. Mercié +of Victor Massé, the composer, born at Lorient in 1822. It is one of the +five maritime prefectures in France and the first port for naval +construction in the country. The naval port to the east of the town is +formed by the channel of the Scorff, on the right bank of which the +chief naval establishments are situated. These include magazines, +foundries, forges, fitting-shops, rope-works and other workshops on the +most extensive scale, as well as a graving dock, a covered slip and +other slips. A floating bridge connects the right bank with the +peninsula of Caudan formed by the union of the Scorff and Blavet. Here +are the shipbuilding yards covering some 38 acres, and comprising nine +slips for large vessels and two others for smaller vessels, besides +forges and workshops for iron shipbuilding. The commercial port to the +south of the town consists of an outer tidal port protected by a jetty +and of an inner dock, both lined by fine quays planted with trees. It +separates the older part of the town, which is hemmed in by +fortifications from a newer quarter. In 1905, 121 vessels of 28,785 tons +entered with cargo and 145 vessels of 38,207 tons cleared. The chief +export is pit-timber, the chief import is coal. Fishing is actively +carried on. Lorient is the seat of a sub-prefect, of commercial and +maritime tribunals and of a tribunal of first instance, and has a +chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a lycée, schools of +navigation, and naval artillery. Private industry is also engaged in +iron-working and engine making. The trade in fresh fish, sardines, +oysters (which are reared near Lorient) and tinned vegetables is +important and the manufacture of basket-work, tin-boxes and +passementerie, arid the preparation of preserved sardines and vegetables +are carried on. The roadstead, formed by the estuary of the Blavet, is +accessible to vessels of the largest size; the entrance, 3 or 4 m. south +from Lorient, which is defended by numerous forts, is marked on the east +by the peninsula of Gâvres (an artillery practising ground) and the +fortified town of Port Louis; on the west are the fort of Loqueltas and, +higher up, the battery of Kernevel. In the middle of the channel is the +granite rock of St Michel, occupied by a powder magazine. Opposite it, +on the right bank of the Blavet, is the mouth of the river Ter, with +fish and oyster breeding establishments from which 10 millions of +oysters are annually obtained. The roadstead is provided with six +lighthouses. Above Lorient on the Scorff, here spanned by a suspension +bridge, is Kérentrech, a pretty village surrounded by numerous country +houses. + +Lorient took the place of Port Louis as the port of the Blavet. The +latter stands on the site of an ancient hamlet which was fortified +during the wars of the League and handed over by Philip Emmanuel, duke +of Morcoeur, to the Spaniards. After the treaty of Vervins it was +restored to France, and it received its name of Port Louis under +Richelieu. Some Breton merchants trading with the Indies had established +themselves first at Port Louis, but in 1628 they built their warehouses +on the other bank. The Compagnie des Indes Orientales, created in 1664, +took possession of these, giving them the name of l'Orient. In 1745 the +Compagnie des Indes, then at the acme of its prosperity, owned +thirty-five ships of the largest class and many others of considerable +size. Its decadence dates from the English conquest of India, and in +1770 its property was ceded to the state. In 1782 the town was purchased +by Louis XVI. from its owners, the Rohan-Guéméné family. In 1746 the +English under Admiral Richard Lestock made an unsuccessful attack on +Lorient. + + + + +LORINER, or LORIMER (from O. Fr. _loremier_ or _lorenier_, a maker of +_lorains_, bridles, from Lat. _lorum_, thong, bridle; the proper form is +with the _n_; a similar change is found in Latimer for Latiner, the +title of an old official of the royal household, the king's +interpreter), one who makes bits and spurs and the metal mountings for +saddles and bridles; the term is also applied to a worker in wrought +iron and to a maker of small iron ware. The word is now rarely used +except as the name of one of the London livery companies (see LIVERY +COMPANY). + + + + +LORIS, a name of uncertain origin applied to the Indo-Malay +representatives of the lemurs, which, together with the African pottos, +constitute the section _Nycticebinae_ of the family _Nycticebidae_ (see +PRIMATES). From their extremely slow movements and lethargic habits in +the daytime these weird little creatures are commonly called sloths by +Anglo-Indians. Their soft fur, huge staring eyes, rudimentary tails and +imperfectly developed index-fingers render lorises easy of recognition. +The smallest is the slender loris (_Loris gracilis_) of the forests of +Madras and Ceylon, a creature smaller than a squirrel. It is of such +exceeding strangeness and beauty that it might have been thought it +would be protected by the natives; but they hold it alive before a fire +till its beautiful eyes burst in order to afford a supposed remedy for +ophthalmia! The mainland and Cingalese animals form distinct races. Both +in this species and the slow loris there is a pair of rudimentary +abdominal teats in addition to the normal pectoral pair. The slow loris +(_Nycticebus tardigradus_) is a heavier built and larger animal, ranging +from eastern Bengal to Cochin China, Siam, the Malay Peninsula, Java and +Sumatra. There are several races, mostly grey in colour, but the +Sumatran _N. t. hilleri_ is reddish. (R. L.*) + + + + +LORIS-MELIKOV, MICHAEL TARIELOVICH, COUNT (1825?-1888), Russian +statesman, son of an Armenian merchant, was born at Tiflis in 1825 or +1826, and educated in St Petersburg, first in the Lazarev School of +Oriental Languages, and afterwards in the Guards' Cadet Institute. He +joined a hussar regiment, and four years afterwards (1847) he was sent +to the Caucasus, where he remained for more than twenty years, and made +for himself during troublous times the reputation of a distinguished +cavalry officer and an able administrator. In the latter capacity, +though a keen soldier, he aimed always at preparing the warlike and +turbulent population committed to his charge for the transition from +military to normal civil administration, and in this work his favourite +instrument was the schoolmaster. In the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 he +commanded a separate corps d'armée on the Turkish frontier in Asia +Minor. After taking the fortress of Ardahan, he was repulsed by Mukhtar +Pasha at Zevin, but subsequently defeated his opponent at Aladja Dagh, +took Kars by storm, and laid siege to Erzerum. For these services he +received the title of Count. In the following year he was appointed +temporary governor-general of the region of the Lower Volga, to combat +an outbreak of the plague. The measures he adopted proved so effectual +that he was transferred to the provinces of Central Russia to combat the +Nihilists and Anarchists, who had adopted a policy of terrorism, and had +succeeded in assassinating the governor of Kharkov. His success in this +struggle led to his being appointed chief of the Supreme Executive +Commission which had been created in St Petersburg to deal with the +revolutionary agitation in general. Here, as in the Caucasus, he showed +a decided preference for the employment of ordinary legal methods rather +than exceptional extra-legal measures, and an attempt on his own life +soon after he assumed office did not shake his convictions. In his +opinion the best policy was to strike at the root of the evil by +removing the causes of popular discontent, and for this purpose he +recommended to the emperor a large scheme of administrative and economic +reforms. Alexander II., who was beginning to lose faith in the efficacy +of the simple method of police repression hitherto employed, lent a +willing ear to the suggestion; and when the Supreme Commission was +dissolved in August 1880, he appointed Count Loris-Melikov Minister of +the Interior with exceptional powers. The proposed scheme of reforms was +at once taken in hand, but it was never carried out. On the very day in +March 1881 that the emperor signed a ukaz creating several commissions, +composed of officials and eminent private individuals, who should +prepare reforms in various branches of the administration, he was +assassinated by Nihilist conspirators; and his successor, Alexander +III., at once adopted a strongly reactionary policy. Count Loris-Melikov +immediately resigned, and lived in retirement until his death, which +took place at Nice on the 22nd of December 1888. (D. M. W.) + + + + +LORIUM, an ancient village of Etruria, Italy, on the Via Aurelia, 12 m. +W. of Rome. Antoninus Pius, who was educated here, afterwards built a +palace, in which he died. It was also a favourite haunt of Marcus +Aurelius. Remains of ancient buildings exist in the neighbourhood of the +road on each side (near the modern Castel di Guido) and remains of +tombs, inscriptions, &c., were excavated in 1823-1824. Two or three +miles farther west was probably the post-station of Bebiana, where +inscriptions show that some sailors of the fleet were stationed--no +doubt a detachment of those at Centumcellae, which was reached by this +road. + + + + +LÖRRACH, a town in the grand-duchy of Baden, in the valley of the Wiese, +6 m. by rail N.E. of Basel. Pop. (1905) 10,794. It is the seat of +considerable industry, its manufactures including calico, shawls, cloth, +silk, chocolate, cotton, ribbons, hardware and furniture, and has a +trade in wine, fruit and timber. There is a fine view from the +neighbouring Schützenhaus, 1085 ft. high. In the neighbourhood also is +the castle of Rötteln, formerly the residence of the counts of Hachberg +and of the margraves of Baden; this was destroyed by the French in 1678, +but was rebuilt in 1867. Lörrach received market rights in 1403, but did +not obtain municipal privileges until 1682. + + See Höchstetter, _Die Stadt Lörrach_ (Lörrach, 1882). + + + + +LORRAINE, one of the former provinces of France. The name has designated +different districts in different periods. Lotharingia, or Lothringen, +i.e. _regnum Lotharii_, is derived from the _Lotharingi_ or +_Lotharienses_ (O.G. _Lotheringen_, Fr. _Loherains, Lorrains_), a term +applied originally to the Frankish subjects of Lothair, but restricted +at the end of the 9th century to those who dwelt north of the southern +Vosges. + +_Lorraine in Medieval Times._--The original kingdom of Lorraine was the +northern part of the territories allotted by the treaty of Verdun +(August 843) to the emperor Lothair I., and in 855 formed the +inheritance of his second son, King Lothair. This kingdom of Lorraine +was situated between the realms of the East and the West Franks, and +originally extended along the North Sea between the mouths of the Rhine +and the Ems, including the whole or part of Frisia and the cities on the +right bank of the Rhine. From Bonn the frontier followed the Rhine as +far as its confluence with the Aar, which then became the boundary, +receding from the left bank in the neighbourhood of Bingen so as to +leave the cities of Worms and Spires to Germany, and embracing the duchy +of Alsace. After crossing the Jura, the frontier joined the Saône a +little south of its confluence with the Doubs, and followed the Saône +for some distance, and finally the valleys of the Meuse and the Scheldt. +Thus the kingdom roughly comprised the region watered by the Moselle +and the Meuse, together with the dioceses of Cologne, Trier, Metz, +Toul, Verdun, Liége and Cambrai, Basel, Strassburg and Besançon, and +corresponded to what is now Holland and Belgium, parts of Rhenish +Prussia, of Switzerland, and of the old province of Franche-Comté, and +to the district known later as Upper Lorraine, or simply Lorraine. +Though apparently of an absolutely artificial character, this kingdom +corresponded essentially to the ancient Francia, the cradle of the +Carolingian house, and long retained a certain unity. It was to the +inhabitants of this region that the name of _Lotharienses_ or +_Lotharingi_ was primitively applied, although the word _Lotharingia_, +as the designation of the country, only appears in the middle of the +10th century. + +The reign of King Lothair (q.v.), which was continually disturbed by +quarrels with his uncles, Charles the Bald and Louis the German, and by +the difficulties caused by the divorce of his queen Teutberga, whom he +had forsaken for a concubine called Waldrada, ended on the 8th of August +869. His inheritance was disputed by his uncles, and was divided by the +treaty of Meersen (8th of August 870), by which Charles the Bald +received part of the province of Besançon and some land between the +Moselle and the Meuse. Then for a time the emperor Charles the Fat +united under his authority the whole of the kingdom of Lorraine with the +rest of the Carolingian empire. After the deposition of Charles in 888 +Rudolph, king of Burgundy, got himself recognized in Lorraine. He was +unable to maintain himself there, and succeeded in detaching +definitively no more than the province of Besançon. Lorraine remained in +the power of the emperor Arnulf, who in 895 constituted it a distinct +kingdom in favour of his son Zwentibold. Zwentibold quickly became +embroiled with the nobles and the bishops, and especially with Bishop +Radbod of Trier. Among the lay lords the most important was Regnier +(incorrectly called Long-neck), count of Hesbaye and Hainault, who is +styled duke by the Lotharingian chronicler Reginon, though he does not +appear ever to have borne the title. In 898 Zwentibold stripped Regnier +of his fiefs, whereupon the latter appealed to the king of France, +Charles the Simple, whose intervention, however, had no enduring effect. +After the death of Arnulf in 899, the Lotharingians appealed to his +successor, Louis the Child, to replace Zwentibold, who, on the 13th of +August 900, was killed in battle. In spite of the dissensions which +immediately arose between him and the Lotharingian lords, Louis retained +the kingdom till his death. The Lotharingians, however, refused to +recognize the new German king, Conrad I., and testified their attachment +to the Carolingian house by electing as sovereign the king of the West +Franks, Charles the Simple. Charles was at first supported by Giselbert, +son and successor of Regnier, but was abandoned by his ally, who in 919 +appealed to the German king, Henry I. The struggle ended in the treaty +of Bonn (921), by which apparently the rights of Charles over Lorraine +were recognized. The revolt of the Frankish lords in 922 and the +captivity of Charles finally settled the question. After an unsuccessful +attack by Rudolph or Raoul, king of France, Henry became master of +Lorraine in 925, thanks to the support of Giselbert, whom he rewarded +with the hand of his daughter Gerberga and the title of duke of +Lorraine. Giselbert at first remained faithful to Henry's son, Otto the +Great, but in 938 he appears to have joined the revolt directed against +Otto by Eberhard, duke of Franconia. In 939, in concert with Eberhard +and Otto's brother, Henry of Saxony, he declared open war against Otto +and appealed to Louis d'Outremer, who penetrated into Lorraine and +Alsace, but was soon called back to France by the revolt of the count of +Vermandois. In the same year Giselbert and Eberhard were defeated and +killed near Andernach, and Otto at once made himself recognized in the +whole of Lorraine, securing it by a treaty with Louis d'Outremer, who +married Giselbert's widow Gerberga, and entrusting the government of it +to Count Otto, son of Ricuin, until Giselbert's son Henry should have +attained his majority. + +After the deaths of the young Henry and Count Otto in 944, Otto the +Great gave Lorraine to Conrad the Red, duke of Franconia, the husband +of his daughter Liutgard, a choice which was not completely satisfactory +to the Lotharingians. In 953 Conrad, in concert with Liudulf, the son of +the German king, revolted against Otto, but was abandoned by his +supporters. Otto stripped Conrad of his duchy, and in 954 gave the +government of it to his own brother Bruno, archbishop of Cologne. Bruno +had to contend against the efforts of the last Carolingians of France to +make good their claims on Lorraine, as well as against the spirit of +independence exhibited by the Lotharingian nobles; and his attempts to +raze certain castles built by brigand lords and to compel them to +respect their oath of fidelity resulted in serious sedition. To obviate +these difficulties Bruno divided the ducal authority, assigning Lower +Lorraine to a certain Duke Godfrey, who was styled _dux Ripuariorum_, +and Upper Lorraine to Frederick (d. 959), count of Bar, a member of the +house of Ardenne and son-in-law of Hugh the Great, with the title of +_dux Mosellanorum_; and it is probable that the partition of the ancient +kingdom of Lorraine into two new duchies was confirmed by Otto after +Bruno's death in 965. In 977 the emperor Otto II. gave the government of +Lower Lorraine to Charles I., a younger son of Louis d'Outremer, on +condition that that prince should acknowledge himself his vassal and +should oppose any attempt of his brother Lothair on Lorraine. The +consequent expedition of the king of France in 978 against +Aix-la-Chapelle had no enduring result, and Charles retained his duchy +till his death about 992. He left two sons, Otto, who succeeded him and +died without issue, and Henry, who is sometimes regarded as the ancestor +of the landgraves of Thuringia. The duchy of Lower Lorraine, sometimes +called _Lothier_ (_Lotharium_), was then given to Godfrey (d. 1023), son +of Count Godfrey of Verdun, and for some time the history of Lorraine is +the history of the attempts made by the dukes of Lothier to seize Upper +Lorraine. Gothelon (d. 1043), son of Duke Godfrey, obtained Lorraine at +the death of Frederick II., duke of Upper Lorraine, in 1027, and +victoriously repulsed the incursions of Odo (Eudes) of Blois, count of +Champagne, who was defeated and killed in a battle near Bar (1037). At +Gothelon's death in 1043, his son Godfrey the Bearded received from the +emperor only Lower Lorraine, his brother Gothelon II. obtaining Upper +Lorraine. Godfrey attempted to seize the upper duchy, but was defeated +and imprisoned in 1045. On the death of Gothelon in 1046, Godfrey +endeavoured to take Upper Lorraine from Albert of Alsace, to whom it had +been granted by the emperor Henry III. The attempt, however, also +failed; and Godfrey was for some time deprived of his own duchy of Lower +Lorraine in favour of Frederick of Luxemburg. Godfrey took part in the +struggles of Pope Leo IX. against the Normans in Italy, and in 1053 +married Beatrice, daughter of Duke Frederick of Upper Lorraine and widow +of Boniface, margrave of Tuscany. On the death of Frederick of Luxemburg +in 1065 the emperor Henry IV. restored the duchy of Lower Lorraine to +Godfrey, who retained it till his death in 1069, when he was succeeded +by his son Godfrey the Hunchback (d. 1076), after whose death Henry IV. +gave the duchy to Godfrey of Bouillon, the hero of the first crusade, +son of Eustace, count of Boulogne, and Ida, sister of Godfrey the +Hunchback. On the death of Godfrey of Bouillon in 1100 Lower Lorraine +was given to Henry, count of Limburg. The new duke supported the emperor +Henry IV. in his struggles with his sons, and in consequence was deposed +by the emperor Henry V., who gave the duchy in 1106 to Godfrey, count of +Louvain, a descendant of the Lotharingian dukes of the beginning of the +10th century. This Godfrey was the first hereditary duke of Brabant, as +the dukes of Lower Lorraine came to be called. + +_Upper Lorraine._--The duchy of Upper Lorraine, or Lorraine _Mosellana_, +to which the name of Lorraine was restricted from the 11th century, +consisted of a tract of undulating country watered by the upper course +of the Meuse and Moselle, and bounded N. by the Ardennes, S. by the +table-land of Langres, E. by the Vosges and W. by Champagne. Its +principal fiefs were the countship of Bar which Otto the Great gave in +951 to Count Frederick of Ardenne, and which passed in 1093 to the lords +of Montbéliard; the countship of Chiny, formed at the end of the 10th +century, of which, since the 13th, Montmédy was the capital; the +lordship of Commercy, whose rulers bore the special title of +_damoiseau_, and which passed in the 13th century to the house of +Saarebrücken; and, finally the three important ecclesiastical lordships +of the bishops of Metz, Toul and Verdun. Theodoric, or Thierri (d. +1026), son of Frederick, count of Bar and first duke of Upper Lorraine, +was involved in a war with the emperor Henry II., a war principally +remarkable for the siege of Metz (1007). After having been the object of +numerous attempts on the part of the dukes of Lower Lorraine, Upper +Lorraine was given by the emperor Henry III. to Albert of Alsace, and +passed in 1048 to Albert's brother Gerard, who died by poison in 1069, +and who was the ancestor of the hereditary house of Lorraine. Until the +15th century the representatives of the hereditary house were Theodoric +II., called the Valiant (1069-1115), Simon (1115-1139), Matthew +(1139-1176), Simon II. (1176-1205), Ferri I. (1205-1206), Ferri II. +(1206-1213), Theobald (Thibaut) I. (1213-1220), Matthew II. (1220-1251), +Ferri III. (1251-1304), Theobald II. (1304-1312), Ferri IV., called the +Struggler (1312-1328), Rudolph, or Raoul (1328-1346), John (1346-1391) +and Charles II. or I., called the Bold (1391-1431). The 12th century and +the first part of the 13th were occupied with wars against the counts of +Bar and Champagne. Theobald I. intervened in Champagne to support Erard +of Brienne against the young count Theobald IV. The regent of Champagne, +Blanche of Navarre, succeeded in forming against the duke of Lorraine a +coalition consisting of the count of Bar and the emperor Frederick II., +who had become embroiled with Theobald over the question of Rosheim in +Alsace. Attacked by the emperor, the duke of Lorraine was forced at the +treaty of Amance (1218) to acknowledge himself the vassal of the count +of Champagne, and to support the count in his struggles against his +ancient ally the count of Bar. The long government of Ferri III. was +mainly occupied with wars against the feudal lords and the bishop of +Metz, which resulted in giving an impulse to the municipal movement +through Ferri's attempt to use the movement as a weapon against the +nobles. The majority of the municipal charters of Lorraine were derived +from the charter of Beaumont in Argonne, which was at first extended to +the Barrois and was granted by Ferri, in spite of the hostility of his +barons, to La Neuveville in 1257, to Frouard in 1263 and to Lunéville in +1265. In the church lands the bishops of Toul and Metz granted liberties +from the end of the 12th century to the communes in their lordship, but +not the Beaumont charter, which, however, obtained in the diocese of +Verdun in the 14th and 15th centuries. + +By the will of Duke Charles the Bold, Lorraine was to pass to his +daughter Isabella, who married René of Anjou, duke of Bar, in 1420. But +Anthony of Vaudemont, Charles's nephew and heir male, disputed this +succession with René, who obtained from the king of France an army +commanded by Arnault Guilhem de Barbazan. René, however, was defeated +and taken prisoner at the battle of Bulgnéville, where Barbazan was +killed (2nd of July 1431). The negotiations between René's wife and +Anthony had no result, in spite of the intervention of the council of +Basel and the emperor Sigismund, and it was not until 1436 that René +obtained his liberty by paying a ransom of 200,000 crowns, and was +enabled to dispute with Alfonso of Aragon the kingdom of Naples, which +he had inherited in the previous year. In 1444 Charles VII. of France +and the dauphin Louis went to Lorraine, accompanied by envoys from Henry +VI. of England, and procured a treaty (confirmed at Chalons in 1445), by +which Yolande, René's eldest daughter, married Anthony's son, Ferri of +Vaudemont, and René's second daughter Margaret became the wife of Henry +VI. of England. After his return to Lorraine in 1442, René was seldom in +the duchy. Like his successor John, duke of Calabria, who died in 1470, +he was continually occupied with expeditions in Italy or in Spain. +John's son and successor, Nicholas (d. 1473), who supported the duke of +Burgundy, Charles the Bold, against the king of France, died without +children, and his heir was René, son of Frederick of Vaudemont. The duke +of Burgundy, however, disputed this inheritance, and carried off the +young René and his mother, but on the intervention of Louis XI. had to +set them at liberty. René helped the Swiss during their wars with +Charles the Bold, who invaded Lorraine and was killed under the walls of +Nancy (1477). René's last years were mainly spent in expeditions in +Provence and Italy. He died in 1508, leaving by his second wife three +sons--Anthony, called the Good, who succeeded him; Claude, count (and +afterwards duke) of Guise, the ancestor of the house of Guise; and John +(d. 1550), known as the cardinal of Lorraine. Anthony, who was declared +of age at his father's death by the estates of Lorraine, although his +mother had tried to seize the power as regent, had been brought up from +the age of twelve at the French court, where he became the friend of +Louis XII., whom he accompanied on his Italian expeditions. In 1525 he +had to defend Lorraine against the revolted Alsatian peasants known as +_rustauds_ (boors), whom he defeated at Lupstein and Scherweiler; and he +succeeded in maintaining a neutral position in the struggle between +Francis I. of France and the emperor Charles V. He died on the 14th of +June 1544, and was succeeded by his son Francis I., who died of apoplexy +(August 1545) at the very moment when he was negotiating peace between +the king of France and the emperor. + +_Lorraine in Modern Times._--Francis's son Charles III. or II., called +the Great, succeeded under the tutelage of his mother and Nicholas of +Vaudemont, bishop of Metz. Henry II. of France took this opportunity to +invade Lorraine, and in 1552 seized the three bishoprics of Metz, Toul +and Verdun. In the same year the emperor laid siege to Metz, but was +forced to retreat with heavy loss before the energetic resistance of +Duke Francis of Guise. On leaving Lorraine, Henry II. took Charles to +France, brought him up at the court and married him to his daughter +Claude. After the accession of Francis II., the young duke returned to +Lorraine, and, while his cousins the Guises endeavoured to make good the +claims of the house of Lorraine to the crown of France by virtue of its +descent from the Carolingians through Charles, the son of Louis +d'Outremer, he devoted himself mainly to improving the administration of +his duchy. He reconstituted his domain by revoking the alienations +irregularly granted by his predecessors, instructed his _chambre des +comptes_ to institute inquiries on this subject, and endeavoured to +ameliorate the condition of industry and commerce by reorganizing the +working of the mines and saltworks, unifying weights and measures and +promulgating edicts against vagabonds. His duchy suffered considerably +from the passage of German bands on their way to help the Protestants in +France, and also from disturbances caused by the progress of Calvinism, +especially in the neighbourhood of the three bishoprics. To combat +Calvinism Charles had recourse to the Jesuits, whom he established at +Pont-à Mousson, and to whom he gave over the university he had founded +in that town in 1572. To this foundation he soon added chairs of +medicine and law, the first professor of civil law being the _maître des +requêtes_, the Scotsman William Barclay, and the next Gregory of +Toulouse, a pupil of the jurist Cujas. Charles died on the 14th of May +1608, and was succeeded by his eldest son Henry II., called the Good, +who rid Lorraine of the German bands and died in 1624 without issue. + +Henry was succeeded by his brother Francis II., who abdicated on the +26th of November 1624 in favour of his son Charles IV. or III. At the +beginning of the reign of Louis XIII. Charles embroiled himself with +France by harbouring French malcontents. Louis entered Lorraine, and by +the treaty of Vic (31st of December 1631) bound over Charles to desist +from supporting the enemies of France, and compelled him to cede the +fortress of Marsal. Charles's breach of this treaty led to a renewal of +hostilities, and the French troops occupied St Mihiel, Bar-le-duc, +Pont-à-Mousson and Nancy, which the duke was forced to cede for four +years (1633). In 1632, by the treaty of Liverdun, he had already had to +abandon the fortresses of Stenay and Clermont in Argonne. On the 19th of +January 1634 he abdicated in favour of his younger brother Francis +Nicholas, cardinal of Lorraine, and withdrew to Germany, the parlement +of Paris declaring him guilty of rebellion and confiscating his estates. +After vain attempts to regain his estates with the help of the emperor, +he decided to negotiate with France; and the treaty of St Germain (29th +of March 1641) re-established him in his duchy on condition that he +should cede Nancy, Stenay and other fortresses until the general peace. +This treaty he soon broke, joining the Imperialists in the Low Countries +and defeating the French at Tuttlingen (December 1643). He was restored, +however, to his estates in 1644, and took part in the wars of the +Fronde. He was arrested at Brussels in 1654, imprisoned at Toledo and +did not recover his liberty until the peace of the Pyrenees in 1659. On +the 28th of February 1661 the duchies of Lorraine and Bar were restored +to him by the treaty of Vincennes, on condition that he should demolish +the fortifications of Nancy and cede Clermont, Saarburg and Pfalzburg. +In 1662 Hugues de Lionne negotiated with him the treaty of Montmartre, +by which Charles sold the succession to the duchy to Louis XIV. for a +life-rent; but the Lorrainers, perhaps with the secret assent of their +prince, refused to ratify the treaty. Charles, too, was accused of +intriguing with the Dutch, and was expelled from his estates, Marshal de +Créqui occupying Lorraine. He withdrew to Germany, and in 1673 took an +active part in the coalition of Spain, the Empire and Holland against +France. After an unsuccessful invasion of Franche-Comté he took his +revenge by defeating Créqui at Conzer Brücke (11th of August 1675) and +forcing him to capitulate at Trier. On the 18th of September 1675 died +this adventurous prince, who, as Voltaire said, passed his life in +losing his estates. His brother Francis, in favour of whom he had +abdicated, was a cardinal at the age of nineteen and subsequently bishop +of Toul, although he had never taken orders. He obtained a dispensation +to marry his cousin, Claude of Lorraine, and died in 1670. He had one +son, Charles, who in 1675 took the title of duke of Lorraine and was +recognized by all the powers except France. After an unsuccessful +attempt to seize Lorraine in 1676, Charles vainly solicited the throne +of Poland, took an active part in the wars in Hungary, and married +Eleanor of Austria, sister of the emperor Leopold I., in 1678. At the +treaty of Nijmwegen France proposed to restore his estates on condition +that he should abandon a part of them; but Charles refused, and passed +the rest of his life in Austria, where he took part in the wars against +the Turks, whom he defeated at Mohacz (1687). He died in 1690. + +Leopold, Charles's son and successor, was restored to his estates by the +treaty of Ryswick (1697), but had to dismantle all the fortresses in +Lorraine and to disband his army with the exception of his guard. Under +his rule Lorraine flourished. While diminishing the taxes, he succeeded +in augmenting his revenues by wise economy. The population increased +enormously during his reign--that of Nancy, for instance, almost +trebling itself between the years 1699 and 1735. Leopold welcomed French +immigrants, and devoted himself to the development of commerce and +industry, particularly to the manufacture of stuffs and lace, glass and +paper. He was responsible, too, for the compilation of a body of law +which was known as the "Code Léopold." Some time after his death, which +occurred on the 27th of March 1729, his heir Francis III. was betrothed +to Maria Theresa of Austria, the daughter and heiress of the emperor +Charles VI. France, however, could not admit the possibility of a union +of Lorraine with the Empire; and in 1735, at the preliminaries of +Vienna, Louis XV. negotiated an arrangement by which Francis received +the duchy of Tuscany, which was vacant by the death of the last Medici, +in exchange for Lorraine, and Stanislaus Leszczynski, the dethroned king +of Poland and father-in-law of Louis XV., obtained Lorraine, which after +his death would pass to his daughter--in other words, to France. These +arrangements were confirmed by the treaty of Vienna (18th of November +1738). In 1736, by a secret agreement, Stanislaus had abandoned the +financial administration of his estates to Louis XV. for a yearly +subsidy. The intendant, Chaumont de la Galaizière, was instructed to +apply the French system of taxation in Lorraine; and in spite of the +severity of the administration Lorraine preserved a grateful memory of +the good king Stanislaus, who held his brilliant little court at +Lunéville, and founded an academy and several libraries and hospitals. +At his death in February 1766 the two duchies of Lorraine and Bar became +definitively incorporated in the kingdom of France. The treaties of 1735 +and 1736, however, guaranteed their legislation, the privileges enjoyed +by the three orders, and their common law and customs tariffs, which +they retained until the French Revolution. Lorraine and Barrois formed a +large government corresponding, together with the little government of +the three bishoprics, to the _intendance_ of Lorraine and the +_généralité_ of Metz. For legal purposes, Metz had been the seat of a +parlement since 1633, and the parlement of Nancy was created in 1776. +There was, too, a _chambre des comptes_ at Metz, and another at +Bar-le-duc. (For the later history see Alsace-Lorraine.) + + See Dom. A. Calmet, _Histoire ecclésiastique et civile de Lorraine_ + (2nd ed., Nancy, 1747-1757); A. Digot, _Histoire de Lorraine_ + (1879-1880); E. Huhn, _Geschichte Lothringens_ (Berlin, 1877); R. + Parisot, _Le Royaume de Lorraine sous les Carolingiens_ (Paris, 1899); + Comte D'Haussonville, _Histoire de la réunion de la Lorraine à la + France_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1860); E. Bonvalot, _Histoire du droit et des + institutions de la Lorraine et des Trois-Évêchés_ (Paris, 1895); and + E. Duvernoy, _Les États Généraux des duchés de Lorraine et de Bar + jusqu'à la majorité de Charles III_. (Paris, 1904). (R. Po.) + + + + +LORTZING, GUSTAV ALBERT (1801-1851), German composer, was born at Berlin +on the 23rd of October 1801. Both his parents were actors, and when he +was nineteen the son began to play youthful lover at the theatres of +Düsseldorf and Aachen, sometimes also singing in small tenor or baritone +parts. His first opera _Ali Pascha von Jannina_ appeared in 1824, but +his fame as a musician rests chiefly upon the two operas _Der +Wildschütz_ (1842) and _Czar und Zimmermann_ (1837). The latter, +although now regarded as one of the masterpieces of German comic opera, +was received with little enthusiasm by the public of Leipzig. Subsequent +performance in Berlin, however, provoked such a tempest of applause that +the opera was soon placed on all the stages of Germany. It was +translated into English, French, Swedish, Danish, Dutch, Bohemian, +Hungarian and Russian. _Der Wildschütz_ was based on a comedy of +Kotzebue, and was a satire on the unintelligent and exaggerated +admiration for the highest beauty in art expressed by the _bourgeois +gentilhomme_. Of his other operas it is only necessary to note _Der Pole +und sein Kind_, produced shortly after the Polish insurrection of 1831, +and _Undine_ (1845). Lortzing died at Berlin on the 21st of January +1851. + + + + +LORY, CHARLES (1823-1889), French geologist, was born at Nantes on the +30th of July 1823. He graduated _D. ès Sc._ in 1847; in 1852 he was +appointed to the chair of geology at the University of Grenoble, and in +1881 to that of the _École Normale Supérieure_ in Paris. He was +distinguished for his researches on the geology of the French Alps, +being engaged on the geological survey of the departments of Isère, +Drôme and the Hautes Alpes, of which he prepared the maps and +explanatory memoirs. He dealt with some of the disturbances in the Savoy +Alps, describing the fan-like structures, and confirming the views of J. +A. Favre with regard to the overthrows, reversals and duplication of the +strata. His contributions to geological literature include also +descriptions of the fossils and stratigraphical divisions of the Lower +Cretaceous and Jurassic rocks of the Jura. He died at Grenoble on the +3rd of May 1889. + + + + +LORY (a word of Malayan origin signifying parrot, in general use with +but slight variation of form in many European languages), the name of +certain birds of the order _Psittaci_, mostly from the Moluccas and New +Guinea, remarkable for their bright scarlet or crimson colouring, though +also, and perhaps subsequently, applied to some others in which the +plumage is chiefly green. The lories have been referred to a +considerable number of genera, of which _Lorius_ (the _Domicella_ of +some authors), _Eos_ and _Chalcopsittacus_ may be here particularized, +while under the name of "lorikeets" may be comprehended such genera as +_Trichoglossus_, _Charmosyna_, _Loriculus_ and _Coriphilus_. By most +systematists some of these forms have been placed far apart, even in +different families of _Psittaci_, but A. H. Garrod has shown (_Proc. +Zool. Society_, 1874, pp. 586-598, and 1876, p. 692) the many common +characters they possess, which thus goes some way to justify the +relationship implied by their popular designation. A full account of +these birds is given in the first part of Count T. Salvadori's +_Ornitologia della Papuasia e delle Molucche_ (Turin 1880), whilst a +later classification appeared in Salvadori's section of the British +Museum _Catalogue of Birds_, xx., 1891. + +Though the name lory has often been used for the species of _Eclectus_, +and some other genera related thereto, modern writers would restrict its +application to the birds of the genera _Lorius_, _Eos_, +_Chalcopsittacus_ and their near allies, which are often placed in a +subfamily, _Loriinae_, belonging to the so-called family of +_Trichoglossidae_ or "brush-tongued" parrots. Garrod in his +investigations on the anatomy of _Psittaci_ was led not to attach much +importance to the structure indicated by the epithet "brush-tongued" +stating (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1874, p. 597) that it "is only an +excessive development of the papillae which are always found on the +lingual surface." The birds of this group are very characteristic of the +New Guinea subregion,[1] in which occur, according to Count Salvadori, +ten species of _Lorius_, eight of _Eos_ and four of _Chalcopsittacus_; +but none seem here to require any further notice,[2] though among them, +and particularly in the genus _Eos_, are included some of the most +richly-coloured birds in the whole world; nor does it appear that more +need be said of the lorikeets. + + The family is the subject of an excellent monograph by St George + Mivart (London, 1896). (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] They extend, however, to Fiji, Tahiti and Fanning Island. + + [2] Unless it be _Oreopsittacus arfaki_, of New Guinea, remarkable as + the only parrot known as yet to have fourteen instead of twelve + rectrices. + + + + +LOS ANDES, a former state of Venezuela under the redivision of 1881, +which covered the extreme western part of the republic N. of Zamora and +S. of Zulia. In the redivision of 1904 Los Andes was cut up into three +states--Mérida Táchira and Trujillo. + + + + +LOS ANGELES, a city and the county-seat of Los Angeles county, in +southern California, U.S.A., along the small Los Angeles river, in the +foothills of the San Gabriel Mountains; a narrow strip, 18 m. long, +joins the main part of the city to its water front on the ocean, San +Pedro Bay. Pop. (1880) 11,183, (1890) 50,395, (1900) 102,479, of whom +19,964 were foreign-born;[1] the growth in population since 1900 has +been very rapid and in 1910 it was 319,198. The city had in 1910 an area +of 85.1 sq. m., of which more than one-half has been added since 1890. +Los Angeles is served by the Southern Pacific, the Atchison, Topeka & +Santa Fé, and the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake railways; by +steamers to San Francisco; and by five systems of urban and suburban +electric railways, which have 300 m. of track within the city and 700 m. +within a radius of 30 m. beyond its limits. Inclined railways ascend +Third Street Hill and Court Street Hill, in the heart of the city; and a +system of subways extends from the centre of the city to its western +limits. The harbour, San Pedro Bay, originally open and naturally poor, +has been greatly improved by the Federal government; a breakwater 9250 +ft. long was begun in 1898 and the bar has been deepened, and further +improvements of the inner harbour at Wilmington (which is nearly +landlocked by a long narrow island lying nearly east and west across its +mouth) were begun in 1907. Important municipal docks have been built by +the city. + +The situation of the city between the mountains and the sea is +attractive. The site of the business district is level, and its plan +regular; the suburbs are laid out on hills. Although not specifically a +health resort, Los Angeles enjoys a high reputation for its climate. +From July 1877 to 1908 (inclusive) the mean of the minima for January, +the coldest month of the year, was 44.16° F.; the mean of the minima for +August, the warmest month, was 60.1° F.; and the difference of the mean +temperature of the coldest and the warmest month was about 18° F.; while +on five days only in this period (and on no day in the years 1904-1908) +did the official thermometer fall below 32° F. There are various +pleasure resorts in the mountains, and among seaside resorts are Santa +Monica, Ocean Park, Venice, Playa del Rey, Hermosa, Redondo, Terminal +Island, Long Beach, Alamitos Bay, Huntington Beach, Newport, Balboa and +Corona del Mar. There are excellent roads throughout the country. Los +Angeles has beautiful shade trees and a wealth of semi-tropic +vegetation. Its residential portions are characterized by detached homes +set in ample and beautiful grounds. Towering eucalyptus, graceful pepper +trees, tropic palms, rubber trees, giant bananas, yuccas and a wonderful +growth of roses, heliotrope, calla lilies in hedges, orange trees, +jasmine, giant geraniums and other flowers beautify the city throughout +the year. There are 22 parks, with about 3800 acres within or on the +borders of the city limits; among the parks are Griffith (3015 acres), +Elysian (532 acres), Eastlake (57 acres), Westlake (35 acres) and Echo +(38 acres). The old Spanish-Moorish mission architecture has +considerably influenced building styles. Among the important buildings +are the Federal Building, the County Court House, the City Hall, a +County Hall of Records, the Public Library with about 110,000 volumes in +1908, the large Auditorium and office buildings and the Woman's Club. +The exhibit in the Chamber of Commerce Building illustrates the +resources of southern California. Here also are the Coronel Collection, +given in 1901 by Dona Mariana, the widow of Don Antonio Coronel, and +containing relics of the Spanish and Mexican régime in California; and +the Palmer Collection of Indian antiquities. In Los Angeles also are the +collections of the Southwest Society (1904; for southern California, +Arizona and New Mexico) of the Archaeological Institute of America. On +the outskirts of the city, near Eastlake Park, is the Indian Crafts +Exhibition, which contains rare collections of aboriginal handiwork, and +where Indians may be seen making baskets, pottery and blankets. Of +interest to visitors is that part of the city called Sonora Town, with +its adobe houses, Mexican quarters, old Plaza and the Church of Our +Lady, Queen of the Angels (first erected in 1822; rebuilt in 1861), +which contains interesting paintings by early Indian converts. Near +Sonora Town is the district known as Chinatown. The principal +educational institutions are the University of Southern California +(Methodist Episcopal, 1880), the Maclay College of Theology and a +preparatory school; Occidental College (Presbyterian, 1887), St +Vincent's College (Roman Catholic, founded 1865; chartered 1869) and the +Los Angeles State Normal School (1882). + + The economic interests of Los Angeles centre in the culture of fruits. + The surrounding country is very fertile when irrigated, producing + oranges, lemons, figs and other semi-tropical fruits. Thousands of + artesian wells have been bored, the region between Los Angeles, Santa + Clara and San Bernardino being one of the most important artesian well + regions of the world. The city, which then got its water supply from + the Los Angeles river bed, in 1907 authorized the issue of $23,000,000 + worth of 4% bonds for the construction of an aqueduct 209 m. long, + bringing water to the city from the Owens river, in the Sierra Nevada + Mountains. It was estimated that the project would furnish water for + one million people, beside supplying power for lighting, manufacturing + and transportation purposes. All the water in excess of the city's + actual needs may be employed for irrigation. Work on the aqueduct was + begun in 1908, and it was to be completed in five years. From 1900 to + 1905 the value of the factory products increased from $15,133,696 to + $34,814,475 or 130%, and the capital employed in manufactures from + $10,045,095 to $28,181,418 or 180.5%. The leading manufacturing + industries in 1905, with the product-value of each in this year, were + slaughtering and meat-packing ($4,040,162), foundry and machine shop + work ($3,146,914), flour and grist milling ($2,798,740), lumber + manufacturing and planing ($2,519,081), printing and publishing + (newspapers and periodicals, $2,097,339; and book and job printing, + $1,278,841), car construction and repairing ($1,549,836)--in 1910 + there were railway shops here of the Southern Pacific, Pacific + Electric, Los Angeles Street, Salt Lake and Santa Fé railways--and the + manufacture of confectionery ($953,915), furniture ($879,910) and + malt liquors ($789,393). The canning and preserving of fruits and + vegetables are important industries. There is a large wholesale trade + with southern California, with Arizona and with the gold-fields of + Nevada, with which Los Angeles is connected by railway. Los Angeles is + a port of entry, but its foreign commerce is relatively unimportant. + The value of its imports increased from $721,705 in 1905 to $1,654,549 + in 1907; in 1908 the value was $1,193,552. The city's exports were + valued at $45,000 in 1907 and at $306,439 in 1908. The coastwise trade + is in lumber (about 700,000,000 ft. annually), shipped from northern + California, Oregon and Washington, and in crude oil and general + merchandise. There are rich oil-fields N. and W. of the city and wells + throughout the city; petroleum is largely employed as fuel in + factories. The central field, the Second Street Park field in the + city, was developed between 1892 and 1895 and wells were drilled + farther E. until in 1896 the eastern field was tapped with wells at + Adobe and College streets; the wells within the city are gradually + being abandoned. The western field and the western part of the central + field were first worked in 1899-1900. The Salt Lake field, controlled + by the Salt Lake Oil Company, near Rancho de Brea, W.S.W. of the city, + first became important in 1902 and in 1907 it was the most valuable + field in California, S. of Santa Barbara county, and the value of its + product was $1,749,980. In 1905 the value of petroleum refined in Los + Angeles was $461,281. + + Land has not for many years been cheap (i.e. absolutely) in the + southern Californian fruit country, and immigration has been, + generally, of the comparatively well-to-do. This fact has greatly + affected the character and development of the city. The assessed + valuation of property increased more than threefold from 1900 to 1910, + being $276,801,517 in the latter year, when the bonded city debt was + $17,259,312.50. Since 1896 there has been a strong independent + movement in politics, marked by the organization of a League for + Better City Government (1896) and a Municipal League (1900), and by + the organization of postal primaries to secure the co-operation of + electors pledged to independent voting. Since 1904 the public school + system has been administered by a non-partisan Board of Education + chosen from the city at large, and not by wards as theretofore. + +Los Angeles, like all other Californian cities, has the privilege of +making and amending its own charter, subject to the approval of the +state legislature. In 1902 thirteen amendments were adopted, including +provisions for the initiative, the referendum and the recall. The last +of these provides that 25% of the voters choosing a municipal officer +may, by signing a petition for his recall, force a new election during +his term of office and thereby remove him if another candidate receives +a greater number of votes. This provision, introducing an entirely new +principle into the American governmental system, came into effect in +January 1903, and was employed in the following year when a previously +elected councilman who was "recalled" by petition and was unsuccessful +in the 1904 election brought suit to hold his office, and on a mere +technicality the Supreme Court of the state declared the recall election +invalid. In 1909 there was a recall election at which a mayor was +removed and another chosen in his place. + +The Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Angeles was founded in +1781. The Franciscan mission of San Gabriel--still a famous +landmark--had been established ten years earlier a few miles eastward. +Beginning about 1827, Los Angeles, being the largest pueblo of the +territory, became a rival of Monterey for the honour of being the +capital of California, was the seat of conspiracies to overthrow the +Mexican authority, and the stronghold of the South California party in +the bickerings and struggles that lasted down to the American +occupation. In 1835 it was made a city by the Mexican Congress, and +declared the capital, but the last provision was not enforced and was +soon recalled. In 1836-1838 it was the headquarters of C. A. Carrillo, a +legally-named but never _de facto_ governor of California, whose +jurisdiction was never recognized in the north; and in 1845-1847 it was +the actual capital. The city was rent by factional quarrels when war +broke out between Mexico and the United States, but the appearance of +United States troops under Commodore Robert F. Stockton and General John +C. Frémont before Los Angeles caused both factions to unite against a +common foe. The defenders of Los Angeles fled at the approach of the +troops, and on the 13th of August 1846 the American flag was raised over +the city. A garrison of fifty men, left in control, was compelled in +October to withdraw on account of a revolt of the inhabitants, and Los +Angeles was not retaken until General Philip Kearny and Commodore +Stockton entered the city on the 18th of January 1847. This was the only +important overt resistance to the establishment of the new régime in +California. The city was chartered in 1850. It continued to grow +steadily thereafter until it attained railway connexion with the Central +Pacific and San Francisco in 1876, and with the East by the Santa Fé +system in 1885. The completion of the latter line precipitated one of +the most extraordinary of American railway wars and land booms, which +resulted in giving southern California a great stimulus. The growth of +the city since 1890 has been even more remarkable. In 1909 the township +of Wilmington (pop. in 1900, 2983), including the city of San Pedro +(pop. in 1900, 1787), Colegrove, a suburb W.N.W. of the city, Cahuenga +(pop. in 1900, 1586), a township N.W. of the former city limits, and a +part of Los Feliz were annexed to the city. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] In addition to the large foreign-born population (4023 Germans, + 3017 English, 2683 English Canadians, 1885 Chinese, 1720 Irish and + smaller numbers of French, Mexicans, Swedes, Italians, Scots, Swiss, + Austrians, Danes, French Canadians, Russians, Norwegians, Welsh and + Japanese) 26,105 of the native white inhabitants were of foreign + parentage (i.e. had one or both parents not native born), so that + only 54,121 white persons were of native parentage. German, French + and Italian weekly papers are published in Los Angeles. + + + + +LOS ISLANDS (ISLAS DE LOS IDOLOS), a group of islands off the coast of +French Guinea, West Africa, lying south of Sangarea Bay, between 9° 25´ +and 9° 31´ N. and 13° 46´ and 13° 51´ W., and about 80 m. N.N.W. of +Freetown, Sierra Leone. There are five principal islands: Tamara, +Factory, Crawford, White (or Ruma) and Coral. The two largest islands +are Tamara and Factory, Tamara, some 8 m. long by 1 to 2 m. broad, being +the largest. These two islands lie parallel to each other, Tamara to the +west; they form a sort of basin, in the centre of which is the islet of +Crawford. The two other islands are to the south. The archipelago is of +volcanic formation, Tamara and Factory islands forming part of a ruined +crater, with Crawford Island as the cone. The highest point is a knoll, +some 450 ft. above sea-level, in Tamara. All the islands are richly +clothed with palm trees and flowering underwood. Tamara has a good +harbour, and contains the principal settlement. The inhabitants, about +1500, are immigrants of the Baga tribe of Senegambian negroes, whose +home is the coast land between the Pongo and Nunez rivers. These are +chiefly farmers. The Church of England has a flourishing mission, with a +native pastorate. At one time the islands were a great seat of +slave-traders and pirates. The latter are supposed to have buried large +amounts of treasure in them. In an endeavour to stop the slave trade and +piracy, the islands were garrisoned (1812-1813) by British troops, but +the unhealthiness of the climate led to their withdrawal. In 1818 Sir +Charles McCarthy, governor of Sierra Leone, obtained the cession of the +islands to Great Britain from the chiefs of the Baga country, and in +1882 France recognized them to be a British possession. They were then +the headquarters of several Sierra Leone traders. By article 6 of the +Anglo-French convention of the 8th of April 1904, the islands were ceded +to France. They were desired by France because of their geographical +position, Konakry, the capital of French Guinea, being built on an islet +but 3 m. from Factory Island, and at the mercy of long range artillery +planted thereon. The islands derive their name from the sacred images +found on them by the early European navigators. + + See A. B. Ellis, _West African Islands_ (London, 1885), and the works + cited under FRENCH GUINEA. + + + + +LOSSIEMOUTH, a police burgh of Elginshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 3904. +It embraces the villages of Lossiemouth, Branderburgh and Stotfield, at +the mouth of the Lossie, 5½ m. N.N.E. of Elgin, of which it is the port, +by a branch line of the Great North of Scotland railway. The industries +are boat-building and fishing. Lossiemouth, or the Old Town, dates from +1700; Branderburgh, farther north, grew with the harbour and began about +1830; Stotfield is purely modern and contiguous to the splendid +golf-course. The cliffs at Covesea, 2 m. W., contain caves of curious +shape. Sir Robert Gordon of Gordonstown used one as a stable in the +rebellion of 1745; weapons of prehistoric man were found in another, and +the roof of a third is carved with ornaments and emblems of early Celtic +art. + + Kinneddar Castle in the parish of Drainie--in which Lossiemouth is + situated--was a seat of the bishops of Moray, and Old Duffus Castle, + 2½ m. S.W., was built in the reign of David II. The estate of + Gordonstown, close by, was founded by Sir Robert Gordon (1580-1656), + historian of the Sutherland family, and grandfather of the baronet + who, because of his inventions and scientific attainments, was known + locally as "Sir Robert the Warlock" (1647-1704). Nearly midway between + Lossiemouth and Elgin stand the massive ruins of the palace of Spynie, + formerly a fortified residence of the bishops of Moray. "Davie's + Tower," 60 ft. high with walls 9 ft. thick, was built by Bishop David + Stewart about 1470. The adjacent loch is a favourite breeding-place + for the sea-birds, which resort to the coast of Elginshire in enormous + numbers. A mile S.E. of the lake lies Pitgaveny, one of the reputed + scenes of the murder of King Duncan by Macbeth. + + + + +LOSSING, BENSON JOHN (1813-1891), American historical writer, was born +in Beekman, New York, on the 12th of February 1813. After editing +newspapers in Poughkeepsie he became an engraver on wood, and removed to +New York in 1839 for the practice of his profession, to which he added +that of drawing illustrations for books and periodicals. He likewise +wrote or edited the text of numerous publications. His _Pictorial +Field-Book of the Revolution_ (first issued in 30 parts, 1850-1852, and +then in 2 volumes) was a pioneer work of value in American historical +literature. In its preparation he travelled some 9000 m. during a period +of nearly two years; made more than a thousand sketches of extant +buildings, battlefields, &c.; and presented his material in a form +serviceable to the topographer and interesting to the general reader. +Similar but less characteristic and less valuable undertakings were a +_Pictorial Field-Book of the War of 1812_ (1868), and a _Pictorial +History of the Civil War in the United States of America_ (3 vols. +1866-1869). His other books were numerous: an _Outline History of the +Fine Arts_; many illustrated histories, large and small, of the United +States; popular descriptions of Mount Vernon and other localities +associated with famous names; and biographical sketches of celebrated +Americans, of which _The Life and Times of Major-General Philip +Schuyler_ (2 vols. 1860-1873) was the most considerable. He died at +Dover Plains, New York, on the 3rd of June 1891. + + + + +LÖSSNITZ, a district in the kingdom of Saxony, extending for about 5 m. +along the right bank of the Elbe, immediately N.W. of Dresden. Pop. +(1905) 6929. A line of vine-clad hills shelters it from the north winds, +and so warm and healthy is the climate that it has gained for the +district the appellation of the "Saxon Nice." Asparagus, peaches, +apricots, strawberries, grapes and roses are largely cultivated and find +a ready market in Dresden. + + + + +LOST PROPERTY. The man who loses an article does not lose his right +thereto, and he may recover it from the holder whoever he be, unless his +claim be barred by some Statute of Limitations or special custom, as +sale in market overt. The rights and duties of the finder are more +complex. If he know or can find out the true owner, and yet convert the +article to his own use, he is guilty of theft. But if the true owner +cannot be discovered, the finder keeps the property, his title being +superior to that of every one except the true owner. But this is only if +the find be in public or some public place. Thus if you pick up bank +notes in a shop where they have been lost by a stranger, and hand them +to the shopkeeper that he may discover and repossess the true owner, and +he fail to do so, then you can recover them from him. The owner of +private land, however, is entitled to what is found on it. Thus a man +sets you to clear out his pond, and you discover a diamond in the mud at +the bottom. The law will compel you to hand it over to the owner of the +pond. This applies even against the tenant. A gas company were lessees +of certain premises; whilst making excavations therein they came upon a +prehistoric boat; and they were forced to surrender it to their lessor. +An aerolite becomes the property of the owner of the land on which it +falls, and not of the person finding or digging it out. The principle of +these three last cases is that whatever becomes part of the soil belongs +to the proprietor of that soil. + +Property lost at sea is regulated by different rules. Those who recover +abandoned vessels are entitled to salvage. Property absolutely lost upon +the high seas would seem to belong to the finder. It has been claimed +for the crown, and the American courts have held, that apart from a +decree the finder is only entitled to salvage rights, the court +retaining the rest, and thus practically taking it for the state on the +original owner not being found. The modern English law on the subject of +wreck (including everything found on the shore of the sea or tidal +river) is contained in the Merchant Shipping Act 1894. The finder must +forthwith make known his discovery to the receiver of wreck under a +penalty. He is entitled to a salvage reward, but the property belongs to +the crown or its grantee unless the true owner claims within a year. In +the United States unclaimed wreck after a year generally becomes the +property of the state. In Scotland the right to lost property is +theoretically in the crown, but the finder would not in practice be +interfered with except under the provisions of the Burgh Police +(Scotland) Act 1892. Section 412 requires all persons finding goods to +deliver them forthwith to the police under a penalty. If the true owner +is not discovered within six months the magistrates may hand them over +to the finder. If the owner appears he must pay a reasonable reward. +Domestic animals, including swans, found straying without an owner may +be seized by the crown or lord of the manor, and if not claimed within a +year and a day they become the property of the crown or the lord, on the +observance of certain formalities. In Scotland they were held to belong +to the crown or its donatory, usually the sheriff of a county. By the +Burgh Police Act above quoted provision is made for the sale of lost +animals and the disposal of the free proceeds for the purposes of the +act unless such be claimed. In the United States there is diversity of +law and custom. Apart from special rule, lost animals become the +property of the finder, but in many cases the proceeds of their sale are +applied to public purposes. When property is lost by carriers, +innkeepers or railway companies, special provisions as to their +respective responsibilities apply. As to finds of money or the precious +metals, see TREASURE TROVE. + + + + +LOSTWITHIEL, a market town and municipal borough in the Bodmin +parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 30½ m. W. of Plymouth by +the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1379. It is pleasantly situated +on the banks of the river Fowey. The church of St Bartholomew is +remarkable for a fine Early English tower surmounted by a Decorated +spire; there are also beautiful Decorated windows and details in the +body of the church, and a richly carved octagonal font. A bridge of the +14th century crosses the river. The shire hall includes remains of a +building, called the Stannary prison, dating from the 13th century. The +Great Western railway has workshops at Lostwithiel. + +Lostwithiel owed its ancient liberties--probably its existence--to the +neighbouring castle of Restormel. The Pipe Rolls (1194-1203) show that +Robert de Cardinan, lord of Restormel, paid ten marks yearly for having +a market at Lostwithiel. By an undated charter still preserved with the +corporation's muniments he surrendered to the burgesses all the +liberties given them by his predecessors (_antecessores_) when they +founded the town. These included hereditary succession to tenements, +exemption from sullage, the right to elect a reeve (_praepositus_) if +the grantor thought one necessary and the right to marry without the +lord's interference. By Isolda, granddaughter of Robert de Cardinan, the +town was given to Richard, king of the Romans, who in the third year of +his reign granted to the burgesses a gild merchant sac and soc, toll, +team and infangenethef, freedom from pontage, lastage, &c., throughout +Cornwall, and exemption from the jurisdiction of the hundred and county +courts, also a yearly fair and a weekly market. Richard transferred the +assizes from Launceston to Lostwithiel. His son Edmund, earl of +Cornwall, built a great hall at Lostwithiel and decreed that the coinage +of tin should be at Lostwithiel only. In 1325 Richard's charter was +confirmed and the market ordered to be held on Thursdays. In 1386 the +assizes were transferred back to Launceston. In 1609 a charter of +incorporation provided for a mayor, recorder, six capital burgesses and +seventeen assistants and courts of record and pie powder. The boundaries +of the borough were extended in 1733. Under the reformed charter granted +in 1885 the corporation consists of a mayor, four aldermen and twelve +councillors. From 1305 to 1832 two members represented Lostwithiel in +parliament. The electors after 1609 were the twenty-five members of the +corporation. Under the Reform Act (1832) the borough became merged in +the county. For the Thursday market granted in 1326 a Friday market was +substituted in 1733, and this continues to be held. The fair granted in +1326 and the three fairs granted in 1733 have all given place to others. +The archdeacon's court, the sessions and the county elections were long +held at Lostwithiel, but all have now been removed. For the victory +gained by Charles I. over the earl of Essex in 1644, see GREAT +REBELLION. + + + + +LOT, in the Bible, the legendary ancestor of the two Palestinian +peoples, Moab and Ammon (Gen. xix. 30-38; cp. Ps. lxxxiii. 8); he +appears to have been represented as a Horite or Edomite (cp. the name +Lotan, Gen. xxxvi. 20, 22). As the son of Haran and grandson of Terah, +he was Abraham's nephew (Gen. xi. 31), and he accompanied his uncle in +his migration from Haran to Canaan. Near Bethel[1] Lot separated from +Abraham, owing to disputes between their shepherds, and being offered +the first choice, chose the rich fields of the Jordan valley which were +as fertile and well irrigated as the "garden of Yahweh" (i.e. Eden, Gen. +xiii. 7 sqq.). It was in this district that the cities of Sodom and +Gomorrah were situated. He was saved from their fate by two divine +messengers who spent the night in his house, and next morning led Lot, +his wife, and his two unmarried daughters out of the city. His wife +looked back and was changed to a pillar of salt,[2] but Lot with his two +daughters escaped first to Zoar and then to the mountains east of the +Dead Sea, where the daughters planned and executed an incest by which +they became the mothers of Moab and Ben-Ammi (i.e. Ammon; Gen. xix.). +The account of Chedorlaomer's invasion and of Lot's rescue by Abraham +belongs to an independent source (Gen. xiv.), the age and historical +value of which has been much disputed. (See further ABRAHAM; +MELCHIZEDEK.) Lot's character is made to stand in strong contrast with +that of Abraham, notably in the representation of his selfishness (xiii. +5 sqq.), and reluctance to leave the sinful city (xix. 16 sqq.); +relatively, however, he was superior to the rest (with the crude story +of his insistence upon the inviolable rights of guests, xix. 5 sqq.; cf. +Judges xix. 22 sqq.), and is regarded in 2 Pet. ii. 7 seq. as a type of +righteousness. + + Lot and his daughters passed into Arabic tradition from the Jews. The + daughters are named Zahy and Ra'wa by Mas'udi ii. 139; but other + Arabian writers give other forms. Paton (_Syria and Palestine_, pp. + 43, 123) identifies Lot-Lotan with _Ruten_, one of the Egyptian names + for Palestine; its true meaning is obscure. For traces of mythical + elements in the story see Winckler, _Altorient. Forsch._ ii. 87 seq. + See further, J. Skinner, _Genesis_, pp. 310 sqq. (S. A. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The district is thus regarded as the place where the Hebrews, on + the one side, and the Moabites and Ammonites, on the other, commence + their independent history. Whilst the latter settle across the + Jordan, Abraham moves down south to Hebron. + + [2] Tradition points to the _Jebel Usdum_ (cp. the name Sodom) at the + S.W. end of the Dead Sea. It consists almost entirely of pure + crystallized salt with pillars and pinnacles such as might have given + rise to the story (see Driver, Genesis, p. 201; and cf. also + _Palestine Explor. Fund, Quart. Statements_, 1871, p. 16, 1885, p. + 20; Conder, _Syrian Stone-lore_, p. 279 seq.). Jesus cites the story + of Lot and his wife to illustrate the sudden coming of the Kingdom of + God (Luke xvii. 28-32). The history of the interpretation of the + legend by the early and medieval church down to the era of rational + and scientific investigation will be found in A. D. White, _Warfare + of Science with Theology_, ii. ch. xviii. + + + + +LOT (Lat. _Oltis_), a river of southern France flowing westward across +the central plateau, through the departments of Lozère, Aveyron, Lot and +Lot-et-Garonne. Its length is about 300 m., the area of its basin 4444 +sq. m. The river rises in the Cévennes on the Mont du Goulet at a height +of 4918 ft. about 15 m. E. of Mende, past which it flows. Its upper +course lies through gorges between the Causse of Mende and Aubrac +Mountains on the north and the tablelands (_causses_) of Sauveterre, +Severac and Comtal on the south. Thence its sinuous course crosses the +plateau of Quercy and entering a wider fertile plain flows into the +Garonne at Aiguillon between Agen and Marmande. Its largest tributary, +the Truyère, rises in the Margeride mountains and after a circuitous +course joins it on the right at Entraygues (department of Aveyron), its +affluence more than doubling the volume of the river. Lower down it +receives the Dourdou de Bozouls (or du Nord) on the left and on the right +the Célé above Cahors (department of Lot), which is situated on a +peninsula skirted by one of the river's many windings. Villeneuve-sur-Lot +(department of Lot-et-Garonne) is the only town of any importance between +this point and its mouth. The Lot is canalized between Bouquiès, above +which there is no navigation, and the Garonne (160 m.). + + + + +LOT, a department of south-western France, formed in 1790 from the +district of Quercy, part of the old province of Guyenne. It is bounded +N. by Corrèze, W. by Dordogne and Lot-et-Garonne, S. by Tarn-et-Garonne, +and E. by Aveyron and Cantal. Area 2017 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 216,611. The +department extends over the western portion of the Massif Central of +France; it slopes towards the south-west, and has a maximum altitude of +2560 ft. on the borders of Cantal with a minimum of 213 ft. at the point +where the river Lot quits the department. The Lot, which traverses it +from east to west, is navigable for the whole distance (106 m.) with the +help of locks; its principal tributary within the department is the Célé +(on the right). In the north of the department the Dordogne has a course +of 37 m.; among its tributaries are the Cère, which has its rise in +Cantal, and the Ouysse, a river of no great length, but remarkable for +the abundance of its waters. The streams in the south of Lot all flow +into the Tarn. The eastern and western portions of the department are +covered by ranges of hills; the north, the centre, and part of the south +are occupied by a belt of limestone plateaus or _causses_, that to the +north of the Dordogne is called the Causse de Martel; between the +Dordogne and the Lot is the Causse de Gramat or de Rocamadour; south of +the Lot is the Causse de Cahors. The _causses_ are for the most part +bare and arid owing to the rapid disappearance of the rain in clefts and +chasms in the limestone, which are known as _igues_. These are most +numerous in the Causse de Gramat and are sometimes of great beauty; the +best known is the Gouffre de Padirac, 7 m. N.E. of Rocamadour. The +altitude of the _causses_ (from 700 to 1300 ft., much lower than that of +the similar plateaus in Lozère, Hérault and Aveyron) permits the +cultivation of the vine; they also yield a small quantity of cereals and +potatoes and some wood. The deep intervening valleys are full of +verdure, being well watered by abundant springs. The climate is on the +whole that of the Girondine region; the valleys are warm, and the +rainfall is somewhat above the average for France. The difference of +temperature between the higher parts of the department belonging to the +central plateau and the sheltered valleys of the south-west is +considerable. Wheat, maize, oats and rye are the chief cereals. Wine is +the principal product, the most valued being that of Cahors grown in the +valley of the Lot, which is, in general, the most productive portion of +the department. It is used partly for blending with other wines and +partly for local consumption. The north-east cantons produce large +quantities of chestnuts; walnuts, apples and plums are common, and the +department also grows potatoes and tobacco and supplies truffles. Sheep +are the most abundant kind of live stock; but pigs, horned cattle, +horses, asses, mules and goats are also reared, as well as poultry and +bees. Iron and coal are mined, and there are important zinc deposits +(Planioles). Limestone is quarried. There are oil-works and numerous +mills, and wool spinning and carding as well as cloth making, tanning, +currying, brewing and the making of agricultural implements are carried +on to some extent. The three arrondissements are those of Cahors, the +capital, Figeac and Gourdon; there are 29 cantons and 329 communes. + +Lot belongs to the 17th military district, and to the _académie_ of +Toulouse, and falls within the circumscription of the court of appeal at +Agen, and the province of the archbishop of Albi. It is served by the +Orleans railway. Cahors, Figeac and Rocamadour are the principal places. +Of the interesting churches and châteaux of the department, may be +mentioned the fine feudal fortress at Castelnau occupying a commanding +natural position, with an audience hall of the 12th century, and the +Romanesque abbey-church at Souillac with fine sculpturing on the +principal entrance. The plateau of Puy d'Issolu, near Vayrac, is +believed by most authorities to be the site of the ancient Uxcellodunum, +the scene of the last stand of the Gauls against Julius Caesar in 51 +B.C. Lot has many dolmens, the finest being that of Pierre Martine, near +Livernon (arr. of Figeac). + + + + +LOT-ET-GARONNE, a department of south-western France, formed in 1790 of +Agenais and Bazadais, two districts of the old province of Guienne, and +of Condomois, Lomagne, Brullois and pays d'Albret, formerly portions of +Gascony. It is bounded W. by Gironde, N. by Dordogne, E. by Lot and +Tarn-et-Garonne, S. by Gers and S.W. by Landes. Area 2079 sq. m. Pop. +(1906) 274,610. The Garonne, which traverses the department from S.E. to +N.W., divides it into two unequal parts. That to the north is a country +of hills and deep ravines, and the slope is from east to west, while in +the region to the south, which is a continuation of the plateau of +Lannemezan and Armagnac, the slope is directly from south to north. A +small portion in the south-west belongs to the sterile region of the +Landes (q.v.); the broad valleys of the Garonne and of its affluent the +Lot are proverbial for their fertility. The wildest part is towards the +north-east on the borders of Dordogne, where a region of _causses_ +(limestone plateaus) and forests begins; the highest point (896 ft.) is +also found here. The Garonne, where it quits the department, is only some +20 ft. above the sea-level; it is navigable throughout, with the help of +its lateral canal, as also are the Lot and Baise with the help of locks. +The Drot, a right affluent of the Garonne in the north of the department, +is also navigable in the lower part of its course. The climate is that of +the Girondine region--mild and fine--the mean temperature of Agen being +56.6° Fahr., or 5° above that of Paris; the annual rainfall, which, in +the plain of Agen, varies from 20 to 24 in., is nearly the least in +France. Agriculturally the department is one of the richest. Of cereals +wheat is the chief, maize and oats coming next. Potatoes, vines and +tobacco are important sources of wealth. The best wines are those of +Clairac and Buzet. Vegetable and fruit-growing are prosperous. Plum-trees +(_pruniers d'ente_) are much cultivated in the valleys of the Garonne and +Lot, and the apricots of Nicole and Tonneins are well known. The chief +trees are the pine and the oak; the cork-oak flourishes in the Landes, +and poplars and willows are abundant on the borders of the Garonne. +Horned cattle, chiefly of the Garonne breed, are the principal live +stock. Poultry and pigs are also reared profitably. There are deposits of +iron in the department. The forges, blast furnaces and foundries of Fumel +are important; and agricultural implements and other machines are +manufactured. The making of lime and cement, of tiles, bricks and +pottery, of confectionery and dried plums (pruneaux d'Agen) and other +delicacies, and brewing and distilling, occupy many of the inhabitants. +At Tonneins (pop. 4691 in 1906) there is a national tobacco manufactory. +Cork cutting, of which the centre is Mézin, hat and candle making, wool +spinning, weaving of woollen and cotton stuffs, tanning, paper-making, +oil-making, dyeing and flour and saw-milling are other prominent +industries. The peasants still speak the Gascon patois. The +arrondissements are 4--Agen, Marmande, Nérac and Villeneuve-sur-Lot--and +there are 35 cantons and 326 communes. + +Agen, the capital, is the seat of a bishopric and of the court of appeal +for the department of Lot-et-Garonne. The department belongs to the +region of the XVII. army corps, the _académie_ of Bordeaux, and the +province of the archbishop of Bordeaux. Lot-et-Garonne is served by the +lines of the Southern and the Orleans railways, its rivers afford about +160 m. of navigable waterway, and the lateral canal of the Garonne +traverses it for 54 m. Agen, Marmande, Nérac and Villeneuve-sur-Lot, the +principal places, are treated under separate headings. The department +possesses Roman remains at Mas d'Agenais and at Aiguillon. The churches +of Layrac, Monsempron, Mas d'Agenais, Moirax, Mézin and Vianne are of +interest, as also are the fortifications of Vianne of the 13th century, +and the châteaux of Xaintrailles, Bonaguil, Gavaudun and of the +industrial town of Casteljaloux. + + + + +LOTHAIR I. (795-855), Roman emperor, was the eldest son of the emperor +Louis I., and his wife Irmengarde. Little is known of his early life, +which was probably passed at the court of his grandfather Charlemagne, +until 815 when he became ruler of Bavaria. When Louis in 817 divided the +Empire between his sons, Lothair was crowned joint emperor at +Aix-la-Chapelle and given a certain superiority over his brothers. In +821 he married Irmengarde (d. 851), daughter of Hugo, count of Tours; in +822 undertook the government of Italy; and, on the 5th of April 823, was +crowned emperor by Pope Paschal I. at Rome. In November 824 he +promulgated a statute concerning the relations of pope and emperor which +reserved the supreme power to the secular potentate, and he afterwards +issued various ordinances for the good government of Italy. On his +return to his father's court his stepmother Judith won his consent to +her plan for securing a kingdom for her son Charles, a scheme which was +carried out in 829. Lothair, however, soon changed his attitude, and +spent the succeeding decade in constant strife over the division of the +Empire with his father. He was alternately master of the Empire, and +banished and confined to Italy; at one time taking up arms in alliance +with his brothers and at another fighting against them; whilst the +bounds of his appointed kingdom were in turn extended and reduced. When +Louis was dying in 840, he sent the imperial _insignia_ to Lothair, who, +disregarding the various partitions, claimed the whole of the Empire. +Negotiations with his brother Louis and his half-brother Charles, both +of whom armed to resist this claim, were followed by an alliance of the +younger brothers against Lothair. A decisive battle was fought at +Fontenoy on the 25th of June 841, when, in spite of his personal +gallantry, Lothair was defeated and fled to Aix. With fresh troops he +entered upon a war of plunder, but the forces of his brothers were too +strong for him, and taking with him such treasure as he could collect, +he abandoned to them his capital. Efforts to make peace were begun, and +in June 842 the brothers met on an island in the Sâone, and agreed to an +arrangement which developed, after much difficulty and delay, into the +treaty of Verdun signed in August 843. By this Lothair received Italy +and the imperial title, together with a stretch of land between the +North and Mediterranean Seas lying along the valleys of the Rhine and +the Rhone. He soon abandoned Italy to his eldest son, Louis, and +remained in his new kingdom, engaged in alternate quarrels and +reconciliations with his brothers, and in futile efforts to defend his +lands from the attacks of the Normans and the Saracens. In 855 he became +seriously ill, and despairing of recovery renounced the throne, divided +his lands between his three sons, and on the 23rd of September entered +the monastery of Prüm, where he died six days later. He was buried at +Prüm, where his remains were found in 1860. Lothair was entirely +untrustworthy and quite unable to maintain either the unity or the +dignity of the empire of Charlemagne. + + See "Annales Fuldenses"; Nithard, "Historiarum Libri," both in the + _Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, Bände_ i. and ii. (Hanover + and Berlin, 1826 fol.); E. Mühlbacher, _Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs + unter den Karolingern_ (Innsbruck, 1881); E. Dümmler, _Geschichte des + ostfränkischen Reichs_ (Leipzig, 1887-1888); B. Simson, _Jahrbücher + des deutschen Reiches unter Ludwig dem Frommen_ (Leipzig, 1874-1876). + + + + +LOTHAIR II. or III. (c. 1070-1137), surnamed the "Saxon," Roman emperor, +son of Gebhard, count of Supplinburg, belonged to a family possessing +extensive lands around Helmstadt in Saxony, to which he succeeded on his +father's death in 1075. Gebhard had been a leading opponent of the +emperor Henry IV. in Saxony, and his son, taking the same attitude, +assisted Egbert II., margrave of Meissen, in the rising of 1088. The +position and influence of Lothair in Saxony, already considerable, was +increased when in 1100 he married Richenza, daughter of Henry, count of +Nordheim, who became an heiress on her father's death in 1101, and +inherited other estates when her brother Otto died childless in 1116. +Having assisted the German king, Henry V., against his father in 1104, +Lothair was appointed duke of Saxony by Henry, when Duke Magnus, the +last of the Billungs, died in 1106. His first care was to establish his +authority over some districts east of the Elbe; and quickly making +himself independent of the king, he stood forth as the representative of +the Saxon race. This attitude brought him into collision with Henry V., +to whom, however, he was forced to submit after an unsuccessful rising +in 1112. A second rising was caused when, on the death of Ulrich II., +count of Weimar and Orlamünde, without issue in 1112, Henry seized these +counties as vacant fiefs of the empire, while Lothair supported the +claim of Siegfried, count of Ballenstädt, whose mother was a relative of +Ulrich. The rebels were defeated, and Siegfried was killed at Warnstädt +in 1113, but his son secured possession of the disputed counties. After +the defeat by Lothair of Henry's forces at Welfesholz on the 11th of +February 1115, events called Henry to Italy; and Lothair appears to have +been undisturbed in Saxony until 1123, when the death of Henry II., +margrave of Meissen and Lusatia raised a dispute as to the right of +appointment to the vacant margraviates. A struggle ensued, in which +victory remained with the duke. The Saxony policy of Lothair during +these years had been to make himself independent, and to extend his +authority; to this end he allied himself with the papal party, and +easily revived the traditional hostility of the Saxons to the Franconian +emperors. + +When Henry V. died in 1125, Lothair, after a protracted election, was +chosen German king at Mainz on the 30th of August 1125. His election was +largely owing to the efforts of Adalbert, archbishop of Mainz, and the +papal party, who disliked the candidature of Henry's nephew and heir, +Frederick II. of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia. The new king was crowned +at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 13th of September 1125. Before suffering a +severe reverse, brought about by his interference in the internal +affairs of Bohemia, Lothair requested Frederick of Hohenstaufen to +restore to the crown the estates bequeathed to him by the emperor Henry +V. Frederick refused, and was placed under the ban. Lothair, unable to +capture Nüremberg, gained the support of Henry the Proud, the new duke +of Bavaria, by giving him his daughter, Gertrude, in marriage, and that +of Conrad, count of Zähringen, by granting him the administration of the +kingdom of Burgundy, or Arles. As a counterstroke, however, Conrad of +Hohenstaufen, the brother of Frederick, was chosen German king in +December 1127, and was quickly recognized in northern Italy. But Lothair +gained the upper hand in Germany, and by the end of 1129 the +Hohenstaufen strongholds, Nüremberg and Spires, were in his possession. +This struggle was accompanied by disturbances in Lorraine, Saxony and +Thuringia, but order was soon restored after the resistance of the +Hohenstaufen had been beaten down. In 1131 the king led an expedition +into Denmark, where one of his vassals had been murdered by Magnus, son +of the Danish king, Niels, and where general confusion reigned; but no +resistance was offered, and Niels promised to pay tribute to Lothair. + +The king's attention at the time was called to Italy where two popes, +Innocent II. and Anacletus II., were clamouring for his support. At +first Lothair, fully occupied with the affairs of Germany, remained +heedless and neutral; but in March 1131 he was visited at Liége by +Innocent, to whom he promised his assistance. Crossing the Alps with a +small army in September 1132, he reached Rome in March 1133, accompanied +by Innocent. As St Peter's was held by Anacletus, Lothair's coronation +as emperor took place on the 4th of June 1133 in the church of the +Lateran. He then received as papal fiefs the vast estates of Matilda, +marchioness of Tuscany, thus securing for his daughter and her Welf +husband lands which might otherwise have passed to the Hohenstaufen. His +efforts to continue the investiture controversy were not very serious. +He returned to Germany, where he restored order in Bavaria, and made an +expedition against some rebels in the regions of the lower Rhine. +Resuming the struggle against the Hohenstaufen, Lothair soon obtained +the submission of the brothers, who retained their lands, and a general +peace was sworn at Bamberg. The emperor's authority was now generally +recognized, and the annalists speak highly of the peace and order of his +later years. In 1135, Eric II., king of Denmark, acknowledged himself a +vassal of Lothair; Boleslaus III., prince of the Poles, promised +tribute and received Pomerania and Rügen as German fiefs; while the +eastern emperor, John Comnenus, implored Lothair's aid against Roger II. +of Sicily. + +The emperor seconded the efforts of his vassals, Albert the Bear, +margrave of the Saxon north mark, and Conrad I., margrave of Meissen and +Lusatia, to extend the authority of the Germans in the districts east of +the Elbe, and assisted Norbert, archbishop of Magdeburg, and Albert I., +archbishop of Bremen, to spread Christianity. In August 1136, attended +by a large army, Lothair set out upon his second Italian journey. The +Lombard cities were either terrified into submission or taken by storm; +Roger II. was driven from Apulia; and the imperial power enforced over +the whole of southern Italy. A mutiny among the German soldiers and a +breach with Innocent concerning the overlordship of Apulia compelled the +emperor to retrace his steps. An arrangement was made with regard to +Apulia, after which Lothair, returning to Germany, died at Breitenwang, +a village in the Tirol, on the 3rd or 4th of December 1137. His body was +carried to Saxony and buried in the monastery which he had founded at +Königslutter. Lothair was a strong and capable ruler, who has been +described as the "imitator and heir of the first Otto." Contemporaries +praise his justice and his virtue, and his reign was regarded, +especially by Saxons and churchmen, as a golden age for Germany. + + The main authorities for the life and reign of Lothair are: "Vita + Norberti archiepiscopi Magdeburgensis"; Otto von Freising, "Chronicon + Annalista Saxo" and "Narratio de electione Lotharii" all in the + _Monumenta Germaniae historica_. _Scriptores_, Bände vi., xii. and xx. + (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). The best modern works are: L. von + Ranke, _Weltgeschichte_, pt. viii. (Leipzig, 1887-1888); W. von + Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der Deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band iv. + (Brunswick, 1877), Band v. (Leipzig, 1888); Ph. Jaffe, _Geschichte des + Deutschen Reiches unter Lothar_ (Berlin, 1843); W. Bernhardi, _Lothar + von Supplinburg_ (Leipzig, 1879); O. von Heinemann, _Lothar der Sachse + und Konrad III._ (Halle, 1869); and Ch. Volkmar, "Das Vërhältniss + Lothars III. zur Investiturfrage," in the _Forschungen zur Deutschen + Geschichte_, Band xxvi. (Göttingen, 1862-1886). + + + + +LOTHAIR (941-986), king of France, son of Louis IV., succeeded his +father in 954, and was at first under the guardianship of Hugh the +Great, duke of the Franks, and then under that of his maternal uncle +Bruno, archbishop of Cologne. The beginning of his reign was occupied +with wars against the vassals, particularly against the duke of +Normandy. Lothair then seems to have conceived the design of recovering +Lorraine. He attempted to precipitate matters by a sudden attack, and in +the spring of 978 nearly captured the emperor Otto II. at +Aix-la-Chapelle. Otto took his revenge in the autumn by invading France. +He penetrated as far as Paris, devastating the country through which he +passed, but failed to take the town, and was forced to retreat with +heavy loss. Peace was concluded in 980 at Margut-sur-Chiers, and in 983 +Lothair was even chosen guardian to the young Otto III. Towards 980, +however, Lothair quarrelled with Hugh the Great's son, Hugh Capet, who, +at the instigation of Adalberon, archbishop of Reims, became reconciled +with Otto III. Lothair died on the 2nd of March 986. By his wife Emma, +daughter of Lothair, king of Italy, he left a son who succeeded him as +Louis V. + + See F. Lot, _Les Derniers Carolingiens_ (Paris, 1891); and the + _Recueil des actes de Lothaire et de Louis V._, edited by L. Halphen + and F. Lot (1908). + + + + +LOTHAIR (825-869), king of the district called after him Lotharingia, or +Lorraine, was the second son of the emperor Lothair I. On his father's +death in 855, he received for his kingdom a district lying west of the +Rhine, between the North Sea and the Jura mountains, which was called +_Regnum Lotharii_ and early in the 10th century became known as +Lotharingia or Lorraine. On the death of his brother Charles in 863 he +added some lands south of the Jura to this inheritance, but, except for +a few feeble expeditions against the Danish pirates, he seems to have +done little for its government or its defence. The reign was chiefly +occupied by efforts on the part of Lothair to obtain a divorce from his +wife Teutberga, a sister of Hucbert, abbot of St Maurice (d. 864); and +his relations with his uncles, Charles the Bald and Louis the German, +were influenced by his desire to obtain their support to this plan. +Although quarrels and reconciliations between the three kings followed +each other in quick succession, in general it may be said that Louis +favoured the divorce, and Charles opposed it, while neither lost sight +of the fact that Lothair was without male issue. Lothair, whose desire +for the divorce was prompted by his affection for a certain Waldrada, +put away Teutberga; but Hucbert took up arms on her behalf, and after +she had submitted successfully to the ordeal of water, Lothair was +compelled to restore her in 858. Still pursuing his purpose, he won the +support of his brother, the emperor Louis II., by a cession of lands, +and obtained the consent of the local clergy to the divorce and to his +marriage with Waldrada, which was celebrated in 862. A synod of Frankish +bishops met at Metz in 863 and confirmed this decision, but Teutberga +fled to the court of Charles the Bald, and Pope Nicholas I. declared +against the decision of the synod. An attack on Rome by the emperor was +without result, and in 865 Lothair, convinced that Louis and Charles at +their recent meeting had discussed the partition of his kingdom, and +threatened with excommunication, again took back his wife. Teutberga, +however, either from inclination or compulsion, now expressed her desire +for a divorce, and Lothair went to Italy to obtain the assent of the new +pope Adrian II. Placing a favourable interpretation upon the words of +the pope, he had set out on the return journey, when he was seized with +fever and died at Piacenza on the 8th of August 869. He left, by +Waldrada, a son Hugo who was declared illegitimate, and his kingdom was +divided between Charles the Bald and Louis the German. + + See Hincmar, "Opusculum de divortio Lotharii regis et Tetbergae + reginae," in _Cursus completus patrologiae_, tome cxxv., edited by J. + P. Migne (Paris, 1857-1879); M. Sdralek, _Hinkmars von Rheims + Kanonistisches Gutachten über die Ehescheidung des Königs Lothar II._ + (Freiburg, 1881); E. Dümmler, _Geschichte des ostfränkischen Reiches_ + (Leipzig, 1887-1888); and E. Mühlbacher, _Die Regenten des + Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern_ (Innsbruck, 1881). + + + + +LOTHIAN, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF. MARK KERR, 1st earl of Lothian (d. +1609), was the eldest son of Mark Kerr (d. 1584), abbot, and then +commendator, of Newbattle, or Newbottle, and was a member of the famous +border family of Ker of Cessford. The earls and dukes of Roxburghe, who +are also descended from the Kers of Cessford, have adopted the spelling +Ker, while the earls and marquesses of Lothian have taken the form Kerr. +Like his father, the abbot of Newbattle, Mark Kerr was an extraordinary +lord of session under the Scottish king James VI.; he became Lord +Newbattle in 1587 and was created earl of Lothian in 1606. He was master +of inquests from 1577 to 1606, and he died on the 8th of April 1609, +having had, as report says, thirty-one children by his wife, Margaret +(d. 1617), daughter of John Maxwell, 4th Lord Herries. His son Robert, +the 2nd earl, died without sons in July 1624. He had, in 1621, obtained +a charter from the king enabling his daughter Anne to succeed to his +estates provided that she married a member of the family of Ker. +Consequently in 1631 she married William Ker, son of Robert, 1st earl of +Ancrum (1578-1654), a member of the family of Ker of Ferniehurst, whose +father, William Ker, had been killed in 1590 by Robert Ker, afterwards +1st earl of Roxburghe. Robert was in attendance upon Charles I. both +before and after he came to the throne, and was created earl of Ancrum +in 1633. He was a writer and a man of culture, and among his friends +were the poet Donne and Drummond of Hawthornden. His elder son William +was created earl of Lothian in 1631, the year of his marriage with Anne +Kerr, and Sir William Kerr of Blackhope, a brother of the 2nd earl, who +had taken the title of earl of Lothian in 1624, was forbidden to use it +(see _Correspondence of Sir Robert Ker, earl of Ancrum, and his son +William, third earl of Lothian_, 1875). + +WILLIAM KER (c. 1605-1675), who thus became 3rd earl of Lothian, signed +the Scottish national covenant in 1638 and marched with the Scots into +England in 1640, being present when the English were routed at Newburn, +after which he became governor of Newcastle-on-Tyne. During the Civil +War he was prominent rather as a politician than as a soldier; he +became a Scottish secretary of state in 1649, and was one of the +commissioners who visited Charles II. at Breda in 1650. He died at +Newbattle Abbey, near Edinburgh, in October 1675. William's eldest son +Robert, the 4th earl (1636-1703), supported the Revolution of 1688 and +served William III. in several capacities; he became 3rd earl of Ancrum +on the death of his uncle Charles in 1690, and was created marquess of +Lothian in 1701. His eldest son William, the 2nd marquess (c. +1662-1722), who had been a Scottish peer as Lord Jedburgh since 1692, +was a supporter of the union with England. His son William, the 3rd +marquess (c. 1690-1767), was the father of William Henry, the 4th +marquess, who was wounded at Fontenoy and was present at Culloden. He +was a member of parliament for some years and had reached the rank of +general in the army when he died at Bath on the 12th of April 1775. His +grandson William, the 6th marquess (1763-1824), married Henrietta +(1762-1805), daughter and heiress of John Hobart, 2nd earl of +Buckinghamshire, thus bringing Blickling Hall and the Norfolk estates of +the Hobarts into the Kerr family. In 1821 he was created a peer of the +United Kingdom as Baron Ker and he died on the 27th of April 1824. In +1900 Robert Schomberg Kerr (b. 1874) succeeded his father, Schomberg +Henry, the 9th marquess (1833-1900), as 10th marquess of Lothian. + + + + +LOTHIAN. This name was formerly applied to a considerably larger extent +of country than the three counties of Linlithgow, Edinburgh and +Haddington. Roxburghshire and Berwickshire at all events were included +in it, probably also the upper part of Tweeddale (at least Selkirk). It +would thus embrace the eastern part of the Lowlands from the Forth to +the Cheviots, i.e. all the English part of Scotland in the 11th century. +This region formed from the 7th century onward part of the kingdoms of +Bernicia and Northumbria, though we have no definite information as to +the date or events by which it came into English hands. In Roman times, +according to Ptolemy, it was occupied by a people called Otadini, whose +name is thought to have been preserved in Manaw Gododin, the home of the +British king Cunedda before he migrated to North Wales. There is no +reason to doubt that the district remained in Welsh hands until towards +the close of the 6th century; for in the _Historia Brittonum_ the +Bernician king Theodoric, whose traditional date is 572-579, is said to +have been engaged in war with four Welsh kings. One of these was +Rhydderch Hen who, as we know from Adamnan, reigned at Dumbarton, while +another named Urien is said to have besieged Theodoric in Lindisfarne. +If this statement is to be believed it is hardly likely that the English +had by this time obtained a firm footing beyond the Tweed. At all events +there can be little doubt that the whole region was conquered within the +next fifty years. Most probably the greater part of it was conquered by +the Northumbrian king Æthelfrith, who, according to Bede, ravaged the +territory of the Britons more often than any other English king, in some +places reducing the natives to dependence, in others exterminating them +and replacing them by English settlers. + +In the time of Oswic the English element became predominant in northern +Britain. His supremacy was acknowledged both by the Welsh in the western +Lowlands and by the Scots in Argyllshire. On the death of the Pictish +king Talorgan, the son of his brother Eanfrith, he seems to have +obtained the sovereignty over a considerable part of that nation also. +Early in Ecgfrith's reign an attempt at revolt on the part of the Picts +proved unsuccessful. We hear at this time also of the establishment of +an English bishopric at Abercorn, which, however, only lasted for a few +years. By the disastrous overthrow of Ecgfrith in 685 the Picts, Scots +and some of the Britons also recovered their independence. Yet we find a +succession of English bishops at Whithorn from 730 to the 9th century, +from which it may be inferred that the south-west coast had already by +this time become English. The Northumbrian dominions were again enlarged +by Eadberht, who in 750 is said to have annexed Kyle, the central part +of Ayrshire, with other districts. In conjunction with Oengus mac +Fergus, king of the Picts, he also reduced the whole of the Britons to +submission in 756. But this subjugation was not lasting, and the British +kingdom, though now reduced to the basin of the Clyde, whence its +inhabitants are known as Strathclyde Britons, continued to exist for +nearly three centuries. After Eadberht's time we hear little of events +in the northern part of Northumbria, and there is some reason for +suspecting that English influence in the south-west began to decline +before long, as our list of bishops of Whithorn ceases early in the 9th +century; the evidence on this point, however, is not so decisive as is +commonly stated. About 844 an important revolution took place among the +Picts. The throne was acquired by Kenneth mac Alpin, a prince of +Scottish family, who soon became formidable to the Northumbrians. He is +said to have invaded "Saxonia" six times, and to have burnt Dunbar and +Melrose. After the disastrous battle at York in 867 the Northumbrians +were weakened by the loss of the southern part of their territories, and +between 883 and 889 the whole country as far as Lindisfarne was ravaged +by the Scots. In 919, however, we find their leader Aldred calling in +Constantine II., king of the Scots, to help them. A few years later +together with Constantine and the Britons they acknowledged the +supremacy of Edward the Elder. After his death, however, both the Scots +and the Britons were for a time in alliance with the Norwegians from +Ireland, and consequently Æthelstan is said to have ravaged a large +portion of the Scottish king's territories in 934. Brunanburh, where +Æthelstan defeated the confederates in 937, is believed by many to have +been in Dumfriesshire, but we have no information as to the effects of +the battle on the northern populations. By this time, however, the +influence of the Scottish kingdom certainly seems to have increased in +the south, and in 945 the English king Edmund gave Cumberland, i.e. +apparently the British kingdom of Strathclyde, to Malcolm I., king of +the Scots, in consideration of his alliance with him. Malcolm's +successor Indulph (954-962) succeeded in capturing Edinburgh, which +thenceforth remained in possession of the Scots. His successors made +repeated attempts to extend their territory southwards, and certain late +chroniclers state that Kenneth II. in 971-975 obtained a grant of the +whole of Lothian from Edgar. Whatever truth this story may contain, the +cession of the province was finally effected by Malcolm II. by force of +arms. At his first attempt in 1006 he seems to have suffered a great +defeat from Uhtred, the son of earl Waltheof. Twelve years later, +however, he succeeded in conjunction with Eugenius, king of Strathclyde, +in annihilating the Northumbrian army at Carham on the Tweed, and Eadulf +Cudel, the brother and successor of Uhtred, ceded all his territory to +the north of that river as the price of peace. Henceforth in spite of an +invasion by Aldred, the son of Uhtred, during the reign of Duncan, +Lothian remained permanently in possession of the Scottish kings. In the +reign of Malcolm III. and his son, the English element appears to have +acquired considerable influence in the kingdom. Some three years before +he obtained his father's throne Malcolm had by the help of earl Siward +secured the government of Cumbria (Strathclyde) with which Lothian was +probably united. Then in 1068 he received a large number of exiles from +England, amongst them the Ætheling Eadgar, whose sister Margaret he +married. Four other sons in succession occupied the throne, and in the +time of the youngest, David, who held most of the south of Scotland as +an earldom from 1107-1124 and the whole kingdom from 1124-1153, the +court seems already to have been composed chiefly of English and +Normans. + + AUTHORITIES.--Bede, _Historia Ecclesiastica_ (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, + 1896); _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ (ed. Earle and Plummer, Oxford, 1899); + Simeon of Durham (Rolls Series, ed. T. Arnold, 1882); W. F. Skene, + _Chronicle of Picts and Scots_ (Edinburgh, 1867), and _Celtic + Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1876-1880); and J. Rhys, _Celtic Britain_ + (London). (F. G. M. B.) + + + + +LOTI, PIERRE [the pen-name of LOUIS MARIE JULIEN VIAUD] (1850- ), +French author, was born at Rochefort on the 14th of January 1850. The +Viauds are an old Protestant family, and Pierre Loti consistently +adhered, at least nominally, to the faith of his fathers. Of the +picturesque and touching incidents of his childhood he has given a very +vivid account in _Le Roman d'un enfant_ (1890). His education began in +Rochefort, but at the age of seventeen, being destined for the navy, he +entered the naval school, Le Borda, and gradually rose in his +profession, attaining the rank of captain in 1906. In January 1910 he +was placed on the reserve list. His pseudonym is said to be due to his +extreme shyness and reserve in early life, which made his comrades call +him after _le Loti_, an Indian flower which loves to blush unseen. He +was never given to books or study (when he was received at the French +Academy, he had the courage to say, "Loti ne sait pas lire"), and it was +not until 1876 that he was persuaded to write down and publish some +curious experiences at Constantinople, in _Aziyadé_, a book which, like +so many of Loti's, seems half a romance, half an autobiography. He +proceeded to the South Seas, and on leaving Tahiti published the +Polynesian idyll, originally called _Rarahu_ (1880), which was reprinted +as _Le Mariage de Loti_, and which first introduced to the wider public +an author of remarkable originality and charm. _Le Roman d'un spahi_, a +record of the melancholy adventures of a soldier in Senegambia, belongs +to 1881. In 1882 Loti issued a collection of short studies under the +general title of _Fleurs d'ennui_. In 1883 he achieved the widest +celebrity, for not only did he publish _Mon frère Yves_, a novel +describing the life of a French bluejacket in all parts of the +world--perhaps his most characteristic production--but he was involved +in a public discussion in a manner which did him great credit. While +taking part as a naval officer in the Tongking War, Loti had exposed in +the _Figaro_ a series of scandals which followed on the capture of Hué +(1883), and was suspended from the service for more than a year. He +continued for some time nearly silent, but in 1886 he published a novel +of life among the Breton fisher-folk, called _Pêcheur d'islande_, the +most popular of all his writings. In 1887 he brought out a volume of +extraordinary merit, which has not received the attention it deserves; +this is _Propos d'exil_, a series of short studies of exotic places, in +his peculiar semi-autobiographic style. The fantastic novel of Japanese +manners, _Madame Chrysanthème_, belongs to the same year. Passing over +one or two slighter productions, we come in 1890 to _Au Maroc_, the +record of a journey to Fez in company with a French embassy. A +collection of strangely confidential and sentimental reminiscences, +called _Le Livre de la pitié et de la mort_, belongs to 1891. Loti was +on board his ship at the port of Algiers when news was brought to him of +his election, on the 21st of May 1891, to the French Academy. In 1892 he +published _Fantôme d'orient_, another dreamy study of life in +Constantinople, a sort of continuation of _Aziyadé_. He described a +visit to the Holy Land, somewhat too copiously, in three volumes +(1895-1896), and wrote a novel, _Ramuntcho_ (1897), a story of manners +in the Basque province, which is equal to his best writings. In 1900 he +visited British India, with the view of describing what he saw; the +result appeared in 1903--_L'Inde_ (_sans les Anglais_). At his best +Pierre Loti was unquestionably the finest descriptive writer of the day. +In the delicate exactitude with which he reproduced the impression given +to his own alert nerves by unfamiliar forms, colours, sounds and +perfumes, he was without a rival. But he was not satisfied with this +exterior charm; he desired to blend with it a moral sensibility of the +extremest refinement, at once sensual and ethereal. Many of his best +books are long sobs of remorseful memory, so personal, so intimate, that +an English reader is amazed to find such depth of feeling compatible +with the power of minutely and publicly recording what is felt. In spite +of the beauty and melody and fragrance of Loti's books his mannerisms +are apt to pall upon the reader, and his later books of pure description +were rather empty. His greatest successes were gained in the species of +confession, half-way between fact and fiction, which he essayed in his +earlier books. When all his limitations, however, have been rehearsed, +Pierre Loti remains, in the mechanism of style and cadence, one of the +most original and most perfect French writers of the second half of the +19th century. Among his later works were: _La Troisième jeunesse de Mme +Prune_ (1905); _Les Désenchantées_ (1906, Eng. trans. by C. Bell); _La +Mort de Philae_ (1908); _Judith Renaudin_ (Théâtre Antoine, 1904), a +five-act historical play based on an earlier book; and, in +collaboration with Émile Vedel, a translation of _King Lear_, also +produced at the Théâtre Antoine in 1904. (E. G.) + + + + +LÖTSCHEN PASS, or LÖTSCHBERG, an easy glacier pass (8842 ft.) leading +from Kandersteg in the Bernese Oberland to the Lötschen valley in the +Valais. It is a very old pass, first mentioned distinctly in 1352, but +probably crossed previously by the Valaisans who colonized various parts +of the Bernese Oberland. In 1384 and again in 1419 battles were fought +on it between the Bernese and the Valaisans, while in 1698 a mule path +(of which traces still exist) was constructed on the Bernese slope, +though not continued beyond owing to the fear of the Valaisans that the +Bernese would come over and alter their religion. In 1906 the piercing +of a tunnel (8½ m. long) beneath this pass was begun, starting a little +above Kandersteg and ending at Goppenstein near the mouth of the +Lötschen valley. Subsidies were granted by both the confederation and +the canton of Bern. This pass is to be carefully distinguished from the +Lötschenlücke (10,512 ft.), another easy glacier pass which leads from +the head of the Lötschen valley to the Great Aletsch glacier. + (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +LOTTERIES. The word lottery[1] has no very definite signification. It +may be applied to any process of determining prizes by lot, whether the +object be amusement or gambling or public profit. In the Roman +Saturnalia and in the banquets of aristocratic Romans the object was +amusement; the guests received _apophoreta_. The same plan was followed +on a magnificent scale by some of the emperors. Nero gave such prizes as +a house or a slave. Heliogabalus introduced an element of absurdity--one +ticket for a golden vase, another for six flies. This custom descended +to the festivals given by the feudal and merchant princes of Europe, +especially of Italy; and it formed a prominent feature of the splendid +court hospitality of Louis XIV. In the Italian republics of the 16th +century the lottery principle was applied to encourage the sale of +merchandise. The lotto of Florence and the seminario of Genoa are well +known, and Venice established a monopoly and drew a considerable revenue +for the state. The first letters patent for a lottery in France were +granted in 1539 by Francis I., and in 1656 the Italian, Lorenzo Tonti +(the originator of "Tontines") opened another for the building of a +stone bridge between the Louvre and the Faubourg St Germain. The +institution became very popular in France, and gradually assumed an +important place in the government finance. The parlements frequently +protested against it, but it had the support of Mazarin, and L. +Phelypeaux, comte de Pontchartrain, by this means raised the expenses of +the Spanish Succession War. Necker, in his _Administration des +finances_, estimates the public charge for lotteries at 4,000,000 livres +per annum. There were also lotteries for the benefit of religious +communities and charitable purposes. Two of the largest were the +_Loteries de Piété_ and _Des Enfans Trouvés_. These and also the great +_Loterie de l'École militaire_ were practically merged in the _Loterie +Royale_ by the decree of 1776, suppressing all private lotteries in +France. The financial basis of these larger lotteries was to take +(5/24)ths for expenses and benefit, and return (19/24)ths to the public +who subscribed. The calculation of chances had become a familiar +science. It is explained in detail by Caminade de Castres in _Enc. méth. +finances_, ii. s.v. "Loterie." The names of the winning numbers in the +first drawing were (1) _extrait_, (2) _ambe_, (3) _terne_, (4) +_quaterne_, (5) _quine_. After this there were four drawings called +_primes gratuites_. The _extrait_ gave fifteen times the price of the +ticket; the _quine_ gave one million times the price. These are said to +be much more favourable terms than were given in Vienna, Frankfort and +other leading European cities at the end of the 18th century. The +_Loterie Royale_ was ultimately suppressed in 1836. Under the law of the +29th of May 1844 lotteries may be held for the assistance of charity and +the fine arts. In 1878 twelve million lottery tickets of one franc each +were sold in Paris to pay for prizes to exhibitors in the great +Exhibition and expenses of working-men visitors. The first prize was +worth £5000; the second, £4000, and the third and fourth £2000 each. The +Société du Crédit Foncier, and many of the large towns, are permitted to +contract loans, the periodical repayments of which are determined by +lot. This practice, which is prohibited in Germany and England, +resembles the older system of giving higher and lower rates of interest +for money according to lot. Lotteries were suppressed in Belgium in +1830, Sweden in 1841 and Switzerland in 1865, but they still figure in +the state budgets of Austria-Hungary, Prussia and other German States, +Holland, Spain, Italy and Denmark. In addition to lottery loans, +ordinary lotteries (_occasion lotteries_) are numerous in various +countries of the continent of Europe. They are of various magnitude and +are organized for a variety of purposes, such as charity, art, +agriculture, church-building, &c. It is becoming the tendency, however, +to discourage private and indiscriminate lotteries, and even state +lotteries which contribute to the revenue. In Austria-Hungary and +Germany, for instance, every year sees fewer places where tickets can be +taken for them receive licenses. In 1904 a proposal for combining a +working-class savings bank with a national lottery was seriously +considered by the Prussian ministry. The scheme, which owes its +conception to August Scherl, editor of the Berlin _Lokalanzeiger_, is an +endeavour to utilize the love of gambling for the purpose of promoting +thrift among the working-classes. It was proposed to make weekly +collections from subscribers, in fixed amounts, ranging from sixpence to +four shillings. The interest on the money deposited would not go to the +depositors but would be set aside to form the prizes. Three hundred +thousand tickets, divisible into halves, quarters and eighths, according +to the sum deposited weekly, would form a series of 12,500 prizes, of a +total value of £27,000. At the same time, the subscriber, while having +his ordinary lottery chances of these prizes, still has to his credit +intact the amount which he has subscribed week by week. + +In England the earliest lotteries sanctioned by government were for such +purposes as the repair of harbours in 1569, and the Virginia Company in +1612. In the lottery of 1569, 40,000 chances were sold at ten shillings +each, the prizes being "plate, and certain sorts of merchandises." In +1698 lotteries, with the exception of the Royal Oak lottery for the +benefit of the Royal Fishing Company, were prohibited as common +nuisances, by which children, servants and other unwary persons had been +ruined. This prohibition was in the 18th century gradually extended to +illegal insurances on marriages and other events, and to a great many +games with dice, such as faro, basset, hazard, except backgammon and +games played in the royal palace. In spite of these prohibitions, the +government from 1709 down to 1824 annually raised considerable sums in +lotteries authorized by act of parliament. The prizes were in the form +of terminable or perpetual annuities. The £10 tickets were sold at a +premium of say 40% to contractors who resold them in retail (sometimes +in one-sixteenth parts) by "morocco men," or men with red leather books +who travelled through the country. As the drawing extended over forty +days, a very pernicious system arose of insuring the fate of tickets +during the drawing for a small premium of 4d. or 6d. This was partly +cured by the Little Go Act of 1802, directed against the itinerant +wheels which plied between the state lotteries, and partly by Perceval's +Act in 1806, which confined the drawing of each lottery to one day. From +1793 to 1824 the government made an average yearly profit of £346,765. +Cope, one of the largest contractors, is said to have spent £36,000 in +advertisements in a single year. The English lotteries were used to +raise loans for general purposes, but latterly they were confined to +particular objects, such as the improvement of London, the disposal of +a museum, the purchase of a picture gallery, &c. Through the efforts of +Lord Lyttleton and others a strong public opinion was formed against +them, and in 1826 they were finally prohibited. An energetic proposal to +revive the system was made before the select committee on metropolitan +improvements in 1830, but it was not listened to. By a unique blunder in +legislation, authority was given to hold a lottery under an act of 1831 +which provided a scheme for the improvement of the city of Glasgow. +These "Glasgow lotteries" were suppressed by an act of 1834. Art Unions +were legalized by the Art Unions Act 1846. The last lottery prominently +before the public in England was that of Dethier's twelfth-cake lottery, +which was suppressed on the 27th of December 1860. As defined at the +beginning of this article, the word lottery has a meaning wide enough to +include missing-word competitions, distributions by tradesmen of prize +coupons, sweepstakes, &c. See _Report of Joint Select Committee on +Lotteries, &c._ (1908). The statute law in Scotland is the same as in +England. At common law in Scotland it is probable that all lotteries and +raffles, for whatever purpose held, may be indicted as nuisances. The +art unions are supposed to be protected by a special statute. + +_United States._--The American Congress of 1776 instituted a national +lottery. Most states at that time legalized lotteries for public +objects, and before 1820 the Virginia legislature passed seventy acts +authorizing lotteries for various public purposes, such as schools, +roads, &c.--about 85% of the subscriptions being returned in prizes. At +an early period (1795) the city of Washington was empowered to set up +lotteries as a mode of raising money for public purposes; and this +authorization from the Maryland legislature was approved by an act of +the Federal Congress in 1812. In 1833 they were prohibited in New York +and Massachusetts and gradually in the other states, until they survived +only in Louisiana. In that state, the Louisiana State Lottery, a company +chartered in 1868, had a monopoly for which it paid $40,000 to the state +treasury. Its last charter was granted in 1879 for a period of +twenty-five years, and a renewal was refused in 1890. In 1890 Congress +forbade the use of the mails for promoting any lottery enterprise by a +statute so stringent that it was held to make it a penal offence to +employ them to further the sale of Austrian government bonds, issued +under a scheme for drawing some by lot for payment at a premium (see +_Horner_ v. _United States_, 147 United States Reports, 449). This had +the effect of compelling the Louisiana State Lottery to move its +quarters to Honduras, in which place it still exists, selling its bonds +to a considerable extent in the Southern States. + + Since lotteries have become illegal there have been a great number of + judicial decisions defining a lottery. In general, where skill or + judgment is to be exercised there is no lottery, the essential element + of which is chance or lot. There are numerous statutes against + lotteries, the reason being given that they "tend to promote a + gambling spirit," and that it is the duty of the state to "protect the + morals and advance the welfare of the people." In New York the + Constitution of 1846 forbade lotteries, and by § 324 of the Penal Code + a lottery is declared "unlawful and a public nuisance." "Contriving" + and advertising lotteries is also penal. The following have been held + illegal lotteries: In New York, a concert, the tickets for which + entitled the holder to a prize to be drawn by lot; in Indiana, + offering a gold watch to the purchaser of goods who guesses the number + of beans in a bottle; in Texas, selling "prize candy" boxes; and + operating a nickel-in-the-slot machine--so also in Louisiana; in + Massachusetts, the "policy" or "envelope game," or a "raffle"; in + Kentucky (1905), prize coupon packages, the coupons having to spell a + certain word (_U.S._ v. _Jefferson_, 134 Fed. R. 299); in Kansas + (1907) it was held by the Supreme Court that the gift of a hat-pin to + each purchaser was not illegal as a "gift enterprise," there being no + chance or lot. In Oklahoma (1907) it was held that the making of + contracts for the payment of money, the certainty in value of return + being dependent on chance, was a lottery (_Fidelity Fund Co._ v. + _Vaughan_, 90 Pac. Rep. 34). The chief features of a lottery are + "procuring through lot or chance, by the investment of a sum of money + or something of value, some greater amount of money or thing of + greater value. When such are the chief features of any scheme whatever + it may be christened, or however it may be guarded or concealed by + cunningly devised conditions or screens, it is under the law a + lottery" (_U.S._ v. _Wallace_, 58, Fed. Rep. 942). In 1894 and 1897 + Congress forbade the importation of lottery tickets or advertisements + into the United States. In 1899, setting up or promoting lotteries in + Alaska was prohibited by Congress, and in 1900 it forbade any lottery + or sale of lottery tickets in Hawaii. In Porto Rico lotteries, raffles + and gift-enterprises are forbidden (Penal Code, 1902, § 291). + + AUTHORITIES.--_Critique hist. pol. mor. econ. et comm. sur les + loteries anc. et mod. spirituelles et temporelles des états et des + églises_ (3 vols., Amsterdam, 1697), by the Bolognese historian + Gregorio Leti; J. Dessaulx, _De la passion du jeu depuis les anciens + temps jusqu'à nos jours_ (Paris, 1779); Endemann, _Beiträge zur + Geschichte der Lottrie und zur heutigen Lotterie_ (Bonn, 1882); + Larson, _Lottrie und Volkswirtschaft_ (Berlin, 1894); J. Ashton, + _History of English Lotteries_ (1893); _Annual Report of the American + Historical Association_ (1892); _Journal of the American Social + Science Association_, xxxvi. 17. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The word "lottery" is directly derived from Ital. _lotteria_, cf. + Fr. _loterie_, formed from _lotto_, lot, game of chance. "Lot" is in + origin a Teutonic word, adopted into Romanic languages. In O. Eng. it + appears as _hlot_, cf. Dutch _lot_, Ger. _Loos_, Dan. _lod_, &c. The + meaning of the Teutonic root _hleut_ from which these words have + derived is unknown. Primarily "lot" meant the object, such as a disk + or counter of wood, a pebble, bean or the like, which was drawn or + cast to decide by chance, under divine guidance, various matters, + such as disputes, divisions of property, selection of officers and + frequently as a method of divination in ancient times. From this + original sense the meaning develops into that which falls to a person + by lot, chance or fate, then to any portion of land, &c., allotted to + a person, and hence, quite generally, of a quantity of anything. + + + + +LOTTI, ANTONIO (1667?-1740), Italian musical composer, was the son of +Matteo Lotti, Kapellmeister to the court of Hanover. He was born, +however, at Venice and as a pupil of Legrenzi. He entered the Doge's +chapel as a boy, and in 1689 was engaged as an alto singer, succeeding +later to the posts of deputy organist (1690), second organist (1692), +first organist (1704), and, finally, in 1736 Maestro di Cappella at St +Mark's church. He was also a composer of operas, and having attracted +the interest of the crown prince of Saxony during his visit to Venice in +1712, he was invited to Dresden, where he went in 1717. After producing +three operas there he was obliged to return to his duties at Venice in +1719. He died on the 5th of January 1740. Like many other Venetian +composers he wrote operas for Vienna, and enjoyed a considerable +reputation outside Italy. A volume of madrigals published in 1705 +contains the famous _In una siepe ombrosa_, passed off by Bononcini as +his own in London. Another is quoted by Martini in his _Saggio di +Contrappunto_. Among his pupils were Alberti, Bassani, Galuppi, +Gasparini and Marcello. Burney justly praises his church music, which is +severe in style, but none the less modern in its grace and pathos. A +fine setting of the _Dies Irae_ is in the Imperial Library at Vienna, +and some of his masses have been printed in the collections of Proske +and Lück. + + + + +LOTTO, LORENZO (c. 1480-1556), Italian painter, is variously stated to +have been born at Bergamo, Venice and Treviso, between 1475 and 1480, +but a document published by Dr Bampo proves that he was born in Venice, +and it is to be gathered from his will that 1480 was probably the year +of his birth. Overshadowed by the genius of his three great +contemporaries, Titian, Giorgione and Palma, he had been comparatively +neglected by art historians until Mr Bernhard Berenson devoted to him an +"essay in constructive art criticism," which not only restores to him +his rightful position among the great masters of the Renaissance, but +also throws clear light upon the vexed question of his artistic descent. +Earlier authorities have made Lotto a pupil of Giovanni Bellini +(Morelli), of Previtali (Crowe and Cavalcaselle), of Leonardo da Vinci +(Lomazzo), whilst others discovered in his work the influences of Cima, +Carpaccio, Dürer, Palma and Francia. Mr Berenson has, however, proved +that he was the pupil of Alvise Vivarini, whose religious severity and +asceticism remained paramount in his work, even late in his life, when +he was attracted by the rich glow of Giorgione's and Titian's colour. +What distinguishes Lotto from his more famous contemporaries is his +psychological insight into character and his personal vision--his +unconventionality, which is sufficient to account for the comparative +neglect suffered by him when his art is placed beside the more typical +art of Titian and Giorgione, the supreme expression of the character of +the period. + +That Lotto, who was one of the most productive painters of his time, +could work for thirty years without succumbing to the mighty influence +of Titian's sumptuous colour, is explained by the fact that during these +years he was away from Venice, as is abundantly proved by documents and +by the evidence of signed and dated works. The first of these documents, +dated 1503, proves him to have lived at Treviso at this period. His +earliest authentic pictures, Sir Martin Conway's "Danaë" (about 1498) +and the "St Jerome" of the Louvre (a similar subject is at the Madrid +Gallery ascribed to Titian), as indeed all the works executed before +1509, have unmistakable Vivarinesque traits in the treatment of the +drapery and landscape, and cool grey tonality. To this group belong the +Madonnas at Bridgewater House, Villa Borghese, Naples, and Sta Cristina +near Treviso, the Recanati altarpiece, the "Assumption of the Virgin" at +Asolo, and the portrait of a young man at Hampton Court. We find him at +Rome between 1508 and 1512, at the time Raphael was painting in the +Stanza della Signatura. A document in the Corsini library mentions that +Lotto received 100 ducats as an advance payment for fresco-work in the +upper floor of the Vatican, but there is no evidence that this work was +ever executed. In the next dated works, the "Entombment" at Jesi (1512), +and the "Transfiguration," "St James," and "St Vincent" at Recanati, +Lotto has abandoned the dryness and cool colour of his earlier style, +and adopted a fluid method and a blonde, joyful colouring. In 1513 we +find him at Bergamo, where he had entered into a contract to paint for +500 gold ducats an altarpiece for S. Stefano. The picture was only +completed in 1516, and is now at S. Bartolommeo. From the next years, +spent mostly at Bergamo, with intervals in Venice and Jesi in the +Marches, date the Dresden "Madonna," "Christ taking leave of his Mother" +at the Berlin Gallery, the "Bride and Bridegroom" at Madrid, the +National Gallery "Family Group" and portrait of the Protonothary +Giuliano, several portraits in Berlin, Milan and Vienna, numerous +altarpieces in and near Bergamo, the strangely misnamed "Triumph of +Chastity" at the Rospigliosi Palace in Rome, and the portrait of Andrea +Odoni at Hampton Court. In 1526 or 1527 Lotto returned to Venice, where +Titian ruled supreme in the world of art; and it was only natural that +the example of the great master should have fired him to emulation, +though his experiments in this direction were confined to an attempt at +rivalling the master's rich and ruddy colour-schemes. Even in the +Carmine altarpiece, the "St Nicholas of Bari," which is his nearest +approach to Titian, he retained his individualized, as opposed to +Titian's generalized, expression of emotion. But it was only a passing +phase, and he soon returned to the cooler schemes of his earlier work. +Among his chief pictures executed in Venice between 1529 and 1540 are +the "Christ and the Adulteress," now at the Louvre, the "Visitation" at +the Jesi Library, the "Crucifixion" at Monte S. Giusto, the Madonna at +the Uffizi, the "Madonna and Saints" at Cingoli, and some portraits at +the Berlin and Vienna museums, the Villa Borghese and Doria Palace in +Rome, and at Dorchester House. He is again to be found at Treviso from +1542-1545, at Ancona in 1550, the year in which he entirely lost his +voice; and in 1552 he "devoted his person and all his property to the +Holy Virgin of Loreto" and took up his abode with the monks of that +shrine. He died in 1556. A codex in his own handwriting, discovered in +the archives of Loreto, not only includes a complete statement of his +accounts from about 1539 to his death, but has a most interesting entry +from which we gather that in 1540 Lotto completed the portraits of +Martin Luther and his wife. These portraits could not have been painted +from life; they were presumably executed from some contemporary +engraving. + + See _Lorenzo Lotto_, by Bernard Berenson (London, 1901). + + + + +LOTTO (Ital. for "lot"), a gambling game usually called _Keno_ in +America, played by any number of persons upon large boards or cards, +each of which is divided into three horizontal rows of nine spaces, four +spaces in each row being left blank and the other five marked with +numbers up to 90. Each card is designated by a general number. The cards +usually lie on the gambling-table, and a player may buy from the bank as +many as he cares to use, each card being registered or _pegged_ on an +exposed table as soon as bought. Ninety small ivory markers, generally +balls flattened on one side, numbered from 1 to 90, are placed in a bag +and shaken out one by one, or, more usually, in a so-called +_keno-goose_, a kind of urn with a spout through which the balls are +allowed to roll by means of a spring. When a number falls out, the +banker, or _keno-roller_, calls it out distinctly, and each player upon +whose card that number occurs places a mark over it. This is repeated +until one player has all the numbers in one row of his card covered, +upon which he calls out "Keno!" and wins all the money staked excepting +a percentage to the bank. + + + + +LOTUS, a popular name applied to several plants. The lotus fruits of the +Greeks belonged to _Zizyphus Lotus_, a bush native in south Europe with +fruits as large as sloes, containing a mealy substance which can be used +for making bread and also a fermented drink. In ancient times the fruits +were an important article of food among the poor; whence "lotophagi" or +lotus-eaters. _Zizyphus_ is a member of the natural order Rhamnaceae to +which belongs the British buckthorn. The Egyptian lotus was a +water-lily, _Nymphaea Lotus_; as also is the sacred lotus of the Hindus, +_Nelumbium speciosum_. The lotus tree, known to the Romans as the Libyan +lotus, and planted by them for shade, was probably _Celtis australis_, +the nettle-tree (q.v.), a southern European tree, a native of the elm +family, with fruits like small cherries, which are first red and then +black. _Lotus_ of botanists is a genus of the pea-family +(_Leguminosae_), containing a large number of species of herbs and +undershrubs widely distributed in the temperate regions of the old +world. It is represented in Britain by _L. corniculatus_, bird's foot +trefoil, a low-growing herb, common in pastures and waste places, with +clusters of small bright yellow pea-like flowers, which are often +streaked with crimson; the popular name is derived from the pods which +when ripe spread like the toes of a bird's foot. + + + + +LOTUS-EATERS (Gr. [Greek: Lôtophagoi]), a Libyan tribe known to the +Greeks as early as the time of Homer. Herodotus (iv. 177) describes +their country as in the Libyan district bordering on the Syrtes, and +says that a caravan route led from it to Egypt. Victor Bérard identifies +it with the modern Jerba. When Odysseus reached the country of the +Lotophagi, many of his sailors after eating the lotus lost all wish to +return home. Both Greeks and Romans used the expression "to eat the +lotus" to denote forgetfulness (cf. Tennyson's poem "The Lotus-Eaters"). + + There has been considerable discussion as to the identification of the + Homeric lotus. Some have held that it is a prickly shrub, Zizyphus + Lotus, which bears a sweet-tasting fruit, and still grows in the old + home of the Lotophagi. It is eaten by the natives, who also make a + kind of wine from the juice. P. Champault (_Phéniciens et Grecs en + Italie d'après l'Odyssée_, p. 400, note 2), however, maintains that + the lotus was a date; Victor Bérard (_Les Phéniciens et l'Odyssée_, + 1902-1903, ii. 102) is doubtful, but contends that it was certainly a + tree-fruit. If either of these be correct, then the lotus of _Od._ iv. + 603-604 is quite a different plant, a kind of clover. Now Strabo + (xvii. 829a) calls the lotus [Greek: poan tina kai rhizan]. Putting + these two references together with Sulpicius Severus, _Dialogi_ i. 4. + 4, R. M. Henry suggests that the Homeric lotus was really the [Greek: + poa] of Strabo, i.e. a kind of clover (_Classical Review_, December + 1906, p. 435). + + + + +LOTZE, RUDOLF HERMANN (1817-1881), German philosopher, was born in +Bautzen on the 21st of May 1817, the son of a physician. He received his +education in the gymnasium of Zittau under teachers who inspired him +with an enduring love of the classical authors, as we see from his +translation of the _Antigone_ of Sophocles into Latin verse, published +when he had reached middle life. He went to the university of Leipzig as +a student of philosophy and natural sciences, but entered officially as +a student of medicine. He was then only seventeen. It appears that thus +early Lotze's studies were governed by two distinct interests. The first +was scientific, based upon mathematical and physical studies under the +guidance of E. H. Weber, W. Volckmann and G. T. Fechner. The other was +his aesthetical and artistic interest, which was developed under the +care of C. H. Weisse. To the former he owes his appreciation of exact +investigation and a complete knowledge of the aims of science, to the +latter an equal admiration for the great circle of ideas which had been +diffused by the teaching of Fichte, Schelling and Hegel. Each of these +influences, which early in life must have been familiar to him, tempered +and modified the other. The true method of science which he possessed +forced him to condemn as useless the entire form which Schelling's and +Hegel's expositions had adopted, especially the dialectic method of the +latter, whilst his love of art and beauty, and his appreciation of moral +purposes, revealed to him the existence of a trans-phenomenal world of +values into which no exact science could penetrate. It is evident how +this initial position at once defined to him the tasks which philosophy +had to perform. First there were the natural sciences, themselves only +just emerging from a confused conception of their true method; +especially those which studied the borderland of physical and mental +phenomena, the medical sciences; and pre-eminently that science which +has since become so popular, the science of biology. + +Lotze's first essay was his dissertation _De futurae biologiae +principibus philosophicis_, with which he gained (1838) the degree of +doctor of medicine, after having only four months previously got the +degree of doctor of philosophy. Then, secondly, there arose the question +whether the methods of exact science sufficed to explain the connexion +of phenomena, or whether for the explanation of this the thinking mind +was forced to resort to some hypothesis not immediately verifiable by +observation, but dictated by higher aspirations and interests. And, if +to satisfy these we were forced to maintain the existence of a world of +moral standards, it was, thirdly, necessary to form some opinion as to +the relation of these moral standards of value to the forms and facts of +phenomenal existence. These different tasks, which philosophy had to +fulfil, mark pretty accurately the aims of Lotze's writings, and the +order in which they were published. He laid the foundation of his +philosophical system very early in his _Metaphysik_ (Leipzig, 1841) and +his _Logik_ (1843), short books published while he was still a junior +lecturer at Leipzig, from which university he migrated to Göttingen, +succeeding Herbart in the chair of philosophy. But it was only during +the last decade of his life that he ventured, with much hesitation, to +present his ideas in a systematic and final form. The two books +mentioned remained unnoticed by the reading public, and Lotze first +became known to a larger circle through a series of works which aimed at +establishing in the study of the physical and mental phenomena of the +human organism in its normal and diseased states the same general +principles which had been adopted in the investigation of inorganic +phenomena. These works were his _Allgemeine Pathologie und Therapie als +mechanische Naturwissenschaften_ (Leipzig, 1842, 2nd ed., 1848), the +articles "Lebenskraft" (1843) and "Seele und Seelenleben" (1846) in Rud. +Wagner's _Handwörterbuch der Physiologie_, his _Allgemeine Physiologie +des Körperlichen Lebens_ (Leipzig, 1851), and his _Medizinische +Psychologie oder Physiologie der Seele_ (Leipzig, 1852). + +When Lotze published these works, medical science was still much under +the influence of Schelling's philosophy of nature. The mechanical laws, +to which external things were subject, were conceived as being valid +only in the inorganic world; in the organic and mental worlds these +mechanical laws were conceived as being disturbed or overridden by other +powers, such as the influence of final causes, the existence of types, +the work of vital and mental forces. This confusion Lotze, who had been +trained in the school of mathematical reasoning, tried to dispel. The +laws which govern particles of matter in the inorganic world govern them +likewise if they are joined into an organism. A phenomenon _a_, if +followed by _b_ in the one case, is followed by the same _b_ also in the +other case. Final causes, vital and mental forces, the soul itself can, +if they act at all, only act through the inexorable mechanism of natural +laws. As we therefore have only to do with the study of existing +complexes of material and spiritual phenomena, the changes in these must +be explained in science by the rule of mechanical laws, such as obtain +everywhere in the world, and only by such. One of the results of these +investigations was to extend the meaning of the word mechanism, and +comprise under it all laws which obtain in the phenomenal world, not +excepting the phenomena of life and mind. Mechanism was the unalterable +connexion of every phenomenon a with other phenomena _b_, _c_, _d_, +either as following or preceding it; mechanism was the inexorable form +into which the events of this world are cast, and by which they are +connected. The object of those writings was to establish the +all-pervading rule of mechanism. But the mechanical view of nature is +not identical with the materialistic. In the last of the above-mentioned +works the question is discussed at great length how we have to consider +mind, and the relation between mind and body; the answer is--we have to +consider mind as an immaterial principle, its action, however, on the +body and vice versa as purely mechanical, indicated by the fixed laws +of a psycho-physical mechanism. These doctrines of Lotze--though +pronounced with the distinct and reiterated reserve that they did not +contain a solution of the philosophical question regarding the nature, +origin, or deeper meaning of this all-pervading mechanism, neither an +explanation how the action of external things on each other takes place +nor yet of the relation of mind and body, that they were merely a +preliminary formula of practical scientific value, itself requiring a +deeper interpretation--these doctrines were nevertheless by many +considered to be the last word of the philosopher who, denouncing the +reveries of Schelling or the idealistic theories of Hegel, established +the science of life and mind on the same basis as that of material +things. Published as they were during the years when the modern school +of German materialism was at its height,[1] these works of Lotze were +counted among the opposition literature which destroyed the phantom of +Hegelian wisdom and vindicated the independent and self-sufficing +position of empirical philosophy. Even philosophers of the eminence of +I. H. Fichte (the younger) did not escape this misinterpretation of +Lotze's true meaning, though they had his _Metaphysik_ and _Logik_ to +refer to, though he promised in his _Allgemeine Physiologie_ (1851) to +enter in a subsequent work upon the "bounding province between +aesthetics and physiology," and though in his _Medizinische Psychologie_ +he had distinctly stated that his position was neither the idealism of +Hegel nor the realism of Herbart, nor materialism, but that it was the +conviction that the essence of everything is the part it plays in the +realization of some idea which is in itself valuable, that the sense of +an all-pervading mechanism is to be sought in this, that it denotes the +ways and means by which the highest idea, which we may call the idea of +the good, has voluntarily chosen to realize itself. + +The misinterpretations which he had suffered induced Lotze to publish a +small pamphlet of a polemical character (_Streitschriften_, Leipzig, +1857), in which he corrected two mistakes. The opposition which he had +made to Hegel's formalism had induced some to associate him with the +materialistic school, others to count him among the followers of +Herbart. Lotze publicly and formally denied that he belonged to the +school of Herbart, though he admitted that historically the same +doctrine which might be considered the forerunner of Herbart's teachings +might lead to his own views, viz. the monadology of Leibnitz. + +When Lotze wrote these explanations, he had already given to the world +the first volume of his great work, _Mikrokosmus_ (vol. i. 1856, vol. +ii. 1858, vol. iii. 1864; 3rd ed., 1876-1880). In many passages of his +works on pathology, physiology, and psychology Lotze had distinctly +stated that the method of research which he advocated there did not give +an explanation of the phenomena of life and mind, but only the means of +observing and connecting them together; that the meaning of all +phenomena, and the reason of their peculiar connexions, was a +philosophical problem which required to be attacked from a different +point of view; and that the significance especially which lay in the +phenomena of life and mind would only unfold itself if by an exhaustive +survey of the entire life of man, individually, socially, and +historically, we gain the necessary data for deciding what meaning +attaches to the existence of this microcosm, or small world of human +life, in the macrocosm of the universe. This review, which extends, in +three volumes, over the wide field of anthropology, beginning with the +human frame, the soul, and their union in life, advancing to man, his +mind, and the course of the world, and concluding with history, +progress, and the connexion of things, ends with the same idea which was +expressed in Lotze's earliest work, his _Metaphysik_. The view peculiar +to him is reached in the end as the crowning conception towards which +all separate channels of thought have tended, and in the light of which +the life of man in nature and mind, in the individual and in society, +had been surveyed. This view can be briefly stated as follows: +Everywhere in the wide realm of observation we find three distinct +regions,--the region of facts, the region of laws and the region of +standards of value. These three regions are separate only in our +thoughts, not in reality. To comprehend the real position we are forced +to the conviction that the world of facts is the field in which, and +that laws are the means by which, those higher standards of moral and +aesthetical value are being realized; and such a union can again only +become intelligible through the idea of a personal Deity, who in the +creation and preservation of a world has voluntarily chosen certain +forms and laws, through the natural operation of which the ends of His +work are gained. + +Whilst Lotze had thus in his published works closed the circle of his +thought, beginning with a conception metaphysically gained, proceeding +to an exhaustive contemplation of things in the light it afforded, and +ending with the stronger conviction of its truth which observation, +experience, and life could afford, he had all the time been lecturing on +the various branches of philosophy according to the scheme of academical +instruction transmitted from his predecessors. Nor can it be considered +anything but a gain that he was thus induced to expound his views with +regard to those topics, and in connexion with those problems, which were +the traditional forms of philosophical utterance. His lectures ranged +over a wide field: he delivered annually lectures on psychology and on +logic (the latter including a survey of the entirety of philosophical +research under the title _Encyclopädie der Philosophie_), then at longer +intervals lectures on metaphysics, philosophy of nature, philosophy of +art, philosophy of religion, rarely on history of philosophy and ethics. +In these lectures he expounded his peculiar views in a stricter form, +and during the last decade of his life he embodied the substance of +those courses in his _System der Philosophie_, of which only two volumes +have appeared (vol. i. _Logik_, 1st ed., Leipzig, 1874, 2nd ed., 1880; +vol. ii. _Metaphysik_, 1879). The third and concluding volume, which was +to treat in a more condensed form the principal problems of practical +philosophy, of philosophy of art and religion, never appeared. A small +pamphlet on psychology, containing the last form in which he had begun +to treat the subject in his lectures (abruptly terminated through his +death on the 1st of July 1881) during the summer session of 1881, has +been published by his son. Appended to this volume is a complete list of +Lotze's writings, compiled by Professor Rehnisch of Göttingen. + + To understand this series of Lotze's writings, it is necessary to + begin with his definition of philosophy. This is given after his + exposition of logic has established two points, viz. the existence in + our mind of certain laws and forms according to which we connect the + material supplied to us by our senses, and, secondly, the fact that + logical thought cannot be usefully employed without the assumption of + a further set of connexions, not logically necessary, but assumed to + exist between the data of experience and observation. These connexions + of a real not formal character are handed to us by the separate + sciences and by the usage and culture of everyday life. Language has + crystallized them into certain definite notions and expressions, + without which we cannot proceed a single step, but which we have + accepted without knowing their exact meaning, much less their origin. + In consequence the special sciences and the wisdom of common life + entangle themselves easily and frequently in contradictions. A problem + of a purely formal character thus presents itself, viz. this--to try + to bring unity and harmony into the scattered thoughts of our general + culture, to trace them to their primary assumptions and follow them + into their ultimate consequences, to connect them all together, to + remodel, curtail or amplify them, so as to remove their apparent + contradictions, and to combine them in the unity of an harmonious view + of things, and especially to investigate those conceptions which form + the initial assumptions of the several sciences, and to fix the limits + of their applicability. This is the formal definition of philosophy. + Whether an harmonious conception thus gained will represent more than + an agreement among our thoughts, whether it will represent the real + connexion of things and thus possess objective not merely subjective + value, cannot be decided at the outset. It is also unwarranted to + start with the expectation that everything in the world should be + explained by one principle, and it is a needless restriction of our + means to expect unity of method. Nor are we able to start our + philosophical investigations by an inquiry into the nature of human + thought and its capacity to attain an objective knowledge, as in this + case we would be actually using that instrument the usefulness of + which we were trying to determine. The main proof of the objective + value of the view we may gain will rather lie in the degree in which + it succeeds in assigning to every element of culture its due position, + or in which it is able to appreciate and combine different and + apparently opposite tendencies and interests, in the sort of justice + with which it weighs our manifold desires and aspirations, balancing + them in due proportions, refusing to sacrifice to a one-sided + principle any truth or conviction which experience has proven to be + useful and necessary. The investigations will then naturally divide + themselves into three parts, the first of which deals with those to + our mind inevitable forms in which we are obliged to think about + things, if we think at all (metaphysics), the second being devoted to + the great region of facts, trying to apply the results of metaphysics + to these, specially the two great regions of external and mental + phenomena (cosmology and psychology), the third dealing with those + standards of value from which we pronounce our aesthetical or ethical + approval or disapproval. In each department we shall have to aim first + of all at views clear and consistent within themselves, but, secondly, + we shall in the end wish to form some general idea or to risk an + opinion how laws, facts and standards of value may be combined in one + comprehensive view. Considerations of this latter kind will naturally + present themselves in the two great departments of cosmology and + psychology, or they may be delegated to an independent research under + the name of religious philosophy. We have already mentioned the final + conception in which Lotze's speculation culminates, that of a personal + Deity, Himself the essence of all that merits existence for its own + sake, who in the creation and government of a world has voluntarily + chosen certain laws and forms through which His ends are to be + realized. We may add that according to this view nothing is real but + the living spirit of God and the world of living spirits which He has + created; the things of this world have only reality in so far as they + are the appearance of spiritual substance, which underlies everything. + It is natural that Lotze, having this great and final conception + always before him, works under its influence from the very beginning + of his speculations, permitting us, as we progress, to gain every now + and then a glimpse of that interpretation of things which to him + contains the solution of our difficulties. + + The key to Lotze's theoretical philosophy lies in his metaphysics, to + the exposition of which important subject the first and last of his + larger publications have been devoted. To understand Lotze's + philosophy, a careful and repeated perusal of these works is + absolutely necessary. The object of his metaphysics is so to remodel + the current notions regarding the existence of things and their + connexions with which the usage of language supplies us as to make + them consistent and thinkable. The further assumption, that the + modified notions thus gained have an objective meaning, and that they + somehow correspond to the real order of the existing world which of + course they can never actually describe, depends upon a general + confidence which we must have in our reasoning powers, and in the + significance of a world in which we ourselves with all the necessary + courses of our thoughts have a due place assigned. The principle + therefore of these investigations is opposed to two attempts + frequently repeated in the history of philosophy, viz.: (1) the + attempt to establish general laws or forms, which the development of + things must have obeyed, or which a Creator must have followed in the + creation of a world (Hegel); and (2) the attempt to trace the genesis + of our notions and decide as to their meaning and value (modern + theories of knowledge). Neither of these attempts is practicable. The + world of many things surrounds us; our notions, by which we manage + correctly or incorrectly to describe it, are also ready made. What + remains to be done is, not to explain how such a world manages to be + what it is, nor how we came to form these notions, but merely this--to + expel from the circle and totality of our conceptions those abstract + notions which are inconsistent and jarring, or to remodel and define + them so that they may constitute a consistent and harmonious view. In + this endeavour Lotze discards as useless and untenable many favourite + conceptions of the school, many crude notions of everyday life. The + course of things and their connexion is only thinkable by the + assumption of a plurality of existences, the reality of which (as + distinguished from our knowledge of them) can be conceived only as a + multitude of relations. This quality of standing in relation to other + things is that which gives to a thing its reality. And the nature of + this reality again can neither be consistently represented as a fixed + and hard substance nor as an unalterable something, but only as a + fixed order of recurrence of continually changing events or + impressions. But, further, every attempt to think clearly what those + relations are, what we really mean, if we talk of a fixed order of + events, forces upon us the necessity of thinking also that the + different things which stand in relations or the different phases + which follow each other cannot be merely externally strung together or + moved about by some indefinable external power, in the form of some + predestination or inexorable fate. The things themselves which exist + and their changing phases must stand in some internal connexion; they + themselves must be active or passive, capable of doing or suffering. + This would lead to the view of Leibnitz, that the world consists of + monads, self-sufficient beings, leading an inner life. But this idea + involves the further conception of Leibnitz, that of a pre-established + harmony, by which the Creator has taken care to arrange the life of + each monad, so that it agrees with that of all others. This + conception, according to Lotze, is neither necessary nor thoroughly + intelligible. Why not interpret at once and render intelligible the + common conception originating in natural science, viz. that of a + system of laws which governs the many things? But, in attempting to + make this conception quite clear and thinkable, we are forced to + represent the connexion of things as a universal substance, the + essence of which we conceive as a system of laws which underlies + everything and in its own self connects everything, but imperceptible, + and known to us merely through the impressions it produces on us, + which we call things. A final reflection then teaches us that the + nature of this universal and all-pervading substance can only be + imagined by us as something analogous to our own mental life, where + alone we experience the unity of a substance (which we call self) + preserved in the multitude of its (mental) states. It also becomes + clear that only where such mental life really appears need we assign + an independent existence, but that the purposes of everyday life as + well as those of science are equally served if we deprive the material + things outside of us of an independence, and assign to them merely a + connected existence through the universal substance by the action of + which alone they can appear to us. + + The universal substance, which we may call the absolute, is at this + stage of our investigations not endowed with the attributes of a + personal Deity, and it will remain to be seen by further analysis in + how far we are able--without contradiction--to identify it with the + object of religious veneration, in how far that which to metaphysics + is merely a postulate can be gradually brought nearer to us and become + a living power. Much in this direction is said by Lotze in various + passages of his writings; anything complete, however, on the subject + is wanting. Nor would it seem as if it could be the intention of the + author to do much more than point out the lines on which the further + treatment of the subject should advance. The actual result of his + personal inquiries, the great idea which lies at the foundation of his + philosophy, we know. It may be safely stated that Lotze would allow + much latitude to individual convictions, as indeed it is evident that + the empty notion of an absolute can only become living and significant + to us in the same degree as experience and thought have taught us to + realize the seriousness of life, the significance of creation, the + value of the beautiful and the good, and the supreme worth of personal + holiness. To endow the universal substance with moral attributes, to + maintain that it is more than the metaphysical ground of everything, + to say it is the perfect realization of the holy, the beautiful and + the good, can only have a meaning for him who feels within himself + what real not imaginary values are clothed in those expressions. + + We have still to mention that aesthetics formed a principal and + favourite study of Lotze's, and that he has treated this subject also + in the light of the leading ideas of his philosophy. See his essays + _Ueber den Begriff der Schönheit_ (Göttingen, 1845) and _Ueber + Bedingungen der Kunstschönheit_, ibid. (1847); and especially his + _Geschichte der Aesthetik in Deutschland_ (Munich, 1868). + + Lotze's historical position is of much interest. Though he disclaims + being a follower of Herbart, his formal definition of philosophy and + his conception of the object of metaphysics are similar to those of + Herbart, who defines philosophy as an attempt to remodel the notions + given by experience. In this endeavour he forms with Herbart an + opposition to the philosophies of Fichte, Schelling and Hegel, which + aimed at objective and absolute knowledge, and also to the criticism + of Kant, which aimed at determining the validity of all human + knowledge. But this formal agreement includes material differences, + and the spirit which breathes in Lotze's writings is more akin to the + objects and aspirations of the idealistic school than to the cold + formalism of Herbart. What, however, with the idealists was an object + of thought alone, the absolute, is to Lotze only inadequately + definable in rigorous philosophical language; the aspirations of the + human heart, the contents of our feelings and desires, the aims of art + and the tenets of religious faith must be grasped in order to fill the + empty idea of the absolute with meaning. These manifestations of the + divine spirit again cannot be traced and understood by reducing (as + Hegel did) the growth of the human mind in the individual, in society + and in history to the monotonous rhythm of a speculative schematism; + the essence and worth which is in them reveals itself only to the + student of detail, for reality is larger and wider than philosophy; + the problem, "how the one can be many," is only solved for us in the + numberless examples in life and experience which surround us, for + which we must retain a lifelong interest and which constitute the true + field of all useful human work. This conviction of the emptiness of + terms and abstract notions, and of the fulness of individual life, has + enabled Lotze to combine in his writings the two courses into which + German philosophical thought had been moving since the death of its + great founder, Leibnitz. We may define these courses by the terms + esoteric and exoteric--the former the philosophy of the school, + cultivated principally at the universities, trying to systematize + everything and reduce all our knowledge to an intelligible principle, + losing in this attempt the deeper meaning of Leibnitz's philosophy; + the latter the unsystematized philosophy of general culture which we + find in the work of the great writers of the classical period, + Lessing, Winkelmann, Goethe, Schiller and Herder, all of whom + expressed in some degree their indebtedness to Leibnitz. Lotze can be + said to have brought philosophy out of the lecture-room into the + market-place of life. By understanding and combining what was great + and valuable in those divided and scattered endeavours, he became the + true successor of Leibnitz. + + The age in which Lotze lived and wrote in Germany was not one + peculiarly fitted to appreciate the position he took up. Frequently + misunderstood, yet rarely criticized, he was nevertheless greatly + admired, listened to by devoted hearers and read by an increasing + circle. But this circle never attained to the unity of a philosophical + school. The real meaning of Lotze's teaching is reached only by + patient study, and those who in a larger or narrower sense call + themselves his followers will probably feel themselves indebted to him + more for the general direction he has given to their thoughts, for the + tone he has imparted to their inner life, for the seriousness with + which he has taught them to consider even small affairs and practical + duties, and for the indestructible confidence with which his + philosophy permits them to disregard the materialism of science, the + scepticism of shallow culture, the disquieting results of + philosophical and historical criticism. + + See E. Pfleiderer, _Lotze's philosophische Weltanschauung nach ihren + Grundzügen_ (Berlin, 1882; 2nd ed., 1884); E. von Hartmann, _Lotze's + Philosophie_ (Leipzig, 1888); O. Caspari, _H. Lotze in seiner Stellung + zu der durch Kant begründeten neuesten Geschichte der Philosophie_ + (Breslau, 1883; 2nd ed., 1894); R. Falckenberg, _Hermann Lotze_ + (Stuttgart, 1901); Henry Jones, _A Critical Account of the Philosophy + of Lotze_ (Glasgow, 1895); Paul Lange, _Die Lehre vom Instincte bei + Lotze und Darwin_ (Berlin, 1896); A. Lichtenstein, _Lotze und Wundt_ + (Bern, 1900). (J. T. M.; H. St.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See Vogt, _Physiologische Briefe_ (1845-1847); Moleschott, _Der + Kreislauf des Lebens_ (1852); Büchner, _Kraft und Stoff_ (1855). + + + + +LOUBET, ÉMILE FRANÇOIS (1838- ), 7th president of the French republic, +was born on the 30th of December 1838, the son of a peasant proprietor +at Marsanne (Drôme), who was more than once mayor of Marsanne. He was +admitted to the Parisian bar in 1862, and took his doctorate-in-law next +year. He was still a student when he witnessed the sweeping triumph of +the Republican party in Paris at the general election in 1863. He +settled down to the exercise of his profession in Montélimar, where he +married in 1869 Marie Louis Picard. He also inherited a small estate at +Grignan. At the crisis of 1870 he became mayor of Montélimar, and +thenceforward was a steady supporter of Gambetta's policy. Elected to +the Chamber of Deputies in 1876 by Montélimar he was one of the famous +363 who in June 1877 passed the vote of want of confidence in the +ministry of the duc de Broglie. In the general election of October he +was re-elected, local enthusiasm for him being increased by the fact +that the government had driven him from the mayoralty. In the Chamber he +occupied himself especially with education, fighting the clerical system +established by the Loi Falloux, and working for the establishment of +free, obligatory and secular primary instruction. In 1880 he became +president of the departmental council in Drôme. His support of the +second Jules Ferry ministry and his zeal for the colonial expansion of +France gave him considerable weight in the moderate Republican party. He +had entered the Senate in 1885, and he became minister of public works +in the Tirard ministry (December 1887 to March 1888). In 1892 President +Sadi Carnot, who was his personal friend, asked him to form a cabinet. +Loubet held the portfolio of the interior with the premiership, and had +to deal with the anarchist crimes of that year and with the great strike +of Carmaux, in which he acted as arbitrator, giving a decision regarded +in many quarters as too favourable to the strikers. He was defeated in +November on the question of the Panama scandals, but he retained the +ministry of the interior in the next cabinet under Alexandre Ribot, +though he resigned on its reconstruction in January. His reputation as +an orator of great force and lucidity of exposition and as a safe and +honest statesman procured for him in 1896 the presidency of the Senate, +and in February 1899 he was chosen president of the republic in +succession to Félix Fauré by 483 votes as against 279 recorded by Jules +Méline, his only serious competitor. He was marked out for fierce +opposition and bitter insult as the representative of that section of +the Republican party which sought the revision of the Dreyfus case. On +the day of President Faure's funeral Paul Déroulède met the troops under +General Roget on their return to barracks, and demanded that the general +should march on the Élysée. Roget sensibly took his troops back to +barracks. At the Auteuil steeplechase in June the president was struck +on the head with a cane by an anti-Dreyfusard. In that month President +Loubet summoned Waldeck-Rousseau to form a cabinet, and at the same time +entreated Republicans of all shades of opinion to rally to the defence +of the state. By the efforts of Loubet and Waldeck-Rousseau the Dreyfus +affair was settled, when Loubet, acting on the advice of General +Galliffet, minister of war, remitted the ten years' imprisonment to +which Dreyfus was condemned at Rennes. Loubet's presidency saw an acute +stage of the clerical question, which was attacked by Waldeck-Rousseau +and in still more drastic fashion by the Combes ministry. The French +ambassador was recalled from the Vatican in April 1905, and in July the +separation of church and state was voted in the Chamber of Deputies. +Feeling had run high between France and England over the mutual +criticisms passed on the conduct of the South African War and the +Dreyfus case respectively. These differences were composed by the +Anglo-French _entente_, and in 1904 a convention between the two +countries secured the recognition of French claims in Morocco in +exchange for non-interference with the English occupation of Egypt. +President Loubet was a typical example of the peasant-proprietor class, +and had none of the aristocratic, not to say monarchical, proclivities +of President Fauré. He inaugurated the Paris Exhibition of 1900, +received the tsar Nicholas II. in September 1901 and paid a visit to +Russia in 1902. He also exchanged visits with King Edward VII., with the +king of Italy and the king of Spain. The king of Spain's visit in 1905 +was the occasion of an attempt on his life, a bomb being thrown under +his carriage as he was proceeding with his guest to the opera. His +presidency came to an end in January 1906, when he retired into private +life. + + + + +LOUDON, ERNST GIDEON, FREIHERR VON (1717-1790), Austrian soldier, was +born at Tootzen in Livonia, on the 2nd of February 1717. His family, of +Scottish origin,[1] had been settled in that country since before 1400. +His father was a lieutenant-colonel, retired on a meagre pension from +the Swedish service, and the boy was sent in 1732 into the Russian army +as a cadet. He took part in Field Marshal Münnich's siege of Danzig in +1734, in the march of a Russian corps to the Rhine in 1735 and in the +Turkish war 1738-1739. Dissatisfied with his prospects he resigned in +1741 and sought military employment elsewhere. He applied first to +Frederick the Great, who declined his services. At Vienna he had better +fortune, being made a captain in Trenck's free corps. He took part in +its forays and marches, though not in its atrocities, until wounded and +taken prisoner in Alsace. He was shortly released by the advance of the +main Austrian army. His next active service, still under Trenck, was in +the Silesian mountains in 1745, in which campaign he greatly +distinguished himself as a leader of light troops. He was present also +at Soor. He retired shortly afterwards, owing to his distaste for the +lawless habits of his comrades in the irregulars, and after long waiting +in poverty for a regular commission he was at last made a captain in one +of the frontier regiments, spending the next ten years in half-military, +half-administrative work in the Carlstadt district. At Bunich, where he +was stationed, he built a church and planted an oak forest now called by +his name. He had reached the rank of lieutenant-colonel when the +outbreak of the Seven Years' War called him again into the field. From +this point began his fame as a soldier. Soon promoted colonel, he +distinguished himself repeatedly and was in 1757 made a +General-feldwacht-meister (major-general of cavalry) and a knight of the +newly founded order of Maria Theresa. In the campaign of 1758 came his +first opportunity for fighting an action as a commander-in-chief, and he +used it so well that Frederick the Great was obliged to give up the +siege of Olmütz and retire into Bohemia (action of Dom-stadtl, 30th of +June). He was rewarded with the grade of lieutenant-field-marshal and +having again shown himself an active and daring commander in the +campaign of Hochkirch, he was created a Freiherr in the Austrian +nobility by Maria Theresa and in the peerage of the Holy Roman Empire by +her husband the emperor Francis. Maria Theresa gave him, further, the +grand cross of the order she had founded and an estate near Kuttenberg +in Bohemia. He was placed in command of the Austrian contingent sent to +join the Russians on the Oder. At Kunersdorf he turned defeat into a +brilliant victory, and was promoted Feldzeugmeister and made +commander-in-chief in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia. In 1760 he destroyed +a whole corps of Frederick's army under Fouqué at Landshut and stormed +the important fortress of Glatz. In 1760 he sustained a reverse at +Frederick's hands in the battle of Liegnitz (Aug. 15th, 1760), which +action led to bitter controversy with Daun and Lacy, the commanders of +the main army, who, Loudon claimed, had left his corps unsupported. In +1761 he operated, as usual, in Silesia, but he found his Russian allies +as timid as they had been after Kunersdorf, and all attempts against +Frederick's entrenched camp of Bunzelwitz (see SEVEN YEARS' WAR) failed. +He brilliantly seized his one fleeting opportunity, however, and stormed +Schweidnitz on the night of Sept. 30/October 1st, 1761. His tireless +activity continued to the end of the war, in conspicuous contrast with +the temporizing strategy of Daun and Lacy. The student of the later +campaigns of the Seven Years' War will probably admit that there was +need of more aggressiveness than Daun displayed, and of more caution +than suited Loudon's genius. But neither recognized this, and the last +three years of the war are marked by an ever-increasing friction between +the "Fabius" and the "Marcellus," as they were called, of the Austrian +army. + +After the peace, therefore, when Daun became the virtual +commander-in-chief of the army, Loudon fell into the background. Offers +were made, by Frederick the Great amongst others, to induce Loudon to +transfer his services elsewhere. Loudon did not entertain these +proposals, although negotiations went on for some years, and on Lacy +succeeding Daun as president of the council of war Loudon was made +inspector-general of infantry. Dissensions, however, continued between +Loudon and Lacy, and on the accession of Joseph II., who was intimate +with his rival, Loudon retired to his estate near Kuttenberg. Maria +Theresa and Kaunitz caused him, however, to be made commander-in-chief +in Bohemia and Moravia in 1769. This post he held for three years, and +at the end of this time, contemplating retirement from the service, he +settled again on his estate. Maria Theresa once more persuaded him to +remain in the army, and, as his estate had diminished in value owing to +agrarian troubles in Bohemia, she repurchased it from him (1776) on +generous terms. Loudon then settled at Hadersdorf near Vienna, and +shortly afterwards was made a field-marshal. Of this Carlyle (_Frederick +the Great_) records that when Frederick the Great met Loudon in 1776 he +deliberately addressed him in the emperor's presence as "Herr +Feldmarschall." But the hint was not taken until February 1778. + +In 1778 came the War of the Bavarian Succession. Joseph and Lacy were +now reconciled to Loudon, and Loudon and Lacy commanded the two armies +in the field. On this occasion, however, Loudon seems to have in a +measure fallen below his reputation, while Lacy, who was opposed to +Frederick's own army, earned new laurels. For two years after this +Loudon lived quietly at Hadersdorf, and then the reverses of other +generals in the Turkish War called him for the last time into the field. +Though old and broken in health, he was commander-in-chief in fact as +well as in name, and he won a last brilliant success by capturing +Belgrade in three weeks, 1789. He died within the year, on the 14th of +July at Neu-Titschein in Moravia, still on duty. His last appointment +was that of commander-in-chief of the armed forces of Austria, which had +been created for him by the new emperor Leopold. Loudon was buried in +the grounds of Hadersdorf. Eight years before his death the emperor +Joseph had caused a marble bust of this great soldier to be placed in +the chamber of the council of war. + +His son JOHANN LUDWIG ALEXIUS, Freiherr von Loudon (1762-1822) fought in +the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars with credit, and rose to the rank +of lieutenant-field-marshal. + + See memoir by v. Arneth in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, s.v. + "Laudon," and life by G. B. Malleson. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] His name is phonetically spelt Laudon or Laudohn by Germans, and + the latter form was that adopted by himself and his family. In 1759, + however, he reverted to the original Scottish form. + + + + +LOUDOUN, JOHN CAMPBELL, 1ST EARL OF (1598-1663), Scottish politician, +eldest son of Sir James Campbell of Lawers, became Baron Loudoun in +right of his wife Margaret, granddaughter of Hugh Campbell, 1st Baron +Loudoun (d. 1622). He was created earl on the 12th of May 1633, but in +consequence of his opposition to Charles I.'s church policy in Scotland +the patent was stopped in Chancery. In 1637 he was one of the +supplicants against the introduction of the English liturgy; and with +John Leslie, 6th earl of Rothes, he took a leading part in the +promulgation of the Covenant and in the General Assembly which met at +Glasgow in the autumn of 1638. He served under General Leslie, and was +one of the Scottish commissioners at the Pacification of Berwick in June +1639. In November of that year and again in 1640 the Scottish estates +sent Loudoun with Charles Seton, 2nd earl of Dunfermline, to London on +an embassy to Charles I. Loudoun intrigued with the French ambassador +and with Thomas Savile, afterwards earl of Sussex, but without much +success. He was in London when John Stewart, earl of Traquair, placed in +Charles's hands a letter signed by Loudoun and six others and addressed +to Louis XIII. In spite of his protest that the letter was never sent, +and that it would in any case be covered by the amnesty granted at +Berwick, he was sent to the Tower. He was released in June, and two +months later he re-entered England with the Scottish invading army, and +was one of the commissioners at Ripon in October. In the following +August (1641) Charles opened parliament at Edinburgh in person, and in +pursuance of a policy of conciliation towards the leaders of the +Covenant Loudoun was made lord chancellor of Scotland, and his title of +earl of Loudoun was allowed. He also became first commissioner of the +treasury. In 1642 he was sent by the Scottish council to York to offer +to mediate in the dispute between Charles and the parliament, and later +on to Oxford, but in the second of these instances Charles refused to +accept his authority. He was constantly employed in subsequent +negotiations, and in 1647 was sent to Charles at Carisbrooke Castle, but +the "Engagement" to assist the king there made displeased the extreme +Covenanters, and Loudoun was obliged to retract his support of it. He +was now entirely on the side of the duke of Argyll and the preachers. He +assisted in the capacity of lord chancellor at Charles II.'s coronation +at Scone, and was present at Dunbar. He joined in the royalist rising of +1653, but eventually surrendered to General Monk. His estates were +forfeited by Cromwell, and a sum of money settled on the countess and +her heirs. At the Restoration he was removed from the chancellorship, +but a pension of £1000 granted him by Charles I. in 1643 was still +allowed him. In 1662 he was heavily fined. He died in Edinburgh on the +15th of March 1663. + + The earl's elder son, James (d. 1684), 2nd earl of Loudoun, passed his + life out of Great Britain, and when he died at Leiden was succeeded by + his son Hugh (d. 1731). The 3rd earl held various high positions in + England and Scotland, being chosen one of the representative peers for + Scotland at the union of the parliaments in 1707. He rendered good + service to the government during the rising of 1715, especially at the + battle of Sheriffmuir, and was succeeded as 4th earl by his son John + (1705-1782), who fought against the Jacobites in 1745, was + commander-in-chief of the British force in America in 1756 and died + unmarried. The title then passed to James Mure Campbell (d. 1786), a + grandson of the 2nd earl, and was afterwards borne by the marquesses + of Hastings, descendants of the 5th earl's daughter and heiress, Flora + (1780-1840). Again reverting to a female on the death of Henry, 4th + marquess of Hastings, in 1868, it came afterwards to Charles (b. + 1855), a nephew of this marquess, who became 11th earl of Loudoun. + + + + +LOUDUN, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in the +department of Vienne, on an eminence overlooking a fertile plain, 45 m. +by rail S.W. of Tours. Pop. (1906) 3931. It was formerly surrounded by +walls, of which a single gateway and two towers remain. Of the old +castle of the counts of Anjou which was destroyed under Richelieu, the +site now forming a public promenade, a fine rectangular donjon of the +12th century is preserved; at its base traces of Roman constructions +have been found, with fragments of porphyry pavement, mosaics and mural +paintings. The Carmelite convent was the scene of the trial of Urban +Grandier, who was burnt alive for witchcraft in 1634; the old Romanesque +church of Sainte Croix, of which he was curé, is now used as a market. +The church of St Pierre-du-Marché, Gothic in style with a Renaissance +portal, has a lofty stone spire. There are several curious old houses in +the town. Théophraste Renaudot (d. 1653), founder of the _Gazette de +France_, was born at Loudun, where there is a statue of him. The +manufacture of lace and upholstery trimming and of farm implements is +carried on, and there is a considerable trade in agricultural products, +wine, &c. Loudun (_Laudunum_ in ancient times) was a town of importance +during the religious wars and gave its name in 1616 to a treaty +favourable to the Protestants. + + + + +LOUGHBOROUGH, a market town and municipal borough in the Loughborough +(Mid) parliamentary division of Leicestershire, England, near the river +Soar and on the Loughborough canal. Pop. (1901) 21,508. It is 110 m. +N.N.W. of London by the Midland railway, and is served by the Great +Central and a branch of the London and North-Western railways. The +neighbourhood is a rich agricultural district, and to the S.W. lies the +hilly tract known as Charnwood Forest. The church of All Saints stands +on rising ground, and is a conspicuous object for many miles round; it +is of Decorated work, and the tower is Perpendicular. The other churches +are modern. Public buildings include the town hall and exchange, town +offices, county hall and free library. The grammar school, founded in +1495 under the charity of Thomas Burton, occupies modern buildings in +pleasant grounds. There is also a girls' grammar school partly dependent +on the same foundation. The principal industry is hosiery making; there +are also engineering, iron and dye works and bell foundries. The great +bell for St Paul's cathedral, London, was cast here in 1881. +Loughborough was incorporated in 1888. Area, 3045 acres. + +The manor of Loughborough (_Lucteburne, Lucteburg, Lughteburgh_) was +granted by William the Conqueror to Hugh Lupus, from whom it passed to +the Despensers. In 1226-1227 when it belonged to Hugh Despenser he +obtained various privileges for himself and his men and tenants there, +among which were quittance from suits at the county and hundred courts, +of sheriffs' aids and of view of frankpledge, and also a market every +Thursday and a fair on the vigil, day and morrow of St Peter ad vincula. +The market rights were purchased by the town in 1880 from the trustees +of Thomas Cradock, late lord of the manor. Edward II. visited the manor +several times when it belonged to his favourite, Hugh Despenser the +elder. Among the subsequent lords were Henry de Beaumont and Alice his +wife, Sir Edward Hastings, created Baron Hastings of Loughborough in +1558, Colonel Henry Hastings, created baron in 1645, and the earls of +Huntingdon. Alexander Wedderburn was created Baron Loughborough in 1780 +when he became chief justice of the common pleas. During the 19th +century most of the manorial rights were purchased by the local board. +Loughborough was at first governed by a bailiff, afterwards by a local +board, and was finally incorporated in 1888 under a mayor, 6 aldermen +and 18 councillors. It has never been represented in parliament. +Lace-making was formerly the chief industry, but machines for making +lace set up in the town by John Heathcote were destroyed by the Luddites +in 1816, and the manufacture lost its importance. Bell-founding was +introduced in 1840. John Cleveland, the Royalist poet, was born at +Loughborough in 1613, John Howe the painter in 1630 and Richard Pulteney +the botanist in 1730. + + See _Victoria County History, Leicestershire_; W. G. D. Fletcher, + _Chapters in the History of Loughborough_ (1883); Sir Thomas Pochin, + "Historical Description of Loughborough" (1770) (vol. viii. of + _Bibliotheca topographica Britannica_). + + + + +LOUGHREA, a market town of Co. Galway, Ireland, pleasantly situated on +the N. shore of Lough Rea, 116 m. W. from Dublin by a branch from +Attymon Junction on the Midland Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), +2815. There are slight remains of an Early English Carmelite friary +dating c. 1300, which escaped the Dissolution. Loughrea is the seat of +the Roman Catholic bishop of Clonfert, and has a cathedral built in +1900-1905. A part of the castle of Richard de Burgh, the founder of the +friary, still survives, and there are traces of the town fortifications. +In the neighbourhood are a cromlech and two ruined towers, and crannogs, +or ancient stockaded islands, have been discovered in the lough. Apart +from the surroundings of the lough, the neighbouring country is +peculiarly desolate. + + + + +LOUGHTON, an urban district in the Epping parliamentary division of +Essex, England, 11½ m. N.N.E. of Liverpool Street station, London, by +the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 4730. This is one of the +villages which has become the centre of a residential district, and is +frequented by holiday-makers from London, owing to its proximity to the +pleasant woodland scenery of Epping Forest. It lies on the eastern +outskirts of the Forest, near the river Roding. There are several modern +churches. The lordship of the manor was granted to Waltham Abbey. In the +vicinity are large earthworks, probably of British origin, known as +Loughton Camp. + + + + +LOUHANS, a town of east-central France in the old province of +Franche-Comté, now capital of an arrondissement in the department of +Saône-et-Loire, 34 m. N.N.E. of Mâcon by road. Pop. (1906), 3216. Its +church has a fine tower of the 15th century, of which the balustrade is +carved so as to form the first words of the Ave Maria. There are also a +hospital of the 17th century with a collection of ancient earthenware, a +town-hall of the 18th century and remains of ramparts of the 16th and +17th century. The town is the central market of the agricultural plain +of Bresse; chickens form the chief article of commerce. There is also a +large felt-hat manufactory. + + + + +LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish _Chlodowîch_, _Chlodwig_, Latinized +as _Chlodowius_, _Lodhuwicus_, _Lodhuvicus_, whence--in the Strassburg +oath of 842--O. Fr. _Lodhuwigs_, then _Chlovis_, _Loys_ and later +_Louis_, whence Span. _Luiz_ and--through the Angevin kings--Hungarian +_Lájos_; cf. Ger. _Ludwig_ or _Ludewig_, from O. H. Ger. _Hluduwîc_, +_Hludwîg_, _Ludhuwîg_, M. H. Ger. _Ludewîc_; Ital. _Lodovico_), a +masculine proper name, meaning "Fame-fight" or "Famous in fight," from +old Frankish _chlud_, _chlod_ (O. H. Ger. _hlud_, _hlod_), "fame," and +_wîch_ (O. H. Ger. _wîc_., _wîg_, A.S. _wîg_) "war," "battle" (cf. Gr. +[Greek: Klytsmachos]). The name has been borne by numerous European +sovereigns and others, of whom some are noticed below in the following +order: (1) Roman emperors and Frankish and German kings, (2) kings of +Bavaria, (3) kings of France, (4) kings of Hungary, (5) kings of Naples, +(6) Louis of Nassau. (Louis Philippe, king of the French, is dealt with +separately.) + + + + +LOUIS I. (778-840), surnamed the "Pious," Roman emperor, third son of +the emperor Charlemagne and his wife Hildegarde, was born at Chasseneuil +in central France, and crowned king of Aquitaine in 781. He received a +good education; but as his tastes were ecclesiastical rather than +military, the government of his kingdom was mainly conducted by his +counsellors. Louis, however, gained sound experience in warfare in the +defence of Aquitaine, shared in campaigns against the Saxons and the +Avars, and led an army to Italy in 792. In 794 or 795 he married +Irmengarde, daughter of Ingram, count of Haspen. After the deaths of his +two elder brothers, Louis, at his father's command, crowned himself +co-emperor at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 11th of September 813, and was +formally associated in the government of the Empire, of which he became +sole ruler, in the following January. He earned the surname of "Pious" +by banishing his sisters and others of immoral life from court; by +attempting to reform and purify monastic life; and by showing great +liberality to the church. In October 816 he was crowned emperor at Reims +by Pope Stephen IV.; and at Aix in July 817, he arranged for a division +of his Empire among his sons. This was followed by a revolt of his +nephew, Bernard, king of Italy; but the rising was easily suppressed, +and Bernard was mutilated and killed. The emperor soon began to repent +of this cruelty, and when his remorse had been accentuated by the death +of his wife in 818, he pardoned the followers of Bernard and restored +their estates, and in 822 did public penance at Attigny. In 819 he +married Judith, daughter of Welf I., count of Bavaria, who in 823 bore +him a son Charles, afterwards called the Bald. Judith made unceasing +efforts to secure a kingdom for her child; and with the support of her +eldest step-son Lothair, a district was carved out for Charles in 829. +Discontent at this arrangement increased to the point of rebellion, +which broke out the following year, provoked by Judith's intrigues with +Bernard, count of Barcelona, whom she had installed as her favourite at +court. Lothair and his brother Pippin joined the rebels, and after +Judith had been sent into a convent and Bernard had fled to Spain, an +assembly was held at Compiègne, when Louis was practically deposed and +Lothair became the real ruler of the Empire. Sympathy was, however, soon +aroused for the emperor, who was treated as a prisoner, and a second +assembly was held at Nimwegen in October 830 when, with the concurrence +of his sons Pippin and Louis, he was restored to power and Judith +returned to court. + +Further trouble between Pippin and his father led to the nominal +transfer of Aquitaine from Pippin to his brother Charles in 831. The +emperor's plans for a division of his dominions then led to a revolt of +his three sons. Louis met them in June 833 near Kolmar, but owing +possibly to the influence of Pope Gregory IV., who took part in the +negotiations, he found himself deserted by his supporters, and the +treachery and falsehood which marked the proceedings gave to the place +the name of _Lügenfeld_, or the "field of lies." Judith, charged with +infidelity, was again banished; Louis was sent into the monastery of St +Medard at Soissons; and the government of the Empire was assumed by his +sons. The emperor was forced to confess his sins, and declare himself +unworthy of the throne, but Lothair did not succeed in his efforts to +make his father a monk. Sympathy was again felt for Louis, and when the +younger Louis had failed to induce Lothair to treat the emperor in a +more becoming fashion, he and Pippin took up arms on behalf of their +father. The result was that in March 834 Louis was restored to power at +St Denis; Judith once more returned to his side and the kingdoms of +Louis and Pippin were increased. The struggle with Lothair continued +until the autumn, when he submitted to the emperor and was confined to +Italy. To make the restoration more complete, a great assembly at +Diedenhofen declared the deposition of Louis to have been contrary to +law, and a few days later he was publicly restored in the cathedral of +Metz. In December 838 Pippin died, and a new arrangement was made by +which the Empire, except Bavaria, the kingdom of Louis, was divided +between Lothair, now reconciled to his father, and Charles. The emperor +was returning from suppressing a revolt on the part of his son Louis, +provoked by this disposition, when he died on the 20th of June 840 on an +island in the Rhine near Ingelheim. He was buried in the church of St +Arnulf at Metz. Louis was a man of strong frame, who loved the chase, +and did not shrink from the hardships of war. He was, however, easily +influenced and was unequal to the government of the Empire bequeathed to +him by his father. No sustained effort was made to ward off the inroads +of the Danes and others, who were constantly attacking the borders of +the Empire. Louis, who is also called _Le Débonnaire_, counts as Louis +I., king of France. + + See _Annales Fuldenses_; _Annales Bertiniani_; Thegan, _Vita + Hludowici_; the _Vita Hludowici_ attributed to Astronomus; Ermoldus + Nigellus, _In honorem Hludowici imperatoris_; Nithard, _Historiarum + libri_, all in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica_. _Scriptores_, + Bände i. and ii. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.); E. Mühlbacher, _Die + Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern_ (Innsbruck, 1881); + and _Deutsche Geschichte unter den Karolingern_ (Stuttgart, 1886); B. + Simson, _Jahrbücher des fränkischen Reichs unter Ludwig dem Frommen_ + (Leipzig, 1874-1876); and E. Dümmler, _Geschichte des ostfränkischen + Reiches_ (Leipzig, 1887-1888). (A. W. H.*) + + + + +LOUIS II. (825-875), Roman emperor, eldest son of the emperor Lothair +I., was designated king of Italy in 839, and taking up his residence in +that country was crowned king at Rome by Pope Sergius II. on the 15th of +June 844. He at once preferred a claim to the rights of an emperor in +the city, which was decisively rejected; but in 850 he was crowned joint +emperor at Rome by Pope Leo IV., and soon afterwards married his cousin, +Engelberga, a daughter of King Louis the German, and undertook the +independent government of Italy. He took the field against the Saracens; +quashed some accusations against Pope Leo; held a diet at Pavia; and on +the death of his father in September 855 became sole emperor. The +division of Lothair's dominions, by which he obtained no territory +outside Italy, aroused his discontent, and in 857 he allied himself with +Louis the German against his brother Lothair, king of Lorraine, and +King Charles the Bald. But after Louis had secured the election of +Nicholas I. as pope in 858, he became reconciled with his brother, and +received some lands south of the Jura in return for assistance given to +Lothair in his efforts to obtain a divorce from his wife, Teutberga. In +863, on the death of his brother Charles, Louis received the kingdom of +Provence, and in 864 came into collision with Pope Nicholas I. over his +brother's divorce. The archbishops, who had been deposed by Nicholas for +proclaiming this marriage invalid, obtained the support of the emperor, +who reached Rome with an army in February 864; but, having been seized +with fever, he made peace with the pope and left the city. In his +efforts to restore order in Italy, Louis met with considerable success +both against the turbulent princes of the peninsula and against the +Saracens who were ravaging southern Italy. In 866 he routed these +invaders, but could not follow up his successes owing to the want of a +fleet. So in 869 he made an alliance with the eastern emperor, Basil I., +who sent him some ships to assist in the capture of Bari, the +headquarters of the Saracens, which succumbed in 871. Meanwhile his +brother Lothair had died in 869, and owing to his detention in southern +Italy he was unable to prevent the partition of Lorraine between Louis +the German and Charles the Bald. Some jealousy between Louis and Basil +followed the victory at Bari, and in reply to an insult from the eastern +emperor Louis attempted to justify his right to the title "emperor of +the Romans." He had withdrawn into Benevento to prepare for a further +campaign, when he was treacherously attacked in his palace, robbed and +imprisoned by Adelchis, prince of Benevento, in August 871. The landing +of fresh bands of Saracens compelled Adelchis to release his prisoner a +month later, and Louis was forced to swear he would take no revenge for +this injury, nor ever enter Benevento with an army. Returning to Rome, +he was released from his oath, and was crowned a second time as emperor +by Pope Adrian II. on the 18th of May 872. He won further successes +against the Saracens, who were driven from Capua, but the attempts of +the emperor to punish Adelchis were not very successful. Returning to +northern Italy, he died, somewhere in the province of Brescia, on the +12th of August 875, and was buried in the church of St Ambrose at Milan, +having named as his successor in Italy his cousin Carloman, son of Louis +the German. Louis was an excellent ruler, of whom it was said "in his +time there was great peace, because every one could enjoy his own +possessions." + + See _Annales Bertiniani_, _Chronica S. Benedicti Casinensis_, both in + the _Monumenta Germaniae historica, Scriptores_, Bände i. and iii. + (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.); E. Mühlbacher, _Die Regesten des + Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern_ (Innsbruck, 1881); Th. Sickel, + _Acta regum et imperatorum Karolinorum, digesta et enarrata_ (Vienna, + 1867-1868); and E. Dümmler, _Geschichte des ostfränkischen Reiches_ + (Leipzig, 1887-1888). (A. W. H.*) + + + + +LOUIS III. (c. 880-928), surnamed the "Blind," Roman emperor, was a son +of Boso, king of Provence or Lower Burgundy, and Irmengarde, daughter of +the emperor Louis II. The emperor Charles the Fat took Louis under his +protection on the death of Boso in 887; but Provence was in a state of +wild disorder, and it was not until 890, when Irmengarde had secured the +support of the Bavarian king Arnulf and of Pope Stephen V., that Louis +was recognized as king. In 900, after the death of the emperor Arnulf, +he went to Italy to obtain the imperial crown. He was chosen king of the +Lombards at Pavia, and crowned emperor at Rome in February 901 by Pope +Benedict IV. He gained a temporary authority in northern Italy, but was +soon compelled by his rival Berengar, margrave of Friuli, to leave the +country and to swear he would never return. In spite of his oath he went +again to Italy in 904, where he secured the submission of Lombardy; but +on the 21st of July 905 he was surprised at Verona by Berengar, who +deprived him of his sight and sent him back to Provence, where he passed +his days in enforced inactivity until his death in September 928. He +married Adelaide, possibly a daughter of Rudolph I., king of Upper +Burgundy. His eldest son, Charles Constantine, succeeded to no more than +the county of Vienne. + + See _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, Bände ix. and x. + (Göttingen, 1862-1886); E. Dümmler, _Geschichte des ostfränkischen + Reichs_ (Leipzig, 1887-1888); and _Gesta Berengarii imperatoris_ + (Halle, 1871); and F. de Gingins-la-Sarra. _Mémoires pour servir à + l'histoire de Provence et de Bourgogne Jurane_ (Zürich, 1851). + (A. W. H.*) + + + + +LOUIS IV., or V. (c. 1287-1347), surnamed the Bavarian, Roman emperor +and duke of Upper Bavaria, was the second son of Louis II., duke of +Upper Bavaria and count palatine of the Rhine, and Matilda, daughter of +the German king Rudolph I. Having lost his father in 1294 he inherited, +jointly with his elder brother Rudolph, Upper Bavaria and the +Palatinate, but passed his time mainly at the court of the Habsburgs in +Vienna, while his early experiences of warfare were gained in the +campaigns of his uncle, the German king Albert I. He was soon at +variance with his brother over their joint possessions. Albert taking +the part of Louis in this quarrel, Rudolph promised in 1301 to admit his +brother to a share in the government of Bavaria and the Palatinate. When +Albert was murdered in May 1308, Louis became a candidate for the German +throne; but his claim was not strongly supported. The new king, Henry +VII., was very friendly with Rudolph, and as the promise of 1301 had not +been carried out, Louis demanded a partition of their lands. Upper +Bavaria was accordingly divided in 1310, and Louis received the +north-western part of the duchy; but Rudolph refused to surrender any +part of the Palatinate. In 1310, on the death of Stephen I., duke of +Lower Bavaria, Louis undertook the guardianship of his two young sons. +This led to a war between the brothers, which lasted till June 1313, +when peace was made at Munich. Many of the nobles in Lower Bavaria, +however, angered at Louis, called in the aid of Frederick I. (the Fair), +duke of Austria; but he was defeated at Gammelsdorf on the 9th of +November 1313, a victory which not only led to peace, but conferred +considerable renown on Louis. + +In August 1313 the German throne had again become vacant, and Louis was +chosen at Frankfort on the 20th of October 1314 by a majority of the +electors, and his coronation followed at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 25th of +November. A minority of princes had, however, supported Frederick of +Austria; and a war followed between the rivals, during which Louis was +supported by the cities and the districts of the middle and lower Rhine. +His embarrassments were complicated by a renewal of the dispute with his +brother; but when this had been disposed of in 1317 by Rudolph's +renunciation of his claims on upper Bavaria and the Palatinate in +consideration of a yearly subsidy, Louis was able to give undivided +attention to the war with Frederick, and obtained several fresh allies. +On the 28th of September 1322 a battle was fought at Mühldorf, which +ended in a complete victory for Louis, owing mainly to the timely aid of +Frederick IV. of Hohenzollern, burgrave of Nüremburg. Frederick of +Austria was taken prisoner, but the struggle was continued by his +brother Leopold until the latter's death in 1326. Attempts to enable the +two kings to rule Germany jointly failed, and about 1326 Frederick +returned to Austria, leaving Louis in undisputed possession of the +country. Before this conclusion, however, a new enemy had taken the +field. Supported by Philip V. of France in his desire to free Italy +entirely from German influence, Pope John XXII. refused to recognize +either Frederick or Louis, and asserted his own right to administer the +empire during a vacancy. After the battle of Mühldorf Louis sent +Berthold of Neifen, count of Marstetten, into Italy with an army, which +soon compelled the papal troops to raise the siege at Milan. The pope +threatened Louis with excommunication unless he resigned his kingdom +within three months. The king thereupon appealed to a general council, +and was placed under the papal ban on the 23rd of March 1324, a sentence +which he answered by publishing his charges against the pope. In the +contest Louis was helped by the Minorites, who were upholding against +John the principal of clerical poverty, and by the writings of Marsilius +of Padua (who dedicated to Louis his _Defensor pacis_), William of +Occam, John of Jandun and others. Taking the offensive, Louis met his +Ghibelline supporters at Trent and reached Italy in March 1327; and in +May he received the Lombard crown at Milan. Although the pope renewed +his fulminations Louis compelled Pisa to surrender, and was hailed with +great rejoicing in Rome. On the 17th of January 1328 he was crowned +emperor in St Peter's by Sciarra Colonna, a Roman noble; and he answered +the continued attacks of Pope John by pronouncing his deposition, and +proclaiming Peter of Corvara pope as Nicholas V. He then undertook an +expedition against John's ally, Robert, king of Naples, but, disunion +among his troops and scarcity of money and provisions, drove him again +to Rome, where, finding that his exactions had diminished his +popularity, he left the city, and after passing six months at Pisa, +returned to Germany in January 1330. The struggle with the pope was +renewed in Germany, and when a formidable league had been formed against +Louis, his thoughts turned to a reconciliation. He was prepared to +assent to very humiliating terms, and even agreed to abdicate; but the +negotiations, which were prolonged by further demands on the part of the +pope, were interrupted by his death in December 1334. John's successor, +Benedict XII., seemed more anxious to come to an arrangement, but was +prevented from doing so by the influence of Philip VI. of France. +Overtures for peace were made to Philip, but without success; and in +July 1337 Louis concluded an alliance with Edward III., king of England, +and made active preparations for war. During these years his attention +was also occupied by a quarrel with John, king of Bohemia, over the +possession of Tirol, by a campaign in Lower Bavaria, and a futile +expedition against Nicholas I., bishop of Constance. But although his +position was shaken by the indifferent success which attended these +campaigns, it was improved when the electors meeting at Rense in July +1338 banded themselves together to defend their elective rights, and +when the diet at Frankfort confirmed a decree which declared that the +German king did not need the papal approbation to make his election +valid. + +Louis devoted considerable thought and time to extending the possessions +of the Wittelsbach family, to which he belonged. Tirol had for some time +been a subject of contention between the emperor and other princes. The +heiress of this county, Margaret Maultasch, had married John Henry, +margrave of Moravia, son of King John of Bohemia. Having quarrelled with +her husband, Margaret fled to the protection of Louis, who seized the +opportunity to declare her marriage void and to unite her in 1342 with +his son Louis. The emperor also increased his possessions by his own +marriage. In 1322 his first wife, Beatrice, daughter of Henry III., +count of Glogau, had died after thirteen years of married life, and +Louis then married Margaret, daughter of William III., count of Holland. +When her brother, count William IV., died childless in 1345, the emperor +obtained possession of Holland, Zealand and Friesland. In 1341 he +recovered a portion of the Palatinate, and soon deserted Edward of +England and came to terms with Philip of France. The acquisition of the +territories, and especially of Tirol, had provided Louis with many +enemies, prominent among whom were John of Bohemia and his family, that +of Luxemburg. John, therefore, entered into an alliance with Pope +Clement VI. The course of the war which ensued in Germany was such as to +compel the emperor to submit to humiliating terms, though he stopped +short of accepting the election of Charles, margrave of Moravia +(afterwards the emperor Charles IV.) as German king in July 1346. +Charles consequently attacked Tirol; but Louis, who appeared to have +considerable chances of success, died suddenly at a bear-hunt near +Munich on the 11th of October 1347. He was buried in the Frauenkirche at +Munich, where a statue was erected to his memory in 1622 by Maximilian +I., elector of Bavaria, and where a second was unveiled in 1905. He had +seven sons, three of whom were subsequently electors of Brandenburg, and +ten daughters. + +Various estimates have been formed of the character of Louis. As a +soldier he possessed skill as well as bravery, but he lacked +perseverance and decision in his political relations. At one time +haughtily defying the pope, at another abjectly craving his pardon, he +seems a very inglorious figure; and the fact that he remained almost +undisturbed in the possession of Germany in spite of the utmost efforts +of the popes, is due rather to the political and intellectual +tendencies of the time than to his own good qualities. Nevertheless he +ruled Bavaria with considerable success. He befriended the towns, +encouraged trade and commerce and gave a new system of laws to the +duchy. German took the place of Latin in the imperial charters, and +although not a scholar, the emperor was a patron of learning. Louis was +a man of graceful appearance, with ruddy countenance and prominent nose. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Many of the authorities for the life and reign of Louis + are found in the _Fontes rerum Germanicarum_, Bände i. and iv., edited + by J. F. Böhmer (Stuttgart, 1843-1868). Among these is the _Vita + Ludovici IV._, by an unknown author. A number of important documents + are found in the _Regesta imperii_ 1314-1347, edited by J. F. Böhmer + and J. Ficker (Innsbruck, 1865); _Acta imperii selecta_, edited by J. + F. Böhmer and J. Ficker (Innsbruck, 1870); _Urkunden zur Geschichte + des Römerzuges Königs Ludwigs des Bayern_, edited by J. Ficker + (Innsbruck, 1865); _Urkundliche Beiträge zur Geschichte Kaisers + Ludwigs IV._, edited by C. Höfler (Munich, 1839); _Vatikanische + Urkunden zur Geschichte Kaisers Ludwigs des Bayern_, Bände v. and vi. + (Stuttgart, 1877-1888); _Vatikanische Akten zur Deutschen Geschichte + in der Zeit Kaisers Ludwigs des Bayern_, edited by S. Riezler + (Innsbruck, 1891). In the _Forschungen zur Deutschen Geschichte_ + (Göttingen, 1862-1886), Band xx., is found _Urkunden zur Bairischen + und Deutschen Geschichte 1256-1343_, edited by S. Riezler; and in Band + xiii. is C. Häutle's _Beiträge zum Itinerar Kaiser Ludwigs_. + + The following may also be consulted: C. Gewoldus, _Defensio Ludovici + IV. contra A. Bzovium_ (Ingolstadt, 1618); J. G. Herwartus, _Ludovicus + IV. imperator defensus_ (Mainz, 1618); N. Burgundus, _Historia + Bavarica sive Ludovicus IV. imperator_ (Ingolstadt, 1636). The best + modern authorities are F. von Weech, _Kaiser Ludwig der Bayer und + König Johann von Böhmen_ (Munich, 1860); S. Riezler, _Die + literarischen Widersacher der Päpste zur Zeit Ludwigs des Bayern_ + (Leipzig, 1874); C. Mühling, _Die Geschichte der Doppelwahl des Jahres + 1314_ (Munich, 1882); R. Döbner, _Die Auseinandersetzung zwischen + Ludwig IV. dem Bayern und Friedrich dem Schönen von Oesterreich_ + (Göttingen, 1875); W. Altmann, _Der Römerzug Ludwigs des Bayern_ + (Berlin, 1886); A. Chroust, _Beiträge zur Geschichte Ludwigs des + Bayern und seiner Zeit_ (Gotha, 1877); K. Müller, _Der Kampf Ludwigs + des Bayern mit der römischen Curie_ (Tübingen, 1879-1880); W. Preger, + _Der Kirchenpolitische Kampf unter Ludwig dem Bayern_ (Munich, 1877); + Sievers, _Die politischen Beziehungen Kaiser Ludwigs des Bayern zu + Frankreich_ (Berlin, 1896); Steinberger, _Kaiser Ludwig der Bayer_ + (Münich, 1901); and Ueding, _Ludwig der Bayer und die + niederrheinischen Städte_ (Paderborn, 1904). (A. W. H.*) + + + + +LOUIS (804-876) surnamed the "German," king of the East Franks, was the +third son of the emperor Louis I. and his wife Irmengarde. His early +years were partly spent at the court of his grandfather Charlemagne, +whose special affection he is said to have won. When the emperor Louis +divided his dominions between his sons in 817, Louis received Bavaria +and the neighbouring lands, but did not undertake the government until +825, when he became involved in war with the Slavonic tribes on his +eastern frontier. In 827 he married Emma, daughter of Welf I., count of +Bavaria, and sister of his stepmother Judith; and he soon began to +interfere in the quarrels arising from Judith's efforts to secure a +kingdom for her own son Charles, and the consequent struggles of Louis +and his brothers with the emperor Louis I. (q.v.). When the elder Louis +died in 840 and his eldest son Lothair claimed the whole Empire, Louis +in alliance with his half-brother, king Charles the Bald, defeated +Lothair at Fontenoy on the 25th of June 841. In June 842 the three +brothers met on an island in the Sâone to negotiate a peace, and each +appointed forty representatives to arrange the boundaries of their +respective kingdoms. This developed into the treaty of Verdun concluded +in August 843, by which Louis received the bulk of the lands of the +Carolingian empire lying east of the Rhine, together with a district +around Spires, Worms and Mainz, on the left bank of the river. His +territories included Bavaria, where he made Regensburg the centre of his +government, Thuringia, Franconia and Saxony. He may truly be called the +founder of the German kingdom, though his attempts to maintain the unity +of the Empire proved futile. Having in 842 crushed a rising in Saxony, +he compelled the Abotrites to own his authority, and undertook campaigns +against the Bohemians, the Moravians and other tribes, but was not very +successful in freeing his shores from the ravages of Danish pirates. At +his instance synods and assemblies were held where laws were decreed +for the better government of church and state. In 853 and the following +years Louis made more than one attempt to secure the throne of +Aquitaine, which the people of that country offered him in their disgust +with the cruel misrule of Charles the Bald. But though he met with +sufficient success to encourage him to issue a charter in 858, dated +"the first year of the reign in West Francia," treachery and desertion +in his army, and the loyalty to Charles of the Aquitanian bishops +brought about the failure of the enterprise, which Louis renounced by a +treaty signed at Coblenz on the 7th of June 860. + +In 855 the emperor Lothair died, and was succeeded in Italy by his +eldest son Louis II., and in the northern part of his kingdom by his +second son, Lothair. The comparative weakness of these kingdoms, +together with the disorder caused by the matrimonial troubles of +Lothair, afforded a suitable opening for the intrigues of Louis and +Charles the Bald, whose interest was increased by the fact that both +their nephews were without male issue. Louis supported Lothair in his +efforts to divorce his wife Teutberga, for which he received a promise +of Alsace, while Charles opposed the divorce. But in 865 Louis and +Charles meeting near Toul, renewed the peace of Coblenz, and doubtless +discussed the possibility of dividing Lothair's kingdom. In 868 at Metz +they agreed definitely to a partition; but when Lothair died in 869, +Louis was lying seriously ill, and his armies were engaged with the +Moravians. Charles the Bald accordingly seized the whole kingdom; but +Louis, having recovered, compelled him by a threat of war to agree to +the treaty of Mersen, which divided it between the claimants. The later +years of Louis were troubled by risings on the part of his sons, the +eldest of whom, Carloman, revolted in 861 and again two years later; an +example that was followed by the second son Louis, who in a further +rising was joined by his brother Charles. A report that the emperor +Louis II. was dead led to peace between father and sons. The emperor, +however, was not dead, but a prisoner; and as he was not only the +nephew, but also the son-in-law of Louis, that monarch hoped to secure +both the imperial dignity and the Italian kingdom for his son Carloman. +Meeting his daughter Engelberga, the wife of Louis II., at Trent in 872, +Louis made an alliance with her against Charles the Bald, and in 874 +visited Italy doubtless on the same errand. The emperor, having named +Carloman as his successor, died in August 875, but Charles the Bald +reached Italy before his rival, and by persuading Carloman, when he did +cross the Alps, to return, secured the imperial crown. Louis was +preparing for war when he died on the 28th of September 876 at +Frankfort, and was buried at Lorsch, leaving three sons and three +daughters. Louis was in war and peace alike, the most competent of the +descendants of Charlemagne. He obtained for his kingdom a certain degree +of security in face of the attacks of Normans, Hungarians, Moravians and +others. He lived in close alliance with the Church, to which he was very +generous, and entered eagerly into schemes for the conversion of his +heathen neighbours. + + See _Annales Fuldenses_; _Annales Bertiniani_; Nithard, _Historiarum + Libri_, all in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica_. _Scriptores_, + Bände i. and ii. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 seq.); E. Dümmler, + _Geschichte des ostfränkischen Reiches_ (Leipzig, 1887-1888); Th. + Sickel, _Die Urkunden Ludwigs des Deutschen_ (Vienna, 1861-1862); E. + Mühlbacher, _Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern_ + (Innsbruck, 1881); and A. Krohn, _Ludwig der Deutsche_ (Saarbrücken, + 1872). (A. W. H.*) + + + + +LOUIS I., king of Bavaria (1786-1868), son of the then prince, +afterwards duke and elector, Max Joseph of Zweibrücken and his wife +Princess Augusta of Hesse-Darmstadt ( -1796), was born at Strassburg on +the 25th of August 1786. He received a careful education at home, +afterwards (in 1803) going to the Bavarian national university of +Landshut and to Göttingen. As a young man he was drawn into the Romantic +movement then at its height; but both the classics and contemporary +classical poetry took hold upon his receptive mind (he visited Goethe in +1827). He had himself strong artistic tendencies, though his numerous +poems show but little proof of this, and as a patron of the arts he +proved himself as great as any who had ever occupied a German, throne, +and more than a mere dilettante. His first visit to Italy, in 1804, had +an important influence upon this side of his development. + +But even in Italy the crown prince (his father had become elector in +1799 and king of Bavaria in 1805) did not forget his nationality. He +soon made himself leader of the small anti-French party in Bavaria. +Napoleon sought in vain to win him over, and Louis fell more and more +out of favour with him. Napoleon was even reported to have said: "Qui +m'empêche de laisser fusiller ce prince?" Their relations continued to +be strained, although in the campaigns of 1807 and 1809, in which +Bavaria was among the allies of France, Louis won his laurels in the +field. + +The crown prince was also averse from a Napoleonic marriage, and +preferred to marry (October 12, 1810) the Princess Therese of +Saxe-Hildburghausen (1792-1854). Three daughters and four sons were born +of this marriage, one of whom succeeded him as Maximilian II., while +another, Luitpold, became prince regent of Bavaria on the death of Louis +II. + +During the time that he was crown prince Louis resided chiefly at +Innsbruck or Salzburg as governor of the circle of the Inn and Salzach. +In 1815 he attended the Congress of Vienna, where he was especially +occupied in endeavouring to obtain the restoration of Alsace and +Lorraine to Germany; and later in the year he was with the allies in +Paris, using his influence to secure the return of the art treasures +carried off by the French. + +After 1815 also the crown prince maintained his anti-French attitude, +and it was mainly his influence that in 1817 secured the fall of +Montgelas, the minister with French sympathies. Opposed to absolutism, +Louis took great interest in the work of organizing the Bavarian +constitution (1818) and defended it against Metternich and the Carlsbad +Decrees (1819); he was also one of the most zealous of the ardent +Philhellenes in Germany at the time. He succeeded to the crown of +Bavaria on the 12th of October 1825, and at once embarked upon a +moderate constitutional policy, in which he found himself in general +agreement with the parliament. Although he displayed a loyal attachment +to the Catholic Church, especially owing to his artistic sympathies, he +none the less opposed all its more exaggerated pretensions, especially +as represented by the Jesuits, whom he condemned as un-German. In the +year of his accession he abolished an old edict concerning the +censorship. He also furthered in many ways the internal administration +of the state, and especially that of the finances. His personal tastes, +apart from his activities as a Maecenas, being economical, he +endeavoured also to limit public expenditure, in a way which was not +always a benefit to the country. Bavaria's power of self-defence +especially was weakened by his economies and by his lack of interest in +the military aspect of things. + +He was a warm friend of learning, and in 1826 transferred the university +of Landshut to Munich, where he placed it under his special protection. +Prominent scholars were summoned to it, mostly belonging to the Romantic +School, such as Goerres, Schubert and Schelling, though others were not +discouraged. In the course of his visits to Italy he formed friendships +with famous artists such as Thorwaldsen and Cornelius. He was especially +anxious to obtain works of art, mainly sculpture, for the famous Munich +collections which he started, and in this he had the advantage of the +assistance of the painter Martin Wagner. He also set on foot movements +for excavation and the collection of works of art in Greece, with +excellent results. + +Under the influence of the July revolution of 1830, however, he also +began to be drawn into the current of reaction; and though he still +declared himself openly against absolutism, and never took up such a +hostile attitude towards constitutional ideas as his brother-in-law King +Frederick William IV., he allowed the reactionary system of surveillance +which commended itself to the German Confederation after 1830 to be +introduced into Bavaria (see BAVARIA: _History_). He continued, on the +other hand, to do much for the economic development of the country. As a +follower of the ideas of Friedrich List, he furthered the foundation of +the Zollverein in the year 1833 and the making of canals. Railways he +looked upon as a "necessary evil." + +In external politics peace was maintained on the whole after 1825. +Temporary diplomatic complications arose between Bavaria and Baden in +connexion with Louis's favourite project of winning back the part then +belonging to Baden of the old Palatinate, the land of his birth, which +was always very dear to him. + +Of European importance was his enthusiasm for the liberation of Greece +from the rule of Turkey. Not only did he erect the _Propyläen_ at Munich +in her honour, but he also helped her in the most generous way both with +money and diplomatic resources. And after his second son Otto had become +king of Greece in 1832, Greek affairs became from time to time the +central point of his foreign policy. In 1835 he made a visit to Greece, +partly political, partly inspired by his old interest in art. But his +son proved unequal to his task, and in 1862 was forced to abdicate (see +OTHO, KING OF GREECE). For this unfortunate issue Louis was not without +blame; for from the very first, owing to an exaggerated idealism and +love of antiquity, he had totally misunderstood the national character +of the Greeks and the problems involved in the attempts to govern them +by bureaucratic methods. + +In Bavaria, too, his government became more and more conservative, +especially after Karl Abel became the head of the ministry in 1837. The +king had not yet, it is true, altogether committed himself to the +clerical ultras, and on the occasion of the dispute about the bishops in +Prussia in the same year had taken up a wise attitude of compromise. But +in Bavaria itself the strict Catholic party influenced affairs more and +more decisively. For a while, indeed, this opposition did not impair the +king's popularity, due to his amiable character, his extraordinary +services in beautifying his capital of Munich, and to his benevolence +(it has been reckoned that he personally received about 10,000 letters +asking for help every year, and that the money he devoted to charity +amounted to about a fifth of his income). The year 1846, however, +brought a change which had sad consequences. This was due to the king's +relations with the Spanish dancer Lola Montez, who appeared in Munich in +October 1846, and soon succeeded by her beauty and wit in fascinating +the king, who was always susceptible to feminine charms. The political +importance of this lay in the fact that the royal mistress began to use +her great influence against the clerical policy of the Abel ministry. So +when the king was preparing the way for ennobling her, in order to +introduce her into court circles, which were unwilling to receive her, +the ministry protested in the famous memorandum of the 11th of February +1847 against the king's demand for her naturalization as a Bavarian, the +necessary preliminary to her ennoblement. The position was still further +embittered by the fact that, owing to an indiscretion, the memorandum +became known to the public. Thereupon the king, irritated and outraged, +replaced Abel's Clerical ministry by a more accommodating Liberal one +under Zu Rhein under which Lola Montez without more difficulty became +Countess Landsberg. Meanwhile, the criticism and opposition of the +people, and especially of the students, was turned against the new +leader of the court of Munich. On top of this came the revolutionary +movement of 1848. The king's position became more and more difficult, +and under the pressure of popular opposition he was forced to banish the +countess. But neither this nor the king's liberal proclamation of the +6th of March succeeded in establishing peace, and in the capital +especially the situation became increasingly threatening. All this made +such a deep impression on the king, that on the 20th of March 1848 he +abdicated in favour of his son Maximilian. + +He now retired entirely into private life, and continued to play the +Maecenas magnificently, frequently staying at his villa in Rome, the +Villa Malta, and enjoying extraordinary vigour of mind and body up to +the end of his days. His popularity, which had been shaken by the Montez +affair, he soon recovered, especially among artists. To him Munich owes +her finest art collections and most remarkable buildings. The monarch's +artistic sense led him not only to adorn his house with a number of +works of antique art, but also to study German medieval art, which he +did to good effect. To him Munich owes the acquisition of the famous +Rhenish collection of the Boisserée brothers. The king also worked with +great zeal for the care of monuments, and the cathedrals of Spires and +Cologne enjoyed his special care. He was also an unfailing supporter of +contemporary painting, in so far as it responded to his romantic +tendencies, and he gave a fresh impulse to the arts of working in metal +and glass. As visible signs of his permanent services to art Munich +possesses the Walhalla, the Glyptothek, the two Pinakotheken, the Odeon, +the University, and many other magnificent buildings both sacred and +profane. The rôle which the Bavarian capital now plays as the leading +art centre of Germany would have been an impossibility without the +splendid munificence of Louis I. + +He died on the 28th of February 1868 at Nice, and on the 9th of March +was buried in Munich, amid demonstrations of great popular feeling. + +The chief part of Louis's records is contained in seven sealed chests in +the archives of his family, and by the provisions of his will these were +not to be opened till the year 1918. These records contain an +extraordinarily large and valuable mass of historical material, +including, as one item, 246 volumes of the king's diary. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of the numerous pamphlets, especially of the years + 1846-1848, we need only mention here: P. Erdmann, _Lola Montez und die + Jesuiten_ (1847); _Geheimbericht über Bayern_ (1847), published by + Fowmier in _Deutsche Revue_, vol. 27. See also F. v. Ritter, _Beiträge + zur Regierungsgeschichte König Ludwigs I._ (1825-1826) (2 vols., + 1853-1855); Sepp, _Ludwig I. Augustus, König von Bayern und das + Zeitalter der Wiedergeburt der Künste_ (1869; 2nd ed., 1903); Ottokar + Lorenz, _Drei Bücher Geschichte_ (1876; 2nd ed., 1879); K. Th. v. + Heigel, _Ludwig I._ (1872; 2nd ed., 1888); "Ludwig I. und Martin + Wagner," _Neue historische Vorträge_ (1883); "Ludwig I.," _Allgemeine + deutsche Biographie_ (1884); "Ludwig I. als Freund der Geschichte" and + "Kronprinz Ludwig in den Feldzügen von 1807 und 1809," in _Historische + Vorträge und Studien_ (1887); _Die Verlegung der Universität nach + München_, Rektoratsrede (1887); "Ludwig I. und die Münchener + Hochschule," _Quellen und Abhandlungen zur Geschichte Bayerns_, n.s. + (1890); "Ludwig I. als Erzieher seines Volkes," ib.; Reidelbach, + _Ludwig I. und seine Kunstschöpfungen_ (1887; 2nd ed., 1888); L. + Trose, _Ludwig I. in seinen Briefen an seinen Sohn, den König Otto von + Griechenland_ (1891); L. v. Kobell, _Unter den vier ersten Königen + Bayerns_ (1894); A. Fournier, "Aus den Tagen der Lola Montez," _Neue + Deutsche Rundschau_ (1901); M. Doeberé, "Ludwig I. und die deutsche + Frage," _Festgabe für Heigel_ (1903); E. Füchs, _Lola Montez in der + Karrikatüre_ (1904); L. Brunner, _Nürnberg 1848-1849_ (1907). + (J. Hn.) + + + + +LOUIS II., king of Bavaria (1845-1886), son of his predecessor +Maximilian II. and his wife Maria, daughter of Prince William of +Prussia, was born at Nymphenburg on the 25th of August 1845. Together +with his brother Otto, three years younger than himself, Louis received, +in accordance with the wishes of his learned father, a simple and +serious education modelled on that of the German _Gymnasien_, of which +the classical languages are the chief feature. Of modern languages the +crown prince learnt only French, of which he remained fond all his life. +The practical value of the prince's training was small. It was not till +he was eighteen years old that he received his first pocket-money, and +at that age he had no ideas about money and its value. Military +instruction, physical exercises and sport, in spite of the crown +prince's strong physique, received little attention. Thus Louis did not +come enough into contact with young men of his own age, and consequently +soon developed a taste for solitude, which was found at an early age to +be combined with the romantic tendencies and musical and theatrical +tastes traditional in his family. + +Louis succeeded to the throne on the 10th of March 1864, at the age of +eighteen. The early years of his reign were marked by a series of most +serious political defeats for Bavaria. In the Schleswig-Holstein +question, though he was opposed to Prussia and a friend of Duke +Frederick VIII. of Augustenburg, he did not command the material forces +necessary effectively to resist the powerful policy of Bismarck. Again, +in the war of 1866, Louis and his minister von der Pfordten took the +side of Austria, and at the conclusion of peace (August 22) Bavaria +had, in addition to the surrender of certain small portions of her +territory, to agree to the foundation of the North German Confederation +under the leadership of Prussia. The king's Bavarian patriotism, one of +the few steadfast ideas underlying his policy, was deeply wounded by +these occurrences, but he was face to face with the inevitable, and on +the 10th of August wrote a letter of reconciliation to King William of +Prussia. The defeat of Bavaria in 1866 showed clearly the necessity for +a reform of the army. Under the new Liberal ministry of Hohenlohe +(December 29, 1866--February 13, 1870) and under Prauckh as minister of +war, a series of reforms were carried through which prepared for the +victories of 1870. As regards his ecclesiastical policy, though Louis +remained personally true to the Catholic Church, he strove for a greater +independence of the Vatican. He maintained friendly relations with Ignaz +von Döllinger, the leader of the more liberal Catholics who opposed the +definition of papal infallibility, but without extending his protection +to the anti-Roman movement of the Old Catholics. In spite of this the +Old Bavarian opposition was so aroused by the Liberalism of the +Hohenlohe ministry that at the beginning of 1870 Louis had to form a +more Conservative cabinet under Count Bray-Steinburg. On the outbreak of +the Franco-Prussian War he at once took the side of Prussia, and gave +orders for mobilization. In 1871 it was he who offered the imperial +crown to the king of Prussia; but this was not done on his own +initiative. Bismarck not only determined the king of Bavaria to take the +decisive step which put an end to a serious diplomatic crisis, but +actually drafted the letter to King William which Louis copied and +despatched without changing a word. Louis placed very few difficulties +in the way of the new German Empire under the leadership of Prussia, +though his Bavarian particularism remained unchanged. + +Though up till the beginning of the year 1880 he did not cease to give +some attention to state affairs, the king's interests lay in quite other +spheres. His personal idiosyncrasies had, in fact, developed meanwhile +in a most unhappy direction. His enthusiasm for all that is beautiful +soon led him into dangerous bypaths. It found its most innocent +expression in the earliest years of his reign when he formed an intimate +friendship with Richard Wagner, whom from May 1864 to December 1865 he +had constantly in his company. Louis was entirely possessed by the +soaring ideas of the master, and was energetic in their realization. He +not only established Wagner's material position at the moment by paying +18,000 gulden of debts for him and granting him a yearly income of 4000 +gulden (afterwards increased to 8000), but he also proceeded to realize +the ambitious artistic plans of the master. A series of brilliant model +performances of the Wagnerian music-dramas was instituted in Munich +under the personal patronage of the king, and when the further plan of +erecting a great festival theatre in Munich for the performance of +Wagner's "music of the future" broke down in the face of the passive +resistance of the local circles interested, the royal enthusiast +conceived the idea of building at Bayreuth, according to Wagner's new +principles, a theatre worthy of the music-dramas. For a time Louis was +entirely under Wagner's influence, the fantastic tendencies of whose art +cast a spell over him, and there is extant a series of emotional letters +of the king to Wagner. Wagner, on the whole, used his influence in +artistic and not in political affairs.[1] In spite of this the +opposition to him became permanent. Public opinion in Bavaria for the +most part turned against him. He was attacked for his foreign origin, +his extravagance, his intrigues, his artistic utopias, and last but by +no means least, for his unwholesome influence over the king. Louis in +the end was compelled to give him up. But the relations between king and +artist were by no means at an end. In face of the war which was imminent +in 1866, and in the midst of the preparation for war, the king hastened +in May to Triebschen, near Lucerne, in order to see Wagner again.[2] In +1868 they were seen together in public for the last time at the festival +performances in Munich. In 1876 Wagner's _Ring des Nibelungen_ was +performed for the first time at Bayreuth in the presence of the king. +Later, in 1881, the king formed a similar friendship with Joseph Kainz +the actor, but it soon came to an end. In January 1867 the young king +became betrothed to Duchess Sophie of Bavaria (afterwards Duchesse +d'Alençon), daughter of Duke Max and sister of the empress of Austria; +but the betrothal was dissolved in October of the same year. + +Though even in his later years he remained interested in lofty and +intellectual pursuits, as may be gathered, apart from his enthusiasm for +art and nature, from his wide reading in history, serious poetry and +philosophy, yet in his private life there became increasingly marked the +signs of moral and mental weakness which gradually gained the mastery +over his once pure and noble nature. A prominent feature was his blind +craving for solitude. He cut himself off from society, and avoided all +intercourse with his family, even with his devotedly affectionate +mother. With his ministers he came to communicate in writing only. At +the end he was surrounded only by inferior favourites and servants. His +life was now spent almost entirely in his castles far from the capital, +which irked him more and more, or in short and hasty journeys, in which +he always travelled incognito. Even the theatre he could now only enjoy +alone. He arranged private performances in his castles or in Munich at +fabulous cost, and appointed an official poet to his household. Later +his avoidance of society developed into a dread of it, accompanied by a +fear of assassination and delusions that he was being followed. + +Side by side with this pathological development his inborn +self-consciousness increased apace, turning more and more to +megalomania, and impelling the weak-willed monarch to those +extraordinary displays of magnificence which can still be admired to-day +in the castles built or altered by him, such as Berg on the Starnberger +See, Linderhof, Herrenchiemsee, Hohenschwangau, Neuschwanstein, &c., +which are among the most splendid buildings in Germany. It is +characteristic of the extravagance of the king's ideas that he adopted +as his model the style of Louis XIV. and fell into the habit of +imitating the _Roi Soleil_. He no longer stayed for any length of time +in one castle. Often he scoured the country in wild nocturnal rides, and +madness gained upon him apace. His mania for buying things and making +presents was comparatively harmless, but more serious matters were the +wild extravagance which in 1880 involved him in financial ruin, his fits +of destructive rage, and the tendency to the most cruel forms of +abnormal vice. None the less, at the time when the king's mental +weakness was increasing, his character still retained lovable +traits--his simple sense of beauty, his kindliness, and his highly +developed understanding of art and artistic crafts. Louis's love of +beauty also brought material profit to Bavaria. + +But the financial and political dangers which arose from the king's way +of life were so great that interference became necessary. On the 8th of +June 1886 medical opinion declared him to be affected with chronic and +incurable madness and he was pronounced incapable of governing. On the +10th of June his uncle, Prince Luitpold, assumed the regency, and after +violent resistance the late king was placed under the charge of a mental +specialist. On the 13th of June 1886 he met with his death by drowning +in the Starnberger See, together with his doctor von Gudden, who had +unwisely gone for a walk alone with his patient, whose physical strength +was enormous. The details of his death will never be fully known, as the +only possible eye-witness died with him. An examination of the brain +revealed a condition of incurable insanity, and the faculty submitted a +report giving the terrible details of his malady. Louis's brother Otto, +who succeeded him as king of Bavaria, was also incurably insane. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--K. v. Heigel, _Ludwig II._ (1893); Luise v. Kobell, + _Unter den vier ersten Königen Bayerns_ (1894); C. Bujer, _Ludwig II._ + (1897); Luise v. Kobell, "Wilhelm I. und Ludwig II." _Deutsche Revue, + 22; Ludwig II. und die Kunst_ (1898); _Ludwig II. und Bismarck_ (1870, + 1899); Anonym, _Endlich völlige Klarheit über den Tod des Königs + Ludwig II. ..._ (1900); Freiherr v. Völderndorff, "Aus meiner + Hofzeit," in _Velhagen und Klasings Monatshefte_ (1900); Francis + Gerard, _The Romance of Ludwig II. of Bavaria_; J. Bainville, _Louis + II. de Bavière_ (Paris, 1900); E. v. Possart, _Die + Separatvorstellungen von König Ludwig II._ (1901); O. Bray-Steinburg, + _Denkwürdigkeiten_ (1901); S. Röcke, _Ludwig II. und Richard Wagner_ + (1903); W. Busch, _Die Kämpfe über Reichsverfassung und Kaisertum_ + (1906); Chlodwig Hohenlohe, _Denkwürdigkeiten_ (2 vols., 1907); A. v. + Ruville, _Bayern und die Wiederaufrichtung des Deutschen Reiches_ + (1909); K. A. v. Müller, _Bayern im Jahre 1866 und die Berufung des + Fürsten Hohenlohe_ (1909); G. Kuntzel, _Bismarck und Bayern in der + Zeit der Reichsgründung_ (1910); Hesselbarth, _Die Enstehung des + deutsch-framözischen Krieges_ (1910); W. Strohmayer, "Die Ahnentafel + Ludwigs II. und Ottos I.," _Archiv für Rassen- und + Gesellschaftsbiologie_, vol. vii. (1910). (J. Hn.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] It was on Wagner's advice that the king appointed Hohenlohe prime + minister in 1866. See Hohenlohe-Schillingfurst, Prince Chlodwig zu, + under HOHENLOHE. [ED.] + + [2] Hohenlohe (_Denkwürdigkeiten_) comments on the fact that the king + did not even take the trouble to review the troops proceeding to the + war. [ED.] + + + + +LOUIS II.[1] (846-879), king of France, called "le Bègue" or "the +Stammerer," was a son of Charles II. the Bald, Roman emperor and king of +the West Franks, and was born on the 1st of November 846. After the +death of his elder brother Charles in 866 he became king of Aquitaine, +and in October 877 he succeeded his father as king of the West Franks, +but not as emperor. Having made extensive concessions to the nobles both +clerical and lay, he was crowned king by Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, +on the 8th of December following, and in September 878 he took advantage +of the presence of Pope John VIII. at the council of Troyes to be +consecrated afresh. After a feeble and ineffectual reign of eighteen +months Louis died at Compiègne on the 10th or 11th of April 879. The +king is described as "un homme simple et doux, aimant la paix, la +justice et la religion." By his first wife, Ansgarde, a Burgundian +princess, he had two sons, his successors, Louis III. and Carloman; by +his second wife, Adelaide, he had a posthumous son, Charles the Simple, +who also became king of France. (A. W. H.*) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The emperor Louis I. is counted as Louis I., king of France. + + + + +LOUIS III. (c. 863-882), king of France, was a son of Louis II. and with +his brother Carloman succeeded his father as king in April 879. A strong +party, however, cast some doubts upon the legitimacy of the young +princes, as the marriage of their parents had not been recognized by the +emperor Charles the Bald; consequently it was proposed to offer the +crown to the East Frankish ruler Louis, a son of Louis the German. But +this plan came to nothing, and in September 879 the brothers were +crowned at Ferrières by Ansègisus, archbishop of Sens. A few months +later they divided their kingdom, Louis receiving the part of France +north of the Loire. They acted together against the Northmen, over whom +in August 881 they gained a memorable victory. They also turned against +Boso who had been set up as king in Burgundy and Provence. On the 5th of +August 882 Louis died at St Denis. He left no sons and Carloman became +sole king. (A. W. H.*) + + + + +LOUIS IV. (921-954), king of France, surnamed "d'Outremer" +(_Transmarinus_), was the son of Charles III. the Simple. In consequence +of the imprisonment of his father in 922, his mother Odgiva (Eadgyfu), +sister of the English king Æthelstan, fled to England with the young +Louis--a circumstance to which he owes his surname. On the death of the +usurper Rudolph (Raoul), Ralph of Burgundy, Hugh the Great, count of +Paris, and the other nobles between whom France was divided, chose Louis +for their king, and the lad was brought over from England and +consecrated at Laon on the 19th of June 936. Although his _de facto_ +sovereignty was confined to the town of Laon and to some places in the +north of France, Louis displayed a zeal beyond his years in procuring +the recognition of his authority by his turbulent vassals. The beginning +of his reign was marked by a disastrous irruption of the Hungarians into +Burgundy and Aquitaine (937). In 939 Louis became involved in a struggle +with the emperor Otto the Great on the question of Lorraine, the nobles +of which district had sworn an oath of fidelity to the king of France. +When Louis married Gerberga, sister of Otto, and widow of Giselbert, +duke of Lorraine, there seemed to be a fair prospect of peace; but the +war was resumed, Otto supporting the rebel lords of the kingdom of +France, and peace was not declared until 942, at the treaty of +Visé-sur-Meuse. On the death of William Longsword, duke of Normandy, who +had been assassinated by Arnulf, count of Flanders, in December 942, +Louis endeavoured to obtain possession of the person of Richard, the +young son and heir of the late duke. After an unsuccessful expedition +into Normandy, Louis fell into the hands of his adversaries, and was for +some time kept prisoner at Rouen (945), and subsequently handed over to +Hugh the Great, who only consented to release him on condition that he +should surrender Laon. Menaced, however, by Louis' brother-in-law, Otto +the Great, and excommunicated by the council of Ingelheim (948), the +powerful vassal was forced to make submission and to restore Laon to his +sovereign. The last years of the reign were troubled by fresh +difficulties with Hugh the Great and also by an irruption of the +Hungarians into the south of France. Louis died on the 10th of September +954, and was succeeded by his son Lothair. + + The chief authority for the reign is the chronicler Flodoard. See also + Ph. Lauer, _La Règne de Louis IV d'Outre-Mer_ (Paris, 1900); and A. + Heil, _Die politischen Beziehungen zwischen Otto dem Grossen und + Ludwig IV. von Frankreich_ (Berlin, 1904). (R. Po.) + + + + +LOUIS V. (967-987), king of France, succeeded his father Lothair in +March 986 at the age of nineteen, and finally embroiled the Carolingian +dynasty with Hugh Capet and Adalberon, archbishop of Reims. From the +absence of any important event in his one year's reign the medieval +chroniclers designated him by the words "qui nihil fecit," i.e. "le +Fainéant" or "do-nothing." Louis died in May 987, his mother Emma being +accused of having poisoned him. He had married Adelaide, sister of +Geoffrey Grisegonelle, count of Anjou, but had no issue. His heir by +blood was Charles, duke of Lower Lorraine, son of Louis IV., but the +defection of the bishops and the treason of Adalberon (Ascelinus), +bishop of Laon, assured the success of Hugh Capet. + + See F. Lot, _Les Derniers Carolingiens_ (Paris, 1891); and the + _Recueil des actes de Lothaire et de Louis V_, edited by L. Halphen + and F. Lot (1908). (R. Po.) + + + + +LOUIS VI. (1081-1137), king of France, surnamed "the Fat," was the son +of Philip I. of France and Bertha of Holland. He was also surnamed the +"Wide-awake" and "the Bruiser," and lost none of his energy when he +earned the nickname by which he is known in history. In 1098 Louis was +made a knight, and about the same time was associated with his father in +the government, which the growing infirmities of Philip left more and +more to his son, in spite of the opposition of Bertrada, the queen, +whose criminal union with Philip had brought the anathema of the church. +From 1100 to 1108 Louis by his victorious wars on the English and +brigands had secured the army on his side, while the court supported +Bertrada. Unable to make headway against him in war she attempted to +poison him, and contemporary chroniclers attributed to this poison the +pallor of his face, which seems to have been in remarkable contrast to +his stalwart, and later his corpulent figure. Louis' reign is one of the +most important in the history of France. He is little less than the +second founder of the Capetian dynasty. When the feeble and incompetent +Philip I. died (29th of July 1108) Louis was faced by feudal barons as +powerful as himself, and ready to rise against him. He was forced to +have himself hurriedly crowned at Orleans, supported by a handful of +vassals and some ecclesiastics. As king he continued the policy he had +followed during the previous eight years, of securing the roads leading +to Paris by putting down feudal brigands and destroying their +strongholds in the Île-de-France. The castle of the most notorious of +these, Hugues du Puiset, was three times taken and burned by the king's +men, but Hugues was spared to go back each time to his robber life, +until he died on a crusade. In the north, Thomas de Marle, son of +Enguerrand de Coucy, carried on a career of rapine and murder for almost +thirty years before the king succeeded in taking him prisoner (1130). +Twenty-four years of continuous war finally rooted out the robber barons +who lived on the plunder of the roads leading to Paris: the lords of +Montlhéri, who commanded the roads to Orleans, Melun and the south, +those of Montmorency near St Denis on the north (who had to restore what +they had robbed the abbey of St Denis), those of Le Puiset toward the +west, on the way to Chartres, and many others. Parallel with this +consolidation of his power in the ancestral domains Louis met +energetically the Anglo-Norman danger, warring with Henry I. of England +for twenty-five years. After the victory of Tinchebray (1106) Louis +supported the claims of William Clito, son of Robert, duke of Normandy, +against Henry I. A ruthless war followed, in which Louis was at times +reduced to the sorest straits. In 1119, at a council held at Reims under +the presidency of Pope Calixtus II., the enemies were reconciled; but +William Clito's claims were not satisfied, and in 1123 war began again +on a larger scale. Henry I. induced the emperor Henry V. to join in the +attack upon France; and, his heir having been drowned in the loss of the +"White Ship," won the count of Anjou by marrying his only daughter +Matilda to Geoffrey, the Angevin heir (1127). The invasion of Henry V. +was met by something like a national army, which gathered under Louis at +Reims. "For a few days at least, the lord of the Île-de-France was truly +a king of France" (Luchaire). Suger proudly gives the list of barons who +appeared. Henry V. came no farther than Metz. Royalty had won great +prestige. Even Theobald, count of Chartres, the king's greatest enemy, +the soul of feudal coalitions, came with his contingent. Shortly +afterwards (1126), Louis was able to overawe the great count of +Aquitaine, William IX., and force his vassal, the count of Auvergne, to +treat justly the bishop of Clermont. In Flanders Louis interfered upon +the assassination of Charles the Good. He caused the barons to elect as +their count in Arras the same William Clito who claimed Normandy, and +who was closely bound to the king. For a while Louis had Flanders +absolutely at his disposal, but he had hardly left William alone (1127) +when his brutal oppression roused both towns and nobles, who declared +that Louis had no right to interfere in Flanders. The death of William +Clito, and a savage war with his own seneschal, prevented Louis from +effectually resenting this attitude; but Thierry of Alsace, the new +count, consented in 1128 to receive from Louis the investiture of all +his French fiefs, and henceforth lived on good terms with him. In all +his wars--those mentioned are but a part of them--Louis fought in +person. Proud of his strength, reckless in the charge as on the march, +plunging into swollen rivers, entering blazing castles, he gained the +reputation of a national hero, the protector of the poor, the church, +the peasants and the towns. The communal movement grew during his reign, +and he encouraged it on the fiefs of his vassals in order to weaken +them; but the title "Father of the Communes" by which he was known in +history is not deserved, though he did grant some privileges to towns on +his domains. Neither was Louis the author of the movement for the +emancipation of the serfs, as was formerly claimed. His attitude toward +the movement was like that of his predecessors and contemporaries, to +favour emancipation when it promised greater chance of profit, greater +scope for exploitation of the peasants; otherwise to oppose it. He was a +great benefactor to the church, aided the new, reformed monastic +congregations of Cîteau, Prémontré and Fontevrault, and chose his two +chief ministers from the clergy. Étienne de Garlande, whom Louis raised +from obscurity to be archdeacon of Notre Dame at Paris, chancellor and +seneschal of France, was all-powerful with the king from 1108 to 1127. +His relatives monopolized the highest offices of the state. But the +queen Adelaide became his enemy; both Ivo of Chartres and St Bernard +bitterly attacked him; and the king suddenly stripped him of all his +offices and honours. Joining the rebellious barons, Étienne then led a +bitter war against the king for three years. When Louis had reduced him +to terms he pardoned him and restored him to the chancellorship (1132), +but not to his old power. Suger (q.v.), administrator of St Denis, +enters the scene toward the close of this reign, but his great work +belongs to the next. Louis VI. died on the 1st of August 1137, just a +few days after his son, Louis the Young, had set out for the far +south-west, the Aquitaine which had been won by the marriage with +Eleanor. His wife was Adelaide, or Alice, daughter of Humbert II., count +of Savoy, by whom he had seven sons and a daughter. + + See A. Luchaire, _Louis le Gros, annales de sa vie et son règne_ + (1890), and the same writer's volume, _Les Premiers Capétiens_, in E. + Lavisse's _Histoire de France._ (J. T. S.*) + + + + +LOUIS VII. (c. 1121-1180), king of France, son of Louis VI. the Fat, +was associated with his father and anointed by Innocent II. in 1131. In +1137 he succeeded his father, and in the same year married at Bordeaux +Eleanor, heiress of William II., duke of Aquitaine. In the first part of +his reign he was vigorous and jealous of his prerogatives, but after his +crusade his religiosity developed to such an extent as to make him +utterly inefficient. His accession was marked by no disturbances, save +the risings of the burgesses of Orleans and of Poitiers, who wished to +organize communes. But soon he came into violent conflict with Pope +Innocent II. The archbishopric of Bourges became vacant, and the king +supported as candidate the chancellor Cadurc, against the pope's nominee +Pierre de la Châtre, swearing upon relics that so long as he lived +Pierre should never enter Bourges. This brought the interdict upon the +king's lands. At the same time he became involved in a war with +Theobald, count of Champagne, by permitting Rodolphe (Raoul), count of +Vermandois and seneschal of France, to repudiate his wife, Theobald's +niece, and to marry Petronille of Aquitaine, sister of the queen of +France. The war, which lasted two years (1142-44), was marked by the +occupation of Champagne by the royal army and the capture of Vitry, +where many persons perished in the burning of the church. Geoffrey the +Handsome, count of Anjou, by his conquest of Normandy threatened the +royal domains, and Louis VII. by a clever manoeuvre threw his army on +the Norman frontier and gained Gisors, one of the keys of Normandy. At +his court which met in Bourges Louis declared on Christmas Day 1145 his +intention of going on a crusade. St Bernard assured its popularity by +his preaching at Vézelay (Easter 1146), and Louis set out from Metz in +June 1147, on the overland route to Syria. The expedition was +disastrous, and he regained France in 1149, overcome by the humiliation +of the crusade. In the rest of his reign he showed much feebleness and +poor judgment. He committed a grave political blunder in causing a +council at Beaugency (on the 21st of March 1152) to annul his marriage +with Eleanor of Aquitaine, under pretext of kinship, but really owing to +violent quarrels during the crusade. Eleanor married Henry II. of +England in the following May, and brought him the duchy of Aquitaine. +Louis VII. led a half-hearted war against Henry for having married +without the authorization of his suzerain; but in August 1154 gave up +his rights over Aquitaine, and contented himself with an indemnity. In +1154 Louis married Constance, daughter of the king of Castile, and their +daughter Marguerite he affianced imprudently by the treaty of Gisors +(1158) to Henry, eldest son of the king of England, promising as dowry +the Vexin and Gisors. Five weeks after the death of Constance, on the +4th of October 1160, Louis VII. married Adèle of Champagne, and Henry +II. to counterbalance the aid this would give the king of France, had +the marriage of their infant children celebrated at once. Louis VII. +gave little sign of understanding the danger of the growing Angevin +power, though in 1159 he made an expedition in the south to aid Raymond +V., count of Toulouse, who had been attacked by Henry II. At the same +time the emperor Frederick I. in the east was making good the imperial +claims on Arles. When the schism broke out, Louis took the part of the +pope Alexander III., the enemy of Frederick, and after two comedy-like +failures of Frederick to meet Louis VII. at Saint Jean de Losne (on the +29th of August and the 22nd of September 1162), Louis definitely gave +himself up to the cause of Alexander, who lived at Sens from 1163 to +1165. Alexander gave the king, in return for his loyal support, the +golden rose. Louis VII. received Thomas Becket and tried to reconcile +him with King Henry II. He supported Henry's rebellious sons, but acted +slowly and feebly, and so contributed largely to the break up of the +coalition (1173-1174). Finally in 1177 the pope intervened to bring the +two kings to terms at Vitry. By his third wife, Adèle, Louis had an +heir, the future Philip Augustus, born on the 21st of August 1165. He +had him crowned at Reims in 1179, but, already stricken with paralysis, +he himself was not able to be present at the ceremony, and died on the +18th of September 1180. His reign from the point of view of royal +territory and military power, was a period of retrogression. Yet the +royal authority had made progress in the parts of France distant from +the royal domains. More direct and more frequent connexion was made with +distant feudatories, a result largely due to the alliance of the clergy +with the crown. Louis thus reaped the reward for services rendered the +church during the least successful portion of his reign. + + See R. Hirsch, _Studien zur Geschichte König Ludwigs VII. von + Frankreich_ (1892); A. Cartellieri, _Philipp II. August von Frankreich + bis zum Tode seines Vaters, 1165-1180_ (1891); and A. Luchaire in E. + Lavisse's _Histoire de France_, tome iii. 1st part, pp. 1-81. + (J. T. S.*) + + + + +LOUIS VIII. (1187-1226), king of France, eldest son of Philip Augustus +and of Isabella of Hainaut, was born in Paris on the 5th of September +1187. Louis was short, thin, pale-faced, with studious tastes, cold and +placid temper, sober and chaste in his life. He left the reputation of a +saint, but was also a warrior prince. In 1213 he led the campaign +against Ferrand, count of Flanders; in 1214, while Philip Augustus was +winning the victory of Bouvines, he held John of England in check, and +was victorious at La Roche-aux-Moines. In the autumn of 1215 Louis +received from a group of English barons, headed by Geoffrey de +Mandeville, a request to "pluck them out of the hand of this tyrant" +(John). Some 7000 French knights were sent over to England during the +winter and two more contingents followed, but it was only after +twenty-four English hostages had arrived in Paris that Louis himself +prepared to invade England. The expedition was forbidden by the papal +legate, but Louis set out from Calais on the 20th and landed at Stonor +on the 22nd of May 1216. In three months he had obtained a strong +foothold in eastern England, and in the end of July he laid siege to +Dover, while part of his army besieged Windsor with a view to securing +the safety of London. The pretexts on which he claimed the English crown +were set down in a memorandum drawn up by French lawyers in 1215. These +claims--that John had forfeited the crown by the murder of his nephew, +Arthur of Brittany, and that the English barons had the right to dispose +of the vacant throne--lost their plausibility on the death of King John +and the accession of his infant son as Henry III. in October 1216. The +papal legate, Gualo, who had forbidden the enterprise, had arrived in +England at the same time as Louis. He excommunicated the French troops +and the English rebels, and Henry III. found a valiant defender in +William Marshal, earl of Pembroke. After the "Fair of Lincoln," in which +his army was defeated, Louis was compelled to resign his pretensions, +though by a secret article of the treaty of Lambeth (September 1217) he +secured a small war indemnity. Louis had assisted Simon de Montfort in +his war against the Albigenses in 1215, and after his return to France +he again joined the crusade. With Simon's son and successor, Amauri de +Montfort, he directed the brutal massacre which followed the capture of +Marmande. Philip II., suspicious of his son until the close of his life, +took precautions to assure his obedience, narrowly watched his +administration in Artois, which Louis held from his mother Isabella, +and, contrary to the custom of the kings of France, did not associate +his son with him by having him crowned. Philip Augustus dying on the +14th of July 1223, Louis VIII. was anointed at Reims on the 6th of +August following. He surrounded himself with councillors whom his father +had chosen and formed, and continued his father's policy. His reign was +taken up with two great designs: to destroy the power of the +Plantagenets, and to conquer the heretical south of France. An +expedition conquered Poitou and Saintonge (1224); in 1226 he led the +crusade against the Albigenses in the south, forced Avignon to +capitulate and received the submission of Languedoc. While passing the +Auvergne on his return to Paris, he was stricken with dysentery, and +died at Montpensier on the 8th of November 1226. His reign, short as it +was, brought gains both to the royal domains and to the power of the +crown over the feudal lords. He had married in 1200 Blanche of Castile, +daughter of Alphonso IX. of Castile and granddaughter of Henry II. of +England, who bore him twelve children; his eldest surviving son was his +successor, Louis IX. + + See C. Petit-Dutaillis, _Étude sur la vie et le règne de Louis VIII._ + (Paris, 1894); and E. Lavisse, _Histoire de France_, tome iii. (1901). + (M. Br.) + + + + +LOUIS IX. (1214-1270), king of France, known as Saint Louis, was born on +the 25th of April 1214, and was baptized at Poissy. His father, Louis +VIII., died in 1226, leaving the first minority since the accession of +the Capetians, but his mother, Queen Blanche of Castile, proved more +than a match for the feudal nobility. She secured her son's coronation +at Reims on the 29th of November 1226; and, mainly by the aid of the +papal legate, Romano Bonaventura, bishop of Porto (d. 1243), and of +Thibaut IV., count of Champagne, was able to thwart the rebellious plans +of Pierre Mauclerc, duke of Brittany, and Philippe Hurepel, a natural +son of Philip Augustus. Mauclerc's opposition was not finally overcome, +however, until 1234. Then in 1236 Thibaut, who had become king of +Navarre, turned against the queen, formed an alliance with Brittany, +marrying his daughter without royal consent to Jean le Roux, Mauclerc's +son, and attempted to make a new feudal league. The final triumph of the +regent was shown when the king's army assembled at Vincennes. His +summons met with such general and prompt obedience as to awe Thibaut +into submission without striking a blow. Thus the reign of Louis IX. +began with royal prerogatives fully maintained; the kingdom was well +under control, and Mauclerc and Thibaut were both obliged to go on +crusade. But the influence of the strong-willed queen-mother continued +to make itself felt to the close of her life. Louis IX. did not lack +independence of character, but his confidence in his mother had been +amply justified and he always acted in her presence like a child. This +confidence he withheld from his wife, Margaret, daughter of Raymond +Berenger, count of Provence, whom he married at Sens in May 1234. The +reign was comparatively uneventful. A rising of the nobles of the +south-west, stirred up by Isabella, widow of King John of England, and +her husband, Hugh de Lusignan, count of the Marche, upon the occasion of +the investment of Alphonse of Poitiers with the fiefs left him by Louis +VIII. as a result of the Albigensian crusade, reached threatening +dimensions in 1242, but the king's armies easily overran Count Hugh's +territories, and defeated Henry III. of England, who had come to his +aid, at Saintes. Isabella and her husband were forced to submit, and +Raymond VII., count of Toulouse, yielded without resistance upon the +advent of two royal armies, and accepted the peace of Lorris in January +1243. This was the last rising of the nobles in Louis's reign. + +At the end of 1244, during an illness, Louis took the cross. He had +already been much distressed by the plight of John of Brienne, emperor +at Constantinople, and bought from him the crown of thorns, parts of the +true cross, the holy lance, and the holy sponge. The Sainte Chapelle in +Paris still stands as a monument to the value of these relics to the +saintly king. But the quarrel between the papacy and the emperor +Frederick II., in which Louis maintained a watchful neutrality--only +interfering to prevent the capture of Innocent IV. at Lyons--and the +difficulties of preparation, delayed the embarkation until August 1248. +His defeat and capture at Mansura, in February 1250, the next four years +spent in Syria in captivity, in diplomatic intrigues, and finally in +raising the fortifications of Caesarea and Joppa,--these events belong +to the history of the crusades (q.v.). His return to France was urgently +needed, as Blanche of Castile, whom he had left as regent, had died in +November 1252, and upon the removal of her strong hand feudal turbulence +had begun to show itself. + +This period between his first and second crusades (1254-1269) is the +real age of Saint Louis in the history of France. He imposed peace +between warring factions of his nobility by mere moral force, backed up +by something like an awakened public opinion. His nobles often chafed +under his unrelenting justice but never dared rebel. The most famous of +his settlements was the treaty of Paris, drawn up in May 1258 and +ratified in December 1259, by which the claims of Henry III. of England +were adjusted. Henry renounced absolutely Normandy, Anjou, Touraine, +Maine and Poitou, and received, on condition of recognizing Louis as +liege suzerain, all the fiefs and domains of the king of France in the +dioceses of Limoges, Cahors and Perigueux, and the expectation of +Saintonge south of the Charente, and Agenais, if they should fall to the +crown of France by the death of Alphonse of Poitiers. In addition, Louis +promised to provide Henry with sufficient money to maintain 500 knights +for two years. This treaty was very unpopular in France, since the king +surrendered a large part of France that Henry had not won; but Louis was +satisfied that the absolute sovereignty over the northern provinces more +than equalled the loss in the south. Historians still disagree as to its +wisdom. Louis made a similar compromise with the king of Aragon in the +treaty of Corbeil, 1258, whereby he gave up the claims of kings of +France to Roussillon and Barcelona, which went back to the conquest of +Charlemagne. The king of Aragon in his turn gave up his claims to part +of Provence and Languedoc, with the exception of Narbonne. Louis's +position was strikingly shown in 1264 when the English barons submitted +their attempt to bind Henry III. by the Provisions of Oxford to his +arbitration. His reply in the "Dit" or Mise of Amiens was a flat denial +of all the claims of the barons and failed to avert the civil war. Louis +was more successful in preventing feuds between his own nobles: between +the counts of Brittany and Champagne over the succession to Navarre; the +dauphin of Vienne (Guigues VII.) and Charles of Anjou; the count of +Burgundy and the count of Châlons; Henry of Luxemburg and the duke of +Lorraine with the count of Bar. Upon the whole he maintained peace with +his neighbours, although both Germany and England were torn with civil +wars. He reluctantly consented to sanction the conquest of Naples by his +brother, Charles, duke of Anjou, and it is possible that he yielded here +in the belief that it was a step toward another crusade. + +On the 24th of March 1267, Louis called to Paris such of his knights as +were not with Charles of Anjou in Naples. No one knew why he had called +them; but when the king in full assembly proclaimed his purpose of going +on a second crusade, few ventured to refuse the cross. Three years of +preparation followed; then on the 1st of July 1270 they sailed from +Aigues Mortes for Tunis, whither the expedition seems to have been +directed by the machinations of Charles of Anjou, who, it is claimed, +persuaded his brother that the key to Egypt and to Jerusalem was that +part of Africa which was his own most dangerous neighbour. After +seventeen days' voyage to Carthage, one month of the summer's heat and +plague decimated the army, and when Charles of Anjou arrived he found +that Louis himself had died of the plague on the 25th of August 1270. + +Saint Louis stands in history as the ideal king of the middle ages. An +accomplished knight, physically strong in spite of his ascetic +practices, fearless in battle, heroic in adversity, of imperious +temperament, unyielding when sure of the justness of his cause, +energetic and firm, he was indeed "every inch a king." Joinville says +that he was taller by a head than any of his knights. His devotions +would have worn out a less robust saint. He fasted much, loved sermons, +regularly heard two masses a day and all the offices, dressing at +midnight for matins in his chapel, and surrounded even when he travelled +by priests on horseback chanting the hours. After his return from the +first crusade, he wore only grey woollens in winter, dark silks in +summer. He built hospitals, visited and tended the sick himself, gave +charity to over a hundred beggars daily. Yet he safeguarded the royal +dignity by bringing them in at the back door of the palace, and by a +courtly display greater than ever before in France. His naturally cold +temperament was somewhat relieved by a sense of humour, which however +did not prevent his making presents of haircloth shirts to his friends. +He had no favourite, nor prime minister. Louis was canonized in 1297. + +As a statesman Louis IX. has left no distinct monument. The famous +"_Établissements_ of St Louis" has been shown in our own day to have +been private compilation. It was a _coutumier_ drawn up before 1273, +including, as well as some royal decrees, the civil and feudal law of +Anjou, Maine and the Orléanais. Recent researches have also denied Louis +the credit of having aided the communes. He exploited them to the full. +His standpoint in this respect was distinctly feudal. He treated his +clergy as he did his barons, enforcing the supremacy of royal justice, +and strongly opposing the exactions of the pope until the latter part of +his reign, when he joined forces with him to extort as much as possible +from the clergy. At the end of the reign most of the sees and +monasteries of France were in debt to the Lombard bankers. Finally, the +reign of Saint Louis saw the introduction of the pontifical inquisition +into France. + + There are numerous portraits of St Louis, but they are unauthentic and + contradictory. In 1903 M. Salomon Reinach claimed to have found in the + heads sculptured in the angles of the arches of the chapel at St + Germain portraits of St Louis, his brothers and sisters, and Queen + Marguerite, or Blanche, made between 1235 and 1240. This conjectured + portrait somewhat resembles the modern type, which is based upon a + statue of Charles V. once in the church of the Celestins in Paris, and + which Lenoir mistakenly identified as that of Louis IX. The king had + eleven children, six sons and five daughters, among them being his + successor, Philip III., and Robert, count of Clermont, the ancestor of + Henry IV. + + The best contemporary accounts of Louis IX. are the famous Memoirs of + the Sire Jean de Joinville (q.v.), published by N. de Wailly for the + _Soc. de l'Hist. de France_, under the title _Histoire de Saint Louis_ + (Paris, 1868), and again with translation (1874); English translation + by J. Hutton (1868). See also William of Nangis, _Gesta Ludovici IX._, + edited by M. Bouquet in vol. xx. of the _Recueil des historiens des + Gaules et de la France_. Of modern works may be mentioned C. V. + Langlois in E. Lavisse's _Histoire de France_, tome iii., with + references to literature; Frederick Perry, _Saint Louis, the Most + Christian King_ (New York, 1901); E. J. Davis, _The Invasion of Egypt + by Louis IX. of France_ (1898); H. A. Wallon, _Saint Louis et son + temps_ (1875); A. Lecoy de la Marche, _Saint Louis_ (Tours, 1891); and + E. Berger, _Saint Louis et Innocent IV_ (Paris, 1893), and _Histoire + de Blanche de Castille_ (1895). See also _The Court of a Saint_, by + Winifred F. Knox (1909). (J. T. S.*) + + + + +LOUIS X. (1289-1316), king of France and Navarre, called _le Hutin_ or +"the Quarreller," was the son of Philip IV. and of Jeanne of Navarre. He +was born at Paris on the 4th of October 1289, took the title king of +Navarre on the death of his mother, on the 2nd of April 1305, and +succeeded Philip IV. in France on the 29th of November 1314, being +crowned at Reims in August 1315. The origin of his surname is uncertain. +Louis X. is a somewhat indistinct figure among the kings of France, the +preponderating influence at court during his short reign being that of +his uncle, Charles of Valois. The reign began with reaction against the +policy of Philip IV. Private vengeance was wreaked on Enguerrand de +Marigny, who was hanged, Pierre de Latilli, bishop of Châlons and +chancellor, and Raoul de Presle, advocate of the parlement, who were +imprisoned. The leagues of the lesser country gentry, formed in 1314 +before the accession of Louis, continued to demand the ancient +privileges of the nobility,--tourneys, private wars and judgment of +nobles not by king's officers but by their peers--and to protest against +the direct call by the king of their vassals to the royal army. Louis X. +granted them charters in which he made apparent concessions, but used +evasive formulas which in reality ceded nothing. There was a charter to +the Normans, one to the Burgundians, one to the Languedocians (1315). +Robert de Béthune, count of Flanders, refused to do homage, and his +French fiefs were declared confiscate by a court of his peers. In August +1315 Louis X. led an army toward Lille, but the flooded Lys barred his +passage, the ground was so soaked with rains that the army could not +advance, and it was thrown back, without a battle, on Tournai. Need of +money inspired one famous ordinance of this reign; in 1315 the serfs of +the royal domains were invited to buy their civil liberty,--an +invitation which did not meet with great enthusiasm, as the freedman was +merely freed for further exploitation, and Philip V. was obliged to +renew it in 1318. Louis X. died suddenly on the 5th of June 1316. His +first wife was Margaret, daughter of Robert II., duke of Burgundy; she +was accused of adultery and died a prisoner in the château Gaillard. By +her he had one daughter, Jeanne, wife of Philip, count of Evreux and +king of Navarre. By his second wife Clémence, daughter of Charles +Martel, titular king of Hungary, he left a posthumous son, King John I. + + See Ch. Dufayard, "La réaction feodale sous les fils de Philippe le + Bel," in _Revue historique_ (1894); Paul Lehugeur, _Histoire de + Philippe le Long, roi de France_ (Paris, 1897); and Joseph Petit, + _Charles de Valois_ (Paris, 1900). (J. T. S.*) + + + + +LOUIS XI. (1423-1483), king of France, the son of Charles VII. and his +queen, Marie of Anjou, was born on the 3rd of July 1423, at Bourges, +where his father, then nicknamed the "King of Bourges," had taken refuge +from the English. At the birth of Louis XI. part of France was in +English hands; when he was five years old, Joan of Arc appeared; he was +just six when his father was crowned at Reims. But his boyhood was spent +apart from these stirring events, in the castle of Loches, where his +father visited him rarely. John Gerson, the foremost theologian of +France, wrote a manual of instructions (still extant) for the first of +his tutors, Jean Majoris, a canon of Reims. His second tutor, Bernard of +Armagnac, was noted for his piety and humility. If, as has been claimed, +Louis owed to them any of his tendency to prefer the society of the +poor, or rather of the _bourgeois_, to that of the nobility, their +example was his best lesson in the craft of kingship. In June 1436, when +scarcely thirteen, he was married to Margaret (_c_. 1425-1445), daughter +of James I. of Scotland, a princess of about his own age, but sickly and +romantic, and in every way his opposite. Three years after this unhappy +marriage Louis entered upon his stormy political career. Sent by his +father in 1439 to direct the defence of Languedoc against the English, +and to put down the brigandage in Poitou, he was induced by the +rebellious nobles to betray his trust and place himself at the head of +the Praguerie (q.v.). Charles VII. pardoned him this rebellion, due to +his ambition and the seductive proposal of the nobles to make him +regent. The following year he was fighting the English, and in 1443 +aided his father to suppress the revolt of the count of Armagnac. His +first important command, however, was in the next year, when he led an +army of from 15,000 to 20,000 mercenaries and brigands,--the product of +the Hundred Years' War,--against the Swiss of the canton of Basel. The +heroism of some two hundred Swiss, who for a while held thousands of the +French army at bay, made a great impression on the young prince. After +an ineffective siege of Basel, he made peace with the Swiss +confederation, and led his robber soldiers into Alsace to ravage the +country of the Habsburgs, who refused him the promised winter quarters. +Meanwhile his father, making a parallel campaign in Lorraine, had +assembled his first brilliant court at Nancy, and when Louis returned it +was to find the king completely under the spell of Agnes Sorel. He at +first made overtures to members of her party, and upon their rejection +through fear of his ambition, his deadly hatred of her and of them +involved the king. The death in 1445 of his wife Margaret, who was a +great favourite of Charles VII., made the rupture complete. From that +year until the death of the king father and son were enemies. Louis +began his rebellious career by a futile attempt to seduce the cities of +Agenais into treason, and then he prepared a plot to seize the king and +his minister Pierre de Brézé. Antoine de Chabannes, who was to be the +instrument of the plot, revealed it to Charles, and Louis was mildly +punished by being sent off to Dauphiné (1447). He never saw his father +again. + +Louis set out to govern his principality as though it were an +independent state. He dismissed the governor; he determined +advantageously to himself the boundaries between his state and the +territories of the duke of Savoy and of the papacy; and he enforced his +authority over perhaps the most unruly nobility in western Europe, both +lay and ecclesiastical. The right of private warfare was abolished; the +bishops were obliged to give up most of their temporal jurisdiction, the +scope of their courts was limited, and appeals to Rome were curtailed. +On the other hand, Louis granted privileges to the towns and +consistently used their alliance to overthrow the nobility. He watched +the roads, built new ones, opened markets, protected the only bankers of +the country, the Jews, and reorganized the administration so as to draw +the utmost revenue possible from the prosperity thus secured. His +ambition led him into foreign entanglements; he made a secret treaty +with the duke of Savoy which was to give him right of way to Genoa, and +made arrangements for a partition of the duchy of Milan. The alliance +with Savoy was sealed by the marriage of Louis with Charlotte, daughter +of Duke Lodovico, in 1452, in spite of the formal prohibition of Charles +VII. The king marched south, but withdrew again leaving his son +unsubdued. Four years later, as Charles came to the Bourbonnais, Louis, +fearing for his life, fled to Flanders to the court of Philip the Good, +duke of Burgundy, leaving Dauphiné to be definitely annexed to the crown +of France. The policy of the dauphin was reversed, his ten years' work +was undone. Meanwhile he was installed in the castle of Genappe, in +Brabant, where he remained until the death of his father. For this he +waited impatiently five years, keeping himself posted by spies of every +stage of the king's last illness, and thus laying himself open to the +accusation, believed in by Charles himself, that he had hastened the end +by poison, a charge which modern historians deny. + +On the 15th of August 1461, Louis was anointed at Reims, and Philip of +Burgundy, as _doyen_ of the peers of France, placed the crown on his +head. For two months Philip acted as though the king were still his +protégé. But in the midst of the festivities with which he was +entertaining Paris, the duke found that Louis ventured to refuse his +candidates for office, and on the 24th of September the new king left +abruptly for Touraine. His first act was to strike at the faithful +ministers of Charles VII. Pierre de Brézé and Antoine de Chabannes were +captured and imprisoned, as well as men of sterling worth like Étienne +Chevalier. But the king's shrewdness triumphed before long over his +vengeance, and the more serviceable of the officers of Charles VII. were +for the most part soon reinstated, Louis' advisers were mostly men of +the middle class. He had a ready purse for men of talent, drawing them +from England, Scotland, Italy, Spain and Portugal. Such a motley throng +of competent men had never before been seen at the court of France. +Their origin, their previous crimes or virtues, their avarice or +brutality, were indifferent to him so long as they served him loyally. +Torture and imprisonment awaited them, whether of high or low degree, if +he fancied that they were betraying him. Among the most prominent of +these men in addition to Brézé, Chevalier and Chabannes, were Tristan +Lermite, Jean de Daillon, Olivier le Dain (the barber), and after 1472, +Philippe de Commines, drawn from the service of Charles the Bold of +Burgundy, who became his most intimate adviser and biographer. +Surrounded by men like these Louis fought the last great battle of +French royalty with feudalism. + +Louis XI. began his reign with the same high-handed treatment of the +nobles which had marked his rule in Dauphiné, going so far as to forbid +them to hunt without his permission. He forced the clergy to pay +long-neglected feudal dues, and intrigued against the great houses of +Anjou and Orleans in Italy. The malcontent nobles soon began to plan +revolt. Discharged officers of Charles VII. like Jean Dunois and John +II. duke of Bourbon, stirred up hostility to the new men of the king, +and Francis II. duke of Brittany was soon embroiled with Louis over an +attempt to assert royal control over that practically independent duchy. +The dissatisfied nobility found their greatest ally in Charles the Bold, +afterwards duke of Burgundy, and in 1465 formed a "league of public +welfare" and declared war on their king. The nominal head was the king's +brother Charles, duke of Berry, then eighteen years old, a weak +character, the tool of the rebels as he was later the dupe of the king. +Every great noble in France was in the league, except Gaston de +Foix--who kept the south of France for the king,--and the counts of +Vendôme and Eu. The whole country seemed on the verge of anarchy. It was +saved by the refusal of the lesser gentry to rise, and by the alliance +of the king with the citizen class, which was not led astray by the +pretences of regard for the public weal which cloaked the designs of the +leaguers. After a successful campaign in the Bourbonnais, Louis fought +an indecisive battle with the Burgundians who had marched on Paris at +Montlhéry, on the 16th of July 1465, and then stood a short siege in +Paris. On the 28th of September he made a truce with Charles the Bold, +and in October the treaties of Conflans and Saint Maur-les-Fossés, ended +the war. The king yielded at all points; gave up the "Somme towns" in +Picardy, for which he had paid 200,000 gold crowns, to Philip the Good, +thus bringing the Burgundians close to Paris and to Normandy. Charles, +the king's brother, was given Normandy as an apanage, thus joining the +territories of the rebellious duke of Brittany with those of Charles the +Bold. The public weal was no longer talked about, while the kingdom was +plundered both by royal tax gatherers and by unsubdued feudal lords to +pay the cost of the war. + +After this failure Louis set to work to repair his mistakes. The duke of +Bourbon was won over by the gift of the government of the centre of +France, and Dunois and Chabannes by restoring them their estates. Two +months after he had granted Normandy to Charles, he took advantage of a +quarrel between the duke of Brittany and his brother to take it again, +sending the duke of Bourbon "to aid" Charles, while Dunois and Chabannes +prepared for the struggle with Burgundy. The death of Duke Philip, on +the 15th of June 1467, gave Charles the Bold a free hand. He gained over +Edward IV. of England, whose sister Margaret he married; but while he +was celebrating the wedding Louis invaded Brittany and detached Duke +Francis from alliance with him. Normandy was completely reduced. The +king had won a great triumph. It was followed by his greatest mistake. +Eager as he always was to try diplomacy instead of war, Louis sent a +gift of 60,000 golden crowns to Charles and secured a safe conduct from +him for an interview. The interview took place on the 9th of October +1468 at Péronne. News came on the 11th that, instigated by the king of +France, the people of Liége had massacred their bishop and the ducal +governor. The news was false, but Charles, furious at such apparent +duplicity, took Louis prisoner, only releasing him, three days later, on +the king signing a treaty which granted Flanders freedom from +interference from the parlement of Paris, and agreeing to accompany +Charles to the siege of his own ally, Liége. Louis made light of the +whole incident in his letters, but it marked the greatest humiliation of +his life, and he was only too glad to find a scapegoat in Cardinal Jean +Balue, who was accused of having plotted the treason of Péronne. Balue +thereupon joined Guillaume de Harancourt, bishop of Verdun, in an +intrigue to induce Charles of France to demand Champagne and Brie in +accordance with the king's promise to Charles the Bold, instead of +distant Guienne where the king was determined to place him. The +discovery of this conspiracy placed these two high dignitaries in prison +(April 1469). Balue (q.v.) spent eleven years in prison quarters, +comfortable enough, in spite of the legend to the contrary, while +Harancourt was shut up in an iron cage until 1482. Then Louis, inducing +his brother to accept Guienne,--where, surrounded by faithful royal +officers, he was harmless for the time being,--undertook to play off the +Lancastrians against Edward IV. who, as the ally of Charles the Bold, +was menacing the coast of Normandy. Warwick, the king-maker, and Queen +Margaret were aided in the expedition which in 1470 again placed Henry +VI. upon the English throne. In the autumn Louis himself took the +offensive, and royal troops overran Picardy and the Maconnais to +Burgundy itself. But the tide turned against Louis in 1471. While Edward +IV. won back England by the battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury, Charles +the Bold besieged Amiens, and Louis was glad to make a truce, availing +himself of the double dealing of the constable, the count of Saint Pol, +who, trying to win an independent position for himself in Picardy, +refused his aid to Charles unless he would definitely join the French +nobility in another rising against the king. This rising was to be aided +by the invasion of France by John II. of Aragon, Yolande, duchess of +Savoy, and Edward IV. of England, who was to be given the old +Plantagenet inheritance. The country was saved a desperate civil war by +the death of the king's brother, Charles, the nominal head of the +coalition, on the 24th of May 1472. Louis' joy on receiving news of this +death knew no bounds. Charles the Bold, who had again invaded France, +failed to take Beauvais, and was obliged to make a lasting truce. His +projects were henceforth to be directed towards Germany. Louis then +forced the duke of Brittany to make peace, and turned against John V. +count of Armagnac, whose death at the opening of March 1473 ended the +power of one of the most dangerous houses of the south. The first period +of Louis' reign was closed, and with it closed for ever the danger of +dismemberment of France. John of Aragon continued the war in Roussillon +and Cerdagne, which Louis had seized ten years before, and a most +desperate rising of the inhabitants protracted the struggle for two +years. After the capture of Perpignan on the 10th of March 1475, the +wise and temperate government of Imbert de Batarnay and Boffile de Juge +slowly pacified the new provinces. The death of Gaston IV. count of Foix +in 1472 opened up the long diplomatic struggle for Navarre, which was +destined to pass to the loyal family of Albret shortly after the death +of Louis. His policy had won the line of the Pyrenees for France. + +The overthrow of Charles the Bold was the second great task of Louis XI. +This he accomplished by a policy much like that of Pitt against +Napoleon. Louis was the soul of all hostile coalitions, especially +urging on the Swiss and Sigismund of Austria, who ruled Tirol and +Alsace. Charles's ally, Edward IV., invaded France in June 1475, but +Louis bought him off on the 29th of August at Picquigny--where the two +sovereigns met on a bridge over the Somme, with a strong grille between +them, Edward receiving 75,000 crowns, and a promise of a pension of +50,000 crowns annually. The dauphin Charles was to marry Edward's +daughter. Bribery of the English ministers was not spared, and in +September the invaders recrossed to England. The count of Saint Pol, who +had continued to play his double part, was surrendered by Charles to +Louis, and executed, as was also Jacques d'Armagnac, duke of Nemours. +With his vassals terrorized and subdued, Louis continued to subsidize +the Swiss and René II. of Lorraine in their war upon Charles. The defeat +and death of the duke of Burgundy at Nancy on the 5th of January 1477 +was the crowning triumph of Louis' diplomacy. But in his eagerness to +seize the whole inheritance of his rival, Louis drove his daughter and +heiress, Mary of Burgundy, into marriage with Maximilian of Austria +(afterwards the emperor Maximilian I.), who successfully defended +Flanders after a savage raid by Antoine de Chabannes. The battle of +Guinegate on the 7th of August 1479 was indecisive, and definite peace +was not established until after the death of Mary, when by the treaty of +Arras (1482) Louis received Picardy, Artois and the Boulonnais, as well +as the duchy of Burgundy and Franche Comté. The Austrians were left in +Flanders, a menace and a danger. Louis failed here and in Spain; this +failure being an indirect cause of that vast family compact which +surrounded France later with the empire of Charles V. His interference +in Spain had made both John II. of Aragon and Henry IV. of Castile his +enemies, and so he was unable to prevent the marriage of their heirs, +Ferdinand and Isabella. But the results of these marriages could not be +foreseen, and the unification of France proved of more value than the +possession of so widespread an empire. This unification was completed +(except for Brittany) and the frontiers enlarged by the acquisition, +upon the death of René of Anjou in 1480, of the duchies of Anjou and +Bar, and in 1481 of Maine and Provence upon the death of Charles II., +count of Maine. Of the inheritance of the house of Anjou only Lorraine +escaped the king. + +Failure in Spain was compensated for in Italy. Without waging war Louis +made himself virtual arbiter of the fate of the principalities in the +north, and his court was always besieged by ambassadors from them. After +the death of Charles the Bold, Yolande, duchess of Savoy, was obliged to +accept the control of Louis, who was her brother. In Milan he helped to +place Lodovico il Moro in power in 1479, but he reaped less from this +supple tyrant than he had expected. Pope Sixtus IV. the enemy of the +Medici, was also the enemy of the king of France. Louis, who at the +opening of his reign had denounced the Pragmatic Sanction of 1438, had +played fast and loose with the papacy. When Sixtus threatened Florence +after the Pazzi conspiracy, 1478, Louis aided Lorenzo dei Medici to form +an alliance with Naples, which forced the papacy to come to terms. + +More than any other king of France, Louis XI. was a "bourgeois king." +The upper bourgeois, the aristocracy of his "good cities," were his +allies both against the nobles and against the artisan class, whenever +they revolted, driven to desperation by the oppressive royal taxes which +furnished the money for his wars or diplomacy. He ruled like a modern +capitalist; placed his bribes like investments in the courts of his +enemies; and, while draining the land of enormous sums, was pitiless +toward the two productive portions of his realm, the country population +and the artisans. His heartlessness toward the former provoked even an +accomplice like Commines to protest. The latter were kept down by +numerous edicts, tending to restrict to certain privileged families the +rank of master workman in the gilds. There was the paternalism of a +Frederick the Great in his encouragement of the silk industry,--"which +all idle people ought to be made to work at,"--in his encouragement of +commerce through the newly acquired port of Marseilles and the opening +up of market placed. He even dreamed of a great trading company "of two +hundred thousand livres or more," to monopolize the trade of the +Mediterranean, and planned to unify the various systems of weights and +measures. In 1479 he called a meeting of two burgesses from each "good +city" of his realm to consider means for preventing the influx of +foreign coin. Impatient of all restraint upon his personal rule, he was +continually in violent dispute with the parlement of Paris, and made +"justice" another name for arbitrary government; yet he dreamed of a +unification of the local customary laws (_coûtumes_) of France. He was +the perfect model of a tyrant. The states-general met but once in his +reign, in 1468, and then no talk of grievances was allowed; his object +was only to get them to declare Normandy inalienable from the crown. +They were informed that the king could raise his revenue without +consulting them. Yet his budgets were enormously greater than ever +before. In 1481 the _taille_ alone brought in 4,600,000 livres, and even +at the peaceful close of his reign his whole budget was 4,655,000 +livres--as against 1,800,000 livres at the close of his father's reign. + +The king who did most for French royalty would have made a sorry figure +at the court of a Louis XIV. He was ungainly, with rickety legs. His +eyes were keen and piercing, but a long hooked nose lent grotesqueness +to a face marked with cunning rather than with dignity. Its ugliness was +emphasized by the old felt hat which he wore,--its sole ornament the +leaden figure of a saint. Until the close of his life, when he tried to +mislead ambassadors as to the state of his health by gorgeous robes, he +wore the meanest clothes. Dressed in grey like a pilgrim, and +accompanied by five or six trustworthy servants, he would set out on his +interminable travels, "ambling along on a good mule." Thus he traversed +France, avoiding all ceremony, entering towns by back streets, receiving +ambassadors in wayside huts, dining in public houses, enjoying the loose +manners and language of his associates, and incidentally learning at +first hand the condition of his people and the possibilities of using or +taxing them--his needs of them rather than theirs of him. He loved to +win men, especially those of the middle class, by affability and +familiarity, employing all his arts to cajole and seduce those whom he +needed. Yet his honied words easily turned to gall. He talked rapidly +and much, sometimes for hours at a time, and most indiscreetly. He was +not an agreeable companion, violent in his passions, nervous, restless, +and in old age extremely irascible. Utterly unscrupulous, and without a +trace of pity, he treated men like pawns, and was content only with +absolute obedience. + +But this Machiavellian prince was the genuine son of St Louis. His +religiosity was genuine if degenerate. He lavished presents on +influential saints, built shrines, sent gifts to churches, went on +frequent pilgrimages and spent much time in prayer--employing his +consummate diplomacy to win celestial allies, and rewarding them richly +when their aid secured him any advantage. St Martin of Tours received +1200 crowns after the capture of Perpignan. He tried to bribe the saints +of his enemies, as he did their ministers. An unfaltering faith taught +him the value of religion--as a branch of politics. Finally, more in the +spirit of orthodoxy, he used the same arts to make sure of heaven. When +the ring of St Zanobius and the blood of Cape Verde turtles gave him no +relief from his last illness, he showered gifts upon his patron saints, +secured for his own benefit the masses of his clergy, and the most +potent prayers in Christendom, those of the two most effective saints of +his day, Bernardin of Doulins and Francis of Paolo. + +During the last two or three years of his life Louis lived in great +isolation, "seeing no one, speaking with no one, except such as he +commanded," in the château of Plessis-les-Tours, that "spider's nest" +bristling with watch towers, and guarded only by the most trusty +servitors. A swarm of astrologers and physicians preyed upon his +fears--and his purse. But, however foolish in his credulity, he still +made his strong hand felt both in France and in Italy, remaining to the +last "the terrible king." His fervent prayers were interrupted by +instructions for the regency which was to follow. He died on the 30th of +August 1483, and was buried, according to his own wish, without royal +state, in the church at Cléry, instead of at St Denis. He left a son, +his successor, Charles VIII., and two daughters. + + See the admirable résumé by Charles Petit-Dutaillis in Lavisse's + _Histoire de France_, tome iv. pt. ii. (1902), and bibliographical + indications given there. Michelet's wonderful depiction in his + _Histoire de France_ (livres 13 to 17) has never been surpassed for + graphic word-painting, but it is inaccurate in details, and superseded + in scholarship. Of the original sources for the reign the _Lettres de + Louis XI_. (edited by Charavay and Vaesen, 8 vols., 1883-1902), the + celebrated _Mémoires_ of Philippe de Commines and the _Journal_ of + Jean de Royl naturally come first. The great mass of literature on the + period is analysed in masterly fashion by A. Molinier, _Sources de + l'histoire de France_ (tome v. pp. 1-146), and to this exhaustive + bibliography the reader is referred for further research. See also C. + Hare, _The Life of Louis XI_. (London, 1907). (J. T. S.*) + + + + +LOUIS XII. (1462-1515), king of France, was grandson of Louis of +Orleans, the brother of Charles VI., and son of the poet prince, Charles +of Orleans, who, after the battle of Agincourt, spent twenty-five years +of captivity in England. Louis was duke of Orleans until his accession +to the throne, and he was fourteen years old when Louis XI. gave him the +hand of his second daughter, Joan the Lame. In the first years of the +reign of Charles VIII., Louis made a determined stand against the +government of the Beaujeus, stirred up coalitions of the feudal nobles +against them, and was finally defeated and taken prisoner at St Aubin du +Cormier in 1488. Charles VIII. set him at liberty in 1491. These +successive checks tamed him a little. In the Italian expedition of 1494 +he commanded the vanguard of the royal army, occupied Genoa, and +remained in the north of Italy, menacing Milan, on which he was already +dreaming of asserting his rights. The children of Charles VIII. having +died in infancy, he became heir-presumptive to the throne, and succeeded +Charles in 1499. Louis was then thirty-six years old, but he seems to +have grown old prematurely. He was fragile, narrow-shouldered and of a +sickly constitution. His intelligence was mediocre, his character weak, +and he allowed himself to be dominated by his wife, Anne of Brittany, +and his favourite the Cardinal d'Amboise. He was a good king, full of +moderation and humanity, and bent upon maintaining order and improving +the administration of justice. He enjoyed a genuine popularity, and in +1506 the estates of Tours conferred on him the surname of _Père du +Peuple_. His foreign policy, which was directed wholly towards Italy, +was for the most part unskilful; to his claims on Naples he added those +on Milan, which he based on the marriage of his grandfather, Louis of +Orleans, with Valentina Visconti. He led in person several armies into +Italy, and proved as severe and pitiless towards his enemies as he was +gentle and clement towards his subjects. Louis had two daughters. After +his accession he had divorced his virtuous and ill-favoured queen, Joan, +and had married, in 1499, Anne of Brittany, the widow of Charles VIII. +On her death in January 1514, in order to detach England from the +alliance against him, he married on the 9th of October 1514, Mary Tudor, +sister of Henry VIII. of England (see MARY, queen of France). He died on +the 1st of January 1515. + + For a bibliography of the printed sources see Henri Hauser, _Les + Sources de l'histoire de France, XVI^e siècle_, vol. 1. (Paris, 1906). + The principal secondary authorities are De Maulde, _Histoire de Louis + XII_. (Paris, 1889-1893); Le Roux de Lincy, _Vie de la reine Anne de + Bretagne_ (Paris, 1860); H. Lemonnier, _Les Guerres d'Italie_ (Paris, + 1903) in the _Histoire de France_ by E. Lavisse. (J. I.) + + + + +LOUIS XIII. (1601-1643), king of France, was the son of Henry IV. and of +Marie de' Medici. He became king on his father's assassination in 1610; +but his mother at once seized the full powers of regent. She determined +to reverse the policy of her husband and to bring France into alliance +with Spain and the Austrian house, upon which power Henry had been +meditating an attack at the time of his death. Two marriages were +designed to cement this alliance. Louis was to marry Anne of Austria, +daughter of the Spanish king, Philip III., and the Spanish prince, +afterwards Philip IV., himself was to marry the Princess Elizabeth, the +king's sister. Notwithstanding the opposition of the Protestants and +nobles of France, the queen carried through her purpose and the +marriages were concluded in 1615. The next years were full of civil war +and political intrigue, during which the queen relied upon the Marshal +d'Ancre. Louis XIII. was a backward boy, and his education had been much +neglected. We have the fullest details of his private life, and yet his +character remains something of a mystery. He was fond of field sports +and seemed to acquiesce in his mother's occupation of power and in the +rule of her favourites. But throughout his life he concealed his +purposes even from his closest friends; sometimes it seems as if he were +hardly conscious of them himself. In 1617 he was much attached to +Charles d'Albert, sieur de Luynes; and with his help he arrested Marshal +d'Ancre, and on his resistance had him assassinated. From this time to +her death the relation between the king and his mother was one of +concealed or open hostility. The article on FRANCE must be consulted for +the intricate events of the following years. + +The decisive incident for his private life as well as for his reign was +the entrance of Cardinal Richelieu, hitherto the queen's chief adviser, +into the king's council in 1624. Henceforth the policy of France was +directed by Richelieu, who took up in its main features the system of +Protestant alliances and opposition to the power of Austria and Spain, +which had been begun by Henry IV. and had been interrupted by the +queen-mother during the regency; while he asserted the power of the +crown against all rivals at home. This policy had remarkable results for +the king's private life. It not only brought him into unremitting +conflict with the Protestants and the nobles of France, but also made +him the enemy of his mother, of his brother Gaston of Orleans, who made +himself the champion of the cause of the nobles, and sometimes even of +his wife. It is not easy to define his relations to Richelieu. He was +convinced of his loyalty and of his genius, and in the end always +supported his policy. But he disliked the friction with his family +circle which this policy produced. In the difficulty with which he +expressed himself and in a certain indecision of character the king was +curiously unlike his father, the frank and impetuous Henry of Navarre, +and his absolute son Louis XIV. He took a great interest in all the +externals of war. He was present, and is said to have played an +important part at the passage of Susa in 1629, and also eagerly +participated in the siege of Rochelle, which surrendered in the same +year. But for the most part his share in the great events of the reign +was a passive one. The one all-important fact was that he supported his +great minister. There were certain occasions when it seemed as if that +support would be denied. The chief of these was what is known as the +"Day of Dupes" (1630). Then the queen-mother and the king's brother +passionately attacked the minister, and for a moment it was believed +that Richelieu was dismissed and that the queen-mother and a Spanish +policy had triumphed. But the sequel only strengthened the power of the +minister. He regained his ascendancy over the king, punished his enemies +and forced Marie de' Medici and Gaston of Orleans to sue for pardon. In +1631 Gaston fled to Lorraine and the queen-mother to Brussels. Gaston +soon returned, to plot, to fail and to sue for pardon again and again; +but Marie de'Medici ended her life in exile. + +Richelieu's position was much strengthened by these incidents, but to +the end of life he had to struggle against conspiracies which were +designed to deprive him of the king's support, and usually Gaston of +Orleans had some share in these movements. In 1632 the duke of +Montmorency's conspiracy brought its leader to the scaffold. But the +last great effort to overthrow Richelieu was closely connected with the +king. Louis XIII. had from the beginning of his reign had +favourites--young men for the most part with whom he lived freely and +intimately and spoke of public affairs lightly and unreservedly; and who +in consequence often exaggerated their influence over him. Henri +d'Effiat, marquis de Cinq-Mars, was the last of these favourites. The +king is said to have allowed him to speak hostilely of Richelieu and +even to recall the assassination of Marshal d'Ancre. Cinq-Mars believed +himself secure of the king's favour. He entered into negotiations with +Spain and was secretly supported by Gaston of Orleans. But Richelieu +discovered his treasonous relations with Spain and by this means +defeated his plot. Louis was reconciled to his minister. "We have lived +too long together to be separated" he is reported to have said +(September 1642). Yet when Richelieu died in December of the same year +he allowed himself to speak of him in a jealous and satirical tone. He +died himself a few months later (May 1643). + +His nature was timid, lethargic and melancholy, and his court was not +marked by the scandals which had been seen under Henry IV. Yet +Mademoiselle de la Fayette and Madame d'Hautefort and others are said to +have been his mistresses. His brother Gaston survived him, but gave +unexpectedly little trouble during the wars of the Fronde which ensued +on the death of Louis XIII. + + The chief source of information on Louis XIII.'s life is to be found + in the contemporary memoirs, of which the chief are: Bassompierre, + Fontenay-Mareuil, Gaston d'Orléans, Montrésor, Omer Talon. Richelieu's + own Memoirs are chiefly concerned with politics and diplomacy. Of + modern works those most directly bearing on the king's personal life + are R. de Beauchamp, _Louis XIII. d'après sa correspondance avec le + cardinal de Richelieu_; G. Hanotaux, _Histoire du cardinal de + Richelieu_ (1893-1896); Rossignol, _Louis XIII. avant Richelieu_; M. + Topin, _Louis XIII. et Richelieu_ (1876). See too Professor R. Lodge, + _Richelieu_; J. B. H. R. Capefigue, _Richelieu, Mazarin et la Fronde_ + (1835-1836); and Dr J. H. Bridges, _Richelieu, Mazarin and Colbert_ + (1866). + + For full bibliography see G. Monod, _Bibliographie de l'histoire de + France_; _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. iv. ("The Thirty Years' + War"); Lavisse et Rambaud, _Histoire générale_, vol. v. ("Guerres de + religion"). (A. J. G.*) + + + + +LOUIS XIV. (1638-1715), king of France, was born at +Saint-Germain-en-Laye on the 5th of September 1638. His father, Louis +XIII., had married Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip III., king of +Spain, in 1615, but for twenty years the marriage had remained without +issue. The childlessness of the king was a constant threat to the policy +of his great minister Richelieu; for the king's brother and heir, Gaston +of Orleans, was a determined opponent of that policy. The birth of the +prince who was destined to reign as Louis XIV. was therefore hailed as a +triumph, not less important than any of those won by diplomacy or arms. +The death of his father made Louis XIV. king on the 14th of May 1643, +but he had to wait sixteen years before he began to rule. Power lay for +some time in the hands of the queen-mother and in those of her minister, +Cardinal Mazarin, who found it difficult to maintain the power of the +throne and the integrity of French territory during the domestic +troubles of the Fronde and the last stages of the Thirty Year's War. The +minister was hated as a foreigner, and the childhood of the king +weakened the royal authority. Twice the court had to flee from Paris; +once when there was a rumour of intended flight the populace was +admitted to see the king in his bed. The memory of these humiliations +played their part in developing later the autocratic ideas of Louis. +Mazarin, in spite of all disadvantages, triumphed alike over his +domestic and his foreign opponents. The Fronde was at an end by 1653; +the peace of Westphalia (1648) and the peace of the Pyrenees (1659) +marked the success of the arms and of the diplomacy of France. Louis +XIV. was now twenty-one years of age and was anxious to rule as well as +to reign. The peace of the Pyrenees was a decisive event in his personal +history as well as in that of France, for one of its most important +stipulations referred to his marriage. He had already been strongly +attracted to one of the nieces of Mazarin, but reasons of state +triumphed over personal impulse; and it was agreed that the new +friendship with Spain should be cemented by the marriage of Louis to his +cousin, the Infanta Maria Theresa. A large dowry was stipulated for; and +in consideration of this the king promised to forgo all claims that his +wife might otherwise possess to the Spanish crown or any part of its +territories. The dowry was never paid, and the king held himself free of +his promise. + +The marriage took place at once, and the king entered Paris in triumph +in 1660. Mazarin died in the next year; but so strong was the feeling +that the kings of France could only rule through a first minister that +it was generally expected that Mazarin would soon have a successor. The +king, however, at once announced his intention of being his own first +minister; and from this resolution he never swerved. Whatever great +qualities he may have lacked he certainly possessed industry and +patience in the highest degree. He built up a thoroughly personal system +of government, and presided constantly over the council and many of its +committees. He was fond of gaiety and of sport; but neither ever turned +him away from the punctual and laborious discharge of his royal duties. +Even the greatest of his ministers found themselves controlled by the +king. Fouquet, the finance minister, had accumulated enormous wealth +during the late disturbances, and seemed to possess power and ambition +too great for a subject. Louis XIV. found it necessary almost to +conspire against him; he was overthrown and condemned to perpetual +imprisonment. Those who had most of the king's confidence afterwards +were Colbert for home affairs; Lionne for diplomacy; Louvois for war; +but as his reign proceeded he became more self-confident and more +intolerant of independence of judgment in his ministers. + +His court was from the first one of great brilliance. In art and in +literature, the great period, which is usually called by the king's +name, had in some respects passed its zenith when he began to reign. But +France was unquestionably the first state in Europe both in arms and +arts, and within France the authority of the king was practically +undisputed. The nation, proud of its pre-eminence and weary of civil +war, saw in the king its true representative and the guarantee of its +unity and success. Louis was singularly well fitted by his physical and +intellectual gifts for the rôle of _Grand Monarque_ and he played it to +perfection. His wife Maria Theresa bore him children but there was no +community of tastes between them, and the chief influence at court is to +be found not in the queen but in the succession of avowed mistresses. +Mademoiselle de la Vallière held the position from 1662 to 1670; she was +then ousted by Madame de Montespan, who had fiercely intrigued for it, +and whose proud and ambitious temper offered a great contrast to her +rival. She held her position from 1670 to 1679 and then gave place to +the still more famous Madame de Maintenon, who ruled, however, not as +mistress but as wife. The events that brought about this incident form +the strangest episode in the king's private life. Madame de Maintenon +was the widow of the dramatist Scarron, and first came into relationship +with the king as governess to his illegitimate children. She was a woman +of unstained life and strongly religious temperament; and it was by this +that she gained so great an influence over the king. Through her +influence the king was reconciled to his wife, and, when Maria Theresa +died in 1683, Madame de Maintenon shortly afterwards (in 1684) became +the king's wife, though this was never officially declared. Under her +influence the court lost most of its gaiety, and religion came to +exercise much control over the life and the policy of the king. + +The first years of the king's rule were marked by the great schemes of +Colbert for the financial, commercial, industrial and naval +reorganization of France, and in these schemes Louis took a deep +interest. But in 1667 began the long series of wars, which lasted with +little real intermission to the end of the reign (see FRANCE). In the +steps that led to these wars and in their conduct the egotistic ambition +and the vanity of the king played an important part; though he never +showed real military skill and took no share in any military operations +except in certain sieges. The War of Devolution (or the Queen's War) in +1667-68 to enforce the queen's claim to certain districts in the Spanish +Netherlands, led to the Dutch War (1672-78), and in both these wars the +supremacy of the French armies was clearly apparent. The next decade +(1678-1688) was the real turning-point in the history of the reign, and +the strength of France was seriously diminished. The chief cause of this +is to be found in the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The church had +always opposed this settlement and had succeeded in altering it in many +points. Now the new religious zeal and the autocratic temper of Louis +XIV. came to the support of the church. The French Huguenots found their +privileges decreased, and then, in 1685, the edict was altogether +withdrawn. The results were ruinous to France. It was not only that she +lost many thousands of her best citizens, but this blow against +Protestantism deprived her of those Protestant alliances in Europe which +had been in the past her great diplomatic support. Then the English +Revolution came in 1688 and changed England from a wavering ally into +the most determined of the enemies of France. + +The war with the Grand Alliance, of which King William III. was the +heart and soul, lasted from 1688 to 1697; and the treaty of Ryswick, +which brought it to an end, deprived France of certain territories on +her frontier. But Louis saw in the Spanish question a chance of more +than making up for this loss. The Spanish king Charles II. was dying, +and the future of the possessions of Spain was doubtful. The astute +diplomacy of Louis succeeded in winning the inheritance for his grandson +Philip. But this involved France and Europe in an immense war (1700) and +by the peace of Utrecht (1713), though the French prince retained the +Spanish crown, France had again to make concessions of territory. + +Louis XIV. had shown wonderful tenacity of purpose during this +disastrous war, and sometimes a nobler and more national spirit than +during the years of his triumphs. But the condition of France was +terrible. She was burdened with debt; the reforms of Colbert were +ruined; and opposition to the king's régime began to make itself felt. +Peace brought some relief to France, but the last years of the king's +life were gloomy in the extreme. His numerous descendants seemed at one +time to place the succession beyond all difficulty. But his eldest son, +the dauphin, died in April 1711; his eldest grandson the duke of +Burgundy in February 1712; and his great-grandson the duke of Brittany +in March 1712. The heir to the throne was now the duke of Burgundy's +son, the duke of Anjou, afterwards Louis XV. The king died on the 1st of +September 1715, after the longest recorded reign in European history. +The judgment of posterity has not repeated the flattering verdict of his +contemporaries; but he remains the model of a great king in all that +concerns the externals of kingship. + + The reign of Louis XIV. is particularly rich in memoirs describing the + life of the court. The chief are Madame de Motteville's memoirs for + the period of the Fronde, and the letters cf Madame de Sévigné and the + memoirs of Saint-Simon for the later period. The king's ideas are best + seen in the _Mémoires de Louis XIV. pour l'instruction du dauphin_ + (edited by Dreyss, 2 vols.). His private life is revealed in the + letters of Madame de Maintenon and in those of Madame, Duchesse + d'Orléans. Of the ordinary historians of France Michelet is fullest on + the private life of the king. Mention may also be made of Voltaire, + _Siècle de Louis XIV._; P. Clément, _Histoire de la vie et de + l'administration de Colbert_; Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries de lundi_. Full + bibliographies of the reign will be found in G. Monod's + _Bibliographie de l'histoire de France_; vol. v. ("The Age of Louis + XIV.") of the _Cambridge Modern History_; and vol. vi. ("Louis XIV.") + of the _Histoire générale_ of Lavisse and Rambaud. (A. J. G.*) + + + + +LOUIS XV. (1710-1774), king of France, was the great-grandson of Louis +XIV. and the third son of Louis, duke of Burgundy, and Marie Adelaide, +princess of Savoy. The first son had died in 1705, and in 1712 the +second son, the duke of Brittany, as well as his father and mother, was +carried off by a mysterious disease. Louis was thus unexpectedly brought +into the line of the succession, and was only five years old when Louis +XIV. died. The dead king had endeavoured by his will to control the +administration even after his death by a carefully selected council of +regency, in which the duke of Orleans should have only the nominal +presidency; but with the help of the parlement of Paris the arrangement +was at once set aside, and the duke was declared regent with full +traditional powers. The duke had capacity, but his life was so +licentious that what influence he had upon the king was for evil. +Fleury, bishop of Fréjus, was appointed his tutor, and the little king +was sincerely attached to him. The king attained his legal majority at +the age of thirteen, shortly before the death of the duke of Orleans. +His first minister was the incapable duke of Bourbon, who in 1725 +procured the repudiation of the Spanish princess, to whom the king had +been betrothed, and his marriage to Maria Leszczynska, daughter of the +exiled king of Poland, then resident in Alsace. In 1726 the duke of +Bourbon was displaced by the king's tutor, Bishop (afterwards Cardinal) +Fleury, who exercised almost absolute power, for the king took little +interest in affairs of state. His administration was successful and +peaceful until the year 1734, when a disputed succession in Poland +brought about the interference of France on behalf of the queen's +father. France was unsuccessful in her immediate object, but at the +peace of Vienna (1735) secured the possession of Lorraine. Up to this +point the reign had been prosperous; but from this time on it is a +record of declining national strength, which was not compensated by some +days of military glory. Fleury's great age (he died still in office at +the age of ninety) prevented him from really controlling the policy of +France and of Europe. In 1740 the war of the Austrian Succession broke +out and France drifted into it as an ally of Frederick of Prussia and +the enemy of England, and of Maria Theresa of Austria. + +On Fleury's death in 1743 no one took his place, and the king professed +to adopt the example of Louis XIV. and to establish a personal +autocracy. But he was not strong enough in will or intellect to give +unity to the administration. The marquis d'Argenson writes that at the +council table Louis "opened his mouth, said little and thought not at +all," and again that "under the appearance of personal monarchy it was +really anarchy that reigned." He had followed too in his domestic life +the example of his predecessors. The queen for some time seems to have +secured his affections, and she bore him seven children. But soon we +hear of the royal mistresses. The first to acquire notoriety was the +duchess of Châteauroux, the third sister of one family who held this +position. She was at least in part the cause of the only moment of +popularity which the king enjoyed. She urged him to take part personally +in the war. France had just received a humiliating check at Dettingen, +and the invasion of the north-eastern frontier was feared. The king went +to Metz in 1744, and his presence there did something to ward off the +danger. While the nation felt genuine gratitude for his energy and its +success, he was reported to have fallen dangerously ill. The king, of +whom it was said that the fear of hell was the only part of religion +which had any reality for him, now dismissed the duchess of Châteauroux +and promised amendment. Prayers were offered everywhere for his +recovery, and the country was swept by a delirium of loyal enthusiasm, +which conferred on him the title of _Louis le bien aimé_. But his future +life disappointed all these hopes. The duchess of Châteauroux died in +the same year, but her place was taken in 1745 by Madame de Pompadour. +This woman had philanthropic impulses and some real interest in art and +letters; but her influence on public affairs was a fatal one. She had +many rivals during her lifetime and on her death in 1764 she was +succeeded by Madame du Barry (q.v.). But the mention of these three +women gives no idea of the degradation of the king's life. There has +doubtless been exaggeration as to certain details, and the story of his +seraglio at the _Parc aux cerfs_ is largely apocryphal. But it would be +difficult to mention the name of any European king whose private life +shows such a record of vulgar vice unredeemed by higher aims of any +kind. He was not without ambition, but without sufficient tenacity of +purpose to come near to realizing it. To the last he maintained the +pretence of personal rule, but the machinery of government fell out of +gear, and the disorder of the finances was never remedied before the +revolution of 1789. + +The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), which ended the war of the Austrian +Succession, brought no gains to France in spite of her victories at +Fontenoy and Raucoux; and the king was blamed for the diplomatic +failure. The interval between this war and the Seven Years' War (1756) +saw that great reversal of alliances which is sometimes called the +"Diplomatic Revolution"; whereby France repudiated the alliance of +Frederick the Great and joined hands with her old enemy Austria. The +intrigues of Madame de Pompadour played in this change an important +though not a decisive part. It was the cause of immense disasters to +France; for after a promising beginning, both by land and sea, France +suffered reverses which lost her both India and Canada and deprived her +of the leading position which she had so long held in Europe. Her +humiliation was declared by the peace of Paris (1763). + +The article on the history of France (q.v.) shows how there arose during +the last years of Louis XV.'s reign a strong reaction against the +monarchy and its methods. Military success had given it its strength; +and its prestige was ruined by military failure. In the parlements, +provincial and Parisian; in religion and in literature, a note of +opposition is struck which was never to die until the monarchy was +overthrown. France annexed Corsica in 1768, but this was felt to be the +work of the minister Chauvelin, and reflected no credit on the king. He +died in 1774 of smallpox. If the reign of his predecessor shows us +almost the ideal of personal monarchy we may see in that of Louis XV. +all the vices and errors exemplified which lie in wait for absolute +hereditary rule which has survived the period of its usefulness. + + For the king's life generally see the memoirs of Saint-Simon, + d'Argenson, Villars and Barbier, and for the details of his private + life E. Boutaric, _Correspondance secrète de Louis XV._; Madame de + Pompadour's _Correspondance_ published by P. Malassi; Dietric, _Les + Maîtresses de Louis XV._; and Fleury, _Louis XV. intimes et les + petites maîtresses_ (1909). + + For the system of secret diplomacy and organized espionage, known as + the _Secret du roi_, carried on under the auspices of Louis XV., see + Albert duc de Broglie, _Le Secret du roi. Correspondance secrète de + Louis XV. avec ses agents diplomatiques 1752-1774_ (Paris, 1878); and + for a general account of the reign, H. Carré, _La France sous Louis + XV._ (Paris, 1891). For other works, general and special, see G. + Monod, _Bibliographie de la France_, and the bibliography in the + _Histoire générale_ of Lavisse and Rambaud, vol. vii., and the + _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. vi. (A. J. G.*) + + + + +LOUIS XVI. (1754-1793), king of France, was the son of Louis, dauphin of +France, the son of Louis XV., and of Marie Joseph of Saxony, and was +born at Versailles on the 23rd of August 1754, being baptized as Louis +Augustus. His father's death in 1765 made him heir to the throne, and in +1770 he was married to Marie Antoinette, daughter of the empress Maria +Theresa. He was just twenty years old when the death of Louis XV. on the +10th of May 1774 placed him on the throne. He began his reign under good +auspices, with Turgot, the greatest living French statesman, in charge +of the disorganized finances; but in less than two years he had yielded +to the demand of the vested interests attacked by Turgot's reforms, and +dismissed him. Turgot's successor, Necker, however, continued the régime +of reform until 1781, and it was only with Necker's dismissal that the +period of reaction began. Marie Antoinette then obtained that ascendancy +over her husband which was partly responsible for the extravagance of +the ministry of Calonne, and brought on the Revolution by the resulting +financial embarrassment.[1] The third part of his reign began with the +meeting of the states-general on the 4th of May 1789, which marked the +opening of the Revolution. The revolt of Paris and the taking of the +Bastille on the 14th of July were its results. The suspicion, not +without justification, of a second attempt at a _coup d'état_ led on the +6th of October to the "capture" of the king and royal family at +Versailles by a mob from Paris, and their transference to the Tuileries. +In spite of the growing radicalism of the clubs, however, loyalty to the +king remained surprisingly strong. When he swore to maintain the +constitution, then in progress of construction, at the festival of the +federation on the 14th of July 1790, he was at the height of his +popularity. Even his attempted flight on the 20th of June 1791 did not +entirely turn the nation against him, although he left documents which +proved his opposition to the whole Revolution. Arrested at Varennes, and +brought back to Paris, he was maintained as a constitutional king, and +took his oath on the 13th of September 1791. But already a party was +forming in Paris which demanded his deposition. This first became +noticeable in connexion with the affair of the Champ de Mars on the 17th +of July 1791. Crushed for a time the party gained strength through the +winter of 1791-1792. The declaration of war against the emperor Francis +II., nephew of Marie Antoinette, was forced upon the king by those who +wished to discredit him by failure, or to compel him to declare himself +openly an enemy to the Revolution. Their policy proved effective. The +failure of the war, which intensified popular hatred of the Austrian +queen, involved the king; and the invasion of the Tuileries on the 20th +of June 1792 was but the prelude to the conspiracy which resulted, on +the 10th of August, in the capture of the palace and the "suspension" of +royalty by the Legislative Assembly until the convocation of a national +convention in September. On the 21st of September 1792 the Convention +declared royalty abolished, and in January it tried the king for his +treason against the nation, and condemned him to death. He was executed +on the 21st of January 1793. + +Louis XVI. was weak in character and mentally dull. His courage and +dignity during his trial and on the scaffold has left him a better +reputation than he deserves. His diary shows how little he understood, +or cared for, the business of a king. Days on which he had not shot +anything at the hunt were blank days for him. The entry on the 14th of +July 1789 was "nothing"! The greater part of his time was spent hunting. +He also amused himself making locks, and a little at masonry. Awkward +and uncourtly, at heart shy, he was but a poor figurehead for the +stately court of France. At first he did not care for Marie Antoinette, +but after he came under her influence, her thoughtless conduct +compromised him, and it was largely she who encouraged him in underhand +opposition to the Revolution while he pretended to accept it. The only +point on which he had of his own initiative shown a strong objection to +revolutionary measures was in the matter of the civil constitution of +the clergy. A devoted and sincere Roman Catholic, he refused at first to +sanction a constitution for the church in France without the pope's +approval, and after he had been compelled to allow the constitution to +become law he resolved to oppose the Revolution definitely by intrigues. +His policy was both feeble and false. He was singularly unfortunate even +when he gave in, delaying his acquiescence until it had the air of a +surrender. It is often said that Louis XVI. was the victim of the faults +of his predecessors. He was also the victim of his own. + +Having lost his elder son in 1789 Louis left two children, Louis +Charles, usually known as Louis XVII., and Marie Thérèse Charlotte +(1778-1851), who married her cousin, Louis, duke of Angoulême, son of +Charles X., in 1799. The "orphan of the Temple," as the princess was +called, was in prison for three years, during which time she remained +ignorant of the fate which had befallen her parents. She died on the +19th of October 1851. Her life by G. Lenôtre has been translated into +English by J. L. May (1908). + + See the articles FRENCH REVOLUTION and MARIE ANTOINETTE. F. X. J. + Droz, _Histoire du règne de Louis XVI._ (3 vols., Paris, 1860), a sane + and good history of the period; and Arsène Houssaye, _Louis XVI._ + (Paris, 1891). See also the numerous memoirs of the time, and the + marquis de Ségur's _Au couchant de la monarchie, Louis XVI. et Turgot_ + (1910). + + For bibliographies see G. Monod, _Bibl. de la France_; Lavisse et + Rambaud, _Hist. Univ._, vols. vii. and viii.; and the _Cambridge Modem + History_, vol. viii. (R. A.*) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The responsibility of Marie Antoinette for the policy of the king + before and during the Revolution has been the subject of much + controversy. In general it may be said that her influence on politics + has been much exaggerated. (See MARIE ANTOINETTE.) [ED.] + + + + +LOUIS XVII. (1785-1795?), titular king of France, second son of Louis +XVI. and Marie Antoinette, was born at Versailles on the 27th of March +1785, was christened the same day Louis Charles, and given the title of +duke of Normandy. Louis Charles became dauphin on the death of his elder +brother on the 4th of June 1789. It is only with his incarceration in +the Temple on the 13th of August 1792, that his history, apart from that +of his parents, becomes of interest. The royal party included, beside +the king and queen, their daughter Marie Thérèse Charlotte (Madame +Royale), the king's sister Madame Élisabeth, the valet Cléry and others. +The prisoners were lodged at first in the smaller Tower, but were +removed to the larger Tower on the 27th of October. Louis Charles was +then separated from his mother and aunt to be put in his father's +charge, except for a few hours daily, but was restored to the women when +Louis was isolated from his family at the beginning of his trial in +December. + +On the 21st of January 1793 Louis became, for the royalists, king of +France, and a week later the comte de Provence arrogated to himself the +title of regent. From that moment began new plots for the escape of the +prisoners from the Temple, the chief of which were engineered by the +Chevalier de Jarjayes,[1] the baron de Batz,[2] and the faithful Lady +Atkyns.[3] On the 3rd of July the little dauphin was again separated +from his mother, this time to be given into the keeping of the cobbler +Antoine Simon[4] who had been named his guardian by the Committee of +General Security. The tales told by the royalist writers of the +barbarous cruelty inflicted by Simon and his wife on the child are not +proven. Marie Jeanne, in fact, took great care of the child's person, +and there is documentary evidence to prove that he had air and food. But +the Simons were obviously grotesquely unfit guardians for a prince, and +they doubtless caused much suffering to the impressionable child, who +was made on occasion to eat and drink to excess, and learnt the language +of the gutter. But the scenes related by A. de Beauchesne of the +physical martyrdom of the child are not supported by any other +testimony, though he was at this time seen by a great number of people. +On the 6th of October Pache, Chaumette, Hébert and others visited him +and secured from him admissions of infamous accusations against his +mother, with his signature to a list of her alleged crimes since her +entry in the Temple, and next day he was confronted with his sister +Marie Thérèse for the last time. + +Simon's wife now fell ill, and on the 19th of January 1794 the Simons +left the Temple, after securing a receipt for the safe transfer of their +prisoner, who was declared to be in good health. A large part of the +Temple records from that time onwards were destroyed under the +Restoration, so that exact knowledge of the facts is practically +impossible. Two days after the departure of the Simons the prisoner is +said by the Restoration historians to have been put in a dark room which +was barricaded like the cage of a wild animal. The story runs that food +was passed through the bars to the child, who survived in spite of the +accumulated filth of his surroundings. Robespierre[5] visited Marie +Thérèse on the 11th of May, but no one, according to the legend, entered +the dauphin's room for six months until Barras visited the prison after +the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794). Barras's account of the visit +describes the child as suffering from extreme neglect, but conveys no +idea of the alleged walling in. It is nevertheless certain that during +the first half of 1794 he was very strictly secluded; he had no special +guardian, but was under the charge of guards changed from day to day. +The child made no complaint to Barras of his treatment, probably because +he feared to do so. He was then cleansed and re-clothed, his room +cleaned, and during the day he was visited by his new attendant, a +creole and a compatriot of Joséphine de Beauharnais, named Jean Jacques +Christophe Laurent (1770-1807), who had from the 8th of November onwards +assistance for his charge from a man named Gomin. The child was now +taken out to walk on the roof of the Tower. From about the time of +Gomin's entrance the prisoner was inspected, not by delegates of the +Commune, but by representatives of the civil committee of the 48 +sections of Paris. The rare recurrence of the same inspectors would +obviously facilitate fraud, if any such were intended. From the end of +October onwards the child maintained an obstinate silence, explained by +Laurent as a determination taken on the day he made his deposition +against his mother. On the 19th of December 1794 he was visited by three +commissioners from the Committee of General Security--J. B. Harmand de +la Meuse, J. B. C. Mathieu and J. Reverchon--who extracted no word from +him. On Laurent's retirement Étienne Lasne was appointed on the 31st of +March 1795 to be the child's guardian. In May 1795 the prisoner was +seriously ill, and a doctor, P. J. Desault, well acquainted with the +dauphin, having visited him seven months earlier, was summoned. Desault +died suddenly, not without suspicion of poison, on the 1st of June, and +it was some days before doctors Pelletan and Dumangin were called. Then +it was announced that on the 8th Louis Charles died. Next day an autopsy +was held at which it was stated that a child apparently about ten years +of age, "which the commissioners told us was the late Louis Capet's +son," had died of a scrofulous affection of long standing. He was buried +on the 10th in the cemetery of Ste Marguerite, but no stone was erected +to mark the spot. + +The weak parts of this story are the sudden and unexplained departure of +the Simons; the subsequent useless cruelty of treating the child like a +wild beast and keeping him in a dark room practically out of sight +(unless any doubt of his identity was possible), while his sister was in +comparative comfort; the cause of death, declared to be of long +standing, but in fact developed with such rapidity; the insufficient +excuse provided for the child's muteness under Gomin's régime (he had +answered Barras) and the irregularities in the formalities in attending +the death and the funeral, when a simple identification of the body by +Marie Thérèse would have prevented any question of resuscitated +dauphins. Both Barras and Harmand de la Meuse are said to have given +leave for the brother and sister to see each other, but the meeting was +never permitted. The argument from the sudden disappearance of persons +in a position to know something of the truth is of a less convincing +character. It may be noted that the more famous of the persons alleged +by partisans of subsequent pretenders to have been hustled out of the +world for their connexion with the secret are the empress Joséphine, the +due d'Enghien and the duc de Berri. + +Immediately on the announcement of the dauphin's death there arose a +rumour that he had escaped. Simien-Despréaux, one of Louis XVIII.'s own +authors, stated at a later period (1814) that Louis XVII. was living and +that among the signatories of the treaty of April 13th were some who +possessed proofs of his existence; and Eckard, one of the mainstays of +the official account, left among his unpublished papers a statement that +many members of "an assembly of our wise men" obstinately named Louis +XVII. as the prince whom their wishes demanded. Unfortunately the +removal of the child suited the plans of the comte de Provence (now +Louis XVIII. for the _émigrés_) as well as it suited the revolutionary +government, and no serious attempt was made by the royal family to +ascertain the truth, though they paid none of the tributes to the memory +of the dead king which might reasonably have been expected, had they +been convinced of his death. Even his sister wore no mourning for him +until she arrived at Vienna and saw that this was expected of her. In +spite of the massive literature which has accumulated on the subject, +neither his death in the Temple nor his escape therefrom has been +definitely established, though a very strong presumption is established +in favour of the latter. + +Some forty candidates for his honours were forthcoming under the +Restoration. The most important of these pretenders were Karl Wilhelm +Naundorff and the comte de Richemont. Naundorff's story rested on a +series of complicated intrigues. According to him Barras determined to +save the dauphin in order to please Joséphine Beauharnais, the future +empress, having conceived the idea of using the dauphin's existence as a +means of dominating the comte de Provence in the event of a restoration. +The dauphin was concealed in the fourth storey of the Tower, a wooden +figure being substituted for him. Laurent, to protect himself from the +consequences of the substitution, replaced the wooden figure by a deaf +mute, who was presently exchanged for the scrofulous child of the death +certificate. The deaf mute was also concealed in the Temple. It was not +the dead child, but the dauphin who left the prison in the coffin, +whence he was extracted by his friends on the way to the cemetery. +Richemont's tale that the woman Simon, who was genuinely attached to +him, smuggled him out in a basket, is simple and more credible, and does +not necessarily invalidate the story of the subsequent operations with +the deaf mute and the scrofulous patient, Laurent in that case being +deceived from the beginning, but it renders them extremely unlikely. A +third pretender, Eleazar Williams, did not affect to know anything of +his escape. He possessed, he said, no consciousness of his early years, +only emerging from idiocy at the age of thirteen, when he was living +with an Indian family in New York State. He was a missionary to the +Indians when the prince de Joinville, son of Louis Philippe, met him, +and after some conversation asked him to sign a document abdicating his +rights in favour of Louis Philippe, in return for which he, the dauphin +(alias Eleazar Williams), was to receive the private inheritance which +was his. This Eleazar refused to do. The wildness of this tale refutes +itself. + +Richemont (Henri Ethelbert Louis Victor Hébert) was in prison in Milan +for seven years and began to put forward his claims in Paris in 1828. In +1833 he was again arrested, was brought to trial in the following year +and was condemned to twelve years' imprisonment. He escaped after a few +months and left the country, to return in 1840. He died at Gleize on the +10th of August 1853, the name of Louis Charles de France being inscribed +on his tomb until the government ordered its removal. + +Naundorff, or Naündorff, who had arrived from nowhere in Berlin in 1810, +with papers giving the name Karl Wilhelm Naundorff, in order to escape +the persecutions of which he declared himself the object, settled at +Spandau in 1812 as a clockmaker, and married in 1818 Johanna Einert. In +1822 he removed to Brandenburg, and in 1828 to Crossen, near Frankfort. +He was imprisoned from 1825 to 1828 for coining, though apparently on +insufficient evidence, and in 1833 came to push his claims in Paris, +where he was recognized as the dauphin by many persons formerly +connected with the court of Louis XVI. Expelled from France in 1836, the +day after bringing a suit against the duchess of Angoulême for the +restitution of the dauphin's private property, he lived in exile till +his death at Delft on the 10th of August 1845, and his tomb was +inscribed "Louis XVII., roi de France et de Navarre (Charles Louis, duc +de Normandie)." The Dutch authorities who had inscribed on his death +certificate the name of Charles Louis de Bourbon, duc de Normandie +(Louis XVII.) permitted his son to bear the name de Bourbon, and when +the family appealed in 1850-1851, and again in 1874, for the restitution +of their civil rights as heirs of Louis XVI. no less an advocate than +Jules Favre pleaded their cause. Of all the pretenders Naundorff has the +best case. He was certainly not the Jew of Prussian Poland which his +enemies declared him to be, and he has to this day a circle of devoted +adherents. Since he was sincerely convinced of his own rights, it is +surprising that he put forward no claim in 1814. + +If the dauphin did escape, it seems probable that he perished shortly +afterwards or lived in a safe obscurity. The account of the substitution +in the Temple is well substantiated, even to the names of the +substitutes. The curious imbroglio deceived royalists and republicans +alike. Lady Atkyns was trying by every possible means to get the dauphin +out of his prison when he was apparently already in safe hands, if not +outside the Temple walls. A child was in fact delivered to her agents, +but he was a deaf mute. That there was fraud, and complicated fraud, in +the guardians of the dauphin may be taken as proved by a succession of +writers from 1850 onwards, and more recently by Frédéric Barbey, who +wisely attempts no ultimate solution. When the partisans of Richemont or +Naundorff come to the post-Temple careers of their heroes, they become +in most cases so uncritical as to be unconvincing. + + The official version of the dauphin's history as accepted under the + Restoration was drawn up by Simien Despréaux in his uncritical _Louis + XVII._ (1817), and is found, fortified by documents, in M. Eckard's + _Mémoires historiques sur Louis XVII_. (1817) and in A. de + Beauchesne's _Louis XVII., sa vie, son agonie, sa mort. Captivité de + la famille royale au Temple_ (2 vols., 1852, and many subsequent + editions), containing copies of original documents, and essential to + the study of the question, although its sentimental pictures of the + boy martyr can no longer be accepted. L. de la Sicotière, "Les faux + Louis XVII.," in _Revue des questions historiques_ (vol. xxxii., + 1882), deals with the pretenders Jean Marie Hervagault, Mathurin + Bruneau and the rest; see also Dr Cabanes, _Les Morts mystérieuses de + l'histoire_ (1901), and revised catalogue of the J. Sanford Saltus + collection of Louis XVII. books (New York, 1908). Catherine Welch, in + _The Little Dauphin_ (1908) gives a résumé of the various sides of the + question. + + Madame Royale's own account of the captivity of the Temple was first + printed with additions and suppressions in 1817, and often + subsequently, the best edition being that from her autograph text by + G. Lenôtre, _La Fille de Louis XVI., Marie Thérèse Charlotte de + France, duchesse d'Angoulême, le Temple, l'échange, l'exil_ (1907). + There are two collections of writings on the subject: _Marie Thérèse + de France_, compiled (1852) by the marquis de Pastoret, and comprising + beside the memoir written by Marie Thérèse herself, articles by M. de + Montbel, Sainte-Beuve, J. Lemoine, La Guéronnière and extracts from + Joseph Weber's memoirs; and _Mémoires de Marie Thérèse duchesse + d'Angoulême_, comprising extracts from the narratives of Charles Goret + (_Mon Témoignage_, 1852), of C. F. Beaulieu (_Mémoire adressée à la + nation_, 1795), of L. G. Michaud (_Opinion d'un Français_, 1795) and + of Mme de Tourzel (_Mémoires_ 1883). Cf. A. Lanne, _La Soeur de Louis + XVII._, and the articles on "Madame Royale," on the "Captivité de la + famille royale au Temple" and on the "Mise en liberté de Madame" in M. + Tourneux's _Bibliographie de l'histoire de Paris pendant la révolution + française_ (vol. iv., 1906, and vol. i., 1890). + + _Naündorff._--For the case of Naündorff see his own narrative, _Abrégé + de l'histoire des infortunes du Dauphin_ (London, 1836; Eng. trans., + 1838); also Modeste Gruau de la Barre, _Intrigues dévoilées ou Louis + XVII._ ... (3 vols., Rotterdam, 1846-1848); O. Friedrichs, + _Correspondance intime et inédite de Louis XVII._ (Naündorff) + 1834-1838 (2 vols., 1904); _Plaidoirie de Jules Favre devant la cour + d'appel de Paris pour les héritiers de feu Charles-Guillaume + Naündorff_ (1874); H. Provins, _Le Dernier roi légitime de France_ (2 + vols., the first of which consists of destructive criticism of + Beauchesne and his followers, 1889); A. Lanne, "Louis XVII. et le + secret de la Révolution," _Bulletin mensuel_ (1893 et seq.) of the + Société des études sur la question Louis XVII., also _La Légitimité_ + (Bordeaux, Toulouse, 1883-1898). See further the article "Naündorff" + in M. Tourneux, _Bibl. de la ville de Paris pendant la Révolution_, + vol. iv. (1906). + + _Williams._--J. H. Hanson, _The Lost Prince: Facts tending to prove + the Identity of Louis XVII. of France and the Rev. Eleazer Williams_ + (London and New York, 1854). + + _De Richemont._--_Mémoires du duc de Normandie, fils de Louis XVI., + écrits et publiés par lui-même_ (Paris, 1831), compiled, according to + Quérard, by E. T. Bourg, called Saint Edme; Morin de Guérivière, + _Quelques souvenirs_ ... (Paris, 1832); and J. Suvigny, _La + Restauration convaincue ... ou preuves de l'existence du fils de Louis + XVI._ (Paris, 1851). + + The widespread interest taken in Louis XVII. is shown by the fact that + since 1905 a monthly periodical has appeared in Paris on this subject, + entitled _Revue historique de la question Louis XVII._, also by the + promised examination of the subject by the Société d'Histoire + contemporaine. (M. Br.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] F. A. Regnier de Jarjayes (1745-1822). See P. Gaulot, _Un Complot + sous la Terreur_. + + [2] Jean, baron de Batz (1761-1822), attempted to carry off the + dauphin in 1794. See G. Lenôtre, _Un Conspirateur royaliste pendant + la Terreur, le baron de Batz_ (1896). + + [3] Charlotte Walpole (c. 1785-1836), an English actress who married + in 1779 Sir Edward Atkyns, and spent most of her life in France. She + expended large sums in trying to secure the escape of the prisoners + of the Temple. See F. Barbey, _A Friend of Marie Antoinette_ (Eng. + ed. 1906). + + [4] Antoine Simon (1736-1794) married Marie Jeanne Aladame, and + belonged to the section of the Cordeliers. They owed their position + to Anaxagoras Chaumette, procureur of the Commune, and to the fact + that Simon had prevented one of the attempts of the baron de Batz. + Simon was sent to the guillotine with Robespierre in 1794, and two + years later Marie Jeanne entered a hospital for incurables in the rue + de Sèvres, where she constantly affirmed the dauphin's escape. She + was secretly visited after the Restoration by the duchess of + Angoulême. On the 16th of November 1816, she was interrogated by the + police, who frightened her into silence about the supposed + substitution of another child for the dauphin. She died in 1819. See + G. Lenôtre, _Vieilles maisons, vieux papiers_ (2nd series, 1903). + + [5] In a bulletin dated May 17-24, Paris, and enclosed by Francis + Drake (June 17, 1794) at Milan to Lord Grenville, it is stated (Hist. + MSS. Comm. Fortescue Papers at Dropmore, vol. ii. 576-577) that + Robespierre in the night of 23-24 May fetched the king (the dauphin) + from the Temple and took him to Meudon. "The fact is certain, + although only known to the Committee of Public Safety. It is said to + be ascertained that he was brought back to the Temple the night of + 24-25th, and that this was a test to assure the ease of seizing him." + This police report at least serves to show the kind of rumour then + current. + + + + +LOUIS XVIII. (LOUIS LE DÉSIRÉ) (1755-1824). Louis-Stanislas-Xavier, +comte de Provence, third son of the dauphin Louis, son of Louis XV., and +of Maria Josepha of Saxony, was born at Versailles on the 17th of +November 1755. His education was supervised by the devout duc de la +Vauguyon, but his own taste was for the writings of Voltaire and the +encyclopaedists. On the 14th of May 1771 took place his marriage with +Louise-Marie-Joséphine of Savoy, by whom he had no children. His +position at court was uncomfortable, for though ambitious and conscious +of possessing greater abilities than his brother (Louis XVI.), his scope +for action was restricted; he consequently devoted his energies largely +to intrigue, especially against Marie Antoinette, whom he hated.[1] +During the long absence of heirs to Louis XVI., "Monsieur," as heir to +the throne, courted popularity and took an active part in politics, but +the birth of a dauphin (1781) was a blow to his ambitions.[2] He opposed +the revival of the _parlements_, wrote a number of political +pamphlets,[3] and at the Assembly of Notables presided, like the other +princes of the blood, over a bureau, to which was given the name of the +_Comité des sages_; he also advocated the double representation of the +_tiers_. At the same time he cultivated literature, entertaining poets +and writers both at the Luxembourg and at his château of Brunoy (see +Dubois-Corneau, _Le Comte de Provence à Brunoy_, 1909), and gaining a +reputation for wit by his verses and _mots_ in the salon of the charming +and witty comtesse de Balbi, one of Madame's ladies, who had become his +mistress,[4] and till 1793 exerted considerable influence over him. He +did not emigrate after the taking of the Bastille, but, possibly from +motives of ambition, remained in Paris. Mirabeau thought at one time of +making him chief minister in his projected constitutional government +(see _Corr. de Mirabeau et La Marck_, ed. Bacourt, i. 434, 436, 442), +but was disappointed by his caution and timidity. The _affaire Favras_ +(Dec. 1789) aroused great feeling against Monsieur, who was believed by +many to have conspired with Favras, only to abandon him (see Lafayette's +_Mems._ and _Corr. of Mirabeau_). In June 1791, at the time of the +flight to Varennes, Monsieur also fled by a different route, and, in +company with the comte d'Avaray[5]--who subsequently replaced Mme de +Balbi as his confidant, and largely influenced his policy during the +emigration--succeeded in reaching Brussels, where he joined the comte +d'Artois and proceeded to Coblenz, which now became the headquarters of +the emigration. + +Here, living in royal state, he put himself at the head of the +counter-revolutionary movement, appointing ambassadors, soliciting the +aid of the European sovereigns, and especially of Catherine II. of +Russia. Out of touch with affairs in France and surrounded by violent +anti-revolutionists, headed by Calonne and the comte d'Artois, he +followed an entirely selfish policy, flouting the National Assembly (see +his reply to the summons of the National Assembly, in Daudet, _op. cit._ +i. 96), issuing uncompromising manifestoes (Sept. 1791, Aug. 1792, &c.), +and obstructing in every way the representatives of the king and +queen.[6] After Valmy he had to retire to Hamm in Westphalia, where, on +the death of Louis XVI., he proclaimed himself regent; from here he went +south, with the idea of encouraging the royalist feeling in the south of +France, and settled at Verona, where on the death of Louis XVII. (8th of +June 1795) he took the title of Louis XVIII. At this time ended his +_liaison_ with Mme de Balbi, and the influence of d'Avaray reached its +height. From this time onward his life is a record of constant +wanderings, negotiations and conspiracies. In April 1796 he joined +Condé's army on the German frontier, but was shortly requested to leave +the country, and accepted the hospitality of the duke of Brunswick at +Blanckenberg till 1797, when, this refuge being no longer open to him, +the emperor Paul I. permitted him to settle at Mittau in Courland, where +he stayed till 1801. All this time he was in close communication with +the royalists in France, but was much embarrassed by the conflicting +policy pursued by the comte d'Artois from England, and was largely at +the mercy of corrupt and dishonest agents.[7] At Mittau was realized his +cherished plan of marrying Madame Royale, daughter of Louis XVI., to the +duc d'Angoulême, elder son of the comte d'Artois. From Mittau, too, was +sent his well-known letter to Bonaparte (1799) calling upon him to play +the part of Monk, a proposal contemptuously refused (E. Daudet, _Hist. +de l'émigration_, ii. 371, 436), though Louis in turn declined to accept +a pension from Bonaparte, and later, in 1803, though his fortunes were +at their lowest ebb, refused to abdicate at his suggestion and accept an +indemnity. + +Suddenly expelled from Mittau in 1801 by the capricious Paul I., Louis +made his way, in the depth of winter, to Warsaw, where he stayed for +three years. All this time he was trying to convert France to the +royalist cause, and had a "_conseil royal_" in Paris, founded at the end +of 1799 by Royer-Collard, Montesquiou and Clermont-Gallerande, the +actions of which were much impeded by the activity of the rival +committee of the comte d'Artois (see E. Daudet, _op. cit._ ii., and +Remâcle, _Bonaparte et les Bourbons_, Paris, 1899), but after 1800, and +still more after the failure of the royalist conspiracy of Cadoudal, +Pichegru and Moreau, followed by the execution of the duc d'Enghien +(March 1804), and the assumption by Napoleon of the title of emperor +(May 1804), the royalist cause appeared quite hopeless. In September +1804 Louis met the comte d'Artois at Calmar in Sweden, and they issued a +protest against Napoleon's action, but being warned that he must not +return to Poland, he gained permission from Alexander I. again to retire +to Mittau. After Tilsit, however (1807), he was again forced to depart, +and took refuge in England, where he stayed first at Gosfield in Essex, +and afterwards (1809 onwards) at Hartwell in Buckinghamshire. In 1810 +his wife died, and in 1811 d'Avaray died, his place as favourite being +taken by the comte de Blacas.[8] After Napoleon's defeats in 1813 the +hopes of the royalists revived, and Louis issued a fresh manifesto, in +which he promised to recognize the results of the Revolution. +Negotiations were also opened with Bernadotte, who seemed willing to +support his cause, but was really playing for his own hand. + +In March 1814 the Allies entered Paris, and thanks to Talleyrand's +negotiations the restoration of the Bourbons was effected, Louis XVIII. +entering Paris on the 2nd of May 1814, after issuing the declaration of +St Ouen, in which he promised to grant the nation a constitution +(_octroyer une charte_). He was now nearly sixty, wearied by adversity, +and a sufferer from gout and obesity. But though clear-sighted, widely +read and a good diplomatist, his impressionable and sentimental nature +made him too subject to personal and family influences. His concessions +to the reactionary and clerical party of the _émigrés_, headed by the +comte d'Artois and the duchesse d'Angoulême, aroused suspicions of his +loyalty to the constitution, the creation of his _Maison militaire_ +alienated the army, and the constant presence of Blacas made the +formation of a united ministry impossible. After the Hundred Days, +during which the king was forced to flee to Ghent, the dismissal of +Blacas was made one of the conditions of his second restoration. On the +8th of July he again entered Paris, "in the baggage train of the allied +armies," as his enemies said, but in spite of this was received with the +greatest enthusiasm[9] by a people weary of wars and looking for +constitutional government. He was forced to retain Talleyrand and Fouché +in his first ministry, but took the first opportunity of ridding himself +of them when the elections of 1815 assured him of a strong royalist +majority in the chamber (the _chambre introuvable_, a name given it by +Louis himself). At this time he came into contact with the young comte +(afterwards duc) Decazes, prefect of the police under Fouché, and +minister of police in Richelieu's ministry, who now became his favourite +and gained his entire confidence (see E. Daudet, _Louis XVIII. et le duc +Decazes_). Having obtained a ministry in which he could trust, having as +members the duc de Richelieu and Decazes, the king now gave it his loyal +support and did his best to shield his ministers from the attacks of the +royal family. In September 1816, alarmed at the violence of the _chambre +introuvable_, he was persuaded to dissolve it. An attempt on the part of +the Ultras to regain their ascendancy over the king, by conniving at the +sudden return of Blacas from Rome to Paris,[10] ended in failure. + +The events and ministerial changes of Louis XVIII.'s reign are described +under the article FRANCE: _History_, but it may be said here that the +king's policy throughout was one of prudence and common sense. His +position was more passive than active, and consisted in giving his +support as far as possible to the ministry of the day. While Decazes +was still in power, the king's policy to a large extent followed his, +and was rather liberal and moderate, but after the assassination of the +duc de Berry (1820), when he saw that Decazes could no longer carry on +the government, he sorrowfully acquiesced in his departure, showered +honours upon him, and transferred his support to Richelieu, the head of +the new ministry. In the absence of Decazes a new favourite was found to +amuse the king's old age, Madame du Cayla (Zoé Talon, comtesse du +Cayla), a protégée of the vicomte Sosthène de la Rochefoucauld and +consequently a creature of the Ultras. As the king became more and more +infirm, his power of resistance to the intrigues of the Ultras became +weaker. The birth of a posthumous son to the duc de Berry (Sept. 1820), +the death of Napoleon (5th of May 1821) and the resignation of Richelieu +left him entirely in their hands, and after Villèle had formed a +ministry of a royalist character the comte d'Artois was associated with +the government, which passed more and more out of the king's hands. He +died on the 16th of September 1824, worn out in body, but still +retaining flashes of his former clear insight and scepticism. The +character of Louis XVIII. may be summed up in the words of Bonaparte, +quoted by Sorel (_L'Europe et la Rév. fr._ viii. 416 footnote), "C'est +Louis XVI. avec moins de franchise et plus d'esprit." He had all the +Bourbon characteristics, especially their love of power, combined with a +certain nobility of demeanour, and a consciousness of his dignity as +king. But his nature was cold, unsympathetic and calculating, combined +with a talent for intrigue, to which was added an excellent memory and a +ready wit. An interesting judgment of him is contained in _Queen +Victoria's Letters_, vol. i., in a letter of Leopold I., king of the +Belgians, to the queen before her accession, dated the 18th of November +1836, "Poor Charles X. is dead.... History will state that Louis XVIII. +was a most liberal monarch, reigning with great mildness and justice to +his end, but that his brother, from his despotic and harsh disposition, +upset all the other had done and lost the throne. Louis XVIII. was a +clever, hard-hearted man, shackled by no principle, very proud and +false. Charles X. an honest man, a kind friend," &c. &c. This seems +fairly just as a personal estimate, though it does not do justice to +their respective political rôles. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--There is no trustworthy or complete edition of the + writings and correspondence of Louis XVIII. The _Mémoires de Louis + XVIII. recueillis et mis en ordre par M. le duc de D. ..._ (12 vols., + Paris, 1832-1833) are compiled by Lamothe-Langon, a well-known + compiler of more or less apocryphal memoirs. From the hand of Louis + XVIII. are: _Relation d'un voyage à Bruxelles et à Coblentz_, 1791 + (Paris, 1823, with dedication to d'Avaray); and _Journal de + Marie-Thérèse de France, duchesse d'Angoulême, corrigé et annoté par + Louis XVIII._, ed. Imbert de St Amand (Paris, 1896). Some of his + letters are contained in collections, such as _Lettres d'Artwell; + correspondance politique et privée de Louis XVIII., roi de France_ + (Paris, 1830; letters addressed to d'Avaray); _Lettres et instructions + de Louis XVIII. au comte de Saint-Priest_, ed. Barante (Paris, 1845); + _Talleyrand et Louis XVIII., corr. pendant le congrès de Vienne, + 1814-1815_, ed. Pallain (1881; trans., 2 vols., 1881); see also the + corr. of Castlereagh, Metternich, J. de Maistre, the Wellington + Dispatches, &c., and such collections as _Corr. diplomatique de Pozzo + di Borgo avec le comte de Nesselrode_ (2 vols., 1890-1897), the + correspondence of C. de Rémusat, Villèle, &c. The works of E. Daudet + are of the greatest importance, and based on original documents; the + chief are: _La Terreur Blanche_ (Paris, 1878); _Hist. de la + restauration 1814-1830_ (1882); _Louis XVIII. et le duc Decazes_ + (1899); _Hist. de l'émigration_, in three studies: (i.) _Les Bourbons + et la Russie_ (1886), (ii.) _Les Émigrés et la seconde coalition_ + (1886), (iii.) _Coblenz_, 1789-1793 (1890). Developed from these with + the addition of much further material is his _Hist. de l'émigration_ + (3 vols., 1904-1907). Also based on original documents is E. Romberg + and A. Malet, _Louis XVIII. et les cent-jours à Gand_ (1898). See also + G. Stenger, _Le Retour des Bourbons_ (1908); Cte. L. de Remâcle, + _Bonaparte et les Bourbons. Relations secrèts des agents du cte. de + Provence sous le consulat_ (Paris, 1899). For various episodes, see + Vicomte de Reiset, _La Comtesse de Balbi_ (Paris, 1908; contains a + long bibliography, chiefly of memoirs concerning the emigration, and + is based on documents); J. B. H. R. Capefigue, _La Comtesse du Cayla_ + (Paris, 1866); J. Turquan, _Les Favorites de Louis XVIII._ (Paris, + 1900); see also the chief memoirs of the period, such as those of + Talleyrand, Chateaubriand, Guizot, duc de Broglie, Villèle, Vitrolles, + Pasquier, the comtesse de Boigne (ed. Nicoullaud, Paris, 1907), the + Vicomte L. F. Sosthène de la Rochefoucauld (15 vols., Paris, + 1861-1864); and the writings of Benjamin Constant, Chateaubriand, &c. + + General Works.--See the histories of France, the Emigration, the + Restoration and especially the very full bibliographies to chapters + i., ii. and iii. of _Cambridge Modern History_, and Lavisse and + Rambaud, _Hist. générale_, vol. x. (C. B. P.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Arneth and Geffroy, _Corr. de Marie-Thérèse avec le comte de + Mercy-Argenteau_, vol. i., "Mercy to Maria Theresa, June 22nd, 1771," + also i. 261, ii. 186, 352, 393. Marie Antoinette says (ii. 393): "... + à un caractère très faible, il joint une marche souterraine, et + quelquefois très basse." + + [2] See his letters to Gustavus III. of Sweden in A. Geffroy, + _Gustave III et la cour de France_, vol. ii. appendix. + + [3] Two pamphlets at least are ascribed to him: "Les Mannequins, + conte ou histoire, comme l'on voudra" (against Turgot; anon., Paris, + 1776) and "Description historique d'un monstre symbolique pris vivant + sur les bords du lac Fagua, près de Santa-Fé, par les soins de + Francisco Xaveiro de Neunris" (against Calonne; Paris, 1784) (A. + Debidour in _La Grande Encyclopédie_). + + [4] It has frequently been alleged that his relations with Mme de + Balbi, and indeed with women generally, were of a platonic nature. De + Reiset (_La Comtesse de Balbi_, pp. 152-161) produces evidence to + disprove this assertion. + + [5] Antoine-Louis-François de Bésiade, comte, afterwards duc, + d'Avaray. In spite of his loyalty and devotion, the effect of his + influence on Louis XVIII. may be gathered from a letter of J. de + Maistre to Blacas, quoted by E. Daudet, _Hist. de l'émigration_, ii. + 11: "celui qui n'a pu dans aucun pays aborder aucun homme politique + sans l'aliéner n'est pas fait pour les affaires." + + [6] See Klinckowström, _Le Comte de Fersen et la cour de France_. + Fersen says (i. 7), "Monsieur ferait mieux seul, mais il est + entièrement subjugué par l'autre" (i.e. the comte d'Artois, who was + in turn under the influence of Calonne). See Daudet, _op. cit._ vol. + i. + + [7] See E. Daudet, _La Conjuration de Pichegru_ (Paris, 1901). + + [8] Pierre-Louis-Casimir, comte (afterwards duc) de Blacas d'Aulps, + was as rigidly royalist as d'Avaray, but more able. E. Daudet, _Hist. + de l'émigration_, i. 458, quotes a judgment of him by J. de Maistre: + "Il est né homme d état et ambassadeur." + + [9] See account by Decazes in E. Daudet, _Louis XVIII. et le duc + Decazes_, pp. 48-49, and an interesting "secret and confidential" + letter of Castlereagh to Liverpool (July 8, 1815) in the unpublished + Foreign Office records: "The king sent for the duke and me this + evening to the Thuilleries.... We found him in a state of great + emotion and exaltation at the reception he had met with from his + subjects, which appears to have been even more animated than on his + former entrance. Indeed, during the long audience to which we were + admitted, it was almost impossible to converse, so loud were the + shouts of the people in the Thuilleries Gardens, which were full, + though it was then dark. Previous to the king's dismissing us, he + carried the duke and me to the open window. Candles were then + brought, which enabled the people to see the king with the duke by + his side. They ran from all parts of the Gardens, and formed a solid + mass of an immense extent, rending the air with acclamations. The + town is very generally illuminated, and I understand from men who + have traversed the principal streets that every demonstration of joy + was manifested by the inhabitants." + + [10] It is as yet not proved that Blacas returned from his embassy in + response to a summons from the Ultras. But whether it was on his own + initiative or not, there can be no doubt as to the hopes which they + built on his arrival (see Daudet, _Louis XVIII. et le duc Decazes_). + + + + +LOUIS I. (1326-1382), called "the great," king of Hungary and Poland, +was the third son of Charles Robert, king of Hungary, and Elizabeth, +daughter of the Polish king, Ladislaus Lokietek. In 1342 he succeeded +his father as king of Hungary and was crowned at Székesfehérvár on the +21st of July with great enthusiasm. Though only sixteen he understood +Latin, German and Italian as well as his mother tongue. He owed his +relatively excellent education to the care of his mother, a woman of +profound political sagacity, who was his chief counsellor in diplomatic +affairs during the greater part of his long reign. Italian politics +first occupied his attention. As a ruler of a rising great power in +search of a seaboard he was the natural adversary of the Venetian +republic, which already aimed at making the Adriatic a purely Venetian +sea and resented the proximity of the Magyars in Dalmatia. The first +trial of strength began in 1345, when the city of Zara placed herself +under the protection of Hungary and was thereupon invested by the +Venetians. Louis fought a battle beneath the walls of Zara (July 1st, +1346), which has been immortalized by Tintoretto, but was defeated and +compelled to abandon the city to the republic. The struggle was renewed +eleven years later when Louis, having formed, with infinite trouble, a +league of all the enemies of Venice, including the emperor, the +Habsburgs, Genoa and other Italian towns, attacked his maritime rival +with such vigour that she sued for peace, and by the treaty of Zara +(February 18th, 1358) ceded most of the Dalmatian towns and renounced +the title of duke of Dalmatia and Croatia, hitherto borne by the doge. +Far more important than the treaty itself was the consequent voluntary +submission of the independent republic of Ragusa to the suzerainty of +the crown of St Stephen the same year, Louis, in return for an annual +tribute of 500 ducats and a fleet, undertaking to defend Ragusa against +all her enemies. Still more glorious for Hungary was Louis's third war +with Venice (1378-1381), when he was again aided by the Genoese. At an +early stage of the contest Venice was so hardly pressed that she offered +to do homage to Hungary for all her possessions. But her immense +resources enabled her to rally her forces, and peace was finally +concluded between all the powers concerned at the congress of Turin +(1381), Venice virtually surrendering Dalmatia to Louis and undertaking +to pay him an annual tribute of 7000 ducats. The persistent hostility of +Venice is partially attributable to her constant fear lest Louis should +inherit the crown of Naples and thus threaten her trade and her +sea-power from two sides simultaneously. Louis's younger brother Andrew +had wedded Joanna, granddaughter and heiress of old King Robert of +Naples, on whose death, in 1343, she reigned in her own right, refused +her consort any share in the government, and is very strongly suspected +of having secured his removal by assassination on the night of the 19th +of September 1345. She then married Prince Louis of Taranto, and strong +in the double support of the papal court at Avignon and of the Venetian +republic (both of whom were opposed to Magyar aggrandisement in Italy) +questioned the right of Louis to the two Sicilies, which he claimed as +the next heir of his murdered brother. In 1347, and again in 1350, Louis +occupied Naples and craved permission to be crowned king, but the papal +see was inexorable and he was compelled to withdraw. The matter was not +decided till 1378 when Joanna, having made the mistake of recognizing +the antipope Clement VII., was promptly deposed and excommunicated in +favour of Prince Charles of Durazzo, who had been brought up at the +Hungarian court. Louis, always inexhaustible in expedients, determined +to indemnify himself in the north for his disappointments in the south. +With the Habsburgs, Hungary's natural rivals in the west, Louis +generally maintained friendly relations. From 1358 to 1368, however, the +restless ambition of Rudolph, duke of Austria, who acquired Tirol and +raised Vienna to the first rank among the cities of Europe, caused Louis +great uneasiness. But Louis always preferred arbitration to war, and +the peace congresses of Nagyszombat (1360) and of Pressburg (1360) +summoned by him adjusted all the outstanding differences between the +central European powers. Louis's diplomacy, moreover, was materially +assisted by his lifelong alliance with his uncle, the childless Casimir +the Great of Poland, who had appointed him his successor; and on +Casimir's death Louis was solemnly crowned king of Poland at Cracow +(Nov. 17, 1370). This personal union of the two countries was more +glorious than profitable. Louis could give little attention to his +unruly Polish subjects and was never very happy among them. Immovably +entrenched behind their privileges, they rendered him only the minimum +of service; but he compelled their representatives, assembled at Kassa, +to recognize his daughter Maria and her affianced husband, Count +Sigismund of Brandenburg, as their future king and queen by locking the +gates of the city and allowing none to leave it till they had consented +to his wishes (1374). Louis is the first European monarch who came into +collision with the Turks. He seems to have arrested their triumphant +career (c. 1372), and the fine church erected by him at Maria-Zell is a +lasting memorial of his victories. From the first he took a just view of +the Turkish peril, but the peculiar local and religious difficulties of +the whole situation in the Balkans prevented him from dealing with it +effectually (see HUNGARY, _History_). Louis died suddenly at Nagyszombat +on the 10th of September 1382. He left two daughters Maria and Jadwiga +(the latter he destined for the throne of Hungary) under the +guardianship of his widow, the daughter of the valiant ban of Bosnia, +Stephen Kotromaníc, whom he married in 1353, and who was in every way +worthy of him. + + See _Rationes Collectorum Pontif. in Hungaria, 1281-1375_ (Budapest, + 1887); Dano Gruber, _The Struggle of Louis I. with the Venetians for + Dalmatia_ (Croat.) (Agram, 1903); Antal Pór, _Life of Louis the Great_ + (Hung.) (Budapest, 1892); and _History of the Hungarian Nation_ + (Hung.) (vol. 3, Budapest, 1895). (R. N. B.) + + + + +LOUIS II. (1506-1526), king of Hungary and Bohemia, was the only son of +Wladislaus II., king of Hungary and Bohemia, and the French princess +Anne of Candale. Prematurely born at Buda on the 1st of July 1506, it +required all the resources of medical science to keep the sickly child +alive, yet he developed so precociously that at the age of thirteen he +was well bearded and moustached, while at eighteen his hair was silvery +white. His parts were good and he could speak and write six languages at +a very early age, but the zeal of his guardians and tutors to make a man +of him betimes nearly ruined his feeble constitution, while the riotous +life led by him and his young consort, Maria of Austria, whom he wedded +on the 13th of January 1522, speedily disqualified him for affairs, so +that at last he became an object of ridicule at his own court. He was +crowned king of Hungary on the 4th of June 1508, and king of Bohemia on +the 11th of May 1509, and was declared of age when he succeeded his +father on the 11th of December 1521. But during the greater part of his +reign he was the puppet of the magnates and kept in such penury that he +was often obliged to pawn his jewels to get proper food and clothing. +His guardians, Cardinal Bakócz and Count George of Brandenburg-Anspach, +shamefully neglected him, squandered the royal revenues and distracted +the whole kingdom with their endless dissensions. Matters grew even +worse on the death of Bakócz, when the magnates István Báthory, János +Zapolya and István Verböczy fought each other furiously, and used the +diets as their tools. Added to these troubles was the ever-present +Turkish peril, which became acute after the king, with insensate levity, +arrested the Ottoman envoy Berham in 1521 and refused to unite with +Suleiman in a league against the Habsburgs. Nevertheless in the last +extremity Louis showed more of manhood than any of his counsellors. It +was he who restored something like order by intervening between the +magnates and the gentry at the diet of 1525. It was he who collected in +his camp at Tolna the army of 25,000 men which perished utterly on the +fatal field of Mohács on the 29th of August 1526. He was drowned in the +swollen stream of Csele on his flight from the field, being the second +prince of the house of Jagiello who laid down his life for Hungary. + + See _Rerum Hungaricarum libri_ (vol. 2, ed. Ferencz Toldy, Budapest, + 1867); and József Podhradczky, _King Louis_ (Hung.) (Budapest, 1860). + (R. N. B.) + + + + +LOUIS, the name of three kings of Naples, members of the house of Anjou. + +LOUIS I., duke of Anjou and count of Maine (1339-1384), was the second +son of John II., king of France, and was born at Vincennes on the 23rd +of July 1339. Having been given the duchy of Anjou in 1356 he led a wing +of the French army at the battle of Poitiers and was sent to England as +a hostage after the conclusion of the treaty of Brétigny in 1360, but he +broke his parole in 1363 and so brought about King John's return into +captivity. He took part in the war against England which was renewed in +1369, uniting the rival houses of Foix and Armagnac in the common cause, +and in other ways rendering good service to his brother, King Charles V. +Anjou's entrance into the troubled politics of Italy was one result of +the papal schism which opened in 1378. Anxious to secure the support of +France, the antipope Clement VII. persuaded the queen of Naples, Joanna +I., to name Louis as her heir, and about the same time the death of +Charles V. (September 1380) placed the duke in the position of regent of +France. Neglecting France to prosecute his ambitions in Italy, he +collected money and marched on Naples; but although helped by Amadeus +VI., count of Savoy, he was unable to drive his rival, Charles, duke of +Durazzo, from Naples. His army was destroyed by disease and Louis +himself died at Biseglia, near Bari, on the 20th of September 1384, +leaving two sons, his successor, Louis II., and Charles, duke of +Calabria. + +LOUIS II., duke of Anjou (1377-1417), born at Toulon on the 7th of +October 1377, took up the struggle for Naples after his father's death +and was crowned king by Clement VII. in 1389. After carrying on the +contest for some years his enemies prevailed and he was compelled to +take refuge in France, where he took part in the intestine strife which +was desolating that kingdom. A few years later he made other attempts to +secure the kingdom of Naples, which was now in the possession of +Ladislas, a son of his father's foeman, Charles of Durazzo, and he +gained a victory at Roccoserra in May 1411. Soon, however, he was again +driven back to France, and after sharing anew in the civil wars of his +country he died at Angers on the 29th of April 1417. His wife was +Yolande, a daughter of John I., king of Aragon, and his son was his +successor, Louis III. + +LOUIS III., duke of Anjou (1403-1434), born on the 25th of September +1403, made in his turn an attempt to conquer Naples. This was in 1420, +and he had met with considerable success in his task when he died at +Cosenza on the 15th of November 1434. In 1424 Louis received from King +Charles VII. the duchy of Touraine. + +Another titular king of Naples of this name was Louis, a son of Philip, +prince of Taranto. In 1346 he became the husband of Joanna I., queen of +Naples, and in 1352 he was crowned king. After making an attempt to +conquer Sicily he died on the 26th of May 1362. + + + + +LOUIS (893-911), surnamed the "Child," king of the Franks, son of the +emperor Arnulf, was born at Ottingen, designated by Arnulf as his +successor in Germany in 897, and crowned on the 4th of February 900. +Although he never received the imperial crown, he is sometimes referred +to as the emperor Louis IV. His chief adviser was Hatto I., archbishop +of Mainz; and during his reign the kingdom was ravaged by Hungarians and +torn with internal strife. He appears to have passed his time in +journeys from place to place, and in 910 was the nominal leader of an +expedition against the Hungarians which was defeated near Augsburg. +Louis, who was the last of the German Carolingians, died in August or +September 911 and was buried at Regensburg. + + See Regino von Prüm, "Chronicon," in the _Monumenta Germaniae + historica. Scriptores_, Band i. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826); E. + Dümmler, _Geschichte des ostfränkischen Reichs_ (Leipzig, 1887-1888); + O. Dietrich, _Beiträge zur Geschichte Arnolfs von Kärnthen und Ludwigs + des Kindes_ (Berlin, 1890); and E. Mühlbacher, _Die Regesten des + Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern_ (Innsbruck, 1881). (A. W. H.*) + + + + +LOUIS OF NASSAU (1538-1574), son of William, count of Nassau, and +Juliana von Stolberg, and younger brother of William the Silent, took an +active part in the revolt of the Netherlands against Spanish domination. +He was one of the leaders of the league of nobles who signed the +document known as "the Compromise" in 1566, and a little later was a +member of the deputation who presented the petition of grievances called +"the Request" to the regent, Margaret of Parma. It was on this occasion +that the appellation of "the Beggars" (_les Gueux_) was first given to +the opponents of King Philip's policy. On the arrival of Alva at +Brussels, Count Louis, with his brother William, withdrew from the +Netherlands and raised a body of troops in defence of the patriot cause. +In the spring of 1568 Louis invaded Friesland, and at Heiligerlee, on +the 23rd of May, completely defeated a Spanish force under Count +Aremberg, who was killed. Alva then advanced to meet the invaders with a +large army, and at Jemmingen (July 21), with very slight loss, +annihilated the levies of Louis, who himself escaped by swimming from +the field across an estuary of the Ems. He now joined the army of his +brother William, which had in October to beat a hasty retreat before +Alva's superior skill. Then Louis, in company with his brothers William +and Henry, made his way across the French frontier to the camp of the +Huguenot leader, Admiral Coligny. Louis took an active part in the +campaign and fought heroically at Jarnac and Moncontour. In 1572 Louis, +not deterred by previous disaster, raised a small force in France, and, +suddenly entering Hainaut, captured Mons (May 23). Here he was besieged +by Don Frederick of Toledo, Alva's natural son, who blockaded all +approach to the town. William made an attempt to relieve his brother, +but failed, and Mons had to surrender (September 17). Louis, who was +sick with fever, withdrew to his ancestral home, Dillenburg, to recruit +his health, and then once more to devote his energies to the raising of +money and troops for another invasion of the Netherlands. In the hope of +drawing away the Spaniards from the siege of Leiden by a diversion in +the south, Louis, with his brothers John and Henry, at the head of a +force of mixed nationalities and little discipline, crossed the frontier +near Maastricht, and advanced as far as the Mookerheide near Nijmwegen. +Here he was attacked by a body of Spanish veterans under an experienced +leader, Sancho d'Avila, and speedily routed. In the disorderly flight +both Louis and his younger brother Henry, refusing to abandon the field, +lost their lives. Their bodies were never recovered. Thus perished at +the age of thirty-six one of the most chivalrous and gifted of a gallant +band of brothers, four of whom laid down their lives in their country's +cause. + + See P. J. Blok, _Lodewijk von Nassau, 1538-1574_ (The Hague, 1689), + and the _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. iii. chs. vi. and vii., and + bibliography (1904); also A. J. Van der Aa, _Biographisch woordenboek + der Nederlanden_ (22 vols., Haarlem, 1852-1878). + + + + +LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837), French statesman and +financier, was born at Toul (Meurthe) on the 13th of November 1755. At +the outbreak of the Revolution the abbé Louis (he had early taken +orders) had already some reputation as a financial expert. He was in +favour of the constitutional movement, and on the great festival of +federation (July 14, 1790) he assisted Talleyrand, then bishop of Autun, +to celebrate mass at the altar erected in the Champ de Mars. In 1792, +however, he emigrated to England, where he spent his time studying +English institutions and especially the financial system of Pitt. +Returning to France on the establishment of the Consulate he served +successively in the ministry of war, the council of state, and in the +finance department in Holland and in Paris. Made a baron of the empire +in 1809 he nevertheless supported the Bourbon restoration and was +minister of finance in 1814-1815. Baron Louis was deputy from 1815 to +1824 and from 1827 to 1832. He resumed the portfolio of finance in 1815, +which he held also in the Decazes ministry of 1818; he was the first +minister of finance under the government of Louis Philippe, and held the +same portfolio in 1831-1832. In 1832 he was made a peer of France and he +died on the 26th of August 1837. + + + + +LOUIS PHILIPPE I., king of the French (1773-1850), was the eldest son of +Louis Philip Joseph, duke of Orleans (known during the Revolution as +Philippe Egalité) and of Louise Marie Adelaide de Bourbon, daughter of +the duc de Penthièvre, and was born at the Palais Royal in Paris on the +6th of October 1773. On his father's side he was descended from the +brother of Louis XIV., on his mother's from the count of Toulouse, +"legitimated" son of Louis XIV. and Madame de Montespan. The legend that +he was a supposititious child, really the son of an Italian police +constable named Chiapponi, is dealt with elsewhere (see MARIA STELLA, +countess of Newborough). The god-parents of the duke of Valois, as he +was entitled till 1785, were Louis XVI. and Queen Marie Antoinette; his +governess was the famous Madame de Genlis, to whose influence he +doubtless owed many of the qualities which later distinguished him: his +wide, if superficial knowledge, his orderliness, and perhaps his +parsimony. Known since 1785 as the duc de Chartres, he was sixteen at +the outbreak of the Revolution, into which--like his father--he threw +himself with ardour. In 1790 he joined the Jacobin Club, in which the +moderate elements still predominated, and was assiduous in attendance at +the debates of the National Assembly. He thus became a _persona grata_ +with the party in power; he was already a colonel of dragoons, and in +1792 he was given a command in the army of the North. As a +lieutenant-general, at the age of eighteen, he was present at the +cannonade of Valmy (Sept. 20) and played a conspicuous part in the +victory of Jemappes (Nov. 6). + +The republic had meanwhile been proclaimed, and the duc de Chartres, who +like his father had taken the name of _Egalité_, posed as its zealous +adherent. Fortunately for him, he was too young to be elected deputy to +the Convention, and while his father was voting for the death of Louis +XVI. he was serving under Dumouriez in Holland. He shared in the +disastrous day of Neerwinden (March 18, 1793); was an accomplice of +Dumouriez in the plot to march on Paris and overthrow the republic, and +on the 5th of April escaped with him from the enraged soldiers into the +Austrian lines. He was destined not to return to France for twenty +years. He went first, with his sister Madame Adelaide, to Switzerland +where he obtained a situation for a few months as professor in the +college of Reichenau under an assumed name,[1] mainly in order to escape +from the fury of the _émigrés_. The execution of his father in November +1793 had made him duke of Orleans, and he now became the centre of the +intrigues of the Orleanist party. In 1795 he was at Hamburg with +Dumouriez, who still hoped to make him king. With characteristic caution +Louis Philippe refused to commit himself by any overt pretensions, and +announced his intention of going to America; but in the hope that +something might happen in France to his advantage, he postponed his +departure, travelling instead through the Scandinavian countries as far +north as Lapland. But in 1796, the Directory having offered to release +his mother and his two brothers, who had been kept in prison since the +Terror, on condition that he went to America, he set sail for the United +States, and in October settled in Philadelphia, where in February 1797 +he was joined by his brothers the duc de Montpensier and the comte de +Beaujolais. Two years were spent by them in travels in New England, the +region of the Great Lakes, and of the Mississippi; then the news of the +_coup d'état_ of 18 Brumaire decided them to return to Europe. They +returned in 1800, only to find Napoleon Bonaparte's power firmly +established. Immediately on his arrival, in February 1800, the duke of +Orleans, at the suggestion of Dumouriez, sought an interview with the +comte d'Artois, through whose instrumentality he was reconciled with the +exiled king Louis XVIII., who bestowed upon his brothers the order of +the Saint Esprit. The duke, however, refused to join the army of Condé +and to fight against France, an attitude in which he persisted +throughout, while maintaining his loyalty to the king.[2] He settled +with his brothers at Twickenham, near London, where he lived till +1807--for the most part in studious retirement. + +On the 18th of May 1807 the duc de Montpensier died at Christchurch in +Hampshire, where he had been taken for change of air, of consumption. +The comte de Beaujolais was ill of the same disease and in 1808 the duke +took him to Malta, where he died on the 29th of May. The duke now, in +response to an invitation from King Ferdinand IV., visited Palermo +where, on the 25th of November 1809 he married Princess Maria Amelia, +the king's daughter. He remained in Sicily until the news of Napoleon's +abdication recalled him to France. He was cordially received by Louis +XVIII.; his military rank was confirmed, he was named colonel-general of +hussars, and such of the vast Orleans estates as had not been sold were +restored to him by royal ordinance. The object may have been, as M. +Debidour suggests, to compromise him with the revolutionary parties and +to bind him to the throne; but it is more probable that it was no more +than an expression of the good will which the king had shown him ever +since 1800. The immediate effect was to make him enormously rich, his +wealth being increased by his natural aptitude for business until, after +the death of his mother in 1821, his fortune was reckoned at some +£8,000,000. + +Meanwhile, in the heated atmosphere of the reaction, his sympathy with +the Liberal opposition brought him again under suspicion. His attitude +in the House of Peers in the autumn of 1815 cost him a two years' exile +to Twickenham; he courted popularity by having his children educated _en +bourgeois_ at the public schools; and the Palais Royal became the +rendezvous of all the leaders of that middle-class opinion by which he +was ultimately to be raised to the throne. + +His opportunity came with the revolution of 1830. During the three "July +days" the duke kept himself discreetly in the background, retiring first +to Neuilly, then to Raincy. Meanwhile, Thiers issued a proclamation +pointing out that a Republic would embroil France with all Europe, while +the duke of Orleans, who was "a prince devoted to the principles of the +Revolution" and had "carried the tricolour under fire" would be a +"citizen king" such as the country desired. This view was that of the +rump of the chamber still sitting at the Palais Bourbon, and a +deputation headed by Thiers and Laffitte waited upon the duke to invite +him to place himself at the head of affairs. He returned with them to +Paris on the 30th, and was elected by the deputies lieutenant-general of +the realm. The next day, wrapped in a tricolour scarf and preceded by a +drummer, he went on foot to the Hôtel de Ville--the headquarters of the +republican party--where he was publicly embraced by Lafayette as a +symbol that the republicans acknowledged the impossibility of realizing +their own ideals and were prepared to accept a monarchy based on the +popular will. Hitherto, in letters to Charles X., he had protested the +loyalty of his intentions,[3] and the king now nominated him +lieutenant-general and then, abdicating in favour of his grandson the +comte de Chambord appointed him regent. On the 7th of August, however, +the Chamber by a large majority declared Charles X. deposed, and +proclaimed Louis Philippe "King of the French, by the grace of God and +the will of the people." + +The career of Louis Philippe as King of the French is dealt with +elsewhere (see FRANCE: _History_). Here it must suffice to note +something of his personal attitude towards affairs and the general +effects which this produced. For the trappings of authority he cared +little. To conciliate the revolutionary passion for equality he was +content to veil his kingship for a while under a middle-class disguise. +He erased the royal lilies from the panels of his carriages; and the +Palais Royal, like the White House at Washington, stood open to all and +sundry who cared to come and shake hands with the head of the state. +This pose served to keep the democrats of the capital in a good temper, +and so leave him free to consolidate the somewhat unstable foundation of +his throne and to persuade his European fellow-sovereigns to acknowledge +in him not a revolutionary but a conservative force. But when once his +position at home and abroad had been established, it became increasingly +clear that he possessed all the Bourbon tenaciousness of personal power. +When a "party of Resistance" came into office with Casimir-Périer in +March 1831, the speech from the throne proclaimed that "France has +desired that the monarchy should become national, it does not desire +that it should be powerless"; and the migration of the royal family to +the Tuileries symbolized the right of the king not only to reign but to +rule. Republican and Socialist agitation, culminating in a series of +dangerous risings, strengthened the position of the king as defender of +middle-class interest; and since the middle classes constituted the +_pays légal_ which alone was represented in Parliament, he came to +regard his position as unassailable, especially after the suppression of +the risings under Blanqui and Barbès in 1839. Little by little his +policy, always supported by a majority in a house of representatives +elected by a corrupt and narrow franchise, became more reactionary and +purely dynastic. His position in France seeming to be unassailable, he +sought to strengthen it in Europe by family alliances. The fact that his +daughter Louise was the consort of Leopold I., king of the Belgians, had +brought him into intimate and cordial relations with the English court, +which did much to cement the _entente cordiale_ with Great Britain. +Broken in 1840 during the affair of Mehemet Ali (q.v.) the entente was +patched up in 1841 by the Straits Convention and re-cemented by visits +paid by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert to the Château d'Eu in 1843 and +1845 and of Louis Philippe to Windsor in 1844, only to be irretrievably +wrecked by the affair of the "Spanish marriages," a deliberate attempt +to revive the traditional Bourbon policy of French predominance in +Spain. If in this matter Louis Philippe had seemed to sacrifice the +international position of France to dynastic interests, his attempt to +re-establish it by allying himself with the reactionary monarchies +against the Liberals of Switzerland finally alienated from him the +French Liberal opinion on which his authority was based. When, in +February 1848, Paris rose against him, he found that he was practically +isolated in France. + +Charles X., after abdicating, had made a dignified exit from France, +marching to the coast surrounded by the cavalry, infantry and artillery +of his Guard. Louis Philippe was less happily situated. Escaping with +the queen from the Tuileries by a back entrance, he made his way with +her in disguise to Honfleur, where the royal couple found refuge in a +gardener's cottage. They were ultimately smuggled out of the country by +the British consul at Havre as Mr and Mrs Smith,[4] arriving at Newhaven +"unprovided with anything but the clothes they wore." They settled at +Claremont, placed at their disposal by Queen Victoria, under the +_incognito_ of count and countess of Neuilly. Here on the 26th of August +1850, Louis Philippe died. + +The character of Louis Philippe is admirably traced by Queen Victoria in +a memorandum of May 2, 1855, in which she compares him with Napoleon +III. She speaks of his "vast knowledge upon all and every subject," and +"his great activity of mind." He was, unlike Napoleon, "_thoroughly +French_ in character, possessing all the liveliness and talkativeness of +that people." But she also speaks of the "tricks and over-reachings" +practised by him, "who in great as well as in small things took a +pleasure in being cleverer and more cunning than others, often when +there was no advantage to be gained by it, and which was, +unfortunately, strikingly displayed in the transactions connected with +the Spanish marriages, which led to the king's downfall, and ruined him +in the eyes of all Europe" (_Letters_, pop. ed., iii. 122). + +Louis Philippe had eight children. His eldest son, the popular Ferdinand +Philippe, duke of Orleans (b. 1810), who had married Princess Helena of +Mecklenburg, was killed in a carriage accident on the 13th of July 1842, +leaving two sons, the comte de Paris and the duc de Chartres. The other +children were Louise, consort of Leopold I., king of the Belgians; +Marie, who married Prince Alexander of Württemberg and died in 1839; +Louis Charles, duc de Nemours; Clementine, married to the duke of +Coburg-Kohary; François Ferdinand, prince de Joinville; Henri Eugène, +duc d'Aumale (q.v.); Antoine Philippe, duc de Montpensier, who married +the Infanta, younger sister of Queen Isabella of Spain. + + AUTHORITIES.--F. A. Gruyer, _La Jeunesse du roi Louis-Philippe, + d'après les pourtraits et des tableaux_ (Paris, 1909), édition de + luxe, with beautiful reproductions of portraits, miniatures, &c.; + Marquis de Flers, _Louis-Philippe, vie anecdotique, 1773-1850_ (Paris, + 1891); E. Daudet, _Hist. de l'émigration_ (3 vols., Paris, 1886-1890). + Of general works on Louis Philippe's reign may be mentioned Louis + Blanc, _Hist. de Dix Ans, 1830-1840_ (5 vols., Paris, 1841-1844), from + the republican point of view; J. O. d'Haussonville, _Hist. de la + politique extérieure de la monarchie de juillet, 1830-1848_ (2 vols., + Paris, 1850); V. de Nouvion, _Hist. de Louis-Philippe_ (4 vols., + Paris, 1857-1861); F. Guizot, _France under Louis Philippe, 1841-1847_ + (Eng. trans., 1865); Karl Hillebrand, _Geschichte Frankreichs von der + Thronbesteigung Louis Philippes, 1830-1841_ (2 vols., Gotha, + 1877-1879); V. du Bled, _Hist. de la monarchie de juillet_ (2 vols., + Paris, 1887); P. Thureau-Dangin, _Hist. de la monarchie de juillet_ + (Paris, 1887, &c.); A. Malet, "La France sous la monarchie de + juillet," in Lavisse and Rambaud's _Hist. Générale_, vol. x. ch. x. + (Paris, 1898); G. Weill, _La France sous la monarchie de juillet_ + (Paris, 1902); Émile Bourgeois, "The Orleans Monarchy," ch. xv. of + vol. x., and "The Fall of Constitutionalism in France," ch. ii. of + vol. xi. of the _Cambridge Modern History_ (Cambridge, 1907 and 1909). + Further works will be found in the bibliographies attached by M. + Bourgeois to his chapters (vol. x. p. 844, vol. xi. p. 874; the latter + including works on the revolution of 1848 and the Second Republic). To + the list of published correspondence and memoirs there mentioned may + be added the _Chronique_ of the duchesse de Dino (Paris, 1909). + + Louis Philippe himself published the _Journal du duc de Chartres, + 1790-1791; Mon Journal, événements de 1815_ (2 vols., 1849); + _Discours, allocutions et réponses de S. M. Louis-Philippe, + 1830-1846_; and after his death was issued his _Correspondance, + mémoire et discours inédits_ (Paris, 1863). (W. A. P.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] As M. Chabaud de la Tour. He was examined as to his fitness + before being appointed. Gruyer, p. 165. + + [2] This at least was his own claim and the _Orleanist_ view. The + matter became a question of partisan controversy, the legitimists + asserting that he frequently offered to serve against France, but + that his offers were contemptuously refused. A. Debidour in the + article "Louis-Philippe" in _La Grande Encyclopédie_ supports the + latter view; but see Gruyer, _La Jeunesse_, and E. Daudet, "Une + réconciliation de famille en 1800," in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_, + Sept. 15, 1905, p. 301. M. Daudet gives the account of the interview + left by the comte d'Artois, and he also makes it clear that Louis + Philippe, while protesting his loyalty to the head of his house, did + not disguise his opinion that a Restoration would only be possible if + the king accepted the essential changes made by the Revolution. + + [3] To say that these protestations were hypocritical is to assume + too much. Personal ambition doubtless played a part; but he must have + soon realized that the French people had wearied of "legitimism" and + that a regency in the circumstances was impossible. + + [4] There is a vivid account in Mr Featherstonhaugh to Lord + Palmerston, Havre, March 3, 1848, in _The Letters of Queen Victoria_ + (pop. ed., ii. 156). + + + + +LOUISBURG, a town and port of entry of Cape Breton county, Nova Scotia, +Canada, on the Sydney & Louisburg railway, 39 m. from Sydney. Pop. +(1901) 1588. Under the French _régime_, Louisburg was second only to +Quebec. A fortress was erected at enormous expense, and the city was the +centre of the cod-fisheries. The fortress was, however, captured in 1745 +by the American colonists, under Sir William Pepperrell (1696-1759), +assisted by the British fleet, and again in 1758 by a British land and +sea force under General Jeffrey Amherst (1717-1797) and Admiral +Boscawen. The jealousy of the British settlement of Halifax led to its +almost utter destruction, and only a few case-mates now remain. Under +English rule a fishing village grew up on the other side of the harbour, +and has now become the winter shipping port of the Dominion Coal +Company. The harbour is deep, spacious and open all the year round, +though occasionally blocked by drift ice in the spring. + + + + +LOUISE [AUGUSTE WILHELMINE AMALIE LUISE] (1776-1810), queen of Prussia, +was born on the 10th of March 1776 in Hanover, where her father, Prince +Charles of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, was field-marshal of the household +brigade. Her mother was a princess of Hesse-Darmstadt. In 1793 Louise +met at Frankfort the crown prince of Prussia, afterwards King Frederick +William III., who was so fascinated by her beauty, and by the nobleness +of her character, that he asked her to become his wife. They were +married on the 24th of December of the same year. As queen of Prussia +she commanded universal respect and affection, and nothing in Prussian +history is more pathetic than the dignity and unflinching courage with +which she bore the sufferings inflicted on her and her family during the +war between Prussia and France. After the battle of Jena she went with +her husband to Königsberg, and when the battles of Eylau and Friedland +had placed Prussia absolutely at the mercy of France, she made a +personal appeal to Napoleon at his headquarters in Tilsit, but without +success. Early in 1808 she accompanied the king from Memel to +Königsberg, whence, towards the end of the year, she visited St +Petersburg, returning to Berlin on the 23rd of December 1809. During the +war Napoleon attempted to destroy the queen's reputation, but the only +effect of his charges in Prussia was to make her more deeply beloved. On +the 19th of July 1810 she died in her husband's arms, while visiting her +father in Strelitz. She was buried in the garden of the palace at +Charlottenburg, where a mausoleum, containing a fine recumbent statue by +Rauch, was built over her grave. In 1840 her husband was buried by her +side. The Louise Foundation (Luisenstift) for the education of girls was +established in her honour, and in 1814 Frederick William III. instituted +the Order of Louise (Luisenorden). In 1880 a statue of Queen Louise was +erected in the Thiergarten at Berlin. + + See F. Adami, _Luise, Königin von Preussen_ (7th ed., 1875); E. Engel, + _Königin Luise_ (1876); A. Kluckhohn, _Luise, Königin von Preussen_ + (1876); Mommsen and Treitschke, _Königin Luise_ (1876); in English, + Hudson, _Life and Times of Louisa, Queen of Prussia_ (1874); G. Horn, + _Das Buch von der Königin Luise_ (Berlin, 1883); A. Lonke, _Königin + Luise von Preussen_ (Leipzig, 1903); H. von Petersdorff, "Königin + Luise," _Frauenleben_, Bd. i. (Bielefeld, 1903, 2nd ed., 1904). + + + + +LOUISE OF SAVOY (1476-1531), duchess of Angoulême, mother of Francis I. +of France, was daughter of a cadet of the house of Savoy, Philip, count +of Bresse, afterwards duke of Savoy. Through her mother, Marguerite de +Bourbon, she was niece of Pierre de Bourbon, sire de Beaujeu, afterwards +duke of Bourbon. At the age of twelve she was married to Charles of +Valois, count of Angoulême, great-grandson of King Charles V. The count +died in 1496, leaving her the mother of two children, Marguerite (b. +1492) and Francis (b. 1494). The accession of Louis XII., who was +childless, made Francis of Angoulême the heir-presumptive to the throne +of France. Louise brought her children to the court, and received +Amboise as her residence. She lived henceforth in fear lest Louis should +have a son; and in consequence there was a secret rivalry between her +and the queen, Anne of Brittany. Finally, her son became king on the 1st +of January 1515 by the death of Louis XII. From him Louise received the +county of Angoulême, which was erected into a duchy, the duchy of Anjou, +and the counties of Maine and Beaufort. She was then given the title of +"Madame." From 1515 to her death, she took the chief share in the +government. The part she played has been variously judged, and is not +yet completely elucidated. It is certain that Louise had a clear head, +practical good sense and tenacity. In the critical situation after the +battle of Pavia (1525) she proved herself equal to the emergency, +maintained order in the kingdom, and manoeuvred very skilfully to detach +Henry VIII. of England from the imperial alliance. But she appears to +have been passionate, exceedingly rapacious and ever careful of her own +interest. In her malignant disputes with the constable de Bourbon on the +question of his wife's succession, she goaded him to extreme measures, +and her rapacity showed itself also in her dealings with the +_surintendant des finances_, J. de Beaune, baron de Samblançay (d. +1527), who diverted the money intended for the French soldiers in Italy +into the coffers of the queen, and suffered death in consequence. She +died in 1531, and Francis reunited to the crown her domains, which +comprised the Bourbonnais, Beaujolais, Auvergne, la Marche, Angoumois, +Maine and Anjou. + + There is extant a _Journal_ of Louise of Savoy, the authenticity of + which seems certain. It consists of brief notes--generally very exact + and sometimes ironical--which go as far as the year 1522. The only + trustworthy text is that published by Guichenon in his _Histoire + généalogique de la maison de Savoie_ (ed. of 1778-1780, vol. iv.). + + See _Poésies de François I^er et de Louise de Savoie ..._, ed. by + Champollion-Figeac (1847); De Maulde, _Louise de Savoie et François + I^er_ (1895); G. Jacqueton, _La Politique extérieure de Louise de + Savoie ..._ (1892); H. Hauser, "Étude critique sur le Journal de + Louise de Savoie," in the _Revue historique_, vol. 86 (1904). + + + + +LOUISIADE ARCHIPELAGO, a chain of islands in the Pacific Ocean, +extending south-eastward from the easternmost promontory of New Guinea, +and included in the Australian territory of Papua (British New Guinea). +The islands number over eighty, and are interspersed with reefs. They +are rich in tropical forest products, and gold has been discovered on +the chief island, Tagula or South-east (area 380 sq. m.) and on Misima +or St Aignan. The natives are of Papuan type, and practise cannibalism. +The islands were probably observed by Torres in 1606, but were named by +L. A. de Bougainville in 1768 after Louis XV. + + + + +LOUISIANA, one of the Southern States of the United States of America, +lying on the N. coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Beginning on the N., its +boundary follows eastward the parallel of 33° N., separating Louisiana +from Arkansas; then descends the Mississippi river, separating it from +the state of Mississippi, southward to 31°; passes eastward on this +parallel to the Pearl river, still with the state of Mississippi on the +E.; and descends this river to the Gulf. On the W. the Sabine river, +from the Gulf to 32° N., and, thence to the parallel of 33°, a line a +little W. of (and parallel to) the meridian of 94° W., separate +Louisiana from Texas. Including islands in the Gulf, the stretch of +latitude is approximately 4° and of longitude 5°. The total area is +48,506 sq. m., of which 3097 sq. m. are water surface (including 1060 +sq. m. of landlocked coastal bays called "lakes"). The coast line is +about 1500 m. + + _Physical Features._--Geologically Louisiana is a very recent + creation, and belongs to the "Coastal Plain Province." Most of the + rocks or soils composing its surface were formed as submarine + deposits; the easternmost and southernmost parts are true river + deposits. These facts are the key to the state's chorography. The + average elevation of the state above the sea is only about 75 ft., and + practically the only parts more than 400 ft. high are hills in Sabine, + Claiborne and Vernon parishes. The physiographic features are few and + very simple. The essential elements are five[1]: diluvial plains, + coast marshes, prairies, "bluffs" and "pine-hills" (to use the local + nomenclature). These were successive stages in the geologic process + which has created, and is still actively modifying, the state. They + are all seen, spread from N. to S., west of the Mississippi, and also, + save only the prairies, in the so-called "Florida parishes" E. of the + Mississippi. + + These different elements in the region W. of the Mississippi are + arranged from N. to S. in the order of decreasing geologic age and + maturity. Beginning with elevations of about 400 ft. near the Arkansas + line, there is a gentle slope toward the S.E. The northern part can + best be regarded as a low plateau (once marine sediments) sloping + southward, traversed by the large diluvial valleys of the Mississippi, + Red and Ouachita rivers, and recut by smaller tributaries into smaller + plateaus and rather uniform flat-topped hills. The "bluffs" (remnants + of an eroded plain formed of alluvion deposits over an old, mature and + drowned topography) run through the second tier of parishes W. of the + Mississippi above the Red river. Below this river prairie areas become + increasingly common, constituting the entire S.W. corner of the state. + They are usually only 20 to 30 ft. above the sea in this district, + never above 70, and are generally treeless except for marginal timber + along the sluggish, meandering streams. One of their peculiar + features--the sandy circular "mounds," 2 to 10 ft. high and 20 to 30 + or even 50 ft. in diameter, sometimes surmounted by trees in the midst + of a treeless plain and sometimes arranged in circles and on radii, + and decreasing in size with distance from the centre of the field--has + been variously explained. The mounds were probably formed by some + gentle eruptive action like that exhibited in the "mud hills" along + the Mississippi below New Orleans; but no explanation is generally + accepted. The prairies shade off into the coast marshes. This fringe + of wooded swamp and sea marsh is generally 20 to 30, but in places + even 50 and 60 m. in width. Where the marsh is open and grassy, + flooded only at high tides or in rainy seasons, and the ground firm + enough to bear cattle, it is used as range. Considerable tracts have + also been diked and reclaimed for cotton, sugar and especially for + rice culture. The tidal action of the gulf is so slight and the + marshes are so low that perfect drainage cannot be obtained through + tide gates, which must therefore be supplemented by pumping machinery + when rains are heavy or landward winds long prevail. Slight ridges + along the streams and bayous which traverse it, and occasional patches + of slightly elevated prairie, relieve in a measure the monotonous + expanse. It is in and along the borders of this coast swamp region + that most of the rice and much of the sugar cane of the state are + grown. Long bar-like "islands" (conspicuous high land rising above the + marsh and prairie)--Orange, Petite Anse, Grand Cote, Cote Blanche and + Belle Isle--offer very interesting topographical and geological + problems. "Trembling prairies"--land that trembles under the tread of + men or cattle--are common near the coast. Most of the swamp fringe is + reclaimable. The marshes encroach most upon the parishes of St + Charles, Orleans and Plaquemines. In St Charles the cultivable strip + of land along the river is only about 3 m. wide. In Orleans the city + of New Orleans occupies nearly all the high ground and encroaches on + the swamps. In Plaquemines there is practically no cultivable land + below Forts Jackson and St Philip, and above there is only a narrow + strip. + + The alluvial lands include the river flood plains. The principal + rivers are the Mississippi, which flows nearly 600 m. through and + along the border of the state, the Red river, the Ouachita (or + Washita), Sabine and Pearl; all except the last are navigable at all + stages of the water. There are many "bayous," several of which are of + great importance, both for navigation and for drainage. They may be + characterized as secondary outlets of the rivers or flood + distributaries. Among them are Bayou Teche, Bayou Plaquemine, + Atchafalaya Bayou,[2] Bayou Lafourche and Bayou Boeuf. Almost all + secondary water-courses, particularly if they have sluggish currents, + are known as bayous. Some might well be called lakes, and others + rivers. The alluvial portion of the state, especially below the mouth + of the Red river, is an intricate network of these bayous, which, + before their closure by a levee system, served partially, in time of + flood, to carry off the escaping surplus of river waters. They are + comparatively inactive at all seasons; indeed, the action of the tides + and back-waters and the tangle of vegetation in the sombre swamps and + forests through which they run, often render their currents almost + imperceptible at ordinary water. Navigable waters are said to + penetrate all but four of the parishes of the state, their total + length approximating 3800 m. + + Each of the larger streams, as well as a large proportion of the + smaller ones, is accompanied by a belt of bottom land, of greater or + less width, lying low as regards the stream, and liable to overflow at + times of high water. These flood plains form collectively what is + known as the alluvial region, which extends in a broad belt down the + Mississippi, from the mouth of the Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico, and up + the Ouachita and its branches and the Red river to and beyond the + limits of the state. Its breadth along the Mississippi within + Louisiana ranges from 10 to 50 or 60 m., and that along the Red river + and the Ouachita has an average breadth of 10 m. Through its great + flood-plain the Mississippi river winds upon the summit of a ridge + formed by its own deposits. In each direction the country falls away + in a succession of minor undulations, the summits of the ridges being + occupied by the streams and bayous. Nearly all of this vast + flood-plain lies below the level of high water in the Mississippi, + and, but for the protection afforded by the levees, every considerable + rise of its waters would inundate vast areas of fertile and cultivated + land. The low regions of Louisiana, including the alluvial lands and + the coast swamps, comprise about 20,000 sq. m., or nearly one-half the + area of the state. The remainder consists of the uplands of prairie + and forest. + + The alluvial region of the state in 1909 was mainly protected against + overflow from the Mississippi river by 754 m. of levee on the + Mississippi river within the state, and 84 m. on the Mississippi + river, Cypress and Amos Bayou in Arkansas, forming part of the general + system which extends through other states, 1000 m. up to the highlands + about the junction of the Ohio river. The state and the national + government co-operate in the construction and maintenance of this + system, but the Federal government did not give material aid (the only + exception being the grant of swamp lands in 1850) until the + exceptionally disastrous flood in 1882. For about a century and a half + before that time, levee building had been undertaken in a more or less + spasmodic and tentative way, first by riparian proprietors, then by + local combinations of public and private interests, and finally by the + state, acting through levee districts, advised by a Board of + Engineers. The Federal government, after its participation in the + work, acted through a Board of Engineers, known as the "Mississippi + River Commission." The system of 754 m. of Mississippi river levees, + within the state, was built almost entirely after 1866, and represents + an expenditure of about $43,000,000 for primary construction alone; of + this sum, the national government contributed probably a third (the + state expended about $24,000,000 on levees before the Civil War). Some + of the levees, especially those in swampy regions where outlet bayous + are closed, are of extraordinary solidity and dimensions, being 20 to + 40 ft. high, or even more, across streams or bayous--formerly + outlets--with bases of 8 or 10 ft. to one of height. The task of + maintenance consists almost entirely in closing the gaps which occur + when the banks on which the levees are built cave into the river. + Levee systems on some of the interior or tributary rivers, aggregating + some 602 m., are exclusively built and maintained by the state. + Louisiana also contributes largely to the 84 m. of levee in Arkansas, + necessary to its security from overflow. The improvement of bayous, + channels, the construction of canals and the drainage of swamp lands + also contribute to the protection of the state. + + The lakes are mainly in three classes. First come the coast lagoons, + many of which are merely landlocked salt-water bays, the waters of + which rise and fall with the tides. Of this class are Pontchartrain, + Borgne, Maurepas and Sabine. These are simply parts of the sea which + have escaped the filling-in process carried on by the great river and + the lesser streams. A second class, called "ox-bow" lakes, large in + numbers but small in area, includes ordinary cut-off meanders along + the Mississippi and Red rivers. A third class, those upon the Red + river and its branches, are caused mainly by the partial stoppage of + the water above Shreveport by the "raft," a mass of drift such as + frequently gathers in western rivers, which for a distance of 45 m. + almost completely closed the channel until it was broken up by + government engineers. These lakes are much larger at flood season than + at other times, and have been much reduced in size by the cutting of a + channel through the raft. Lakes of this class are sometimes formed by + the choking of the mouth of feeble tributaries by silt deposited by + the Red river where the currents meet. + + _Mineral Resources._--Mineral resources are few, but important. In the + Tertiary region are found small quantities of iron ore and an + indifferent brown coal. The important mineral products are salt, + sulphur, petroleum and natural gas. The deposit of rock salt on Petite + Anse Island, in the coast swamp region, has been extensively worked + since its discovery during the Civil War. The deposit is in places + 1000 ft. thick, and yields salt of extraordinary purity (sometimes 99% + pure). There are large deposits also on Orange Island (in places at + least 1800 ft. thick), on Week's Island, on Belle Isle and probably + beneath the intervening marshes. In 1907 Louisiana ranked sixth among + the salt-producing states of the country (after New York, Michigan, + Ohio, Kansas and California), its output being valued at $226,892, + only a few hundred dollars more than that of Texas. Near Lake Charles, + at Sulphur, are very extraordinary sulphur deposits. The beds lie + several (for the most part four to six) hundred feet underground and + are of disputed origin. Many regard them as products of an extinct + volcano; according to others they are of vegetable origin (they are + found in conjunction with gypsum). They were discovered before 1870 by + searchers after petroleum, but their exploitation remained in the + experimental stage until about 1900. The sulphur is dissolved by + superheated water forced down pipes, and the water with sulphur in + solution is forced upward by hot air pressure through other pipes; the + sulphur comes, 99% pure, to the surface of the ground, where it is + cooled in immense bins, and then broken up and loaded directly upon + cars for shipment. These mines divide with the Sicilian mines the + control of the sulphur market of the world. The value of the sulphur + taken from the mines of Louisiana in 1907 was a little more than + $5,000,000. Evidences of petroleum were discovered long ago, in the + very field where in recent years the Beaumont and Vinton wells were + bored. In 1909 Jennings was the chief field in Louisiana, lesser + fields being at Welsh, Anse la Butte, Caddo and Vinton. The Jennings + field, one of the greatest in the United States, produced up to and + including 1907 more than 26,000,000 barrels of high-grade oil, + twelve-thirteenths of which came from an area of only 50 acres, one + well producing a tenth of the entire output. In 1907 the state + produced 5,000,221 barrels of petroleum, valued at $4,063,033. Natural + gas is found in Caddo parish, about 20 m. N. of Shreveport. The depth + of the wells is from 840 to 2150 ft.; two wells completed in 1907 had + a daily capacity estimated at 35,000,000 to 50,000,000 ft. Shreveport, + Oil City, Blanchard, Mooringsport, Bossier City and Texarkana are + supplied with natural gas by pipe lines from this field. Kaolin is + found in the state; in 1907 the total value of all clay products was + $928,579. + + _Climate._--The climate is semi-tropical and exceptionally equable + over large areas. In the S. and S.E. the equable temperature is + largely the effect of the network of bays, bayous and lakes, and + throughout the state the climate is materially influenced by the + prevailing southerly winds from the Gulf of Mexico. Some daily + variation in the temperature of adjoining localities is caused by a + dark soil in the one and a light soil in the other, but the + differences of mean annual temperature are almost wholly due to + differences of latitude and elevation. The mean annual temperature for + a period of nineteen years (Jan. 1888 to Dec. 1906) ranged from 70° F. + at Port Eads, in the extreme S.E., to 65° F. at Lake Providence, in + the N.E. The mean temperature of July, the hottest month, is + comparatively uniform over the state, varying only from 81° to 83°; + the mean for January, the coldest month, varies from 46° in the + extreme north to 56° in the extreme south. Even in the coldest + localities eight or nine months are wholly free from frost, and in the + coast parishes frost occurs only a few days in each year. Rainfall is + usually heavy in the S.E., but it decreases toward the N.W. As much as + 85.6 in. have fallen within a year at New Orleans, but in this + locality the average for a year is about 57.6 in.; at Shreveport the + average is 46 in., and for the entire state it is 55 in. Much more + rain falls in summer than in any other season, but in some parts the + heaviest rainfall is in the spring and in others in the winter. A + light fall of snow is not uncommon in the northern parishes, but in + the southern part of the state snow falls not oftener than once in + three to five years. Hailstorms are infrequent everywhere, but + especially so in the south. Only a fourth to a half of the days of + the different months are wholly or partly clear even in the north, and + in the same district the monthly means of relative humidity vary from + 65 to 70. + + [Illustration: Map of Louisiana.] + + _Fauna._--The entire state is included within the Austro-riparian life + zone; the higher portions fall within the Carolinian area and the + lower portions, including the Gulf and the Mississippi embayment + almost to the N.E. corner of the state, constitute a special + semi-tropical region. The native fauna of the state resembles in its + general features that of the other Gulf states. The feral fauna was + once rather varied. Black bears, wolves and deer are not yet extinct, + and more rarely a "wild cat" (lynx) or "panther" (puma) is seen in the + swamps. Of smaller mammals, raccoons, squirrels and opossums are very + common. Every bayou contains alligators; and reptiles of various + species, such as turtles, lizards, horned toads, rattlesnakes and + moccasins are abundant. Shrimps, frogs (of great commercial + importance), terrapin, clams and oysters are common. Only in very + recent years have oysters, though plentiful, become of competitive + importance in the national market; they are greatly favoured by state + protective legislation. In 1904 a state oyster commission was created + to supplant the independent control by the parishes. An important + boundary dispute with Mississippi arose over beds lying near the state + line. The state leases the beds at a low annual rental in tracts + (limited for each person, firm or corporation to 1000 acres), and + draws from them a considerable revenue. The avifauna is varied and + abundant, comprising eagles, vultures (protected by law), hawks, owls, + pelicans, cranes, turkeys, geese, "partridges" (called quail or "Bob + White" elsewhere), ducks, &c., besides numerous smaller species, many + of which are brilliant of plumage but harsh of voice. + + _Flora._--Heavy rainfall, high temperature and fertile soil combine to + cover the greater part of the state, and particularly the alluvial + regions and the coast swamps, with a most luxuriant subtropical + vegetation, both arborescent and herbaceous. Louisiana is justly + celebrated for the beauty and fragrance of its flowers. The range of + temperature is not sufficient to give the variety of annual wild + flowers of more northern climates; nevertheless flowers cover the + bottom lands and uplands in great profusion. The upland flora is the + more diversified. Flowering annuals are mainly aquatic. Water lilies, + water hyacinths, which are an obstruction in many streams, and irises + in rich variety give colour to the coast wastes and sombre bayous. + Notable among the flora are roses, japonicas, hibiscus shrubs of + various species, poinsettias, tea olives, crepe myrtle, jasmines, + magnolias, camellias, oleanders, chrysanthemums, geraniums and + plumbagos. The value and variety of the timber are very great. Much of + the river swamp region is covered with cypress trees festooned with + Spanish moss. The most common species in the alluvial regions and, to + a less degree, in the drier portions of the swamps and in the stream + bottoms of the prairies are various oaks, black, sweet and tupelo gum, + holly, cotton-wood, poplar, magnolia sweet bay, the tulip tree, + catalpa, black walnut, pecans, hickories, ash, beech and short-leaf + pine. On drier and higher soils are the persimmon, sassafras, red + maple, elm, black haw, hawthorn, various oaks (in all 10 species + occur), hickories and splendid forests of long-leaf and loblolly + yellow pine. + + _Forestry._--These forests are the greatest and finest of their kind + remaining in the United States. In 1898 it was estimated by Henry + Gannett (followed by the Federal census of 1900) that the timbered + area covered 28,300 sq. m. Professor C. S. Sargent estimated in 1884 + that the stand of short-leaf and long-leaf pines aggregated + respectively 21,625 and 26,558 million feet. The timber product of + 1900 ($17,294,444) was almost ten times that of 1880 ($1,764,640); and + in 1905 the product value ($35,192,374) was more than twice that of + 1900. Nevertheless, in 1900 the cypress forests remained practically + untouched, only slight impression had been made upon the pine areas, + and the hard-wood forests, except that they had been culled of their + choicest oak, remained in their primal state (U.S. census). Between + 1900 and 1905 furniture factories and planing mills became somewhat + important. Pond pine occurs only near the Pearl river. Curly pine is + fairly abundant. The eastern pine belt is composed of the long-leaf + pine, interspersed with some loblolly. It covers an area of about 3900 + sq. m. The south-western pine belt contains the heaviest growth of + long-leaf pine timber in the world, covering an area of about 4200 sq. + m., and occasionally interspersed with short-leaf pine. The short-leaf + growth is especially heavy in the north-western portion of the state, + while the long-leaf is found mainly in large masses N. and S. of the + Red river around Alexandria as a centre. The cypress forests of the + alluvial and overflowed lands in the S. of the state are among the + largest and the most heavily timbered known. The hard-woods are found + in the river bottoms throughout the state. + +_Agriculture and Soils._--Agriculture is the chief industry of the +State. In 1900 26.2% of the land was in farms, and of this area about +two-fifths was improved. The size of the average farm decreased in the +two preceding decades from 171.3 to 95.4 acres. The percentage of farms +operated by owners (i.e. owners, part owners, owners and tenants, and +managers) fell from 64.8 to 42.1% from 1880 to 1900, and the percentage +operated by cash tenants increased from 13.8 in 1880 to 24.9 in 1900, +and by share tenants from 21.5 in 1880 to 33.0 in 1900; the percentage +of farms operated by white farmers was 49.8 in 1900. The value of farm +property, $198,536,906 in 1900, increased 79.8% in the preceding decade. +The value of live stock in the latter year was $28,869,506. The total +value of all farm products in 1899 was $72,667,302, of which $59,276,092 +was the value of the distinctive crops--cotton, sugar and rice. The +state bureau of agriculture in 1903 estimated that of the total area +14.9 millions of acres were timber land, 5.7 millions pasture and marsh, +and 5.0 millions cultivated farm land. + +In the N. there are many sandy districts in the uplands, also sandy +clays; in the "second bottoms" of the streams fertile sandy loams; +abundant tertiary marls in the north-central region; some gypsum in the +cretaceous "islands"; and some fossiliferous marls with decomposed +limestones. The prairies of south-western Louisiana have much yellow +marl underlying them. Alluvial soil and bluff, the location of which has +been indicated, are of primary agricultural importance. Reclaimed +marsh-land and fresh alluvium (the so-called "front-lands" on rivers and +bayous) are choice soil for Indian corn, sugar-cane, perique tobacco, +semi-tropical fruits and cotton. The bluff lands are simply old alluvium +now well drained and above all floods. The prairies of the S.W. are +devoted almost exclusively to rice. On the hills yellow-leaf tobacco can +be grown. Cereals and forage plants can be successfully grown +everywhere, and varied and profitable agriculture is possible even on +the "pine-barrens" or uplands of the N.; but more intelligent and more +intensive farming is necessary than that practised by the average +"piney-woods" farmer. The alluvial section of lower Louisiana is mostly +devoted to sugar, and farther northward to Indian corn and cotton. + + Cotton is the principal crop. In 1907 Louisiana ranked eighth in + acreage of cotton (1,622,000 acres) among the states of the United + States, and in 1907-1908 the cotton crop (675,428 bales) was eighth + among the crops of the states. The average yield per acre varies from + about .45 to .75 bale according to the season. In good seasons and + exceptional localities the yield may approach a bale per acre, as in + Assumption parish, and in the Mississippi valley at the junction of + Louisiana, Mississippi and Arkansas. For many years there has been a + reaction against the all-cotton farming system. In general, the small + cotton farmer was at the mercy of the commission merchant, to whom he + mortgaged his crops in advance; but this evil has lessened, and in + some districts the system of advancing is either non-existent or very + slightly developed. + + In 1907-1908 all the sugar produced from cane grown in the United + States came from Louisiana (335,000 long tons) and Texas (12,000 + tons); in the same year cane sugar from Hawaii amounted to 420,000 + tons, from Porto Rico to 217,000 tons and from the Philippines to + 135,000 tons; and the total yield of beet sugar from the United States + was 413,954 tons. Of all the cane grown, an amount between one-sixth + and one-quarter--and that the best--must be reserved for seed every + other year, and this is a great handicap to the state in competing + with other cane regions and with the sugar beet. Of the total sugar + consumption of the country in 1899-1904 Louisiana produced somewhat + more than a fifteenth. Since about 1880 there have been central + factories, and their increase has been a very prominent factor in the + development of the industry, as it has been in Cuba. Though very much + of the region S. of the Red river is fairly well suited to + sugar-growing, it is still true that sugar cannot, over much of this + area, be grown to so great advantage as other crops. Its hold upon the + delta region is, however, almost unchallenged, especially since the + rice farmers have found in the prairie lands that excel the delta for + their purposes. Sugar is grown also in St Landry and the eastern part + of Attakapas--a name formerly loosely applied to what are now St Mary, + Iberia, Vermilion, St Martin and Lafayette parishes. Though introduced + with success from Santo Domingo about the middle of the 18th century, + the sugar industry practically dates from 1796, when Étienne Boré + first succeeded in crystallizing and clarifying the syrup. Steam + motive power was first introduced on the plantations in 1822. The + average product of the ten seasons 1894-1904 was 299,745 tons. A state + sugar experiment station is maintained at Audubon Park in New Orleans, + its work embracing the development of seedlings, the improvement of + cane varieties, the study of fungus diseases of the cane, the + improvement of mill methods and the reconciliation of such methods + (for example, the use of sulphur as a bleaching and clarifying agent) + with the requirements of "pure food" laws. Good work has also been + done by the Audubon sugar school of the state university, founded "for + the highest scientific training in the growing of sugar cane and in + the technology of sugar manufacture." + + Tobacco might be grown profitably over a large part of the state, but + in reality very little is grown. The strong, black perique of the + delta--cultivated very generally in the lower alluvial region before + the Civil War, but now almost exclusively in St James parish--is a + famous leaf, grown since early colonial times. Bright or yellow plug + and smoking leaf are grown on the pine uplands and pine "flats," and a + small amount of cigar tobacco on the flats, prairies and "bluffs." The + total value of the tobacco crop of 35,000 lb. in 1907 was only + $10,000, an amount exceeded by each of the other 24 tobacco-growing + states, and the crop was about one-twentieth of 1% of the product of + the whole United States. + + Rice farming, which had its beginning immediately after the Civil War + and first became prominent in the 'seventies, has developed enormously + since 1880. From 1879 to 1899 the product increased twenty-five fold. + Formerly the grain was raised by preference in the river bottoms, + which still yield, almost invariably, the earliest rice of the season + and perhaps the finest. The "buckshot clays" of the backlands, which + are so stiff that they can scarcely be ploughed until flooded and + softened, and are remarkably retentive of moisture, are ideal rice + soil; but none of the alluvial lands has an underlying hardpan, and + they cannot as a rule be drained sufficiently to make the use of heavy + harvesting machinery possible. In 1880 the prairies of the S.W. were + opened to settlement by the railway. These prairies are traversed by + ridges, which facilitate irrigation, and are underlaid by an + impervious subsoil, which facilitates both effective storage and + drainage. Thus the use of machinery became possible, and this + revolutionized the entire industry. The year 1884 may be taken as the + initial date of the new period, and the grain is now harvested exactly + as is wheat in the west-central states. Previously the grain had + ordinarily been cut with sickles and harvested by hand. The farms were + also small, usually from 5 to 10 acres. They are now very much larger. + All the prairies district--the centre of which is Crowley--is becoming + one great rice field. Some rice also is grown on the lowlands of the + Mississippi valley, notably in Plaquemines, Jefferson and Lafourche + parishes. In the decade 1881-1890 Louisiana produced about half of the + total yield of the country, and from 1891 to 1900 about five-sevenths. + In 1904 and 1906 the Louisiana crop, about one-half of the total yield + of the country, was larger than that of any other state; but in 1905 + and in 1907 (6,192,955 lb. and 7,378,000 lb. respectively) the + Louisiana crop was second in size to that of Texas. Carolina and + Honduras rices were practically the only varieties until after 1896. + Since that time select Japanese species, chosen for superior milling + qualities, have been widely introduced, as the market prejudice in + favour of head rice made the large percentage of broken rice a heavy + handicap to the farmers. Hundreds of varieties have been tested by the + state and federal agricultural experiment stations. A strong tendency + to run to red rice (hardier, but not so marketable) has been a second + great difficulty to overcome. + + Irrigation is almost entirely confined to rice farms. In the prairie + region there is abundant water at depths of 100 to 400 ft. beneath the + surface, but this was little used for irrigation for the first few + years of the development of this field, when water was pumped from the + streams and canals. In 1902 nearly one-eighth of the acreage irrigated + was by systems supplied from wells. The irrigated rice area increased + 92.9% from 1899 to 1902, and the construction cost of irrigation works + ($4,747,359 in 1902; $12.25 per irrigated acre) 87.7% in the same + years. This increase was almost wholly in the prairie parishes. Of the + total irrigated area for rice of 387,580 acres in 1902, 310,670 acres + were in the parishes of Calcasieu, Acadia and Vermilion. In the + Mississippi valley water is taken from the river by flumes in the + levees or by siphons. The danger of floods and the difficulty of + drainage make the extension of the practice unprofitable, and the + opening of the prairies has made it unnecessary. + + Many of the fruits of warm-temperate and semi-tropical lands, whether + native or exotic, including oranges, olives, figs, grape-fruit, + kumquats and pomegranates are cultivated. Oranges are grown especially + on the coast. There are many fine groves on the Mississippi below New + Orleans. The fig is a common door-yard tree as in other Gulf and South + Atlantic states, and is never killed down by frost. Louisiana produced + in 1899 only a fifth as great a value in sub-tropic fruits as Arizona + and Texas combined. Orchard fruits are fairly varied, but, compared + with other states, unimportant; and the production of small fruits is + comparatively small, the largest crop being strawberries. Oranges and + pears are seriously damaged by insect and fungus pests. The total + value of fruit products in 1899 was $412,933. Among nuts the native + pecan is exceptionally abundant, the product (637,470 lb. in 1899) + being much greater than that of any other state save Texas. + + The total value of cereal products in 1899 was $14,491,796, including + Indian corn valued at $10,327,723 and rice valued at $4,044,489; in + 1907 it was more than $27,300,000, including Indian corn valued at + $19,600,000, rice valued at $7,378,000 and oats valued at $223,000. + Indian corn is grown only for home use. Dairying interests are not + largely developed, and in Texas and the adjoining states the "Texas + fever" and "charbon" have done great damage to cattle. Forage crops + are little grown, though soil conditions are favourable. Cowpeas are a + common fertilizer. Garden trucking is very slightly developed, but has + been successful where it has been tried. The state maintains a crop + pest commission, the duties of which include the inspection of all + nursery stock sold in the state. + +_Manufactures._--The state's manufacturing interests have during the +last few decades grown greatly in importance. From 1890 to 1900 the +capital invested, the cost of materials used and the value of output (in +1900, $121,181,683) increased respectively 225.4, 147.3 and 109.6%. The +value of the factory products in 1900 was $111,397,919; in 1905 it was +$186,379,592. Slightly above one-half of the product of 1900 was from +New Orleans, and in 1905 about 45.4%. A constitutional amendment of 1902 +exempted from parochial and municipal taxes between 1900 and 1910 +practically all factories and mines in the state, employing at least +five hands. Manufacturing industries are for the most part closely +related to the products of the soil, about two-thirds of the value of +all manufactures in 1900 and in 1905 being represented by sugar and +molasses refining, lumber and timber products, cotton-seed oil and cake, +and rice cleaned and polished. + + Rice is milled at New Orleans, Crowley, Abbeville, Gayden, Jennings + and Lake Charles. Ramie fibre and jute are available for coarse cloth; + cotton weaving is almost non-existent. The lumber industry is centred + chiefly in Calcasieu parish. Lake Charles, Westlake, Bogalusa, Bon + Ami, Carson, Fisher, Fullerton, Leesville, Oakdale and Pickering were + the leading sawmill towns of the state in 1908. Of the rarer woods + particular mention may be made of curly pine, yielding a wood of + beautiful figure and polish; magnolia, hard, close-grained, of fine + polish and of great lasting qualities; and cypress, light, strong, + easily worked and never-rotting. The timber cut of 1900 was officially + stated as 1,214,387 M. ft. B.M., of which two-thirds were of yellow + pine and most of the remainder of cypress. In some localities, + especially in the "Florida parishes," small quantities of rosin and + turpentine are taken from the long-leaf pine, but this industry was + unimportant in Louisiana before 1908. Sawdust, slabs, stumps and large + quantities of logs are wasted. Other manufactures with a product value + in 1905 of between $4,000,000 and $1,000,000 were: bags (not paper); + foundry and machine-shop products; planing-mill products; railway + cars, construction and repairs; malt liquors; men's clothing; + cooperage; food preparations; roasted and ground coffee and spice; + fertilizers; cigars and cigarettes; cotton goods; and manufactured + ice. + + _Communications._--The length of railway in the state was 1740 m. in + 1890 and 4943.55 m. at the end of 1908. By the state constitution of + 1898 and by amendments of 1902 and 1904 tax exemptions for ten years + were granted to newly-built railroads completed before 1909. The + principal roads are the Missouri Pacific (St Louis, Iron Mountain & + Southern, New Orleans & North-western and St Louis, Watkins & Gulf), + the Southern Pacific (Morgan's Louisiana & Texas Railroad & Steamship + Co. and the Louisiana Western), the Texas & Pacific, the Kansas City + Southern, the Vicksburg, Shreveport & Pacific, the Louisiana Railway & + Navigation Co., the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley, the Illinois Central, + and the Louisiana & Arkansas. The Illinois Central, the first railway + giving Louisiana connexion with the north, and of immense importance + in the trade of New Orleans, has only about 100 m. of double track in + the state. The problem of inland waterways has always been a most + important one in northern, eastern and southern Louisiana, where there + are systems of improved bayous, lakes and canals which, with the + levees, make this region something like Holland, on a greater scale. + Many bayous are convertible by improvement into excellent drainage and + irrigation canals. The canal system is especially well developed in + the parishes of the Mississippi delta, where, at the close of 1907, + there were about 50 m. of these waterways of decided commercial + importance. They serve the trade of Lake Pontchartrain and the Florida + parishes, the lumber, coal, fish, oyster and truck trade of New + Orleans, and to some extent are the highway of a miscellaneous + coasting trade. The most important canal is probably the new + Atchafalaya Bay canal (14 ft. deep), opened in 1907, connecting the + Atchafalaya river and Morgan City with the Gulf of Mexico. In 1907 + active preliminary work was begun on the Louisiana section of a great + interstate inland waterway projected by the national government + between the Mississippi and Rio Grande rivers, almost parallel to the + Gulf Coast and running through the rice and truck-farm districts from + the Teche to the Mermenton river (92 m.). The competition of the water + lines is felt by all the railways, and the importance of water + transportation is rapidly increasing. A state railroad commission, + organized in 1899, has power to regulate railway, steamer, + sleeping-car, express, telephone and telegraph rates within the state. + Foreign commerce is almost wholly centred at New Orleans. + +_Population._--The population of the state increased in the ten decades +from 1810 to 1910 successively by 100.4, 40.6, 63.4, 46.9, 36.7, 2.7, +29.3, 19.0, 23.5 and 19.9%. In 1910 it was 1,656,388 (36.5 per sq. +m.).[3] In 1900 47.1% was of negro blood, as compared with 51.5 in +1890. In 1910 there were nine cities with more than 5000 inhabitants +each: New Orleans (339, 075); Shreveport (28,015); Baton Rouge (14,897), +the capital; Lake Charles (11,449); Alexandria (11,213); Monroe +(10,209); New Iberia (7449); Morgan (5477); Crowley (5099). The urban +element is larger than in any other southern state, owing to the large +population of New Orleans. The Acadians (see § _History_ below) to-day +are settled mainly in St Mary, Acadia and Vermilion parishes; lesser +numbers are in Avoyelles and St Landry; and some are scattered in +various other parishes. The parishes of St Mary, Iberia, Vermilion, St +Martin and Lafayette are known as the Attakapas country from an Indian +name. A colony of Germans sent over by John Law to the Arkansas removed +to the Mississippi above New Orleans, and gave to its bank the name of +the "German Coast," by which it is still known. In recent years there +has been an immigration of Italians into Louisiana, which seems likely +to prove of great social and economic importance. The industrial +activity of the state has required more labour than has been available. +The negroes have moved more and more from the country to the towns, +where they easily secure work at good wages. Owing to the inadequate +supply of labour two important immigration leagues of business men were +formed in 1904 and 1905, and in 1907 the state government began +officially to attempt to secure desirable foreign immigration, sending +agents abroad to foster it. Roman Catholics greatly predominate among +religious denominations, having in 1906 477,774 members out of a total +of 778,901 for all denominations; in the same year there were 185,554 +Baptists, 79,464 Methodists, 9070 Protestant Episcopalians and 8350 +Presbyterians. + +_Administration._--Since the admission of the state to the Union in 1812 +there have been eight state constitutions (not counting that of 1861) +admirably illustrating--and not less the Territorial government +preceding them--the development of American democracy and the problems +connected with the negroes. Under the Territorial government the +legislative officers were not at first elective. The "parishes" date +from 1807; they were based on an earlier Spanish division for religious +purposes--whence the names of saints in parish nomenclature. The +constitution of 1812 allowed the General Assembly to name the governor +from the two candidates receiving the highest number of votes; gave the +governor large powers of appointment, even of local functionaries; and +required a property qualification for various offices, and even for +voters. The constitution of 1845 made the popular suffrage final in the +choice of the governor, abolished property qualifications, and began to +pare executive powers for the benefit of the General Assembly or the +people. From it dates also the constitutional recognition of the public +schools. In 1852 even the judges of the supreme court were placed among +the officers chosen by popular vote. The constitutions of 1864 and 1868 +were of importance primarily as bearing on negro status and national +politics. That of 1879 showed a profound distrust of legislative action, +bred of reconstruction experiences. Nearly all special legislation was +forbidden. The last constitution (1898, with 26 amendments 1898-1906), +unlike all others after that of 1812, was not submitted to the people +for ratification. + + Under this constitution sessions of the General Assembly are biennial + (meeting the second Monday in May in even-numbered years) and are + limited to sixty days. The number of senators is fixed by the + constitution at 39; the number of representatives is to be not more + than 116 or less than 98. Any elector is eligible for election as a + representative if he has been a citizen of the state for five years + and a resident of the district or parish from which he is elected for + two years immediately preceding the election; a change of residence + from the district or parish from which he was elected vacates the seat + of a representative or senator. A senator must be at least 25 years of + age. Members of the legislature are elected for four years. Revenue or + appropriation bills originate in the House of Representatives, but may + be amended by the Senate. Contingent appropriations are forbidden, and + the constitution contains a long list of subjects on which special + laws may not be passed. The chief executive officers have four-year + terms, neither the governor nor the treasurer being eligible for + immediate re-election. The governor must be at least 30 years old and + must have been a citizen of the United States and a resident of the + state for 10 years next preceding his election. Within five days after + the passage of any bill by the General Assembly he may veto this + measure, which then becomes a law only if passed by a two-thirds vote + of all members elected to each house of the General Assembly. The + lieutenant governor (and then the secretary of state) succeeds to the + office of governor if the governor is removed, dies or leaves the + state. The five judges of the supreme court of the state are elected + by the people for a term of twelve years. The supreme court is almost + without exception a court of appeal with jurisdiction in cases + involving at least $2000, in cases of divorce, in suits regarding + adoption, legitimacy and custody of children and as regards the + legality and constitutionality of taxes, fines, &c. The supreme court + appoints courts of appeal to judge cases involving less than $2000. + The constitution prohibits lotteries and the sale of lottery tickets. + + The suffrage clauses are of particular interest, as they accomplish + the practical disfranchisement of the negroes. The constitution + requires that a voter must (in addition to other qualifications) + either be able to show conclusively ability to read and write, or be + the owner of property within the state assessed at not less than $300, + on which, if personalty, all taxes are paid. But it excepts from these + requirements--thus letting down the bars for illiterate whites + excluded with negroes by the foregoing clauses--persons who were + entitled to vote in some state on or before the 1st of January 1867 + (i.e. before the adoption of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments + of the United States Constitution); also the sons or grandsons of such + voters, not under 21 years of age, on the 12th of May 1898; and males + of foreign birth who have resided in the state for five years next + preceding the date of application for registration and who were + naturalized prior to 1898. The constitution provides that no person + less than 60 years of age shall be permitted to vote unless he has + paid an annual poll-tax of one dollar for the two years next preceding + the year in which he offers to vote. Convicts not pardoned with an + explicit restoration of suffrage privileges are disfranchised--a rare + clause in the United States. Suffrage was by this constitution first + extended to women tax-payers in questions "submitted to the + tax-payers, as such." The creation of a railroad commission was + ordered and the preparation of a code of criminal law. + + The Louisiana Board of Levee Commissioners was organized in 1865. The + state board of health was the first one effectively organized (1855) + in the United States. It encountered many difficulties, and until the + definite proof of the stegomyia hypothesis of yellow-fever inoculation + made by the United States army surgeons in Cuba in 1900, the greatest + problem seemed insoluble. Since that time conditions of health in New + Orleans have been revolutionized (in 1907 state control of maritime + quarantine on the Mississippi was supplanted by that of the national + government), and smaller cities and towns have been stimulated to take + action by her example. Sanitary institutes are held by the state board + at various towns each year for the instruction of the public. Boards + of appraisers and equalization oversee the administration of the tax + system; the cost of collection, owing to the fee system for payment of + collectors, was higher than in any other state of the Union until + 1907, when the fees were greatly reduced. The state assessment in 1901 + totalled $301,215,222 and in 1907 was $508,000,000. Schools and levees + absorb about half of all revenues, leaving half for the payment of + interest on the state debt (bonded debt on 1st of April 1908, + $11,108,300) and for expenses of government. A general primary + election law for the selection, by the voters, of candidates for state + office came into effect in 1906. + +_Law._--Louisiana has been peculiar among the states of the Union in the +history of the development of its legal system. In Louisiana alone (as +the state is known to-day), out of all the territory acquired from +France as the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, was the civil law so +established under French and Spanish rule that it persisted under +American dominion. In all the other states formed from the Purchase, the +civil law, never existent practically, was early expressly abrogated, +and the common law of England established in its place. After O'Reilly +established his power in 1769 (see _History_, below), the Spanish law +was supreme. All the old codes of the Peninsula, as well as the laws of +the Indies and special royal decrees and schedules, were in force in the +colony. The United States left the task of altering the laws to the +people, as far as there was no conflict between them and the +Constitution of the United States and fundamental American legal +customs. Copies of the Spanish codes were very rare, and some of them +could not be had in the colonies. Discussions of the Roman Institute and +Pandects were common in the deliberations of the courts. Great confusion +prevailed in the first years of American dominion owing to the +diversities of languages and the grafting of such Anglo-Saxon +institutions as the jury upon the older system. A provisional code of +judicial procedure, prepared by Edward Livingston, was in effect in 1805 +to 1825. The earliest digest, completed in 1808, was mainly a +compilation of Spanish laws. The project of the _Code Napoléon_, +however--the _code_ itself not being available in Louisiana, though +promulgated in France in 1804--was used by the compilers in the +arrangement and substance of their work; and the French traditions of +the colony, thus illustrated, were naturally introduced more and more +into the organic commentaries and developments that grew up around the +_Code Napoléon_. This evolution was little marked, so similar in large +parts were the systems of France and Spain (although in other parts, due +to the Gothic element in the Spanish, they were very different)--a +similarity which explains the facility with which O'Reilly and his +successors introduced the Spanish laws after 1769. The Louisiana code of +1808 was not, however, exhaustive; and the courts continued to go back +to the old Spanish sources whenever the digest was inconclusive. Thus so +late as 1819, when the legislature ordered the compilation of such parts +of King Alfonso's _Siete Partidas_ (the most common authority in the +colony) as were considered in force, this compilation filled a +considerable volume. In 1821 the legislature authorized Livingston to +prepare the "Livingston Code" of criminal law and procedure, completed +in 1824 (in French and English) and published in 1833, but never adopted +by the state. In 1825 legislative sanction was given to the greater part +of a civil code prepared by a commission (including Livingston) +appointed in 1821, and the French element became steadily more +important. In its present form the law shows plainly the Latin and +English elements. English law has largely moulded, for example, criminal +and commercial law and the law of evidence; the development of the law +of corporations, damages, prohibitions and such extraordinary remedies +as the mandamus has been very similar to that in other states; while in +the fusion of law and equity, and the law of successions, family +relations, &c., the civil law of Spain and France has been unaffected. + + _Education._--Schooling was very scant before the creation of the + public schools in 1854. Very little was done for education in the + French and Spanish period, although the Spanish governors made + commendable efforts in this regard; the first American Territorial + legislature began the incorporation of feeble "colleges" and + "academies." To some of these the state gave financial aid + ($1,613,898) before 1845. The public schools were flourishing at the + outbreak of the Civil War. War and reconstruction threw upon them the + new burden of the black children. The constitution of 1879 was + illiberal in this respect, but a healthier public opinion soon + prevailed. The money given by the state to the public schools is + distributed among the parishes according to their school population, + and the constitution of 1898 set a generous _minimum_ to such aid. An + annual poll-tax is also collected for the schools from every adult + male. Local taxes, besides, are imposed, and these are becoming + heavier. The parishes retain primary control of the schools. + Institutes, summer schools and rural libraries have been introduced. + The salaries of white teachers advanced from a monthly average of + $38.87 in 1903 to $61.84 in 1906. The average attendance of enrolled + black and white pupils is practically identical, but the enrolment of + whites (about 52% in 1902) is somewhat higher and that of the blacks + about a third lower than their ratio in the population. The school + term for white children is much longer than for negroes, and white + teachers are paid much better salaries--in 1906 the average monthly + salary of a negro teacher was $29.15. The total enrolment is very low. + But progress is now being made very rapidly in the improvement of the + educational system. Higher schools include: the State University and + Agricultural and Mechanical College (1860) at Baton Rouge (q.v.); + Tulane University of Louisiana (1864) in New Orleans; Jefferson + College (1864; Roman Catholic) at Convent; the College of the + Immaculate Conception (1847; Roman Catholic) in New Orleans; St + Charles College (1835; Roman Catholic) at Grand Couteau; St Joseph's + College (1849; Roman Catholic) at Baton Rouge; the following colleges + for women--Silliman Collegiate Institute (1852; Presbyterian) at + Clinton, Mansfield Female College (1854; Methodist Episcopal, South) + at Mansfield, the H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for women (a part + of Tulane University) in New Orleans and the Louisiana Female College + (1856; Baptist) at Keatchie; the State Normal School of Louisiana + (1884) at Natchitoches and the New Orleans Normal and Training School; + the South-western Louisiana Industrial Institute at Lafayette; the + Louisiana Industrial Institute at Ruston; and, among schools for + negroes, the Peabody State Normal and Industrial School at Alexandria + and New Orleans University (1873; Methodist Episcopal), Luther College + (Evangelical Lutheran), Leland University (1870; Baptist), Straight + University (Congregational) and Southern University (1883; aided by + the state), all in New Orleans. + + _Charitable and Penal Institutions._--The State Board of Charities and + Correction, for which the constitution of 1898 first made provision, + and which was organized under an act of 1904, is composed of six + members, appointed by the governor for six years, with the governor as + _ex-officio_ chairman. The members of the board serve gratuitously, + but elect a salaried secretary. The board has no administrative or + executive power, but makes annual inspections of all public + charitable, correctional or reformatory institutions, all private + institutions which receive aid from, or are used by municipal or + parochial authorities, and all private asylums for the insane; and + reports annually to the governor on the actual condition of the + institutions. Any suggestions as to improvements in institutions must + be approved by the majority of the governing body of that institution + before they may be put into effect. The charitable institutions + include two charity hospitals--at New Orleans (1832) and Shreveport; + an Eye, Ear, Nose and Throat Hospital, a Hôtel Dieu, the Touro + Infirmary and a Home for Incurables, all at New Orleans; an Institute + for the Deaf and Dumb (for whites--there is no state provision for + negro deaf and dumb) and an Institute for the Blind, both at Baton + Rouge; an Insane Hospital at Jackson and another at Pineville; and the + Louisiana Retreat for the Insane at New Orleans. At Monroe there is a + State Reform School, and at New Orleans a Coloured Industrial Home and + School. There is also a state home for disabled Confederate soldiers + at New Orleans on Bayou St John. The State Penitentiary is at Baton + Rouge, and a House of Detention at New Orleans; and there are parish + prisons. State convicts, and all places in which they are confined or + employed, are under the supervision of a Board of Control appointed by + the governor. This board may allow commutation or diminution of + sentence for good behaviour, meritorious services or exemplary + conduct. The leasing or hiring of state convicts is prohibited by the + constitution, but parish convicts may be hired or leased for farm and + factory work, work on roads and levees, and other public undertakings. + Such convicts are classified according to physical ability and a + minimum rate is fixed for their hire, for not more than ten hours a + day. Many state convicts are employed in levee construction, and there + are convict farms at Angola, Hope, Oakley and Monticello. + +_History._--The early history of Louisiana belongs to the romance of +American history. It is possible that the mouth of the Mississippi was +discovered in 1519 by Alonso Alvarez de Piñeda, but this interpretation +of his vague manuscript remains conjectural; and that it was discovered +by the expedition of Panfilo de Narvaez cannot be established. That +Hernando de Soto entered the borders of the present state of Louisiana, +and that his burial place in the Mississippi was where that river takes +the waters of the Red, are probable enough, but incapable of conclusive +proof. Survivors of de Soto's expedition, however, descended the +Mississippi to its mouth in 1542. Spain set up no claim to the region, +and when Robert Cavalier, Sieur de la Salle, came down the river in 1682 +from the French possessions to the north, he took possession in the name +of France, which hereby gained her first title to the vast drainage +basin of the Mississippi. In honour of Louis XIV. the new possession was +named "Louisiana"--a name then and until 1812 applied to a much larger +area than that of the present state. La Salle attempted to settle a +colony in 1684, but missed the Mississippi's mouth and landed in Texas, +where he was murdered in 1687 by some of his followers. In 1697, after +Ryswick, Pierre le Moyne d'Iberville (1662-1706) was chosen to lead +another colony, which reached the Gulf coast early in 1699. Soon after +Iberville had built Fort Maurepas (near the present city of Biloxi, +Mississippi) in 1699, a fort was erected on the Mississippi river about +40 m. above the mouth. + +This was the earliest settlement in what is now the state of Louisiana. +It was unhealthy and unprosperous. From 1712 to 1717 "Louisiana," or the +French possessions of the Mississippi valley, was held by Antoine Crozat +(1655-1738) as a private grant from the king. It proved as great a drain +upon his purse as it had proved to the crown, and he willingly parted +with it to the so-called "Western Company," afterwards incorporated with +the great Company of the Indies. The head of this company was John Law, +who, after spreading glowing accounts of the new land, launched his +famous "Mississippi scheme" (see LAW, JOHN). The company accomplished +much for the colony of Louisiana. Jean Baptiste le Moyne, Sieur de +Bienville (1680-1768), a brother of Iberville, was sent out as governor. +For forty years he was the life of the colony. One of his first acts was +to found the city of New Orleans on its present site in 1718. In this +same year seven vessels were sent from France with stores and +immigrants; eleven followed during the next year. Five hundred negroes +from the Guinea coast were imported in 1719, and many hundreds more soon +followed. The Law company eventually came to an end fatal to its +creditors in France, but its misfortunes did not check the prosperity of +"Louisiana." The company retained its grant of the colony until 1731, +when it reverted to the crown. Meantime New Orleans had become the seat +of government in 1722. In 1766 an official census showed a total +population of 5552. The years of royal rule were uneventful. Cotton +culture began in 1740, and sugar-cane was successfully introduced from +Santo Domingo by the Jesuits in 1751. Tafia rum and a waxy, sticky sugar +syrup subsequently became important products; but not until the end of +the century were the means found to crystallize sugar and so give real +prosperity to the industry. + +By a secret treaty of the 3rd of November 1762, "Louisiana" was +transferred from France to Spain. This treaty was not made public for a +year and a half, and Spain did not take full possession of the colony +until 1769. By a treaty between Spain and France on the one hand and +Great Britain and Portugal on the other, signed at Paris in February +1763, all that portion lying E. of the Mississippi river, the Iberville +river, and Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain was ceded to Great Britain. +The international interests thus created, and others that sprang from +them, heavily burdened the diplomacy, and even threatened the safety of +the United States after they were placed in possession of the eastern +bank of the Mississippi down to 31° in 1783. + +The news of the cession of the colony to Spain roused strong discontent +among the colonists. Antonio de Ulloa (1716-1795), a distinguished +Spanish naval officer and scholar, came to New Orleans in 1766 to take +possession for his king. Merchants, people, and many civil officers held +toward him from the beginning a hostile attitude; the military, +especially, refused to pass into the Spanish service as stipulated in +the treaty; and Ulloa was compelled to continue in an ambiguous and +anomalous position--which his lack of military force probably first +compelled him to assume--ruling the colony through the French governor, +Philippe Aubry (who loyally supported him throughout), without publicly +exhibiting his powers. The fear of Spanish commercial laws powerfully +stimulated resistance to the transfer, and though Ulloa made commercial +and monetary concessions, they were not sufficient. When the colonists +found protests at Paris unavailing, they turned to the idea of +independence, but sought in vain the armed support of the British at +Pensacola. Nevertheless they compelled Ulloa to leave the colony or +exhibit his credentials. He took his leave in November 1768. The open +resistance by the colonists (October 1768) was a carefully planned +revolt. There is no doubt that the men who led the Creole opposition +contemplated independence, and this gives the incident peculiar +interest. In the summer of 1769 Alejandro O'Reilly came to New Orleans +with a strong military force (3600 troops). Beginning his rule with an +affability that allayed suspicions and securing from Aubry proofs +against the popular leaders, he invited them to a reception and arrested +them while they were his guests. Five were put to death and others were +imprisoned at Havana. O'Reilly put down the rebellion with determination +and in accord with the instructions of his king. Regarded without +republican sympathies, and in the light of 18th-century doctrines of +allegiance, his acts, however severe, in no way deserve the stigma of +cruelty ordinarily put upon them. He was liberal and enlightened in his +general rule. + +Among the incidents of these troubled years was the arrival in Louisiana +(after 1765) of some hundreds of French exiles from Acadia, who made +their homes in the Attakapas country. There their descendants live +to-day, still somewhat primitively, and still in somewhat of the glamour +thrown over land and people by the _Evangeline_ of Longfellow. + +On the 18th of August 1769 Louisiana was formally transferred to Spain. +Spanish law and Spanish tongue replaced the French officially, but the +colony remained essentially French. The Spanish rulers made efforts to +govern wisely and liberally, showing great complaisance, particularly in +heeding the profit of the colony, even at the expense of Spanish +colonial commercial regulations. The judicial system was much improved, +a better grade of officials became the rule, many French Creoles were +appointed to office, intermarriages of French and Spanish and even +English were encouraged by the highest officials, and in general a +liberal and conciliatory policy was followed, which made Louisiana under +Spanish rule quiet and prosperous. Bernardo de Galvez (1756-1794), a +brilliant young officer of twenty-one, when he became the governor of +the colony, was one of the most liberal of the Spanish rulers and of all +the most popular. During the American War of Independence he gave +valuable aid to the United States; and when Spain finally joined in the +war against Great Britain, Galvez, in a series of energetic and +brilliant campaigns (1779-1781), captured all the important posts in the +British colony of West Florida. The chief interest of the Spanish period +lies in the advance of settlement in the western territories of the +United States, the international intrigues--British, French and +Spanish--involving the future of the valley, the demand of the United +States for free navigation on the Mississippi, and the growing +consciousness of the supreme importance of the river and New Orleans to +the Union. With the Spanish governor Estevan Miro, who succeeded Galvez +in 1785, James Wilkinson of Kentucky, arrested at New Orleans with a +flat-boat of supplies in 1787, intrigued, promising him that Kentucky +would secede from the United States and would join the Spanish; but +Wilkinson was unsuccessful in his efforts to carry out this plan. In +1794 Spain, hard pressed by Great Britain and France, turned to the +United States, and by the treaty of 1794 the Mississippi river was +recognized by Spain as the western boundary of the United States, +separating it from Louisiana, and free navigation of the Mississippi was +granted to citizens of the United States, to whom was granted for three +years the right "to deposit their merchandise and effects in the port of +New Orleans, and to export them from thence without paying any other +duty than a fair price for the hire of the stores." At the expiration of +the three years the Spanish governor refused the use of New Orleans as a +place of deposit, and contrary to the treaty named no other port in its +place. Spanish rule, however, came unexpectedly to an end by the +retrocession of Louisiana to France in 1800; and French dominion gave +way in turn in 1803--as the result of a chain of events even more +unexpected, startling, and for the United States fortunate--to the rule +of the last-named country. On the 30th of November 1803 the +representatives of the French republic received formal possession from +the Spanish governor, and on the 20th of December lower Louisiana was +transferred to the United States. (See LOUISIANA PURCHASE.) + +By an Act of Congress of the 25th of March 1804,[4] that portion of the +Louisiana Purchase S. of 33° was organized as the Territory of Orleans, +and was given a government less democratic than might otherwise have +been the case, because it was intended to prepare gradually for +self-government the French and Spanish inhabitants of the territory, who +desired immediate statehood. The foreign slave-trade was forbidden by +this organic act. English was made the official language. The +introduction of English law, and the changes made in the judicial and +legal systems of Louisiana after 1804 have already been described. + +The machinations of Aaron Burr are of interest in connexion with +Louisiana annals, and likewise the settlement and revolutionizing of +West Florida by Americans. In November 1811 a convention met at New +Orleans and framed a constitution under which, on the 30th of April +1812, the Territory of Orleans became the state of Louisiana. A few days +later the portion of West Florida between the Mississippi and Pearl +rivers (the present "Florida Parishes") was included in its boundaries, +making them as they are to-day. In this same year the first steamboat +reached New Orleans. It descended the Ohio and Mississippi from +Pittsburg, whence there had already been a thriving river trade to New +Orleans for about thirty years. During the War of 1812 a decisive +victory was won by the American forces at Chalmette, near New Orleans, +on the 8th of January 1815. Up to 1860 the development of the state in +population, agriculture and commerce was very rapid. Donaldsonville was +the (nominal) capital in 1825-1831, Baton Rouge in 1849-1864 and again +after 1882. At other times New Orleans has been the capital, and here +too have always been various state offices which in other states +ordinarily are in the state capital. + +By an ordinance of secession passed on the 26th of January 1861, +Louisiana joined the Confederate States. In the first year there was +very little military activity in the state, but in April 1862 Admiral D. +G. Farragut, with a powerful fleet, ascended the Mississippi past Forts +Jackson and St Philip, which defended the approach to New Orleans, and a +military force under General B. F. Butler occupied that city. The +navigation of the river being secured by this success and by later +operations in the north ending in July 1863 with the capture of +Vicksburg and Port Hudson, the state was wholly at the mercy of the +Union armies. The intervening months were signalized by the capture of +Baton Rouge in May 1862--the Confederates vainly attempting to recapture +it in August. Later, in April 1864, the Confederates under General +Richard Taylor won a success against the Unionists under General N. P. +Banks at Sabine Cross Roads near Mansfield and were themselves repulsed +at Pleasant Hill, these battles being incidental to a campaign +undertaken by the Union forces to crush opposition in western Louisiana. +A large portion of the state was occupied by them in 1862-1865. There +were various minor skirmishes in 1862 and 1863 (including the capture of +the Federal camp at Berwick Bay in June 1863). + +As early as December 1862 the Union military government, at President +Lincoln's direction, had ordered elections for Congress, and the men +chosen were admitted in February 1863. In March 1864 also a state +government to supersede the military rule was established under the +president's auspices. By 1863 two parties had arisen among the loyal +classes: one of radicals, who demanded the calling of a constitutional +convention and the abolition of slavery; the other of conservatives. The +former prevailed, and by a convention that assembled in April 1864 a +constitution was framed closely following that of 1852 but repudiating +the debt incurred by Louisiana as one of the Confederate states and +abolishing slavery. Two-thirds of the delegates were from New Orleans. +The legislature was ordered to establish free schools for the blacks, +and was empowered to give them the suffrage: neither of these +provisions, however, was carried out. The extent of the Union control is +shown by the fact that the legislature of 1864 represented half of the +area and two-thirds of the population of the state. The army stood at +the back of the new government, and by the end of 1864 Louisiana was +apparently "reconstructed." But in 1864 the opposition of Congress to +presidential reconstruction had clearly developed, so that the electoral +votes of Louisiana (like those of Tennessee) for president were not +counted. By the spring of 1866 the ex-Confederates had succeeded in +gaining possession of most of the local government and most of the state +offices, although not of the governorship. The Republican party +naturally became extremely radical. The radicals wished to have negro +suffrage in order to get possession of the government. They, therefore, +wanted still another constitutional convention. A clause in the +constitution of 1864 provided for the reconvening of the convention in +certain circumstances, but this clause referred only to necessities +prior to the establishment of a government, and had therefore +determined. Nevertheless, the radicals, because it was impossible to +call a convention through the medium of the state government, took +advantage of this clause to reconvoke the old convention at New Orleans. +The day set was the 30th of July 1866. The ex-Confederate party +determined to prevent the gathering, but the idea of interference by +force seems to have been abandoned. A street riot was precipitated, +however, incidental to a procession of armed negroes; the metropolitan +police fired upon the assembled convention; and altogether some 200 +persons, mostly negroes, were killed. This incident raised the crucial +question of national politics in 1866: namely, whether the states +reconstructed by the president should not again be reconstructed. + +This being settled affirmatively, Louisiana was reconstructed with +vigour. A constitution of 1868 gave suffrage to the blacks, and +disfranchised all whites made ineligible to office under the proposed +Fourteenth Amendment to the national Constitution, and also +(practically) those who had by word, pen or vote defended secession. +Then the state ratified the Fourteenth Amendment, and was declared +readmitted to the Union in July 1868. Probably no other southern state +suffered equally with Louisiana from the corruption of "carpet-bag," +"scalawag," negro legislatures. For four years (1868-1872) the +government expenses increased to ten times their normal volume, taxation +was enormously increased, and about $57,000,000 of debt was created. But +a quarrel broke out among the Republicans (1872), the result of which +was the installation of two governors and legislatures, one supported by +the Democrats and Liberal Republicans and the other by the radical +Republicans, the former being certainly elected by the people. The +rivalry of these two state governments, clashes of arms, the recognition +by the Federal authorities of the radical Republican government +(Pinchback and Kellogg, successively governors) followed. One historic +clash in New Orleans (on the 14th of September 1874) between the "White +League" ("White Man's Party") and the Republican police is commemorated +by a monument, and the day is regarded by Louisianans as a sort of state +independence-day. Finally, in 1876, Francis Tillon Nicholls (b. 1834), a +Democrat, was chosen governor, but the Republican candidate, S. B. +Packard, claimed the election, and with a Republican legislature for a +time occupied the State House. In the national election of 1876 there +were double returns (Republican: 75,315 for Hayes and 70,508 for Tilden; +and Democratic: 83,723 for Tilden and 77,174 for Hayes) from Louisiana, +which, as was the case with the double electoral returns from Florida, +Oregon and South Carolina, were adjudicated by the Electoral Commission +in favour of the Republican electors voting for Hayes. Civil war being +threatened within the state President Hayes sent to Louisiana a +commission composed of Wayne McVeagh, Gen. J. R. Hawley, Charles B. +Lawrence, J. M. Harlan, and John C. Brown, ex-Governor of Tennessee, +which was instructed to promote "an acknowledgment of one government +within the state." The rival legislatures united, organizing under the +Nicholls government, which the commission found was upheld by public +opinion. The president ordered the withdrawal of Federal troops from the +capitol on the 20th of April 1877, and the white party was thus left in +control. + +After 1877 the state prospered markedly in all material respects. Of +subsequent political events perhaps the most notable, besides the +practical disfranchisement of the negroes, are those connected with the +Louisiana State Lottery Company (1868-1893). For the renewal of its +privileges in 1890 the company finally agreed to give the state +$1,250,000 yearly, and despite strenuous opposition by a powerful party +the legislature voted a renewal, but this measure was vetoed by the +governor. The United States government, however, forbade lotteries the +use of the mails, and the company withdrew its offers. The constitution +of 1898 prohibits lotteries and the sale of lottery tickets within the +state. In 1891 the lynching of eleven Italians at New Orleans gave rise +to grave difficulties involving Italy, the United States, and the state +of Louisiana. Since 1900 a white Republican Party has made some headway +in Louisiana politics, but in national and state elections the state has +been uninterruptedly and overwhelmingly Democratic since 1877. + + +GOVERNORS OF LOUISIANA[5] + +_French Domination 1682-1762._ + + A. le Moyne, Sieur de Sauvolle (died in office) 1699-1701 + J. B. le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville 1701-1713 + M. de Muys, appointed 1707, died en route, + Bienville continuing to serve. + Lamothe Cadillac 1713-1716 + Sieur de Bienville, acting governor 1716-1717 + De l'Épinay 1717-1718 + Sieur de Bienville 1718-1724 + Boisbriant, _ad interim_ 1724-1726 + Périer 1726-1733 + Sieur de Bienville 1733-1743 + Marquis de Vaudreuil 1743-1753 + L. Billouart, Chevalier de Kerlerec 1753-1763 + D'Abbadie 1763-1765 + Philippe Aubry 1765-1769 + +_Spanish Domination 1762 (1769)-1803._ + + Antonio de Ulloa[6] 1766-1768 + Alejandro O'Reilly[7] 1769-1770 + Luis de Unzaga 1770-1777 + Bernardo de Galvez[8] 1777-1785 + Estevan Miró (_ad interim_ 1785-1786) 1785-1791 + F. L. Hector, Baron de Carondelet 30 Dec. 1791-1797 + M. Gayoso de Lemos (died in office) 1797-1799 + Francisco Bouligny, José M. Vidal, acting + military and civil-political governors 1799 + Sebastian de Casa Calvo de la Puerta, Marquis + de Casa Calvo 1799-1801 + Juan M. de Salcedo 1801-1803 + +_French Domination 1800-1803._[9] + + Laussat, Colonial Prefect 30 Nov.-20 Dec. 1803 + +_American Domination since 1803._ + + _Territorial Period._ + + William C. C. Claiborne (appointed 1803) 1804-1812 + + _Statehood Period._ + + William C. C. Claiborne, Democratic Republican 1812-1816 + Jacques Villeré, Democratic Republican 1816-1820 + Thomas B. Robertson, Democratic Republican + (resigned) 1820-1822 + Henry S. Thibodaux, Democratic Republican + (acting) 1822-1824 + Henry S. Johnson, Democratic Republican 1824-1828 + Pierre Derbigny, Democratic Republican (died + in office) 1828-1829 + Armand Beauvais and Jacques Dupré (acting) 1829-1831 + André B. Roman, Whig 1831-1835 + Edward D. White, Whig 1835-1839 + André B. Roman, Whig 1839-1843 + Alfred Mouton, Whig 1843-1846 + Isaac Johnson, Democrat 1846-1850 + Joseph Walker, Democrat 1850-1853 + Paul O. Hébert, Democrat 1853-1856 + Robert C. Wickliffe, Democrat 1856-1860 + Thomas O. Moore, Democrat 1860-1862 + George F. Shepley, Military Governor 1862-1864 + Henry W. Allen, Confederate 1864-1865 + Michael Hahn, Unionist and Military 1864-1865 + James M. Wells, Democrat (acting) 1865-1867 + Benjamin F. Flanders, Military 1867 + Joshua Baker, Military 1867-1868 + Henry C. Warmoth, Republican 1868-1873 + Pinckney B. S. Pinchback, Republican (acting) 1873 + John McEnery,[10] Democrat-Liberal Republican 1873 + William P. Kellogg, Radical Republican 1873-1877 + Stephen B. Packard,[11] Radical Republican + (contestant) 1877 + Francis T. Nicholls, Democrat 1877-1880 + Louis A. Wiltz, Democrat (died in office) 1880-1881 + Samuel D. McEnery, Democrat (Lieutenant-Governor, + succeeded) 1881-1884 + Samuel D. McEnery, Democrat 1884-1888 + Francis T. Nicholls, Democrat 1888-1892 + Murphy J. Foster, Democrat 1892-1900 + William W. Heard, Democrat 1900-1904 + Newton C. Blanchard, Democrat 1904-1908 + Jared Y. Sanders,[12] Democrat 1908 + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Compare the bibliography under NEW ORLEANS and consult + also the following. For general description: _The Geology and + Agriculture of Louisiana_ (Baton Rouge, Agric. Exper. Station, pts. + 1-6, 1892-1902); also publications of U.S. Geological Survey, _e.g. + Water Supply and Irrigation Papers_, No. 101, "Underground Waters of + Southern Louisiana." For fauna and flora: publications of U.S. + Biological Survey (Department of Agriculture, Bibliographies). For + climate: U.S. Department of Agriculture, _Climate and Crop Service_, + Louisiana series (monthly). For soil and agriculture: the above state + geological report and material on irrigation in publications of the + U.S. Geological Survey and in the U.S. Census publications; also + Commissioners of Agriculture of the State of Louisiana, _Annual + Report_ (Baton Rouge, biennial until 1899); State Agricultural + Society, _Proceedings_ (annual); Louisiana State University and + Agricultural and Mechanical College, _Bulletin of the Agricultural + Experiment Station_ and _Biennial Report_ of same (Baton Rouge); U.S. + Department of Agriculture, various publications of the divisions of + botany, agrostology, pomology, forestry, farmers' bulletins, &c. For + manufactures and other industries: primarily the publications of the + national Census, 1900, and preceding decades. For commerce and + communications: Railroad Commissioners of Louisiana, _Annual Report_ + (New Orleans, 1900 ff.); U.S. Interstate Commerce Commission, + _Statistics of Railways_ (annual, Washington); on river navigation and + river improvements, especially of the Mississippi, an enormous mass of + material in the _Annual Reports_ of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army + (consult _Index to Reports_ of same, 1866-1900, 3 vols., Washington, + 1902, and cp. article on MISSISSIPPI RIVER); on river commerce see + _U.S. Census of 1880_, vol. 4 (report on steam navigation of the + United States by T. C. Purdy), and _Census of 1890_ (report on + transportation by T. J. Vivian; Rivers of the Mississippi Valley). For + population: various national censuses and _Bulletins_ of the Bureau of + Census, 1900, e.g. No. 8, "Negroes in the United States"; on the + Acadians, _In Acadia, The Acadians in Song and Story_ (New Orleans, + 1893; compiled by M. A. Johnston). For pictures of Creole life and + traits, George W. Cable, _The Creoles of Louisiana_ (New York, 1884), + and his later writings; but Mr Cable's views of the Creoles are very + unpopular in Louisiana; for other views of them, and for a guide to + the English and Creole literature of Louisiana, consult Alcée Fortier, + _Louisiana Studies--Literature, Customs and Dialects, History and + Education_ (New Orleans, 1894). For administration: see reports of the + various executive officers of the state (Baton Rouge); the various + constitutions are printed in the report of the Secretary of State, as + well as in B. Perley Poore's _Constitutions_ (2 vols., Washington, + 1877); a special account of the government of the territorial period + may be found in D. Y. Thomas, _History of Military Government in Newly + Acquired Territory of the United States_ (Columbia University Studies + in History, Economics and Public Law, vol. xx. No. 2, 1904); for the + Civil War and Reconstruction period compare below, also American + Historical Association, _Annual Report_, 1892; (for courts during + Civil War); also John R. Ficklen, _History and Civil Government of + Louisiana_ (Chicago, New York, c. 1899), a brief and popular account; + on education, in addition to the Biennial Reports of the Board of + Education, consult annual reports of the U.S. Commissioner of + Education. + + For history: the standard work is that of Charles E. A. Gayarré, + coming down to the war, based on deep and scholarly research, and + greatly altered in successive editions. The style is that of the + classic school, that of Prescott and Motley, full of colour, + characterization and spirit. The editions are as follows: _Romance of + the History of Louisiana_ (New York, 1837, 1848); _Histoire de la + Louisiane_ (2 vols., Nouvelle Orléans, 1846-1847); _Louisiana: its + Colonial History and Romance_ (N.Y., 1851); _Louisiana: its History as + a French Colony_, Third Series of Lectures (N.Y., 1852); then, based + upon the preceding, _History of Louisiana: The French Domination_ (2 + vols., N.Y., 1854) and _The Spanish Domination_ (N.Y., 1854); _The + American Domination_ (N.Y., 1867); and third edition (4 vols., New + Orleans, 1885). More important for the recent period is Alcée Fortier; + _A History of Louisiana_ (N.Y., 4 vols., 1904) devoting two volumes to + American domination. The _History and General Description of New + France_ of P. F. X. de Charlevoix (best ed. by J. G. Shea, New York, + 1866, 6 vols.) is a famous old work, but now negligible. Judge F. X. + Martin's _History of Louisiana_ (2 vols., New Orleans, 1827-1829, + later ed. by J. F. Condon, continued to 1861, New Orleans, 1882) is + also valuable and supplements Gayarré. Le Page du Pratz, author of + _Histoire de la Louisiane_ (3 vols., Paris, 1758; 2 vols., London, + 1763), was the first historian of Louisiana. Berquin-Duvallon, _Vue de + la colonie espagnole du Mississippi_ (Paris, 1805; published in + English under the name of John Davis, New York, 1806); L. N. Baudry de + Lozières, _Voyage à la Louisiane_ (Paris, 1802) and _Second Voyage à + la Louisiane_ (Paris, 1803) may be mentioned among the travels just + preceding, and A. Stoddard, _Sketches of Louisiana_ (New York, 1811), + among those just following the establishment of American dominion. The + _Histoire de la Louisiane, et de la cession de colonie par la France + aux États-Unis_ (Paris, 1829; in English, Philadelphia, 1830) by + Barbé-Marbois has great importance in diplomatic history. The rarest + and most valuable of early memoirs and much archive material are + embodied in Benj. F. French's _Historical Collections of Louisiana_ (5 + series, N.Y., 1846-1853) and _Historical Collections of Louisiana and + Florida_, New Series (N.Y., 1869, 1875). Documentary materials on the + greater "Louisiana" between the Gulf of Mexico and Canada will be + found in the _Jesuit Relations_, edited by R. G. Thwaites (Cleveland, + 1896 ff.); and on early voyages in Pierre Margry, _Découvertes et + établissements des Français_ (6 vols., Paris, 1879-1888). John G. Shea + published an edition of Louis Hennepin's _Description of Louisiana ... + Translated from the Edition of 1683_, &c. (New York, 1880). On this + greater "Louisiana" the student should also, consult the works of + Francis Parkman. And see publications of the Louisiana Historical + Society (New Orleans). Of brief general histories there is that of J. + R. Ficklen above cited, another by the same author in collaboration + with Grace King (New Orleans, 1902) and another (more valuable) by + Albert Phelps (Boston, 1905), in the American Commonwealth Series. For + the Reconstruction period see bibliography under UNITED STATES. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] A sixth, less characteristic, might be included, viz. the "pine + flats," generally wet, which are N. of Lake Pontchartrain, between + the alluvial lands and the pine hills, and, in the S.E. corner of the + state, between the hills and the prairie. + + [2] The original channel of the Red river. It has been so useful in + relieving the Mississippi of floods, that the Red river may possibly + be permanently diverted again into the bayou artificially. + + [3] The population was 76,556 in 1810; 153,407 in 1820; 215,739 in + 1830; 352,411 in 1840; 517,762 in 1850; 708,002 in 1860; 726,915 in + 1870; 939,946 in 1880; 1,118,588 in 1890; and 1,381,825 in 1900. + + [4] Other acts bearing on Territorial government are those of the + 31st of October 1803 and the 23rd of March 1805. + + [5] Terms of _actual service in Louisiana_; Gayarré is the authority + for the French and Spanish period. + + [6] Did not openly assume power or supersede Aubry. + + [7] Captain-general charged to establish order and settle Unzaga as + governor. + + [8] At first, till 1779, only acting governor. + + [9] Actual exercise of power 20 days. + + [10] Counted out by partisan returning-board and not recognized by + U.S. government. + + [11] Not recognized by U.S. government. + + [12] Elected U.S. Senator 1910; accepted, but afterward withdrew. + + + + +LOUISIANA, a city of Pike county, Missouri, U.S.A., situated below the +mouth of the Salt river, on the western bank of the Mississippi, about +90 m. N. of St. Louis. Pop. (1900) 5131, including 1075 negroes and 161 +foreign-born; (1910) 4454; there is also a considerable suburban +population. Louisiana is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy and +the Chicago & Alton railways, and by several lines of river steamboats. +The river is spanned here by a railway bridge. The city is laid out +fairly regularly in the river valley and on bluffs along the river, and +has attractive residential districts, commanding good views. It has very +active and varied industries, and is a trade centre for a large grain- +and fruit-producing and stock-raising region, and has one of the largest +nurseries in the United States. Louisiana was laid out in 1818, was the +county-seat from that date until 1825, was incorporated as a town in +1845 and was chartered as a city in 1849. + + + + +LOUISIANA PURCHASE, a large portion of the area of the United States of +America, purchased from the French Republic in 1803. The territory to +which France held explorer's title originally included the entire valley +of the Mississippi (see Louisiana); but the "Louisiana" which was ceded +by her to Spain in 1762 (England refusing it, preferring the Floridas), +retroceded to France in 1800,[1] and ceded by Napoleon to the United +States--in violation of his pledge to Spain that he would not alienate +the province--embraced only the portion W. of the river and the island +of New Orleans on the E. (and, as might be claimed with some show of +argument, West Florida to the Perdido river). + +With the settlement of the trans-Alleghany region, the freedom of the +Mississippi had become of vital importance to the western settlements, +and Spain had recognized these interests in her treaty with the United +States of 1795, by guaranteeing freedom of navigation and the privilege +of deposit at New Orleans. The transfer of Louisiana from a weak +neighbour to so powerful and ambitious a state as France was naturally +unwelcome to the United States, and Robert R. Livingston, the American +minister in Paris, was instructed by Secretary-of-State Madison to +endeavour to prevent the consummation of the retrocession; or, should +that be irrevocable, to endeavour to buy the Floridas (either from +France, if they had passed with Louisiana, or through her goodwill from +Spain)--or at least West Florida--and if possible New Orleans, so as to +give the United States a secure position on the Mississippi, and insure +the safety of her commerce. The United States was also trying to collect +claims of her merchants for spoliations by French cruisers during the +late war between France and Great Britain. In his preliminary +propositions Livingston lightly suggested to Talleyrand a cession of +Louisiana to satisfy these claims; following it with the more serious +demand that France should pledge observance of the Spanish concession to +the Mississippi trade. This pledge Napoleon readily gave. But during +these negotiations a suspension by the Spanish governor of the right of +deposit aroused extreme apprehension in America and resulted in warlike +votes in Congress. Of these, and of London reports of a British +expedition against New Orleans preparing in anticipation of the imminent +rupture of the peace of Amiens, Livingston made most capable use; and +pressed for a cession of West Florida, New Orleans and Louisiana north +of the Arkansas river. But without New Orleans Louisiana was of little +present worth, and Napoleon--the collapse of whose American colonial +schemes seemed involved in his failure in Santo Domingo, who was +persuaded he could not hold Louisiana against Great Britain, and who was +already turning from projects of colonial empire toward his later +continental policy--suddenly offered to Livingston the whole of the +province. Livingston disclaimed wanting the part below the Arkansas. In +even mentioning Louisiana he had gone outside his instructions. At this +stage James Monroe became associated with him in the negotiations. They +were quickly closed, Barbé Marbois acting for Napoleon, and by three +conventions signed on the 30th of April 1803 the American ministers, +without instructions, boldly accepted for their country a territory +approximately 1,000,000 sq. m. in area--about five times the area of +continental France. For this imperial domain, perhaps the richest +agricultural region of the world, the United States paid 60,000,000 +francs ($11,250,000) outright, and assumed the claims of her citizens +against France to the extent of 20,000,000 francs ($3,750,000) +additional; the interest payments incidental to the final settlement +raising the total eventually to $27,267,622, or about four cents an +acre. + +Different writers have emphasized differently the various factors in +this extraordinary diplomatic episode. Unquestionably the western people +were ready to war for the navigation of the Mississippi; but, that being +guaranteed, it seems certain that France might peaceably have taken and +held the western shore. The acquisition was not a triumph of American +diplomacy, but a piece of marvellous diplomatic good fortune; for the +records abundantly prove, as Madison said, that the cause of success was +a sudden policy of Napoleon, forced by European contingencies. +Livingston alone of the public men concerned showed indubitably before +the event a conception of the feasibility and desirability of the +acquisition of a vast territory beyond the Mississippi. Jefferson had +wished to buy the Floridas, but alarmed by the magnitude of the cession, +declared his belief that the United States had no power to acquire +Louisiana. Though such strict construction of the constitution was a +cardinal dogma of the Democratic party, this dogma was abandoned +outright in practice, Jefferson finding "but one opinion as to the +necessity of shutting up the constitution" (or amending it, which was +not done) and seeking justification of the means in the end. The +Federalist party, heretofore broad-constructionists, became +strict-constructionists under the temptation of factious politics, and a +very notable political struggle was thus precipitated--notable among +other things for strong expressions of sectionalism. The net result was +the establishment of the doctrine of "implied powers" in interpreting +the constitution; a doctrine under which the Supreme Court presently +found power to acquire territory implied in the powers to wage war and +make peace, negotiate treaties, and "dispose of and make all needful +rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property +belonging to the United States." + +The exact limits of the acquisition were not definitely drawn. The +French archives show that Napoleon regarded the Rio Grande as the W. +boundary of the territory of which he was to take possession, and the +United States up to 1819 ably maintained the same claim. She also +claimed all West Florida as part of Louisiana--which, in the usage of +the second half of the 18th century, it apparently was not. When she +acquired the Floridas in 1819-1821 she abandoned the claim to Texas. The +line then adopted between the American and Spanish possessions on the W. +followed the Sabine river from the Gulf of Mexico to the parallel of 32° +N., ran thence due N. to the Red river, followed this to the meridian of +100° W. and this line N. to the Arkansas river, thence along this to its +source, thence N. to the parallel of 42°, and along this line to the +Pacific. Such is the accepted description of the W. boundary of the +Louisiana Purchase--waiving Texas--thus retrospectively determined, +except that that boundary ran with the crest of the Rocky Mountains N. +of its intersection with the parallel of 42°. No portion of the Purchase +lay west of the mountains, although for some years after 1870 the +official maps of the United States government erroneously included +Oregon as so acquired--an error finally abandoned by 1900. + +On the 20th of December 1803, at New Orleans, the United States took +possession of the lower part of the province, and on the 9th of March +1804, at St Louis, of the upper. The entire region then contained +possibly 80,000 residents. The treaty of cession required the +incorporation of Louisiana in the Union, and the admission of its +inhabitants, "as soon as possible, according to the principles of the +Federal Constitution, to the enjoyment of all the rights, advantages and +immunities of citizens of the United States." By act of the 26th of +March 1804 the region below 33° N. was organized as the Territory of +Orleans (see Louisiana), and that above as the District of Louisiana. +The region above 33°, renamed in 1805 the Territory of Louisiana, and in +1812 the Territory of Missouri, was divided as time went on into many +Indian reservations, territories and states. Thus were carved from the +great domain of the Purchase Louisiana, Missouri, Arkansas, Iowa, +Minnesota, North and South Dakota, Nebraska and Oklahoma in their +entirety, and much the greatest part of Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming and +Montana. There is justification for the saying of Thiers that the United +States were "indebted for their birth and for their greatness"--at least +for an early assurance of greatness--"to the long struggle between +France and England." The acquisition of so vast a territory proved thus +of immense influence in the history of the United States. It made it +possible for them to hold a more independent and more dignified position +between France and England during the Napoleonic wars; it established +for ever in practice the doctrine of implied powers in the +interpretation of the Federal Constitution; it gave the new republic a +grand basis for material greatness; assured its dominance in North +America; afforded the field for a magnificent experiment in expansion, +and new doctrines of colonization; fed the national land hunger; +incidentally moulded the slavery issue; and precipitated its final +solution. + +It is generally agreed that after the Revolution and the Civil War, the +Louisiana Purchase is the greatest fact in American history. In 1904 a +world's fair, the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, was held at St Louis in +commemoration of the cession. After one hundred years the wilderness +then acquired had become the centre of the power and wealth of the +Union. It contained in 1903 15,000,000 inhabitants, and its taxable +wealth alone was four hundred times the fifteen millions given to +Napoleon. + + AUTHORITIES.--The official literature is in the _American State + Papers, Foreign Relations_, vol. 2, and _Public Lands_, vol. 2; + diplomatic papers reprinted in _House Document 431, 57^th Congress, + 2nd Session_ (1903); to which add the _Histoire de la Louisiane et de + la cession_ (Paris, 1829; Eng. trans., Philadelphia, 1830), by + François Barbé-Marbois. This book abounds in supposed "speeches" of + Napoleon, and "sayings" by Napoleon and Livingston that would have + been highly prophetic in 1803, though no longer so in 1829. They have + been used liberally and indiscriminatingly by the most prominent + American historians. See also T. Donaldson, _The Public Domain, House + Miscellaneous Document 45, pt. 4, 47^th Congress_, _2nd Session_. For + the boundary discussions by J. Q. Adams and Don L. de Onis, 1818-1819, + _American State Papers, Foreign Relations_, vol. 4; also in Onis's + _Official Correspondence between Don Luis de Onis_ ... _and John + Quincy Adams_, &c. (London, 1818), or _Memoria sobre las negociaciones + entre España y los Estados Unidos que dieron motivo al tratado de + 1819_ (Madrid, 1820). See also discussion and map in _U.S. Census, + 1900, Bulletin 74_; and the letters of Thomas Jefferson, James + Madison, Rufus King and other statesmen of the time. By far the best + general account of the diplomacy is in Henry Adams's _History of the + United States_, vols. 1 and 2; and of Western conditions and American + sentiment in J. B. McMaster's _History of the United States_, vols. 2 + and 3. Consult also Justin Winsor, _Narrative and Critical History_, + vol. 7; and various valuable periodical articles, especially in the + _American Historical Review_, by F. J. Turner and others. Reference + may be made to B. Hermann, _The Louisiana Purchase_ (Washington, + 1898), and Theodore Roosevelt's _Winning of the West_, vol. 4. Of the + various special but popular accounts (by J. K. Hosmer, Ripley + Hitchcock, R. Blanchard, K. E. Winship, &c.), not one is worthy of its + subject, and all contain various inaccuracies. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] By the treaty of San Ildefonso, signed the 1st of October 1800. + This was never ratified by Charles IV. of Spain, but the treaty of + Madrid of the 21st of March 1801, which confirmed it, was signed by + him on the 15th of October 1802. + + + + +LOUISVILLE, the largest city of Kentucky, U.S.A., and the county-seat of +Jefferson county, on the Ohio river, 110 m. by rail and 130 m. by water +S.W. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890) 161,129; (1900) 204,731, of whom 21,427 +were foreign-born (including 12,383 Germans and 4198 Irish) and 39,139 +were negroes; (1910 census) 223,928. + +Louisville occupies 40 sq. m. of a plain, about 70 sq. m. in extent, +about 60 ft. above the low-water mark of the river, and nearly enclosed +by hills. The city extends for 8 m. along the river (spanned here by +three bridges), which falls 26 ft. in 2 m., but for 6 m. above the +rapids spreads out into a beautiful sheet of quiet water about 1 m. +wide. The streets intersect at right angles, are from 60 to 120 ft. +wide, and are, for the most part, well-shaded. The wholesale district, +with its great tobacco warehouses, is largely along Main Street, which +runs E. and W. not far from the river; and the heart of the shopping +district is along Fourth Street in the dozen blocks S. of Main Street. +Adjoining the shopping district on the S. is the old residence section; +the newer residences are on "The Highlands" at the E. end and also at +the W. end. The city is served by the Baltimore & Ohio South-Western, +the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, +the Louisville, Henderson & St Louis, the Illinois Central, the Chicago, +Indiana & Louisville, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the +Southern and the Louisville & Nashville railways; by steamboat lines to +Memphis, Cairo, Evansville, Cincinnati and Pittsburg; by an extensive +system of inter-urban electric lines; and by ferries to Jeffersonville +and New Albany, Indiana, two attractive residential suburbs. + +Many of the business houses are old-fashioned and low. The principal +public buildings are the United States government building, the +Jefferson county court house and the city hall. In front of the court +house stands a bronze statue of Thomas Jefferson, designed by Moses +Ezekiel (b. 1844), and inside of the court house a marble statue of +Henry Clay by Joel T. Hart (1810-1870). There are few or no large +congested tenement-house districts; most of the wage-earners own their +own homes or rent cottages. Louisville has an extensive park system, +most of which was acquired after 1889 and is on the outskirts. From the +heart of the city South Parkway, 150 ft. wide, extends S. 6 m. to the +entrance to Iroquois Park (670 acres) on a wooded hill. At the E. end of +Broadway is Cherokee Park (nearly 330 acres), near which is the +beautiful Cave Hill Cemetery, containing the grave of George Rogers +Clark, the founder of the city, and the graves of several members of the +family of George Keats, the poet's brother, who lived in Louisville for +a time; and at the W. end of Broadway, Shawnee Park (about 170 acres), +with a long sandy river beach frequented by bathers. Central Park +occupies the space of two city squares in the old fashionable residence +districts. Through the efforts of a Recreation League organized in 1901 +a few playgrounds are set apart for children. Louisville is a noted +racing centre and has some fine tracks; the Kentucky Derby is held here +annually in May. + +The United States government has a marine hospital, and a life-saving +station at the rapids of the river. The state has a school for the +blind, in connexion with which is the American Printing House for the +Blind. There are state hospitals and many other charitable institutions. + +The principal educational institutions are the university of Louisville, +which has a College of Liberal Arts (1907), a law department (1847), and +a medical department (1837)--with which in 1907 were consolidated the +Hospital College of Medicine (1873), the Medical Department of Kentucky +University (1898), the Louisville Medical College (1869), and the +Kentucky School of Medicine (1850); the Southern Baptist Theological +Seminary (1859); the Presbyterian Theological Seminary of Kentucky, +which was formed in 1901 by the consolidation of the Theological +Seminary of the Presbyterian Church at Danville (1853) and the +Louisville Presbyterian Theological Seminary (1893); the Louisville +College of Pharmacy (1871), and the Louisville College of Dentistry +(1887), a department of Central University. There are many musical +clubs, and a spring festival for which a local chorus furnishes the +nucleus, is held annually. The Louisville Public Library was established +in 1902, and 1904 acquired the library, the small museum (containing the +Troost collection of minerals) and the art gallery of the Polytechnic +Society of Louisville (1878), which for many years had maintained the +only public library in the city. The principal newspapers are the +_Courier Journal_ (Democratic, morning), the _Herald_ (Republican, +morning), the _Evening Post_ (Independent Democratic), and the _Times_ +(Democratic, evening). The _Courier Journal_ is one of the most +influential newspapers in the South. Henry Watterson became editor in +1868, when the _Courier_ (1843), established and owned by Walter N. +Haldeman, was consolidated with the _Journal_ (1830), of which Watterson +had become editor in 1867, and with the _Democrat_ (1844). + + The richness of the surrounding country in agricultural produce, + timber, coal and iron, and its transport facilities have made + Louisville a large commercial and manufacturing centre. The + leaf-tobacco market is the largest in the world, most of the + leaf-tobacco produced in Kentucky, which in 1900 was 34.9% of the + entire crop of the United States, being handled in Louisville; the + city's trade in whisky, mules and cement[1] is notably large, and that + in pork, wheat, Indian corn, coal and lumber is extensive. The total + value of the manufactured products increased from $54,515,226 in 1890 + to $78,746,390 in 1900 or 44.4%, and between 1900 and 1905 the value + of the factory-made product increased from $66,110,474 to $83,204,125, + an increase of 25.9%. Large quantities of fine bourbon whisky are + distilled here; in 1905 the value of the factory product of the city + was $3,878,004. The most valuable manufacture in the same year was + smoking and chewing tobacco (especially plug tobacco) and snuff valued + at $11,635,367--which product with that of cigars and cigarettes + ($1,225,347) constituted 15.5% of the value of the factory products of + the city. Other important manufactures in 1905 were: packed meats, + particularly pork; men's clothing, especially "Kentucky jeans"; flour + and grist mill products; cotton-seed oil and cake; leather, especially + sole leather; foundry and machine shop products; steam-railway cars; + cooperage; malt liquors; carriages and wagons, especially farm wagons; + and carriage and wagon materials; agricultural implements, especially + ploughs; and plumbers' supplies, including cast-iron gas and water + pipes. Besides, there were many other manufactures. + + The city's water-supply is taken from the Ohio river a few miles above + the city limits, and purified by large filtering plants. Nearly all + the capital stock of the water-works company is owned by the + municipality. + + Louisville is governed under a charter of 1893, which is in the form + of an act of the state legislature for the government of cities of the + first class (Louisville is the only city of the first class in the + state). The mayor is elected for four years, and appoints, subject to + the approval of the board of aldermen, the controller and the members + of the two principal executive boards--the board of public works and + the board of public safety. The legislative power is vested in a + general council composed of 12 aldermen and 24 councilmen. Both + aldermen and councilmen serve without pay, and are elected on a + general ticket for a term of two years; not more than two councilmen + may be residents of the same ward, but there is no such limitation in + regard to aldermen. The treasurer, tax-receiver, auditor, judge of the + police court, clerk of the police court, members of the board of + school trustees (1 from each legislative district) and members of the + park commission are elected by popular vote; the assessor, by the + general council. The duration of franchises given by the city is + limited to 20 years. + +_History._--The site of the city was probably visited by La Salle in +1669 or 1670. In July 1773, Captain Thomas Bullitt,[2] acting under a +commission from the College of William and Mary, surveyed a tract of +2000 acres, lying opposite the Falls of the Ohio, and laid out a town +site upon this tract. Colonel William Preston, county surveyor of +Fincastle county, within which the 2000-acre tract lay, refused to +approve Captain Bullitt's survey, and had the lands resurveyed in the +following year, nevertheless the tract was conveyed in December 1773 by +Lord Dunmore to his friend Dr John Connolly, a native of Lancaster +county, Pennsylvania, who had served in the British army, as commander +of Fort Pitt (under Dunmore's appointment), was an instigator of Indian +troubles which culminated in the Battle of Point Pleasant, and was +imprisoned from 1775 until nearly the close of the War of American +Independence for attempting under Dunmore's instructions to organize the +"Loyal Foresters," who were to be sent against the rebellious colonists +in the West. The city of Louisville was laid out on the upper half of +this Connolly tract. It is possible that there was a settlement on what +was afterward called Corn Island (which has now practically +disappeared), at the Falls of the Ohio, as early as 1775; in May 1778, +General George Rogers Clark, while proceeding, by way of the Ohio river, +against the British posts in the Illinois territory, landed on this +island and built block-houses for his stores and cabins for about twenty +families of emigrants who had come with him. These emigrants (or the +greater part of them) removed to the mainland in the winter of +1778-1779, and established themselves in a fort built within the present +limits of Louisville. A town government was organized by them in April +1779, the settlement at this time being known as "the Falls of the +Ohio." On the 14th of May 1780, the legislature of Virginia, in response +to a petition of the inhabitants, declared that Connolly had forfeited +his title, and incorporated the settlement under the name of Louisville, +in recognition of the assistance given to the colonies in the War of +Independence by Louis XVI. of France. In 1828 Louisville was chartered +as a city; in 1851 it received a second city charter; in 1870, a third; +and in 1893, a fourth. The city's growth was greatly promoted by the +introduction of successful steam navigation on the Ohio in 1811 and +still further by the opening of the canal around the rapids (generally +called the "Falls of the Ohio"). This canal, which is 2½ m. in length +and is known as the Louisville and Portland canal, was authorized by the +legislature in 1825 and was opened in December 1830; between 1855 and +1872 Congress made appropriations for enlarging it, and in 1874 it +passed entirely under Federal control. The first railway to serve the +city, the Louisville & Frankfort, was completed in 1851. The 6th of +August is locally known as "Bloody Monday"; on this day in 1855 some +members of the Know Nothing Party incited a riot that resulted in the +loss of several lives and of considerable property. In March 1890 a +tornado caused great loss in life and property in the city. General +Clark made his home in Louisville and the vicinity after his return from +the Illinois country in 1779. Louisville was also the early home of the +actress Mary Anderson; John James Audubon lived here in 1808-1812; and 5 +m. E. of the city are the old home and the grave (with a monument) of +Zachary Taylor. + + See Reuben T. Durrett, _The Centenary of Louisville_ (Louisville, + 1893), being No. 8 of the Filson Club Publications; J. S. Johnston + (ed.), _Memorial History of Louisville_ (Chicago, 1896); and L. V. + Rule, "Louisville, the Gateway City to the South," in L. P. Powell's + _Historic Towns of the Southern States_ (New York, 1900). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Louisville cement, one of the best-known varieties of natural + cement, was first manufactured in Shipping Port, a suburb of + Louisville, in 1829 for the construction of the Louisville & Portland + Canal; the name is now applied to all cement made in the Louisville + District in Kentucky and Indiana. There is a large Portland cement + factory just outside the city. + + [2] Captain Thomas Bullitt (1730-1778), a Virginian, commanded a + company under Washington at Great Meadows (July 4, 1754), was in + Braddock's disastrous expedition in 1755, and after the defeat of + Major James Grant in 1758 saved his disorganized army by a cleverly + planned attack upon the pursuers. He became Adjutant-General of + Virginia after the peace of 1763, and took part in the movements + which forced Lord Dunmore to leave Norfolk. Subsequently he served in + South Carolina under Colonel Lee. + + + + +LOULÉ, a town of southern Portugal, in the district of Faro (formerly +the province of Algarve); beautifully situated in an inland hilly +district, 10 m. N.N.W. of the seaport of Faro and 5 m. from São João da +Venda on the Lisbon-Faro railway. Pop. (1900) 22,478. Apart from Lisbon, +Oporto and Braga, Loulé is the most populous town in the kingdom. It is +surrounded by walls and towers dating from the Moorish period. The +neighbouring church of Nossa Senhora da Piedade is a favourite resort of +pilgrims. Basket-making is the principal industry; leather, porcelain +and various products of the palm, agave and esparto grass are also +manufactured. + + + + +LOURDES, a town of south-western France in the department of +Hautes-Pyrénées, at the foot of the Pyrenees, 12 m. S.S.W. of Tarbes on +the main line of the Southern railway between that town and Pau. Pop. +(1906) 7228. Lourdes is divided into an old and a new town by the Gave +de Pau, which at this point leaves the valley of Argelès and turns +abruptly to the west. The old quarter on the right bank surrounds on +three sides a scarped rock, on which stands the fortress now used as a +prison. Its large square keep of the 14th century is the chief survival +of feudal times. Little is left of the old fortifications except a tower +of the 13th or 14th century, surmounting a gateway known as the Tour de +Garnabie. The old quarter is united with the new town by a bridge which +is continued in an esplanade leading to the basilica, the church of the +Rosary and the Grotto, with its spring of healing water. The present +fame of Lourdes is entirely associated with this grotto, where the +Virgin Mary is believed in the Roman Catholic world to have revealed +herself repeatedly to a peasant girl named Bernadette Soubirous in 1858. +A statue of the Virgin stands on a rock projecting above the grotto, the +walls of which are covered with crutches and other votive offerings; the +spot, which is resorted to by multitudes of pilgrims from all quarters +of the world, is marked by a basilica built above the grotto and +consecrated in 1876. In addition the church of the Rosary, a rich +building in the Byzantine style, was erected in front of and below the +basilica from 1884 to 1889. Not far from the grotto are several other +caves, where prehistoric remains have been found. The Hospice de +Notre-Dame de Douleurs is the chief of the many establishments provided +for the accommodation of pilgrims. + +Lourdes is a fortified place of the second class; and is the seat of the +tribunal of first instance of the arrondissement of Argelès. There are +marble and slate quarries near the town. The pastures of the +neighbourhood support a breed of Aquitaine cattle, which is most highly +valued in south-western France. + +The origin of Lourdes is uncertain. From the 9th century onwards it was +the most important place in Bigorre, largely owing to the fortress which +is intimately connected with its history. In 1360 it passed by the +treaty of Brétigny from French to English hands, and its governor was +murdered by Gaston Phoebus viscount of Béarn, for refusing to surrender +it to the count of Anjou. Nevertheless the fortress did not fall into +the possession of the French till 1406 after a blockade of eighteen +months. Again during the wars of religion the castle held out +successfully after the town had been occupied by the troops of the +Protestant captain Gabriel, count of Montgomery. From the reign of Louis +XIV. to the beginning of the 19th century the castle was used as a state +prison. Since the visions of Bernadette Soubirous, their authentication +by a commission of enquiry appointed by the bishop of Tarbes, and the +authorization by the pope of the cult of Our Lady of Lourdes, the +quarter on the left bank of the Gave has sprung up and it is estimated +that 600,000 pilgrims annually visit the town. The chief of the +pilgrimages, known as the national pilgrimage, takes place in August. + +Several religious communities have been named after Our Lady of Lourdes. +Of these one, consisting of sisters of the third order of St Francis, +called the Congregation of Our Lady of Lourdes (founded 1877), has its +headquarters in Rochester, Minnesota. Another, the Order of Our Lady of +Lourdes, was founded in 1883 for work in the archdiocese of New Orleans. + + See G. Marès, _Lourdes et ses environs_ (Bordeaux, 1894); Fourcade, + _L'Apparition de la grotte de Lourdes_ (Paris, 1862) and _L'Apparition + ... considérée au point de vue de l'art chrétien_ (Bordeaux, 1862); + Boissarie, _Lourdes, histoire médicale_ (Paris, 1891); Bertrin, _Hist. + critique des événements de Lourdes_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1905), written + under authority of the bishop of Tarbes; H. Lasserre, _Miraculous + Episodes of Lourdes_ (London, 1884, tr.); R. F. Clarke, _Lourdes and + its Miracles_ (_ib_., 1889) and _Medical Testimony to the Miracles_ + (_ib_., 1892); D. Barbé, _Lourdes hier, aujourd'hui, demain_ (Paris, + 1893; Eng. trans. by A. Meynell, London, 1894); J. R. Gasquet, _The + Cures at Lourdes_ (London, 1895); _Les Pèlerinages de Lourdes. + Cantiques, insignes, costumes_ (Lourdes, 1897); W. Leschner, _The + Origin of Lourdes_ (London, 1900). Zola's _Lourdes_ (Paris, 1894), a + criticism from the sceptical point of view, in the form of a realistic + novel, has called forth many replies from the Catholic side. + + + + +LOURENÇO MARQUES, capital of Portuguese East Africa, or Mozambique, on +the north bank of the Espirito Santo or English river, Delagoa Bay, and +396 m. by rail via Pretoria from Johannesburg. Pop. (1904) 9849, of whom +4691 were Europeans and 1690 Asiatics. The town is situated close to the +mouth of the river in 25° 53´ S. and 32° 30´ E., and is built upon a +low-lying spit of sand, formerly surrounded by swamps. The streets are +regularly laid out and adorned by several fine buildings. The principal +thoroughfare, the Avenida Aguiar, 2 m. long, goes from the centre of the +town to Reuben Point. The harbour is well equipped with piers, quays, +landing sheds and electric cranes, which enable large steamers to +discharge cargoes direct into the railway trucks. The depth of water at +low tide is 18 ft. The streets are lit by electricity and there is an +electric tramway system 7 m. in extent. At Reuben Point, which marks the +spot where the English river enters the bay, are the lighthouse, +barracks and the private residences of the wealthy citizens. At its +mouth the English river is about 2 m. across. Lourenço Marques is the +nearest seaport to the Rand gold mines. The port is 8374 m. from +Southampton via Cape Town and 7565 m. via the Suez canal. It is served +by British, Portuguese and German liners, the majority of the goods +imported being shipped at Southampton, Lisbon or Hamburg. Over 50% of +the import trade of Johannesburg is with Lourenço Marques. Great Britain +and British possessions take some 40% of the import trade, Portugal, +Germany, Norway, Sweden and America coming next in order. Most of the +imports, being forwarded to the Transvaal, figure also as exports. The +chief articles of import are food-stuffs and liquors, iron, mineral +oils, inks and dyes, timber and live stock. These all form part of the +transit trade. There is practically no export trade by sea save in coal, +which is brought chiefly from the collieries at Middelburg in the +Transvaal. At Port Matolla, 20 m. from the town, on the river of that +name, one of the feeders of the English river, is a flourishing timber +trade. The average value of the total trade of Lourenço Marques for the +five years 1897-1899 and 1902-1903 (1900 and 1901 being years during +which trade was disorganized by the Anglo-Boer War) was over £3,500,000. +In 1905 the value of the trade of the port was £5,682,000; of this total +the transit trade was worth over £4,500,000 and the imports for local +consumption £1,042,000. The retail trade, and trade with the natives, is +almost entirely in the hands of Indians. The chief import for local +consumption is cheap wine from Portugal, bought by the Kaffirs to the +extent of over £500,000 yearly. These natives form the bulk of the +Africans who work in the Rand gold mines. + +Lourenço Marques is named after a Portuguese navigator, who with a +companion (Antonio Calderia) was sent in 1544 by the governor of +Mozambique on a voyage of exploration. They explored the lower courses +of the rivers emptying their waters into Delagoa Bay, notably the +Espirito Santo. The various forts and trading stations which the +Portuguese established, abandoned and re-occupied on the north bank of +the river were all called Lourenço Marques. The existing town dates from +about 1850, the previous settlement having been entirely destroyed by +the natives. In 1871 the town was described as a poor place, with narrow +streets, fairly good flat-roofed houses, grass huts, decayed forts and +rusty cannon, enclosed by a wall 6 ft. high then recently erected and +protected by bastions at intervals. The growing importance of the +Transvaal led, however, to greater interest being taken in Portugal in +the port. A commission was sent by the Portuguese government in 1876 to +drain the marshy land near the settlement, to plant the blue gum tree, +and to build a hospital and a church. It was not, however, until the end +of the 19th century that any marked development took place in the town, +and up to 1903 cargo had to be discharged in tugs and lighters. + +In 1873-1877 Mr Burgers, president of the Transvaal, endeavoured, +unsuccessfully, to get a railway built from Pretoria to Delagoa Bay. In +1878-1879 a survey was taken for a line from Lourenço Marques to the +Transvaal, and in 1883 the Lisbon cabinet granted to Colonel Edward +McMurdo, an American citizen, a concession--which took the place of +others which had lapsed--for the building of a railway from Lourenço +Marques to the Transvaal frontier, the Boer government having agreed +(1883) to continue the line to Pretoria. Under this concession Colonel +McMurdo formed in London in 1887 a company--the Delagoa Bay and East +African Railway Company--to construct the line. Meantime a secret +agreement had been come to between President Kruger and Portugal for the +concession to the Transvaal of a "steam tramway" parallel to the +projected railway, should the company not complete the line in the time +specified. The company, however, built the line to the frontier shown on +the Portuguese maps of 1883 within the time limit, the railway being +opened on the 14th of December 1888. The frontier by this date had been +fixed at Komati Poort, 5 m. farther from the coast. Portugal had +previously agreed to grant the company "a reasonable extension of time" +to complete the line if the frontier should be traced farther inland +than shown on the 1883 maps. The Lisbon government required the +extension to Komati Poort to be completed in eight months (five of which +were in the rainy season), an impossible stipulation. The railway not +being finished, the Portuguese seized the line on the 25th of June 1889 +and cancelled the concession. Portugal in so doing acted, to all +appearance, under pressure from the Transvaal. Great Britain and America +at once protested, Portugal admitted the illegality of her act and +consented to refer the amount of compensation to the decision of three +Swiss jurists. This was in 1890, when Portugal paid £28,000 on account. +It was not until the 29th of March 1900 that the award was made known. +The arbitrators ordered Portugal to pay--in addition to the £28,000--a +sum, including interest, of £950,000. The damages were promptly paid. +Meantime the railway had been continued from Komati Poort and was opened +for through traffic to Pretoria on the 8th of July 1895. In 1906-1910 +another railway (47 m. long) was built from Lourenço Marques due west to +the Swaziland frontier, being a link in a new line to shorten the +distance by rail between the Rand and the sea by some 60 m. + + See also DELAGOA BAY and the authorities there cited. The text of the + railway arbitration award was published in French at Berne in 1900. + Annual reports on the trade of Lourenço Marques are issued by the + British Foreign Office. + + + + +LOUSE (O. Eng. _lús_, cf. Du. _luis_, Ger. _Laus_, Dan. and Swed. +_lus_), a term applied to small wingless insects, parasitic upon birds +and mammals, and belonging strictly speaking to the order Anoplura, +often included among the Hemiptera, though the term is frequently +extended to the bird-lice constituting the suborder Mallophaga, formerly +included among the Neuroptera. Both agree in having nothing that can be +termed a metamorphosis; they are active from the time of their exit from +the egg to their death, gradually increasing in size, and undergoing +several moults or changes of skin. The true lice (or Anoplura) are found +on the bodies of many Mammalia, and occasion by their presence +intolerable irritation. The number of genera is few. Two species of +_Pediculus_ are found on the human body, and are known ordinarily as the +head-louse (_P. capitis_) and the body-louse (_P. vestimenti_); _P. +capitis_ is found on the head, especially of children. The eggs, laid on +the hairs, and known as "nits," hatch in about eight days, and the lice +are full grown in about a month. Such is their fecundity that it has +been asserted that one female (probably of _P. vestimenti_) may in eight +weeks produce five thousand descendants. Want of cleanliness favours +their multiplication in a high degree--the idea once existed, and is +probably still held by the very ignorant, that they are directly +engendered from dirt. The irritation is caused by the rostrum of the +insect being inserted into the skin, from which the blood is rapidly +pumped up. A third human louse, known as the crab-louse (_Phthirius +pubis_) is found amongst the hairs on other parts of the body, +particularly those of the pubic region, but probably never on the head. +The louse of monkeys is now generally considered as forming a separate +genus (_Pedicinus_), but the greater part of those infesting domestic +and wild quadrupeds are mostly grouped in the large genus +_Haematopinus_, and very rarely is the same species found on different +kinds of animals. + +The bird-lice (Mallophaga) are far more numerous in species, although +the number of genera is comparatively small. With the exception of the +genus _Trichodectes_, the various species of which are found on +mammalia, all infest birds (as their English names implies) (see +BIRD-LOUSE). Louse-infestation is known as phthiriasis in medical and +veterinary terminology. + + AUTHORITIES.--The following works are the most important: Denny, + _Monographia Anoplurorum Britanniae_ (London, 1843); Giebel, _Insecta + Epizoa_ (which contains the working-up of Nitzsch's posthumous + materials; Leipzig, 1874); van Beneden, _Animal Parasites_ (London, + 1876); Piaget, _Les Pédiculines_ (Leiden, 1880); Mégnin, _Les + Parasites et les maladies parasitaires_ (Paris, 1880); Neumann, + _Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of Domesticated Animals_ (1892); + Osborn, _Pediculi and Mallophaga affecting Man and the Lower Animals_ + (Washington, 1891; U.S. Dept. Agr.); Enderlein, "Läuse-Studien," + _Zool. Anz._ xxviii. (1904). + + + + +LOUTH, a maritime county in the province of Leinster, Ireland, bounded +N.E. by Carlingford Bay and Co. Down, E. by the Irish Sea, S.W. by +Meath, and N.W. by Monaghan and Armagh. It is the smallest county in +Ireland, its area being 202,731 acres or about 317 sq. m. The greater +part of the surface is undulating, with occasionally lofty hills; in the +north-east, on the borders of Carlingford Lough, there is a mountain +range approaching 2000 ft. in height. Many of the hills are finely +wooded, and towards the sea the scenery, in the more elevated districts, +is strikingly picturesque. With the exception of the promontory of +Clogher Head, which rises abruptly to a height of 180 ft., the coast is +for the most part low and sandy. The narrow and picturesque Carlingford +Lough is navigable beyond the limits of the county, and Carlingford and +Greenore are well-known watering-places on the county Louth shore. The +Bay of Dundalk stretches to the town of that name and affords convenient +shelter. The principal rivers, the Fane, the Lagan, the Glyde and the +Dee, flow eastwards. None of these is navigable, but the Boyne, which +forms the southern boundary of the county, is navigable for large +vessels as far as Drogheda. + + Almost all this county is occupied by an undulating lowland of + much-folded Silurian shales and fine-grained sandstones; but + Carboniferous Limestone overlies these rocks north and east of + Dundalk. Dolerite and gabbro, in turn invaded by granite, have broken + through the limestone north of Dundalk Bay, and form a striking and + mountainous promontory. There is now no doubt that these rocks, with + those on the adjacent moorland of Slieve Gullion, belong to the early + Cainozoic igneous series, and may be compared with similar masses in + the Isle of Skye. A raised beach provides a flat terrace at Greenore. + Lead ore has been worked in the county, as in the adjacent parts of + Armagh and Monaghan. + + In the lower regions the soil is a very rich deep mould, admirably + adapted both for cereals and green crops. The higher mountain regions + are covered principally with heath. Agriculture generally is in an + advanced condition, and the farms are for the most part well drained. + The acreage of tillage is but little below that of pasture. Oats, + barley, flax, potatoes and turnips are all satisfactorily cultivated. + Cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry represent the bulk of the live stock. + Linen manufactures are of some importance. The deep-sea and coast + fishery has its headquarters at Dundalk, and the salmon fisheries at + Dundalk (Castletown river) and Drogheda (river Boyne). These + fisheries, together with oyster beds in Carlingford Lough, are of + great value. The county is traversed from S. to N. by the Great + Northern railway, with a branch westward from Dundalk; while the same + town is connected with the port of Greenore by a line owned by the + London & North-Western railway of England. From Greenore the London & + North-Western railway passenger steamers run regularly to Holyhead. + The town of Ardee is served by a branch from the Great Northern line + at Dromin. + + The population (71,914 in 1891; 65,820 in 1901) decreases at about an + average rate, and a considerable number of the inhabitants emigrate. + Of the total population about 92% are Roman Catholics. The principal + towns are Dundalk (pop. 13,076), Drogheda (12,760) and Ardee (1883). + The county includes six baronies and sixty-four parishes. Assizes are + held at Dundalk and quarter sessions at Ardee, Drogheda and Dundalk. + Louth was represented by two county and ten borough members in the + Irish parliament; the two present divisions are the north and south, + each returning one member. The county is in the Protestant dioceses of + Armagh and Clogher and the Roman Catholic diocese of Armagh. + +The territory which afterwards became the county Louth was included in +the principality of Uriel, Orgial or Argial, which comprehended also the +greater part of Meath, Monaghan and Armagh. The chieftain of the +district was conquered by John de Courcy in 1183, and Louth or Uriel was +among the shires generally considered to have been created by King John, +and peopled by English settlers. Until the time of Elizabeth it was +included in the province of Ulster. County Louth is rich in antiquarian +remains. There are ancient buildings of all dates, and spears, swords, +axes of bronze, ornaments of gold, and other relics have been discovered +in quantities. Among Druidical remains is the fine cromlech of +Ballymascanlan, between Dundalk and Greenore. Danish raths and other +forts are numerous. It is said that there were originally twenty +religious houses in the county. Of the remains of these the most +interesting are at Monasterboice and Mellifont, both near Drogheda. At +the former site are two churches, the larger dating probably from the +9th century, the smaller from the 13th; a fine round tower, 110 ft. in +height, but not quite perfect; and three crosses, two of which, 27 and +15 ft. in height respectively, are adorned with moulding, sculptured +figures and tracery, and are among the finest in Ireland. At Mellifont +are the remains of the first Cistercian monastery founded in Ireland, in +1142, with a massive gatehouse, an octagonal baptistery and +chapter-house. Carlingford and Drogheda have monastic remains, and at +Dromiskin is a round tower, in part rebuilt. Ardee, an ancient town, +incorporated in 1376, has a castle of the 13th century. At Dunbar a +charter of Charles II. (1679) gave the inhabitants the right to elect a +sovereign. Louth, 5½ m. S.W. from Dundalk, is a decayed town which gave +its name to the county, and contains ruins of an abbey to which was +attached one of the most noted early schools in Ireland. + + + + +LOUTH, a market-town and municipal borough in the E. Lindsey or Louth +parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England, on the river Lud, 141½ +m. N. of London by the Grimsby branch of the Great Northern railway. +Pop. (1901) 9518. By a canal, completed in 1763, there is water +communication with the Humber. The Perpendicular church of St James, +completed about 1515, with a spire 300 ft. in height, is one of the +finest ecclesiastical buildings in the county. Traces of a building of +the 13th century are perceptible. There are a town hall, a corn exchange +and a market-hall, an Edward VI. grammar school, which is richly +endowed, a commercial school founded in 1676, a hospital and several +almshouses. Thorpe Hall is a picturesque building dated 1584. In the +vicinity are the ruins of a Cistercian abbey (Louth Park). The +industries include the manufacture of agricultural implements, +iron-founding, brewing, malting, and rope and brick-making. The town is +governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 2749 acres. + +Louth (_Ludes, Loweth_) is first mentioned in the Domesday record as a +borough held, as it had been in Saxon times, by the bishop of Lincoln, +who had a market there. The see retained the manor until it was +surrendered by Bishop Holbeach to Henry VIII., who granted it to Edward, +earl of Lincoln, but it was recovered by the Crown before 1562. Louth +owed much of its early prosperity to the adjacent Cistercian abbey of +Louth Park, founded in 1139 by Alexander bishop of Lincoln. The borough +was never more than prescriptive, though burgesses were admitted +throughout the middle ages and until 1711, their sole privilege being +freedom from tolls. The medieval government of the town was by the manor +court under the presidency of the bishop's high steward, the custom +being for the reeve to be elected by eighteen ex-reeves. The original +parish church was built about 1170. During the 13th and 14th centuries +nine religious gilds were founded in the town. Fear of confiscation of +the property of these gilds seems to have been one of the chief local +causes of the Lincolnshire Rebellion, which broke out here in 1536. The +disturbance began by the parishioners seizing the church ornaments to +prevent their surrender. The bishop's steward, who arrived to open the +manorial court for the election of a reeve, agreed to ride to ask the +king the truth about the jewels, but this did not satisfy the people, +who, while showing respect to a royal commission, seized and burnt the +papers of the bishop's registrar. After swearing several country +gentlemen to their cause, the rebels dispersed, agreeing to meet on the +following day under arms. Edward VI. in 1551 incorporated Louth under +one warden and six assistants, who were to be managers of the school +founded by the same charter. This was confirmed in 1564 by Elizabeth, +who granted the manor of Louth to the corporation with all rights and +all the lands of the suppressed gilds at an annual fee-farm rent of £84. +James I. gave the commission of the peace to the warden and one +assistant in 1605; a further charter was obtained in 1830. Louth has +never been a parliamentary borough. The markets said to have been held +from ancient times and the three fairs on the third Sunday after Easter +and the feasts of St Martin and St James were confirmed in 1551. Louth +was a seat of the wool trade as early as 1297; the modern manufactures +seem to have arisen at the end of the 18th century, when, according to +the charter of 1830, there was a great increase in the population, +manufactures, trade and commerce of the town. + + See E. H. R. Tatham, _Lincolnshire in Roman Times_ (Louth, 1902); + Richard W. Goulding, _Louth Old Corporation Records_ (Louth, 1891). + + + + +LOUVAIN (Flem. _Leuven_), a town of Belgium in the province of Brabant, +of which it was the capital in the 14th century before the rise of +Brussels. Pop. (1904) 42,194. Local tradition attributes the +establishment of a permanent camp at this spot to Julius Caesar, but +Louvain only became important in the 11th century as a place of +residence for the dukes of Brabant. In 1356 Louvain was the scene of the +famous _Joyeuse Entrée_ of Wenceslas which represented the principal +charter of Brabant. At that time it had a population of at least 50,000 +and was very prosperous as the centre of the woollen trade in central +Belgium. The gild of weavers numbered 2400 members. The old walls of +Louvain were 4½ m. in circumference, and have been replaced by +boulevards, but within them there is a considerable extent of cultivated +ground. Soon after the _Joyeuse Entrée_ a serious feud began between the +citizens and the patrician class, and eventually the duke threw in his +lot with the latter. After a struggle of over twenty years' duration the +White Hoods, as the citizens called themselves, were crushed. In 1379 +they massacred seventeen nobles in the town hall, but this crime brought +down on them the vengeance of the duke, to whom in 1383 they made the +most abject and complete surrender. With this civil strife the +importance and prosperity of Louvain declined. Many weavers fled to +Holland and England, the duke took up his residence in the strong castle +of Vilvorde, and Brussels prospered at the expense of Louvain. What it +lost in trade it partially recovered as a seat of learning, for in 1423, +Duke John IV. of Brabant founded there a university and ever since +Louvain University has enjoyed the first place in Belgium. It has always +prided itself most on its theological teaching. In 1679 the university +was established in the old Cloth Workers' Hall, a building dating from +1317, with long arcades and graceful pillars supporting the upper +storeys. The library contains 70,000 volumes and some 500 manuscripts. +Attached to the university are four residential colleges at which the +number of students average two thousand. In the 16th century when the +university was at the height of its fame it counted six thousand. + +The most remarkable building in Louvain is the Hôtel de Ville, one of +the richest and most ornate examples of pointed Gothic in the country. +If less ornate than that of Oudenarde it is more harmonious in its +details. It was the work of Mathieu de Layens, master mason, who worked +at it from 1448 to 1463. The building is one of three storeys each with +ten pointed windows forming the façade facing the square. Above is a +graceful balustrade behind which is a lofty roof, and at the angles are +towers perforated for the passage of the light. The other three sides +are lavishly decorated with statuary. The interior is not noteworthy. + +Opposite the Hôtel de Ville is the fine church of St Pierre, in the form +of a cross with a low tower to which the spire has never been added. The +existing edifice was built on the site of an older church between 1425 +and 1497. It contains seven chapels, in two of which are fine pictures +by Dierich Bouts formerly attributed to Memling. Much of the iron and +brass work is by Jean Matseys. There is also an ancient tomb, being the +monument of Henry I., duke of Brabant, who died in 1235. There are four +other interesting churches in Louvain, viz. Ste Gertrude, St Quentin, St +Michael and St Jacques. In the last-named is a fine De Crayer +representing St Hubert. Some ruins on a hill exist of the old castle of +the counts of Louvain whose title was merged in the higher style of the +dukes of Brabant. + + + + +LOUVER, LOUVRE or LUFFER, in architecture, the lantern built upon the +roof of the hall in ancient times to allow the smoke to escape when the +fire was made on the pavement in the middle of the hall. The term is +also applied to the flat overlapping slips of wood, glass, &c., with +which such openings are closed, arranged to give ventilation without the +admission of rain. Openings fitted with louvers are now utilized for the +purposes of ventilation in schools and manufactories. + + The word has been derived from the French _l'ouvert_, the "open" + space. This, Minsheu's guess, is now generally abandoned. The Old + French form, of which the English is an adaptation, was _lover_ or + _lovier_. The medieval Latin _lodium_, _lodarium_, is suggested as the + ultimate origin. Du Cange (_Glossarium_, s.v. "lodia") defines it as + _lugurium_, i.e. a small hut. The English form "louvre" is due to a + confusion with the name of the palace in Paris. The origin of that + name is also unknown; _louverie_, place of wolves, is one of the + suggestions, the palace being supposed to have originally been a + hunting-box (see PARIS). + + + + +LOUVET, JEAN (c. 1370-c. 1440), called the president of Provence, +occupied the position of president of the Chambre des Comptes at Aix in +1415. Towards the end of that year he went to Paris with Louis II. of +Anjou, king of Sicily, attached himself to the dauphin Charles, and +after having been chief steward of the household to Queen Isabella he +turned against her. He was one of the principal agents of the Armagnac +party, and became the most influential adviser of Charles VII. during +the first years of his reign. But his rapacity gained him enemies, and +when the constable Arthur, earl of Richmond, attained a preponderating +influence over Charles VII. Louvet retired to his captaincy of Avignon. +He still remained a personage of importance in his exile, and played an +influential part even in his last years. + + See Vallet de Viriville in the _Nouvelle Biographie générale_, and G. + du Fresne de Beaucourt, _Histoire de Claries VII._ (1881-1891). + (J. V.*) + + + + +LOUVET DE COUVRAI, JEAN BAPTISTE (1760-1797), French writer and +politician, was born in Paris on the 12th of June 1760, the son of a +stationer. He became a bookseller's clerk, and first attracted attention +with a not very moral novel called _Les Amours du chevalier de Faublas_ +(Paris, 1787-1789). The character of the heroine of this book, Lodoïska, +was taken from the wife of a jeweller in the Palais Royal, with whom he +had formed a _liaison_. She was divorced from her husband in 1792 and +married Louvet in 1793. His second novel, _Émilie de Varmont_, was +intended to prove the utility and necessity of divorce and of the +marriage of priests, questions raised by the Revolution. Indeed all his +works were directed to the ends of the Revolution. He attempted to have +one of his unpublished plays, _L'Anobli conspirateur_, performed at the +Théâtre Français, and records naïvely that one of its managers, M. +d'Orfeuil, listened to the reading of the first three acts "with mortal +impatience," exclaiming at last: "I should need cannon in order to put +that piece on the stage." A "sort of farce" at the expense of the army +of the _émigrés, La Grande Revue des armées noire el blanche_, had, +however, better success: it ran for twenty-five nights. + +Louvet was, however, first brought into notice as a politician by his +_Paris justifié_, in reply to a "truly incendiary" pamphlet in which +Mounier, after the removal of the king to Paris in October 1789, had +attacked the capital, "at that time blameless," and argued that the +court should be established elsewhere. This led to Louvet's election to +the Jacobin Club, for which, as he writes bitterly in his Memoirs, the +qualifications were then "a genuine _civisme_ and some talent." A +self-styled _philosophe_ of the true revolutionary type, he now threw +himself ardently into the campaign against "despotism" and "reaction," +i.e. against the moderate constitutional royalty advocated by Lafayette, +the Abbé Maury and other "Machiavellians." On the 25th of December 1791 +he presented at the bar of the Assembly his _Pétition contre les +princes_, which had "a prodigious success in the senate and the empire." +Elected deputy to the Assembly for the department of Loiret, he made his +first speech in January 1792. He attached himself to the Girondists, +whose vague deism, sentimental humanitarianism and ardent republicanism +he fully shared, and from March to November 1792 he published, at +Roland's expense, a bi-weekly _journal-affiche_, of which the title, _La +Sentinelle_, proclaimed its mission to be to "enlighten the people on +all the plots" at a time when, Austria having declared war, the court +was "visibly betraying our armies." On the 10th of August he became +editor of the _Journal des débats_, and in this capacity, as well as in +the Assembly, made himself conspicuous by his attacks on Robespierre, +Marat and the other Montagnards, whom he declares he would have +succeeded in bringing to justice in September but for the poor support +he received from the Girondist leaders. It is more probable, however, +that his ill-balanced invective contributed to their ruin and his own; +for him Robespierre was a "royalist," Marat "the principal agent of +England," the Montagnards Orleanists in masquerade. His courageous +attitude at the trial of Louis XVI., when he supported the "appeal to +the people," only served still further to discredit the Girondists. He +defended them, however, to the last with great courage, if with little +discretion; and after the crisis of the 31st of May 1793 he shared the +perils of the party who fled from Paris (see Girondists). His wife, +"Lodoïska," who had actively cooperated in his propaganda, was also in +danger. + +After the fall of Robespierre, he was recalled to the Convention, when +he was instrumental in bringing Carrier and the others responsible for +the _Noyades_ of Nantes to justice. His influence was now considerable; +he was elected a member of the Committee of the Constitution, president +of the Assembly, and member of the Committee of Public Safety, against +the overgrown power of which he had in earlier days protested. His +hatred of the Mountain had not made him reactionary; he was soon +regarded as one of the mainstays of the "Jacobins," and _La Sentinelle_ +reappeared, under his auspices, preaching union among republicans. Under +the Directory (1795) he was elected a member of the Council of Five +Hundred, of which he was secretary, and also a member of the Institute. +Meanwhile he had returned to his old trade and set up a bookseller's +shop in the Palais Royal. But, in spite of the fact that he had once +more denounced the Jacobins in _La Sentinelle_, his name had become +identified with all that the combative spirits of the _jeunesse dorée_ +most disliked; his shop was attacked by the "young men" with cries of +"_À bas la Loupe, à bas la belle Lodoïska, à bas les gardes du corps de +Louvet!_" he and his wife were insulted in the streets and the theatres: +"_À bas les Louvets et les Louvetants!_" and he was compelled to leave +Paris. The Directory appointed him to the consulship at Palermo, but he +died on the 25th of August 1797 before taking up his post. + + In 1795 Louvet published a portion of his Memoirs under the title of + _Quelques notices pour l'histoire et le récit de mes périls depuis le + 31 mai 1793_. They were mainly written in the various hiding-places in + which Louvet took refuge, and they give a vivid picture of the + sufferings of the proscribed Girondists. They form an invaluable + document for the study of the psychology of the Revolution; for in + spite of their considerable literary art, they are artless in their + revelation of the mental and moral state of their author, a + characteristic type of the honest, sentimental, somewhat hysterical + and wholly unbalanced minds nurtured on the abstractions of the + _philosophes_. The first complete edition of the _Mémoires de Louvet + de Couvrai_, edited, with preface, notes and tables, by F. A. Aulard, + was published at Paris in 1889. + + + + +LOUVIERS, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement +in the department of Eure, 17½ m. S.S.E. of Rouen by road. Pop. (1906) +9449. Louviers is pleasantly situated in a green valley surrounded by +wooded hills, on the Eure, which here divides into several branches. The +old part of the town, built of wood, stands on the left bank of the +river; the more modern portions, in brick and hewn stone, on the right. +There are spacious squares, and the place is surrounded by boulevards. +The Gothic church of Notre-Dame has a south portal which ranks among the +most beautiful works of the kind produced in the 15th century; it +contains fine stained glass of the 15th and 16th centuries and other +works of art. The hôtel-de-ville, a large modern building, contains a +museum and library. The chief industry is cloth and flannel manufacture. +There are wool-spinning and fulling mills, thread factories and +manufactories of spinning and weaving machinery, and enamel ware; +leather-working, dyeing, metal-founding and bell-founding are also +carried on. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a court of +first instance, a tribunal of commerce, a chamber of arts and +manufactures, and a council of trade arbitrators. + + Louviers (_Lovera_) was originally a _villa_ of the dukes of Normandy + and in the middle ages belonged to the archbishops of Rouen; its + cloth-making industry first arose in the beginning of the 13th + century. It changed hands once and again during the Hundred Years' + War, and from Charles VII. it received extensive privileges, and the + title of Louviers le Franc for the bravery of its inhabitants in + driving the English from Pont de l'Arche, Verneuil and Harcourt. It + passed through various troubles successively at the period of the + League of the Public Weal under Louis XI., in the religious wars (when + the parlement of Rouen sat for a time at Louviers) and in the wars of + the Fronde. + + See G. Petit, _Hist. de Louviers_ (Louviers, 1877). + + + + +LOUVOIS, FRANÇOIS MICHEL LE TELLIER, MARQUIS DE (1641-1691), French +statesman, war minister of Louis XIV., was born at Paris on the 18th of +January 1641. His father, Michel le Tellier (q.v.), married him to an +heiress, the marquise de Courtenvaux, and instructed him in the +management of state business. The young man won the king's confidence, +and in 1666 he succeeded his father as war minister. His talents were +perceived by Turenne in the war of Devolution (1667-68), who gave him +instruction in the art of providing armies. After the peace of +Aix-la-Chapelle, Louvois devoted himself to organizing the French army. +The years between 1668 and 1672, says Camille Rousset, "were years of +preparation, when Lionne was labouring with all his might to find +allies, Colbert to find money, and Louvois soldiers for Louis." The work +of Louvois in these years is bound up with the historical development of +the French army and of armies in general (see ARMY). Here need only be +mentioned Louvois's reorganization of the military orders of merit, his +foundation of the Hôtel des Invalides, and the almost forcible enrolment +of the nobility and gentry of France, in which Louvois carried out part +of Louis's measures for curbing the spirit of independence by service in +the army or at court. The success of his measures is to be seen in the +victories of the great war of 1672-78. After the peace of Nijmwegen +Louvois was high in favour, his father had been made chancellor, and the +influence of Colbert was waning. The ten years of peace between 1678 and +1688 were distinguished in French history by the rise of Madame de +Maintenon, the capture of Strassburg and the revocation of the Edict of +Nantes, in all of which Louvois bore a prominent part. The surprise of +Strassburg in 1681 in time of peace was not only planned but executed by +Louvois and Monclar. A saving clause in the revocation of the Edict of +Nantes, which provided for some liberty of conscience, if not of +worship, Louvois sharply annulled with the phrase "Sa majesté veut qu'on +fasse sentir les dernières rigueurs à ceux qui ne voudront pas se faire +de sa religion." He claimed also the credit of inventing the +dragonnades, and mitigated the rigour of the soldiery only in so far as +the licence accorded was prejudicial to discipline. Discipline, indeed, +and complete subjection to the royal authority was the political faith +of Louvois. Colbert died in 1683, and had been replaced by Le Pelletier, +an adherent of Louvois, in the controller-generalship of finances, and +by Louvois himself in his ministry for public buildings, which he took +that he might be the minister able to gratify the king's two favourite +pastimes, war and building. Louvois was able to superintend the +successes of the first years of the war of the League of Augsburg, but +died suddenly of apoplexy after leaving the king's cabinet on July 16, +1691. His sudden death caused a suspicion of poison. Louvois was one of +the greatest of the rare class of great war ministers. French history +can only point to Carnot as his equal. Both had to organize armies out +of old material on a new system, both were admirable contrivers of +campaigns, and both devoted themselves to the material well-being of the +soldiers. In private life and in the means employed for gaining his +ends, Louvois was unscrupulous and shameless. + + The principal authority for Louvois's life and times is Camille + Rousset's _Histoire de Louvois_ (Paris, 1872), a great work founded on + the 900 volumes of his despatches at the Depôt de la Guerre. Saint + Simon from his class prejudices is hardly to be trusted, but Madame de + Sévigné throws many side-lights on his times. _Testament politique de + Louvois_ (1695) is spurious. + + + + +LOUYS, PIERRE (1870- ), French novelist and poet, was born in Paris +on the 10th of December 1870. When he was nineteen he founded a review, +_La Conque_, which brought him into contact with the leaders of the +Parnassians, and counted Swinburne, Maeterlinck, Mallarmé and others +among its contributors. He won notoriety by his novel _Aphrodite_ +(1896), which gave a vivid picture of Alexandrian morals at the +beginning of the Christian era. His _Chansons de Bilitis, roman +lyrique_ (1894), which purported to be a translation from the Greek, is +a glorification of Sapphic love, which in subject-matter is +objectionable in the highest degree; but its delicate decadent prose is +typical of a modern French literary school, and some of the "songs" were +set to music by Debussy and others. Later books are: _La Femme et le +pantin_ (1898); _Les Aventures du roi Pausole_ (1900); _Sanguines_ +(1903); _Archipel_ (1906). Louÿs married in 1899 Louise de Heredia, +younger daughter of the poet. + + + + +LOVAT, SIMON FRASER, 12TH BARON (c. 1667-1747), Scottish chief and +Jacobite intriguer, was born about 1667 and was the second son of Thomas +Fraser, third son of the 8th Lord Lovat. The barony of Lovat dates from +about 1460, in the person of Hugh Fraser, a descendant of Simon Fraser +(killed at Halidon Hill in 1338) who acquired the tower and fort of +Lovat near Beauly, Inverness-shire, and from whom the clan Fraser was +called "Macshimi" (sons of Simon). Young Simon was educated at King's +College, Aberdeen, and his correspondence afterwards gives proof, not +only of a command of good English and idiomatic French, but of such an +acquaintance with the Latin classics as to leave him never at a loss for +an apt quotation from Virgil or Horace. Whether Lovat ever felt any real +loyalty to the Stuarts or was actuated by self-interest it is difficult +to determine, but that he was a born traitor and deceiver there can be +no doubt. One of his first acts on leaving college was to recruit three +hundred men from his clan to form part of a regiment in the service of +William and Mary, in which he himself was to hold a command,--his object +being to have a body of well-trained soldiers under his influence, whom +at a moment's notice he might carry over to the interest of King James. +Among other outrages in which he was engaged about this time was a rape +and forced marriage committed on the widow of the 10th Lord Lovat with +the view apparently of securing his own succession to the estates; and +it is a curious instance of influence that, after being subjected by him +to horrible ill-usage, she is said to have become seriously attached to +him. A prosecution, however, having been instituted against him by Lady +Lovat's family, Simon retired first to his native strongholds in the +Highlands, and afterwards to France, where he found his way in July 1702 +to the court of St Germain. In 1699, on his father's death, he assumed +the title of Lord Lovat. One of his first steps towards gaining +influence in France seems to have been to announce his conversion to the +Catholic faith. He then proceeded to put the project of restoring the +exiled family into a practical shape. Hitherto nothing seems to have +been known among the Jacobite exiles of the efficiency of the +Highlanders as a military force. But Lovat saw that, as they were the +only part of the British population accustomed to the independent use of +arms, they could be at once put in action against the reigning power. +His plan therefore was to land five thousand French troops at Dundee, +where they might reach the north-eastern passes of the Highlands in a +day's march, and be in a position to divert the British troops till the +Highlands should have time to rise. Immediately afterwards five hundred +men were to land on the west coast, seize Fort William or Inverlochy, +and thus prevent the access of any military force from the south to the +central Highlands. The whole scheme indicates Lovat's sagacity as a +military strategist, and his plan was continuously kept in view in all +future attempts of the Jacobites, and finally acted on in the outbreak +of 1745. The advisers of the Pretender seem to have been either slow to +trust their coadjutor or to comprehend his project. At last, however, he +was despatched (1703) on a secret mission to the Highlands to sound +those of the chiefs who were likely to rise, and to ascertain what +forces they could bring into the field. He found, however, that there +was little disposition to join the rebellion, and he then apparently +made up his mind to secure his own safety by revealing all that he knew +to the government of Queen Anne. He persuaded the duke of Queensberry +that his rival, the duke of Atholl, was in the Jacobite plot, and that +if Queensberry supported him he could obtain evidence of this at St +Germain. Queensberry foolishly entered into the intrigue with him +against Atholl, but when Lovat had gone to France with a pass from +Queensberry the affair was betrayed to Atholl by Robert Ferguson, and +resulted in Queensberry's discomfiture. The story is obscure, and is +complicated by partisanship on either side; but Lovat was certainly +playing a double game. His agility, however, was not remunerative. On +returning to Paris suspicions got afloat as to Lovat's proceedings, and +he was imprisoned in the castle of Angoulême. He remained nearly ten +years under supervision, till in November 1714 he made his escape to +England. For some twenty-five years after this he was chiefly occupied +in lawsuits for the recovery of his estates and the re-establishment of +his fortune, in both of which objects he was successful. The intervals +of his leisure were filled up by Jacobite and Anti-Jacobite intrigues, +in which he seems to have alternately, as suited his interests, acted +the traitor to both parties. But he so far obtained the confidence of +the government as to secure the appointments of sheriff of Inverness and +of colonel of an independent company. His disloyal practices, however, +soon led to his being suspected; and he was deprived of both his +appointments. When the rebellion of 1745 broke out, Lovat acted with +characteristic duplicity. He represented to the Jacobites--what was +probably in the main true--that though eager for their success his weak +health and advanced years prevented him from joining the standard of the +prince in person, while to the Lord President Forbes he professed his +cordial attachment to the existing state of things, but lamented that +his son, in spite of all his remonstrances, had joined the Pretender, +and succeeded in taking with him a strong force from the clan of the +Frasers. The truth was that the lad was unwilling to go, but was +compelled by his father. Lovat's false professions of fidelity did not +long deceive the government, and after the battle of Culloden he was +obliged to retreat to the Highlands, after seeing from a distant height +his castle of Dounie burnt by the royal army. Even then, broken down by +disease and old age, carried on a litter and unable to move without +assistance, his mental resources did not fail; and in a conference with +several of the Jacobite leaders he proposed that they should raise a +body of three thousand men, which would be enough to make their +mountains impregnable, and at length force the government to give them +advantageous terms. The project was not carried out, and Lovat, after +enduring incredible hardships in his wanderings, was at last arrested on +an island in Loch Morar. He was conveyed in a litter to London, and +after a trial of five days sentence of death was pronounced on the 19th +of March 1747. His execution took place on the 9th of April. His conduct +to the last was dignified and even cheerful. Just before submitting his +head to the block he repeated the line from Horace-- + + "Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori." + +His son SIMON FRASER, Master of Lovat (1726-1782) (not to be confused +with another Simon Fraser who saw somewhat similar service and was +killed in 1777 at the battle of Saratoga), was a soldier, who at the +beginning of the Seven Years' War raised a corps of Fraser Highlanders +for the English service, and at the outbreak of the American War of +Independence raised another regiment which took a prominent part in it. +He fought under Wolfe in Canada, and also in Portugal, and rose to be a +British major-general. The family estates were restored to him, but the +title was not revived till 1837. On his death without issue, and also of +his successor, his half-brother Archibald Campbell Fraser (1736-1815), +the Lovat estates passed to the Frasers of Strichen, Aberdeenshire. The +16th Baron Lovat (b. 1871) raised a corps of mounted infantry (Lovat's +Scouts) in the Boer war of 1899-1902. + + See _Memoirs of Lord Lovat_ (1746 and 1767); J. Hill Burton, _Life of + Simon, Lord Lovat_ (1847); J. Anderson, _Account of the Family of + Frizell or Fraser_ (Edinburgh, 1825); A. Mackenzie, _History of the + Frasers of Lovat_ (Inverness, 1896); Mrs A. T. Thomson, _Memoirs of + the Jacobites_ (1845-6); and W. C. Mackenzie, _Simon Fraser, Lord + Lovat_ (1908). + + + + +LOVE-BIRD, a name somewhat indefinitely bestowed, chiefly by dealers and +their customers, on some of the smaller short-tailed parrots, from the +affection which examples of opposite sexes exhibit towards each other. +By many ornithologists the birds thus named, brought almost entirely +from Africa and South America, have been retained in a single genus, +_Psittacula_, though those belonging to the former country were by +others separated as _Agapornis_. This separation, however, was neither +generally approved nor easily justified, until Garrod (_Proc. Zool. +Society_, 1874, p. 593) assigned good anatomical ground, afforded by the +structure of the carotid artery, for regarding the two groups as +distinct, and thus removed the puzzle presented by the geographical +distribution of the species of _Psittacula_ in a large sense, though +Huxley (_op. cit._ 1868, p. 319) had suggested one way of meeting the +difficulty. As the genus is now restricted, only one of the six species +of _Psittacula_ enumerated in the _Nomenclator Avium_ of Sclater and +Salvin is known to be found outside the Neotropical Region, the +exception being the Mexican _P. cyanopygia_, and not one of the seven +recognized by the same authors as forming the nearly allied genus +_Urochroma_. On the other hand, of _Agapornis_, from which the so-called +genus _Poliopsitta_ can scarcely be separated, five if not six species +are known, all belonging to the Ethiopian Region, and all but one, _A. +cana_ (which is indigenous to Madagascar, and thence has been widely +disseminated), are natives of Africa. In this group probably comes also +_Psittinus_, with a single species from the Malayan Subregion. One of +the birds most commonly called love-birds, but with no near relationship +to any of the above, being a long-tailed though very small parrot, is +the budgerigar (_Melopsittacus undulatus_) now more familiar in Europe +than most native birds, as it is used to "tell fortunes" in the streets, +and is bred by hundreds in aviaries. Its native country is Australia. + (A. N.) + + + + +LOVEDALE, a mission station in the Victoria East division of the Cape +province, South Africa. It lies 1720 ft. above the sea on the banks of +the Tyumie (Chumie) tributary of the Keiskama river, some 2 m. N. of +Alice, a town 88 m. N.W. by rail of East London. The station was founded +in 1824 by the Glasgow Missionary Society and was named after Dr John +Love, one of the leading members of, and at the time secretary to, the +society. The site first chosen was in the Ncera valley. But in 1834 the +mission buildings were destroyed by the Kaffirs. On rebuilding, the +station was removed somewhat farther north to the banks of the Tyumie. +In 1846 the work at Lovedale was again interrupted, this time by the War +of the Axe (see CAPE COLONY: _History_). On this occasion the buildings +were converted into a fort and garrisoned by regular troops. Once more, +in 1850, the Kaffirs threatened Lovedale and made an attack on the +neighbouring Fort Hare,[1] built during the previous war. + +Until 1841 the missionaries had devoted themselves almost entirely to +evangelistic work; in that year the Lovedale Missionary Institute was +founded by the Rev. W. Govan, who, save for brief intervals, continued +at its head until 1870. He was then succeeded by the Rev. James Stewart +(1831-1905), who had joined the mission in 1867, having previously +(1861-1863), and partly in company with David Livingstone, explored the +Zambezi regions. To Stewart, who remained at the head of the institute +till his death, is due the existing organization at Lovedale. The +institute, in addition to its purely church work--in which no sectarian +tests are allowed--provides for the education of natives of both sexes +in nearly all branches of learning (Stewart discontinued the teaching of +Greek and Latin, adopting English as the classic); it also takes +European scholars, no colour distinction being allowed in any department +of the work. The institute gives technical training in many subjects and +maintains various industries, including such diverse enterprises as +farming and printing-works. It also maintains a hospital. The school +buildings rival in accommodation and completeness those of the schools +in large English cities. The sum paid in fees by scholars (of whom fully +nine-tenths were Kaffirs) in the period 1841-1908 was £84,000. The +educational and industrial methods initiated at Lovedale have been +widely adopted by other missionary bodies. Lovedale is now a branch o£ +the work of the United Free Church of Scotland. + + See R. Young, _African Wastes Reclaimed and Illustrated in the Story + of the Lovedale Mission_ (London, 1902); J. Stewart, _Lovedale, Past + and Present_ (London, 1884), and _Dawn in the Dark Continent_ (London, + 1903); J. Wells, _Stewart of Lovedale_ (London, 1908). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This fort was named after Colonel John Hare (d. 1846) of the 27th + Regiment, from 1838 lieutenant-governor of the eastern provinces and + commander of the first division of the field force in the War of the + Axe. + + + + +LOVELACE, RICHARD (1618-1658), English poet, was born at Woolwich in +1618. He was a scion of a Kentish family, and inherited a tradition of +military distinction, maintained by successive generations from the time +of Edward III. His father, Sir William Lovelace, had served in the Low +Countries, received the honour of knighthood from James I., and was +killed at Grolle in 1628. His brother, Francis Lovelace, the "Colonel +Francis" of _Lucasta_, served on the side of Charles I., and defended +Caermarthen in 1644. His mother's family was legal; her grandfather had +been chief baron of the exchequer. Richard was educated at the +Charterhouse and at Gloucester Hall, Oxford, where he matriculated in +1634. Through the request of one of the queen's ladies on the royal +visit to Oxford he was made M.A., though only in his second year at the +university. Lovelace's fame has been kept alive by a few songs and the +romance of his career, and his poems are commonly spoken of as careless +improvisations, and merely the amusements of an active soldier. But the +unhappy course of his life gave him more leisure for verse-making than +opportunity of soldiering. Before the outbreak of the civil war in 1642 +his only active service was in the bloodless expedition which ended in +the Pacification of Berwick in 1640. On the conclusion of peace he +entered into possession of the family estates at Bethersden, Canterbury, +Chart and Halden in Kent. By that time he was one of the most +distinguished of the company of courtly poets gathered round Queen +Henrietta, who were influenced as a school by contemporary French +writers of _vers de société_. He wrote a comedy, _The Scholar_, when he +was sixteen, and a tragedy, _The Soldier_, when he was twenty-one. From +what he says of Fletcher, it would seem that this dramatist was his +model, but only the prologue and epilogue to his comedy have been +preserved. When the rupture between king and parliament took place, +Lovelace was committed to the Gatehouse at Westminster for presenting to +the Commons in 1642 a petition from Kentish royalists in the king's +favour. It was then that he wrote his most famous song, "To Althea from +Prison." He was liberated, says Wood, on bail of £40,000 (more probably +£4000), and throughout the civil war was a prisoner on parole, with this +security in the hands of his enemies. He contrived, however, to render +considerable service to the king's cause. He provided his two brothers +with money to raise men for the Royalist army, and befriended many of +the king's adherents. He was especially generous to scholars and +musicians, and among his associates in London were Henry Lawes and John +Gamble, the Cottons, Sir Peter Lely, Andrew Marvell and probably Sir +John Suckling. He joined the king at Oxford in 1645, and after the +surrender of the city in 1646 he raised a regiment for the service of +the French king. He was wounded at the siege of Dunkirk, and with his +brother Dudley, who had acted as captain in his brother's command, +returned to England in 1648. It is not known whether the brothers took +any part in the disturbances in Kent of that year, but both were +imprisoned at Petre House in Aldersgate. During this second imprisonment +he collected and revised for the press a volume of occasional poems, +many if not most of which had previously appeared in various +publications. The volume was published in 1649 under the title of +_Lucasta_, his poetical name--contracted from _Lux Casta_--for a lady +rashly identified by Wood as Lucy Sacheverell, who, it is said, married +another during his absence in France, on a report that he had died of +his wounds at Dunkirk. The last ten years of Lovelace's life were passed +in obscurity. His fortune had been exhausted in the king's interest, and +he is said to have been supported by the generosity of friends. He died +in 1658 "in a cellar in Longacre," according to Aubrey, who, however, +possibly exaggerates his poverty. A volume of Lovelace's _Posthume +Poems_ was published in 1659 by his brother Dudley. They are of inferior +merit to his own collection. + + The world has done no injustice to Lovelace in neglecting all but a + few of his modest offerings to literature. But critics often do him + injustice in dismissing him as a gay cavalier, who dashed off his + verses hastily and cared little what became of them. It is a mistake + to class him with Suckling; he has neither Suckling's easy grace nor + his reckless spontaneity. We have only to compare the version of any + of his poems in _Lucasta_ with the form in which it originally + appeared to see how fastidious was his revision. In many places it + takes time to decipher his meaning. The expression is often + elliptical, the syntax inverted and tortuous, the train of thought + intricate and discontinuous. These faults--they are not of course to + be found in his two or three popular lyrics, "Going to the Wars," "To + Althea from Prison," "The Scrutiny"--are, however, as in the case of + his poetical master, Donne, the faults not of haste but of + over-elaboration. His thoughts are not the first thoughts of an + improvisatore, but thoughts ten or twenty stages removed from the + first, and they are generally as closely packed as they are + far-fetched. + + His poems were edited by W. C. Hazlitt in 1864. + + + + +LOVELL, FRANCIS LOVELL, VISCOUNT (1454-1487), supporter of Richard III., +was son of John, 8th Baron Lovell. As a young man he served under +Richard of Gloucester in the expedition to Scotland in 1480. After the +death of Edward IV. he became one of his patron's strongest supporters. +He had been created a viscount on the 4th of January 1483, and whilst +still Protector Richard made him Chief Butler. As soon as Richard became +king, Lovell was promoted to be Lord Chamberlain. Lovell helped in the +suppression of Buckingham's rebellion, and as one of Richard's most +trusted ministers was gibbeted in Collingbourne's couplet with Catesby +and Ratcliffe:-- + + "The catte, the ratte and Lovell our dogge + Rulyth all England under a hogge." + +He had command of the fleet which was to have stopped Henry Tudor's +landing in 1485, but fought for Richard at Bosworth and after the battle +fled to sanctuary at Colchester. Thence he escaped next year to organize +a dangerous revolt in Yorkshire. When that failed he fled to Margaret of +Burgundy in Flanders. As a chief leader of the Yorkist party he had a +foremost part in Lambert Simnel's enterprise. With John de la Pole, earl +of Lincoln, he accompanied the pretender to Ireland and fought for him +at Stoke on the 16th of June 1487. He was seen escaping from the battle, +but was never afterwards heard of; Bacon relates that according to one +report he lived long after in a cave or vault (_Henry VII._, p. 37, ed. +Lumby). More than 200 years later, in 1708, the skeleton of a man was +found in a secret chamber in the family mansion at Minster Lovell in +Oxfordshire. It is supposed that Francis Lovell had hidden himself there +and died of starvation. + + Collingbourne's couplet is preserved by Fabyan, _Chronicle_, p. 672. + For the discovery at Minster Lovell see _Notes and Queries_, 2nd ser. + i. and 5th ser. x. (C. L. K.) + + + + +LOVER, SAMUEL (1797-1868), Irish novelist, artist, songwriter and +musician, was born in Dublin on the 24th of February 1797. His father +was a stockbroker. Lover began life as an artist, and was elected in +1828 a member of the Royal Hibernian Academy--a body of which two years +afterwards he became secretary. He acquired repute as a miniature +painter, and a number of the local aristocracy sat to him for their +portraits. His love for music showed itself at an early age. At a dinner +given to the poet Tom Moore in 1818 Lover sang one of his own songs, +which elicited special praise from Moore. One of his best-known +portraits was that of Paganini, which was exhibited at the Royal +Academy. He attracted attention as an author by his _Legends and Stories +of Ireland_ (1832), and was one of the first writers for the _Dublin +University Magazine_. He went to London about 1835, where, among others, +he painted Lord Brougham in his robes as lord chancellor. His gifts +rendered him popular in society; and he appeared often at Lady +Blessington's evening receptions. There he sang several of his songs, +which were so well received that he published them (_Songs and Ballads_, +1839). Some of them illustrated Irish superstitions, among these being +"Rory O'More," "The Angel's Whisper," "The May Dew" and "The Four-leaved +Shamrock." In 1837 appeared _Rory O'More, a National Romance_, which at +once made him a reputation as a novelist; he afterwards dramatized it +for the Adelphi Theatre, London. In 1842 was published his best-known +work, _Handy Andy, an Irish Tale_. Meanwhile his pursuits had affected +his health; and in 1844 he gave up writing for some time, substituting +instead public entertainments, called by him "Irish Evenings," +illustrative of his own works. These were successful both in Great +Britain and in America. In addition to publishing numerous songs of his +own, Lover edited a collection entitled _The Lyrics of Ireland_, which +appeared in 1858. He died on the 6th of July 1868. Besides the novels +already mentioned he wrote _Treasure Trove_ (1844), and _Metrical Tales +and Other Poems_ (1860). + + His _Life_ was written in 1874 by Bayle Bernard. + + + + +LOVERE, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Bergamo, at the +north-west end of the Lago d'Iseo, 522 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) +3306. It is a picturesque town, the houses having the overhanging wooden +roofs of Switzerland united with the heavy stone arcades of Italy, while +the situation is beautiful, with the lake in front and the semicircle of +bold mountains behind. The church of Santa Maria in Valvendra, built in +1473, has frescoes by Floriano Ferramola of Brescia (d. 1528). The +Palazzo Tadini contains a gallery of old pictures, some sculptures by +Benzoni and Canova, and a zoological collection. Lovere possesses a +silk-spinning factory, and the Stablimento Metallurgico Gregorini, a +large iron-work and cannon foundry, employs 1600 workmen. Lovere is +reached by steamer from Sarnico at the south end of the lake, and there +is a steam tramway through the Val Camonica, which is highly cultivated, +and contains iron- and silk-works. From Cividate, the terminus, the road +goes on to Edolo (2290 ft.), whence passes lead into Tirol and the +Valtellina. + + + + +LOW, SETH (1850- ), American administrator and educationist, was born +in Brooklyn, New York, on the 18th of January 1850. He studied in the +Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn and in Columbia University, where he +graduated in 1870. He became a clerk (1870) and then a partner (1875) in +his father's tea and silk-importing house, A. A. Low & Brothers, which +went out of business in 1888. In 1878 he organized, and became president +of, the Brooklyn Bureau of Charities. In 1882-1886 he was mayor of the +city of Brooklyn, being twice elected on an independent ticket; and by +his administration of his office he demonstrated that a rigid "merit" +civil-service system was practicable--in September 1884 the first +municipal civil-service rules in the United Service were adopted in +Brooklyn. He was president of Columbia University from 1890 to 1901, and +did much for it by his business administration, his liberality (he gave +$1,000,000 for the erection of a library) and his especial interest in +the department of Political Science. In his term Columbia became a +well-organized and closely-knit university. Its official name was +changed from Columbia College to Columbia University. It was removed to +a new site on Morningside Heights, New York City. The New York College +for the Training of Teachers became its Teachers' College of Columbia; a +Faculty of Pure Science was added; the Medical School gave up its +separate charter to become an integral part of the university; Barnard +College became more closely allied with the university; relations were +entered into between the university and the General, Union and Jewish +theological seminaries of New York City and with Cooper Union, the +Metropolitan Museum of Fine Arts and the American Museum of Natural +History; and its faculty and student body became less local in +character. Dr Low was a delegate to the Hague Peace Conference in 1899. +He was prominent among those who brought about the chartering of Greater +New York in 1897, and in this year was an unsuccessful candidate, on an +independent ticket, for mayor of New York City; in 1900, on a fusion +ticket, he was elected mayor and served in 1901-1903. + + + + +LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- ), American artist and writer on art, was born +at Albany, New York, on the 31st of May 1853. In 1873 he entered the +atelier of J. L. Gérôme in the École des Beaux Arts at Paris, +subsequently joining the classes of Carolus-Duran, with whom he remained +until 1877. Returning to New York, he became a member of the Society of +American Artists in 1878 and of the National Academy of Design in 1890. +His pictures of New England types, and illustrations of Keats, brought +him into prominence. Subsequently he turned his attention to +decoration, and executed panels and medallions for the Waldorf-Astoria +Hotel, New York, a panel for the Essex County Court House, Newark, New +Jersey, panels for private residences and stained-glass windows for +various churches, including St Paul's Methodist Episcopal Church, +Newark, N.J. He was an instructor in the schools of Cooper Union, New +York, in 1882-1885, and in the school of the National Academy of Design +in 1889-1892. Mr Low, who is known to a wider circle as the friend of R. +L. Stevenson, published some reminiscences, _A Chronicle of Friendships, +1873-1900_ (1908). In 1909 he married Mary (Fairchild), formerly the +wife of the sculptor MacMonnies. + + + + +LOWBOY, a small table with one or two rows of drawers, so called in +contradistinction to the tallboy, or double chest of drawers. Both were +favourite pieces of the 18th century, both in England and America; the +lowboy was most frequently used as a dressing-table, but sometimes as a +side-table. It is usually made of oak, walnut or mahogany, with brass +handles and escutcheons. The more elegant examples of the Chippendale +period have cabriole legs, claw-and-ball feet and carved knees, and are +sometimes sculptured with the favourite shell motive beneath the centre +drawer. + + + + +LOW CHURCHMAN, a term applied to members of the Church of England or its +daughter churches who, while accepting the hierarchical and sacramental +system of the Church, do not consider episcopacy as essential to the +constitution of the Church, reject the doctrine that the sacraments +confer grace _ex opere operato_ (e.g. baptismal regeneration) and lay +stress on the Bible as the sole source of authority in matters of faith. +They thus differ little from orthodox Protestants of other +denominations, and in general are prepared to co-operate with them on +equal terms. + +The name was used in the early part of the 18th century as the +equivalent of "Latitudinarian," i.e. one who was prepared to concede +much latitude in matters of discipline and faith, in contradistinction +to "High Churchman," the term applied to those who took a high view of +the exclusive authority of the Established Church, of episcopacy and of +the sacramental system. It subsequently fell into disuse, but was +revived in the 19th century when the Tractarian movement had brought the +term "High Churchman" into vogue again in a modified sense, i.e. for +those who exalted the idea of the Catholic Church and the sacramental +system at the expense both of the Establishment and of the exclusive +authority of Scripture. "Low Churchman" now became the equivalent of +"Evangelical," the designation of the movement, associated with the name +of Simeon, which laid the chief stress on the necessity of personal +"conversion." "Latitudinarian" gave place at the same time to "Broad +Churchman," to designate those who lay stress on the ethical teaching of +the Church and minimize the value of orthodoxy. The revival of +pre-Reformation ritual by many of the High Church clergy led to the +designation "ritualist" being applied to them in a somewhat contemptuous +sense; and "High Churchman" and "Ritualist" have often been wrongly +treated as convertible terms. Actually many High Churchmen are not +Ritualists, though they tend to become so. The High Churchman of the +"Catholic" type is further differentiated from the "old-fashioned High +Churchman" of what is sometimes described as the "high and dry" type of +the period anterior to the Oxford Movement. + + + + +LOWE, SIR HUDSON (1769-1844), English general, was the son of an army +surgeon, John Lowe, and was born at Galway on the 28th of July 1769. His +mother was a native of that county. His childhood was spent in various +garrison towns but he was educated chiefly at Salisbury grammar school. +He obtained a post as ensign in the East Devon Militia before his +twelfth year, and subsequently entered his father's regiment, the 50th, +then at Gibraltar (1787) under Governor-General O'Hara. After the +outbreak of war with France early in 1793, Lowe saw active service +successively in Corsica, Elba, Portugal and Minorca, where he was +entrusted with the command of a battalion of Corsican exiles, called +The Corsican Rangers. With these he did good work in Egypt in 1800-1801. +After the peace of Amiens, Lowe, now a major, became assistant +quartermaster-general; but on the renewal of war with France in 1803 he +was charged, as lieutenant-colonel, to raise the Corsican battalion +again and with it assisted in the defence of Sicily. On the capture of +Capri he proceeded thither with his battalion and a Maltese regiment; +but in October 1808 Murat organized an attack upon the island, and Lowe, +owing to the unsteadiness of the Maltese troops and the want of succour +by sea, had to agree to evacuate the island. The terms in which Sir +William Napier and others have referred to Lowe's defence of Capri are +unfair. His garrison consisted of 1362 men, while the assailants +numbered between 3000 and 4000. In the course of the year 1809 Lowe and +his Corsicans helped in the capture of Ischia and Procida, as well as of +Zante, Cephalonia and Cerigo. For some months he acted as governor of +Cephalonia and Ithaca, and later on of Santa Maura. He returned to +England in 1812, and in January 1813 was sent to inspect a Russo-German +legion then being formed, and he accompanied the armies of the allies +through the campaigns of 1813 and 1814, being present at thirteen +important battles. He won praise from Blücher and Gneisenau for his +gallantry and judgment. He was chosen to bear to London the news of the +first abdication of Napoleon in April 1814. He was then knighted and +became major-general; he also received decorations from the Russian and +Prussian courts. Charged with the duties of quartermaster-general of the +army in the Netherlands in 1814-1815, he was about to take part in the +Belgian campaign when he was offered the command of the British troops +at Genoa; but while still in the south of France he received (on the 1st +of August 1815) news of his appointment to the position of custodian of +Napoleon, who had surrendered to H.M.S. "Bellerophon" off Rochefort. +Lowe was to be governor of St Helena, the place of the ex-emperor's +exile. + +On his arrival there at Plantation House he found that Napoleon had +already had scenes with Admiral Cockburn, of H.M.S. "Northumberland," +and that he had sought to induce the former governor, Colonel Wilks, to +infringe the regulations prescribed by the British government (see +_Monthly Review_, January 1901). Napoleon and his followers at Longwood +pressed for an extension of the limits within which he could move +without surveillance, but it was not in Lowe's power to grant this +request. Various matters, in some of which Lowe did not evince much +tact, produced friction between them. The news that rescue expeditions +were being planned by the Bonapartists in the United States led to the +enforcement of somewhat stricter regulations in October 1816, Lowe +causing sentries to be posted round Longwood garden at sunset instead of +at 9 P.M. This was his great offence in the eyes of Napoleon and his +followers. Hence their efforts to calumniate Lowe, which had a +surprising success. O'Meara, the British surgeon, became Napoleon's man, +and lent himself to the campaign of calumny in which Las Cases and +Montholon showed so much skill. In one of the suppressed passages of his +_Journal_ Las Cases wrote that the exiles had to "reduce to a system our +demeanour, our words, our sentiments, even our privations, in order that +we might thereby excite a lively interest in a large portion of the +population of Europe, and that the opposition in England might not fail +to attack the ministry." As to the privations, it may be noted that Lowe +recommended that the government allowance of £8000 a year to the +Longwood household should be increased by one-half. The charges of +cruelty brought against the governor by O'Meara and others have been +completely refuted; and the most that can be said against him is that he +was occasionally too suspicious in the discharge of his duties. After +the death of Napoleon in May 1821, Lowe returned to England and received +the thanks of George IV. On the publication of O'Meara's book he +resolved to prosecute the author, but, owing to an unaccountable delay, +the application was too late. This fact, together with the reserved +behaviour of Lowe, prejudiced the public against him, and the government +did nothing to clear his reputation. In 1825-1830 he commanded the +forces in Ceylon, but was not appointed to the governorship when it +fell vacant in 1830. In 1842 he became colonel of his old regiment, the +50th; he also received the G.C.M.G. He died in 1844. + + See W. Forsyth, _History of the Captivity of Napoleon at St Helena_ (3 + vols., London, 1853); Gourgaud, _Journal inédite de Sainte-Hélène_ + (1815-1818; 2 vols., Paris, 1899); R. C. Seaton, _Napoleon's Captivity + in relation to Sir Hudson Lowe_ (London, 1903); Lieut.-Col. Basil + Jackson, _Notes and Reminiscences of a Staff-Officer_ (London, 1903); + the earl of Rosebery, _Napoleon; the Last Phase_ (London 1900); J. H. + Rose, _Napoleonic Studies_ (London, 1904). (J. Hl. R.) + + + + +LÖWE, JOHANN KARL GOTTFRIED (1796-1869), German composer, was born at +Löbejün, near Halle, on the 30th of November 1796, and was a choir-boy +at Köthen from 1807 to 1809, when he went to the Franke Institute at +Halle, studying music with Türk. The beauty of Löwe's voice brought him +under the notice of Madame de Staël, who procured him a pension from +Jérôme Bonaparte, then king of Westphalia; this stopped in 1813, on the +flight of the king. He entered the University of Halle as a theological +student, but was appointed cantor at Stettin in 1820, and director of +the town music in 1821, in which year he married Julie von Jacob, who +died in 1823. His second wife, Auguste Lange, was an accomplished +singer, and they appeared together in his oratorio performances with +great success. He retained his office at Stettin for 46 years, when, +after a stroke of paralysis, he was somewhat summarily dismissed. He +retired to Kiel, and died on the 20th of April 1869. He undertook many +concert tours during his tenure of the post at Stettin, visiting Vienna, +London, Sweden, Norway and Paris. His high soprano voice (he could sing +the music of the "Queen of Night" in _Die Zauberflöte_ as a boy) had +developed into a fine tenor. Löwe was a voluminous composer, and wrote +five operas, of which only one, _Die drei Wünsche_, was performed at +Berlin in 1834, without much success; seventeen oratorios, many of them +for male voices unaccompanied, or with short instrumental interludes +only; choral ballads, cantatas, three string quartets, a pianoforte +trio; a work for clarinet and piano, published posthumously; and some +piano solos. But the branch of his art by which he is remembered, and in +which he must be admitted to have attained perfection, is the solo +ballad with pianoforte accompaniment. His treatment of long narrative +poems, in a clever mixture of the dramatic and lyrical styles, was +undoubtedly modelled on the ballads of Zumsteeg, and has been copied by +many composers since his day. His settings of the "Erlkönig" (a very +early example), "Archibald Douglas," "Heinrich der Vogler," "Edward" and +"Die Verfallene Mühle," are particularly fine. + + + + +LOWELL, ABBOTT LAWRENCE (1856- ), American educationalist, was born in +Boston, Massachusetts on the 13th of December 1856, the great-grandson +of John Lowell, the "Columella of New England," and on his mother's +side, a grandson of Abbott Lawrence. He graduated at Harvard College in +1877, with highest honours in mathematics; graduated at the Harvard Law +School in 1880; and practised law in 1880-1897 in partnership with his +cousin, Francis Cabot Lowell (b. 1855), with whom he wrote _Transfer of +Stock in Corporations_ (1884). In 1897 he became lecturer and in 1898 +professor of government at Harvard, and in 1909 succeeded Charles +William Eliot as president of the university. In the same year he was +president of the American Political Science Association. In 1900 he had +succeeded his father, Augustus Lowell (1830-1901), as financial head of +the Lowell Institute of Boston. He wrote _Essays on Government_ (1889), +_Governments and Parties in Continental Europe_ (2 vols., 1896), +_Colonial Civil Service_ (1900; with an account by H. Morse Stephens of +the East India College at Haileybury), and _The Government of England_ +(2 vols., 1908). + +His brother, PERCIVAL LOWELL (1855- ), the well-known astronomer, +graduated at Harvard in 1876, lived much in Japan between 1883 and 1893, +and in 1894 established at Flagstaff, Arizona, the Lowell Observatory, +of whose _Annals_ (from 1898) he was editor. In 1902 he became +non-resident professor of astronomy at the Massachusetts Institute of +Technology. He wrote several books on the Far East, including _Chosön_ +(1885), _The Soul of the Far East_ (1886), _Noto, an Unexplored Corner +of Japan_ (1891), and _Occult Japan_ (1895), but he is best known for +his studies of the planet Mars--he wrote _Mars_ (1895), _Mars and Its +Canals_ (1907), and _Mars, the Abode of Life_ (1908)--and his contention +that the "canals" of Mars are a sign of life and civilization on that +planet (see MARS). He published _The Evolution of Worlds_ in 1909. + + + + +LOWELL, CHARLES RUSSELL (1835-1864), American soldier, was born on the +2nd of January 1835 in Boston, Massachusetts. His mother, Anna Cabot +Jackson Lowell (1819-1874), a daughter of Patrick Tracy Jackson, married +Charles Russell Lowell, a brother of James Russell Lowell; she wrote +verse and books on education. Her son graduated at Harvard in 1854, +worked in an iron mill in Trenton, New Jersey, for a few months in 1855, +spent two years abroad, and in 1858-1860 was local treasurer of the +Burlington & Missouri river railroad. In 1860 he took charge of the +Mount Savage Iron Works, in Cumberland, Maryland. He entered the Union +army in June 1861 (commission May 14) as captain of the 3rd (afterwards +6th) U.S. cavalry; on the 15th of April 1863 he became colonel of the +2nd Massachusetts cavalry; he was wounded fatally at Cedar Creek on the +19th of October 1864, when he was promoted brigadier-general of U.S. +Volunteers, and died on the next day at Middletown, Va. Lowell married +in October 1863, Josephine Shaw (1843-1905), a sister of Colonel R. G. +Shaw. Her home when she was married was on Staten Island, and she became +deeply interested in the social problems of New York City. She was a +member of the State Charities Aid Society, and from 1877 to 1889 was a +member of the New York State Board of Charities, being the first woman +appointed to that board. She founded the Charity Organization Society of +New York City in 1882, and wrote _Public Relief and Private Charity_ +(1884) and _Industrial Arbitration and Conciliation_ (1893). + + See Edward E. Emerson (ed.), _The Life and Letters of Charles Russell + Lowell_ (Boston, 1907). + + + + +LOWELL, JAMES RUSSELL (1819-1891), American author and diplomatist, was +born at Elmwood, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 22nd of February +1819, the son of Charles Lowell (1782-1861).[1] On his mother's side he +was descended from the Spences and Traills, who made their home in the +Orkney Islands, his great-grandfather, Robert Traill, returning to +England on the breaking out of hostilities in 1775. He was brought up in +a neighbourhood bordering on the open country, and from his earliest +years he found a companion in nature; he was also early initiated into +the reading of poetry and romance, hearing Spenser and Scott in +childhood, and introduced to old ballads by his mother. He had for +schoolmaster an Englishman who held by the traditions of English +schools, so that before he entered Harvard College he had a more +familiar acquaintance with Latin verse than most of his fellows--a +familiarity which showed itself later in his mock-pedantic accompaniment +to _The Biglow Papers_ and his macaronic poetry. He was a wide reader, +but a somewhat indifferent student, graduating at Harvard without +special honours in 1838. During his college course he wrote a number of +trivial pieces for a college magazine, and shortly after graduating +printed for private circulation the poem which his class asked him to +write for their graduation festivities. + +He was uncertain at first what vocation to choose, and vacillated +between business, the ministry, medicine and law. He decided at last to +practise law, and after a course at the Harvard law school, was admitted +to the bar. While studying for his profession, however, he contributed +poems and prose articles to various magazines. He cared little for the +law, regarding it simply as a distasteful means of livelihood, yet his +experiments in writing did not encourage him to trust to this for +support. An unhappy adventure in love deepened his sense of failure, but +he became betrothed to Maria White in the autumn of 1840, and the next +twelve years of his life were deeply affected by her influence. She was +a poet of delicate power, but also possessed a lofty enthusiasm, a high +conception of purity and justice, and a practical temper which led her +to concern herself in the movements directed against the evils of +intemperance and slavery. Lowell was already looked upon by his +companions as a man marked by wit and poetic sentiment; Miss White was +admired for her beauty, her character and her intellectual gifts, and +the two became thus the hero and heroine among a group of ardent young +men and women. The first-fruits of this passion was a volume of poems, +published in 1841, entitled _A Year's Life_, which was inscribed by +Lowell in a veiled dedication to his future wife, and was a record of +his new emotions with a backward glance at the preceding period of +depression and irresolution. The betrothal, moreover, stimulated Lowell +to new efforts towards self-support, and though nominally maintaining +his law office, he threw his energy into the establishment, in company +with a friend, Robert Carter, of a literary journal, to which the young +men gave the name of _The Pioneer_. It was to open the way to new ideals +in literature and art, and the writers to whom Lowell turned for +assistance--Hawthorne, Emerson, Whittier, Poe, Story and Parsons, none +of them yet possessed of a wide reputation--indicate the acumen of the +editor. Lowell himself had already turned his studies in dramatic and +early poetic literature to account in another magazine, and continued +the series in _The Pioneer_, besides contributing poems; but after the +issue of three monthly numbers, beginning in January 1843, the magazine +came to an end, partly because of a sudden disaster which befell +Lowell's eyes, partly through the inexperience of the conductors and +unfortunate business connexions. + +The venture confirmed Lowell in his bent towards literature. At the +close of 1843 he published a collection of his poems, and a year later +he gathered up certain material which he had printed, sifted and added +to it, and produced _Conversations on some of the Old Poets_. The +dialogue form was used merely to secure an undress manner of approach to +his subject; there was no attempt at the dramatic. The book reflects +curiously Lowell's mind at this time, for the conversations relate only +partly to the poets and dramatists of the Elizabethan period; a slight +suggestion sends the interlocutors off on the discussion of current +reforms in church and state and society. Literature and reform were +dividing the author's mind, and continued to do so for the next decade. +Just as this book appeared Lowell and Miss White were married, and spent +the winter and early spring of 1845 in Philadelphia. Here, besides +continuing his literary contributions to magazines, Lowell had a regular +engagement as an editorial writer on _The Pennsylvania Freeman_, a +fortnightly journal devoted to the Anti-Slavery cause. In the spring of +1845 the Lowells returned to Cambridge and made their home at Elmwood. +On the last day of the year their first child, Blanche, was born, but +she lived only fifteen months. A second daughter, Mabel, was born six +months after Blanche's death, and lived to survive her father; a third, +Rose, died an infant. Lowell's mother meanwhile was living, sometimes at +home, sometimes at a neighbouring hospital, with clouded mind, and his +wife was in frail health. These troubles and a narrow income conspired +to make Lowell almost a recluse in these days, but from the retirement +of Elmwood he sent forth writings which show how large an interest he +took in affairs. He contributed poems to the daily press, called out by +the Slavery question; he was, early in 1846, a correspondent of the +London _Daily News_, and in the spring of 1848 he formed a connexion +with the _National Anti-Slavery Standard_ of New York, by which he +agreed to furnish weekly either a poem or a prose article. The poems +were most frequently works of art, occasionally they were tracts; but +the prose was almost exclusively concerned with the public men and +questions of the day, and forms a series of incisive, witty and +sometimes prophetic diatribes. It was a period with him of great mental +activity, and is represented by four of his books which stand as +admirable witnesses to the Lowell of 1848, namely, the second series of +_Poems_, containing among others "Columbus," "An Indian Summer Reverie," +"To the Dandelion," "The Changeling"; _A Fable for Critics_, in which, +after the manner of Leigh Hunt's _The Feast of the Poets_, he +characterizes in witty verse and with good-natured satire American +contemporary writers, and in which, the publication being anonymous, he +included himself; _The Vision of Sir Launfal_, a romantic story +suggested by the Arthurian legends--one of his most popular poems; and +finally _The Biglow Papers_. + +Lowell had acquired a reputation among men of letters and a cultivated +class of readers, but this satire at once brought him a wider fame. The +book was not premeditated; a single poem, called out by the recruiting +for the abhorred Mexican war, couched in rustic phrase and sent to the +_Boston Courier_, had the inspiriting dash and electrifying rat-tat-tat +of this new recruiting sergeant in the little army of Anti-Slavery +reformers. Lowell himself discovered what he had done at the same time +that the public did, and he followed the poem with eight others either +in the _Courier_ or the _Anti-Slavery Standard_. He developed four +well-defined characters in the process--a country farmer, Ezekiel +Biglow, and his son Hosea; the Rev. Homer Wilbur, a shrewd old-fashioned +country minister; and Birdofredum Sawin, a Northern renegade who enters +the army, together with one or two subordinate characters; and his +stinging satire and sly humour are so set forth in the vernacular of New +England as to give at once a historic dignity to this form of speech. +(Later he wrote an elaborate paper to show the survival in New England +of the English of the early 17th century.) He embroidered his verse with +an entertaining apparatus of notes and mock criticism. Even his index +was spiced with wit. The book, a caustic arraignment of the course taken +in connexion with the annexation of Texas and the war with Mexico, made +a strong impression, and the political philosophy secreted in its lines +became a part of household literature. It is curious to observe how +repeatedly this arsenal was drawn upon in the discussions in America +about the "Imperialistic" developments of 1900. The death of Lowell's +mother, and the fragility of his wife's health, led Lowell, with his +wife, their daughter Mabel and their infant son Walter, to go to Europe +in 1851, and they went direct to Italy. The early months of their stay +were saddened by the death of Walter in Rome, and by the news of the +illness of Lowell's father, who had a slight shock of paralysis. They +returned in November 1852, and Lowell published some recollections of +his journey in the magazines, collecting the sketches later in a prose +volume, _Fireside Travels_. He took some part also in the editing of an +American edition of the _British Poets_, but the low state of his wife's +health kept him in an uneasy condition, and when her death (27th October +1853) released him from the strain of anxiety, there came with the grief +a readjustment of his nature and a new intellectual activity. At the +invitation of his cousin, he delivered a course of lectures on English +poets before the Lowell Institute in Boston in the winter of 1855. This +first formal appearance as a critic and historian of literature at once +gave him a new standing in the community, and was the occasion of his +election to the Smith Professorship of Modern Languages in Harvard +College, then vacant by the retirement of Longfellow. Lowell accepted +the appointment, with the proviso that he should have a year of study +abroad. He spent his time mainly in Germany, visiting Italy, and +increasing his acquaintance with the French, German, Italian and Spanish +tongues. He returned to America in the summer of 1856, and entered upon +his college duties, retaining his position for twenty years. As a +teacher he proved himself a quickener of thought amongst students, +rather than a close and special instructor. His power lay in the +interpretation of literature rather than in linguistic study, and his +influence over his pupils was exercised by his own fireside as well as +in the relation, always friendly and familiar, which he held to them in +the classroom. In 1856 he married Miss Frances Dunlap, a lady who had +since his wife's death had charge of his daughter Mabel. + +In the autumn of 1857 _The Atlantic Monthly_ was established, and Lowell +was its first editor. He at once gave the magazine the stamp of high +literature and of bold speech on public affairs. He held this position +only till the spring of 1861, but he continued to make the magazine the +vehicle of his poetry and of some prose for the rest of his life; his +prose, however, was more abundantly presented in the pages of _The +North American Review_ during the years 1862-1872, when he was +associated with Mr Charles Eliot Norton in its conduct. This magazine +especially gave him the opportunity of expression of political views +during the eventful years of the War of the Union. It was in _The +Atlantic_ during the same period that he published a second series of +_The Biglow Papers_. Both his collegiate and editorial duties stimulated +his critical powers, and the publication in the two magazines, followed +by republication in book form, of a series of studies of great authors, +gave him an important place as a critic. Shakespeare, Dryden, Lessing, +Rousseau, Dante, Spenser, Wordsworth, Milton, Keats, Carlyle, Thoreau, +Swinburne, Chaucer, Emerson, Pope, Gray--these are the principal +subjects of his prose, and the range of topics indicates the catholicity +of his taste. He wrote also a number of essays, such as "My Garden +Acquaintance," "A Good Word for Winter," "On a Certain Condescension in +Foreigners," which were incursions into the field of nature and society. +Although the great bulk of his writing was now in prose, he made after +this date some of his most notable ventures in poetry. In 1868 he issued +the next collection in _Under the Willows and other Poems_, but in 1865 +he had delivered his "Ode recited at the Harvard Commemoration," and the +successive centennial historical anniversaries drew from him a series of +stately odes. + +In 1877 Lowell, who had mingled so little in party politics that the +sole public office he had held was the nominal one of elector in the +Presidential election of 1876, was appointed by President Hayes minister +resident at the court of Spain. He had a good knowledge of Spanish +language and literature, and his long-continued studies in history and +his quick judgment enabled him speedily to adjust himself to these new +relations. Some of his despatches to the home government were published +in a posthumous volume--_Impressions of Spain_. In 1880 he was +transferred to London as American minister, and remained there till the +close of President Arthur's administration in the spring of 1885. As a +man of letters he was already well known in England, and he was in much +demand as an orator on public occasions, especially of a literary +nature; but he also proved himself a sagacious publicist, and made +himself a wise interpreter of each country to the other. Shortly after +his retirement from public life he published _Democracy and other +Addresses_, all of which had been delivered in England. The title +address was an epigrammatic confession of political faith as hopeful as +it was wise and keen. The close of his stay in England was saddened by +the death of his second wife in 1885. After his return to America he +made several visits to England. His public life had made him more of a +figure in the world; he was decorated with the highest honours Harvard +could pay officially, and with degrees of Oxford, Cambridge, St Andrews, +Edinburgh and Bologna. He issued another collection of his poems, +_Heartsease and Rue_, in 1888, and occupied himself with revising and +rearranging his works, which were published in ten volumes in 1890. The +last months of his life were attended by illness, and he died at Elmwood +on the 12th of August 1891. After his death his literary executor, +Charles Eliot Norton, published a brief collection of his poems, and two +volumes of added prose, besides editing his letters. + +The spontaneity of Lowell's nature is delightfully disclosed in his +personal letters. They are often brilliant, and sometimes very +penetrating in their judgment of men and books; but the most constant +element is a pervasive humour, and this humour, by turns playful and +sentimental, is largely characteristic of his poetry, which sprang from +a genial temper, quick in its sympathy with nature and humanity. The +literary refinement which marks his essays in prose is not conspicuous +in his verse, which is of a more simple character. There was an apparent +conflict in him of the critic and the creator, but the conflict was +superficial. The man behind both critical and creative work was so +genuine, that through his writings and speech and action he impressed +himself deeply upon his generation in America, especially upon the +thoughtful and scholarly class who looked upon him as especially their +representative. This is not to say that he was a man of narrow +sympathies. On the contrary, he was democratic in his thought, and +outspoken in his rebuke of whatever seemed to him antagonistic to the +highest freedom. Thus, without taking a very active part in political +life, he was recognized as one of the leaders of independent political +thought. He found expression in so many ways, and was apparently so +inexhaustible in his resources, that his very versatility and the ease +with which he gave expression to his thought sometimes stood in the way +of a recognition of his large, simple political ideality and the +singleness of his moral sight. + + WRITINGS.--The _Works of James Russell Lowell_, in ten volumes (Boston + and New York, Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1890); _édition de luxe_, 61 + vols. (1904); _Latest Literary Essays and Addresses_ (1891); _The Old + English Dramatists_ (1892); _Conversations on some of the Old Poets_ + (Philadelphia, David M'Kay; reprint of the volume published in 1843 + and subsequently abandoned by its author, 1893); _The Power of Sound: + a Rhymed Lecture_ (New York, privately printed, 1896); _Lectures on + English Poets_ (Cleveland, The Rowfant Club, 1899). + + MEMOIRS.--_Letters of James Russell Lowell_, edited by Charles Eliot + Norton, in two volumes (New York, Harper & Brothers, 1899); _Life of + James Russell Lowell_ (2 vols.), by Horace E. Scudder (Houghton, + Mifflin & Co., 1901); _James Russell Lowell and his Friends_ (Boston, + 1899), by Edward Everett Hale. (H. E. S.*) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See under LOWELL, JOHN. + + + + +LOWELL, JOHN (1743-1802), American jurist, was born in Newburyport, +Massachusetts, on the 17th of June 1743, and was a son of the Reverend +John Lowell, the first pastor of Newburyport, and a descendant of +Perceval Lowle or Lowell (1571-1665), who emigrated from Somersetshire +to Massachusetts Bay in 1639 and was the founder of the family in New +England. John Lowell graduated at Harvard in 1760, was admitted to the +bar in 1763, represented Newburyport (1776) and Boston (1778) in the +Massachusetts Assembly, was a member of the Massachusetts Constitutional +Convention of 1779-1780 and, as a member of the committee appointed to +draft a constitution, secured the insertion of the clause, "all men are +born free and equal," which was interpreted by the supreme court of the +state in 1783 as abolishing slavery in the state. In 1781-1783 he was a +member of the Continental Congress, which in 1782 made him a judge of +the court of appeals for admiralty cases; in 1784 he was one of the +commissioners from Massachusetts to settle the boundary line between +Massachusetts and New York; in 1789-1801 he was a judge of the U.S. +District Court of Massachusetts; and from 1801 until his death in +Roxbury on the 6th of May 1802 he was a justice of the U.S. Circuit +Court for the First Circuit (Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts and +Rhode Island). + +His son, JOHN LOWELL (1769-1840), graduated at Harvard in 1786, was +admitted to the bar in 1789 (like his father, before he was twenty years +old), and retired from active practice in 1803. He opposed French +influence and the policies of the Democratic party, writing many +spirited pamphlets (some signed "The Boston Rebel," some "The Roxbury +Farmer"), including: _The Antigallican_ (1797), _Remarks on the Hon. J. +Q. Adams's Review of Mr Ames's Works_ (1809), _New England Patriot, +being a Candid Comparison of the Principles and Conduct of the +Washington and Jefferson Administrations_ (1810), _Appeals to the People +on the Causes and Consequences of War with Great Britain_ (1811) and _Mr +Madison's War_ (1812). These pamphlets contain an extreme statement of +the anti-war party and defend impressment as a right of long standing. +After the war Lowell abandoned politics, and won for himself the title +of "the Columella of New England" by his interest in agriculture--he was +for many years president of the Massachusetts Agricultural Society. He +was a benefactor of the Boston Athenaeum and the Massachusetts General +Hospital. + +Another son of the first John Lowell, FRANCIS CABOT LOWELL (1775-1817), +the founder in the United States of cotton manufacturing, was born in +Newburyport on the 7th of April 1775, graduated at Harvard in 1793, +became a merchant in Boston, and, during the war of 1812, with his +cousin (who was also his brother-in-law), Patrick Tracy Jackson, made +use of the knowledge of cotton-spinning gained by Lowell in England +(whither he had gone for his health in 1810) and devised a power loom. +Experiments were successfully carried on at Waltham in 1814. Lowell +worked hard to secure a protective tariff on cotton goods. The city of +Lowell, Massachusetts, was named in his honour. He died in Boston on the +10th of August 1817. + +CHARLES LOWELL (1782-1861), brother of the last named, was born in +Boston, graduated at Harvard in 1800, studied law and then theology, and +after two years in Edinburgh and one year on the Continent was from 1806 +until his death pastor of the West Congregational (Unitarian) Church of +Boston, a charge in which Cyrus A. Bartol was associated with him after +1837. Charles Lowell had a rare sweetness and charm, which reappeared in +his youngest son, James Russell Lowell (q.v.). + +Francis Cabot Lowell's son, JOHN LOWELL (1799-1836), was born in Boston, +travelled in India and the East Indies on business in 1816 and 1817, in +1832 set out on a trip around the world, and on the 4th of March 1836 +died in Bombay. By a will made, said Edward Everett, "on the top of a +palace of the Pharaohs," he left $237,000 to establish what is now known +as the Lowell Institute (q.v.). + + See the first lecture delivered before the Institute, Edward Everett's + _A Memoir of Mr John Lowell, Jr._ (Boston, 1840). + +A grandson of Francis Cabot Lowell, EDWARD JACKSON LOWELL (1845-1894), +graduated at Harvard in 1867, was admitted to the Suffolk county (Mass.) +bar in 1872, and practised law for a few years. He wrote _The Hessians +and the Other German Auxiliaries of Great Britain in the Revolutionary +War_ (1884), _The Eve of the French Revolution_ (1892) and the chapter, +"The United States of America 1775-1782: their Political Relations with +Europe," in vol. vii. (1888) of Winsor's _Narrative and Critical History +of America_. + + + + +LOWELL, a city and one of the county-seats (Cambridge being the other) +of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated in the N.E. part of +the county at the confluence of the Concord and Merrimack rivers, about +25 m. N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1890) 77,696; (1900) 94,969, of whom 40,974 +were foreign-born (14,674 being French Canadian, 12,147 Irish, 4485 +English Canadian, 4446 English, 1203 Greek, 1099 Scotch); (1910 census), +106,294. Lowell is served by the Boston & Maine and the New York, New +Haven & Hartford railways, and by inter-urban electric lines. The area +of Lowell is 14.1 sq. m., much the larger part of which is S. of the +Merrimack. The city is irregularly laid out. Its centre is Monument +Square, in Merrimack Street, where are a granite monument to the first +Northerners killed in the Civil War, Luther C. Ladd and A. O. Whitney +(both of Lowell), whose regiment was mobbed in Baltimore on the 19th of +April 1861 while marching to Washington; and a bronze figure of Victory +(after one by Rauch in the Valhalla at Ratisbon), commemorating the +Northern triumph in the Civil War. The Lowell textile school, opened in +1897, offers courses in cotton manufacturing, wool manufacturing, +designing, chemistry and dyeing, and textile engineering; evening +drawing schools and manual training in the public schools have +contributed to the high degree of technical perfection in the factories. +The power gained from the Pawtucket Falls in the Merrimack river has +long been found insufficient for these. A network of canals supplies +from 14,000 to 24,000 h.p.; and a small amount is also furnished by the +Concord river, but about 26,000 h.p. is supplied by steam. In factory +output ($46,879,212 in 1905; $41,202,984 in 1900) Lowell ranked fifth in +value in 1905 and fourth in 1900 among the cities of Massachusetts; more +than three-tenths of the total population are factory wage-earners, and +nearly 19 % of the population are in the cotton mills. Formerly Lowell +was called the "Spindle City" and the "Manchester of America," but it +was long ago surpassed in the manufacture of textiles by Fall River and +New Bedford: in 1905 the value of the cotton product of Lowell, +$19,340,925, was less than 60 % of the value of cotton goods made at +Fall River. Woollen goods made in Lowell in 1905 were valued at +$2,579,363; hosiery and knitted goods, at $3,816,964; worsted goods, at +$1,978,552. Carpets and textile machinery are allied manufactures of +importance. There are other factories for machinery, patent medicines, +boots and shoes, perfumery and cosmetics, hosiery and rubber heels. +Lowell was the home of the inventor of rubber heels, Humphrey +O'Sullivan. + +The founders of Lowell were Patrick Tracy Jackson (1780-1847), Nathan +Appleton (1779-1861), Paul Moody (1779-1831) and the business manager +chosen by them, Kirk Boott (1790-1837). The opportunity for developing +water-power by the purchase of the canal around Pawtucket Falls +(chartered for navigation in 1792) led them to choose the adjacent +village of East Chelmsford as the site of their projected cotton mills; +they bought the Pawtucket canal, and incorporated in 1822 the Merrimack +Manufacturing Company; in 1823 the first cloth was actually made, and in +1826 a separate township was formed from part of Chelmsford and was +named in honour of Francis Cabot Lowell, who with Jackson had improved +Cartwright's power loom, and had planned the mills at Waltham. In 1836 +Lowell was chartered as a city. Lowell annexed parts of Tewksbury in +1834, 1874, 1888 and 1906, and parts of Dracut in 1851, 1874 and 1879. +Up to 1840 the mill hands, with the exception of English dyers and +calico printers, were New England girls. The "corporation," as the +employers were called, provided from the first for the welfare of their +employees, and Lowell has always been notably free from labour +disturbances. + + The character of the early employees of the mills, later largely + displaced by French Canadians and Irish, and by immigrants from + various parts of Europe, is clearly seen in the periodical, _The + Lowell Offering_, written and published by them in 1840-1845. This + monthly magazine, organized by the Rev. Abel Charles Thomas + (1807-1880), pastor of the First Universalist Church, was from October + 1840 to March 1841 made up of articles prepared for some of the many + improvement circles or literary societies; it then became broader in + its scope, received more spontaneous contributions, and from October + 1842 until December 1845 was edited by Harriot F. Curtis (1813-1889), + known by her pen name, "Mina Myrtle," and by Harriet Farley + (1817-1907), who became manager and proprietor, and published + selections from the _Offering_ under the titles _Shells from the + Strand of the Sea of Genius_ (1847) and _Mind among the Spindles_ + (1849), with an introduction by Charles Knight. In 1854 she married + John Intaglio Donlevy (d. 1872). Famous contributors to the _Offering_ + were Harriet Hanson (b. 1825) and Lucy Larcom (1824-1893). Harriet + Hanson wrote _Early Factory Labor in New England_ (1883) and _Loom and + Spindle_ (1898), an important contribution to the industrial and + social history of Lowell. She was prominent in the anti-slavery and + woman suffrage agitations in Massachusetts, and wrote _Massachusetts + in the Woman Suffrage Movement_ (1881). She married in 1848 William + Stevens Robinson (1818-1876), who wrote in 1856-1876 the political + essays signed "Warrington" for the _Springfield Republican_. Lucy + Larcom,[1] born in Beverly, came to Lowell in 1835, where her widowed + mother kept a "corporation" boarding-house, and where she became a + "doffer," changing bobbins in the mills. She wrote much, especially + for the _Offering_; became an ardent abolitionist and (in 1843) the + friend of Whittier; left Lowell in 1846, and taught for several years, + first in Illinois, and then in Beverly and Norton, Massachusetts. _An + Idyl of Work_ (1875) describes the life of the mills and _A New + England Girlhood_ (1889) is autobiographical; she wrote many stories + and poems, of which _Hannah Binding Shoes_ is best known. + + Benjamin F. Butler was from boyhood a resident of Lowell, where he + began to practise law in 1841. James McNeill Whistler was born here in + 1834, and in 1907 his birthplace in Worthen Street was purchased by + the Art Association to be used as its headquarters and as an art + museum and gallery; it was dedicated in 1908, and in the same year a + replica of Rodin's statue of Whistler was bought for the city. + + See S. A. Drake, _History of Middlesex County_, 2, p. 53 et seq. + (Boston, 1880); _Illustrated History of Lowell, Massachusetts_ + (Lowell, 1897); the books of Harriet H. Robinson and Lucy Larcom + already named as bearing on the industrial conditions of the city + between 1835 and 1850; and the famous description in the fourth + chapter of Dickens's _American Notes_. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See D. D. Addison, _Lucy Larcom; Life, Letters and Diary_ + (Boston, 1897). + + + + +LOWELL INSTITUTE, an educational foundation in Boston, Massachusetts, +U.S.A., providing for free public lectures, and endowed by the bequest +of $237,000 left by John Lowell, junior, who died in 1836. Under the +terms of his will 10% of the net income was to be added to the +principal, which in 1909 was over a million dollars. None of the fund +was to be invested in a building for the lectures; the trustees of the +Boston Athenaeum were made visitors of the fund; but the trustee of the +fund is authorized to select his own successor, although in doing so he +must "always choose in preference to all others some male descendant of +my grandfather John Lowell, provided there is one who is competent to +hold the office of trustee, and of the name of Lowell," the sole trustee +so appointed having the entire selection of the lecturers and the +subjects of lectures. The first trustee was John Lowell junior's cousin, +John Amory Lowell, who administered the trust for more than forty years, +and was succeeded in 1881 by his son, Augustus Lowell, who in turn was +succeeded in 1900 by his son Abbott Lawrence Lowell, who in 1909 became +president of Harvard University. + +The founder provided for two kinds of lectures, one popular, "and the +other more abstruse, erudite and particular." The popular lectures have +taken the form of courses usually ranging from half a dozen to a dozen +lectures, and covering almost every subject. The fees have always been +large, and many of the most eminent men in America and Europe have +lectured there. A large number of books have been published which +consist of those lectures or have been based upon them. As to the +advanced lectures, the founder seems to have had in view what is now +called university extension, and in this he was far in advance of his +time; but he did not realize that such work can only be done effectively +in connexion with a great school. In pursuance of this provision public +instruction of various kinds has been given from time to time by the +Institute. The first freehand drawing in Boston was taught there, but +was given up when the public schools undertook it. In the same way a +school of practical design was carried on for many years, but finally, +in 1903, was transferred to the Museum of Fine Arts. Instruction for +working men was given at the Wells Memorial Institute until 1908, when +the Franklin Foundation took up the work. A Teachers' School of Science +is maintained in co-operation with the Natural History Society. For many +years advanced courses of lectures were given by the professors of the +Massachusetts Institute of Technology, but in 1904 they were superseded +by an evening school for industrial foremen. In 1907, under the title of +"Collegiate Courses," a number of the elementary courses in Harvard +University were offered free to the public under the same conditions of +study and examination as in the university. + + For the earlier period, see Harriett Knight Smith, _History of the + Lowell Institute_ (Boston, 1898). + + + + +LÖWENBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on +the Bober, 39 m. E. of Görlitz by rail. Pop. 5682. It is one of the +oldest towns in Silesia; its town hall dates from the 16th century, and +it has a Roman Catholic church built in the 13th century and restored in +1862. The town has sandstone and gypsum quarries, breweries and woollen +mills, and cultivates fruit and vegetables. Löwenberg became a town in +1217 and has been the scene of much fighting, especially during the +Napoleonic wars. Near the town is the village and estate of Hohlstein, +the property of the Hohenzollern family. + + + + +LÖWENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, capital of +the mediatized county of that name, situated under the north slope of +the Löwenstein range, 6 m. from Heilbronn. Pop. 1527. It is dominated by +the ruined castle of the counts of Löwenstein, and enclosed by medieval +walls. The town contains many picturesque old houses. There is also a +modern palace. The cultivation of vines is the chief industry, and there +is a brine spring (Theusserbad). + +Löwenstein was founded in 1123 by the counts of Calw, and belonged to the +Habsburgs from 1281 to 1441. In 1634 the castle was destroyed by the +imperialists. The county of Löwenstein belonged to a branch of the family +of the counts of Calw before 1281, when it was purchased by the German +king Rudolph I., who presented it to his natural son Albert. In 1441 +Henry, one of Albert's descendants, sold it to the elector palatine of +the Rhine, Frederick I., and later it served as a portion for Louis (d. +1524), a son of the elector by a morganatic marriage, who became a count +of the Empire in 1494. Louis's grandson Louis II. (d. 1611) inherited the +county of Wertheim and other lands by marriage and called himself count +of Löwenstein-Wertheim; his two sons divided the family into two +branches. The heads of the two branches, into which the older and +Protestant line was afterwards divided, were made princes by the king of +Bavaria in 1812 and by the king of Württemberg in 1813; the head of the +younger, or Roman Catholic line, was made a prince of the Empire in 1711. +Both lines are flourishing, their present representatives being Ernst (b. +1854) prince of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Freudenberg, and Aloyse (b. 1871) +prince of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg. The lands of the family were +mediatized after the dissolution of the Empire in 1806. The area of the +county of Löwenstein was about 53 sq. m. + + See C. Rommel, _Grundzüge einer Chronik der Stadt Löwenstein_ + (Löwenstein, 1893). + + + + +LOWESTOFT, a municipal borough, seaport and watering-place in the +Lowestoft parliamentary division of Suffolk, England, 117½ m. N.E. from +London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 29,850. It lies on +either side of the formerly natural, now artificial outlet of the river +Waveney to the North Sea, while to the west the river forms Oulton Broad +and Lothing Lake. The northern bank is the original site. South +Lowestoft arose on the completion of harbour improvements, begun in +1844, when the outlet of the Waveney, reopened in 1827, was deepened. +The old town is picturesquely situated on a lofty declivity, which +includes the most easterly point of land in England. The church of St +Margaret is Decorated and Perpendicular. South Lowestoft has a fine +esplanade, a park (Bellevue) and other adjuncts of a watering-place. +Bathing facilities are good. There are two piers enclosing a harbour +with a total area of 48 acres, having a depth of about 16 ft. at high +tide. The fisheries are important and some 600 smacks belong to the +port. Industries include ship and boat building and fitting, and motor +engineering. The town is governed by a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 +councillors. Area 2178 acres. + +Lowestoft (Lothu Wistoft, Lowistoft, Loistoft) owes its origin to its +fisheries. In 1086 it was a hamlet in the demesne of the royal manor of +Lothingland. The men of Lowestoft as tenants on ancient demesne of the +crown possessed many privileges, but had no definite burghal rights +until 1885. For several centuries before 1740 the fisheries were the +cause of constant dispute between Lowestoft and Yarmouth. During the +last half of the 18th century the manufacture of china flourished in the +town. A weekly market on Wednesdays was granted to John, earl of +Richmond, in 1308 together with an eight days' fair beginning on the +vigil of St Margaret's day, and in 1445 John de la Pole, earl of +Suffolk, one of his successors as lord of the manor, received a further +grant of the same market and also two yearly fairs, one on the feast of +St Philip and St James and the other at Michaelmas. The market is still +held on Wednesdays, and in 1792 the Michaelmas fair and another on +May-day were in existence. Now two yearly fairs for small wares are held +on the 13th of May and the 11th of October. In 1643 Cromwell performed +one of his earlier exploits in taking Lowestoft, capturing large +supplies and making prisoners of several influential royalists. In the +war of 1665 the Dutch under Admiral Opdam were defeated off Lowestoft by +the English fleet commanded by the duke of York. + + See _Victoria County History, Suffolk_; E. Gillingwater, _An + Historical Account of the Town of Lowestoft_ (ed. 1790). + + + + +LOWIN, JOHN (1576-1659), English actor, was born in London, the son of a +carpenter. His name frequently occurs in Henslowe's Diary in 1602, when +he was playing at the Rose Theatre in the earl of Worcester's company, +and he was at the Blackfriars in 1603, playing with Shakespeare, Burbage +and the others, and owning--by 1608--a share and a half of the twenty +shares in that theatre. About 1623 he was one of the managers. He lived +in Southwark, and Edward Alleyn speaks of his dining with him in 1620. +"Lowin in his latter days kept an inn (the Three Pigeons) at Brentford, +where he deyed very old." Two of his favourite parts were Falstaff, and +Melanteus in _The Maid's Tragedy_. + + + + +LOWLAND, in physical geography, any broad expanse of land with a general +low level. The term is thus applied to the landward portion of the +upward slope from oceanic depths to continental highlands, to a region +of depression in the interior of a mountainous region, to a plain of +denudation or to any region in contrast to a highland. The Lowlands and +Highlands of Scotland are typical. + + + + +LOWNDES, THOMAS (1692-1748), founder of the Lowndean professorship of +astronomy at Cambridge university, England, was born in 1692, both his +father and mother being Cheshire landowners. In 1725 he was appointed +provost marshal of South Carolina, a post he preferred to fill by +deputy. In 1727 Lowndes claimed to have taken a prominent part in +inducing the British government to purchase Carolina, but he surrendered +his patent when the transfer of the colony to the crown was completed. +His patent was renewed in 1730, but he resigned it in 1733. He then +brought various impractical schemes before the government to check the +illicit trade in wool between Ireland and France; to regulate the paper +currency of New England; and to supply the navy with salt from brine, +&c. He died on the 12th of May 1748. By his will he left his inherited +Cheshire properties to the university of Cambridge for the foundation of +a chair of astronomy and geometry. + + + + +LOWNDES, WILLIAM THOMAS (1798-1843), English bibliographer, was born +about 1798, the son of a London bookseller. His principal work, _The +Bibliographer's Manual of English Literature_--the first systematic work +of the kind--was published in four volumes in 1834. It took Lowndes +fourteen years to compile, but, despite its merits, brought him neither +fame nor money. Lowndes, reduced to poverty, subsequently became +cataloguer to Henry George Bohn, the bookseller and publisher. In 1839 +he published the first parts of _The British Librarian_, designed to +supplement his early manual, but owing to failing health did not +complete the work. Lowndes died on the 31st of July 1843. + + + + +LOW SUNDAY, the first Sunday after Easter, so called because of its +proximity to the "highest" of all feasts and Sundays, Easter. It was +also known formerly as White Sunday, being still officially termed by +the Roman Catholic Church _Dominica in albis_, "Sunday in white +garments," in allusion to the white garments anciently worn on this day +by those who had been baptized and received into the Church just before +Easter. Alb Sunday, Quasimodo and, in the Greek Church, Antipascha, and +[Greek: ê deuteroprotê Kuriakê] (literally "second-first Sunday," i.e. +the second Sunday after the first) were other names for the day. + + + + +LOWTH, ROBERT (1710-1787), English divine and Orientalist, was born at +Winchester on the 27th of November 1710. He was the younger son of +William Lowth (1661-1732), rector of Buriton, Hampshire, a theologian of +considerable ability. Robert was educated on the foundation of +Winchester College, and in 1729 was elected to a scholarship at New +College, Oxford. He graduated M.A. in 1737, and in 1741 he was appointed +professor of poetry at Oxford, in which capacity he delivered the +_Praelectiones Academicae de Sacra Poesi Hebraeorum_. Bishop Hoadly +appointed him in 1744 to the rectory of Ovington, Hampshire, and in 1750 +to the archdeaconry of Winchester. In 1753 he was collated to the +rectory of East Woodhay, Hampshire, and in the same year he published +his lectures on Hebrew poetry. In 1754 he received the degree of doctor +of divinity from his university, and in 1755 he went to Ireland for a +short time as first chaplain to the lord-lieutenant, the 4th duke of +Devonshire. He declined a presentation to the see of Limerick, but +accepted a prebendal stall at Durham and the rectory of Sedgefield. In +1758 he published his _Life of William of Wykeham_; this was followed in +1762 by _A Short Introduction to English Grammar_. In 1765, the year of +his election into the Royal Societies of London and Göttingen, he +engaged in controversy with William Warburton on the book of Job, in +which he was held by Gibbon to have had the advantage. In June 1766 +Lowth was consecrated bishop of St David's, and about four months +afterwards he was translated to Oxford, where he remained till 1777, +when he became bishop of London and dean of the Chapel Royal. In 1778 +appeared his last work, _Isaiah, a new Translation, with a Preliminary +Dissertation, and Notes, Critical, Philological, and Explanatory_. He +declined the archbishopric of Canterbury in 1783, and died at Fulham on +the 3rd of November 1787. + + The _Praelectiones_, translated in 1787 by G. Gregory as _Lectures on + the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews_, exercised a great influence both in + England and on the continent. Their chief importance lay in the idea + of looking at the sacred poetry as poetry, and examining it by the + ordinary standards of literary criticism. Lowth's aesthetic criticism + was that of the age, and is now in great part obsolete, a more natural + method having been soon after introduced by Herder. The principal + point in which Lowth's influence has been lasting is his doctrine of + poetic parallelism, and even here his somewhat mechanical + classification of the forms of Hebrew sense-rhythm, as it should + rather be called, is open to serious objections. Editions of the + _Lectures_ and of the _Isaiah_ have been numerous, and both have been + translated into German. A volume of _Sermons and other Remains_, with + memoir by the topographer, Peter Hall (1802-1849), was published in + 1834, and an edition of the _Popular Works_ of Robert Lowth in 3 vols. + appeared in 1843. + + + + +LOXODROME (from Gr. [Greek: loxos], oblique, and [Greek: dromos], +course), the line on the earth's surface making a constant angle with +the meridian. + + + + +LOYALISTS or TORIES, in America, the name given to the colonists who +were loyal to Great Britain during the War of Independence. In New +England and the Middle Colonies loyalism had a religious as well as a +political basis. It represented the Anglican as opposed to the +Calvinistic influence. With scarcely an exception the Anglican ministers +were ardent Loyalists, the writers and pamphleteers were the ministers +and teachers of that faith, and virtually all the military or civil +leaders were members of that church. The Loyalists north of Maryland +represented the old Tory traditions. In the southern colonies, where +Anglicanism predominated, the division did not follow religious lines so +closely. In Virginia and South Carolina the Whig leaders were almost +without exception members of the established church. Out of twenty +Episcopal ministers in South Carolina only five were Loyalists. Although +many of the wealthy Anglican planters of the tide-water section fought +for the mother country, the Tories derived their chief support from the +non-Anglican Germans and Scotch in the upper country. The natural +leaders in these colonies were members of the same church as the +governor and vied with him in their zeal for the support of that church. +Since religion was not an issue, the disputes over questions purely +political in character, such as taxation, distribution of land and +appointment of officials, were all the more bitter. The settlers on the +frontier were snubbed both socially and politically by the low-country +aristocracy, and in North Carolina and South Carolina were denied courts +of justice and any adequate representation in the colonial assembly. +Naturally they refused to follow such leaders in a war in defence of +principles in which they had no material interest. They did not drink +tea and had little occasion for the use of stamps, since they were not +engaged in commerce and had no courts in which to use legal documents. +The failure of the British officers to realize that conditions in the +south differed from those in the north, and the tendency on their part +to treat all Dissenters as rebels, were partly responsible for the +ultimate loss of their southern campaign. The Scotch-Irish in the south, +influenced perhaps by memories of commercial and religious oppression in +Ulster, were mostly in sympathy with the American cause. + +Taking the Thirteen Colonies as a whole, loyalism drew its strength +largely from the following classes: (1) the official class--men holding +positions in the civil, military and naval services, and their immediate +families and social connexions, as, for example, Lieutenant-Governor +Bull in South Carolina, Governor Dunmore in Virginia and Governor Tryon +in New York; (2) the professional classes--lawyers, physicians, teachers +and ministers, such as Benjamin Kissam, Peter Van Schaack and Dr Azor +Betts of New York and Dr Myles Cooper, president of King's College (now +Columbia University); (3) large landed proprietors and their tenants, +e.g. William Wragg in South Carolina and the De Lanceys, De Peysters and +Van Cortlandts in New York; (4) the wealthy commercial classes in New +York, Albany, Philadelphia, Baltimore and Charleston, whose business +interests would be affected by war; (5) natural conservatives of the +type of Joseph Galloway of Pennsylvania, and numerous political trimmers +and opportunists. Before 1776 the Loyalists may be divided into two +groups. There was a minority of extremists led by the Anglican ministers +and teachers, who favoured an unquestioning obedience to all British +legislation. The moderate majority disapproved of the mother country's +unwise colonial policy and advocated opposition to it through legally +organized bodies. Many even sanctioned non-importation and +non-exportation agreements, and took part in the election of delegates +to the First Continental Congress. The aggressive attitude of Congress, +the subsequent adoption of the Declaration of Independence, and the +refusal to consider Lord Howe's conciliatory propositions finally forced +them into armed opposition. Very few really sanctioned the British +policy as a whole, but all felt that it was their first duty to fight +for the preservation of the empire and to leave constitutional questions +for a later settlement. John Adams's estimate that one-third of all the +people in the thirteen states in 1776 were Loyalists was perhaps +approximately correct. In New England the number was small, perhaps +largest in Connecticut and in the district which afterwards became the +state of Vermont. New York was the chief stronghold. The "De Lancey +party" or the "Episcopalian party" included the majority of the wealthy +farmers, merchants and bankers, and practically all communicants of the +Anglican church. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland and +Virginia contained large and influential Loyalist minorities; North +Carolina was about equally divided; South Carolina probably, and Georgia +certainly, had Loyalist majorities. Some of the Loyalists joined the +regular British army, others organized guerilla bands and with their +Indian allies inaugurated a reign of terror on the frontier from New +York to Georgia. New York alone furnished about 15,000 Loyalists to the +British army and navy, and about 8500 militia, making in all 23,500 +Loyalist troops. This was more than any other colony supplied, perhaps +more than all the others combined. Johnson's "Loyal Greens" and Butler's +"Tory Rangers" served under General St Leger in the Burgoyne campaign of +1777, and the latter took part in the Wyoming and Cherry Valley +massacres of 1778. The strength of these Loyalists in arms was weakened +in New York by General Sullivan's success at Newtown (now Elmira) on the +29th of August 1779, and broken in the north-west by George Rogers +Clark's victories at Kaskaskia and Vincennes in 1778 and 1779, and in +the south by the battles of King's Mountain and Cowpens in 1780. Severe +laws were passed against the Loyalists in all the states. They were in +general disfranchised and forbidden to hold office or to practise law. +Eight of the states formally banished certain prominent Tories either +conditionally or unconditionally, and the remaining five, Connecticut, +New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland and Virginia, did practically the same +indirectly. Social and commercial ostracism forced many others to flee. +Their property was usually confiscated for the support of the American +cause. They went to England, to the West Indies, to the Bahamas, to +Canada and to New York, Newport, Charleston and other cities under +British control. According to a trustworthy estimate 60,000 persons went +into exile during the years from 1775 to 1787. The great majority +settled in Nova Scotia and in Upper and Lower Canada, where they and +their descendants became known as "United Empire Loyalists." Those who +remained in the United States suffered for many years, and all the laws +against them were not finally repealed until after the War of 1812. The +British government, however, endeavoured to look after the interests of +its loyal colonists. During the war a number of the prominent Loyalists +(e.g. Joseph Galloway) were appointed to lucrative positions, and +rations were issued to many Loyalists in the cities, such as New York, +which were held by the British. During the peace negotiations at Paris +the treatment of the Loyalists presented a difficult problem, Great +Britain at first insisting that the United States should agree to remove +their disabilities and to act toward them in a spirit of conciliation. +The American commissioners, knowing that a treaty with such provisions +would not be accepted at home, and that the general government had, +moreover, no power to bind the various states in such a matter, refused +to accede; but in the treaty, as finally ratified, the United States +agreed (by Article V.) to recommend to the legislatures of the various +states that Loyalists should "have free liberty to go to any part or +parts of any of the thirteen United States, and therein to remain twelve +months, unmolested in their endeavours to obtain the restitution of such +of their estates, rights and properties as may have been confiscated," +that acts and laws in the premises be reconsidered and revised, and that +restitution of estates, &c., should be made. The sixth article provided +"that there shall be no future confiscations made, nor any prosecutions +commenced against any person" for having taken part in the war; and that +those in confinement on such charges should be liberated. In Great +Britain opponents of the government asserted that the Loyalists had +virtually been betrayed; in America the treaty aroused opposition as +making too great concessions to them. Congress made the promised +recommendations, but they were unheeded by the various states, in spite +of the advocacy by Alexander Hamilton and others of a conciliatory +treatment of the Loyalists; and Great Britain, in retaliation, refused +until 1796 to evacuate the western posts as the treaty prescribed. +Immediately after the war parliament appointed a commission of five to +examine the claims of the Loyalists for compensation for services and +losses; and to satisfy these claims and to establish Loyalists in Nova +Scotia and Canada the British government expended fully £6,000,000. + + See C. H. van Tyne, _The Loyalists in the American Revolution_ (New + York, 1902), which contains much valuable information but does not + explain adequately the causes of loyalism. More useful in this respect + is the monograph by A. C. Flick, _Loyalism in New York daring the + American Revolution_ (New York, 1901). On the biographical side see + Lorenzo Sabine, _Biographical Sketches of Loyalists of the American + Revolution_ (2 vols., Boston, 1864); on the literary side, M. C. + Tyler, _Literary History of the American Revolution_, 1763-1783 (2 + vols., New York, 1897). + + + + +LOYALTY, allegiance to the sovereign or established government of one's +country, also personal devotion and reverence to the sovereign and royal +family. The English word came into use in the early part of the 15th +century in the sense of fidelity to one's oath, or in service, love, +&c.; the later and now the ordinary sense appears in the 16th century. +The O. Fr. _loialtê_, mod. _loyauté_, is formed from _loial_, loyal, +Scots _leal_, Lat. _legalis_, legal, from _lex_, law. This was used in +the special feudal sense of one who has full legal rights, a _legalis +homo_ being opposed to the _exlex_, _utlegatus_, or outlaw. Thence in +the sense of faithful, it meant one who kept faithful allegiance to his +feudal lord, and so loyal in the accepted use of the word. + + + + +LOYALTY ISLANDS (Fr. _Iles Loyalty_ or _Loyauté_), a group in the South +Pacific Ocean belonging to France, about 100 m. E. of New Caledonia, +with a total land area of about 1050 sq. m. and 20,000 inhabitants. It +consists of Uea or Uvea (the northernmost), Lifu (the largest island, +with an area of 650 sq. m.), Tiga and several small islands and Maré or +Nengone. They are coral islands of comparatively recent elevation, and +in no place rise more than 250 ft. above the level of the sea. Enough of +the rocky surface is covered with a thin coating of soil to enable the +natives to grow yams, taro, bananas, &c., for their support; cotton +thrives well, and has even been exported in small quantities, but there +is no space available for its cultivation on any considerable scale. +Fresh water, rising and falling with the tide, is found in certain large +caverns in Lifu, and by sinking to the sea-level a supply may be +obtained in any part of the island. The chief product of the islands are +bananas; the chief export sandal-wood. + +The Loyalty islanders are Melanesians; the several islands have each its +separate language, and in Uea one tribe uses a Samoan and another a New +Hebridean form of speech. The Loyalty group was discovered at the +beginning of the 19th century, and Dumont d'Urville laid down the +several islands in his chart. For many years the natives had a +reputation as dangerous cannibals, but they are now among the most +civilized Melanesians. Christianity was introduced into Maré by native +teachers from Rarotonga and Samoa; missionaries were settled by the +London Missionary Society at Maré in 1854, at Lifu in 1859 and at Uea in +1865: Roman Catholic missionaries also arrived from New Caledonia; and +in 1864 the French, considering the islands a dependency of that +colony, formally instituted a commandant. An attempt was made by this +official to put a stop to the English missions by violence; but the +report of his conduct led to so much indignation in Australia and in +England that the emperor Napoleon, on receipt of a protest from Lord +Shaftesbury and others, caused a commission of inquiry to be appointed +and free liberty of worship to be secured to the Protestant missions. A +further persecution of Christians in Uea, during 1875, called forth a +protest from the British government. + + + + +LOYOLA, ST IGNATIUS OF (1491-1556), founder of the Society of Jesus. +Inigo Lopez de Recalde, son of Beltran, lord of the noble houses of +Loyola and Oñaz, was born, according to the generally accepted opinion, +on the 24th of December 1491 at the castle of Loyola, which is situated +on the river Urola, about 1 m. from the town of Azpeitia, in the +province of Guipuzcoa. He was the youngest of a family of thirteen. As +soon as he had learnt the elements of reading and writing, he was sent +as a page to the court of Ferdinand and Isabella; afterwards, until his +twenty-sixth year, he took service with Antonio Maurique, duke of +Nagera, and followed the career of arms. He was free in his relations +with women, gambled and fought; but he also gave indications of that +courage, constancy and prudence which marked his after life. In a +political mission to settle certain disputes in the province he showed +his dexterity in managing men. + +Despite the treaty of Noyon (1516), Charles V. kept Pampeluna, the +capital of Navarre. André de Foix, at the head of the French troops, +laid siege to the town in 1521 and Ignatius was one of the defending +garrison. In the hour of danger, the claims of religion reasserted +themselves on the young soldier, and, following a custom when no priest +was at hand, he made his confession to a brother officer, who in turn +also confessed to him. During the final assault on the 19th of May 1521 +a cannon ball struck him, shattering one of his legs and badly wounding +the other. The victorious French treated him kindly for nearly two +weeks, and then sent him in a litter to Loyola. The doctors declared +that the leg needed to be broken and set again; and the operation was +borne without a sign of pain beyond a clenching of his fist. His vanity +made him order the surgeons to cut out a bone which protruded below the +knee and spoilt the symmetry of his leg. He was lame for the rest of his +days. Serious illness followed the operations, and, his life being +despaired of, he received the last sacraments on the 28th of June. That +night, however, he began to mend, and in a few days he was out of +danger. During convalescence two books that were to influence his life +were brought to him. These were a Castilian translation of _The Life of +Christ_ by Ludolphus of Saxony, and the popular _Flowers of the Saints_, +a series of pious biographies. He gradually became interested in these +books, and a mental struggle began. Sometimes he would pass hours +thinking of a certain illustrious lady, devising means of seeing her and +of doing deeds that would win her favour; at other times the thoughts +suggested by the books got the upper hand. He began to recognize that +his career of arms was over: so he would become the knight of Christ. He +determined to make the pilgrimage to Jerusalem and to practise all the +austerities that he read of in _The Flowers of the Saints_. Expiating +his sins was not so much his aim as to accomplish great deeds for God. +During the struggle that went on in his soul, he began to take note of +his psychological state; and this was the first time that he exercised +his reason on spiritual things; the experience thus painfully gained he +found of great use afterwards in directing others. One night while he +lay awake, he tells us, he saw the likeness of the Blessed Virgin with +her divine Son; and immediately a loathing seized him for the former +deeds of his life, especially for those relating to carnal desires; and +he asserts that for the future he never yielded to any such desires. +This was the first of many visions. Ignatius proposed after returning +from Jerusalem to join the Carthusian order at Seville as a lay brother. +About the same time Martin Luther was in the full course of his protest +against the papal supremacy and had already burnt the pope's bull at +Worms. The two opponents were girding themselves for the struggle; and +what the Church of Rome was losing by the defection of the Augustinian +was being counterbalanced by the conversion of the founder of the +Society of Jesus. + +As soon as Ignatius had regained strength, he started ostensibly to +rejoin the duke of Nagera, but in reality to visit the great Benedictine +abbey of Montserrato, a famous place of pilgrimage. On the way, he was +joined by a Moor, who began to jest at some of the Christian doctrines, +especially at the perpetual virginity of the Blessed Virgin. Ignatius +was no controversialist; and the Moor rode off victorious. The +chivalrous nature of Ignatius was aroused. Seized with a longing to +pursue and kill the Moor on account of his insulting language, Ignatius, +still doubting as to his best course, left the matter to his mule, which +at the dividing of the ways took the path to the abbey, leaving the open +road which the Moor had taken. Before reaching Montserrato, Ignatius +purchased some sackcloth for a garment and hempen shoes, which, with a +staff and gourd, formed the usual pilgrim's dress. Approaching the abbey +he resolved to do as his favourite hero Amadis de Gaul did--keep a vigil +all night before the Lady altar and then lay aside his worldly armour to +put on that of Christ. He arrived at the abbey just about the feast of +St Benedict (the 21st of March 1522), and there made a confession of his +life to a priest belonging to the monastery. He found in use for the +pilgrims a translation of the _Spiritual Exercises_ of the former abbot, +Garcia di Cisneros (d. 1510); and this book evidently gave Ignatius the +first idea of his more famous work under the same title. Leaving his +mule to the abbey, and giving away his worldly clothes to a beggar, he +kept his watch in the church during the night of the 24th-25th of March, +and placed on the Lady altar his sword and dagger. Early the next +morning he received the Holy Eucharist and left before any one could +recognize him, going to the neighbouring town of Manresa, where he first +lived in the hospice. Here began a series of heavy spiritual trials +which assailed him for many months. Seven hours a day he spent on his +knees in prayer and three times a day he scourged his emaciated body. +One day, almost overcome with scruples, he was tempted to end his +miseries by suicide. At another time, for the same reason, he kept an +absolute fast for a week. He tells us that, at this time, God wrought +with him as a master with a schoolboy whom he teaches. But his energies +were not confined to himself. He assisted others who came to him for +spiritual advice; and seeing the fruit reaped from helping his +neighbour, he gave up the extreme severities in which he had delighted +and began to take more care of his person, so as not needlessly to +offend those whom he might influence for good. + +During his stay at Manresa, he lived for the most part in a cell at the +Dominican convent; and here, evidently, he had severe illnesses. He +recounts the details of at least two of these attacks, but says nothing +about the much-quoted swoon of eight days, during which he is supposed +to have seen in vision the scheme of the future Society. Neither does he +refer in any way to the famous cave in which, according to the Ignatian +myth, the _Spiritual Exercises_ were written. Fortunately we have the +first-hand evidence of his autobiography, which is a surer guide than +the lines written by untrustworthy disciples. Ignatius remained at +Manresa for about a year, and in the spring of 1523 set out for +Barcelona on his way to Rome, where he arrived on Palm Sunday. After two +weeks he left, having received the blessing of Pope Adrian VI., and +proceeded by Padua to Venice, where he begged his bread and slept in the +Piazza di San Marco until a rich Spaniard gave him shelter and obtained +an order from the doge for a passage in a pilgrim ship bound for Cyprus, +whence he could get to Jaffa. In due course Ignatius arrived at +Jerusalem, where he intended to remain, in order continuously to visit +the holy places and help souls. For this end he had obtained letters of +recommendation to the guardian, to whom, however, he only spoke of his +desire of satisfying his devotion, not hinting his other motive. The +Franciscans gave him no encouragement to remain; and the provincial +threatened him with excommunication if he persisted. Not only had the +friars great difficulty in supporting themselves, but they dreaded an +outbreak from the fanatical Turks who resented some imprudent +manifestations of Loyola's zeal. Ignatius returned to Venice in the +middle of January 1524; and, determining to devote himself for a while +to study, he set out for Barcelona, where he arrived in Lent. Here he +consulted Isabella Roser, a lady of high rank and piety, and also the +master of a grammar school. These both approved his plan; the one +promised to teach him without payment and the other to provide him with +the necessaries of life. Here, in his thirty-third year, he began to +learn Latin, and after two years his master urged him to go to Alcalá to +begin philosophy. During his stay of a year and a half in this +university, besides his classes, he found occasion to give to some +companions his _Spiritual Exercises_ in the form they had then taken and +certain instructions in Christian doctrine. On account of these +discourses Ignatius came into conflict with the Inquisition. He and his +companions were denounced as belonging to the sects of _Sagati_ and +_Illuminati_. Their mode of life and dress was peculiar and hinted at +innovation. But, always ready to obey authority, Ignatius was able to +disarm any charges that, now and at other times, were brought against +him. The Inquisition merely advised him and his companions to dress in a +less extraordinary manner and to go shod. Four months later he was +suddenly cast into prison; and, after seventeen days, he learnt that he +was falsely accused of sending two noble ladies on a pilgrimage to Jaen. +During their absence, from the 21st of April 1527 to the 1st of June, he +remained in prison, and was then set free with a prohibition against +instructing others until he had spent four years in study. + +Seeing his way thus barred at Alcalá, he went with his companions to +Salamanca. Here the Dominicans, doubting the orthodoxy of the +new-comers, had them put into prison, where they were chained foot to +foot and fastened to a stake set up in the middle of the cell. Some days +afterwards Ignatius was examined and found without fault. His patience +won him many friends; and when he and his companions remained in prison +while the other prisoners managed to escape, their conduct excited much +admiration. After twenty-two days they were called up to receive +sentence. No fault was found in their life and teaching; but they were +forbidden to define any sins as being mortal or venial until they had +studied for four years. Hampered again by such an order, Ignatius +determined to go to Paris to continue his studies. Up to the present he +was far from having any idea of founding a society. The only question +before him now was whether he should join an order, or continue his +wandering existence. He decided upon Paris for the present, and before +leaving Salamanca he agreed with his companions that they should wait +where they were until he returned; for he only meant to see whether he +could find any means by which they all might give themselves to study. +He left Barcelona and, travelling on foot to Paris, he arrived there in +February 1528. The university of Paris had reached its zenith at the +time of the council of Constance (1418), and was now losing its +intellectual leadership under the attacks of the Renaissance and the +Reformation. In 1521 the university had condemned Luther's _Babylonish +Captivity_, and in 1527 Erasmus's _Colloquies_ met with the same fate. +Soon after his arrival, Ignatius may have seen in the Place de Grève the +burning of Louis de Berquin for heresy.[1] At this period there were +between twelve and fifteen thousand students attending the university, +and the life was an extraordinary mixture of licentiousness and devout +zeal. When Ignatius arrived in Paris, he lodged at first with some +fellow-countrymen; and for two years attended the lectures on humanities +at the collège de Montaigu, supporting himself at first by the charity +of Isabella Roser; but, a fellow-lodger defrauding him of his stock, he +found himself destitute and compelled to beg his bread. He retired to +the hospice of St Jacques; and, following the advice of a Spanish monk, +spent his vacations in Flanders, where he was helped by the rich Spanish +merchants. At Bruges he became acquainted with the famous Spanish +scholar, Juan Luis Vives, with whom he lodged. In the summer of 1530 he +went to London, where he received alms more abundantly than elsewhere. +As he could only support himself at Paris with difficulty, it was +impossible to send for his companions in Salamanca. Others, however, +joined him in Paris, and to some of them he gave the _Spiritual +Exercises_, with the result that the Inquisition made him give up +speaking on religious subjects during the time he was a student. At the +end of 1529 he came into contact with the men who were eventually to +become the first fathers of the Society of Jesus. He won over the +Savoyard Pierre Lefèvre (Faber), whose room he shared, and the Navarrese +Francis Xavier, who taught philosophy in the college of St Barbara. +Afterwards he became acquainted with the young Castilian, Diego Laynez, +who had heard of him at Acalá and found him out in Paris. With Laynez +came two other young men, the Toledan Alfonso Salmeron and the +Portuguese Simon Rodriguez. Nicholas Bobadilla, a poor Spaniard who had +finished his studies, was the next to join him. The little company of +seven determined to consecrate their union by vows. On the 15th of +August 1534, the Feast of the Assumption, they assembled in the crypt of +the church of St Mary on Montmartre, and Faber, the only one who was a +priest, said Mass. They then took the vows of poverty and chastity, and +pledged themselves to go to the Holy Land as missionaries or for the +purpose of tending the sick; or if this design should prove +impracticable, to go to Rome and place themselves at the disposal of the +pope for any purpose. But, whatever may have been the private opinion of +Ignatius, there was on this occasion no foundation of any society. The +vows were individual obligations which could be kept quite apart from +membership in a society. A provision was made that if, after waiting a +year at Venice, they were unable to go to Jerusalem, this part of the +vow should be cancelled and they should at once betake themselves to +Rome. + +At this time Ignatius was again suffering from his former imprudent +austerities; and he was urged to return for a while to his native air. +He left Paris for Spain in the autumn of 1535, leaving Faber in charge +of his companions to finish their studies. During the absence of +Ignatius, Faber gained three more adherents. But before leaving Paris +Ignatius heard once more that complaints had been lodged against him at +the Inquisition; but these like the others were found to be without any +foundation. When he arrived near Loyola he would not go to the castle, +but lived at the public hospice at Azpeitia, and began his usual life of +teaching Christian doctrine and reforming morals. Falling ill again he +went to other parts of Spain to transact business for his companions. +Then, sailing from Valencia to Genoa, he made his way to Venice, where +he arrived during the last days of 1535. Here he waited for a year until +his companions could join him, and meanwhile he occupied himself in his +usual good works, gaining several more companions and meeting Giovanni +Piero Caraffa, afterwards Paul IV., who had lately founded the +Theatines. What happened between the two does not appear; but henceforth +Caraffa seems to have borne ill will towards Ignatius and his +companions. At Venice Ignatius was again accused of heresy, and it was +said that he had escaped from the Inquisition in Spain and had been +burnt in effigy at Paris. These charges he met successfully by insisting +that the nuncio should thoroughly inquire into the matter. + +After a journey of fifty-four days his companions arrived at Venice in +January 1537; and here they remained until the beginning of Lent, when +Ignatius sent them to Rome to get money for the proposed voyage to +Palestine. He himself stayed behind, as he feared that, if he went with +them, Caraffa at Rome, together with Dr Ortiz, a German opponent in +Paris and now Charles V.'s ambassador at the Vatican, would prejudice +the pope against them. But Ortiz proved a friend and presented them to +Paul III., who gave them leave to go to Palestine to preach the Gospel, +bestowing upon them abundant alms. He likewise gave licence for those +not yet priests to be ordained by any catholic bishop on the title of +poverty. They had returned to Venice where Ignatius and the others were +ordained priests on the 24th of June 1537, after having renewed their +vows of poverty and chastity to the legate Verallo. Ignatius, now a +priest, waited for eighteen months before saying Mass, which he did for +the first time on the 25th of December 1538 in the church of Santa Maria +Maggiore in Rome. + +The year of waiting passed away without any chance of going to the Holy +Land. Finding it impossible to keep this part of their vow, the fathers +met at Vicenza, where Ignatius was staying in a ruined monastery; and +here after deliberation it was determined that he, Laynez and Faber +should go to Rome to place the little band at the disposal of the pope. +It was now that the Society began to take some visible form. A common +rule was devised and a name adopted. Ignatius declared that having +assembled in the name of Jesus, the association should henceforth bear +the name of the "Company of Jesus." The word used shows Loyola's +military ideal of the duties and methods of the nascent society. + +On the road to Rome a famous vision took place, as to which we have the +evidence of Ignatius himself. In a certain church, a few miles before +Rome, whilst in prayer he was aware of a stirring and a change in his +soul; and so openly did he see God the Father placing him with Christ, +that he could not dare to doubt that God the Father had so placed him. +Subsequent writers add that Christ, looking at him with a benign +countenance, said: "I shall be propitious to you"; while others add the +significant words, "at Rome." Ignatius, however, says nothing about so +important a matter; indeed he understood the vision to mean that many +things would be adverse to them, and told his companions when they +reached the city that he saw the windows there closed against him. He +also said: "We must of necessity proceed with caution; and we must not +make the acquaintance of women unless they be of very high rank." They +arrived in Rome in October 1537; and lived at first in a little cottage +in a vineyard and near the Trinità dei Monti. The pope appointed Faber +to teach Holy Scripture, and Laynez scholastic theology, in the +university of the Sapienza. Ignatius was left free to carry on his +spiritual work, which became so large that he was obliged to call his +other companions to Rome. During the absence of the pope, a certain +hermit began to spread heresy and was opposed by Ignatius and his +companions. In revenge the hermit brought up the former accusations +concerning the relations to the Inquisition, and proclaimed Ignatius and +his friends to be false, designing men and no better than concealed +heretics. The matter was examined and the legate ordered the suit to be +quashed. But this did not suit Ignatius. It was necessary for his own +good repute and the future of his work that a definitive sentence should +be pronounced and his name cleared once and for all. The legate +demurred; but on the pope's return sentence was formally given in his +favour. + +The life of Ignatius is now mainly identified with the formation and +growth of his Society (see JESUITS), but his zeal found other outlets in +Rome. He founded institutions for rescuing fallen women, started +orphanages and organized catechetical instructions. He obtained, after +difficulty, the official recognition of his Society from Paul III. on +the 27th of September 1540, and successfully steered it through many +perils that beset it in its early days. He was unanimously elected the +first general in April 1541; and on the 22nd of that month received the +first vows of the Society in the church of San Paolo _fuori la mura_. +Two works now chiefly occupied the remainder of his life: the final +completion of the _Spiritual Exercises_ and the drawing up of the +_Constitutions_, which received their final form after his death. These +two are so constantly connected that the one cannot be understood +without the other. The _Constitutions_ are discussed in the article on +the Jesuits. In these he taught his followers to respond to the call; by +the _Spiritual Exercises_ he moulded their character. + + The _Book of the Spiritual Exercises_ has been one of the world-moving + books. In its strict conception it is only an application of the + Gospel precepts to the individual soul. Its object is to convince a + man of sin, of justice and of judgment. The idea of the book is not + original to Ignatius At Montserrato he had found in use a popular + translation of the _Exercitatorio de la vida spiritual_ (1500), + written in Latin by Abbot Garcias de Cisneros (d. 1510), and divided + into three ways or periods during which purity of soul, enlightenment + and union are to be worked for; a fourth part is added on + contemplation. This book evidently afforded the root idea of the + Ignatian and more famous book. But the differences are great. While + taking the title, the idea of division by periods and the subjects of + most of the meditations from the older work, Ignatius skilfully + adapted it to his own requirements. Above all the methods of the two + are essentially different. The Benedictine work follows the old + monastic tradition of the direct intercourse of the soul with God. + Ignatius, with his military instinct and views of obedience, + intervenes with a director who gives the exercises to the person who + in turn receives them. If this introduction of the director is + essential to the end for which Ignatius framed his _Exercises_, in it + we also find dangers. A director, whose aim is only the personal + advantage of the one who is receiving the exercises, will be the + faithful interpreter of his founder's intentions: but in the case of + one whose _esprit de corps_ is unbalanced, the temporary and pecuniary + advantage of the Society may be made of more importance than that of + the exercitant. Another danger may come when minuteness of direction + takes away the wholesome sense of responsibility. Apart from these + abuses the _Spiritual Exercises_ have proved their value over and over + again, and have received the sincerest form of flattery in countless + imitations. The original parts of the book are principally to be found + in the meditations, which are clearly Ignatian in conception as well + as method. These are _The Reign of Christ_, wherein Christ as an + earthly king calls his subjects to war: and _Two Standards_, one of + Jesus Christ and the other of Lucifer. Besides these there are various + additions to the series of meditations, which are mostly the practical + results of the experiences which Ignatius went through in the early + stages of his conversion. He gives various methods of prayer; methods + of making an election; his series of rules for the discernment of + spirits; rules for the distribution of alms and the treatment of + scruples; tests of orthodoxy. These additions are skilfully worked + into the series of meditations; so that when the exercitant by + meditation has moved his soul to act, here are practical directions at + hand. + + The exercises are divided into four series of meditations technically + called "weeks," each of which may last as long as the director + considers necessary to achieve the end for which each week is + destined. But the whole period is generally concluded in the space of + a month. The first week is the foundation, and has to do with the + consideration of the end of man, sin, death, judgment and hell. Having + purified the soul from sin and obtained a detestation thereof, the + second week treats of the kingdom of Christ, and is meant to lead the + soul to make an election of the service of God. The third and fourth + weeks are intended to confirm the soul in the new way chosen, to teach + how difficulties can be overcome, to inflame it with the love of God + and to help it to persevere. + + _The Book of the Spiritual Exercises_ was not written at Manresa, + although there is in that place an inscription testifying to the + supposed fact. Ignatius was constantly adding to his work as his own + personal experience increased, and as he watched the effects of his + method on the souls of those to whom he gave the exercises. The latest + critics, even those of the Society itself, give 1548 as the date when + the book received its final touches; though Father Roothaan gives + Rome, the 9th of July 1541, as the date at the end of the ancient MS. + version. Ignatius wrote originally in Spanish, but the book was twice + translated into Latin during his lifetime. The more elegant version + (known as the common edition) differs but slightly from the Spanish. + Francisco Borgia, while duke of Gandia, petitioned Paul III. to have + the book examined and approved. The pope appointed censors for both + translations, who found the work to be replete with piety and + holiness, highly useful and wholesome. Paul III. on receiving this + report confirmed it on the 31st of July 1548 by the breve _Pastoralis + officii cura_. This book, which is rightly called the spiritual arm of + the Society, was the first book published by the Jesuits. + +The progress of the Society of Jesus in Loyola's lifetime was rapid (see +JESUITS). Having always had an attraction for a life of prayer and +retirement, in 1547 he tried to resign the generalship, and again in +1550, but the fathers unanimously opposed the project. One of his last +trials was to see in 1556 the election as pope of his old opponent +Caraffa, who soon showed his intention of reforming certain points in +the Society that Ignatius considered vital. But at this difficult crisis +he never lost his peace of mind. He said: "If this misfortune were to +fall upon me, provided it happened without any fault of mine, even if +the Society were to melt away like salt in water, I believe that a +quarter of an hour's recollection in God would be sufficient to console +me and to re-establish peace within me." It is clear that Ignatius never +dreamed of putting his Society before the church nor of identifying the +two institutions. + +In the beginning of 1556 Ignatius grew very weak and resigned the active +government to three fathers, Polanco, Madrid and Natal. Fever laid hold +of him, and he died somewhat suddenly on the 31st of July 1556, without +receiving or asking for the last sacraments. He was beatified in 1609 by +Paul V. and canonized in 1628 by Gregory XV. His body lies under the +altar in the north transept of the Gesù in Rome. + +His portrait is well known. The olive complexion, a face emaciated by +austerities, the large forehead, the brilliant and small eyes, the high +bald head tell their own tale. He was of medium height and carried +himself so well that his lameness was hardly noticeable. His character +was naturally impetuous and enthusiastic, but became marked with great +self-control as he gradually brought his will under his reason. There +was always that love of overcoming difficulty inherent in a chivalrous +nature; and this also accounts for that desire of surpassing every one +else that marked his early days. Whilst other Christians, following St +Paul, were content to do all things for the glory of God, Ignatius set +himself and his followers to strive after the greater glory. Learning by +his own experience and errors, he wisely developed a sovereign prudence +which nicely adjusted means to the end in view. He impressed on his +followers the doctrine that in all things the end was to be considered. +Never would Ignatius have countenanced so perverted an idea as that the +end justified the means, for with his spiritual light and zeal for God's +glory he saw clearly that means in themselves unjust were opposed to the +very end he held in view. As a ruler he displayed the same common sense. +Obedience he made one of his great instruments, yet he never intended it +to be a galling yoke. His doctrine on the subject is found in the +well-known letter to the Portuguese Jesuits in 1553, and if this be read +carefully together with the _Constitutions_ his meaning is clear. If he +says that a subject is to allow himself to be moved and directed, under +God, by a superior just as though he were a corpse or as a staff in the +hands of an old man, he is also careful to say that the obedience is +only due in all things "wherein it cannot be defined (as it is said) +that any kind of sin appears." The way in which his teaching on +obedience is practically carried out is the best corrective of the false +ideas that have arisen from misconceptions of its nature. His high ideas +on the subject made him a stern ruler. There are certain instances in +his life which, taken by themselves, show a hardness in treating +individuals who would not obey; but as a rule, he tempered his authority +to the capacity of those with whom he had to deal. When he had to choose +between the welfare of the Society and the feelings of an individual it +was clear to which side the balance would fall. + +There was in his character a peculiar mixture of conservatism and a keen +sense of the requirements of the day. In intellectual matters he was not +in advance of his day. The Jesuit system of education, set forth in the +_Ratio studiorum_, owes nothing to him. While he did not reject any +approved learning, he abhorred any intellectual culture that destroyed +or lessened piety. He wished to secure uniformity in the judgment of the +Society even in points left open and free by the church: "Let us all +think in the same way, let us all speak in the same manner if possible." +Bartole, the official biographer of Ignatius, says that he would not +permit any innovation in the studies; and that, were he to live five +hundred years, he would always repeat "no novelties" in theology, in +philosophy or in logic--not even in grammar. The revival of learning had +led many away from Christ; intellectual culture must be used as a means +of bringing them back. The new learning in religion had divided +Christendom; the old learning of the faith, once delivered to the +saints, was to reconcile them. This was the problem that faced Ignatius, +and in his endeavour to effect a needed reformation in the individual +and in society his work and the success that crowned it place him among +the moral heroes of humanity. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The Ignatian literature is very large. Fortunately we + have in the _Acta quaedam_ what is in effect the autobiography of the + saint. This has been translated into English under the title of _The + testament of Ignatius Loyola, being sundry acts of our Father + Ignatius, under God, the first founder of the Society of Jesus, taken + down from the Saint's own lips by Luis Gonzales_ (London, 1900); and + the above account of Ignatius is taken in most places directly from + this, which is not only the best of all sources but also a valuable + corrective of the later and more imaginative works. Next to the _Acta + quaedam_ comes in value Polanco's Vita Ignatii Loiolae, which is + published in the _Monumenta historica Societatis Jesu_ now in + progress. Polanco was the saint's secretary towards the end of his + life. Ribadeneira, who as a youth had been associated with the + founder, wrote his _Vida del S. Ignacio de Loyola_ (Madrid, 1594), + based on an early Latin work (Naples, 1572). Bartole, the official + biographer, wrote his _Della vita e dell' instituto di S. Ignatio_ + (Rome, 1650, 1659); Genelli wrote _Das Leben des heiligen Ignatius von + Loyola_ (Innsbruck, 1848); Nicolas Orlandinus gives a life in the + first volume of the _Historiae Societatis Jesu_ (Rome, 1615). It would + be impossible to give a list even of the other lives, most of which + are without value as histories, being written mainly for edification. + But the student may be referred to the modern books Henri Joli's _St + Ignace de Loyola_ (Paris, 1899), which is based on the best + authorities, and to H. Müller's curious _Les Origines de la Compagnie + de Jésus_ (Paris, 1898), in which the author tries to establish a + Mahommedan origin for many of the ideas adopted by the saint. + + The literature connected with the _Spiritual Exercises_ is also large. + It will be sufficient here to mention: _A Book of Spiritual Exercises, + written by Garcias de Cisneros_ (London, 1876); the official Latin + text in the third volume of the Avignon edition of the _Constitutions_ + (1830); Roothaan's _Exercitia spiritualia S. P. Ignatii de Loyola, cum + versione litterali ex autographo Hispanico, notis illustrata_ (Namur, + 1841); Diertino, _Historia exercitiorum S. P. Ignatii de Loyola_ + (1887). Especially worthy of notice is P. Watrigant's _La Genèse des + exercices de Saint Ignace de Loyola_, republished from _Les Études_ + (20th May, 20th July, 20th October 1897). (E. Tn.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Louis de Berquin, who died on the 17th of April 1529, belonged to + a noble family of Artois. He was a man of exemplary life and a friend + of Erasmus and the humanists, besides being a _persona grata_ at the + court of Louise of Savoy and Francis I. His main offence was that he + attacked the monks and clergy, and that he advocated the reading of + the Scriptures by the people in the vulgar tongue.--(W. A. P.) + + + + +LOZENGE (from the Fr. _losenge_, or _losange_; the word also appears in +Span. _losanje_, and Ital. _losanga_; perhaps derived from a word +meaning a stone slab laid on a grave, which appears in forms such as +Provençal _lousa_, Span. _losa_, the ultimate origin of which is +unknown, the Lat. _lapis_, stone, or _laus_, praise, in the sense of +epitaph, have been suggested), properly a four equal-sided figure, +having two acute and two obtuse angles, a rhomb or "diamond." The figure +is frequently used as a bearing in heraldry and especially as a shield +so shaped on which the arms of a widow or spinster are emblazoned. It is +used also to denote the diamond-shaped facets of a precious stone when +cut, also the diamond panes of a casement window. In the 14th century +the "lozenge pattern" was a favourite design for decoration. The word is +also applied to a small tablet of sugar, originally diamond shaped, +containing either medical drugs or some simple flavouring, or to a +tablet of any concentrated substance, such as a meat-lozenge. In the +reign of James I. of Scotland (1406-1437) a Scotch gold coin having a +lozenge-shaped shield with the arms of Scotland on the obverse side was +called a "lozenge-lion." + + + + +LOZÈRE, a department of south-eastern France belonging to the central +plateau, composed of almost the whole of Gévaudan and of some portions +of the old dioceses of Uzès and Alais, districts all formerly included +in the province of Languedoc. Pop. (1906) 128,016. Area, 1999 sq. m. It +is bounded N. by Cantal and Haute-Loire, E. by Ardèche and Gard, S. by +Gard and Aveyron and W. by Aveyron and Cantal. Lozère is mountainous +throughout and in average elevation is the highest of all the French +departments. It has three distinct regions--the Cévennes proper to the +south-east, the _causses_ to the south-west and the mountain tracts +which occupy the rest of its area. The Cévennes begin (within Lozère) +with Mont Aigoual, which rises to a height of more than 5100 ft.; +parallel to this are the mountains of Bougès, bold and bare on their +southern face, but falling gently with wooded slopes towards the Tarn +which roughly limits the Cévennes on the north. To the north of the Tarn +is the range of Lozère, including the peak of Finiels, the highest point +of the department (5584 ft.). Farther on occurs the broad marshy plateau +of Montbel, which drains southward to the Lot, northwards to the Allier, +eastward by the Chassezac to the Ardèche. From this plateau extend the +mountains of La Margeride, undulating granitic tablelands partly clothed +with woods of oak, beech and fir, and partly covered with pastures, to +which flocks are brought from lower Languedoc in summer. The highest +point (Truc de Randon) reaches 5098 ft. Adjoining the Margeride hills on +the west is the volcanic range of Aubrac, a pastoral district where +horned cattle take the place of sheep; the highest point is 4826 ft. +The _causses_ of Lozère, having an area of about 564 sq. m., are +calcareous, fissured and arid, but separated from each other by deep and +well-watered gorges, contrasting with the desolate aspect of the +plateaus. The _causse_ of Sauveterre, between the Lot and the Tarn, +ranges from 3000 to 3300 ft. in height; that of Méjan has nearly the +same average altitude, but has peaks some 1000 ft. higher. Between these +two causses the Tarn valley is among the most picturesque in France. +Lozère is watered entirely by rivers rising within its own boundaries, +being in this respect unique. The climate of Lozère varies greatly with +the locality. The mean temperature of Mende (50° F.) is below that of +Paris; that of the mountains is always low, but on the _causses_ the +summer is scorching and the winter severe; in the Cévennes the climate +becomes mild enough at their base (656 ft.) to permit the growth of the +olive. Rain falls in violent storms, causing disastrous floods. On the +Mediterranean versant there are 76 in., in the Garonne basin 46 and in +that of the Loire only 28. Sheep and cattle-rearing and cheese-making +are the chief occupations. Bees are kept, and, among the Cévennes, +silkworms. Large quantities of chestnuts are exported from the Cévennes, +where they form an important article of diet. In the valley of the Lot +wheat and fruit are the chief products; elsewhere rye is the chief +cereal, and oats, barley, meslin and potatoes are also grown. Fruit +trees and leguminous plants are irrigated by small canals (_béals_) on +terraces made and maintained with much labour. Lead, zinc and antimony +are found. Saw-milling, the manufacture of wooden shoes and +wool-spinning are carried on; otherwise industries are few and +unimportant. Of mineral springs, those of Bagnols-les-Bains are most +frequented. The line of the Paris-Lyon company from Paris to Nîmes +traverses the eastern border of the department, which is also served by +the Midi railway with the line from Neussargues to Béziers via +Marvéjols. The arrondissements are Mende, Florac and Marvéjols; the +cantons number 24, the communes 198. Lozère forms the diocese of Mende +and part of the ecclesiastical province of Albi. It falls within the +region of the XVI. army corps, the circumscriptions of the _académie_ +(educational division) of Montpellier and the appeal court of Nîmes. +Mende (q.v.) is its most important town. + + + + +LUANG-PRABANG, a town of French Indo-China, capital of the Lao state of +that name, on the left bank of the Me Kong river. It lies at the foot of +the pagoda hill which rises about 200 ft. above the plain on the +promontory of land round which the Nam Kan winds to the main river. It +has a population of about 9000 and contains the "palace" of the king of +the state and several pagodas. In 1887 it was taken and sacked by the +Haw or Black Flags, robber bands of Chinese soldiery, many of them +survivors of the Taiping rebellion. In 1893 Siam was compelled to +renounce her claims to the left bank of the Me Kong, including +Luang-Prabang and the magnificent highlands of Chieng Kwang. That +portion of the state which was on the right bank of the Me Kong was not +affected by the treaty, except in so far as a portion of it fell within +the sixteen miles' zone within which Siam agreed not to keep troops. +Trade is in the hands of Chinese or Shan traders; hill rice and other +jungle products are imported from the surrounding districts by the Kha +or hill people. The exports, which include rubber, gum benjamin, silk, +wax, sticklac, cutch, cardamon, a little ebony, cinnamon, indigo, +rhinoceros and deer horns, ivory and fish roe, formerly all passed by +way of Paklai to the Me Nam, and so to Bangkok, but have now almost +entirely ceased to follow that route, the object of the French +government being to deflect the trade through French territory. +Luang-Prabang is the terminus of navigation on the upper Me Kong and the +centre of trade thereon. + + + + +LUBAO, a town in the south-western part of the province of Pampanga, +Luzon, Philippine Islands, about 30 m. N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903) +19,063. Lubao is served by the Manila & Dagupan railway, and has water +communication with Manila by tidal streams and Manila Bay. Its products +are, therefore, readily marketed. It lies in a low, fertile plain, +suited to the growing of rice and sugar. Many of the inhabitants occupy +themselves in the neighbouring nipa swamps, either preparing the nipa +leaves for use in house construction, or distilling "nipa-wine" from the +juice secured by tapping the blossom stalks. The language is Pampangan. + + + + +LÜBBEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, on +the Spree, 47 m. S.S.E. of Berlin, on the railway to Görlitz. Pop. +(1905) 7173. It is the chief town of the Spreewald, and has saw-mills +and manufactories of hosiery, shoes and paper, and is famous for its +_gurken_, or small pickling cucumbers. The poet Paul Gerhardt +(1607-1676) was pastor here and is buried in the parish church. + + + + +LÜBECK, a state and city (_Freie und Hansestadt Lübeck_) of Germany. The +_principality_ of Lübeck, lying north of the state, is a constituent of +the grand-duchy of Oldenburg (q.v.). The state is situated on an arm of +the Baltic between Holstein and Mecklenburg-Schwerin. It consists of the +city of Lübeck, the town of Travemünde, 49 villages and the country +districts, embraces 115 sq. m. of territory, and had a population in +1907 of 109,265, of which 93,978 were included in the city and its +immediate suburbs. The state lies in the lowlands of the Baltic, is +diversified by gently swelling hills, and watered by the Trave and its +tributaries, the Wakenitz and the Stecknitz. The soil is fertile, and, +with the exception of forest land (14% of the whole area), is mostly +devoted to market gardening. Trade is centred in the city of Lübeck. + +The constitution of the free state is republican, and, by the +fundamental law of 1875, amended in 1905 and again in 1907, consists of +two assemblies. (1) The Senate of fourteen members, of whom eight must +belong to the learned professions, and six of these again must be +jurists, while of the remaining six, five must be merchants. The Senate +represents the sovereignty of the state and is presided over by the +_Oberbürgermeister_, who during his two years' term of office bears the +title of "magnificence." (2) The House of Burgesses (Bürgerschaft), of +120 members, elected by free suffrage and exercising its powers partly +in its collective capacity and partly through a committee of thirty +members. Purely commercial matters are dealt with by the chamber of +commerce, composed of a _praeses_, eighteen members and a secretary. +This body controls the exchange and appoints brokers, shipping agents +and underwriters. The executive is in the hands of the Senate, but the +House of Burgesses has the right of initiating legislation, including +that relative to foreign treaties; the sanction of both chambers is +required to the passing of any new law. Lübeck has a court of first +instance (_Amtsgericht_) and a high court of justice (_Landgericht_); +from the latter appeals lie to the Hanseatic court of appeal +(_Oberlandesgericht_) at Hamburg, and from this again to the supreme +court of the empire (_Reichsgericht_) in Leipzig. The people are nearly +all Lutherans, and education is compulsory between the ages of six and +fourteen. + +The estimated revenue for the year 1908-1909 amounted to about £650,000, +and the expenditure to a like sum. The public debt amounted, in 1908, to +about £2,518,000. Lübeck has one vote in the federal council +(_Bundesrat_) of the German Empire, and sends one representative to the +imperial parliament (_Reichstag_). + +_History of the Constitution._--At the first rise of the town justice was +administered to the inhabitants by the _Vogt_ (_advocatus_) of the count +of Holstein. Simultaneously with its incorporation by Henry the Lion, +duke of Saxony, who presented the city with its own mint toll and market, +there appears a magistracy of six, chosen probably by the _Vogt_ from the +_Schöffen_ (_scabini, probi homines_). The members of the town council +had to be freemen, born in lawful wedlock, in the enjoyment of estates in +freehold and of unstained repute. Vassals or servants of any lord, and +tradespeople, were excluded. A third of the number had annually to retire +for a year, so that two-thirds formed the sitting council. By the middle +of the 13th century there were two burgomasters (_magistri burgensium_). +Meanwhile, the number of magistrates (_consules_) had increased, ranging +from twenty to forty and upwards. The council appointed its own officers +in the various branches of the administration. In the face of so much +self-government the _Vogt_ presently disappeared altogether. There were +three classes of inhabitants, full freemen, half freemen and guests or +foreigners. People of Slav origin being considered unfree, all +intermarriage with them tainted the blood; hence nearly all surnames +point to Saxon, especially Westphalian, and even Flemish descent. The +magistracy was for two centuries almost exclusively in the hands of the +merchant aristocracy, who formed the companies of traders or "nations," +such as the _Bergen-fahrer_, _Novgorod-fahrer_, _Riga-fahrer_ and +_Stockholm-fahrer_. From the beginning, however, tradesmen and +handicraftsmen had settled in the town, all of them freemen of German +parentage and with property and houses of their own. Though not eligible +for the council, they shared to a certain extent in the self-government +through the aldermen of each corporation or gild, of which some appear as +early as the statutes of 1240. Naturally, there arose much jealousy +between the gilds and the aristocratic companies, which exclusively ruled +the republic. After an attempt to upset the merchants had been suppressed +in 1384, the gilds succeeded, under more favourable circumstances, in +1408. The old patrician council left the city to appeal to the Hansa and +to the imperial authorities, while a new council with democratic +tendencies, elected chiefly from the gilds, took their place. In 1416, +however, owing to the pressure brought to bear by the Hansa, by the +emperor Sigismund and by Eric, king of Denmark, there was a restoration. +The aristocratic government was again expelled under the dictatorship of +Jürgen Wullenweber (c. 1492-1537), till the old order was re-established +in 1535. In the constitution of 1669, under the pressure of a large +public debt, the great companies yielded a specified share in the +financial administration to the leading gilds of tradesmen. Nevertheless, +the seven great companies continued to choose the magistrates by +co-optation among themselves. Three of the four burgomasters and two of +the senators, however, had henceforth to be graduates in law. The +constitution, set aside only during the French occupation, has +subsequently been slowly reformed. From 1813 the popular representatives +had some share in the management of the finances. But the reform +committee of 1814, whose object was to obtain an extension of the +franchise, had made little progress, when the events of 1848 led to the +establishment of a representative assembly of 120 members, elected by +universal suffrage, which obtained a place beside the senatorial +government. The republic has given up its own military contingent, its +coinage and its postal dues to the German Empire; but it has preserved +its municipal self-government and its own territory, the inhabitants of +which enjoy equal political privileges with the citizens. + +_The City of Lübeck._--Lübeck, the capital of the free state, was +formerly the head of the Hanseatic League. It is situated on a gentle +ridge between the rivers Trave and Wakenitz, 10 m. S.W. of the mouth of +the former in the bay of Lübeck, 40 m. by rail N.E. of Hamburg, at the +junction of lines to Eutin, Büchen, Travemünde and Strassburg (in +Mecklenburg-Schwerin) and consists of an inner town and three suburbs. +The former ramparts between the Trave and the old town ditch have been +converted into promenades. The city proper retains much of its ancient +grandeur, despite the tendency to modernize streets and private houses. +Foremost among its buildings must be mentioned its five chief churches, +stately Gothic edifices in glazed brick, with lofty spires and replete +with medieval works of art--pictures, stained glass and tombs. Of them, +the Marienkirche, built in the 13th century, is one of the finest +specimens of early Gothic in Germany. The cathedral, or _Domkirche_, +founded in 1173, contains some curious sarcophagi and a magnificent +altarpiece in one of the chapels, while the churches of St James +(_Jakobikirche_), of St Peter (_Petrikirche_) and of St Aegidius +(_Aegidienkirche_) are also remarkable. The _Rathaus_ (town hall) of red +and black glazed brick, dating from various epochs during the middle +ages, is famous for its staircase, the vaulted wine cellar of the city +council beneath and magnificent wood carving. There should also be +mentioned the _Schiffershaus_; the medieval gates (Holstentor, Burgtor); +and the Hospital of the Holy Ghost, remarkable for ancient frescoes and +altars in rich wood carving, the entrance hall of which is a +13th-century chapel, restored in 1866 and decorated in 1898. The museum +preserves the most remarkable municipal archives in existence as well as +valuable collections of historical documents. + +The poet, Emanuel Geibel (1889), and the painter, Johann Friedrich +Overbeck (1789-1869), were natives of Lübeck. This city is famous for +the number and wealth of its charitable institutions. Its position as +the first German emporium of the west end of the Baltic has been to some +extent impaired by Hamburg and Bremen since the construction of the +North Sea and Baltic Canal, and by the rapid growth and enterprise of +Stettin. In order to counterbalance their rivalry, the quays have been +extended, a canal was opened in 1900 between the Trave and the Elbe, the +river up to the wharves has been deepened to 23 ft. or more. The river +is kept open in winter by ice-breakers. A harbour was made in 1899-1900 +on the Wakenitz Canal for boats engaged in inland traffic, especially on +the Elbe and Elbe-Trave Canal. Lübeck trades principally with Denmark, +Sweden, Finland, Russia, the eastern provinces of Prussia, Great Britain +and the United States. The imports amounted in value to about £4,850,000 +in 1906 and the exports to over £10,000,000. The chief articles of +import are coal, grain, timber, copper, steel and wine, and the exports +are manufactured goods principally to Russia and Scandivania. The +industries are growing, the chief being breweries and distilleries, +saw-mills and planing-mills, shipbuilding, fish-curing, the manufacture +of machinery, engines, bricks, resin, preserves, enamelled and tin +goods, cigars, furniture, soap and leather. Pop. (1885) 55,399; (1905) +91,541. + +_History._--Old Lübeck stood on the left bank of the Trave, where it is +joined by the river Schwartau, and was destroyed in 1138. Five years +later Count Adolphus II. of Holstein founded new Lübeck, a few miles +farther up, on the peninsula Buku, where the Trave is joined on the +right by the Wakenitz, the emissary of the lake of Ratzeburg. An +excellent harbour, sheltered against pirates, it became almost at once a +competitor for the commerce of the Baltic. Its foundation coincided with +the beginning of the advance of the Low German tribes of Flanders, +Friesland and Westphalia along the southern shores of the Baltic--the +second great emigration of the colonizing Saxon element. In 1140 Wagria, +in 1142 the country of the Polabes (Ratzeburg and Lauenburg), had been +annexed by the Holtsaetas (the Transalbingian Saxons). From 1166 onwards +there was a Saxon count at Schwerin. Frisian and Saxon merchants from +Soest, Bardowiek and other localities in Lower Germany, who already +navigated the Baltic and had their factory in Gotland, settled in the +new town, where Wendish speech and customs never entered. About 1157 +Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, forced his vassal, the count of +Holstein, to give up Lübeck to him; and in 1163 he removed thither the +episcopal see of Oldenburg (Stargard), founding at the same time the +dioceses of Ratzeburg and Schwerin. He issued the first charter to the +citizens, and constituted them a free Saxon community having their own +magistrate, an advantage over all other towns of his dominions. He +invited traders of the north to visit his new market free of toll and +custom, providing his subjects were promised similar privileges in +return. From the beginning the king of Denmark granted them a settlement +for their herring fishery on the coast of Schoonen. Adopting the +statutes of Soest in Westphalia as their code, Saxon merchants +exclusively ruled the city. In concurrence with the duke's _Vogt_ +(_advocatus_) they recognized only one right of judicature within the +town, to which nobles as well as artisans had to submit. Under these +circumstances the population grew rapidly in wealth and influence by +land and sea, so that, when Henry was attainted by the emperor, +Frederick I., who came in person to besiege Lübeck in 1181, this +potentate, "in consideration of its revenues and its situation on the +frontier of the Empire," fixed by charter, dated the 19th of September +1188, the limits, and enlarged the liberties, of the free town. In the +year 1201 Lübeck was conquered by Waldemar II. of Denmark. But in 1223 +it regained its liberty, after the king had been taken captive by the +count of Schwerin. In 1226 it was made a free city of the Empire by +Frederick II., and its inhabitants took part with the enemies of the +Danish king in the victory of Bornhövede in July 1227. The citizens +repelled the encroachments of their neighbours in Holstein and in +Mecklenburg. On the other hand their town, being the principal emporium +of the Baltic by the middle of the 13th century, acted as the firm ally +of the Teutonic knights in Livonia. Emigrants founded new cities and new +sees of Low German speech among alien and pagan races; and thus in the +course of a century the commerce of Lübeck had supplanted that of +Westphalia. In connexion with the Germans at Visby, the capital of +Gotland, and at Riga, where they had a house from 1231, the people of +Lübeck with their armed vessels scoured the sea between the Trave and +the Neva. They were encouraged by papal bulls in their contest for the +rights of property in wrecks and for the protection of shipping against +pirates and slave-hunters. Before the close of the century the statutes +of Lübeck were adopted by most Baltic towns having a German population, +and Visby protested in vain against the city on the Trave having become +the court of appeal for nearly all these cities, and even for the German +settlement in Russian Novgorod. In course of time more than a hundred +places were embraced in this relation, the last vestiges of which did +not disappear until the beginning of the 18th century. From about 1299 +Lübeck presided over a league of cities, Wismar, Rostock, Stralsund, +Greifswald and some smaller ones, and this Hansa of towns became heir to +a Hansa of traders simultaneously on the eastern and the western sea, +after Lübeck and her confederates had been admitted to the same +privileges with Cologne, Dortmund and Soest at Bruges and in the +steelyards of London, Lynn and Boston. The union held its own, chiefly +along the maritime outskirts of the Empire, rather against the will of +king and emperor, but nevertheless Rudolph of Habsburg and several of +his successors issued new charters to Lübeck. As early as 1241 Lübeck, +Hamburg and Soest had combined to secure their highways against robber +knights. Treaties to enforce the public peace were concluded in 1291 and +1338 with the dukes of Brunswick, Mecklenburg and Pomerania, and the +count of Holstein. Though the great federal armament against Waldemar +IV., the destroyer of Visby, was decreed by the city representatives +assembled at Cologne in 1367, Lübeck was the leading spirit in the war +which ended with the surrender of Copenhagen and the peace concluded at +Stralsund on the 24th of May 1370. Her burgomaster, Brun Warendorp, who +commanded the combined naval and land forces, died on the field of +battle. In 1368 the seal of the city, a double-headed eagle, which in +the 14th century took the place of the more ancient ship, was adopted as +the common seal of the confederated towns (_civitates maritimae_), some +seventy in number. Towards the end of the 15th century the power of the +Hanseatic League began to decline, owing to the rise of Burgundy in the +west, of Poland and Russia in the east and the emancipation of the +Scandinavian kingdom from the union of Calmar. Still Lübeck, even when +nearly isolated, strove to preserve its predominance in a war with +Denmark (1501-12), supporting Gustavus Vasa in Sweden, lording it over +the north of Europe during the years 1534 and 1535 in the person of +Jürgen Wullenweber, the democratic burgomaster, who professed the most +advanced principles of the Reformation, and engaging with Sweden in a +severe naval war (1536-70). + +But the prestige and prosperity of the town were beginning to decline. +Before the end of the 16th century the privileges of the London +Steelyard were suppressed by Elizabeth. As early as 1425 the herring, a +constant source of early wealth, began to forsake the Baltic waters. +Later on, by the discovery of a new continent, commerce was diverted +into new directions. Finally, with the Thirty Years' War, misfortunes +came thick. The last Hanseatic diet met at Lübeck in 1630, shortly after +Wallenstein's unsuccessful attack on Stralsund; and from that time +merciless sovereign powers stopped free intercourse on all sides. Danes +and Swedes battled for the possession of the Sound and for its heavy +dues. The often changing masters of Holstein and Lauenburg abstracted +much of the valuable landed property of the city and of the chapter of +Lübeck. Towards the end of the 18th century there were signs of +improvement. Though the Danes temporarily occupied the town in 1801, it +preserved its freedom and gained some of the chapter lands when the +imperial constitution of Germany was broken up by the act of February +1803, while trade and commerce prospered for a few years. But in +November 1806, when Blücher, retiring from the catastrophe of Jena, had +to capitulate in the vicinity of Lübeck, the town was sacked by the +French. Napoleon annexed it to his empire in December 1810. But it rose +against the French in March 1813, was re-occupied by them till the 5th +of December, and was ultimately declared a free and Hanse town of the +German Confederation by the act of Vienna of the 9th of June 1815. The +Hanseatic League, however, having never been officially dissolved, +Lübeck still enjoyed its traditional connexion with Bremen and Hamburg. +In 1853 they sold their common property, the London Steelyard; until +1866 they enlisted by special contract their military contingents for +the German Confederation, and down to 1879 they had their own court of +appeal at Lübeck. Lübeck joined the North German Confederation in 1866, +profiting by the retirement from Holstein and Lauenburg of the Danes, +whose interference had prevented as long as possible a direct railway +between Lübeck and Hamburg. On the 27th of June 1867 Lübeck concluded a +military convention with Prussia, and on the 11th of August 1868 entered +the German Customs Union (_Zollverein_), though reserving to itself +certain privileges in respect of its considerable wine trade and +commerce with the Baltic ports. + + See E. Deecke, _Die Freie und Hansestadt Lübeck_ (4th ed., Lübeck, + 1881) and _Lübische Geschichten und Sagen_ (Lübeck, 1891); M. + Hoffmann, _Geschichte der Freien und Hansestadt Lübeck_ (Lübeck, + 1889-1892) and _Chronik von Lübeck_ (Lübeck, 1908); _Die Freie und + Hansestadt Lübeck_, published by _Die geographische Gesellschaft in + Lübeck_ (Lübeck, 1891); C. W. Pauli, _Lübecksche Zustände im + Mittelalter_ (Lübeck, 1846-1878); J. Geffcken, _Lübeck in der Mitte + des 16^ten Jahrhunderts_ (Lübeck, 1905); P. Hasse, _Die Anfange + Lübecks_ (Lübeck, 1893); H. Bödeker, _Geschichte der Freien und + Hansestadt Lübeck_ (Lübeck, 1898); A. Holm, _Lübeck, die Freie und + Hansestadt_ (Bielefeld, 1900); G. Waitz, _Lübeck unter Jürgen + Wullenweber_ (Berlin, 1855-1856); Klug, _Geschichte Lübecks während + der Vereinigung mit dem französischen Kaiserreich_ (Lübeck, 1857); F. + Frensdorff, _Die Stadt- und Gerichtsverfassung Lübecks im 12. und 13. + Jahrhundert_ (Lübeck, 1861); the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Lübeck_ + (Lübeck, 1843-1904); the _Lübecker Chroniken_ (Leipzig, 1884-1903); + and the _Zeitschrift des Vereins für lübeckische Geschichte_ (Lübeck, + 1860 fol.). (R. P.; P. A. A.) + + + + +LUBLIN, a government of Russian Poland, bounded N. by Siedlce, E. by +Volhynia (the Bug forming the boundary), S. by Galicia, and W. by Radom +(the Vistula separating the two). Area, 6499 sq. m. The surface is an +undulating plain of Cretaceous deposits, 800 to 900 ft. in altitude, and +reaching in one place 1050 ft. It is largely covered with forests of +oak, beech and lime, intersected by ravines and thinly inhabited. A +marshy lowland extends between the Vistula and the Wieprz. The +government is drained by the Vistula and the Bug, and by their +tributaries the Wieprz, San and Tanev. Parts of the government, being of +black earth, are fertile, but other parts are sandy. Agriculture is in +good condition. Many Germans settled in the government before +immigration was stopped in 1887; in 1897 they numbered about 26,000. +Rye, oats, wheat, barley and potatoes are the chief crops, rye and wheat +being exported. Flax, hemp, buckwheat, peas, millet and beetroot are +also cultivated. Horses are carefully bred. In 1897 the population was +1,165,122, of whom 604,886 were women. The Greek Orthodox (chiefly +Little Russians in the south-east) amounted to 20.1% of the whole; Roman +Catholics (i.e. Poles) to 62.8%; Jews to 14.2%; and Protestants to 2.8%. +The urban population was 148,196 in 1897. The estimated population in +1906 was 1,362,500. Industrial establishments consist chiefly of +distilleries, sugar-works, steam flour-mills, tanneries, saw-mills and +factories of bent-wood furniture. Domestic industries are widely +developed in the villages. River navigation employs a considerable +portion of the population. The government is divided into ten districts, +the chief towns of which, with their populations in 1897, are--Lublin, +capital of the province (50,152); Biegoray (6286); Cholm (19,236); +Hrubieszow (10,699); Yanów (7927); Krasnystaw or Kraznostav (8879); +Lubartow (5249); Nova-Alexandrya or Pulawy (3892); Samostye (12,400); +and Tomaszów (6224). + + + + +LUBLIN, a town of Russian Poland, capital of the government of the same +name, 109 m. by rail S.E. of Warsaw, on a small tributary of the Wieprz. +Pop. (1873) 28,900; (1897) 50,152. It is the most important town of +Poland after Warsaw and Lodz, being one of the chief centres of the +manufacture of thread-yarn, linen and hempen goods and woollen stuffs; +there is also trade in grain and cattle. It has an old citadel, several +palaces of Polish nobles and many interesting churches, and is the +headquarters of the XIV. army corps, and the see of a Roman Catholic +bishop. The cathedral dates from the 16th century. Of the former +fortifications nothing remains except the four gates, one dating from +1342. + +Lublin was in existence in the 10th century, and has a church which is +said to have been built in 986. During the time the Jagellon dynasty +ruled over Lithuania and Poland it was the most important city between +the Vistula and the Dnieper, having 40,000 inhabitants (70,000 according +to other authorities) and all the trade with Podolia, Volhynia and Red +Russia. Indeed, the present town is surrounded with ruins, which prove +that it formerly covered a much larger area. But it was frequently +destroyed by the Tatars (e.g. 1240) and Cossacks (e.g. 1477). In +1568-1569 it was the seat of the stormy convention at which the union +between Poland and Lithuania was decided. In 1702 another convention was +held in Lublin, in favour of Augustus II. and against Charles XII. of +Sweden, who carried the town by assault and plundered it. In 1831 Lublin +was taken by the Russians. The surrounding country is rich in +reminiscences of the struggle of Poland for independence. + + + + +LUBRICANTS. Machines consist of parts which have relative motion and +generally slide and rub against each other. Thus the axle of a cart or +railway vehicle is pressed against a metallic bearing surface supporting +the body of the vehicle, and the two opposed surfaces slide upon each +other and are pressed together with great force. If the metallic +surfaces be clean, the speed of rubbing high, and the force pressing the +surfaces together considerable, then the latter will abrade each other, +become hot and be rapidly destroyed. It is possible, however, to prevent +the serious abrasion of such opposing surfaces, and largely to reduce +the frictional resistance they oppose to relative motion by the use of +_lubricants_ (Lat. _lubricare_, _lubricus_, slippery). These substances +are caused to insinuate themselves between the surfaces, and have the +property of so separating them as to prevent serious abrasion. The solid +and semi-solid lubricants seem to act as rollers between the surfaces, +or form a film between them which itself suffers abrasion or friction. +The liquid lubricants, however, maintain themselves as liquid films +between the surfaces, upon which the bearing floats. The frictional +resistance is then wholly in the fluid. Even when lubricants are used +the friction, i.e. the resistance to motion offered by the opposing +surfaces, is considerable. In the article Friction will be found a +statement of how friction is measured and the manner in which it is +expressed. The coefficient of friction is obtained by dividing the force +required to cause the surfaces to slide over each other by the load +pressing them together. For clean unlubricated surfaces this coefficient +may be as great as 0.3, whilst for well-lubricated cylindrical bearings +it may be as small as 0.0006. Engineers have, therefore, paid particular +attention to the design of bearings with the object of reducing the +friction, and thus making use of as much as possible of the power +developed by prime movers. The importance of doing this will be seen +when it is remembered that the energy wasted is proportional to the +coefficient of friction, and that the durability of the parts depends +upon the extent to which they are separated by the lubricant and thus +prevented from injuring each other. + +There is great diversity in the shapes of rubbing surfaces, the loads +they have to carry vary widely, and the speed of rubbing ranges from +less than one foot to thousands of feet per minute. There is also a +large number of substances which act as lubricants, some being liquids +and others soft solids. In many instruments or machines where the +surfaces in contact which have to slide upon each other are only lightly +pressed together, and are only occasionally given relative motion, the +lubricant is only needed to prevent abrasion. Microscopes and +mathematical instruments are of this kind. In such cases, the lubricant +which keeps the surfaces from abrading each other is a mere +contamination film, either derived from the air or put on when the +surfaces are finished. When such lubricating films are depended upon, +the friction surfaces should be as hard as possible and, if practicable, +of dissimilar metals. In the absence of a contamination film, most +metals, if rubbed when in contact, will immediately adhere to each +other. A large number of experiments have been made to ascertain the +coefficient of friction under these imperfect conditions of lubrication. +Within wide limits of load, the friction is proportional to the pressure +normal to the surfaces and is, therefore, approximately independent of +the area of the surfaces in contact. Although the static coefficient is +often less than the kinetic at very low speeds, within wide limits the +latter coefficient decreases with increasing speed. These laws apply to +all bearings the velocity of rubbing of which is very small, or which +are lubricated with solid or semi-solid materials. + +When the speed of rubbing is considerable and the contamination film is +liable to be destroyed, resort is had to lubricants which possess the +power of keeping the surfaces apart, and thereby reducing the friction. +The constant application of such substances is necessary in the case of +such parts of machine tools as slide rests, the surfaces of which only +move relatively to each other at moderate speeds, but which have to +carry heavy loads. In all ordinary cases, the coefficient of friction of +flat surfaces, such as those of slide blocks or pivot bearings, is high, +owing to the fact that the lubricant is not easily forced between the +surfaces. In the case of cylindrical bearing surfaces, such as those of +journals and spindles, owing to the fact that the radius of the bearing +surface is greater than that of the journal or spindle, the lubricant, +if a liquid, is easily drawn in and entirely separates the surfaces (see +LUBRICATION). Fortunately, cylindrical bearings are by far the most +common and important form of bearing, and they can be so lubricated that +the friction coefficient is very low. The lubricant, owing to its +viscosity, is forced between the surfaces and keeps them entirely apart. +This property of viscosity is one of the most important possessed by +liquid lubricants. Some lubricants, such as the oils used for the light +spindles of textile machinery, are quite thin and limpid, whilst others, +suitable for steam engine cylinders and very heavy bearings, are, at +ordinary temperatures, as thick as treacle or honey. Generally speaking, +the greater the viscosity of the lubricant the greater the load the +bearing will carry, but with thick lubricants the frictional coefficient +is correspondingly high. True lubricants differ from ordinary liquids of +equal viscosity inasmuch as they possess the property of "oiliness." +This is a property which enables them to maintain an unbroken film +between surfaces when the loads are heavy. It is possessed most markedly +by vegetables and animal oils and fats, and less markedly by mineral +oils. In the case of mineral lubricating oils from the same source, the +lower the specific gravity the greater the oiliness of the liquid, as a +rule. Mixtures of mineral oil with animal or vegetable oil are largely +used, one class of oil supplying those qualities in which the other is +deficient. Thus the mineral oils, which are comparatively cheap and +possess the important property of not becoming oxidized into gummy or +sticky substances by the action of the air, which also are not liable to +cause spontaneous ignition of cotton waste, &c., and can be manufactured +of almost any desired viscosity, but which on the other hand are +somewhat deficient in the property of oiliness, are mixed with animal or +vegetable oils which possess the latter property in marked degree, but +are liable to gum and become acid and to cause spontaneous ignition, +besides being comparatively expensive and limited in quantity. Oils +which become acid attack the bearings chemically, and those which +oxidize may become so thick that they fail to run on to the bearings +properly. + +The following table shows that the permissible load on bearings varies +greatly:-- + + Description of Bearing. Load in lb. + per sq. in. + + Hard steel bearings on which the load is inter- + mittent, such as the crank pins of shearing + machines 3000 + Bronze crosshead neck journals 1200 + Crank pins of large slow engines 800-900 + Crank pins of marine engines 400-500 + Main crank-shaft bearings, slow marine 600 + Main crank-shaft bearings, fast marine 400 + Railway coach journals 300-400 + Fly-wheel shaft journals 150-200 + Small engine crank pins 150-200 + Small slide blocks, marine engines 100 + Stationary engine slide block 25-125 + Stationary engine slide block, usually 30-60 + Propeller thrust bearings 50-70 + Shafts in cast iron steps, high speed 15 + + _Solid Lubricants._--Solid substances, such as graphite or plumbago, + soapstone, &c., are used as lubricants when there is some objection to + liquids or soft solids, but the surfaces between which they are placed + should be of very hard materials. They are frequently mixed with oils + or greases, the lubricating properties of which they improve. + + _Semi-solid Lubricants._--The contrast in lubricating properties + between mineral and fatty oils exists also in the case of a pure + mineral grease like vaseline and an animal fat such as tallow, the + latter possessing in a far greater degree the property of greasiness. + A large number of lubricating greases are made by incorporating or + emulsifying animal and vegetable fats with soap and water; also by + thickening mineral lubricating oils with soap. Large quantities of + these greases are used with very good results for the lubrication of + railway waggon axles, and some of them are excellent lubricants for + the bearings of slow moving machinery. Care must be taken, however, + that they do not contain excess of water and are not adulterated with + such useless substances as china clay; also, that they melt as a + whole, and that the oil does not run down and leave the soap. This is + liable to occur with badly made greases, and hot bearings are the + result. Except in special cases, greases should not be used for + quick-running journals, shafts or spindles, on account of the high + frictional resistance which they offer to motion. In the case of fats + and greases whose melting points are not much above the temperature of + surrounding objects it generally happens that the lubricating films + are so warmed by friction that they actually melt and act as oils. + These lubricants are generally forced into the bearings by a form of + syringe fitted with a spring piston, or are squeezed between the faces + by means of a screw-plug. + + _Liquid Lubricants._--Generally speaking, all bearings which it is + necessary should run with as little friction as possible must be + supplied with liquid lubricants. These may be of animal, vegetable or + mineral origin. The mineral oils are mixtures of hydrocarbons of + variable viscosity, flashing-point, density and oiliness. They are + obtained by distillation from American, Russian and other petroleums. + The fixed oils obtained from animal and vegetable substances are not + volatile without decomposition, and are found ready made in the + tissues of animals and plants. Animal oils are obtained from the + adipose tissue by simple heat or by boiling with water. They are + usually either colourless or yellow. The oils of plants occur usually + in the seeds or fruit, and are obtained either by expression or by + means of solvents such as ether or petroleum. They are of various + shades of yellow and green, the green colour being due to the presence + of chlorophyll. The fundamental difference between fixed oils and + mineral oils exists in their behaviour towards oxygen. Mineral oils at + ordinary temperatures are indifferent to oxygen, but all fixed oils + combine with it and thicken or gum more or less, generating heat at + the same time. Such oils are, therefore, dangerous if dropped upon + silk, cotton or woollen waste or other combustible fibrous materials, + which are thus rendered liable to spontaneous ignition. + + Liquid lubricants are used for all high speed bearings. In some cases + the rubbing surfaces work in a bath of the lubricant, which can then + reach all the rubbing parts with certainty. Small engines for motor + cars or road waggons are often lubricated in this way. In the case of + individual bearings, such as those of railway vehicles, a pad of + cotton, worsted and horse hair is kept saturated with the lubricant + and pressed against the under side of the journal. The journal is thus + kept constantly wetted with oil, and the film is forced beneath the + brass as the axle rotates. In many cases, oil-ways and grooves are cut + in the bearings, and the lubricant is allowed to run by gravity into + them and thus finds its way between the opposing surfaces. To secure a + steady feed various contrivances are adopted, the most common being a + wick of cotton or worsted used as a siphon. In cases where it is + important that little if any wear should take place, the lubricant is + forced by means of a pump between the friction surfaces and a constant + film of oil is thereby maintained between them. + + For the spindles of small machines such as clocks, watches and other + delicate mechanisms, which are only lubricated at long intervals and + are often exposed to extremes of temperature, the lubricant must be a + fluid oil as free as possible from tendency to gum or thicken by + oxidation or to corrode metal, and must often have a low + freezing-point. It must also possess a maximum of "oiliness." The + lubricants mostly used for such purposes are obtained from porpoise or + dolphin jaw oils, bean oil, hazel nut oil, neatsfoot oil, sperm oil or + olive oil. These oils are exposed for some time to temperatures as low + as the mechanism is required to work at, and the portion which remains + fluid is separated and used. Free acid should be entirely eliminated + by chemical refining. A little good mineral oil may with advantage be + mixed with the fatty oil. + + For all ordinary machinery, ranging from the light ring spindles of + textile mills to the heavy shafts of large engines, mineral oils are + almost universally employed, either alone or mixed with fatty oils, + the general rule being to use pure mineral oils for bath, forced or + circulating pump lubrication, and mixed oils for drop, siphon and + other less perfect methods of lubrication. Pure mineral oils of + relatively low viscosity are used for high speeds and low pressures, + mixed oils of greater viscosity for low speeds and high pressures. In + selecting oils for low speeds and great pressures, viscosity must be + the first consideration, and next to that "oiliness." If an oil of + sufficiently high viscosity be used, a mineral oil may give a result + as good or better than a pure fixed oil; a mixed oil may give a better + result than either. If a mineral oil of sufficient viscosity be not + available, then a fixed oil or fat may be expected to give the best + result. + + In special cases, such as in the lubrication of textile machines, + where the oil is liable to be splashed upon the fabric, the primary + consideration is to use an oil which can be washed out without leaving + a stain. Pure fixed oils, or mixtures composed largely of fixed oils, + are used for such purposes. + + In other special cases, such as marine engines working in hot places, + mixtures are used of mineral oil with rape or other vegetable oil + artificially thickened by blowing air through the heated oil, and + known as "blown" oil or "soluble castor oil." + + In the lubrication of the cylinders and valves of steam, gas and oil + engines, the lubricant must possess as much viscosity as possible at + the working temperature, must not evaporate appreciably and must not + decompose and liberate fatty acids which would corrode the metal and + choke the steam passages with metallic soaps; for gas and oil engines + the lubricant must be as free as possible from tendency to decompose + and deposit carbon when heated. For this reason steam cylinders and + valves should be lubricated with pure mineral oils of the highest + viscosity, mixed with no more fixed oil than is necessary to ensure + efficient lubrication. Gas and oil engines also should be lubricated + with pure mineral oils wherever possible. + + For further information on the theory and practice of lubrication and + on the testing of lubricants, see _Friction and Lost Work in Machinery + and Mill Work_, by R. H. Thurston (1903); and _Lubrication and + Lubricants_, by L. Archbutt and R. M. Deeley (1906). (R. M. D.) + + + + +LUBRICATION. Our knowledge of the action of oils and other viscous +fluids in diminishing friction and wear between solid surfaces from +being purely empirical has become a connected theory, based on the known +properties of matter, subjected to the definition of mathematical +analysis and verified by experiment. The theory was published in 1886 +(_Phil. Trans._, 1886, 177, pp. 157-234); but it is the purpose of this +article not so much to explain its application, as to give a brief +account of the introduction of the misconceptions that so long +prevailed, and of the manner in which their removal led to its general +acceptance. + +Friction, or resistance to tangential shifting of matter over matter, +whatever the mode and arrangement, differs greatly according to the +materials, but, like all material resistance, is essentially limited. +The range of the limits in available materials has a primary place in +determining mechanical possibilities, and from the earliest times they +have demanded the closest attention on the part of all who have to do +with structures or with machines, the former being concerned to find +those materials and their arrangements which possess the highest limits, +and the latter the materials in which the limits are least. Long before +the reformation of science in the 15th and 16th centuries both these +limits had formed the subject of such empirical research as disclosed +numerous definite although disconnected circumstances under which they +could be secured; and these, however far from the highest and lowest, +satisfied the exigencies of practical mechanics at the time, thus +initiating the method of extending knowledge which was to be +subsequently recognized as the only basis of physical philosophy. In +this purely empirical research the conclusion arrived at represented the +results for the actual circumstance from which they were drawn, and thus +afforded no place for theoretical discrepancies. However, in the +attempts at generalization which followed the reformation of science, +opportunity was afforded for such discrepancies in the mere enunciation +of the circumstances in which the so-called laws of friction of motion +are supposed to apply. The circumstances in which the great amount of +empirical research was conducted as to the resistance between the clean, +plane, smooth surfaces of rigid bodies moving over each other under +pressure, invariably include the presence of air at atmospheric pressure +around, and to some extent between, the surfaces; but this fact had +received no notice in the enunciation of these laws, and this +constitutes a theoretical departure from the conditions under which the +experience had been obtained. Also, the theoretical division of the law +of frictional resistance into two laws--one dealing with the limit of +rest, and the other asserting that the friction of motion, which is +invariably less in similar circumstances than that of rest, is +independent of the velocity of sliding--involves the theoretical +assumption that there is no asymptotic law of diminution of the +resistance, since, starting from rest, the rate of sliding increases. +The theoretical substitution of ideal rigid bodies with geometrically +regular surfaces, sliding in contact under pressure at the common +regular surface, for the aërated surfaces in the actual circumstances, +and the theoretical substitution of the absolute independence of the +resistance of the rate of sliding for the limited independence in the +actual circumstances, prove the general acceptance of the +conceptions--(1) that matter can slide over matter under pressure at a +geometrically regular surface; (2) that, however much the resistance to +sliding under any particular pressure (the coefficient of friction) may +depend on the physical properties of the materials, the sliding under +pressure takes place at the geometrically regular surface of contact of +the rigid bodies; and (3) as the consequence of (1) and (2), that +whatever the effect of a lubricant, such as oil, might have, it could be +a physical surface effect. Thus not only did these general theoretical +conceptions, resulting from the theoretical laws of friction, fail to +indicate that the lubricant may diminish the resistance by the mere +mechanical separation of the surfaces, but they precluded the idea that +such might be the case. The result was that all subsequent attempts to +reduce the empirical facts, where a lubricant was used, to such general +laws as might reveal the separate functions of the complex circumstances +on which lubrication depends, completely failed. Thus until 1883 the +science of lubrication had not advanced beyond the empirical stage. + +This period of stagnation was terminated by an accidental phenomenon +observed by Beauchamp Tower, while engaged on his research on the +friction of the journals of railway carriages. His observation led him +to a line of experiments which proved that in these experiments the +general function of the lubricant was the mechanical separation of the +metal surfaces by a layer of fluid of finite thickness, thus upsetting +the preconceived ideas as expressed in the laws of the friction of +motion. On the publication of Tower's reports (_Proc. Inst. M.E._, +November 1883), it was recognized by several physicists (_B.A. Report_, +1884, pp. 14, 625) that the evidence they contained afforded a basis for +further study of the actions involved, indicating as it did the +circumstances--namely, the properties of viscosity and cohesion +possessed by fluids--account of which had not been taken in previous +conclusions. It also became apparent that continuous or steady +lubrication, such as that of Tower's experiments, is only secured when +the solid surfaces separated by the lubricant are so shaped that the +thickness at the ingoing side is greater than that at the outgoing side. + +When the general equations of viscous fluids had been shown as the +result of the labours of C. L. M. H. Navier,[1] A. L. Cauchy,[2] S. D. +Poisson,[3] A. J. C. Barré de St Venant,[4] and in 1845 of Sir G. +Gabriel Stokes,[5] to involve no other assumption than that the +stresses, other than the pressure equal in all directions, are linear +functions of the distortional rates of strain multiplied by a constant +coefficient, it was found that the only solutions of which the equations +admitted, when applied to fluids flowing between fixed boundaries, as +water in a pipe, were singular solutions for steady or steady periodic +motion, and that the conclusions they entailed, that the resistance +would be proportional to the velocity, were for the most part directly +at variance with the common experience that the resistances varied with +the square of the velocity. This discrepancy was sometimes supposed to +be the result of eddies in the fluid, but it was not till 1883 that it +was discovered by experiments with colour bands that, in the case of +geometrically similar boundaries, the existence or non-existence of such +eddies depended upon a definite relation between the mean velocity (U) +of the fluid, the distance between the boundaries, and the ratio of the +coefficient of viscosity to the density ([mu]/[rho]), expressed by +UD[rho]/[mu] = K, where K is a physical constant independent of units, +which has a value between 1900 and 2000, and for parallel boundaries D +is four times the area of the channel divided by the perimeter of the +section (_Phil. Trans._, 1883, part iii. 935-982). K is thus a criterion +at which the law of resistance to the mean flow changes suddenly (as U +increases), from being proportional to the flow, to a law involving +higher powers of the velocity at first, but as the rates increase +approaching an asymptote in which the power is a little less that the +square. + +This sudden change in the law of resistance to the flow of fluid between +solid boundaries, depending as it does on a complete change in the +manner of the flow--from direct parallel flow to sinuous eddying +motion--serves to determine analytically the circumstances as to the +velocity and the thickness of the film under which any fluid having a +particular coefficient of viscosity can act the part of a lubricant. For +as long as the circumstances are such that UD[rho]/[mu] is less than K, +the parallel flow is held stable by the viscosity, so that only one +solution is possible--that in which the resistance is the product of +[mu] multiplied by the rate of distortion, as [mu](du/dy); in this case +the fluid has lubricating properties. But when the circumstances are +such that UD[rho]/[mu] is greater than K, other solutions become +possible, and the parallel flow becomes unstable, breaks down into +eddying motion, and the resistance varies as [rho]u^n, which +approximates to [rho]u^(1.78) as the velocity increases; in this state +the fluid has no lubricating properties. Thus, within the limits of the +criterion, the rate of displacement of the momentum of the fluid is +insignificant as compared with the viscous resistance, and may be +neglected; while outside this limit the direct effects of the eddying +motion completely dominate the viscous resistance, which in its turn may +be neglected. Thus K is a criterion which separates the flow of fluid +between solid surfaces as definitely as the flow of fluid is separated +from the relative motions in elastic solids, and it is by the knowledge +of the limit on which this distinction depends that the theory of +viscous flow can with assurance be applied to the circumstance of +lubrication. + +Until the existence of this physical constant was discovered, any +theoretical conclusions as to whether in any particular circumstances +the resistance of the lubricant would follow the law of viscous flow or +that of eddying motion was impossible. Thus Tower, being unaware of the +discovery of the criterion, which was published in the same year as his +reports, was thrown off the scent in his endeavour to verify the +evidence he had obtained as to the finite thickness of the film by +varying the velocity. He remarks in his first report that, "according to +the theory of fluid motion, the resistance would be as the square of the +velocity, whereas in his results it did not increase according to this +law." The rational theory of lubrication does not, however, depend +solely on the viscosity within the interior of fluids, but also depends +on the surface action between the fluid and the solid. In many respects +the surface actions, as indicated by surface tension, are still obscure, +and there has been a general tendency to assume that there may be +discontinuity in the velocity at the common surface. But whatever these +actions may be in other respects, there is abundant evidence that there +is no appreciable discontinuity in the velocity at the surfaces as long +as the fluid has finite thickness. Hence in the case of lubrication the +velocities of the fluid at the surfaces of the solids are those of the +solid. In as far as the presence of the lubricant is necessary, such +properties as cause oil in spite of its surface tension to spread even +against gravity over a bright metal surface, while mercury will +concentrate into globules on the bright surface of iron, have an +important place in securing lubrication where the action is +intermittent, as in the escapement of a clock. If there is oil on the +pallet, although the pressure of the tooth causes this to flow out +laterally from between the surfaces, it goes back again by surface +tension during the intervals; hence the importance of using fluids with +low surface tension like oil, or special oils, when there is no other +means of securing the presence of the lubricant. + + The differential equations for the equilibrium of the lubricant are + what the differential equations of viscous fluid in steady motion + become when subject to the conditions necessary for lubrication as + already defined--(1) the velocity is below the critical value; (2) at + the surfaces the velocity of the fluid is that of the solid; (3) the + thickness of the film is small compared with the lateral dimensions of + the surfaces and the radii of curvature of the surfaces. By the first + of these conditions all the terms having [rho] as a factor may be + neglected, and the equations thus become the equations of equilibrium + of the fluid; as such, they are applicable to fluid whether + incompressible or elastic, and however the pressure may affect the + viscosity. But the analysis is greatly simplified by omitting all + terms depending on compressibility and by taking [mu] constant; this + may be done without loss of generality in a qualitative sense. With + these limitations we have for the differential equation of the + equilibrium of the lubricant:-- + + dp du dv dw \ + 0 = -- - [mu]²u, &c., &c., 0 = -- + -- + -- | + dx dx dy dz | + > (1) + / du dv \ | + 0 = p_yx - [mu] ( -- + -- ), &c., &c. | + \ dy dx / / + + These are subject to the boundary conditions (2) and (3). Taking x as + measured parallel to one of the surfaces in the direction of relative + motion, y normal to the surface and z normal to the plane of xy by + condition (3), we may without error disregard the effect of any + curvature in the surfaces. Also v is small compared with u and w, and + the variations of u and w in the directions x and z are small compared + with their variation in the direction y. The equations (1) reduce to + + dp d²u dp dp d²w du dv dw \ + 0 = -- - [mu]---, 0 = --, 0 = -- - [mu]---, 0 = -- + -- + -- | + dx dy² dy dz dy² dx dy dz | + > (2) + du dw | + 0 = p_yx - [mu]--, 0 = p_yz - [mu]--, p_xz = 0. | + dy dy / + + For the boundary conditions, putting f(x, z) as limiting the lateral + area of the lubricant, the conditions at the surfaces may be expressed + thus:-- + + when y = 0, u = U0, w = 0, v = 0 \ + dh | + when y = h, u = U1, w = 0, v1, = U1 -- + V1 > (3) + dx | + when f(x, z) = 0, p = p0 / + + Then, integrating the equations (2) over y, and determining the + constants by equations (3), we have, since by the second of equations + (2) p is independent of y, + + 1 dp h - y y \ + u = ----- -- (y - h)y + U0 ----- + U1 --- | + 2[mu] dx h h | + > (4) + 1 dp | + w = ----- -- (y - h)y | + 2[mu] dz / + + Then, differentiating equations (4) with respect to x and z + respectively, and substituting in the 4th of equations (2), and + integrating from y = 0 to y = h, so that only the values of v at the + surfaces may be required, we have for the differential equation of + normal pressure at any point x, z, between the boundaries:-- + _ _ + d / dp\ d / dp\ | dh | + --- ( h³ -- ) + --- ( h³-- ) = 6[mu] | (U0 + U1) -- + 2V1 | (5) + dx \ dz/ dz \ dz/ |_ dx _| + + Again differentiating equations (4), with respect to x and z + respectively, and substituting in the 5th and 6th of equations (2), + and putting f_x and f_z for the intensities of the tangential stresses + at the lower and upper surfaces:-- + + 1 h dp \ + f_x = [mu](U1 + U0) --- ± --- -- | + h 2 dx | + > (6) + h dp | + f_z = ± --- -- | + 2 dx / + + Equations (5) and (6) are the general equations for the stresses at + the boundaries at x, z, when h is a continuous function of x and z, + [mu] and [rho] being constant. + + For the integration of equations (6) to get the resultant stresses and + moments on the solid boundaries, so as to obtain the conditions of + their equilibrium, it is necessary to know how x and z at any point on + the boundary enter into h, as well as the equation f(x, z) = 0, which + determines the limits of the lubricating film. If y, the normal to one + of the surfaces, has not the same direction for all points of this + surface, in other words, if the surface is not plane, x and z become + curvilinear co-ordinates, at all points perpendicular to y. Since, for + lubrication, one of the surfaces must be plane, cylindrical, or a + surface of revolution, we may put x = R[theta], y = r - R, and z + perpendicular to the plane of motion. Then, if the data are + sufficient, the resultant stresses and moments between the surfaces + are obtained by integrating the intensity of the stress and moments of + intensity of stress over the surface. + + This, however, is not the usual problem that arises. What is generally + wanted is to find the thickness of the film where least (h0) and its + angular position with respect to direction of load, to resist a + definite load with a particular surface velocity. If the surfaces are + plane, the general solution involves only one arbitrary constant, the + least thickness (h0); since in any particular case the variation of h + with x is necessarily fixed, as in this case lubrication affords no + automatic adjustment of this slope. When both surfaces are curved in + the plane of motion there are at least two arbitrary constants, h0, + and [phi] the angular position of h0 with respect to direction of + load; while if the surfaces are both curved in a plane perpendicular + to the direction of motion as well as in the plane of motion, there + are three arbitrary constants, h0, [phi]0, z0. The only constraint + necessary is to prevent rotation in the plane of motion of one of the + surfaces, leaving this surface free to move in any direction and to + adjust its position so as to be in equilibrium under the load. + +The integrations necessary for the solutions of these problems are +practicable--complete or approximate--and have been effected for +circumstances which include the chief cases of practical lubrication, +the results having been verified by reference to Tower's experiments. In +this way the verified theory is available for guidance outside the +limits of experience as well as for determining the limiting conditions. +But it is necessary to take into account certain subsidiary theories. +These limits depend on the coefficient of viscosity, which diminishes as +the temperature increases. The total work in overcoming the resistance +is spent in generating heat in the lubricant, the volume of which is +very small. Were it not for the escape of heat by conduction through the +lubricant and the metal, lubrication would be impossible. Hence a +knowledge of the empirical law of the variation of the viscosity of the +lubricant with temperature, the coefficients of conduction of heat in +the lubricant and in the metal, and the application of the theory of the +flow of heat in the particular circumstances, are necessary adjuncts to +the theory of lubrication for determining the limits of lubrication. Nor +is this all, for the shapes of the solid surfaces vary with the +pressure, and more particularly with the temperature. + + The theory of lubrication has been applied to the explanation of the + slipperiness of ice (_Mem. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc._, 1899). + (O. R.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Mém. de l'Acad._ (1826), 6, p. 389. + + [2] _Mém. des sav. étrang._ l. 40. + + [3] _Mém. de l'Acad._ (1831), 10, p. 345. + + [4] _B.A. Report_ (1846). + + [5] _Cambridge Phil. Trans._ (1845 and 1857). + + + + +LUCAN [MARCUS ANNAEUS LUCANUS], (A.D. 39-65), Roman poet of the Silver +Age, grandson of the rhetorician Seneca and nephew of the philosopher, +was born at Corduba. His mother was Acilia; his father, Marcus Annaeus +Mela, had amassed great wealth as imperial procurator for the provinces. +From a memoir which is generally attributed to Suetonius we learn that +Lucan was taken to Rome at the age of eight months and displayed +remarkable precocity. One of his instructors was the Stoic philosopher, +Cornutus, the friend and teacher of Persius. He was studying at Athens +when Nero recalled him to Rome and made him quaestor. These friendly +relations did not last long. Lucan is said to have defeated Nero in a +public poetical contest; Nero forbade him to recite in public, and the +poet's indignation made him an accomplice in the conspiracy of Piso. +Upon the discovery of the plot he is said to have been tempted by the +hope of pardon to denounce his own mother. Failing to obtain a reprieve, +he caused his veins to be opened, and expired repeating a passage from +one of his poems descriptive of the death of a wounded soldier. His +father was involved in the proscription, his mother escaped, and his +widow Polla Argentaria survived to receive the homage of Statius under +Domitian. The birthday of Lucan was kept as a festival after his death, +and a poem addressed to his widow upon one of these occasions and +containing information on the poet's work and career is still extant +(Statius's _Silvae_, ii. 7, entitled _Genethliacon Lucani_). + +Besides his principal performance, Lucan's works included poems on the +ransom of Hector, the nether world, the fate of Orpheus, a eulogy of +Nero, the burning of Rome, and one in honour of his wife (all mentioned +by Statius), letters, epigrams, an unfinished tragedy on the subject of +Medea and numerous miscellaneous pieces. His minor works have perished +except for a few fragments, but all that the author wrote of the +_Pharsalia_ has come down to us. It would probably have concluded with +the battle of Philippi, but breaks off abruptly as Caesar is about to +plunge into the harbour of Alexandria. The _Pharsalia_ opens with a +panegyric of Nero, sketches the causes of the war and the characters of +Caesar and Pompey, the crossing of the Rubicon by Caesar, the flight of +the tribunes to his camp, and the panic and confusion in Rome, which +Pompey has abandoned. The second book describes the visit of Brutus to +Cato, who is persuaded to join the side of the senate, and his marriage +a second time to his former wife Marcia, Ahenobarbus's capitulation at +Corfinium and the retirement of Pompey to Greece. In the third book +Caesar, after settling affairs in Rome, crosses the Alps for Spain. +Massilia is besieged and falls. The fourth book describes the victories +of Caesar in Spain over Afranius and Petreius, and the defeat of Curio +by Juba in Africa. In the fifth Caesar and Antony land in Greece, and +Pompey's wife Cornelia is placed in security at Lesbos. The sixth book +describes the repulses of Caesar round Dyrrhachium, the seventh the +defeat of Pompey at Pharsalia, the eighth his flight and assassination +in Egypt, the ninth the operations of Cato in Africa and his march +through the desert, and the landing of Caesar in Egypt, the tenth the +opening incidents of the Alexandrian war. The incompleteness of the work +should not be left out of account in the estimate of its merits, for, +with two capital exceptions, the faults of the _Pharsalia_ are such as +revision might have mitigated or rendered. No such pains, certainly, +could have amended the deficiency of unity of action, or supplied the +want of a legitimate protagonist. The _Pharsalia_ is not true to +history, but it cannot shake off its shackles, and is rather a metrical +chronicle than a true epic. If it had been completed according to the +author's design, Pompey, Cato and Brutus must have successively enacted +the part of nominal hero, while the real hero is the arch-enemy of +liberty and Lucan, Caesar. Yet these defects, though glaring, are not +fatal or peculiar to Lucan. The false taste, the strained rhetoric, the +ostentatious erudition, the tedious harangues and far-fetched or +commonplace reflections so frequent in this singularly unequal poem, are +faults much more irritating, but they are also faults capable of +amendment, which the writer might not improbably have removed. Great +allowance should also be made in the case of one who is emulating +predecessors who have already carried art to its last perfection. +Lucan's temper could never have brooked mere imitation; his +versification, no less than his subject, is entirely his own; he avoids +the appearance of outward resemblance to his great predecessor with a +persistency which can only have resulted from deliberate purpose, but he +is largely influenced by the declamatory school of his grandfather and +uncle. Hence his partiality for finished antithesis, contrasting +strongly with his generally breathless style and turbid diction. +Quintilian sums up both aspects of his genius with pregnant brevity, +"Ardens et concitatus et sententiis clarissimus," adding with equal +justice, "Magis oratoribus quam poetis annumerandus." Lucan's oratory, +however, frequently approaches the regions of poetry, e.g. the +apotheosis of Pompey at the beginning of the ninth book, and the passage +in the same book where Cato, in the truest spirit of the Stoic +philosophy, refuses to consult the oracle of Jupiter Ammon. Though in +many cases Lucan's rhetoric is frigid, hyperbolical, and out of keeping +with the character of the speaker, yet his theme has a genuine hold upon +him; in the age of Nero he celebrates the republic as a poet with the +same energy with which in the age of Cicero he might have defended it as +an orator. But for him it might almost have been said that the Roman +republic never inspired the Roman muse. + +Lucan never speaks of himself, but his epic speaks for him. He must have +been endowed with no common ambition, industry and self-reliance, an +enthusiastic though narrow and aristocratic patriotism, and a faculty +for appreciating magnanimity in others. But the only personal trait +positively known to us is his conjugal affection, a characteristic of +Seneca also. + +Lucan, together with Statius, was preferred even to Virgil in the middle +ages. So late as 1493 his commentator Sulpitius writes: "Magnus profecto +est Maro, magnus Lucanus; adeoque prope par, ut quis sit major possis +ambigere." Shelley and Southey, in the first transport of admiration, +thought Lucan superior to Virgil; Pope, with more judgment, says that +the fire which burns in Virgil with an equable glow breaks forth in +Lucan with sudden, brief and interrupted flashes. Of late, +notwithstanding the enthusiasm of isolated admirers, Lucan has been +unduly neglected, but he has exercised an important influence upon one +great department of modern literature by his effect upon Corneille, and +through him upon the classical French drama. + + AUTHORITIES.--The _Pharsalia_ was much read in the middle ages, and + consequently it is preserved in a large number of manuscripts, the + relations of which have not yet been thoroughly made out. The most + recent critical text is that of C. Hosius (2nd ed. 1906), and the + latest complete commentaries are those of C. E. Haskins (1887, with a + valuable introduction by W. E. Heitland) and C. M. Francken (1896). + There are separate editions of book i. by P. Lejay (1894) and book + vii. by J. P. Postgate (1896). Of earlier editions those of Oudendorp + (which contains the continuation of the _Pharsalia_ to the death of + Caesar by Thomas May, 1728), Burmann (1740), Bentley (1816, + posthumous) and Weber (1829) may be mentioned. There are English + translations by C. Marlowe (book i. only, 1600), Sir F. Gorges (1614), + Thomas May (1626), N. Rowe (1718) and Sir E. Ridley (2nd ed. 1905), + the two last being the best. (R. G.; J. P. P.) + + + + +LUCANIA, in ancient geography, a district of southern Italy, extending +from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Gulf of Tarentum. To the north it +adjoined Campania, Samnium and Apulia, and to the south it was separated +by a narrow isthmus from the district of Bruttii. It thus comprised +almost all the modern province of the Basilicata, with the greater part +of the province of Salerno and a portion of that of Cosenza. The precise +limits were the river Silarus on the north-west, which separated it from +Campania, and the Bradanus, which flows into the Gulf of Tarentum, on +the north-east; while the two little rivers Laus and Crathis, flowing +from the ridge of the Apennines to the sea on the west and east, marked +the limits of the district on the side of the Bruttii. + +Almost the whole is occupied by the Apennines, here an irregular group +of lofty masses. The main ridge approaches the western sea, and is +continued from the lofty knot of mountains on the frontiers of Samnium, +nearly due south to within a few miles of the Gulf of Policastro, and +thenceforward is separated from the sea by only a narrow interval till +it enters the district of the Bruttii. Just within the frontier of +Lucania rises Monte Pollino, 7325 ft., the highest peak in the southern +Apennines. The mountains descend by a much more gradual slope to the +coastal plain of the Gulf of Tarentum. Thus the rivers which flow to the +Tyrrhenian Sea are of little importance compared with those that descend +towards the Gulf of Tarentum. Of these the most important are--the +Bradanus (Bradano), the Casuentus (Basiento), the Aciris (Agri), and the +Siris (Sinno). The Crathis, which forms at its mouth the southern limit +of the province, belongs almost wholly to the territory of the Bruttii, +but it receives a tributary, the Sybaris (Coscile), from the mountains +of Lucania. The only considerable stream on the western side is the +Silarus (Sele), which constitutes the northern boundary, and has two +important tributaries in the Calor (Calore) and the Tanager (Negro) +which joins it from the south. + +The district of Lucania was so called from the people bearing the name +Lucani (Lucanians) by whom it was conquered about the middle of the 5th +century B.C. Before that period it was included under the general name +of Oenotria, which was applied by the Greeks to the southernmost +portion of Italy. The mountainous interior was occupied by the tribes +known as Oenotrians and Chones, while the coasts on both sides were +occupied by powerful Greek colonies which doubtless exercised a +protectorate over the interior (see MAGNA GRAECIA). The Lucanians were a +southern branch of the Samnite or Sabelline race, who spoke the Osca +Lingua (q.v.). We know from Strabo that they had a democratic +constitution save in time of war, when a dictator was chosen from among +the regular magistrates. A few Oscan inscriptions survive, mostly in +Greek characters, from the 4th or 3rd century B.C., and some coins with +Oscan legends of the 3rd century (see Conway, Italic Dialects, p. 11 +sqq.; Mommsen, _C.I.L._ x. p. 21; Roehl, _Inscriptiones Graecae +Antiquissimae_, 547). The Lucanians gradually conquered the whole +country (with the exception of the Greek towns on the coast) from the +borders of Samnium and Campania to the southern extremity of Italy. +Subsequently the inhabitants of the peninsula, now known as Calabria, +broke into insurrection, and under the name of Bruttians established +their independence, after which the Lucanians became confined within the +limits already described. After this we find them engaged in hostilities +with the Tarentines, and with Alexander, king of Epirus, who was called +in by that people to their assistance, 326 B.C. In 298 B.C. (Livy x. 11 +seq.) they made alliance with Rome, and Roman influence was extended by +the colonies of Venusia (291 B.C.), Paestum (273), and above all +Tarentum (272). Subsequently they were sometimes in alliance, but more +frequently engaged in hostilities, during the Samnite wars. On the +landing of Pyrrhus in Italy (281 B.C.) they were among the first to +declare in his favour, and found themselves exposed to the resentment of +Rome when the departure of Pyrrhus left his allies at the mercy of the +Romans. After several campaigns they were reduced to subjection (272 +B.C.). Notwithstanding this they espoused the cause of Hannibal during +the Second Punic War (216 B.C.), and their territory during several +campaigns was ravaged by both armies. The country never recovered from +these disasters, and under the Roman government fell into decay, to +which the Social War, in which the Lucanians took part with the Samnites +against Rome (90-88 B.C.) gave the finishing stroke. In the time of +Strabo the Greek cities on the coast had fallen into insignificance, and +owing to the decrease of population and cultivation the malaria began to +obtain the upper hand. The few towns of the interior were of no +importance. A large part of the province was given up to pasture, and +the mountains were covered with forests, which abounded in wild boars, +bears and wolves. There were some fifteen independent communities, but +none of great importance. + +For administrative purposes under the Roman empire, Lucania was always +united with the district of the Bruttii. The two together constituted +the third region of Augustus. + + The towns on the east coast were--Metapontum, a few miles south of the + Bradanus; Heraclea, at the mouth of the Aciris; and Siris, on the + river of the same name. Close to its southern frontier stood Sybaris, + which was destroyed in 510 B.C., but subsequently replaced by Thurii. + On the west coast stood Posidonia, known under the Roman government as + Paestum; below that came Elea or Velia, Pyxus, called by the Romans + Buxentum, and Laus, near the frontier of the province towards + Bruttium. Of the towns of the interior the most considerable was + Potentia, still called Potenza. To the north, near the frontier of + Apulia, was Bantia (Aceruntia belonged more properly to Apulia); while + due south from Potentia was Grumentum, and still farther in that + direction were Nerulum and Muranum. In the upland valley of the + Tanagrus were Atina, Forum Popilii and Consilinum; Eburi (Eboli) and + Volceii (Buccino), though to the north of the Silarus, were also + included in Lucania. The Via Popillia traversed the district from N. + to S., entering it at the N.W. extremity; the Via Herculia, coming + southwards from the Via Appia and passing through Potentia and + Grumentum, joined the Via Popillia near the S.W. edge of the district: + while another nameless road followed the east coast and other roads of + less importance ran W. from Potentia to the Via Popillia, N.E. to the + Via Appia and E. from Grumentum to the coast at Heraclea. (T. As.) + + + + +LUCARIS, CYRILLUS (1572-1637), Greek prelate and theologian, was a +native of Crete. In youth he travelled, studying at Venice and Padua, +and at Geneva coming under the influence of the reformed faith as +represented by Calvin. In 1602 he was elected patriarch of Alexandria, +and in 1621 patriarch of Constantinople. He was the first great name in +the Orthodox Eastern Church since 1453, and dominates its history in the +17th century. The great aim of his life was to reform the church on +Calvinistic lines, and to this end he sent many young Greek theologians +to the universities of Switzerland, Holland and England. In 1629 he +published his famous _Confessio_, Calvinistic in doctrine, but as far as +possible accommodated to the language and creeds of the Orthodox Church. +It appeared the same year in two Latin editions, four French, one German +and one English, and in the Eastern Church started a controversy which +culminated in 1691 in the convocation by Dositheos, patriarch of +Jerusalem, of a synod by which the Calvinistic doctrines were condemned. +Lucaris was several times temporarily deposed and banished at the +instigation of his orthodox opponents and of the Jesuits, who were his +bitterest enemies. Finally, when Sultan Murad was about to set out for +the Persian War, the patriarch was accused of a design to stir up the +Cossacks, and to avoid trouble during his absence the sultan had him +killed by the Janissaries (June 1637). His body was thrown into the sea, +recovered and buried at a distance from the capital by his friends, and +only brought back to Constantinople after many years. + +The orthodoxy of Lucaris himself continued to be a matter of debate in +the Eastern Church, even Dositheos, in view of the reputation of the +great patriarch, thinking it expedient to gloss over his heterodoxy in +the interests of the Church. + + See the article "Lukaris" by Ph. Meyer in Herzog-Hauck, + _Realencyklop._ (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1902), which gives further + authorities. + + + + +LUCARNE, a French architectural term for a garret window, also for the +lights or small windows in spires. + + + + +LUCAS, SIR CHARLES (d. 1648), English soldier, was the son of Sir Thomas +Lucas of Colchester, Essex. As a young man he saw service in the +Netherlands under the command of his brother, and in the "Bishops' War" +he commanded a troop of horse in King Charles I.'s army. In 1639 he was +made a knight. At the outbreak of the Civil War Lucas naturally took the +king's side, and at the first cavalry fight, Powick Bridge, he was +wounded. Early in 1643 he raised a regiment of horse, with which he +defeated Middleton at Padbury on July 1st. In January 1644 he commanded +the forces attacking Nottingham, and soon afterwards, on Prince Rupert's +recommendation, he was made lieutenant-general of Newcastle's Northern +army. When Newcastle was shut up in York, Lucas and the cavalry remained +in the open country, and when Rupert's relieving army crossed the +mountains into Yorkshire he was quickly joined by Newcastle's squadrons. +At Marston Moor Lucas swept Fairfax's Yorkshire horse before him, but +later in the day he was taken prisoner. Exchanged during the winter, he +defended Berkeley Castle for a short time against Rainsborough, but was +soon in the field again. As lieutenant-general of all the horse he +accompanied Lord Astley in the last campaign of the first war, and, +taken prisoner at Stow-on-the-Wold, he engaged not to bear arms against +parliament in the future. This parole he must be held to have broken +when he took a prominent part in the seizure of Colchester in 1648. That +place was soon invested, and finally fell, after a desperate resistance, +to Fairfax's army. The superior officers had to surrender "at mercy," +and Lucas and Sir George Lisle were immediately tried by court martial +and sentenced to death. The two Royalists were shot the same evening in +the Castle of Colchester. + + See Lloyd, _Memoirs of Excellent Personages_ (1669); and Earl de Grey, + _A Memoir of the Life of Sir Charles Lucas_ (1845). + + + + +LUCAS, CHARLES (1713-1771), Irish physician and politician, was the son +of a country gentleman of small means in Co. Clare. Charles opened a +small business as an apothecary in Dublin, and between 1735 and 1741 he +began his career as a pamphleteer by publishing papers on professional +matters which led to legislation requiring inspection of drugs. Having +been elected a member of the common council of Dublin in 1741 he +detected and exposed encroachments by the aldermen on the electoral +rights of the citizens, and entered upon a controversy on the subject, +but failed in legal proceedings against the aldermen in 1744. With a +view to becoming a parliamentary candidate for the city of Dublin he +issued in 1748-1749 a series of political addresses in which he +advocated the principles of Molyneux and Swift; and he made himself so +obnoxious to the government that the House of Commons voted him an enemy +to the country, and issued a proclamation for his arrest, thus +compelling him to retire for some years to the continent. Having studied +medicine at Paris, Lucas took the degree of M.D. at Leiden in 1752. In +the following year he started practice as a physician in London, and in +1756 he published a work on medicinal waters, the properties of which he +had studied on the continent and at Bath. The essay was reviewed by Dr +Johnson, and although it was resented by the medical profession it +gained a reputation and a considerable practice for its author. In 1760 +he renewed his political pamphleteering; and having obtained a pardon +from George III., he proceeded to Dublin, where he received a popular +welcome and a Doctor's degree from Trinity College. He was elected +member for the city of Dublin in 1761, his colleague in the +representation being the recorder, Henry Grattan's father. On the +appointment of Lord Halifax as lord lieutenant in the same year Lucas +wrote him a long letter (19th of Sept. 1761, MSS. Irish State Paper +Office) setting forth the grievances which Ireland had suffered in the +past, chiefly on account of the exorbitant pensions enjoyed by +government officials. The cause of these evils he declared to be the +unrepresentative character of the Irish constitution; and among the +remedies he proposed was the shortening of parliaments. Lucas brought in +a bill in his first session to effect this reform, but was defeated on +the motion to have the bill sent to England for approval by the privy +council; and he insisted upon the independent rights of the Irish +parliament, which were afterwards in fuller measure successfully +vindicated by Grattan. He also defended the privileges of the Irish +Protestants in the press, and especially in the _Freeman's Journal_, +founded in 1763. His contributions to the press, and his _Addresses to +the Lord Mayor_ and other political pamphlets made him one of the most +popular writers in Ireland of his time, although he was anti-catholic in +his prejudices, and although, as Lecky observes, "there is nothing in +his remains to show that he possessed any real superiority either of +intellect or knowledge, or even any remarkable brilliancy of +expression." He died on the 4th of November 1771, and was accorded a +public funeral. As an orator Charles Lucas appears to have had little +power, and he made no mark in the House of Commons. + + See R. R. Madden, _Hist. of Irish Periodical Literature from the End + of the 17th to the Middle of the 19th Century_ (2 vols., London, + 1867); Francis Hardy, _Memoirs of the Earl of Charlemont_ (2 vols., + London, 1812); W. E. H. Lecky, _History of Ireland in the Eighteenth + Century_, vols. i. and ii. (5 vols., London, 1892). + + + + +LUCAS, JOHN SEYMOUR (1849- ), English painter, was born in London, and +was a student in the Royal Academy Schools. He was elected an associate +of the academy in 1886 and academician in 1898, and became a constant +exhibitor of pictures of historical and domestic incidents, notably of +the Tudor and Stuart periods, painted with much skill and with close +attention to detail. One of his most important works is a panel in the +Royal Exchange, presented by the corporation of London, representing +William the Conqueror granting the first charter to the city; and one of +his earlier pictures, "After Culloden: Rebel Hunting," is in the +National Gallery of British Art. + + + + +LUCAS VAN LEYDEN (c. 1494-1533), Dutch painter, was born at Leiden, +where his father Huig Jacobsz gave him the first lessons in art. He then +entered the painting-room of Cornelis Engelbrechtszen of Leiden, and +soon became known for his capacity in making designs for glass, +engraving copper-plates, painting pictures, portraits and landscapes in +oil and distemper. According to van Mander he was born in 1494, and +painted at the age of twelve a "Legend of St Hubert" for which he was +paid a dozen florins. He was only fourteen when he finished a plate +representing Mahomet taking the life of Sergius, the monk, and at +fifteen he produced a series of nine plates for a "Passion," a +"Temptation of St Anthony," and a "Conversion of St Paul." The list of +his engravings in 1510, when, according to van Mander, he was only +sixteen, includes subjects as various as a celebrated "Ecce Homo," "Adam +and Eve expelled from Paradise," a herdsman and a milkmaid with three +cows, and a little naked girl running away from a barking dog. Whatever +may be thought of the tradition embodied in van Mander's pages as to the +true age of Lucas van Leyden, there is no doubt that, as early as 1508, +he was a master of repute as a copperplate engraver. It was the time +when art found patrons among the public that could ill afford to buy +pictures, yet had enough interest in culture to satisfy itself by means +of prints. Lucas van Leyden became the representative man for the public +of Holland as Dürer for that of Germany; and a rivalry grew up between +the two engravers, which came to be so close that on the neutral market +of Italy the products of each were all but evenly quoted. Vasari +affirmed that Dürer surpassed Lucas as a designer, but that in the use +of the graver they were both unsurpassed, a judgment which has not been +reversed. But the rivalry was friendly. About the time when Dürer +visited the Netherlands Lucas went to Antwerp, which then flourished as +an international mart for productions of the pencil and the graver, and +it is thought that he was the master who took the freedom of the Antwerp +gild in 1521 under the name of Lucas the Hollander. In Dürer's diary +kept during his travels in the Low Countries, we find that at Antwerp he +met Lucas, who asked him to dinner, and that Dürer accepted. He valued +the art of Lucas at its true figure, and exchanged the Dutchman's prints +for eight florins' worth of his own. In 1527 Lucas made a tour of the +Netherlands, giving dinners to the painters of the gilds of Middleburg, +Ghent, Malines and Antwerp. He was accompanied during the trip by +Mabuse, whom he imitated in his style as well as in his love of rich +costume. On his return home he fell sick and remained ailing till his +death in 1533, and he believed that poison had been administered to him +by some envious comrade. + +A few days before his death Lucas van Leyden was informed of the birth +of a grandson, first-born of his only daughter Gretchen. Gretchen's +fourth son JEAN DE HOEY followed the profession of his grandfather, and +became well known at the Parisian court as painter and chamberlain to +the king of France, Henry IV. + + As an engraver Lucas van Leyden deserves his reputation. He has not + the genius, nor had he the artistic tact, of Dürer; and he displays + more cleverness of expression than skill in distribution or in + refinement in details. But his power in handling the graver is great, + and some of his portraits, especially his own, are equal to anything + by the master of Nüremberg. Much that he accomplished as a painter has + been lost, because he worked a good deal upon cloth in distemper. In + 1522 he painted the "Virgin and Child with the Magdalen and a Kneeling + Donor," now in the gallery of Munich. His manner was then akin to that + of Mabuse. The "Last Judgment" in the town-gallery of Leiden is + composed on the traditional lines of Cristus and Memling, with + monsters in the style of Jerom Bosch and figures in the stilted + attitudes of the South German school; the scale of colours in yellow, + white and grey is at once pale and gaudy, the quaintest contrasts are + produced by the juxtaposition of alabaster flesh in females and + bronzed skin in males, or black hair by the side of yellow, or + rose-coloured drapery set sharply against apple-green or black; yet + some of the heads are painted with great delicacy and modelled with + exquisite feeling. Dr Waagen gave a favourable opinion of a triptych + now at the Hermitage at St Petersburg, executed, according to van + Mander, in 1531, representing the "Blind Man of Jericho healed by + Jesus Christ." Here too the German critic observed the union of faulty + composition with great finish and warm flesh-tints with a gaudy scale + of colours. The same defects and qualities will be found in such + specimens as are preserved in public collections, among which may be + mentioned the "Card Party" at Wilton House, the "Penitent St Jerome" + in the gallery of Berlin, and the hermits "Paul" and "Anthony" in the + Liechtenstein collection at Vienna. There is a characteristic + "Adoration of the Magi" at Buckingham Palace. + + + + +LUCCA (anc. _Luca_), a town and archiepiscopal see of Tuscany, Italy, +capital of the province of Lucca, 13 m. by rail N.E. of Pisa. Pop. +(1901) 43,566 (town); 73,465 (commune). It is situated 62 ft. above the +level of the sea, in the valley of the Serchio, and looks out for the +most part on a horizon of hills and mountains. The fortifications, +pierced by four gates, were begun in 1504 and completed in 1645, and +long ranked among the most remarkable in the peninsula. They are still +well-preserved and picturesque, with projecting bastions planted with +trees. + +The city has a well-built and substantial appearance, its chief +attraction lying in the numerous churches, which belong in the main to a +well-marked basilican type, and present almost too richly decorated +exteriors, fine apsidal ends and quadrangular campaniles, in some cases +with battlemented summits, and windows increasing in number as they +ascend. In style they are an imitation of the Pisan. It is remarkable +that in the arcades a pillar generally occupies the middle of the +façade. The cathedral of St Martin was begun in 1063 by Bishop Anselm +(later Pope Alexander II.); but the great apse with its tall columnar +arcades and the fine campanile are probably the only remnants of the +early edifice, the nave and transepts having been rebuilt in the Gothic +style in the 14th century, while the west front was begun in 1204 by +Guidetto (lately identified with Guido Bigarelli of Como), and "consists +of a vast portico of three magnificent arches, and above them three +ranges of open galleries covered with all the devices of an exuberant +fancy." The ground plan is a Latin cross, the nave being 273 ft. in +length and 84 ft. in width, and the transepts 144 ft. in length. In the +nave is a little octagonal temple or chapel, which serves as a shrine +for the most precious of the relics of Lucca, a cedar-wood crucifix, +carved, according to the legend, by Nicodemus, and miraculously conveyed +to Lucca in 782. The Sacred Countenance (_Volto Santo_), as it is +generally called, because the face of the Saviour is considered a true +likeness, is only shown thrice a year. The chapel was built in 1484 by +Matteo Civitali, a local sculptor of the early Renaissance (1436-1501); +he was the only master of Tuscany outside Florence who worked thoroughly +in the Florentine style, and his creations are among the most charming +works of the Renaissance. The cathedral contains several other works by +him--the tomb of P. da Noceto, the altar of S. Regulus and the tomb of +Ilaria del Carretto by Jacopo della Quercia of Siena (described by +Ruskin in _Modern Painters_, ii.), the earliest of his extant works +(1406), and one of the earliest decorative works of the Renaissance. In +one of the chapels is a fine Madonna by Fra Bartolommeo; in the +municipal picture gallery are a fine "God the Father" and another +Madonna by him; also some sculptures by Civitali, and some good wood +carving, including choir stalls. In the cathedral choir is good stained +glass of 1485. The church of St Michael, founded in the 8th century, and +built of marble within and without, has a lofty and magnificent western +façade (1188)--an architectural screen rising much above the roof of the +church. The interior is good but rather bare. The church of St Martino +at Arliano near Lucca belongs to the first half of the 8th century; it +is of basilican plan (see G. T. Rivoira, _Origini dell' Architettura +Lombarda_, iii. [Rome, 1901] 138). St Frediano or Frigidian dates +originally from the 7th century, but was built in the Romanesque style +in 1112-1147, though the interior, originally with four aisles and nave, +shows traces of the earliest structure; the front occupies the site of +the ancient apse; in one of its chapels is the tomb of Santa Zita, +patroness of servants and of Lucca itself. In S. Francesco, a fine +Gothic church, is the tomb of Castruccio Castracane. San Giovanni +(originally of the 12th century), S. Cristoforo, San Romano (rebuilt in +the 17th century, by Vincenzo Buonamici), and Santa Maria Forisportam +(of the 12th century) also deserve mention. + +Among the secular buildings are the old ducal palace, begun in 1578 by +Ammanati, and now the residence of the prefect and seat of the +provincial officers and the public picture gallery; the early +Renaissance Palazzo Pretorio, or former residence of the podestà, now +the seat of the civil and correctional courts; the palace, erected in +the 15th century by a member of the Guinigi family, of brick, in the +Italian Gothic style, and now serving as a poor-house; the 16th-century +palace of the marquis Guidiccioni, now used as a depository for the +archives, the earliest documents going back to A.D. 790. The Palazzo +Mansi contains a collection of Dutch pictures. There are several other +fine late 16th-century palaces. The principal market-place in the city +(_Piazza del Mercato_) has taken possession of the arena of the ancient +amphitheatre, the outer arches of which can still be seen in the +surrounding buildings. The whole building, belonging probably to the +early Empire, measured 135 by 105 yds., and the arena 87½ by 58 yds. The +outline of the ancient theatre can be traced in the Piazza delle Grazie, +and some of its substructure walls are preserved. The ancient forum was +on the site of the Piazza S. Michele in the centre of the town; remains +of a small public building or shrine were found not far off in 1906 (L. +Pernier in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1906, p. 117). The rectangular +disposition of the streets in the centre of the town is a survival of +Roman times. Besides the academy of sciences, which dates from 1584, +there are several institutions of the same kind--a royal philomathic +academy, a royal academy of arts and a public library of 50,000 volumes. +The archiepiscopal library and archives are also important, while the +treasury contains some fine goldsmith's work, including the 14th-century +Croce dei Pisani, made by the Pisans for the cathedral. + +The river Serchio affords water-power for numerous factories. The most +important industries are the manufacture of jute goods (carried on at +Ponte a Moriano in the Serchio valley, 6 m. N. of Lucca), tobacco, silks +and cottons. The silk manufacture, introduced at Lucca about the close +of the 11th century, and in the early part of the 16th the means of +subsistence for 30,000 of its inhabitants, now gives employment (in +reeling and throwing) to only about 1500. The bulk of the population is +engaged in agriculture. The water supply is maintained by an aqueduct +built in 1823-1832 with 459 arches, from the Pisan mountains. + +The ancient Luca, commanding the valley of the Serchio, is first +mentioned as the place to which Sempronius retired in 218 B.C. before +Hannibal; but there is some doubt as to the correctness of Livy's +statement, for, though there were continual wars with the Ligurians, +after this time, it is not mentioned again until we are told that in 177 +B.C. a Latin colony was founded there in territory offered by the Pisans +for the purpose.[1] It must have become a municipium by the _lex Julia_ +of 90 B.C., and it was here that Julius Caesar in 56 B.C. held his +famous conference with Pompey and Crassus, Luca then being still in +Liguria, not in Etruria. A little later a colony was conducted hither by +the triumvirs or by Octavian; whether after Philippi or after Actium is +uncertain. In the Augustan division of Italy Luca was assigned to the +7th region (Etruria); it is little mentioned in the imperial period +except as a meeting-point of roads--to Florentia (see Clodia, Via), Luna +and Pisae. The road to Parma given in the itineraries, according to some +authorities, led by Luna and the Cisa pass (the route taken by the +modern railway from Sarzana to Parma), according to others up the +Serchio valley and over the Sassalbo pass (O. Cuntz in _Jahreshefte des +oesterr. arch. Instituts_, 1904, 53). Though plundered and deprived of +part of its territory by Odoacer, Luca appears as an important city and +fortress at the time of Narses, who besieged it for three months in A.D. +553, and under the Lombards it was the residence of a duke or marquis +and had the privilege of a mint. The dukes gradually extended their +power over all Tuscany, but after the death of the famous Matilda the +city began to constitute itself an independent community, and in 1160 it +obtained from Welf VI., duke of Bavaria and marquis of Tuscany, the +lordship of all the country for 5 m. round, on payment of an annual +tribute. Internal discord afforded an opportunity to Uguccione della +Faggiuola, with whom Dante spent some time there, to make himself master +of Lucca in 1314, but the Lucchesi expelled him two years afterwards, +and handed over their city to Castruccio Castracane, under whose +masterly tyranny it became "for a moment the leading state of Italy," +until his death in 1328 (his tomb is in S. Francesco). Occupied by the +troops of Louis of Bavaria, sold to a rich Genoese Gherardino Spinola, +seized by John, king of Bohemia, pawned to the Rossi of Parma, by them +ceded to Martino della Scala of Verona, sold to the Florentines, +surrendered to the Pisans, nominally liberated by the emperor Charles +IV. and governed by his vicar, Lucca managed, at first as a democracy, +and after 1628 as an oligarchy, to maintain "its independence alongside +of Venice and Genoa, and painted the word Libertas on its banner till +the French Revolution." In the beginning of the 16th century one of its +leading citizens, Francesco Burlamacchi, made a noble attempt to give +political cohesion to Italy, but perished on the scaffold (1548); his +statue by Ulisse Cambi was erected on the Piazza San Michele in 1863. As +a principality formed in 1805 by Napoleon in favour of his sister Elisa +and her husband Bacchiocchi, Lucca was for a few years wonderfully +prosperous. It was occupied by the Neapolitans in 1814; from 1816 to +1847 it was governed as a duchy by Maria Luisa, queen of Etruria, and +her son Charles Louis; and it afterwards formed one of the divisions of +Tuscany. + +The bishops of Lucca, who can be traced back to 347, received +exceptional marks of distinction, such as the pallium in 1120, and the +archiepiscopal cross from Alexander II. In 1726 Benedict XIII. raised +their see to the rank of an archbishopric, without suffragans. + + See A. Mazzarosa, _Storia di Lucca_ (Lucca, 1833); E. Ridolfi, _L'Arte + in Lucca studiata nella sua Cattedrale_ (1882); _Guidi di Lucca; La + Basilica di S. Michele in Foro in Lucca_. (T. As.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Some confusion has arisen owing to the similarity of the names + Luca and Luna; the theory of E. Bormann in _Corp. Inscrip. Latin_. + (Berlin, 1888), xi. 295 is here followed. + + + + +LUCCA, BAGNI DI (Baths of Lucca, formerly _Bagno a Corsena_), a commune +of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Lucca, containing a number of +famous watering-places. Pop. (1901) 13,685. The springs are situated in +the valley of the Lima, a tributary of the Serchio; and the district is +known in the early history of Lucca as the Vicaria di Val di Lima. Ponte +Serraglio (16 m. N. of Lucca by rail) is the principal village (pop. +1312), but there are warm springs and baths also at Villa, Docce Bassi, +Bagno Caldo, &c. The springs do not seem to have been known to the +Romans. Bagno a Corsena is first mentioned in 1284 by Guidone de +Corvaia, a Pisan historian (Muratori, _R.I.S._ vol. xxii.). Fallopius, +who gave them credit for the cure of his own deafness, sounded their +praises in 1569; and they have been more or less in fashion since. The +temperature of the water varies from 98° to 130° Fahr.; in all cases it +gives off carbonic acid gas and contains lime, magnesium and sodium +products. In the village of Bagno Caldo there is a hospital constructed +largely at the expense of Nicholas Demidoff in 1826. In the valley of +the Serchio, 3 m. below Ponte a Serraglio, is the medieval Ponte del +Diavolo (1322) with its lofty central arch. + + + + +LUCCEIUS, LUCIUS, Roman orator and historian, friend and correspondent +of Cicero. A man of considerable wealth and literary tastes, he may be +compared with Atticus. Disgusted at his failure to become consul in 60, +he retired from public life, and devoted himself to writing a history of +the Social and Civil Wars. This was nearly completed, when Cicero +earnestly requested him to write a separate history of his (Cicero's) +consulship. Cicero had already sung his own praises in both Greek and +Latin, but thought that a panegyric by Lucceius, who had taken +considerable interest in the affairs of that critical period, would have +greater weight. Cicero offered to supply the material, and hinted that +Lucceius need not sacrifice laudation to accuracy. Lucceius almost +promised, but did not perform. Nothing remains of any such work or of +his history. In the civil war he took the side of Pompey; but, having +been pardoned by Caesar, returned to Rome, where he lived in retirement +until his death. + + Cicero's _Letters_ (ed. Tyrrell and Purser), especially _Ad Fam._ v. + 12; and Orelli, _Onomasticon Tullianum_. + + + + +LUCCHESINI, GIROLAMO (1751-1825), Prussian diplomatist, was born at +Lucca on the 7th of May 1751, the eldest son of Marquis Lucchesini. In +1779 he went to Berlin where Frederick the Great gave him a court +appointment, making use of him in his literary relations with Italy. +Frederick William II., who recognized his gifts for diplomacy, sent him +in 1787 to Rome to obtain the papal sanction for the appointment of a +coadjutor to the bishop of Mainz, with a view to strengthening the +German Fürstenbund. In 1788 he was sent to Warsaw, and brought about a +rapprochement with Prussia and a diminution of Russian influence at +Warsaw. He was accredited ambassador to the king and republic of Poland +on the 12th of April 1789. Frederick William was at that time +intriguing with Turkey, then at war with Austria and Russia. Lucchesini +was to rouse Polish feeling against Russia, and to secure for Prussia +the concourse of Poland in the event of war with Austria and Russia. All +his power of intrigue was needed in the conduct of these hazardous +negotiations, rendered more difficult by the fact that Prussian policy +excluded the existence of a strong Polish government. A Prusso-Polish +alliance was concluded in March 1790. Lucchesini had been sent in +January of that year to secure the alliance of Saxony against Austria, +and in September he was sent to Sistova, where representatives of the +chief European powers were engaged in settling the terms of peace +between Austria and Turkey, which were finally agreed upon on the 4th of +August 1791. Before he returned to Warsaw the Polish treaty of which he +had been the chief author had become a dead letter owing to the +engagements made between Prussia and Austria at Reichenbach in July +1790, and Prussia was already contemplating the second partition of +Poland. He was recalled at the end of 1791, and in July 1792 he joined +Frederick William in the invasion of France. He was to be Prussian +ambassador in Paris when the allied forces should have reinstated the +authority of Louis XVI. He was opposed alike to the invasion of France +and the Austrian alliance, but his prepossessions did not interfere with +his skilful conduct of the negotiations with Kellermann after the allies +had been forced to retire by Dumouriez's guns at Valmy, nor with his +success in securing the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt's assistance +against France. In 1793 he was appointed ambassador to Vienna, with the +ostensible object of securing financial assistance for the Rhenish +campaign. He accompanied Frederick William through the Polish campaign +of 1793-94, and in the autumn returned to Vienna. His anti-Austrian bias +made him extremely unpopular with the Austrian court, which asked in +vain for his recall in 1795. In 1797, after a visit to Italy in which he +had an interview with Napoleon at Bologna, these demands were renewed +and acceded to. In 1800 he was sent by Frederick William III. on a +special mission to Paris. Despatches in which he expressed his distrust +of Bonaparte's peaceful professions and his conviction of the danger of +the continuance of a neutral policy were intercepted by the first +consul, who sought his recall, but eventually accepted him as regular +ambassador (1802). He consistently sought friendly relations between +France and Prussia, but he warned his government in 1806 of Napoleon's +intention of restoring Hanover to George III. and of Murat's aggressions +in Westphalia. He was superseded as ambassador in Paris in September +just before the outbreak of war. After the disaster of Jena on the 14th +of October he had an interview with Duroc near Wittenberg to seek terms +of peace. After two unsuccessful attempts at negotiation, the first +draft being refused by Napoleon, the second by Frederick William, he +joined the Prussian court at Königsberg only to learn that his services +were no longer required. He then joined the court of Elisa, grand +duchess of Tuscany, at Lucca and Florence, and after Napoleon's fall +devoted himself to writing. He died on the 20th of October 1825. + + He published in 1819 three volumes, _Sulle cause et gli effetti della + confederazione rhenana_, at Florence, but revealed little that was not + already available in printed sources. His memoirs remained in MS. His + despatches are edited by Bailleu in _Preussen und Frankreich_ + (Leipzig, 1887, _Publikationen aus den preussischen Staatsarchiven_). + + + + +LUCENA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Cordova, 37 m. +S.S.E. of Cordova, on the Madrid-Algeciras railway. Pop. (1900) 21,179. +Lucena is situated on the Cascajar, a minor tributary of the Genil. The +parish church dates from the beginning of the 16th century. The chief +industries are the manufacture of matches, brandy, bronze lamps and +pottery, especially the large earthenware jars (_tinajas_) used +throughout Spain for the storage of oil and wine, some of which hold +more than 300 gallons. There is considerable trade in agricultural +produce, and the horse fair is famous throughout Andalusia. Lucena was +taken from the Moors early in the 14th century; it was in the attempt to +recapture it that King Boabdil of Granada was taken prisoner in 1483. + + + + +LUCERA, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, 12½ m. W.N.W. by rail +of Foggia. Pop. (1901) 16,962. It is situated upon a lofty plateau, the +highest point of which (823 ft.), projecting to the W., was the ancient +citadel, and is occupied by the well-preserved castle erected by +Frederick II., and rebuilt by Pierre d'Angicourt about 1280. The +cathedral, originally Romanesque, but restored after 1300 is in the +Gothic style; the façade is good, and so is the ciborium. The interior +was restored in 1882. The town occupies the site of the ancient Luceria, +the key of the whole country. According to tradition the temple of +Minerva, founded by Diomede, contained the Trojan Palladium, and the +town struck numerous bronze coins; but in history it is first heard of +as on the Roman side in the Samnite Wars (321 B.C.), and in 315 or 314 +B.C. a Latin colony was sent here. It is mentioned in subsequent +military history, and its position on the road from Beneventum, via +Aecae (mod. _Troja_) to Sipontum, gave it some importance. Its wool was +also renowned. It now contains no ancient remains above ground, though +several mosaic pavements have been found and there are traces of the +foundations of an amphitheatre outside the town on the E. The town-hall +contains a statue of Venus, a mosaic and some inscriptions (but cf. Th. +Mommsen's remarks on the local neglect of antiquities in _Corp. Inscr. +Lat._ ix. 75). In 663 it was destroyed by Constans II., and was only +restored in 1223 by Frederick II., who transported 20,000 Saracens +hither from Sicily. They were at first allowed religious freedom, but +became Christians under compulsion in 1300. Up to 1806 Lucera was the +capital of the provinces of Basilicata and Molise. (T. As.) + + + + +LUCERNE (Ger. _Luzern_; Ital. _Lucerna_), one of the cantons of central +Switzerland. Its total area is 579.3 sq. m., of which 530.2 sq. m. are +classed as "productive" (forests covering 120.4 sq. m., and vineyards +.04 sq. m.). It contains no glaciers or eternal snows, its highest +points being the Brienzer Rothhorn (7714 ft.) and Pilatus (6995 ft.), +while the Rothstock summit (5453 ft.) and the Kaltbad inn, both on the +Rigi, are included in the canton, the loftiest point of the Rigi range +(the Kulm) being entirely in Schwyz. The shape of the canton is an +irregular quadrilateral, due to the gradual acquisition of rural +districts by the town, which is its historical centre. The northern +portion, about 15½ sq. m., of the Lake of Lucerne is in the canton. Its +chief river is the Reuss, which flows through it for a short distance +only receiving the Kleine Emme that flows down through the Entlebuch. In +the northern part the Wigger, the Suhr and the Wynen streams flow +through shallow valleys, separated by low hills. The canton is fairly +well supplied with railways. The lakes of Sempach and Baldegg are wholly +within the canton, which also takes in small portions of those of +Hallwil and of Zug. + +In 1900 the population numbered 146,519, of which 143,337 were +German-speaking, 2204 Italian-speaking and 747 French-speaking, while +134,020 were Romanists, 12,085 Protestants and 319 Jews. Its capital is +Lucerne (q.v.); the other towns are Kriens (pop. 5951), Willisau (4131), +Ruswil (3928), Littau (3699), Emmen (3162) and Escholzmatt (3127). The +peasants are a fine race, and outside the chief centres for foreign +visitors have retained much of their primitive simplicity of manners and +many local costumes. In the Entlebuch particularly the men are of a +robust type, and are much devoted to wrestling and other athletic +exercises. That district is mainly pastoral and is famous for its butter +and cheese. Elsewhere in the canton the pastoral industry (including +swine-breeding) is more extended than agriculture, while chiefly in and +around Lucerne there are a number of industrial establishments. The +_industrie des étrangers_ is greatly developed in places frequented by +foreign visitors. The population as a whole is Conservative in politics +and devotedly Romanist in religion. But owing to the settlement of many +non-Lucerne hotel-keepers and their servants in the town of Lucerne the +capital is politically Radical. + +The canton ranks officially third in the Swiss confederation next after +Zürich and Bern. It was formerly in the diocese of Constance, and is now +in that of Basel. It contains 5 administrative districts and 107 +communes. The existing cantonal constitution dates in its main features +from 1875. The legislature or _Grossrath_ consists of members elected in +55 electoral circles, in the proportion of 1 to every 1000 souls (or +fraction over 500) of the Swiss population, and lasts for 4 years. On +the 4th of April 1909 proportional representation was adopted for +elections of members of the _Grossrath_. Since 1905 the executive of 7 +members is elected by a popular vote for 4 years, as are the 2 members +of the federal _Ständerath_ and the 7 members of the federal +_Nationalrath_. Five thousand citizens can demand a facultative +referendum as to all legislative projects and important financial +decrees, or as to the revision of the cantonal constitution, while the +same number can also revoke the mandate of the cantonal legislature +before its proper term of office has ended, though this revocation does +not affect the executive. Four thousand citizens have the right of +"initiative" as to constitutional amendments or legislative projects. + +The canton is composed of the various districts which the town acquired, +the dates being those at which the particular region was finally +secured--Weggis (1380), Rothenburg, Kriens, Horw, Sempach and Hochdorf +(all in 1394), Wolhusen and the Entlebuch (1405), the so-called +"Habsburger region" to the N.E. of the town of Lucerne (1406), Willisau +(1407), Sursee and Beromünster (1415), Malters (1477) and Littau (1481), +while in 1803, in exchange for Hitzkirch, Merenschwand (held since 1397) +was given up. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +LUCERNE, the capital of the Swiss canton of the same name. It is one of +the principal tourist centres of Switzerland, being situated on the St +Gotthard railway line, by which it is 59 m. from Basel and 180 m. from +Milan. Its prosperity has always been bound up with the St Gotthard +Pass, so that the successive improvements effected on that route (mule +path in the 13th century, carriage road 1820-1830, and railway tunnel in +1882) have had much effect on its growth. It is beautifully situated on +the banks of the river Reuss, just as it issues from the Lake of +Lucerne, while to the south-west rises the rugged range of Pilatus, +balanced on the east by the more smiling ridge of the Rigi and the calm +waters of the lake. The town itself is very picturesque. On the rising +ground to its north still stand nine of the towers that defended the old +town wall on the Musegg slope. The Reuss is still crossed by two quaint +old wooden bridges, the upper being the Kapellbrücke (adorned by many +paintings illustrating the history of Switzerland and the town and +clinging to the massive Wasserthurm) and the lower the Mühlenbrücke +(also with paintings, this time of the Dance of Death). The old +Hofbrücke (on the site of the Schweizerhof quay) was removed in 1852, +when the process of embanking the shore of the lake began, the result +being a splendid series of quays, along which rise palatial hotels. The +principal building is the twin-towered Hofkirche (dedicated to St Leger +or Leodegar) which, though in its present form it dates only from +1633-1635, was the centre round which the town gradually gathered; +originally it formed part of a Benedictine monastery, but since 1455 has +been held by a college of secular canons. It has a fine 17th-century +organ. The 16th-century town-hall (Rathhaus) now houses the cantonal +museum of antiquities of all dates. Both the cantonal and the town +libraries are rich in old books, the latter being now specially devoted +to works (MS. or printed) relating to Swiss history before 1848. The +Lion monument, designed by Thorwaldsen, dedicated in 1821, and +consisting of a dying lion hewn out of the living sandstone, +commemorates the officers and men of the Swiss Guard (26 officers and +about 760 men) who were slain while defending the Tuileries in Paris in +1792, and is reflected in a clear pool at its foot. In the immediate +neighbourhood is the Glacier Garden, a series of potholes worn in the +sandstone rock bed of an ancient glacier. Among modern buildings are the +railway station, the post office and the Museum of War and Peace, all in +the new quarter on the left bank of the Reuss. In the interior of the +town are many quaint old private houses. In 1799 the population numbered +but 4337, but had doubled by 1840. Since then the rise has been rapid +and continuous, being 29,255 in 1900. The vast majority are +German-speaking (in 1900 there were 1242 Italian-speaking and 529 +French-speaking persons) and Romanists (in 1900 there were 4933 +Protestants and 299 Jews). + +The nucleus of the town was a Benedictine monastery, founded about 750 +on the right bank of the Reuss by the abbey of Murbach in Alsace, of +which it long remained a "cell." It is first mentioned in a charter of +840 under the name of "Luciaria," which is probably derived from that of +the patron saint of the monastery, St Leger or Leodegar (in O. Ger. +_Leudegar_ or _Lutgar_)--the form "Lucerrun" is first found in 1252. +Under the shadow of this monastery there grew up a small village. The +germs of a municipal constitution appear in 1252, while the growing +power of the Habsburgs in the neighbourhood weakened the ties that bound +Lucerne to Murbach. In 1291 the Habsburgs finally purchased Lucerne from +Murbach, an act that led a few weeks later to the foundation of the +Swiss Confederation, of which Lucerne became the fourth member (the +first town to be included) in 1332. But it did not get rid of all traces +of Habsburg domination till after the glorious victory of Sempach +(1386). That victory led also to the gradual acquisition of territory +ruled by and from the town. At the time of the Reformation Lucerne clave +to the old faith, of which ever since it has been the great stronghold +in Switzerland. The papal nuncio resided here from 1601 to 1873. In the +16th century, as elsewhere in Switzerland, the town government fell into +the hands of an aristocratic oligarchy, whose power, though shaken by +the great peasant revolt (1653) in the Entlebuch, lasted till 1798. +Under the Helvetic republic (1798-1803) Lucerne was the seat of the +central government, under the Act of Mediation (1803-1814) one of the +six "Directorial" cantons and from 1815 to 1848 one of the three ruling +cantons. The patrician government was swept away by the cantonal +constitution of 1831. But in 1841 the Conservatives regained power, +called in the Jesuits (1844) and so brought about the Sonderbund War +(1847) in which they were defeated, the decisive battle taking place at +Gisikon, not far from Lucerne. Since 1848 Lucerne has been in disfavour +with the Radicals who control the federal government, and has not been +chosen as the site of any great federal institution. The Radicals lost +power in the canton in 1871, after which date the Conservatives became +predominant in the canton, though in the town the Radicals were in the +majority. + + See J. J. Blumer, _Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte d. Schweiz. + Demokratien_ (3 vols., St Gall, 1850-1859); A. L. Gassmann, _Das + Volkslied im Luzerner Wiggerthal u. Hinterland_ (Basel, 1906); + _Geschichtsfreund_ (organ of the Historical Society of the Forest + Cantons) from 1843. A. von Liebenau, _Charakterbilder aus Luzern's + Vergangenheit_ (2 vols., Lucerne, 1884-1891); T. von Liebenau, _Das + alte Luzern_ (Lucerne, 1881) and "Der luzernische Bauernkrieg vom + 1653" (3 articles in vols. xviii.-xx., 1893-1895, of the _Jahrbuch f. + Schweizerische Geschichte_); _Heimathkunde für den Kanton Luzern_ (6 + vols., Lucerne, 1867-1883); A. Lütolf, _Sagen, Bräuche, Legenden aus + d. Fünf Orten_ (Lucerne, 1862); K. Pfyffer, _Der Kanton Luzern_ (2 + vols., 1858-1859) and _Geschichte d. Stadt u. Kanton Luzern_ (2 vols., + new ed., 1861); A. P. von Segesser, _Rechtsgeschichte d. Stadt u. + Republik Luzern_ (4 vols., 1850-1858) and _45 Jahre (1841-1887) im + Luzernischen Staatsdienst_ (Bern, 1887); J. Sowerby, _The Forest + Cantons of Switzerland_ (London, 1892). (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +LUCERNE, LAKE OF, the name usually given by foreigners to the principal +lake of Central Switzerland. In French it is called the _Lac des Quatre +Cantons_, and in German the _Vierwaldstättersee_, this term being often +wrongly translated "Lake of the Four Forest Cantons," whereas it means +the "Lake of the Four Valleys"--_valles_--which form the four Cantons of +Lucerne, Unterwalden, Uri and Schwyz. It takes its name from the town of +Lucerne, which is situated at its west end, just where the Reuss issues +from the lake, after having entered it at Flüelen at the east end and so +practically formed it; the Muota enters the lake at Brunnen (northern +shore) and the two mountain streams called the Engelberg and the Sarnen +Aa at Buochs and Alpnachstad respectively (S.). The lake is generally +supposed to be, on the whole, the most beautiful in Switzerland. This is +partly due to the steep limestone mountains between which it lies, the +best known being the Rigi (5906 ft.) to the N., and Pilatus (6995 ft.) +to the S.W., and to the great promontories that thrust themselves into +its waters, such as those of Horw (S.), of Bürgenstock (S.), of +Meggenhorn (N.) and of Seelisberg (S.), and partly to the irregularity +of its shape. It is, in fact, composed of four main basins (with two +side basins), which represent four different valleys, orographically +distinct, and connected only by narrow and tortuous channels. There is, +first, the most easterly basin, the _Bay of Uri_, extending from Flüelen +on the south to Brunnen on the north. At Brunnen the great delta of the +Muota forces the lake to the west, so that it forms the _Bay of Gersau_ +or the _Gulf of Buochs_, extending from the promontory of Seelisberg +(E.) to that of the Bürgenstock (W.). Another narrow strait between the +two "Noses" (_Nasen_) leads westwards to the _Basin of Weggis_, enclosed +between the Rigi (N.) and the Bürgenstock promontory (S.). This last +named bay forms the eastern arm of what is called the Cross of Lucerne, +the western arm of which is formed by the Bay of Lucerne, while the +northern arm is the Bay of Küssnacht and the southern that of +_Hergiswil_, prolonged S.W. by the _Bay of Alpnach_, with which it is +joined by a very narrow channel, spanned by the Acher iron bridge. The +Bay of Uri offers the sternest scenery, but is the most interesting, by +reason of its connexion with early Swiss history--at Brunnen the +Everlasting League of 1315 was really made, while the legendary place of +meeting of the founders of Swiss freedom was the meadow of the Rütli on +the west (purchased by the Confederation in 1859), and the site of +Tell's leap is marked by the Chapel of Tell (E.). Nearly opposite +Brunnen, close to the west shore, an isolated rock (the _Schillerstein_ +or _Mythenstein_) now bears an inscription in honour of Friedrich +Schiller, the author of the famous play of _William Tell_ (1804). In the +Bay of Gersau the most interesting spot is the village of Gersau (N.), +which formed an independent republic from 1390 to 1798, but in 1818 was +finally united to the canton of Schwyz. In the next basin to the west is +Weggis (N.), also for long in the middle ages a small independent state; +to the S.E. of Weggis, on the north shore of the lake, is Vitznau, +whence a rack railway (1871) leads up to the top of the Rigi (4¼ m.), +while S.W. of Weggis, on the south shore of the lake, is Kehrsiten, +whence an electric railway leads up to the great hotels on the +Bürgenstock promontory (2854 ft.). The town of Lucerne is connected with +Flüelen by the main line of the St Gotthard railway (32 m.), though only +portions of this line (from Lucerne to Küssnacht, 10½ m., and from +Brunnen to Flüelen, 7 m.) run along the shore; Brunnen is also connected +with Flüelen by the splendid carriage road known as the Axenstrasse (7¼ +m.) and is the starting-point of an electric line (1905) up to Morschach +(S.E.) and the great hotels of Axenstein and Axenfels near it. On the +promontory between Lucerne and Küssnacht stands the castle of New +Habsburg (modern), while from Küssnacht a carriage road leads through +the remains of the "Hollow Way" (_Hohle Gasse_), the scene of the +legendary murder of Gessler by William Tell. The west shore of the +southern arm, or the basin of Hergiswil and the Bay of Alpnach, is +traversed from Horw to Alpnachstad by the Brünig railway (5½ m.), which +continues towards Sarnen (Obwalden) and the Bernese Oberland, S.W. from +Alpnachstad, whence a rack railway leads N.W. up Pilatus (2¾ m.). +Opposite Hergiswil, but on the east shore of the Basin of Hergiswil, is +Stanstad, the port of Stans (Nidwalden), which is connected by an +electric line with Engelberg (14 m.). The first steamer was placed on +the lake in 1835. Lucerne is the only town of importance, but several +spots serve as ports for neighbouring towns or large villages (Brunnen +for Schwyz, Flüelen for Altdorf, Stanstad for Stans, Alpnachstad for +Sarnen). Most of the villages on the shores are frequented in summer by +visitors (Gersau also in winter), especially Hertenstein, Weggis, +Gersau, Brunnen, Beckenried and Hergiswil, while great hotels, +commanding magnificent views, have been built on heights above it, such +as the Bürgenstock, Seelisberg, and near Morschach, above Brunnen, +besides those on the Rigi, Pilatus and the Stanserhorn. The area of the +lake is about 44½ sq. m., its length about 24 m., its greatest width +only 2 m. and its greatest depth 702 ft., while the surface of the water +is 1434 ft. above sea-level. Of the total area about 15½ sq. m. are in +the Canton of Lucerne, 13 sq. m. in that of Nidwalden, 7½ sq. m. in that +of Uri, 7½ sq. m. in that of Schwyz, and about 1 sq. m. in that of +Obwalden. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +LUCERNE, PURPLE MEDICK or ALFALFA, known botanically as _Medicago +sativa_, a plant of the natural order Leguminosae. In England it is +still commonly called "lucerne," but in America "alfalfa," an Arabic +term ("the best fodder"), which, owing to its increasing cultivation in +the western hemisphere, has come into widening usage since the +introduction of the plant by the Spaniards. It is an erect perennial +herb with a branched hollow stem 1 to 2 ft. high, trifoliolate leaves, +short dense racemes of small yellow, blue or purple flowers, and downy +pods coiled two or three times in a loose spiral. It has a +characteristic long tap-root, often extending 15 ft. or more into the +soil. It is a native of the eastern Mediterranean region, but was +introduced into Italy in the 1st century A.D., and has become more +widely naturalized in Europe; it occurs wild in hedges and fields in +Britain, where it was first cultivated about 1650. It seems to have been +taken from Spain to Mexico and South America in the 16th century, but +the extension of its cultivation in the Western States of the American +Union practically dates from the middle of the 19th century, and in +Argentina its development as a staple crop is more recent. It is much +cultivated as a forage crop in France and other parts of the continent +of Europe, but has not come into such general use in Britain, where, +however, it is frequently met with in small patches in districts where +the soil is very light, with a dry subsoil. Its thick tap-roots +penetrate very deeply into the soil; and, if a good cover is once +obtained, the plants will yield abundant cuttings of herbage for eight +or ten years, provided they are properly top-dressed and kept free from +perennial weeds. The time to cut it is, as with clover and sainfoin, +when it is in early flower. + +[Illustration: Lucerne (_Medicago sativa_), ½ nat. size. + + 1, Flower, enlarged. + 2, Half-ripe fruit, ¾ nat. size. + 3, Fruit, enlarged.] + +In the United States alfalfa has become the staple leguminous forage +crop throughout the western half of the country. Some idea of the +increase in its cultivation may be obtained from the figures for Kansas, +where in 1891 alfalfa was cultivated over 34,384 acres, while in 1907 +the number was 743,050. The progress of irrigation has been an important +factor in many districts. The plant requires a well-drained soil (deep +and permeable as possible), rich in lime and reasonably free from weeds. + + See, for practical directions as to cultivation, _Farmers' Bulletin_ + 339 of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, by J. M. Westgate + (Washington, December 1908). + + + + +LUCHAIRE, DENIS JEAN ACHILLE (1846-1908), French historian, was born in +Paris on the 24th of October 1846. In 1879 he became a professor at +Bordeaux and in 1889 professor of medieval history at the Sorbonne; in +1895 he became a member of the _Académie des sciences morales et +politiques_, where he obtained the Jean Reynaud prize just before his +death on the 14th of November 1908. The most important of Achille +Luchaire's earlier works is his _Histoire des institutions monarchiques +de la France sous les premiers Capétiens_ (1883 and again 1891); he also +wrote a _Manuel des institutions françaises: période des Capétiens +directs_ (1892); _Louis VI. le Gros, annales de sa vie et de son règne_ +(1890); and _Étude sur les actes de Louis VII._ (1885). His later +writings deal mainly with the history of the papacy, and took the form +of an elaborate work on Pope Innocent III. This is divided into six +parts: (1.) _Rome et Italie_ (1904); (ii.) _La Croisade des Albigeois_ +(1905); (iii.) _La Papauté et l'empire_ (1905); (iv.) _La Question +d'Orient_ (1906); (v.) _Les Royautés vassales du Saint-Siège_ (1908); +and (vi.) _Le Concile de Latran et la réforme de l'Église_ (1908). He +wrote two of the earlier volumes of E. Lavisse's _Histoire de France_. + + + + +LUCHU ARCHIPELAGO (called also RIUKIU, LOO-CHOO and LIUKIU), a long +chain of islands belonging to Japan, stretching from a point 80 m. S. of +Kiushiu to a point 73 m. from the N.E. coast of Formosa, and lying +between 24° and 30° N. and 123° and 130° E. Japanese cartographers +reckon the Luchu islands as 55, having a total coast-line of 768 m., an +area of 935 sq. m., and a population of about 455,000. They divide them +into three main groups, of which the northern is called Oshima-shoto; +the central, Okinawa-gunto; and the southern, Sakishima-retto. The terms +_shoto_, _gunto_ and _retto_ signify "archipelago," "cluster of islands" +and "string of islands" respectively. The last-named group is subdivided +into Miyako-gunto and Yayeyama-gunto. The principal islands of these +various groups are:-- + +_Oshima-shoto_-- + + Amami-Oshima 34 m. long and 17 m. broad + Tokuno-shima 16 " 8½ " + +_Okinawa-gunto_-- + + Okinawa-shima (Great Luchu) 63½ m. long and 14½ m. broad + Kume-shima 9¾ " 7½ " + Okinoerabu-shima 9½ " 5 " + Ihiya-shima 5 " 2½ " + +_Miyako-gunto_-- + + Miyako-shima 12¼ m. long and 12 m. broad + Erabu-shima 4¾ " 3½ " + +_Yayeyama-gunto_-- + + Ishigaki-shima 24½ m. long and 14½ m. broad + Iriomoto-shima 14½ " 14 " + Yonakuni-shima 7(1/3) " 3½ " + +The remaining islands of the archipelago are of very small size, +although often thickly populated. Almost at the extreme north of the +chain are two islands with active volcanoes: Nakano-shima (3485 ft.) and +Suwanose-shima (2697 ft.), but the remaining members of the group give +no volcanic indications, and the only other mountain of any size is +Yuwan-dake (2299 ft.) in Amami-Oshima. The islands "are composed chiefly +of Palaeozoic rocks--limestones and quartzites found in the west, and +clay, slate, sandstone and pyroxenite or amphibolite on the east.... +Pre-Tertiary rocks have been erupted through these. The outer +sedimentary zone is of Tertiary rocks."[1] The capital is Shuri in +Okinawa, an old-fashioned place with a picturesque castle. The more +modern town of Nafa, on the same island, possesses the principal harbour +and has considerable trade. + + The scenery of Luchu is unlike that of Japan. Though so close to the + tropics, the islands cannot be said to present tropical features: the + bamboo is rare; there is no high grass or tangled undergrowth; open + plains are numerous; the trees are not crowded together; lakes are + wanting; the rivers are insignificant; and an unusual aspect is + imparted to the scenery by numerous coral crags. The temperature in + Nafa ranges from a mean of 82° F. in July to 60° in January. The + climate is generally (though not in all the islands) pleasant and + healthy, in spite of much moisture, the rainfall being very heavy. + + The fauna includes wild boars and deer, rats and bats. Excellent small + ponies are kept, together with cattle, pigs and goats. The majority of + the islands are infested with venomous snakes called _habu_ + (_Trimeresurus_), which attain a length of 6 to 7 ft. and a diameter + of from 2½ to 3 in. Their bite generally causes speedy death, and in + the island of Amami-Oshima they claim many victims every year. The + most important cultivated plant is the sugar-cane, which provides the + principal staple of trade. + + Luchu is noted for the production of particularly durable + vermilion-coloured lacquer, which is much esteemed for table utensils + in Japan. The islands also manufacture certain fabrics which are + considered a speciality. These are _Riukiu-tsumugi_, a kind of fine + pongee; the so-called _Satsuma-gasuri_, a cotton fabric greatly used + for summer wear; _basho-fu_, or banana-cloth (called also + _aka-basho_), which is woven from the fibre of a species of banana; + and _hoso-jofu_, a particularly fine hempen stuff, made in + Miyako-shima, and demanding such difficult processes that six months + are required to weave and dye a piece 9½ yds. long. + + _People._--Although the upper classes in Luchu and Japan closely + resemble each other, there are palpable differences between the lower + classes, the Luchuans being shorter and better proportioned than the + Japanese; having higher foreheads, eyes not so deeply set, faces less + flattened, arched and thick eyebrows, better noses, less marked + cheek-bones and much greater hairiness. The last characteristic has + been attributed to the presence of Ainu blood, and has suggested a + theory that when the Japanese race entered south-western Japan from + Korea, they drove the Ainu northwards and southwards, one portion of + the latter finding their way to Luchu, the other to Yezo. Women of the + upper class never appear in public in Luchu, and are not even alluded + to in conversation, but women of the lower orders go about freely with + uncovered faces. The Luchu costume resembles that of Japan, the only + marked difference being that the men use two hairpins, made of gold, + silver, pewter or wood, according to the rank of the wearer. Men shave + their faces until the age of twenty-five, after which moustache and + beard are allowed to grow, though the cheeks are kept free from hair. + Their burial customs are peculiar and elaborate, and their large + sepulchres, generally mitre-shaped, and scattered all over the + country, according to Chinese fashion, form a striking feature of the + landscape. The marriage customs are also remarkable. Preliminaries are + negotiated by a middleman, as in China and Japan, and the subsequent + procedure extends over several days. The chief staple of the people's + diet is the sweet potato, and pork is the principal luxury. An ancient + law, still in force, requires each family to keep four pigs. In times + of scarcity a species of sago (obtained from the _Cycas revoluta_) is + eaten. There is a remarkable absence of religious influence in Luchu. + Places of worship are few, and the only function discharged by + Buddhist priests seems to be to officiate at funerals. The people are + distinguished by gentleness, courtesy and docility, as well as by + marked avoidance of crime. With the exception of petty thefts, their + Japanese administrators find nothing to punish, and for nearly three + centuries no such thing as a lethal weapon has been known in Luchu. + Professor Chamberlain states that the Luchuan language resembles the + Japanese in about the same degree as Italian resembles French, and + says that they are sister tongues, many words being identical, others + differing only by letter changes which follow certain fixed analogies, + and sentences in the one being capable of translation into the other + word for word, almost syllable for syllable. + +_History._--Tinsunshi, "Grandson of Heaven," is the mythical founder of +the Luchu monarchy. Towards the close of the 12th century his +descendants were driven from the throne by rebellion, but the old +national party soon found a victorious leader in Shunten, son of +Tametomo, a member of the famous Minamoto family, who, having been +expelled from Japan, had come to Luchu and married there. The +introduction of the arts of reading and writing are assigned to +Shunten's reign. Chinese invasions of Luchu may be traced back to A.D. +605, but they did not result in annexation; and it was in 1372 that +China first obtained from the Luchuans recognition of supremacy. Luchuan +relations with Japan had long been friendly, but at the end of the 16th +century the king refused Japan assistance against Korea, and in 1609 the +prince of Satsuma invaded the islands with 3000 men, took the capital by +storm, captured the king and carried him off to Kagoshima. A few years +later he was restored to his throne on condition of acknowledging +Japanese suzerainty and paying tribute. The Luchuans nevertheless +continued to pay tribute to China also. + +The Chinese government, however, though taking a benevolent interest in +the welfare of the islanders, never attempted to bring them under +military sway. The incongruity of this state of affairs did not force +itself upon Japan's attention so long as her own empire was divided into +a number of semi-independent principalities. But in 1879 the Japanese +government, treating Luchu as an integral part of the mikado's +dominions, dethroned its prince, pensioned him as the other feudal +chiefs had been pensioned, and converted Luchu into a prefecture under +the name of Okinawa. This name signifies "extended rope," and alludes to +the attenuated nature of the archipelago. China remonstrating, a +conference was held in Peking, when plenipotentiaries of the two empires +signed an agreement to the effect that the archipelago should be divided +equally between the claimants. The Chinese government, however, refused +to ratify this compromise, and the Japanese continued their measures for +the effective administration of all the islands. Ultimately (1895) +Formosa also came into Japan's possession, and her title to the whole +chain of islands ceased to be disputed. + +Though Captain Broughton, of H.M.S. "Providence," was wrecked on +Miyako-shima and subsequently visited Nafa in 1797, it was not till the +"Alceste" and "Lyra" expedition in 1816-1817, under Captains Basil Hall +and Murray Maxwell, that detailed information was obtained about Luchu. +The people at that time showed a curious mixture of courtesy and +shyness. From 1844 efforts were made by both Catholic (French) and +Protestant missionaries to Christianize them, but though hospitable they +made it clear that these efforts were unwelcome. Further visits were +made by British vessels under Captain Beechey (1826) and Sir Edward +Belcher (1845). The American expedition under Commodore M. C. Perry +(1853) added largely to knowledge of the islands, and concluded a treaty +with the Luchuan government. + + See Basil Hall, _Account of a Voyage of Discovery to the West Coast of + Corea and the Great Loo-choo Island_ (London, 1818); Comm. M. C. + Perry, _Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the + China Seas and Japan_, 1852-1854 (Washington, 1856); B. H. + Chamberlain, "The Luchu Islands and their Inhabitants," in the + _Geographical Journal_, vol. v. (1895); "Contributions to a + Bibliography of Luchu," in _Trans. Asiatic Soc. Japan_, xxiv. (1896); + C. S. Leavenworth, "History of the Loo-choo Islands," _Journ. China + Br. Royal Asiatic Soc._ xxxvi. (1905). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Note in _Geographical Journal_, xx., on S. Yoshiwara, "Raised + Coral Reefs in the Islands of the Riukiu Curve," in _Journ. Coll. of + Science, Imp. Univ., Tokyo_ (1901). + + + + +LUCIA (or LUCY), ST, virgin and martyr of Syracuse, whose name figures +in the canon of the mass, and whose festival is celebrated on the 13th +of December. According to the legend, she lived in the reign of +Diocletian. Her mother, having been miraculously cured of an illness at +the sepulchre of St Agatha in Catania, was persuaded by Lucia to +distribute all her wealth to the poor. The youth to whom the daughter +had been betrothed forthwith denounced her to Pascasius, the prefect, +who ordered that she should be taken away and subjected to shameful +outrage. But it was found that no force which could be applied was able +to move her from the spot on which she stood; even boiling oil and +burning pitch had no power to hurt her, until at last she was slain with +the sword. The most important documents concerning St Lucy are the +mention in the _Martyrologium Hieronymianum_ and the ancient inscription +discovered at Syracuse, in which her festival is indicated. Many +paintings represent her bearing her eyes in her hand or on a salver. +Some artists have even represented her blind, but nothing in her _Acta_ +justifies this representation. It is probable that it originated in a +play upon words (Lucia, from Lat. _lux_, light), just as St Clair is +invoked in cases of eye-disease. + + See O. Caietanus, _Vitae sanctorum Siculorum_, i. 114-121 (Palermo, + 1657); Ioannes de Ioanne, _Acta sincera sanctae Luciae_ (Palermo, + 1758); _Analecta Bollandiana_, xxii. 492; Cahier, _Caractéristiques + des saints_, i. 105 (Paris, 1867). (H. De.) + + + + +LUCIAN (d. 312), Christian martyr, was born, like the famous, heathen +writer of the same name, at Samosata. His parents, who were Christians, +died when he was in his twelfth year. In his youth he studied under +Macarius of Edessa, and after receiving baptism he adopted a strictly +ascetic life, and devoted himself with zeal to the continual study of +scripture. Settling at Antioch when Malchion was master of the Greek +school he became a presbyter, and, while supporting himself by his skill +as a rapid writer, became celebrated as a teacher, so that he is +regarded as the founder of the famous theological school of Antioch. He +did not escape suspicion of heresy, and is represented as the connecting +link between Paul of Samosata and Arius. Indeed, on the deposition of +the former (A.D. 268) he was excluded from ecclesiastical fellowship by +three successive bishops of Antioch, while Arius seems to have been +among his pupils (Theodoret, _Hist. Eccl._ i. 3, 4). He was, however, +restored before the outbreak of persecution, and the reputation won by +his high character and learning was confirmed by his courageous +martyrdom. He was carried to Nicomedia before Maximin Daza, and +persisting in his faith perished on the 7th of January 312, under +torture and hunger, which he refused to satisfy with food offered to +idols. His defence is preserved by Rufinus (ix. 6; on Eusebius, _Hist. +Eccl._ ix. 9). His remains were conveyed to Drepanum in Bithynia, and +under Constantine the town was founded anew in his honour with the name +of Helenopolis, and exempted from taxes by the emperor (A.D. 327) (see +_Chron. Pasch._, Bonn ed., p. 527). Here in 387, on the anniversary of +his death, Chrysostom delivered the panegyrical homily from which, with +notices in Eusebius, Theodoret and the other ecclesiastical historians, +the life by Jerome (_Vir. Ill._ cap. 77), but especially from the +account by S. Metaphrastes (cited at length in Bernhardy's notes to +Suidas, _s.v._ [Greek: notheuei]), the facts above given are derived. +See also, for the celebration of his day in the Syriac churches, Wright, +_Cat. of Syr._ MSS. p. 283. + + Jerome says that Lucian wrote _Libelli de fide_ and several letters, + but only a short fragment of one epistle remains (_Chron. Pasch._, ed. + Dindorf, i. 516). The authorship of a confession of faith ascribed to + Lucian and put forth at the semi-Arian synod of Antioch (A.D. 341) is + questioned. Lucian's most important literary labour was his edition of + the Greek Old Testament corrected by the Hebrew text, which, according + to Jerome (_Adv. Ruf._ ii. 77), was in current use from Constantinople + to Antioch. That the edition of Lucian is represented by the text used + by Chrysostom and Theodoret, as well as by certain extant MSS., such + as the Arundelian of the British Museum, was proved by F. Field + (_Prol. ad Origenis Hexapla_, cap. ix.). + + Before the publication of Field's _Hexapla_, Lagarde had already + directed his attention to the Antiochian text (as that of Lucian may + be called) and ultimately published the first part (Genesis, 2 Esdras, + Esther) of a provisional reconstructed text. The distinguishing marks + of the Lucianic recension are thus summarized by S. R. Driver, _Notes + on Heb. Text of Samuel_, p. li. seq.: (1) The substitution of synonyms + for the words employed by the Septuagint; (2) the occurrence of double + renderings; (3) the occurrence of renderings "which presuppose a + Hebrew original self-evidently superior in the passages concerned to + the existing Massoretic text," a peculiarity which makes it very + important for the criticism of the Hebrew Bible. From a statement of + Jerome in his preface to the gospels it seems probable that Lucian had + also a share in fixing the Syrian recension of the New Testament text, + but of this it is impossible to speak with certainty. He was + associated in his work with the Hebraist Dorotheus. + + See, generally, A. Harnack's art. in Hauck-Herzog, _Realencyk_. vol. + xi., and for "remains" Routh, Rel. Sac. iv. 3-17. A full account of + his recension of the Septuagint is given in H. B. Swete's + _Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek_, p. 81 sqq.; and a good + account of his doctrinal position in the prolegomena to the volume on + _Athanasius_ in the series of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (p. + xxviii.) and A. Harnack's _History of Dogma_, especially vol. iv. + + + + +LUCIAN [[Greek: Loukianos]] (c. A.D. 120-180), Greek satirist of the +Silver Age of Greek literature, was born at Samosata on the Euphrates in +northern Syria. He tells us in the _Somnium_ or _Vita Luciani_, 1, that, +his means being small, he was at first apprenticed to his maternal +uncle, a statuary, or rather sculptor of the stone pillars called +Hermae. Having made an unlucky beginning by breaking a marble slab, and +having been well beaten for it, he absconded and returned home. Here he +had a dream or vision of two women, representing Statuary and +Literature. Both plead their cause at length, setting forth the +advantages and the prospects of their respective professions; but the +youth chooses [Greek: Paideia], and decides to pursue learning. For some +time he seems to have made money as a [Greek: rhêtôr], following the +example of Demosthenes, on whose merits and patriotism he expatiates in +the dialogue _Demosthenis Encomium_. He was very familiar with the rival +schools of philosophy, and he must have well studied their teachings; +but he lashes them all alike, the Cynics, perhaps, being the chief +object of his derision. Lucian was not only a sceptic; he was a scoffer +and a downright unbeliever. He felt that men's actions and conduct +always fall far short of their professions and therefore he concluded +that the professions themselves were worthless, and a mere guise to +secure popularity or respect. Of Christianity he shows some knowledge, +and it must have been somewhat largely professed in Syria at the close +of the 2nd century.[1] In the _Philopatris_ (q.v.), though the dialogue +so called is generally regarded as spurious, there is a statement of the +doctrine of the Trinity,[2] and the "Galilaean who had ascended to the +third heaven" (12), and "renewed" ([Greek: anekainisen]) by the waters +of baptism, may possibly allude to St Paul. The doctrines of the [Greek: +Logos] and the "Light of the world," and that God is in heaven making a +record of the good and bad actions of men,[3] seem to have come from +the same source, though the notion of a written catalogue of human +actions to be used in judgment was familiar to Aeschylus and Euripides. + +As a satirist and a wit Lucian occupies in prose literature the unique +position which Aristophanes holds in Greek poetry. But whether he is a +mere satirist, who laughs while he lashes, or a misanthrope, who hates +while he derides, is not very clear. In favour of the former view it may +be said that the two main objects of his ridicule are mythology and the +sects of philosophy; in favour of the latter, his bitter exposure of +imposture and chicanery in the _Alexander_, and the very severe attacks +he makes on the "humbug" of philosophy,[4] which he everywhere assails +with the most acrimonious and contemptuous epithets. + +As a writer Lucian is fluent, easy and unaffected, and a close follower +of the best Attic models, such as Plato and the orators. His style is +simpler than Plutarch's, and some of his compositions, especially the +_Dialogues of the Gods_ (pp. 204-287) and _of the Marine Deities_ +(288-327), and, above all, the _Dialogues of the Dead_ (329-454), are +models of witty, polished and accurate Greek composition. Not less +clever, though rather lax in morality, are the [Greek: hetairikoi +dialogoi] (pp. 280-325), which remind us somewhat of the letters of +Alciphron. The sarcasms on the popular mythology, the conversations of +Pluto, Hermes, Charon and others of the powers in Hades, show a positive +disbelief in any future state of existence. The model Lucian followed in +these dialogues, as well in the style as in the sparkling and playful +repartee, was the Platonic conversations, founded on the drama, of which +the dialogue may be called the prose representative. Aristotle never +adopted it, perhaps regarding it as beneath the true dignity of +philosophy. The dialogue, in fact, was revived and improved by +Lucian,[5] the old traditions of the [Greek: logopoioi] and [Greek: +logographoi], and, above all, the immense influence of rhetoric as an +art, having thrown some discredit on a style of composition which, as +introduced by Plato, had formed quite a new era in Greek prose +composition. For rhetoric loved to talk, expatiate and declaim, while +dialectic strove to refute by the employment of question and answer, +often in the briefest form. + +Lucian evinces a perfect mastery over a language as wonderful in its +inflections as in its immense and varied vocabulary; and it is a +well-merited praise of the author to say that to a good Greek scholar +the pages of Lucian are almost as easy and as entertaining as an English +or French novel. It is true that he employs some forms and compounds +which were not in use in the time of Plato or Demosthenes, and, as one +who lived under Roman rule, has a tendency towards Latinisms. But his +own sentiments on the propriety of diction are shown by his reproof to +Lexiphanes, "if anywhere you have picked up an out-of-the-way word, or +coined one which you think good, you labour to adapt the sense of it, +and think it a loss if you do not succeed in dragging it in somewhere, +even when it is not really wanted." + +Lucian founded his style, or obtained his fluency, from the successful +study of rhetoric, by which he appears to have made a good income from +composing speeches which attracted much attention. At a later period in +life he seems to have held a lucrative legal office in Egypt, which he +retained till his death. + +His extant works are so numerous that of some of the principal only a +short sketch can be given. More than 80 pieces have come down to us +under his name (including three collections of 71 shorter dialogues), of +which about 20 are spurious or of doubtful authorship. To understand +them aright we must remember that the whole moral code, the entire "duty +of man," was included, in the estimation of the pagan Greek, in the +various schools of philosophy. As these were generally rivals, and the +systems they taught were more or less directly antagonistic, truth +presented itself to the inquirer, not as one, but as manifold. The +absurdity and the impossibility of this forms the burden of all Lucian's +writings. He could only form one conclusion, viz. that there is no such +thing as truth. + +One of the best written and most amusing treatises of antiquity is +Lucian's _True History_, forming a rather long narrative in two books, +which suggested Swift's _Gulliver's Travels_, Rabelais's _Voyage of +Pantagruel_ and Cyrano de Bergerac's _Journey to the Moon_. It is +composed, the author tells us in a brief introduction, not only as a +pastime and a diversion from severer studies, but avowedly as a satire +on the poets and logographers who had written so many marvellous tales. +He names Ctesias and Homer; but Hellanicus and Herodotus, perhaps other +[Greek: logopoioi] still earlier, appear to have been in his mind.[6] +The only true statement in his _History_, he wittily says (p. 72), is +that it contains nothing but lies from beginning to end. + +The main purport of the story is to describe a voyage to the moon. He +set out, he tells us, with fifty companions, in a well-provisioned ship, +from the "Pillars of Hercules," intending to explore the western ocean. +After eighty days' rough sailing they came to an island on which they +found a Greek inscription, "This was the limit of the expedition of +Heracles and Dionysus"; and the visit of the wine-god seemed attested by +some miraculous vines which they found there. After leaving the island +they were suddenly carried up, ship and all, by a whirlwind into the +air, and on the eighth day came in sight of a great round island shining +with a bright light (p. 77), and lying a little above the moon. In a +short time they are arrested by a troop of gigantic "horse-vultures" and +brought as captives to the "man in the moon," who proves to be Endymion. +He is engaged in a war with the inhabitants of the sun, which is ruled +by King Phaëthon, the quarrel having arisen from an attempt to colonize +the planet Venus (Lucifer). The voyagers are enlisted as "Moonites," and +a long description follows of the monsters and flying dragons engaged in +the contest. A fight ensues, in which the slaughter is so great that the +very clouds are tinged with red (p. 84). The long description of the +inhabitants of the moon is extremely droll and original. After +descending safely into the sea, the ship is swallowed by a huge "sea +serpent" more than 100 miles long. The adventures during the long +confinement in the creature's belly are most amusing; but at last they +sail out through the chinks between the monster's teeth, and soon find +themselves at the "Fortunate Islands." Here they meet with the spirits +of heroes and philosophers of antiquity, on whom the author expatiates +at some length. The tale comes to an abrupt end with an allusion to +Herodotus in the promise that he "will tell the rest in his next books." + +Another curious and rather long treatise is entitled [Greek: Loukios hê +Onos], the authorship of which is regarded as doubtful. Parts of the +story are coarse enough; the point turns on one Lucius visiting in a +Thessalian family, in which the lady of the house was a sorceress. +Having seen her changed into a bird by anointing herself with some +potent drug, he resolves to try a similar experiment on himself, but +finds that he has become an ass, retaining, however, his human senses +and memory. The mistake arose from his having filched the wrong +ointment; however, he is assured by the attendant, Palaestra, that if he +can but procure roses to eat, his natural form will be restored. In the +night a party of bandits break into the house and carry off the stolen +goods into the mountains on the back of the unfortunate donkey, who gets +well beaten for stumbling on the rough road. Seeing, as he fancies, some +roses in a garden, he goes in quest of them, and again gets beaten as a +thief by the gardener (p. 585). After many adventures with the bandits, +he attempts to run away, but is caught. A council is held, and he is +condemned to die together with a captive girl who had essayed to escape +on his back. Suddenly, however, soldiers appear, and the bandits are +arrested (p. 595). Again the ass escapes "to the great and populous city +of Beroea in Macedonia" (p. 603). Here he is sold to a strolling +conjurer, afterwards to a market-gardener; and both experiences are +alike painful. Again he passes into the possession of a cook, where he +gets fat and sleek on food more suited to his concealed humanity than +the hard fare he has of late lived upon (p. 614). At last, during an +exhibition in the theatre, he sees some roses being carried past, and, +making a successful rush to devour them, he recovers his former shape. +"I am Lucius," he exclaims to the wondering president of the exhibition, +"and my brother's name is Caius. It was a Thessalian witch that changed +me into a donkey." Thus all ends well, and he returns safe to his +country. + +The treatise _On the Syrian Goddess_ (Mylitta, the moon-goddess, the +Semitic Aphrodite) is written in the Ionic dialect in imitation perhaps +of the style of Herodotus, though the resemblance is by no means close. +The writer professes to be an Assyrian (p. 452), and to describe the +wonders in the various temples of Palestine and Syria; he descants on +the eunuchs of Syria and the origin of the self-imposed privation of +manhood professed and practised by the Galli. The account of the +temples, altars and sacrifices is curious, if really authentic; after +the manner of Pausanias it is little more than a list, with the reasons +in most cases added, or the origin of the custom explained. + +_De Morte Peregrini_ is a narrative of one Proteus, a Cynic, who after +professing various doctrines, and among them those of Christianity, +ended his own life by ascending a burning pyre (see PEREGRINUS PROTEUS). + +_Bis accusatus_ ("Twice Accused") is a dialogue beginning with a satire +on the folly of the popular notion that the gods alone are happy. Zeus +is represented as disproving this by enumerating the duties that fall to +their lot in the government of the world, and Hermes remarks on the vast +crowds of philosophers of rival sects, by whose influence the respect +and worship formerly paid to the gods have seriously declined. A trial +is supposed to be held under the presidency of the goddess [Greek: +Dikê], between the Academy, the Porch, the schools of the Cynics and +Epicureans, and Pleasure, Revelry, Virtue, Luxury, &c., as variously +impugned or defended by them. Then Conversation and Rhetoric come before +the court, each having an action for defamation to bring against Syrus +the essayist, who of course is Lucian himself (p. 823). His defence is +heard, and in both cases he is triumphantly acquitted. This essay is +brilliant from its clever parodies of Plato and Demosthenes, and the +satire on the Socratic method of arguing by short questions and answers. + +The _Lover of Lying_ ([Greek: Philopseudês]) discusses the reason why +some persons seem to take pleasure in falsehood for its own sake. Under +the category of lying all mythology (e.g. that of Homer and Hesiod) is +included, and the question is asked, why the hearers of such stories are +amused by them? Quack remedies, charms and miraculous cures are included +among the most popular kinds of falsehood; witchcraft, spiritualism, +exorcism, expulsion of devils, spectres, are discussed in turn, and a +good ghost story is told in p. 57. An anecdote is given of Democritus, +who, to show his disbelief in ghosts, had shut himself up in a tomb, and +when some young men, dressed up with death's heads, came to frighten him +at night, he did not even look up, but called out to them, "Stop your +joking" (p. 59). This treatise, a very interesting one, concludes with +the reflection that truth and sound reason are the only remedies for +vain and superstitious terrors. + +The dialogue _Navigium seu Vota_ ("The Ship or the Wishes") gives an +apparently authentic account of the measurements and fittings of an +Egyptian ship which has arrived with a cargo of corn at the Peiraeus, +driven out of its course to Italy by adverse winds. The full length is +180 ft., the breadth nearly 50, the depth from deck to the bottom of the +hold 43 ft. The "wishes" turn on a party of friends, who have been to +see the ship, declaring what they would most desire to possess. One +would have the ship filled with gold, another a fine house with gold +plate; a third would be a "tyrant" with a large force devoted to his +interests; a fourth would like to make himself invisible, enter any +house that he pleased, and be transported through the air to the objects +of his affection. After hearing them all, the first speaker, Lycinus +(Lucian), says that he is content with the privilege of laughing +heartily at the vanity of human wishes, especially when they are those +of professed philosophers. + +The dialogue between Philo and Lycinus, _Convivium seu Lapithae_, is a +very amusing description of a banquet, at which a party of dignified +philosophers quarrelled over their viands at a marriage feast, and came +to blows. The style is a good imitation of Plato, and the scene reminds +one of the "clients' dinner" in the fifth satire of Juvenal. Matters +come to a climax by the attempt of one of the guests, Zenothemis, to +secure for himself a fatter fowl which had been served to his next +neighbour Hermon. Each seizes his bird and hits the other with it in the +face, at the same time pulling his beard. Then a general fight ensues. +The story is a satire on philosophy, the favourite topic of a writer who +believed neither in gods nor in men. + +The _Piscator_ ("Fisherman"), a dialogue between Lucian, Socrates, +Pythagoras, Empedocles, Plato and others, commences with a general +attack on the author as the enemy of philosophy. Socrates proposes that +the culprit should be tried, and that Philosophia should assist in the +prosecution. Lucian declares that he does not know where such a person +lives, long as he has been looking for her (11). She is found at last, +but declares Lucian has never disparaged her, but only impostors and +pretenders under her name (15). He makes a long defence (pp. 598-606), +abusing the philosophers in the sort of language in which some schools +of theologians abuse the monks of the middle ages (34). The trial is +held in the Acropolis of Athens, and the sham philosophers, dreading a +verdict against them, throw themselves from the rock. A Cynic flings +away his scrip in the hurry, and on examination it is found to contain, +not books or loaves of bread, but gold coins, dice and fragrant essences +(44). At the end Lucian baits his hook with a fig and a gold coin, and +catches gluttonous strollers in the city while seated on the wall of the +Acropolis. + +The _Voyage Home_ ([Greek: Kataplous]) opens with the complaint that +Charon's boat is kept waiting for Hermes, who soon appears with his +troop of ghosts. Among them is a [Greek: tyrannos], one Megapenthes, +who, as his name is intended to express, mourns greatly over the life he +has just left. Amusing appeals are made by other souls for leave to +return to life, and even bribes are offered to the presiding goddess of +destiny, but Clotho is inexorable. The moral of the piece is closely +like that of the parable of Dives and Lazarus: the rich and prosperous +bewail their fate, while the poor and afflicted find rest from their +troubles, and have no desire to return to them. The [Greek: tyrannos] +here is the man clothed in purple and fine linen, and Lucian shows the +same bitter dislike of tyrants which Plato and the tragic writers +display. The heavy penalty is adjudged to Megapenthes that he may ever +remember in the other world the misdeeds done in life. + +The _Sales of Lives_ is an auction held by Zeus to see what price the +lives of philosophers of the rival sects will bring. A Pythagorean, who +speaks in the Ionic dialect, first undergoes an examination as to what +he can teach, and this contains an enumeration of the doctrines usually +ascribed to that sect, including metempsychosis. He is valued at 7s. +6d., and is succeeded by Diogenes, who avows himself the champion of +truth, a cosmopolitan (8), and the enemy of pleasure. Socrates brings +two talents, and is purchased by Dion, tyrant of Syracuse (19). +Chrysippus, who gives some specimens of his clever quibbles,[7] is +bought for fifty pounds, Aristotle for nearly a hundred, while Pyrrho +the sceptic (or one of his school), who professes to "know nothing," +brings four pounds, "_because_ he is dull and stupid and has no more +sense than a grub" (27). But the man raises a doubt, "whether or not he +has really been bought," and refuses to go with the purchaser till he +has fully considered the matter. + +_Timon_ is a very amusing and witty dialogue. The misanthrope, once +wealthy, has become a poor farm-labourer, and reproaches Zeus for his +indifference to the injustice of man. Zeus declares that the noisy +disputes in Attica have so disgusted him that he has not been there for +a long time (9). He tells Hermes to conduct Plutus to visit Timon, and +see what can be done to help him. Plutus, who at first refuses to go, is +persuaded after a long conversation with Hermes, and Timon is found by +them digging in his field (31). Poverty is unwilling to resign her +votary to wealth; and Timon himself is with difficulty persuaded to turn +up with his mattock a crock of gold coins. Now that he has once more +become rich, his former flatterers come cringing with their +congratulations and respects, but they are all driven off with broken +heads or pelted with stones. Between this dialogue and the _Plutus_ of +Aristophanes there are many close resemblances. + +_Hermotimus_ (pp. 739-831) is one of the longer dialogues, Hermotimus, a +student of the Stoic philosophy for twenty years (2), and Lucian +(Lycinus) being the interlocutors. The long time--forty years at the +least--required for climbing up to the temple of virtue and happiness, +and the short span of life, if any, left for the enjoyment of it, are +discussed. That the greatest philosophers do not always attain perfect +indifference, the Stoic _ultimatum_, is shown by the anecdote of one who +dragged his pupil into court to make him pay his fee (9), and again by a +violent quarrel with another at a banquet (11). Virtue is compared to a +city with just and good and contented inhabitants; but so many offer +themselves as guides to the right road to virtue that the inquirer is +bewildered (26). What is truth, and who are the right teachers of it? +The question is argued at length, and illustrated by a peculiar custom +of watching the pairs of athletes and setting aside the reserved +combatant ([Greek: paredros]) at the Olympian games by the marks on the +ballots (40-43). This, it is argued, cannot be done till all the ballots +have been examined; so a man cannot select the right way till he has +tried all the ways to virtue. But to know the doctrines of all the sects +is impossible in the term of a life (49). To take a taste of each, like +trying a sample of wine, will not do, because the doctrines taught are +not, like the crock of wine, the same throughout, but vary or advance +day by day (59). A suggestion is made (68) that the searcher after truth +should begin by taking lessons in the science of discrimination, so as +to be a good judge of truth before testing the rival claims. But who is +a good teacher of such a science? (70). The general conclusion is that +philosophy is not worth the pursuit. "If I ever again," says Hermotimus, +"meet a philosopher on the road, I will shun him, as I would a mad dog." + +The _Anacharsis_ is a dialogue between Solon and the Scythian +philosopher, who has come to Athens to learn the nature of the Greek +institutions. Seeing the young men performing athletic exercises in the +Lyceum, he expresses his surprise at such a waste of energy. This gives +Socrates an opportunity of descanting at length on training as a +discipline, and emulation as a motive for excelling. Love of glory, +Solon says, is one of the chief goods in life. The argument is rather +ingenious and well put; the style reminds us of the minor essays of +Xenophon. + +The _Alexander_ or _False Prophet_ is the subject of a separate article +(see ALEXANDER THE PAPHLAGONIAN). + +These are the chief of Lucian's works. Many others, e.g. _Prometheus_, +_Menippus_, _Life of Demonax_, _Toxaris_, _Zeus Tragoedus_, _The Dream +or the Cock_, _Icaromenippus_ (an amusing satire on the physical +philosophers), are of considerable literary value. (F. A. P.) + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Editio princeps (Florence, 1496); valuable editions + with notes by T. Hemsterhuis and J. F. Reitz (1743-1746, with _Lexicon + Lucianeum_ by C. C. Reitz) and J. T. Lehmann (1822-1831). Editions of + the text by C. Jacobitz (1886-1888) and J. Sommerbrodt (1886-1899). + The scholia have been edited by H. Rabe in the Teubner series (1906). + There are numerous editions of separate portions of Lucian's works and + translations in most European languages; amongst the latter may be + mentioned the German version by C. M. Wieland (1788), with valuable + notes and commentaries: English; one by several hands (1711), for + which Dryden had previously written an unsatisfactory life of the + author, by T. Francklin (1780) and W. Tooke (1820): and French; of + _The Ass_, by P. L. Courier, with full bibliography by A. J. Pons + (1887), and of the complete works by E. Talbot (1866) and Belin de + Ballu (1789; revised ed. by L. Humbert, 1896). A complete modern + English translation, racy and colloquial, appeared in 1905, _The Works + of Lucian of Samosata_, by H. W. Fowler and F. G. Fowler. On Lucian + generally, the best work is M. Croiset's _Essai sur la vie et les + oeuvres de Lucien_ (1882); see also E. Egger, "Parallèle de Lucien et + Voltaire," in _Mémoires de littérature ancienne_ (1862); C. Martha, + _Les Moralistes sous l'empire romain_ (1866); H. W. L. Hime, _Lucian, + the Syrian Satirist_ (1900); Sir R. C. Jebb, _Essays and Addresses_ + (1907); "Lucian," by W. L. Collins in Blackwood's _Ancient Classics + for English Readers_; the Prolegomena to editions of select works with + notes by Sommerbrodt; and the exhaustive bibliography of the earlier + literature in Engelmann, _Scriptores Graeci_ (1880). On some special + questions see E. Rohde, _Über Lucians Schrift_ [Greek: Loukios hê + Onos] (Leipzig, 1869); C. Buerger, _De Lucio Patrensi_ (Berlin, 1887); + J. Bernays, _Lucian und die Kyniker_ (Berlin, 1879); C. G. Jacob, + _Characteristik Lucians von Samosata_ (Hamburg, 1832); C. F. Hermann, + _Charakteristik Lucians_ (Göttingen, 1849); P. M. Bolderman, _Studia + Lucianea_ (Leiden, 1893); R. Helm, "Lucian und die + Philosophenschulen," in _Neue Jahrb. f. das klassische Altertum_ + (1901), pp. 188, 263, 367. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In the _Alexander_ (25) we are told that the province of Pontus, + due north of Syria, was "full of Christians." + + [2] _Philopatris_, 12, [Greek: hypsimedonta Theon megan ambroton + ouraniôna, huion Patros, Pneuma ek patros ekporeuomenon, hen ek tpiôn + kai ex henos tria], a passage which bears on the controverted + procession "a Patre Filioque." + + [3] _Philopatris_, 13. Aesch. _Eum._ 265, [Greek: deltographô de + pant' epôpa phreni]. + + [4] In _Hermotimus_ (51) Hermotimus says to Lycinus (who must be + assumed to represent Lucian himself), [Greek: hybristês aei su, kai + ouk oid' ho ti pathôn miseis philosophian kai es tous philosophountas + aposkôpteis]. In _Icaromenippus_ (5; see also 29) he says he always + guessed who were the best physical philosophers "by their sour-faced + looks, their paleness of complexion and the length of their beards." + + [5] He says (speaking as [Greek: Syros] in _Bis accusatus_, 34) that + he found dialogue somewhat out of repute from the too numerous + questions (i.e. employed by Plato), and brought it up to a more human + and natural standard, substituting banter and repartee for dialectic + quibbles and close logical reasoning. + + [6] He says (p. 127) that he saw punished in Hades, more severely + than any other sinners, writers of false narratives, among whom were + Ctesias of Cnidus and Herodotus. Yet in the short essay inscribed + _Herodotus_ (p. 831), he wishes it were possible for him to imitate + the many excellencies of that writer. + + [7] E.g. "A stone is a body; a living creature is a body; you are a + living creature; therefore you are a stone." Again: "Is _every_ body + possessed of life?" "No." "Is a stone possessed of life?" "No." "Are + _you_ a body?" "Yes." "A _living_ body?" "Yes." "Then, if a living + body, you are not a stone." + + + + +LUCIFER (d. 370/1), bishop of Cagliari (hence called _Caralitanus_), an +ardent supporter of the cause of Athanasius. After the unfavourable +result of the synod of Arles in 353 he volunteered to endeavour to +obtain a new and impartial council. He was accordingly sent by Pope +Liberius, with Pancratius the presbyter and Hilarius the deacon, but +could not prevent the condemnation of Athanasius, which was renewed at +Milan in 355. For his own persistent adherence to the orthodox creed he +was banished to Germanicia in Commagene; he afterwards lived at +Eleutheropolis in Palestine, and finally in the upper Thebaid. His exile +came to an end with the publication of Julian's edict in 362. From 363 +until his death in 371 he lived at Cagliari in a state of voluntary +separation from ecclesiastical fellowship with his former friends +Eusebius of Vercelli, Athanasius and the rest, on account of their mild +decision at the synod of Alexandria in 362 with reference to the +treatment of those who had unwillingly Arianized under the persecutions +of Constantius. Lucifer was hardly sufficiently educated to appreciate +the real question at issue, and the sect which he thus founded did not +continue long after his death. It is doubtful whether it ever formulated +any distinctive doctrine; certainly it developed none of any importance. +The memory of Lucifer is still cherished in Sardinia; but, although +popularly regarded there as a saint, he has never been canonized. + + The controversial writings of Lucifer, dating from his exile, are + chiefly remarkable for their passionate zeal, and for the boldness and + violence of the language addressed to the reigning emperor, whom he + did not scruple to call the enemy of God and a second Saul, Ahab and + Jeroboam. Their titles, in the most probable chronological order, are + _De non parcendis in Deum delinquentibus_, _De regibus apostaticis_, + _Ad Constantium Augustum pro Athanasio libri ii._, _De non conveniendo + cum haereticis and Moriendum esse pro Filio Dei_. Their quotations of + Scripture are of considerable value to the critical student of the + Latin text before Jerome. They were first collected and edited by + Tilius (Paris, 1568); the best edition is that of W. Hartel in the + Vienna _Corpus, Script. Eccl. Lat._ (1886). See also G. Krüger, + _Lucifer Bischof von Cagliari und das Schisma der Luciferianer_ + (Leipzig, 1886); F. G. Kenyon, _Textual Criticism_, pp. 181, 221. + + + + +LUCIFER (the Latinized form of Gr. [Greek: phôsphoros], "light-bearer"), +the name given to the "morning star," i.e. the planet Venus when it +appears above the E. horizon before sunrise, and sometimes also to the +"evening star," i.e. the same planet in the W. sky after sundown, more +usually called Hesperus (q.v.). The term "day star" (so rendered in the +Revised Version) was used poetically by Isaiah for the king of Babylon: +"How art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, son of the morning! how art +thou cut down to the ground, which didst weaken the nations" (Is. xiv. +12, Authorized Version). The words ascribed to Christ in Luke x. 18: "I +beheld Satan as lightning fall from heaven" (cf. Rev. ix. 1), were +interpreted by the Christian Fathers as referring to the passage in +Isaiah; whence, in Christian theology, Lucifer came to be regarded as +the name of Satan before his fall. This idea finds its most magnificent +literary expression in Milton's _Paradise Lost_. In this sense the name +is most commonly associated with the familiar phrase "as proud as +Lucifer." + + + + +LUCILIUS, GAIUS (c. 180-103 B.C.), the earliest Roman satirist, of whose +writings only fragments remain, was born at Suessa Aurunca in Campania. +The dates assigned by Jerome for his birth and death are 148 and 103 or +102 B.C. But it is impossible to reconcile the first of these dates with +other facts recorded of him, and the date given by Jerome must be due to +an error, the true date being about 180 B.C. We learn from Velleius +Paterculus that he served under Scipio at the siege of Numantia in 134. +We learn from Horace that he lived on the most intimate terms of +friendship with Scipio and Laelius, and that he celebrated the exploits +and virtues of the former in his satires. Fragments of those books of +his satires which seem to have been first given to the world (books +xxvi.-xxix.) clearly indicate that they were written in the lifetime of +Scipio. Some of these bring the poet before us as either corresponding +with, or engaged in controversial conversation with, his great friend. +One line-- + + Percrepa pugnam Popilli, facta Corneli cane-- + +in which the defeat of M. Popillius Laenas, in 138, is contrasted with +the subsequent success of Scipio, bears the stamp of having been written +while the news of the capture of Numantia was still fresh. It is in the +highest degree improbable that Lucilius served in the army at the age of +fourteen; it is still more unlikely that he could have been admitted +into the familiar intimacy of Scipio and Laelius at that age. It seems a +moral impossibility that between the age of fifteen and nineteen--i.e. +between 133 and 129, the year of Scipio's death--he could have come +before the world as the author of an entirely new kind of composition, +and one which, to be at all successful, demands especially maturity of +judgment and experience. It may further be said that the well-known +words of Horace (_Satires_, ii. 1, 33), in which he characterizes the +vivid portraiture of his life, character and thoughts, which Lucilius +bequeathed to the world, + + quo fit ut omnis + Votiva pateat veluti descripta tabella + Vita senis,[1] + +lose much of their force unless _senis_ is to be taken in its ordinary +sense--which it cannot be if Lucilius died at the age of forty-six. He +spent the greater part of his life at Rome, and died, according to +Jerome, at Naples. Lucilius belonged to the equestrian order, a fact +indicated by Horace's notice of himself as "infra Lucili censum." Though +not himself belonging to any of the great senatorial families, he was in +a position to associate with them on equal terms. This circumstance +contributed to the boldness, originality and thoroughly national +character of his literary work. Had he been a "semi-Graecus," like +Ennius and Pacuvius, or of humble origin, like Plautus, Terence or +Accius, he would scarcely have ventured, at a time when the senatorial +power was strongly in the ascendant, to revive the rôle which had proved +disastrous to Naevius; nor would he have had the intimate knowledge of +the political and social life of his day which fitted him to be its +painter. Another circumstance determining the bent of his mind was the +character of the time. The origin of Roman political and social satire +is to be traced to the same disturbing and disorganizing forces which +led to the revolutionary projects and legislation of the Gracchi. + +The reputation which Lucilius enjoyed in the best ages of Roman +literature is proved by the terms in which Cicero and Horace speak of +him. Persius, Juvenal and Quintilian vouch for the admiration with which +he was regarded in the first century of the empire. The popularity which +he enjoyed in his own time is attested by the fact that at his death, +although he had filled none of the offices of state, he received the +honour of a public funeral. His chief claim to distinction is his +literary originality. He may be called the inventor of poetical satire, +as he was the first to impress upon the rude inartistic medley, known to +the Romans by the name of _satura_, that character of aggressive and +censorious criticism of persons, morals, manners, politics, literature, +&c. which the word satire has ever since denoted. In point of form the +satire of Lucilius owed nothing to the Greeks. It was a legitimate +development of an indigenous dramatic entertainment, popular among the +Romans before the first introduction of the forms of Greek art among +them; and it seems largely also to have employed the form of the +familiar epistle. But the style, substance and spirit of his writings +were apparently as original as the form. He seems to have commenced his +poetical career by ridiculing and parodying the conventional language of +epic and tragic poetry, and to have used the language commonly employed +in the social intercourse of educated men. Even his frequent use of +Greek words, phrases and quotations, reprehended by Horace, was probably +taken from the actual practice of men, who found their own speech as yet +inadequate to give free expression to the new ideas and impressions +which they derived from their first contact with Greek philosophy, +rhetoric and poetry. Further, he not only created a style of his own, +but, instead of taking the substance of his writings from Greek poetry, +or from a remote past, he treated of the familiar matters of daily life, +of the politics, the wars, the administration of justice, the eating and +drinking, the money-making and money-spending, the scandals and vices, +which made up the public and private life of Rome in the last quarter of +the 2nd century B.C. This he did in a singularly frank, independent and +courageous spirit, with no private ambition to serve, or party cause to +advance, but with an honest desire to expose the iniquity or +incompetence of the governing body, the sordid aims of the middle class, +and the corruption and venality of the city mob. There was nothing of +stoical austerity or of rhetorical indignation in the tone in which he +treated the vices and follies of his time. His character and tastes were +much more akin to those of Horace than of either Persius or Juvenal. But +he was what Horace was not, a thoroughly good hater; and he lived at a +time when the utmost freedom of speech and the most unrestrained +indulgence of public and private animosity were the characteristics of +men who took a prominent part in affairs. Although Lucilius took no +active part in the public life of his time, he regarded it in the spirit +of a man of the world and of society, as well as a man of letters. His +ideal of public virtue and private worth had been formed by intimate +association with the greatest and best of the soldiers and statesmen of +an older generation. + + The remains of Lucilius extend to about eleven hundred, mostly + unconnected lines, most of them preserved by late grammarians, as + illustrative of peculiar verbal usages. He was, for his time, a + voluminous as well as a very discursive writer. He left behind him + thirty books of satires, and there is reason to believe that each + book, like the books of Horace and Juvenal, was composed of different + pieces. The order in which they were known to the grammarians was not + that in which they were written. The earliest in order of composition + were probably those numbered from xxvi. to xxix., which were written + in the trochaic and iambic metres that had been employed by Ennius and + Pacuvius in their _Saturae_. In these he made those criticisms on the + older tragic and epic poets of which Horace and other ancient writers + speak. In them too he speaks of the Numantine War as recently + finished, and of Scipio as still living. Book i., on the other hand, + in which the philosopher Carneades, who died in 128, is spoken of as + dead, must have been written after the death of Scipio. Most of the + satires of Lucilius were written in hexameters, but, so far as an + opinion can be formed from a number of unconnected fragments, he seems + to have written the trochaic tetrameter with a smoothness, clearness + and simplicity which he never attained in handling the hexameter. The + longer fragments produce the impression of great discursiveness and + carelessness, but at the same time of considerable force. He appears, + in the composition of his various pieces, to have treated everything + that occurred to him in the most desultory fashion, sometimes adopting + the form of dialogue, sometimes that of an epistle or an imaginary + discourse, and often to have spoken in his own name, giving an account + of his travels and adventures, or of amusing scenes that he had + witnessed, or expressing the results of his private meditations and + experiences. Like Horace he largely illustrated his own observations + by personal anecdotes and fables. The fragments clearly show how often + Horace has imitated him, not only in expression, but in the form of + his satires (see for instance i. 5 and ii. 2), in the topics which he + treats of, and the class of social vices and the types of character + which he satirizes. For students of Latin literature, the chief + interest of studying the fragments of Lucilius consists in the light + which they throw on the aims and methods of Horace in the composition + of his satires, and, though not to the same extent, of his epistles. + They are important also as materials for linguistic study; and they + have considerable historical value. + + Editions by F. D. Gerlach (1846), L. Müller (1872), C. Lachmann (1876, + posthumous), F. Marx (1905); see also L. Müller, _Leben und Werke des + Lucilius_ (1876); "Luciliana," by H. A. J. Munro, in the _Journal of + Philology_, vii. (1877); Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_, bk. iv. ch. 13; + "Luciliana," by A. E. Housman, in _Classical Quarterly_ (April, 1907); + C. Cichorius, _Untersuchungen zu Lucilius_ (Berlin, 1908). + (W. Y. S.; X.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] "And so it happens that the whole life of the old man stands + clearly before us, as if it were represented on a votive picture." + + + + +LUCILIUS JUNIOR, a friend and correspondent of the younger Seneca, +probably the author of _Aetna_, a poem on the origin of volcanic +activity, variously attributed to Virgil, Cornelius Severus (epic poet +of the Augustan age) and Manilius. Its composition has been placed as +far back as 44 B.C., on the ground that certain works of art, known to +have been removed to Rome about that date, are referred to as being at a +distance from the city. But as the author appears to have known and made +use of the _Quaestiones Naturales_ of Seneca (written A.D. 65), and no +mention is made of the great eruption of Vesuvius (A.D. 79), the time of +its composition seems to lie between these two dates. In favour of the +authorship of Lucilius are the facts that he was a friend of Seneca and +acquainted with his writings; that he had for some time held the office +of imperial procurator of Sicily, and was thus familiar with the +locality; that he was the author of a poem on Sicilian subjects. It is +objected that in the 79th letter of Seneca, which is the chief authority +on the question, he apparently asks that Lucilius should introduce the +hackneyed theme of Aetna merely as an episode in his contemplated poem, +not make it the subject of separate treatment. The sources of the Aetna +are Posidonius of Apamea, and perhaps the pseudo-Aristotelian _De +Mundo_, while there are many reminiscences of Lucretius. It has come +down in a very corrupt state, and its difficulties are increased by the +unpoetical nature of the subject, the straining after conciseness, and +the obtrusive use of metaphor. + + Editions by J. Scaliger (1595), F. Jacob (1826), H. A. J. Munro + (1867), M. Haupt (in his edition of Virgil, 1873), E. Bährens (in + _Poetae latini minores_, ii), S. Sudhaus (1898), R. Ellis (1901, + containing a bibliography of the subject); see also M. Haupt's + _Opuscula_, i. 40, ii. 27, 162, iii. 437 (notes, chiefly critical); R. + Ellis in _Journal of Philology_, xvi. 292; P. R. Wagler, _De Aetna + poemate quaestiones criticae_ (1884); B. Kruczkiewicz, _Poema de Aetna + Monte_ (1883, in which the ancient view of the authorship of Virgil is + upheld); L. Alzinger, _Studia in Aetnam collata_ (1896); R. + Hildebrandt, _Beiträge zur Erklärung des Gedichtes Aetna_ (1900); J. + Vessereau (text, translation and commentary, 1905); Teuffel-Schwabe, + _Hist. of Roman Literature_ (Eng. trans. §§ 307, 308). + + + + +LUCINA, goddess of light, a title given to Juno and Diana as presiding +over childbirth and bringing children into the light of the world. The +full name is _lucina dea_, "the light-bringing goddess" (_lux_, light, +hence adj. _lucinus_). It is also given to Hecate (Tibullus 3. 4. 13), +as the bringer of terrible dreams, and is used metaphorically as a +synonym for child-birth (Virg. _Georg_, iii. 60; Ovid, _Ars. Amai._ iii. +785). + + + + +LUCIUS, the name of three popes. + +LUCIUS I., pope for eight months (253-254), spent a short period of his +pontificate in exile. He is referred to in several letters of Cyprian +(see _Epist._ lxviii. 5) as having been in agreement with his +predecessor Cornelius in preferring the milder view on the question as +to how the lapsed penitent should be treated. He is commemorated on the +4th of March. (L. D.*) + +LUCIUS II. (Gherardo Caccianemici dal Orso), pope from the 12th of March +1144 to the 15th of February 1145, a Bolognese, successively canon at +his native city, cardinal priest of Sta Croce in Gerusalemme, treasurer +of the Roman Church, papal legate in Germany for Honorius II., +chancellor and librarian under Innocent II., was the successor of +Celestine II. His stormy pontificate was marked by the erection of a +revolutionary republic at Rome which sought to deprive the pope of his +temporal power, and by the recognition of papal suzerainty over +Portugal. He was succeeded by Eugenius III. + + His letters are in J. P. Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ vol. 179. A single + unreliable writer, Godfrey of Viterbo (in J. M. Watterich, _Pontif. + Roman. Vitae_), is authority for the statement that Lucius II. + perished in an attempt to storm the Capitol. See Jaffé-Wittenbach, + _Regesta pontif. Roman_. (1885-1888); J. Langen, _Geschichte der + römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III._ (Bonn, 1893); F. + Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G. W. + Hamilton (London, 1896). + +LUCIUS III. (Ubaldo Allucingoli), pope from the 1st of September 1181 to +the 25th of November 1185, a native of Lucca and a Cistercian monk, +named cardinal-priest of Sta Prassede by Innocent II. and +cardinal-bishop of Ostia and Velletri by Adrian IV., succeeded Alexander +III. He lived at Rome from November 1181 to March 1182, but dissensions +in the city compelled him to pass the remainder of his pontificate in +exile, mainly at Velletri, Anagni and Verona. He disputed with the +emperor Frederick I. the disposal of the territories of the Countess +Matilda. In November 1184 he held a synod at Verona which condemned the +Cathari, Paterines, Waldensians and Arnoldists, and anathematized all +heretics and their abettors. Lucius died in the midst of preparations +for a crusade in answer to appeals of Baldwin IV. of Jerusalem. His +successor was Urban III. + + His letters are in J. P. Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ vol. 201. Consult J. M. + Watterich, _Pontif. Roman. Vitae_, vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1862); and + Jaffé-Wattenbach, _Regesta Pontif. Roman_. (1885-1888). See J. Langen, + _Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III._ + (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. 4, + trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896); P. Scheffer-Boichorst, + "Zu den mathildinischen Schenkungen," in _Mittheilungen des + österreichen Instituts_ (1888). (C. H. Ha.) + + + + +LUCK, a term for good or bad fortune, the unforeseen or unrecognized +causes which bring success or failure in any enterprise, particularly +used of the result of chances in games of skill or chance (see +PROBABILITY). The word does not occur in English before the 16th +century. It was taken from the Low Ger. _luk_, a shortened form of +_geluk_, cf. Modern Ger. _Glück_, happiness, good fortune. The _New +English Dictionary_ considers the word to have been introduced from the +Low Countries as a gambling term. The ultimate origin is doubtful; it +has been connected with the German _gelingen_, to succeed (cf. _Druck_, +pressure, from _dringen_), or with _locken_, to entice. + +At Eden Hall in Cumberland, the seat of the Musgrave family, has been +long preserved a vessel known as "the luck," supposed to be of Venetian +or Byzantine make, and dating from the 10th century. It is a chalice of +enamelled glass, and on its safe preservation the fortunes of the +Musgrave family are supposed to depend, in accordance with the rhyme:-- + + "Should this cup either break or fall, + Farewell the luck of Edenhall." + + + + +LÜCKE, GOTTFRIED CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1791-1855), German theologian, was +born on the 24th of August 1791, at Egeln near Magdeburg, where his +father was a merchant. He studied theology at Halle and Göttingen. In +1813 he became _repetent_ at Göttingen, and in 1814 he received the +degree of doctor in philosophy from Halle; in 1816 he removed to Berlin, +where he became licentiate in theology, and qualified as +_privat-docent_. He soon became intimate with Schleiermacher and de +Wette, and was associated with them in 1819 in the redaction of the +_Theologische Zeitschrift_. Meanwhile his lectures and publications +(among the latter a _Grundriss der Neutestamentlichen Hermeneutik_, +1816) had brought him into considerable repute, and he was appointed +professor extraordinarius in the new university of Bonn in the spring of +1818; in the following autumn he became professor ordinarius. From Bonn, +where he had J. C. W. Augusti (1772-1841), J. K. L. Gieseler, and Karl +Immanuel Nitzsch for colleagues, he was called in 1827 to Göttingen to +succeed K. F. Stäudlin (1761-1826). In that year he helped to found the +_Theologische Studien und Kritiken_, the chief organ of the "mediation" +theology (_Vermittelungstheologie_). At Göttingen he remained, declining +all further calls elsewhere, as to Erlangen, Kiel, Halle, Tübingen, Jena +and Leipzig, until his death, which occurred on the 4th of February +1855. + + Lücke, who was one of the most learned, many-sided and influential of + the so-called "mediation" school of evangelical theologians + (_Vermittelungstheologie_), is now chiefly known by his _Kommentar + über die Schriften d. Evangelisten Johannes_ (4 vols., 1820-1832); it + has since passed through two new and improved editions (the last + volume of the 3rd edition by E. Bertheau, 1856). He is an intelligent + maintainer of the Johannine authorship of the Fourth Gospel; in + connexion with this thesis he was one of the first to argue for the + early date and non-apostolic authorship of the Apocalypse. His + _Einleitung in die Offenbarung Johannis_ was published in 1832 (2nd + ed., 1848-1852). He also published a _Synopsis Evangeliorum_, + conjointly with W. M. L. de Wette (1818, 2nd ed., 1840). See + Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_. + + + + +LUCKENWALDE, a town in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, on the +Nuthe, 30 m. S. of Berlin, on the main line to Dresden and Leipzig. Pop. +(1905) 22,263. Its cloth and wool manufactories are among the most +extensive in Prussia. Among its other industries are cotton printing and +dye works, brewing, and the making of metal and bronze goods. + +The site of Luckenwalde was occupied in the 12th century by a Cistercian +monastery, but the village did not spring up till the reign of Frederick +the Great. It was made a town in 1808. + + + + +LUCKNOW, a city, district and division of British India. The city was +the capital of Oudh from 1775 until it was merged in the United +Provinces in 1901. Pop. (1901) 264,049. It lies mainly on the right bank +of the winding river Gumti, which is crossed by two railway and three +road bridges. It contains the Canning college (1864), with an Oriental +department, and La Martinière college, where about 100 boys are +educated, the institution being in part supported by an endowment left +by General Claude Martin in 1800. There are native manufactures of gold +and silver brocade, muslins, embroidery, brass and copper wares, pottery +and moulding in clay. There are also important European industrial +establishments, such as iron-works and paper-mills. Lucknow is the +centre of the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway system, with large workshops. +Lines radiate to Cawnpore, Bareilly, Gonda, Fyzabad and Rae Bareli. +Lucknow is the headquarters of the 8th division of the northern army. +The cantonments are situated 3 m. E. of the city. + +Lucknow is chiefly notable in the history of British India as the +capital of the nawabs who had dealings with Warren Hastings, and their +successors the kings of Oudh, whose deposition by Lord Dalhousie was one +of the chief causes of the Mutiny. Amongst the events of the Mutiny the +defence of the residency of Lucknow comes only second in historic +interest to the massacre at Cawnpore itself. For the two sieges, see +Indian Mutiny. The name of the residency is now applied not only to the +residency itself, but to the whole of the outbuildings and entrenchments +in which Sir Henry Lawrence concentrated his small force. These +entrenchments covered almost 60 acres of ground, and consisted of a +number of detached houses, public edifices, outhouses and casual +buildings, netted together, and welded by ditches, parapets, stockades +and batteries into one connected whole. On the summit of the plateau +stands the residency proper, the official residence of the chief +commissioner, a lofty building three storeys high, with a fine portico. +Near the residency comes the banqueting hall, and beyond the Baillie +Guardgate lie the ruins of the surgeon's house, where Sir Henry Lawrence +died of a shell-wound, and where the ladies of the garrison were +sheltered in underground rooms. Round the line of the entrenchments are +pillars marked with the name of the various "posts" into which the +garrison was distributed. The most dangerous of these was the Cawnpore +battery post, where the stockade was directly exposed to the enemy's +fire. The mutineers had rifles fixed in rests in the house opposite, and +swept the road that led through the residency enclosure at this point. +Close to the residency is the Lawrence Memorial, an artificial mound 30 +ft. high crowned by a marble cross. + +Among the other buildings of interest in Lucknow is the Imambara, which +is one of the largest rooms in the world (162 ft. by 54), having an +arched roof without supports. This room was built by the Nawab +Asaf-ud-dowlah in 1784, to afford relief to the famine-stricken people. +The many monuments of his reign include his country palace of Bibiapur, +outside the city. Among later bulldings are the two palaces of Chhattar +Manzil, erected for the wives of Ghazi-ud-din Haidar (1814), the remains +of the Farhat Baksh, dating from the previous reign, and adjoining the +greater Chhattar Manzil, the observatory (now a bank) of Nasir-ud-din +Haidar (1827), the imambara or mausoleum and the unfinished great mosque +(Jama Masjid) of Mahommed Ali Shah (1837), and the huge debased Kaisar +Bagh, the palace of Wajid Ali Shah (1847-1856). + + The DISTRICT OF LUCKNOW lies on both sides of the river Gumti, and has + an area of 967 sq. m. Its general aspect is that of an open champaign, + well studded with villages, finely wooded and in parts most fertile + and highly cultivated. In the vicinity of rivers, however, stretch + extensive barren sandy tracts (_bhúr_), and there are many wastes of + saline efflorescence (_usár_). The country is an almost dead level, + the average slope, which is from N.W. to S.E., being less than a foot + per mile. The principal rivers are the Gumti and the Sai with their + tributaries. The population in 1901 was 793,241, showing an increase + of 2.5% in the preceding decade. + + The DIVISION OF LUCKNOW contains the western half of the old province + of Oudh. It comprises the six districts of Lucknow, Unao, Sitapur, Rae + Bareli, Hardoi and Kheri. Its area is 12,051 sq. m. and its population + in 1901 was 5,977,086, showing an increase of 2.06% in the decade. + + See _Lucknow District Gazetteer_ (Allahabad, 1904). For a fuller + description of the city see G. W. Forrest, _Cities of India_ (1903). + + + + +LUÇON, a town of western France, in the department of Vendée, 23 m. S.E. +of La Roche-sur-Yon, on the railway from Nantes to Bordeaux, and on the +canal of Luçon (9 m. long), which affords communication with the sea in +the Bay of Aiguillon. Pop. (1906) 6163. Between Luçon and the sea +stretch marshy plains, the bed of the former gulf, partly drained by +numerous canals, and in the reclaimed parts yielding excellent +pasturage, while in other parts are productive salt-marshes, and ponds +for the rearing of mussels and other shell-fish. Luçon is the seat of a +bishopric, established in 1317, and held by Richelieu from 1607 to 1624. +The cathedral, partly of the 12th-century and partly of later periods, +was originally an abbey church. The façade and the clock tower date from +about 1700, and the tower is surmounted by a crocketed spire rising 275 +ft. above the ground, attributed to the architect François Leduc of +Tuscany. The cloisters are of the late 15th century. Adjacent is the +bishop's palace, possessing a large theological library and Titian's +"Disciples of Emmaus," and there is a fine public garden. A communal +college and an ecclesiastical seminary are among the public +institutions. During the Vendean wars, Luçon was the scene of several +conflicts, notably in 1793. + + + + +LUCRE (Lat. _lucrum_, gain; the Indo-European root is seen in Gr. +[Greek: apolauein], to enjoy, and in Ger. _Lohn_, wages), a term now +only used in the disparaging sense of unworthy profit, or money that is +the object of greed, especially in the expression "filthy lucre" (1 Tim. +iii. 3). In the adjective "lucrative," profitable, there is, however, no +sense of disparagement. In Scots law the term "lucrative succession" +(_lucrativa acquisitio_) is used of the taking by an heir, during the +lifetime of his ancestor, of a free grant of any part of the heritable +property. + + + + +LUCRETIA, a Roman lady, wife of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, +distinguished for her beauty and domestic virtues. Having been outraged +by Sextus Tarquinius, one of the sons of Tarquinius Superbus, she +informed her father and her husband, and, having exacted an oath of +vengeance from them, stabbed herself to death. Lucius Junius Brutus, her +husband's cousin, put himself at the head of the people, drove out the +Tarquins, and established a republic. The accounts of this tradition in +later writers present many points of divergence. + + Livy i. 57-59; Dion. Halic. iv. 64-67, 70, 82; Ovid, _Fasti_, ii. + 721-852; Dio Cassius, frag. 11 (Bekker); G. Cornewall Lewis, + _Credibility of Early Roman History_, i. + + + + +LUCRETILIS MONS, a mountain of the Sabine territory, mentioned by Horace +(_Od._ i. 17, 1) as visible from his Sabine farm, and probably identical +with the "Mons Lucretius" mentioned in the _Liber Pontificalis_ (ed. +Duchesne, i. 183), which speaks of "possessio in territorio Sabinensi +quae cognominatur ad duas casas sub monte Lucretio" in the time of +Constantine. The name "ad duas casas" is supposed to survive in the +chapel of the Madonna della Casa near Rocca Giovane, and the Mons +Lucretilis is generally (and rightly) identified with Monte Gennaro, a +limestone peak 4160 ft. high, which forms a prominent feature in the +view N.E. of Rome. Excavations on the supposed site of Horace's farm +were begun by Professor Pasqui in September 1909. (T. As.) + + + + +LUCRETIUS (TITUS LUCRETIUS CARUS) (c. 98-55 B.C.), the great Latin +didactic poet. Our sole information concerning his life is found in the +brief summary of Jerome, written more than four centuries after the +poet's death. Jerome followed, often carelessly, the accounts contained +in the lost work of Suetonius _De Viris Illustribus_, written about two +centuries after the death of Lucretius; and, although it is likely that +Suetonius used the information transmitted by earlier grammarians, there +is nothing to guide us to the original sources. According to this +account the poet was born in 95 B.C.; he became mad in consequence of +the administration of a love-philtre; and after composing several books +in his lucid intervals, which were subsequently corrected by Cicero, he +died by his own hand in the forty-fourth year of his age. Donatus states +in his life of Virgil, a work also based on the lost work of Suetonius, +that Lucretius died on the same day on which Virgil assumed the _toga +virilis_, that is, in the seventeenth year of Virgil's life, and on the +very day on which he was born, and adds that the consuls were the same, +that is Cn. Pompeius Magnus and M. Licinius Crassus, consuls in 70 and +again in 55. The statements cannot be perfectly reconciled; but we may +say with certainty that Lucretius was born between 98 and 95 B.C., and +died in 55 or 54. A single mention of his poem, the _De rerum natura_ +(which from the condition in which it has reached us may be assumed to +have been published posthumously) in a letter of Cicero's to his brother +Quintus, written early in 54 B.C., confirms the date given by Donatus as +that of the poet's death. The statements of Jerome have been questioned +or disbelieved on the ground of their intrinsic improbability. They have +been regarded as a fiction invented later by the enemies of +Epicureanism, with the view of discrediting the most powerful work ever +produced by any disciple of that sect. It is more in conformity with +ancient credulity than with modern science to attribute a permanent +tendency to derangement to the accidental administration of any drug, +however potent. A work characterized by such strength, consistency and +continuity of thought is not likely to have been composed "in the +intervals of madness" as Jerome says. Donatus, in mentioning the poet's +death, gives no hint of the act of suicide. The poets of the Augustan +age, who were deeply interested both in his philosophy and in his +poetry, are entirely silent about the tragical story of his life. +Cicero, by his professed antagonism to the doctrines of Epicurus, by his +inadequate appreciation of Lucretius himself and by the indifference +which he shows to other contemporary poets, seems to have been neither +fitted for the task of correcting the unfinished work of a writer whose +genius was so distinct from his own, nor likely to have cordially +undertaken such a task. + +Yet these considerations do not lead to the absolute rejection of the +story. The evidence afforded by the poem rather leads to the conclusion +that the tradition contains some germ of fact. It is remarkable that in +more than one passage of his poem Lucretius writes with extraordinary +vividness of the impression produced both by dreams and by waking +visions. It is true that the philosophy of Epicurus put great stress on +these, as affording the explanation of the origin of supernatural +beliefs. But the insistence with which Lucretius returns to the subject, +and the horror with which he recalls the effects of such abnormal +phenomena, suggest that he himself may have been liable to such +hallucinations, which are said to be consistent with perfect sanity, +though they may be the precursors either of madness or of a state of +despair and melancholy. Other passages, where he describes himself as +ever engaged, even in his dreams, on his task of inquiry and +composition, produce the impression of an unrelieved strain of mind and +feeling, which may have ended in some extreme reaction of spirit, or in +some failure of intellectual power, that may have led him to commit +suicide. But the strongest confirmation of the tradition is the +unfinished condition in which the poem has reached us. The subject +appears indeed to have been fully treated in accordance with the plan +sketched out in the introduction to the first book. But that book is the +only one which is finished in style and in the arrangement of its +matter. In all the others, and especially in the last three, the +continuity of the argument is frequently broken by passages which must +have been inserted after the first draft of the arguments was written +out. Thus, for instance, in his account of the transition from savage to +civilized life, he assumes at v. 1011 the discovery of the use of skins, +fire, &c., and the first beginning of civil society, and proceeds at +1028 to explain the origin of language, and then again returns, from +1090 to 1160, to speculate upon the first use of fire and the earliest +stages of political life. These breaks in continuity show what might +also be inferred from frequent repetitions of lines which have appeared +earlier in the poem, and from the rough workmanship of passages in the +later books, that the poem could not have received the final revision of +the author. Nor is there any great difficulty in believing that Cicero +edited it; the word "emendavit," need not mean more than what we call +"preparing for press." + +From the absence of any claim on the part of any other district of Italy +to the honour of having given birth to Lucretius it is inferred that he +was of purely Roman origin. No writer certainly is more purely Roman in +personal character and in strength of understanding. His silence on the +subject of Roman greatness and glory as contrasted with the prominence +of these subjects in the poetry of men of provincial birth such as +Ennius, Virgil and Horace, may be explained by the principle that +familiarity had made the subject one of less wonder and novelty to him. +The Lucretian gens to which he belonged was one of the oldest of the +great Roman houses, nor do we hear of the name, as we do of other great +family names, as being diffused over other parts of Italy, or as +designating men of obscure or servile origin. It may well be assumed +that Lucretius was a member of the Roman aristocracy, belonging either +to a senatorian or to one of the great equestrian families. If the Roman +aristocracy of his time had lost much of the virtue and of the governing +qualities of their ancestors, they showed in the last years before the +establishment of monarchy a taste for intellectual culture which might +have made Rome as great in literature as in arms and law. A new taste +for philosophy had developed among members of the governing class during +the youth of Lucretius, and eminent Greek teachers of the Epicurean sect +settled at Rome at the same time, and lived on terms of intimacy with +them. The inference that Lucretius belonged to this class is confirmed +by the tone in which he addresses Gaius Memmius, a man of an eminent +senatorian family, to whom the poem is dedicated. His tone is quite +unlike that in which Virgil or even Horace addresses Maecenas. He +addresses him as an equal; he expresses sympathy with the prominent part +he played in public life, and admiration for his varied accomplishments, +but on his own subject claims to speak to him with authority. + +Although our conception of the poet's life is necessarily vague and +meagre, yet his personal force is so remarkable and so vividly impressed +on his poem, that we seem able to form a consistent idea of his +qualities and characteristics. We know, for example, that the choice of +a contemplative life was not the result of indifference to the fate of +the world, or of any natural coldness or even calmness of temperament. +In the opening lines of the second and third books we can mark the +recoil of a humane and sensitive spirit from the horrors of the reign of +terror which he witnessed in his youth, and from the anarchy and +confusion which prevailed at Rome during his later years. We may also +infer that he had not been through his whole career so much estranged +from the social life of his day as he seems to have been in his later +years. Passages in his poem attest his familiarity with the pomp and +luxury of city life, with the attractions of the public games and with +the pageantry of great military spectacles. But much the greater mass of +the illustrations of his philosophy indicate that, while engaged on his +poem he must have passed much of his time in the open air, exercising at +once the keen observation of a naturalist and the contemplative vision +of a poet. He seems to have found a pleasure, more congenial to the +modern than to the ancient temperament, in ascending mountains or +wandering among their solitudes (vi. 469, iv. 575). References to +companionship in these wanderings, and the well-known description of the +charm of a rustic meal (ii. 29) speak of kindly sociality rather than of +any austere separation from his fellows. + +Other expressions in his poem (e.g. iii. 10, &c.) imply that he was also +a student of books. Foremost among these were the writings of Epicurus; +but he had also an intimate knowledge of the philosophical poem of +Empedocles, and at least an acquaintance with the works of Democritus, +Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Plato and the Stoical writers. Of other Greek +prose writers he knew Thucydides and Hippocrates; while of the poets he +expresses in more than one passage the highest admiration of Homer, whom +he imitated in several places. Next to Homer Euripides is most +frequently reproduced by him. But his poetical sympathy was not limited +to the poets of Greece. For his own countryman Ennius he expresses an +affectionate admiration; and he imitates his language, his rhythm and +his manner in many places. The fragments of the old tragedian Pacuvius +and of the satirist Lucilius show that Lucretius had made use of their +expressions and materials. In his studies he was attracted by the older +writers, both Greek and Roman, in whose masculine temperament and +understanding he recognized an affinity with his own. + +His devotion to Epicurus seems at first sight more difficult to explain +than his enthusiasm for Empedocles or Ennius. Probably he found in his +calmness of temperament, even in his want of imagination, a sense of +rest and of exemption from the disturbing influences of life; while in +his physical philosophy he found both an answer to the questions which +perplexed him and an inexhaustible stimulus to his intellectual +curiosity. The combative energy, the sense of superiority, the spirit of +satire, characteristic of him as a Roman, unite with his loyalty to +Epicurus to render him not only polemical but intolerant and +contemptuous in his tone toward the great antagonists of his system, the +Stoics, whom, while constantly referring to them, he does not condescend +even to name. With his admiration of the genius of others he combines a +strong sense of his own power. He is quite conscious of the great +importance and of the difficulty of his task; but he feels his own +ability to cope with it. + +It is more difficult to infer the moral than the intellectual +characteristics of a great writer from the personal impress left by him +on his work. Yet it is not too much to say that there is no work in any +literature that produces a profounder impression of sincerity. No writer +shows a juster scorn of all mere rhetoric and exaggeration. No one shows +truer courage, not marred by irreverence, in confronting the great +problems of human destiny, or greater strength in triumphing over human +weakness. No one shows a truer humanity and a more tender sympathy with +natural sorrow. + +The peculiarity of the poem of Lucretius, that which makes it unique in +literature, is that it is a reasoned system of philosophy, written in +verse. The prosaic title _De Rerum Natura_, a translation of the Gr. +[Greek: peri physeôs], implies the subordination of the artistic to a +speculative motive. As in the case of nearly all the great works of +Roman literary genius, the form of the poem was borrowed from the +Greeks. The rise of speculative philosophy in Greece was coincident with +the beginning of prose composition, and many of the earliest +philosophers wrote in the prose of the Ionic dialect; others, however, +and especially the writers of the Greek colonies in Italy and Sicily, +expounded their systems in continuous poems composed in the epic +hexameter. Most famous in connexion with this kind of poetry are +Xenophanes and Parmenides, the Eleatics and Empedocles of Agrigentum. +The last was less important as a philosopher, but greater than the +others both as a poet and a physicist. On both of these grounds he had a +greater attraction to Lucretius. The fragments of the poem of Empedocles +show that the Roman poet regarded that work as his model. In accordance +with this model he has given to his own poem the form of a personal +address, he has developed his argument systematically, and has applied +the sustained impetus of epic poetry to the treatment of some of the +driest and abstrusest topics. Many ideas and expressions of the Sicilian +have been reproduced by the Roman poet; and the same tone of impassioned +solemnity and melancholy seems to have pervaded both works. But +Lucretius, if less original as a thinker, was probably a much greater +poet than Empedocles. What chiefly distinguishes him from his Greek +prototypes is that his purpose is rather ethical than purely +speculative; the zeal of a teacher and reformer is more strong in him +than even the intellectual passion of a thinker. His speculative ideas, +his moral teaching and his poetical power are indeed interdependent on +one another, and this interdependence is what mainly constitutes their +power and interest. But of the three claims which he makes to +immortality, the importance of his subject, his desire to liberate the +mind from the bonds of superstition and the charm and lucidity of his +poetry--that which he himself regarded as supreme was the second. The +main idea of the poem is the irreconcilable opposition between the truth +of the laws of nature and the falsehood of the old superstitions. But, +further, the happiness and the dignity of life are regarded by him as +absolutely dependent on the acceptance of the true and the rejection of +the false doctrine. In the Epicurean system of philosophy he believed +that he had found the weapons by which this war of liberation could be +most effectually waged. Following Epicurus he sets before himself the +aim of finally crushing that fear of the gods and that fear of death +resulting from it which he regards as the source of all the human ills. +Incidentally he desires also to purify the heart from other violent +passions which corrupt it and mar its peace. But the source even of +these--the passions of ambition and avarice--he finds in the fear of +death; and that fear he resolves into the fear of eternal punishment +after death. + +The selection of his subject and the order in which it is treated are +determined by this motive. Although the title of the poem implies that +it is a treatise on the "whole nature of things," the aim of Lucretius +is to treat only those branches of science which are necessary to clear +the mind from the fear of the gods and the terrors of a future state. In +the two earliest books, accordingly, he lays down and largely +illustrates the first principles of being with the view of showing that +the world is not governed by capricious agency, but has come into +existence, continues in existence, and will ultimately pass away in +accordance with the primary conditions of the elemental atoms which, +along with empty space, are the only eternal and immutable substances. +These atoms are themselves infinite in number but limited in their +varieties, and by their ceaseless movement and combinations during +infinite time and through infinite space the whole process of creation +is maintained. In the third book he applies the principles of the atomic +philosophy to explain the nature of the mind and vital principle, with +the view of showing that the soul perishes with the body. In the fourth +book he discusses the Epicurean doctrine of the images, which are cast +from all bodies, and which act either on the senses or immediately on +the mind, in dreams or waking visions, as affording the explanation of +the belief in the continued existence of the spirits of the departed. +The fifth book, which has the most general interest, professes to +explain the process by which the earth, the sea, the sky, the sun, moon +and stars, were formed, the origin of life, and the gradual advance of +man from the most savage to the most civilized condition. All these +topics are treated with the view of showing that the world is not itself +divine nor directed by divine agency. The sixth book is devoted to the +explanation, in accordance with natural causes, of some of the more +abnormal phenomena, such as thunderstorms, volcanoes, earthquakes, &c., +which are special causes of supernatural terrors. + +The consecutive study of the argument produces on most readers a mixed +feeling of dissatisfaction and admiration. They are repelled by the +dryness of much of the matter, the unsuitableness of many of the topics +discussed for poetic treatment, the arbitrary assumption of premises, +the entire failure to establish the connexion between the concrete +phenomena which the author professes to explain and these assumptions, +and the erroneousness of many of the doctrines which are stated with +dogmatic confidence. On the other hand, they are constantly impressed by +his power of reasoning both deductively and inductively, by the subtlety +and fertility of invention with which he applies analogies, by the +clearness and keenness of his observation, by the fulness of matter with +which his mind is stored, and by the consecutive force, the precision +and distinctness of his style, when employed in the processes of +scientific exposition. The first two books enable us better than +anything else in ancient literature to appreciate the boldness and, on +the whole, the reasonableness of the ancient mind in forming hypotheses +on great matters that still occupy the investigations of physical +science. The third and fourth books give evidence of acuteness in +psychological analysis; the fourth and sixth of the most active and +varied observation of natural phenomena; the fifth of original insight +and strong common sense in conceiving the origin of society and the +progressive advance of man to civilization. But the chief value of +Lucretius as a thinker lies in his firm grasp of speculative ideas, and +in his application of them to the interpretation of human life and +nature. All phenomena, moral as well as material, are contemplated by +him in their relation to one great organic whole, which he acknowledges +under the name of "Natura daedala rerum," and the most beneficent +manifestations of which he seems to symbolize and almost to deify in the +"Alma Venus," whom, in apparent contradiction to his denial of a divine +interference with human affairs, he invokes with prayer in the opening +lines of the poem. In this conception of nature are united the +conceptions of law and order, of ever-changing life and interdependence, +of immensity, individuality, and all-pervading subtlety, under which the +universe is apprehended both by his intelligence and his imagination. + +Nothing can be more unlike the religious and moral attitude of Lucretius +than the old popular conception of him as an atheist and a preacher of +the doctrine of pleasure. It is true that he denies the doctrines of a +supernatural government of the world and of a future life. But his +arguments against the first are really only valid against the limited +and unworthy conceptions of divine agency involved in the ancient +religions; his denial of the second is prompted by his vital realization +of all that is meant by the arbitrary infliction of eternal torment +after death. His war with the popular beliefs of his time is waged, not +in the interests of licence, but in vindication of the sanctity of human +feeling. The cardinal line of the poem, + + "Tantum religio potuit suadere malorum," + +is elicited from him as his protest against the sacrifice of Iphigenia +by her father. But in his very denial of a cruel, limited and capricious +agency of the gods, and in his imaginative recognition of an orderly, +all-pervading, all-regulating power, we find at least a nearer approach +to the higher conceptions of modern theism than in any of the other +imaginative conceptions of ancient poetry and art. But his conception +even of the ancient gods and of their indirect influence on human life +is more worthy than the popular one. He conceives of them as living a +life of eternal peace and exemption from passion, in a world of their +own; and the highest ideal of man is, through the exercise of his +reason, to realize an image of this life. Although they are conceived of +as unconcerned with the interest of our world, yet influences are +supposed to emanate from them which the human heart is capable of +receiving and assimilating. The effect of unworthy conceptions of the +divine nature is that they render a man incapable of visiting the +temples of the gods in a calm spirit, or of receiving the emanations +that "announce the divine peace" in peaceful tranquillity. The supposed +"atheism" of Lucretius proceeds from a more deeply reverential spirit +than that of the majority of professed believers in all times. + +His moral attitude is also far removed from that of ordinary ancient +Epicureanism or of modern materialism. Though he acknowledges pleasure +to be the law of life, yet he is far from regarding its attainment as +the end of life. What man needs is not enjoyment, but "peace and a pure +heart." The victory to be won by man is the triumph over fear, ambition, +passion, luxury. With the conquest over these nature herself supplies +all that is needed for happiness. Self-control and renunciation are the +lessons which he preaches. + +It has been doubted whether Cicero,[1] in his short criticism in the +letter already referred to, concedes to Lucretius both the gifts of +genius and the accomplishment of art or only one of them. Readers of a +later time, who could compare his work with the finished works of the +Augustan age, would certainly disparage his art rather than his power. +But with Cicero it was different. He greatly admired, or professed to +admire, the genius of the early Roman poets, while he shows indifference +to the poetical genius of his younger contemporaries. Yet he could not +have been insensible to the immense superiority in rhythmical smoothness +which the hexameter of Lucretius has over that of Ennius and Lucilius. +And no reader of Lucretius can doubt that he attached the greatest +importance to artistic execution, and that he took a great pleasure, not +only in "the long roll of his hexameter," but also in producing the +effects of alliteration, assonance, &c., which are so marked a +peculiarity in the style of Plautus and the earlier Roman poets. He +allows his taste for these tricks of style to degenerate into mannerism. +And this is the only drawback to the impression of absolute spontaneity +which his style produces. He was unfortunate in living before the +natural rudeness of Latin art had been successfully grappled with. His +only important precursors in serious poetry were Ennius and Lucilius, +and, though he derived from the first of these an impulse to shape the +Latin tongue into a fitting vehicle for the expression of elevated +emotion and imaginative conception, he could find in neither a guide to +follow in the task he set before himself. The difficulty and novelty of +his task enhances our sense of his power. His finest passages are thus +characterized by a freshness of feeling and enthusiasm of discovery. But +the result of these conditions and of his own inadequate conception of +the proper limits of his art is that his best poetry is clogged with a +great mass of alien matter, which no treatment in the world could have +made poetically endurable. (W. Y. S.) + + AUTHORITIES.--The two most ancient manuscripts of Lucretius, O and Q, + are both at Leiden, one being a folio (_oblongus_) and the other a + quarto (_quadratus_). Upon these alone the modern texts are founded. + The scientific editing of the text began with C. C. Lachmann (1852) + whose work still holds the field. The most important commentary is + that of H. A. J. Munro (4th ed., 1886) with a prose translation. For + the earlier editions it is sufficient to refer to the account in + Munro's _Introduction_, vol. i. pp. 3 sqq. Giussani's complete edition + (with Italian notes, 1896) and R. Heinze's edition of book iii. (1897) + are also of value. So too are A. Brieger's numerous contributions in + German periodicals and his text in the Teubner series (2nd ed., 1899). + + The philosophy of Lucretius has been much studied in recent times. + Amongst special treatises may be mentioned K. H. Usener's _Epicurea_ + (1887); J. Woltjer's _Lucretii philosophia cum fontibus comparata_ + (1877); John Masson's _Atomic Theory of Lucretius_ (1884) and + _Lucretius: Epicurean and Poet_ (1909); and several papers and + treatises by Brieger and Giussani. + + On the characteristics of the poet as a whole, C. Martha's _Le Poème + de Lucrèce_ (4th ed., Paris, 1885) and W. Y. Sellar in chaps. xi. sqq. + of the _Roman Poets of the Republic_, may be consulted. There are + useful bibliographies in W. S. Teuffel's _History of Roman Literature_ + (English trans. by G. C. W. Warr) and Martin v. Schanz's _Geschichte + der römischen Litteratur_. + + The following translations into English verse are known: T. Creech + (1683), J. M. Good (1805), T. Busby (1813), C. F. Johnson (New York, + 1872), T. C. Baring (1884). There is also a translation by Cyril + Bailey (Oxford, 1910). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Ad Q. Fratr._ ii. 9 (11), 13. Both sense and words have been + much disputed. The general sense is probably that given by the + following restoration, "Lucretii poemata, ut scribis, ita sunt multis + hominibus ingenii multae etiam (MSS. tamen) artis, sed cum _ad + umbilicum_ (omitted in MSS.) veneris, virum te putabo, si Sallustii + Empedoclea legeris, hominem non putabo." This would concede Lucretius + both genius and art, but imply at the same time that he was not easy + reading. + + + + +LUCRINUS LACUS, or LUCRINE LAKE, a lake of Campania, Italy, about ½ m. +to the N. of Lake Avernus, and only separated from the sea (Gulf of +Pozzuoli) by a narrow strip of land, traversed by the coast road, Via +Herculanea, which runs on an embankment, the construction of which was +traditionally attributed to Heracles in Strabo's time--and the modern +railway. Its size has been much reduced by the rise of the crater of the +Montenuovo in 1538. Its greatest depth is about 15 ft. In Roman days its +fisheries were important and were let out by the state to contractors. +Its oyster-beds were, as at the present day, renowned; their foundation +is attributed to one Sergius Orata, about 100 B.C. It was also in favour +as a resort for pleasure excursions from Baiae (cf. Martial i. 63), and +its banks were covered with villas, of which the best known was Cicero's +Academia, on the E. bank. The remnants of this villa, with the village +of Tripergola, disappeared in 1538. + + See J. Beloch, _Campanien_, ed. 2 (Breslau, 1890), 172. + + + + +LUCULLUS, the name of a Roman plebeian family of the Licinian _gens_. By +far the most famous of its members was LUCIUS LICINIUS LUCULLUS (c. +110-56), surnamed Ponticus from his victories in Asia Minor over +Mithradates VI. of Pontus. His father, of the same name, had held an +important military command in Sicily, but on his return to Rome he was +prosecuted on a charge of bribery and condemned to exile. His mother was +Caecilia, of the family of the Metelli, and sister of Quintus Caecilius +Metellus Numidicus. Early in life he attached himself to the party of +Sulla, and to that party he remained constant. He attracted Sulla's +notice in the Social War (90) and in 88, when Sulla was appointed to the +command of the war against Mithradates, accompanied him as quaestor to +Greece and Asia Minor. While Sulla was besieging Athens, Lucullus raised +a fleet and drove Mithradates out of the Mediterranean. He won a +brilliant victory off Tenedos, and had he been more of a patriot and +less of a party man he might have ended a perilous war. In 84 peace was +concluded with Mithradates. Sulla returned to Rome, while Lucullus +remained in Asia, and by wise and generous financial reforms laid the +foundation of the prosperity of the province. The result of his policy +was that he became extremely popular with the provincials, but offended +many of the _publicani_, a powerful class which farmed the public +revenue. In 80 he returned to Rome as curule aedile, in which capacity +he exhibited games of exceptional magnificence. Soon afterwards (77) he +was elected praetor, and was next appointed to the province of Africa, +where he again won a good name as a just and considerate governor. In 74 +he became consul, and went to Asia at the head of about 30,000 foot and +2000 horse, to defend the province of Bithynia against Mithradates, who +was besieging his colleague, Marcus Aurelius Cotta, in Chalcedon on the +Propontis. Mithradates was forced to retire along the sea-coast till he +halted before the strong city of Cyzicus, which he besieged. Lucullus, +however, cut off his communications on the land side, and, aided by bad +weather, forced him to raise the siege. In the autumn of 73 Lucullus +marched to Cabeira or Neocaesarea, where the king had gone into winter +quarters with a vague hope that his son-in-law, Tigranes, king of +Armenia, and possibly even the Parthians, might come to his aid. +Although the forces of Mithradates were far superior in numbers, his +troops were no match for the Roman legionaries. A large detachment of +his army having been cut up by one of Lucullus's lieutenant-generals, +the king decided on instant retreat. The retreat soon became a +disorderly flight, Mithradates himself escaping with difficulty into +Lesser Armenia. + +Thus Pontus, with the exception of some of the maritime cities, such as +Sinope, Heraclea and Amisus, became Roman territory. Two years were +occupied in the capture of these strongholds, while Lucullus busied +himself with a general reform of the administration of the province of +Asia. His next step was to demand the surrender of Mithradates and to +threaten Tigranes with war in the event of refusal. In the spring of 69, +at the head of only two legions, he marched through Sophene, the +south-western portion of Armenia, crossed the Tigris, and pushed on to +the newly-built royal city, Tigranocerta, situated on one of the +affluents of that river. A motley host, made up out of the tribes +bordering on the Black Sea and the Caspian, hovered round his small +army, but failed to hinder him from laying siege to the town. Lucullus +showed consummate military capacity, contriving to maintain the siege +and at the same time to give battle to the enemy's vastly superior +forces. There might now have been peace but for the interference of +Mithradates, who pressed Tigranes to renew the war and to seek the aid +and alliance of Parthia. The Parthian king, however, preferred a treaty +with Rome to a treaty with Armenia, and desired simply to have the +Euphrates recognized as his western boundary. Mithradates next appealed +to the national spirit of the peoples of the East generally, and +endeavoured to rouse them to a united effort. The position of Lucullus +was critical. The home government was for recalling him, and his army +was disaffected. Nevertheless, though continually harassed by the enemy, +he persisted in marching northwards from Tigranocerta over the high +table-land of central Armenia, in the hope of reaching Artaxata on the +Araxes. But the open mutiny of his troops compelled him to recross the +Tigris into the Mesopotamian valley. Here, on a dark tempestuous night, +he surprised and stormed Nisibis, the capital of the Armenian district +of Mesopotamia, and in this city, which yielded him a rich booty, he +found satisfactory winter quarters. Meantime Mithradates was again in +Pontus, and in a disastrous engagement at Ziela the Roman camp was taken +and the army slaughtered to a man. Lucullus was obliged to retreat into +Asia Minor, leaving Tigranes and Mithradates masters of Pontus and +Cappadocia. The work of eight years of war was undone. In 66 Lucullus +was superseded by Pompey. He had fairly earned the honour of a triumph, +but his powerful enemies at Rome and charges of maladministration, to +which his immense wealth gave colour, caused it to be deferred till 63. +From this time, with the exception of occasional public appearances, he +gave himself up to elegant luxury, with which he combined a sort of +dilettante pursuit of philosophy, literature and art. As a general he +does not seem to have possessed the entire confidence of his troops, +owing probably to his natural hauteur and the strict discipline which he +imposed on them. The same causes made him unpopular with the Roman +capitalists, whose sole object was the accumulation of enormous fortunes +by farming the revenue of the provinces. + +Among the Roman nobles who revelled in the newly acquired riches of the +East, Lucullus stood pre-eminent. His park and pleasure grounds near +Rome, and the costly and laborious works in his parks and villas at +Tusculum, near Naples, earned for him from Pompey (it is said) the title +of the "Roman Xerxes." On one of his luxurious entertainments he is said +to have spent upwards of £2000. He was a liberal patron of Greek +philosophers and men of letters, and he collected a valuable library, to +which such men had free access. He himself is said to have been a +student of Greek literature, and to have written a history of the +Marsian war in Greek, inserting solecisms to show that he was a Roman. +He was one of the interlocutors in Cicero's _Academica_, the second book +(first edition) of which was called _Lucullus_. Sulla also entrusted him +with the revision of his _Memoirs_. The introduction of the cherry-tree +from Asia into Europe is attributed to him. It appears that he became +mentally feeble some years before his death, and was obliged to +surrender the management of his affairs to his brother Marcus. The usual +funeral panegyric was pronounced on him in the Forum, and the people +would have had him buried by the side of Sulla in the Campus Martius, +but at his brother's request he was laid in his splendid villa at +Tusculum. + + See Plutarch's _Lucullus_; Appian's _Mithridatic War_; the epitomes of + the lost books of Livy; and many passages in Cicero. Some allusions + will also be found in Dio Cassius, Pliny and Athenaeus. For the + Mithradatic wars, see bibliography under MITHRADATES (VI. of Pontus); + and generally G. Boissier, _Cicero and his Friends_ (Eng: trans. by A. + D. Jones, 1897); H. Peter, _Hist. Rom. Reliquiae_, i. p. cclxxxv.; W. + Drumann, _Geschichte Roms_, iv. His _Elogium_ is given in _C.I.L._ i. + 292. + +His brother, MARCUS LICINIUS LUCULLUS, was adopted by Marcus Terentius +Varro, and was hence known as Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus. In 82 +B.C. he served under Sulla against Marius. In 79 he was curule aedile +with his brother, in 77 praetor, in 73 consul with Gaius Cassius Varus. +When praetor he forbade the carrying of arms by slaves, and with his +colleague in the consulship passed the _lex Terentia Cassia_, to give +authority for purchasing corn with the public money and retailing it at +a fixed price at Rome. As proconsul in Macedonia he made war with great +cruelty against the Dardani and Bessi, and compelled them to acknowledge +the supremacy of Rome. Having enjoyed a triumph, he was sent out to the +East to settle the affairs of the provinces conquered by his brother. He +sided with Cicero during the Catilinarian conspiracy, did his utmost to +prevent his banishment, and subsequently supported his claim for the +restoration of his house. He was one of the better representatives of +the optimates, and enjoyed some reputation as an orator. + + See Cicero, _De Domo_, 52; _Pro Tullio_, 8; _In Verrem_, iii. 70, v. + 21; _Florus_, iii. 4, 7; Ammianus Marcellinus xxvii. 4, 11; Plutarch, + _Sulla_, 27; _Lucullus_, 35, 36, 43; Orelli's _Onomasticon Tullianum_. + + + + +LUCUS FERONIAE, an ancient shrine in Etruria. It was visited both by +Latins and Sabines even in the time of Tullus Hostilius and was +plundered by Hannibal in 211 B.C. It was undoubtedly in the territory of +Capena (q.v.); but in imperial times it became an independent community +receiving a colony of Octavian's veterans (_Colonia Iulia felix +Lucoferensis_) and possessing an amphitheatre. Its site has been +disputed. Some authorities place it on the Colle Civitucola (but see +CAPENA), others at the church of S. Abbondio near Rignano, others (and +probably rightly) at Nazzano, which was reached by a branch road from +the Via Flaminia, where remains of a circular temple have been found. + + See E. Bormann in _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ xi. 569 sqq.; H. Nissen, + _Italische Landeskunde_, ii. 369 sqq. (T. As.) + + + + +LUCY, RICHARD DE (d. 1179), called the "loyal," chief justiciar of +England, appears in the latter part of Stephen's reign as sheriff and +justiciar of the county of Essex. He became, on the accession of Henry +II., chief justiciar conjointly with Robert de Beaumont, earl of +Leicester; and after the death of the latter (1168) held the office +without a colleague for twelve years. The chief servant and intimate of +the king he was among the first of the royal party to incur +excommunication in the Becket controversy. In 1173 he played an +important part in suppressing the rebellion of the English barons, and +commanded the royalists at the battle of Fornham. He resigned the +justiciarship in 1179, though pressed by the king to continue in office, +and retired to Lesues Abbey in Kent, which he had founded and where he +died. Lucy's son, Godfrey de Lucy (d. 1204), was bishop of Winchester +from 1189 to his death in September 1204; he took a prominent part in +public affairs during the reigns of Henry II., Richard I. and John. + + See J. H. Round, _Geoffrey de Mandeville_ (1892); Sir J. H. Ramsay, + _Angevin Empire_ (1903); and W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. + i. + + + + +LUCY, SIR THOMAS (1532-1600), the English Warwickshire squire who is +traditionally associated with the youth of William Shakespeare, was born +on the 24th of April 1532, the son of William Lucy, and was descended, +according to Dugdale, from Thurstane de Cherlecote, whose son Walter +received the village of Charlecote from Henry de Montfort about 1190. +Walter is said to have married into the Anglo-Norman family of Lucy, and +his son adopted the mother's surname. Three of Sir Thomas Lucy's +ancestors had been sheriffs of Warwickshire and Leicestershire, and on +his father's death in 1552 he inherited Sherborne and Hampton Lucy in +addition to Charlecote, which was rebuilt for him by John of Padua, +known as John Thorpe, about 1558. By his marriage with Joyce Acton he +inherited Sutton Park in Worcestershire, and became in 1586 high sheriff +of the county. He was knighted in 1565. He is said to have been under +the tutorship of John Foxe, who is supposed to have imbued his pupil +with the Puritan principles which he displayed as knight of the shire +for Warwick in the parliament of 1571 and as sheriff of the county, but +as Mrs Carmichael Stopes points out Foxe only left Oxford in 1545, and +in 1547 went up to London, so that the connexion must have been short. +He often appeared at Stratford-on-Avon as justice of the peace and as +commissioner of musters for the county. As justice of the peace he +showed great zeal against the Catholics, and took his share in the +arrest of Edward Arden in 1583. In 1585 he introduced into parliament a +bill for the better preservation of game and grain, and his reputation +as a preserver of game gives some colour to the Shakespearian tradition +connected with his name. Nicholas Rowe, writing in 1710, told a story +that Lucy prosecuted Shakespeare for deer-stealing from Charlecote Park +in 1585, and that Shakespeare aggravated the offence by writing a ballad +on his prosecutor. The trouble arising from this incident is said to +have driven Shakespeare from Stratford to London. The tale was +corroborated by Archdeacon Davies of Sapperton, Gloucestershire, who +died in 1708. The story is not necessarily falsified by the fact that +there was no deer park at Charlecote at the time, since there was a +warren, and the term warren legally covers a preserve for other animals +than hares or rabbits, roe-deer among others. Shakespeare is generally +supposed to have caricatured the local magnate of Stratford in his +portrait of Justice Shallow, who made his first appearance in the second +part of _Henry IV._, and a second in the _Merry Wives of Windsor_. +Robert Shallow is a justice of the peace in the county of Gloucester and +his ancestors have the dozen white luces in their coats, the arms of the +Lucys being three luces, while in Dugdale's _Warwickshire_ (ed. 1656) +there is drawn a coat-of-arms in which these are repeated in each of the +four quarters, making twelve in all. There are many considerations which +make it unlikely that Shallow represents Lucy, the chief being the +noteworthy difference in their circumstances. Lucy died at Charlecote on +the 7th of July 1600. His grandson, Sir Thomas Lucy (1585-1640), was a +friend of Lord Herbert of Cherbury, and was eulogized by John Davies of +Hereford in 1610. The Charlecote estates eventually passed to the Rev. +John Hammond through his marriage with Alice Lucy, and in 1789 he +adopted the name of Lucy. + + For a detailed account of Sir Thomas Lucy, with his son and grandson + of the same name, see Mrs C. Carmichael Stopes, _Shakespeare's + Warwickshire Contemporaries_ (2nd ed., 1907). Cf. also an article by + Mrs Stopes in the _Fortnightly Review_ (Feb. 1903), entitled "Sir + Thomas Lucy not the Original of Justice Shallow," and J. O. + Halliwell-Phillipps, _Observations on the Charlecote Traditions_ + (Brighton, 1887). + + + + +LUDDITES, the name given to organized bands of English rioters for the +destruction of machinery, who made their first appearance in Nottingham +and the neighbouring districts towards the end of 1811. The origin of +the name is given in Pellew's _Life of Lord Sidmouth_ (iii. 80). In 1779 +there lived in a village in Leicestershire a person of weak intellect, +called Ned Ludd, who was the butt of the boys of the village. On one +occasion Ludd pursued one of his tormentors into a house where were two +of the frames used in stocking manufacture, and, not being able to catch +the boy, vented his anger on the frames. Afterwards, whenever any frames +were broken, it became a common saying that Ludd had done it. The riots +arose out of the severe distress caused by the war with France. The +leader of the riotous bands took the name of "General Ludd." The riots +were specially directed against machinery because of the widespread +prejudice that its use produced a scarcity in the demand for labour. +Apart from this prejudice, it was inevitable that the economic and +social revolution implied in the change from manual labour to work by +machinery should give rise to great misery. The riots began with the +destruction of stocking and lace frames, and, continuing through the +winter and the following spring, spread into Yorkshire, Lancashire, +Derbyshire and Leicestershire. They were met by severe repressive +legislation, introduced by Lord Liverpool's government, a notable +feature in the opposition to which was Lord Byron's speech in the House +of Lords. In 1816 the rioting was resumed, caused by the depression +which followed the peace of 1815 and aggravated by one of the worst of +recorded harvests. In that year, although the centre of the rioting was +again in Nottingham, it extended over almost the whole kingdom. The +rioters were also thoroughly organized. While part of the band destroyed +the machinery, sentinels were posted to give warning of the approach of +the military. Vigorous repressive measures, and, especially, reviving +prosperity, brought the movement to an end. + + See G. Pellew, _Life and Correspondence of H. Addington, 1st Viscount + Sidmouth_ (London, 1847); Spencer Walpole, _History of England_, vol. + i. (London, 1890); and the _Annual Register_ for 1811, 1812 and 1816. + + + + +LÜDENSCHEID, a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia, 19 m. by +rail S.S.E. of Hagen. Pop. (1905) 28,921. It is the seat of various +hardware manufactures, among them metal-plated and tin-plated goods, +buckles, fancy nails and brooches, and has iron-foundries and machine +shops. From the counts of Altena Lüdenscheid passed to the counts of the +Mark, with which district it was ceded to Brandenburg early in the 17th +century. + + + + +LUDHIANA, a town and district of British India, in the Jullundur +division of the Punjab. The town is 8 m. from the present left bank of +the Sutlej, 228 m. by rail N.W. of Delhi. Pop. (1901) 48,649. It is an +important centre of trade in grain, and has manufactures of shawls, &c., +by Kashmiri weavers, and of scarves, turbans, furniture and carriages. +There is an American Presbyterian mission, which maintains a medical +school for Christian women, founded in 1894. + +The DISTRICT OF LUDHIANA lies south of the river Sutlej, and north of +the native states of Patiala, Jind, Nabha and Maler Kotla. Area 1455 sq. +m. The district consists for the most part of a broad plain, without +hills or rivers, stretching northward from the native borders to the +ancient bed of the Sutlej. The soil is a rich clay, broken by large +patches of shifting sand. On the eastern edge, towards Umballa, the clay +is covered by a bed of rich mould, suitable for the cultivation of +cotton and sugar-cane. Towards the west the sand occurs in union with +the superficial clay, and forms a light friable soil, on which cereals +form the most profitable crop. Even here, however, the earth is so +retentive of moisture that good harvests are reaped from fields which +appear mere stretches of dry and sandy waste. These southern uplands +descend to the valley of the Sutlej by an abrupt terrace, which marks +the former bed of the river. The principal stream has shifted to the +opposite side of the valley, leaving an alluvial strip, 10 m. in width, +between its ancient and its modern bed. The Sutlej itself is here only +navigable for boats of small burden. A branch of the Sirhind canal +irrigates a large part of the western area. The population in 1901 was +673,097. The principal crops are wheat, millets, pulse, maize and +sugar-cane. The district is crossed by the main line of the +North-Western railway from Delhi to Lahore, with two branches. + +During the Mussulman epoch, the history of the district is bound up with +that of the Rais of Raikot, a family of converted Rajputs, who received +the country as a fief under the Sayyid dynasty, about 1445. The town of +Ludhiana was founded in 1480 by two of the Lodi race (then ruling at +Delhi), from whom it derives its name, and was built in great part from +the prehistoric bricks of Sunet. The Lodis continued in possession until +1620, when it again fell into the hands of the Rais of Raikot. +Throughout the palmy days of the Mogul empire the Raikot family held +sway, but the Sikhs took advantage of the troubled period which +accompanied the Mogul decadence to establish their supremacy south of +the Sutlej. Several of their chieftains made encroachments on the +domains of the Rais, who were only able to hold their own by the aid of +George Thomas, the famous adventurer of Hariana. In 1806 Ranjit Singh +crossed the Sutlej and reduced the obstinate Mahommedan family, and +distributed their territory amongst his co-religionists. Since the +British occupation of the Punjab, Ludhiana has grown in wealth and +population. + + See _Ludhiana District Gazetteer_ (Lahore, 1907). + + + + +LUDINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Mason county, Michigan, U.S.A., +on Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the Marquette river, about 85 m. N.W. +of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1900) 7166 (2259 foreign-born); (1904, state +census) 7259; (1910) 9132. It is served by the Père Marquette, and the +Ludington and Northern railways, and by steamboat lines to Chicago, +Milwaukee and other lake ports. To Manitowoc, Milwaukee, Kewanee and Two +Rivers, Wisconsin, on the W. shore of Lake Michigan, cars, especially +those of the Père Marquette railway, are ferried from here. Ludington +was formerly well known as a lumber centre, but this industry has +greatly declined. There are various manufactures, and the city has a +large grain trade. On the site of the city Père Marquette died and was +buried, but his body was removed within a year to Point St Ignace. +Ludington was settled about 1859, and was chartered as a city in 1873. +It was originally named Père Marquette, but was renamed in 1871 in +honour of James Ludington, a local lumberman. + + + + +LUDLOW, EDMUND (c. 1617-1692), English parliamentarian, son of Sir Henry +Ludlow of Maiden Bradley, Wiltshire, whose family had been established +in that county since the 15th century, was born in 1617 or 1618. He went +to Trinity College, Oxford, and was admitted to the Inner Temple in +1638. When the Great Rebellion broke out, he engaged as a volunteer in +the life guard of Lord Essex. His first essay in arms was at Worcester, +his next at Edgehill. He was made governor of Wardour Castle in 1643, +but had to surrender after a tenacious defence on the 18th of March +1644. On being exchanged soon afterwards, he engaged as major of Sir A. +Hesilrige's regiment of horse. He was present at the second battle of +Newbury, October 1644, at the siege of Basing House in November, and +took part in an expedition to relieve Taunton in December. In January +his regiment was surprised by Sir M. Langdale, Ludlow himself escaping +with difficulty. In 1646 he was elected M.P. for Wilts in the room of +his father and attached himself to the republican party. He opposed the +negotiations with the king, and was one of the chief promoters of +Pride's Purge in 1648. He was one of the king's judges, and signed the +warrant for his execution. In February he was elected a member of the +council of state. In January 1651 Ludlow was sent into Ireland as +lieutenant-general of horse, holding also a civil commission. Here he +spared neither health nor money in the public service. Ireton, the +deputy of Ireland, died on the 26th of November 1651; Ludlow then held +the chief command, and had practically completed the conquest of the +island when he resigned his authority to Fleetwood in October 1652. +Though disapproving Cromwell's action in dissolving the Long Parliament, +he maintained his employment, but when Cromwell was declared Protector +he declined to acknowledge his authority. On returning to England in +October 1655 he was arrested, and on refusing to submit to the +government was allowed to retire to Essex. After Oliver Cromwell's death +Ludlow was returned for Hindon in Richard's parliament of 1659, but +opposed the continuance of the protectorate. He sat in the restored +Rump, and was a member of its council of state and of the committee of +safety after its second expulsion, and a commissioner for the nomination +of officers in the army. In July he was sent to Ireland as +commander-in-chief. Returning in October 1659, he endeavoured to support +the failing republican cause by reconciling the army to the parliament. +In December he returned hastily to Ireland to suppress a movement in +favour of the Long Parliament, but on arrival found himself almost +without supporters. He came back to England in January 1660, and was met +by an impeachment presented against him to the restored parliament. His +influence and authority had now disappeared, and all chance of regaining +them vanished with Lambert's failure. He took his seat in the Convention +parliament as member for Hindon, but his election was annulled on the +18th of May. Ludlow was not excepted from the Act of Indemnity, but was +included among the fifty-two for whom punishment less than capital was +reserved. Accordingly, on the proclamation of the king ordering the +regicides to come in, Ludlow emerged from his concealment, and on the +20th of June surrendered to the Speaker; but finding that his life was +not assured, he succeeded in escaping to Dieppe, travelled to Geneva and +Lausanne, and thence to Vevey, then under the protection of the canton +of Bern. There he remained, and in spite of plots to assassinate him he +was unmolested by the government of that canton, which had also extended +its protection to other regicides. He steadily refused during thirty +years of exile to have anything to do with the desperate enterprises of +republican plotters. But in 1689 he returned to England, hoping to be +employed in Irish affairs. He was however remembered only as a regicide, +and an address from the House of Commons was presented to William III. +by Sir Edward Seymour, requesting the king to issue a proclamation for +his arrest. Ludlow escaped again, and returned to Vevey, where he died +in 1692. A monument raised to his memory by his widow is in the church +of St Martin. Over the door of the house in which he lived was placed +the inscription "Omne solum forti patria, quia Patris." Ludlow married +Elizabeth, daughter of William Thomas, of Wenvoe, Glamorganshire, but +left no issue. + + His _Memoirs_, extending to the year 1672, were published in 1698-1699 + at Vevey and have been often reprinted; a new edition, with notes and + illustrative material and introductory memoir, was issued by C. H. + Firth in 1894. They are strongly partisan, but the picture of the + times is lifelike and realistic. Ludlow also published "a letter from + Sir Hardress Waller ... to Lieutenant-General Ludlow with his answer" + (1660), in defence of his conduct in Ireland. See C. H. Firth's + article in _Dict. Nat. Biog._; Guizot's _Monk's Contemporaries_; A. + Stein's _Briefe Englischer Flüchtlinge in der Schweiz_. + + + + +LUDLOW, a market town and municipal borough in the Ludlow parliamentary +division of Shropshire, England, on the Hereford-Shrewsbury joint line +of the Great Western and London & North Western railways, 162 m. W.N.W. +from London. Pop. (1901) 4552. It is beautifully situated at the +junction of the rivers Teme and Corve, upon and about a wooded eminence +crowned by a massive ruined castle. Parts of this castle date from the +11th century, but there are many additions such as the late Norman +circular chapel, the Decorated state rooms, and details in Perpendicular +and Tudor styles. The parish church of St Lawrence is a cruciform +Perpendicular building, with a lofty central tower, and a noteworthy +east window, its 15th-century glass showing the martyrdom of St +Lawrence. There are many fine half-timbered houses of the 17th century, +and one of seven old town-gates remains. The grammar school, founded in +the reign of John, was incorporated by Edward I. The principal public +buildings are the guildhall, town-hall and market-house, and public +rooms, which include a museum of natural history. Tanning and +flour-milling are carried on. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 +aldermen and 12 councillors. Area 416 acres. + +The country neighbouring Ludlow is richly wooded and hilly, while the +scenery of the Teme is exquisite. Westward, Vinnal Hill reaches 1235 +ft., eastward lies Titterstone Clee (1749 ft.). Richard's Castle, 3 m. +S. on the borders of Herefordshire, dates from the reign of Edward the +Confessor, but little more than its great artificial mound remains. At +Bromfield, 3 m. above Ludlow on the Teme, the church and some remains of +domestic buildings belonged to a Benedictine monastery of the 12th +century. + +Ludlow is supposed to have existed under the name of Dinan in the time +of the Britons. Eyton in his history of Shropshire identifies it with +one of the "Ludes" mentioned in the Domesday Survey, which was held by +Roger de Lacy of Osbern FitzRichard and supposes that Roger built the +castle soon after 1086, while a chronicle of the FitzWarren family +attributes the castle to Roger earl of Shrewsbury. The manor afterwards +belonged to the Lacys, and in the beginning of the 14th century passed +by marriage to Roger de Mortimer and through him to Edward IV. Ludlow +was a borough by prescription in the 13th century, but the burgesses owe +most of their privileges to their allegiance to the house of York. +Richard, duke of York, in 1450 confirmed their government by 12 +burgesses and 24 assistants, and Edward IV. on his accession +incorporated them under the title of bailiffs and burgesses, granted +them the town at a fee-farm of £24, 3s. 4d., a merchant gild and freedom +from toll. Several confirmations of this charter were granted; the last, +dated 1665, continued in force (with a short interval in the reign of +James II.) until the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835. By the charter +of Edward IV. Ludlow returned 2 members to parliament, but in 1867 the +number was reduced to one, and in 1885 the town was disfranchised. The +market rights are claimed by the corporation under the charters of +Edward IV. (1461) and Edward VI. (1552). The court of the Marches was +established at Ludlow in the reign of Henry VII., and continued to be +held here until it was abolished in the reign of William III. Ludlow +castle was granted by Edward IV. to his two sons, and by Henry VII. to +Prince Arthur, who died here in 1502. In 1634 Milton's Comus was +performed in the castle under its original style of "A Masque presented +at Ludlow Castle," before the earl of Bridgewater, Lord President of +Wales. The castle was garrisoned in 1642 by Prince Rupert, who went +there after the battle of Naseby, but in 1646 it surrendered to +Parliament and was afterwards dismantled. + + See _Victoria County History_, Shropshire; Thomas Wright, _The History + of Ludlow and its Neighbourhood_ (1826). + + + + +LUDLOW GROUP, or LUDLOVIAN, in geology, the uppermost subdivision of the +Silurian rocks in Great Britain. This group contains the following +formations in descending order:--Tilestones, Downton Castle sandstones +(90 ft.), Ledbury shales (270 ft.), Upper Ludlow rocks (140 ft.), +Aymestry limestone (up to 40 ft.), Lower Ludlow rocks (350 to 780 ft.). +The Ludlow group is essentially shaly in character, except towards the +top, where the beds become more sandy and pass gradually into the base +of the Old Red Sandstone. The Aymestry limestone, which is irregular in +thickness, is sometimes absent, and where the underlying Wenlock +limestones are absent the shales of the Ludlow group graduate downwards +into the Wenlock shales. The group is typically developed between Ludlow +and Aymestry, and it occurs also in the detached Silurian areas between +Dudley and the mouth of the Severn. + + The _Lower Ludlow rocks_ are mainly grey, greenish and brown mudstones + and sandy and calcareous shales. They contain an abundance of fossils. + The series has been zoned by means of the graptolites by E. M. R. + Wood; the following in ascending order, are the zonal forms: + _Monograptus vulgaris_, _M. Nilssoni_, _M. scanicus_, _M. tumescens_ + and _M. leintwardinensis_. _Cyathaspis ludensis_, the earliest British + vertebrate fossil, was found in these rocks at Leintwardine in + Shropshire, a noted fossil locality. Trilobites are numerous (_Phacops + caudatus_, _Lichas anglicus_, _Homolonotus delphinocephalus_, + _Calymene Blumenbachii_); brachiopods (_Leptaena rhomboidalis_, + _Rhynchonella Wilsoni_, _Atrypa reticularis_), pelecypods (_Cardiola + interrupta_, _Ctenodonta sulcata_) and gasteropods and cephalopods + (many species of _Orthoceras_ and also _Gomphoceras_, _Trochoceras_) + are well represented. Other fossils are _Ceratiocaris_, _Pterygotus_, + _Protaster_, _Palaeocoma_ and _Palaeodiscus_. + + The _Upper Ludlow rocks_ are mainly soft mudstones and shales with + some harder sandy beds capable of being worked as building-stones. + These sandy beds are often found covered with ripple-marks and annelid + tracks; one of the uppermost sandy layers is known as the "Fucoid bed" + from the abundance of the seaweed-like impressions it bears. At the + top of this sub-group, near Ludlow, a brown layer occurs, from a + quarter of an inch to 4 in. in thickness, full of the fragmentary + remains of fish associated with those of _Pterygotus_ and mollusca. + This layer, known as the "Ludlow Bone bed," has been traced over a + very large area (see BONE BED). The common fossils include plants + (_Actinophyllum_, _Chondrites_), ostracods, phyllocarids, eurypterids, + trilobites (less common than in the older groups), numerous + brachiopods (_Lingula minima_, _Chonetes striatella_), gasteropods, + pelecypods and cephalopods (_Orthoceras bullatum_). Fish include + _Cephalaspis_, _Cyathaspis_, _Auchenaspis_. The Tilestones, Downton + Castle Sandstone and Ledbury shales are occasionally grouped together + under the term _Downtonian_. They are in reality passage beds between + the Silurian and Old Red Sandstone, and were originally placed in the + latter system by Sir R. I. Murchison. They are mostly grey, yellow or + red micaceous, shaly sandstones. _Lingula cornea_, _Platyschisma + helicites_ and numerous phyllocarids and ostracods occur among the + fossils. + + In Denbighshire and Merionethshire the upper portion of the + Denbighshire Grits belongs to this horizon: viz. those from below + upwards, the Nantglyn Flags, the Upper Grit beds, the _Monograptus + leintwardinensis_ beds and the Dinas Bran beds. In the Silurian area + of the Lake district the Coldwell beds, forming the upper part of the + Coniston Flags, are the equivalents of the Lower Ludlow; they are + succeeded by the Coniston Grits (4000 ft.), the Bannisdale Slates + (5200 ft.) and the Kirkby Moor Flags (2000 ft.). + + In the Silurian areas of southern Scotland, the Ludlow rocks are + represented in the Kirkcudbright Shore and Riccarton district by the + Raeberry Castle beds and Balmae Grits (500-750 ft.). In the northern + belt--Lanarkshire and the Pentland Hills--the lower portion (or + Ludlovian) consists of mudstones, flaggy shales and greywackes; but + the upper (or Downtonian) part is made up principally of thick red and + yellow sandstones and conglomerates with green mudstones. The Ludlow + rocks of Ireland include the "Salrock beds" of County Galway and the + "Croagmarhin beds" of Dingle promontory. + + See SILURIAN, and, for recent papers, the _Q. J. Geol. Soc._ (London) + and _Geological Literature_ (Geol. Soc., London) annual. + + + + +LUDOLF (or LEUTHOLF), HIOB (1624-1704), German orientalist, was born at +Erfurt on the 15th of June 1624. After studying philology at the Erfurt +academy and at Leiden, he travelled in order to increase his linguistic +knowledge. While in Italy he became acquainted with one Gregorius, an +Abyssinian scholar, and acquired from him an intimate knowledge of the +Ethiopian language. In 1652 he entered the service of the duke of +Saxe-Gotha, in which he continued until 1678, when he retired to +Frankfort-on-Main. In 1683 he visited England to promote a cherished +scheme for establishing trade with Abyssinia, but his efforts were +unsuccessful, chiefly through the bigotry of the authorities of the +Abyssinian Church. Returning to Frankfort in 1684, he gave himself +wholly to literary work, which he continued almost to his death on the +8th of April 1704. In 1690 he was appointed president of the _collegium +imperiale historicum_. + + The works of Ludolf, who is said to have been acquainted with + twenty-five languages, include _Sciagraphia historiae aethiopicae_ + (Jena, 1676); and the _Historia aethiopica_ (Frankfort, 1681), which + has been translated into English, French and Dutch, and which was + supplemented by a _Commentarius_ (1691) and by _Appendices_ + (1693-1694). Among his other works are: _Grammatica linguae amharicae_ + (Frankfort, 1698); _Lexicon amharico-latinum_ (Frankfort, 1698); + _Lexicon aethiopico-latinum_ (Frankfort, 1699); and _Grammatica + aethiopica_ (London, 1661, and Frankfort, 1702). In his _Grammatik der + äthiopischen Sprache_ (1857) August Dillmann throws doubt on the story + of Ludolf's intimacy with Gregorius. + + See C. Juncker, _Commentarius de vita et scriptis Jobi Ludolfi_ + (Frankfort, 1710); L. Diestel, _Geschichte des alten Testaments in der + christlichen Kirche_ (Jena, 1868); and J. Flemming, "Hiob Ludolf," in + the _Beiträge zur Assyriologie_ (Leipzig, 1890-1891). + + + + +LUDWIG, KARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1816-1895), German physiologist, was +born at Witzenhausen, near Cassel, on the 29th of December 1816. He +studied medicine at Erlangen and Marburg, taking his doctor's degree at +Marburg in 1839. He made Marburg his home for the next ten years, +studying and teaching anatomy and physiology, first as prosector to F. +L. Fick (1841), then as _privat-docent_ (1842), and finally as +extraordinary professor (1846). In 1849 he was chosen professor of +anatomy and physiology at Zürich, and six years afterwards he went to +Vienna as professor in the Josephinum (school for military surgeons). In +1865 he was appointed to the newly created chair of physiology at +Leipzig, and continued there until his death on the 23rd of April 1895. +Ludwig's name is prominent in the history of physiology, and he had a +large share in bringing about the change in the method of that science +which took place about the middle of the 19th century. With his friends +H. von Helmholtz, E. W. Brücke and E. Du Bois-Reymond, whom he met for +the first time in Berlin in 1847, he rejected the assumption that the +phenomena of living animals depend on special biological laws and vital +forces different from those which operate in the domain of inorganic +nature; and he sought to explain them by reference to the same laws as +are applicable in the case of physical and chemical phenomena. This +point of view was expressed in his celebrated _Text-book of Human +Physiology_ (1852-1856), but it is as evident in his earliest paper +(1842) on the process of urinary secretion as in all his subsequent +work. Ludwig exercised enormous influence on the progress of physiology, +not only by the discoveries he made, but also by the new methods and +apparatus he introduced to its service. Thus in regard to secretion, he +showed that secretory glands, such as the submaxillary, are more than +mere filters, and that their secretory action is attended by chemical +and thermal changes both in themselves and in the blood passing through +them. He demonstrated the existence of a new class of secretory nerves +that control this action, and by showing that if the nerves are +appropriately stimulated the salivary glands continue to secrete, even +though the animal be decapitated, he initiated the method of +experimenting with excised organs. He devised the kymograph as a means +of obtaining a written record of the variations in the pressure of the +blood in the blood-vessels; and this apparatus not only conducted him to +many important conclusions respecting the mechanics of the circulation, +but afforded the first instance of the use of the graphic method in +physiological inquiries. For the purpose of his researches on the gases +in the blood, he designed the mercurial blood-pump which in various +modifications has come into extensive use, and by its aid he made many +investigations on the gases of the lymph, the gaseous interchanges in +living muscle, the significance of oxidized material in the blood, &c. +There is indeed scarcely any branch of physiology, except the physiology +of the senses, to which he did not make important contributions. He was +also a great power as a teacher and the founder of a school. Under him +the Physiological Institute at Leipzig became an organized centre of +physiological research, whence issued a steady stream of original work; +and though the papers containing the results usually bore the name of +his pupils only, every investigation was inspired by him and carried out +under his personal direction. Thus his pupils gained a practical +acquaintance with his methods and ways of thought, and, coming from all +parts of Europe, they returned to their own countries to spread and +extend his doctrines. Possessed himself of extraordinary manipulative +skill, he abhorred rough and clumsy work, and he insisted that +experiments on animals should be planned and prepared with the utmost +care, not only to avoid the infliction of pain (which was also guarded +against by the use of an anaesthetic), but to ensure that the deductions +drawn from them should have their full scientific value. + + + + +LUDWIG, OTTO (1813-1865), German dramatist, novelist and critic, was +born at Eisfeld in Thuringia, on the 11th of February 1813. His father, +who was syndic of Eisfeld, died when the boy was twelve years old, and +he was brought up amidst uncongenial conditions. He had devoted his +leisure to poetry and music, which unfitted him for the mercantile +career planned for him. The attention of the duke of Meiningen was +directed to one of his musical compositions, an opera, _Die Köhlerin_, +and Ludwig was enabled in 1839 to continue his musical studies under +Mendelssohn in Leipzig. But ill-health and constitutional shyness caused +him to give up a musical career, and he turned exclusively to literary +studies, and wrote several stories and dramas. Of the latter, _Der +Erbförster_ (1850) attracted immediate attention as a masterly +psychological study. It was followed by _Die Makkabäer_ (1852), in which +the realistic method of _Der Erbförster_ was transferred to an +historical _milieu_, which allowed more brilliant colouring and a freer +play of the imagination. With these tragedies, to which may be added +_Die Rechte des Herzens_ and _Das Fräulein von Scuderi_, the comedy +_Hans Frey_, and an unfinished tragedy on the subject of Agnes Bernauer, +Ludwig ranks immediately after Hebbel as Germany's most notable dramatic +poet at the middle of the 19th century. Meanwhile he had married and +settled permanently in Dresden, where he turned his attention to +fiction. He published a series of admirable stories of Thuringian life, +characterized by the same attention to minute detail and careful +psychological analysis as his dramas. The best of these are _Die +Heiteretei und ihr Widerspiel_ (1851), and Ludwig's masterpiece, the +powerful novel, _Zwischen Himmel und Erde_ (1855). In his +_Shakespeare-Studien_ (not published until 1891) Ludwig showed himself a +discriminating critic, with a fine insight into the hidden springs of +the creative imagination. So great, however, was his enthusiasm for +Shakespeare, that he was led to depreciate Schiller in a way which found +little favour among his countrymen. He died at Dresden on the 25th of +February 1865. + + Ludwig's _Gesammelte Schriften_ were published by A. Stern and E. + Schmidt in 6 vols. (1891-1892); also by A. Bartels (6 vols., 1900). + See A. Stern, _Otto Ludwig, ein Dichterleben_ (1891; 2nd ed., 1906), + and A. Sauer, _Otto Ludwig_ (1893). + + + + +LUDWIGSBURG, a town in the kingdom of Württemberg, 9 m. to the N. of +Stuttgart by rail and 1½ m. from the river Neckar. Pop. (1905) 23,093. +It was founded and laid out at the beginning of the 18th century by the +duke of Württemberg, Eberhard Louis, and was enlarged and improved by +Duke Charles Eugène. Constructed as the adjunct of a palace the town +bears the impress of its origin, with its straight streets and spacious +squares. It is now mainly important as the chief military depot in +Württemberg. The royal palace, one of the finest in Germany, stands in a +beautiful park and contains a portrait gallery and the burial vault of +the rulers of Württemberg. The industries include the manufacture of +organs and pianos, of cotton, woollen and linen goods, of chemicals, +iron and wire goods, and brewing and brick-making. In the vicinity is +the beautiful royal residence of Monrepos, which is connected with the +park of Ludwigsburg by a fine avenue of lime trees. From 1758 to 1824 +the town was famous for the production of a special kind of porcelain. + + See Belschner, _Ludwigsburg in zwei Jahrhunderten_ (Ludwigsburg, + 1904). + + + + +LUDWIGSHAFEN, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate, on the left +bank of the Rhine, immediately opposite to Mannheim, with which it is +connected by a steam ferry and a railway bridge. Pop. (1885) 21,042, +(1900) 61,905, (1905) 72,168. It has an increasing trade in iron, +timber, coal and agricultural products, a trade which is fostered by a +harbour opened in 1897; and also large factories for making aniline dyes +and soda. Other industries are the manufacture of cellulose, artificial +manure, flour and malt; and there are saw-mills, iron foundries and +breweries in the town. The place, which was founded in 1843 by Louis I., +king of Bavaria, was only made a town in 1859. + + See J. Esselborn, _Geschichte der Stadt Ludwigshafen_ (Ludwigshafen, + 1888). + + + + +LUDWIGSLUST, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of +Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 22 m. by rail S. by E. of Schwerin. Pop. (1905) +6728. The castle was built by the duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, +Frederick II., in 1772-1776. There is also another ducal residence, a +fine park and a monument of the grand duke, Frederick Francis I. (d. +1837). The town has a church constructed on the model of a Greek temple. +It has manufactures of chemicals and other small industries. Ludwigslust +was founded by the duke Frederick, being named after this duke's father, +Christian Louis II. It became a town in 1876. + + + + +LUG, a verb meaning to pull a heavy object, to drag, now mainly used +colloquially. It is probably Scandinavian in origin; the Swedish _lugg_, +forelock, lock of hair, gives _lugga_, to pull, tug; and "lug" in some +north-eastern English dialects is still chiefly used in the sense of +pulling a person's hair. "Luggage," passengers' baggage, means by origin +that which has to be "lugged" about. The Scandinavian word may be also +the source of "lug," in the sense of "ear," in Scotland the regular +dialectical word, and in English commonly applied to the ear-shaped +handles of metal or earthenware pots, pitchers, &c. If so the word means +something that can be pulled or tugged. This is also possibly the origin +of the "lug" or "lug-sail," a four-sided sail attached to a yard which +is hung obliquely to the mast, whence probably the name "lugger" of a +sailing-vessel with two or three masts and fore and aft lug-sails. The +word may, however, be connected with the Dutch _logger_, a fishing-boat +using drag-nets. "Lug" is also the name of a marine worm, _Arenicola +marina_, used as bait. + + + + +LUGANO (Ger. _Lauis_), the most populous and most thriving town in the +Swiss canton of Ticino or Tessin, situated (906 ft.) on the northern +shore of the lake of Lugano. Pop. (1900) 9394, almost all +Italian-speaking and Romanists. To the S. it is dominated by the Monte +Salvatore (3004 ft.) and on the S.E. (across the lake) by the Monte +Generoso (5591 ft.)--a magnificent view point. Both mountains are +accessible by railways. By rail Lugano is 124 m. from Lucerne and 51½ m. +from Milan. Situated on the main St Gotthard railway line, Lugano is now +easily reached, so that it is much frequented by visitors (largely +German) in spring and in autumn. Though politically Swiss since 1512, +Lugano is thoroughly Italian in appearance and character. Of recent +years many improvements have been made in the town, which has two +important suburbs--Paradiso to the south and Cassarate to the east. The +railway station (1109 ft.) is above the town, and is connected with the +fine quays by a funicular railway. On the main quay is a statue of +William Tell by the sculptor Vincenzo Vela (1820-1891), a native of the +town, while other works by him are in the gardens of private villas in +the neighbourhood. The principal church, San Lorenzo, in part dates back +earlier than the 15th century, while its richly sculptured façade bears +the figures 1517. This church is now the cathedral church of the bishop +of Lugano, a see erected in 1888, with jurisdiction over the Italian +parts of Switzerland. The church of Santa Maria degli Angioli, built +about 1499, and till 1848 occupied by Franciscans, contains several very +fine frescoes (particularly a Crucifixion) painted 1529-1530 by +Bernardino Luini. A gallery containing modern pictures has been built on +the site of the old palace of the bishops of Como. During the struggle +of 1848-1866 to expel the Austrians from Lombardy, Lugano served as +headquarters for Mazzini and his followers. Books and tracts intended +for distribution in Italy were produced there and at Capolago (9 m. +distant, at the S.E. end of the lake), and the efforts of the Austrian +police to prevent their circulation were completely powerless. + (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +LUGANO, LAKE OF (also called CERESIO), one of the smaller lakes in +Lombardy, N. Italy, lying between Lago Maggiore (W.) and the Lake of +Como (E). It is of very irregular shape, the great promontory of Monte +Salvatore (3004 ft.) nearly cutting off the western arm from the main +lake. The whole lake has an area of 19½ sq. m., its greatest length is +about 22 m., its greatest width 2 m., and its greatest depth 945 ft., +while its surface is 899 ft. above sea-level. Between Melide (S. of the +town of Lugano) and Maroggia (on the east shore) the lake is so shallow +that a great stone dam has been built across for the St Gotthard railway +line and the carriage road. The chief town is Lugano (at its northern +end), which by the St Gotthard line is 19 m. from Bellinzona and 9 m. +from Capolago, the station at the south-eastern extremity of the lake, +which is but 8 m. by rail from Como. At the south-western extremity a +railway leads S.W. from Porto Ceresio to Varese (9 m.). Porlezza, at the +east end of the lake, is 8 m. by rail from Menaggio on the Lake of Como, +while Ponte Tresa, at the west end of the lake, is about the same +distance by a steam tramway from Luino on Lago Maggiore. Of the total +area of the lake, about 7½ sq. m. are in the Swiss Canton of Ticino +(Tessin), formed in 1803 out of the conquests made by the Swiss from the +Milanese in 1512. The remainder of the area is in Italy. The lake lies +among the outer spurs of the Alps that divide the Ticino (Tessin) basin +from that of the Adda, where the calcareous strata have been disturbed +by the intrusion of porphyry and other igneous rocks. It is not +connected with any considerable valley, but is fed by numerous torrents +issuing from short glens in the surrounding mountains, while it is +drained by the Tresa, an unimportant stream flowing into Lago Maggiore. +The first steamer was placed on the lake in 1856. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +LUGANSK (also LUGAN and LUGANSKIY ZAVOD), a town of southern Russia, in +the government of Ekaterinoslav. Pop. (1900) 34,175. It has a technical +railway school and a meteorological observatory, stands on the small +river Lugan, 10 m. from its confluence with the northern Donets, in the +Lugan mining district, 213 m. E. of the city of Ekaterinoslav, and has +prospered greatly since 1890. This district, which comprises the +coal-mines of Lisichansk and the anthracite mines of Gorodishche, +occupies about 110,000 acres on the banks of the Donets river. Although +it is mentioned in the 16th century, and coal was discovered there at +the time of Peter the Great, it was not until 1795 that an Englishman, +Gascoyne or Gaskoin, established its first iron-works for supplying the +Black Sea fleet and the southern fortresses with guns and shot. This +proved a failure, owing to the great distance from the sea; but during +the Crimean War the iron-works of Lugan again produced shot, shell and +gun-carriages. Since 1864 agricultural implements, steam-engines, and +machinery for beetroot sugar-works, distilleries, &c., have been the +chief manufactures. There is an active trade in cattle, tallow, wools, +skins, linseed, wine, corn and manufactured wares. + + + + +LUGARD, SIR FREDERICK JOHN DEALTRY (1858- ), British soldier, African +explorer and administrator, son of the Rev. F. G. Lugard, was born on +the 22nd of January 1858. He entered the army in 1878, joining the +Norfolk regiment. He served in the Afghan War of 1879-80, in the Sudan +campaign of 1884-85, and in Burma in 1886-87. In May 1888, while on +temporary half-pay, he took command of an expedition organized by the +British settlers in Nyasaland against the Arab slave traders on Lake +Nyasa, and was severely wounded. He left Nyasaland in April 1889, and in +the same year was engaged by the Imperial British East Africa Company. +In their service he explored the Sabaki river and the neighbouring +region, and elaborated a scheme for the emancipation of the slaves held +by the Arabs in the Zanzibar mainland. In 1890 he was sent by the +company to Uganda, where he secured British predominance and put an end +to the civil disturbances, though not without severe fighting, chiefly +notable for an unprovoked attack by the "French" on the "British" +faction. While administering Uganda he journeyed round Ruwenzori to +Albert Edward Nyanza, mapping a large area of the country. He also +visited Albert Nyanza, and brought away some thousands of Sudanese who +had been left there by Emin Pasha and H. M. Stanley. In 1892 Lugard +returned to England, where he successfully opposed the abandonment of +Uganda by Great Britain, a step then contemplated by the fourth +Gladstone administration. In 1894 Lugard was despatched by the Royal +Niger Company to Borgu, where, distancing his French and German rivals +in a country up to then unvisited by any Europeans, he secured treaties +with the kings and chiefs acknowledging the sovereignty of the British +company. In 1896-1897 he took charge of an expedition to Lake Ngami on +behalf of the British West Charterland Company. From Ngami he was +recalled by the British government and sent to West Africa, where he was +commissioned to raise a native force to protect British interests in the +hinterland of Lagos and Nigeria against French aggression. In August +1897 he raised the West African Frontier Force, and commanded it until +the end of December 1899. The differences with France were then +composed, and, the Royal Niger Company having surrendered its charter, +Lugard was chosen as high commissioner of Northern Nigeria. The part of +Northern Nigeria under effective control was small, and Lugard's task in +organizing this vast territory was rendered more difficult by the +refusal of the sultan of Sokoto and many other Fula princes to fulfil +their treaty obligations. In 1903 a successful campaign against the emir +of Kano and the sultan of Sokoto rendered the extension of British +control over the whole protectorate possible, and when in September 1906 +he resigned his commissionership, the whole country was being peacefully +administered under the supervision of British residents (see NIGERIA). +In April 1907 he was appointed governor of Hong-Kong. Lugard was created +a C.B. in 1895 and a K.C.M.G. in 1901. He became a colonel in 1905, and +held the local rank of brigadier-general. He married in 1902 Flora +Louise Shaw (daughter of Major-General George Shaw, C.B., R.A.), who for +some years had been a distinguished writer on colonial subjects for _The +Times_. Sir Frederick (then Captain) Lugard published in 1893 _The Rise +of our East African Empire_ (partly autobiographical), and was the +author of various valuable reports on Northern Nigeria issued by the +Colonial Office. Throughout his African administrations Lugard sought +strenuously to secure the amelioration of the condition of the native +races, among other means by the exclusion, wherever possible, of +alcoholic liquors, and by the suppression of slave raiding and slavery. + + + + +LUGO, a maritime province of north-western Spain, formed in 1833 of +districts taken from the old province of Galicia, and bounded N. by the +Atlantic, E. by Oviedo and Leon, S. by Orense, and W. by Pontevedra and +Corunna. Pop. (1900) 465,386; area, 3814 sq. m. The coast, which extends +for about 40 m. from the estuary of Rivadéo to Cape de Vares, is +extremely rugged and inaccessible, and few of the inlets, except those +of Rivadéo and Vivero, admit large vessels. The province, especially in +the north and east, is mountainous, being traversed by the Cantabrian +chain and its offshoots; the sierra which separates it from Leon attains +in places a height of 6000 ft. A large part of the area is drained by +the Miño. This river, formed by the meeting of many smaller streams in +the northern half of the province, follows a southerly direction until +joined by the Sil, which for a considerable distance forms the southern +boundary. Of the rivers flowing north into the Atlantic, the most +important are the Navia, which has its lower course through Oviedo; the +Eo, for some distance the boundary between the two provinces; the Masma, +the Oro and the Landrove. + +Some of the valleys of Lugo are fertile, and yield not only corn but +fruit and wine. The principal agricultural wealth, however, is on the +Miño and Sil, where rye, maize, wheat, flax, hemp and a little silk are +produced. Agriculture is in a very backward condition, mainly owing to +the extreme division of land that prevails throughout Galicia. The +exportation of cattle to Great Britain, formerly a flourishing trade, +was ruined by American and Australian competition. Iron is found at +Caurel and Incio, arsenic at Castroverde and Cervantes, argentiferous +lead at Riotorto; but, although small quantities of iron and arsenic are +exported from Rivadéo, frequent strikes and lack of transport greatly +impeded the development of mining in the earlier years of the 20th +century. There are also quarries of granite, marble and various kinds of +slate and building-stone. The only important manufacturing industries +are those connected with leather, preserves, coarse woollen and linen +stuffs, timber and osier work. About 250 coasting vessels are registered +at the ports, and about as many boats constitute the fishing fleet, +which brings in lampreys, soles, tunny and sardines, the last two being +salted and tinned for export. The means of communication are +insufficient, though there are over 100 m. of first-class roads, and the +railways from Madrid and northern Portugal to Corunna run through the +province. + + Lugo the capital (pop. 1900, 26,959) and the important towns of + Chantada (15,003), Fonsagrada (17,302), Mondoñedo (10,590), Monforte + (12,912), Panton (12,988), Villalba (13,572) and Vivero (12,843) are + described in separate articles. The province contained in 1900 + twenty-six towns of more than 7000 inhabitants, the largest being + Sarria (11,998) and Saviñao (11,182). For a general description of the + people and the history of this region see GALICIA. + + + + +LUGO, capital of the above Spanish province, is situated on the left +bank of the river Miño and on the railway from Corunna to Madrid. Pop. +(1900) 26,959. Lugo is an episcopal see, and was formerly the capital of +Galicia. Suburbs have grown up round the original town, the form of +which, nearly quadrangular, is defined by a massive Roman wall 30 to 40 +ft. high and 20 ft. thick, with projecting semi-circular towers which +numbered 85 as late as 1809, when parts of the fortifications were +destroyed by the French. The wall now serves as a promenade. The Gothic +cathedral, on the south side of the town, dates from the 12th century, +but was modernized in the 18th, and possesses no special architectural +merit. The conventual church of Santo Domingo dates from the 14th +century. The principal industries are tanning, and the manufacture of +linen and woollen cloth. About 1 m. S., on the left bank of the Miño, +are the famous hot sulphur baths of Lugo. + +Lugo (_Lucus Augusti_) was a flourishing city under Roman rule (c. 19 +B.C.-A.D. 409) and was made by Augustus the seat of a _conventus +juridicus_ (assize). Its sulphur baths were even then well known. It was +sacked by barbarian invaders in the 5th century, and suffered greatly in +the Moorish wars of the 8th century. The bishopric dates from a very +early period, and it is said to have acquired metropolitan rank in the +middle of the 6th century; it is now in the archiepiscopal province of +Santiago de Compostela. + + + + +LUGOS, the capital of the county of Krassó-Szörény, Hungary, 225 m. S.E. +of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,126. It is situated on both banks of +the river Temes, which divides the town in two quarters, the Rumanian on +the right and the German on the left bank. It is the seat of a +Greek-United (Rumanian) bishop. Lugos carries on an active trade in +wine, and has several important fairs, while the surrounding country, +which is mountainous and well-wooded, produces large quantities of +grapes and plums. Lugos was once a strongly fortified place and of +greater relative importance than at present. It was the last seat of the +Hungarian revolutionary government (August 1849), and the last resort of +Kossuth and several other leaders of the national cause, previous to +their escape to Turkey. + + + + +LUGUDUNUM, or LUGDUNUM, an old Celtic place-name (fort or hill of the +god Lugos or Lug) used by the Romans for several towns in ancient Gaul. +The most important was the town at the confluence of the Saône and Rhone +now called Lyons (q.v.). This place had in Roman times two elements. One +was a Roman _colonia_ (municipality of Roman citizens, self-governing) +situated on the hill near the present Fourviéres (_Forum vetus_). The +other, territorially distinct from it for reasons of statecraft, was the +Temple of Roma and Augustus, to which the inhabitants of the 64 Gallic +cantons in the three Roman provinces of Aquitania, Lugudunensis and +Belgica--the so-called Tres Galliae--sent delegates every summer to hold +games and otherwise celebrate the worship of the emperor which was +supposed to knit the provincials to Rome. The two elements together +composed the most important town of western Europe in Roman times. +Lugudunum controlled the trade of its two rivers, and that which passed +from northern Gaul to the Mediterranean or vice versa; it had a mint; it +was the capital of all northern Gaul, despite its position in the south, +and its wealth was such that, when Rome was burnt in Nero's reign, its +inhabitants subscribed largely to the relief of the Eternal City. + (F. J. H.) + + + + +LUINI, BERNARDINO (?1465-?1540), the most celebrated master of the +Lombard school of painting founded upon the style of Leonardo da Vinci, +was born at Luino, a village on Lago Maggiore. He wrote his name as +"Bernardin Lovino," but the spelling "Luini" is now generally adopted. +Few facts are known regarding his life, and until a comparatively recent +date many even of his works had, in the lapse of years and laxity of +attribution, got assigned to Leonardo da Vinci. It appears that Luini +studied painting at Vercelli under Giovenone, or perhaps under Stephano +Scotto. He reached Milan either after the departure of Da Vinci in 1500, +or shortly before that event; it is thus uncertain whether or not the +two artists had any personal acquaintance, but Luini was at any rate in +the painting-school established in Milan by the great Florentine. In the +later works of Luini a certain influence from the style of Raphael is +superadded to that, far more prominent and fundamental, from the style +of Leonardo; but there is nothing to show that he ever visited Rome. His +two sons are the only pupils who have with confidence been assigned to +him; and even this can scarcely be true of the younger, who was born in +1530, when Bernardino was well advanced in years. Guadenzio Ferrari has +also been termed his disciple. One of the sons, Evangelista, has left +little which can now be identified; the other, Aurelio, was accomplished +in perspective and landscape work. There was likewise a brother of +Bernardino, named Ambrogio, a competent painter. Bernardino, who hardly +ever left Lombardy, had some merit as a poet, and is said to have +composed a treatise on painting. The precise date of his death is +unknown; he may perhaps have survived till about 1540. A serene, +contented and happy mind, naturally expressing itself in forms of grace +and beauty, seems stamped upon all the works of Luini. The same +character is traceable in his portrait, painted in an upper group in his +fresco of "Christ crowned with Thorns" in the Ambrosian library in +Milan--a venerable bearded personage. The only anecdote which has been +preserved of him tells a similar tale. It is said that for the single +figures of saints in the church at Saronno he received a sum equal to 22 +francs per day, along with wine, bread and lodging; and he was so well +satisfied with this remuneration that, in completing the commission, he +painted a Nativity for nothing. + +A dignified suavity is the most marked characteristic of Luini's works. +They are constantly beautiful, with a beauty which depends at least as +much upon the loving self-withdrawn expression as upon the mere +refinement and attractiveness of form. This quality of expression +appears in all Luini's productions, whether secular or sacred, and +imbues the latter with a peculiarly religious grace--not ecclesiastical +unction, but the devoutness of the heart. His heads, while extremely +like those painted by Leonardo, have less subtlety and involution and +less variety of expression, but fully as much amenity. He began indeed +with a somewhat dry style, as in the "Pietà" in the church of the +Passione; but this soon developed into the quality which distinguishes +all his most renowned works; although his execution, especially as +regards modelling, was never absolutely equal to that of Leonardo. +Luini's paintings do not exhibit an impetuous style of execution, and +certainly not a negligent one; yet it appears that he was in fact a very +rapid worker, as his picture of the "Crowning with Thorns," painted for +the College del S. Sepolcro, and containing a large number of figures, +is recorded to have occupied him only thirty-eight days, to which an +assistant added eleven. His method was simple and expeditious, the +shadows being painted with the pure colour laid on thick, while the +lights are of the same colour thinly used, and mixed with a little +white. The frescoes exhibit more freedom of hand than the oil pictures; +and they are on the whole less like the work of Da Vinci, having at an +early date a certain resemblance to the style of Mantegna, as later on +to that of Raphael. Luini's colouring is mostly rich, and his light and +shade forcible. + + Among his principal works the following are to be mentioned. At + Saronno are frescoes painted towards 1525, representing the life of + the Madonna--her "Marriage," the "Presentation of the Infant Saviour + in the Temple," the "Adoration of the Magi" and other incidents. His + own portrait appears in the subject of the youthful "Jesus with the + Doctors in the Temple." This series--in which some comparatively + archaic details occur, such as gilded nimbuses--was partly repeated + from one which Luini had executed towards 1520 in S. Croce. In the + Brera Gallery, Milan, are frescoes from the suppressed church of La + Pace and the Convent della Pelucca--the former treating subjects from + the life of the Virgin, the latter, of a classic kind, more decorative + in manner. The subject of girls playing at the game of "hot-cockles," + and that of three angels depositing St Catherine in her sepulchre, are + particularly memorable, each of them a work of perfect charm and grace + in its way. In the Casa Silva, Milan, are frescoes from Ovid's + _Metamorphoses_. The Monastero Maggiore of Milan (or church of S. + Maurizio) is a noble treasure-house of Luini's art--including a large + Crucifixion, with about one hundred and forty figures; "Christ bound + to the Column," between figures of Saints Catherine and Stephen, and + the founder of the chapel kneeling before Catherine; the martyrdom of + this saint; the "Entombment of Christ," and a large number of other + subjects. In the Ambrosian library is the fresco (already mentioned), + covering one entire wall of the Sala della S. Corona, of "Christ + crowned with Thorns," with two executioners, and on each side six + members of a confraternity; in the same building the "Infant Baptist + playing with a Lamb"; in the Brera, the "Virgin Enthroned, with + Saints" (dated 1521); in the Louvre, the "Daughter of Herodias + receiving the Head of the Baptist"; in the Esterhazy Gallery, Vienna, + the "Virgin between Saints Catherine and Barbara"; in the National + Gallery, London, "Christ disputing with the Doctors" (or rather, + perhaps, the Pharisees). Many or most of these gallery pictures used + to pass for the handiwork of Da Vinci. The same is the case with the + highly celebrated "Vanity and Modesty" in the Sciarra Palace, Rome, + which also may nevertheless in all probability be assigned to Luini. + Another singularly beautiful picture by him is in the Royal Palace in + Milan--a large composition of "Women Bathing." That Luini was also + pre-eminent as a decorative artist is shown by his works in the + Certosa of Pavia. + + A good account of Luini by Dr G. C. Williamson was published in 1900. + (W. M. R.) + + + + +LUKE, the traditional author of the third Gospel and of the Book of +Acts, and the most literary among the writers of the New Testament. He +alone, too, was of non-Jewish origin (Col. iv. 11, 14), a fact of great +interest in relation to his writings. His name, a more familiar form of +Lucanus (cf. Silas for Silvanus, Acts xvii. 4, 1 Thess. i. 1, and see +_Encycl. Bibl._ s.v., for instances of [Greek: Doukas] on Egyptian +inscriptions), taken together with his profession of physician (Col. iv. +14), suggests that he was son of a Greek freedman possibly connected +with Lucania in south Italy; and as Julius Caesar gave Roman citizenship +to all physicians in Rome (Sueton. _Jul._ 42), Luke may even have +inherited this status from his father. But in any case such a man would +have the attitude to things Roman which appears in the works attributed +to Luke. He was a fellow-worker of Paul's when in Rome (Philemon 24), +where he seems to have remained in constant attendance on his leader, as +physician as well as attached friend (Col. iv. 14; 2 Tim. iv. 11). That +Luke, before he became a Christian, was an adherent of the +synagogue--not a full proselyte, but one of those "worshippers" of God +to whom Acts makes frequent reference--is fairly certain from the +familiarity with the Septuagint indicated in Acts, as well as from its +sympathy with the Hellenistic type of piety as distinct from specific +Paulinism, of which there is but little trace. + +The earliest extra-biblical reference to him is perhaps in the +Muratonian Canon, which implies that his name already stood in MSS. of +both Gospel (probably so even in Marcion's day) and Acts, and says that +Paul took him for his companion _quasi ut juris studiosum_ ("as being a +student of law"). Here _juris_ is almost certainly corrupt; and whether +we take the sense to have been "as being devoted to travel" (_ut juris_ += _itineris_) or "as skilled in disease" ([Greek: nosou] passing into +[Greek: nomou] in the Greek original), it is probably a mere inference +from biblical data. Beyond references in Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria +(cf. HEBREWS) and Tertullian, which add nothing to our knowledge, we +have the belief to which Origen (_Hom._ i. _in Lucam_) witnesses as +existing in his day, that Luke was the "brother" of 2 Cor. viii. 18, +"whose praise in the Gospel" (as preached) was "throughout all the +churches." Though the basis of the identification be a mistake, yet that +this "brother," "who was also appointed by the churches (note the +generality of this) to travel with us in the matter of the charity," was +none other than Paul's constant companion Luke is quite likely; e.g. he +seems to have been almost the only non-Macedonian (as demanded by 2 Cor. +ix. 2-4) of Paul's circle available[1] at the time (see Acts xx. 4). Our +next witness, a prologue to the Lucan writings (originally in Greek, now +known only in Latin, see _Nov. Test. Latine_ (Oxford), I. iii., II. i.), +perhaps preserves a genuine tradition in stating that Luke died in +Bithynia at the age of seventy-four. It is hard to see why this should +be fiction, which usually took the form of martyrdom, as in a later +tradition touching his end. The same prologue, and indeed all early +tradition, connects him originally with Antioch (see Euseb. _Hist. +Eccl._ iii. 4, 6, possibly after Julius Africanus in the first half of +the 3rd century). + + That he was actually a native of Antioch is as doubtful as the + statement that he was a Syrian by race (Prologue). But internal + evidence bears out the view that he practised his profession in + Antioch, where (or in Tarsus) he probably first met Paul. Whether any + of his information in Acts as to the Gospel in Antioch (xi. 19 ff., + xiii. 1 ff., xiv. 26-xv. 35) was due to an Antiochene document used by + him (cf. A. Harnack, _The Acts of the Apostles_, 245 ff.) or not, this + knowledge in any case suggests Luke's connexion with that church. He + shows, too, local knowledge on points unlikely to have stood in any + such source (e.g. it was in Antioch that the name "Christians" was + first coined, xi. 26), which points to his share in early Church life + there. The Bezan reading in Acts xi. 27, "when _we_ were assembled," + may imply memory of this. + + But while Luke probably met Paul in Antioch, and thence started with + him on his second great missionary enterprise (xv. 36 ff.), partly at + least as his medical attendant (cf. Gal. iv. 13), it is possible that + he had also some special connexion with the north-eastern part of the + Aegean. Sir W. M. Ramsay and others fancy that Luke's original home + was Philippi, and that in fact he may have been the "certain + Macedonian" seen in vision by Paul at Troas, inviting help for his + countrymen (xvi. 9 f.). But this is as precarious as the view that, + because "we" ceases at Philippi in xvi. 17, and then reemerges in xx. + 6, Luke must have resided there during all the interval. The use and + disuse of the first person plural, identifying Paul and his party, has + probably a more subtle and psychological[2] meaning (see ACTS). The + local connexion in question may have been subsequent to that with + Antioch, dating from his work with Paul in the province of Asia, and + being resumed after Paul's martyrdom. This accords at once with + Harnack's argument that Luke wrote Acts in Asia[3] (_Luke the + Physician_, p. 149 ff.), and with the early tradition, above cited, + that he died in Bithynia at the age of seventy-four, without ever + having married (this touch may be due to an ascetic feeling current + already in the 2nd century). + + The later traditions about Luke's life are based on fanciful inference + or misunderstanding, e.g. that he was one of the Seventy (Adamantius + _Dial. de recta fide_, 4th century), or the story (in Theodorus + Lector, 6th century) that he painted a portrait of the Virgin Mother. + But a good deal can still be gathered by sympathetic study of his + writings as to the manner of man he was. It was a beautiful soul from + which came "the most beautiful book" ever written, as Renan styled his + Gospel. The selection of stories which he gives us--especially in the + section mainly peculiar to himself (ix. 51-xviii. 14)--reflects his + own character as well as that of the source he mainly follows. His was + indeed a _religio medici_ in its pity for frail and suffering + humanity, and in its sympathy with the triumph of the Divine "healing + art" upon the bodies and souls of men (cf. Harnack, _The Acts, + Excursus_, iii.). His was also a humane[4] spirit, a spirit so tender + that it saw further than almost any save the Master himself into the + soul of womanhood. In this, as in his joyousness, united with a + feeling for the poor and suffering, he was an early Francis of Assisi. + Luke, "the physician, the beloved physician," that was Paul's + characterization of him; and it is the impression which his writings + have left on humanity. How great his contribution to Christianity has + been, in virtue of what he alone preserved of the historical Jesus and + of the embodiment of his Gospel in his earliest followers, who can + measure? Harnack even maintains (_The Acts_, p. 301) that his story of + the Apostolic age was the indispensable condition for the + incorporation of the Pauline epistles in the Church's canon of New + Testament scriptures. Certainly his conception of the Gospel, viz. a + Christian Hellenistic universalism (with some slight infusion of + Pauline thought) passed through a Graeco-Roman mind, proved more easy + of assimilation, and so more directly influential for the ancient + Church, than Paul's own distinctive teaching (ib. 281 ff.; cf. _Luke + the Physician_, pp. 139-145). + + LITERATURE.--Introductions to commentaries like A. Plummer's on Luke's + Gospel in the "Intern. Crit." series, R. B. Rackham's _Acts of the + Apostles_ ("Oxford Comm."); the article "Luke" in Hastings's _Dict. of + the Bible_ and _Dict. of Christ and the Gospels_, the _Encycl. + Biblica_ and Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_, vol. xi.; Sir W. M. Ramsay's + _Paul the Traveller_ and _Pauline and other Studies_, and A. Harnack's + _Lukas der Arzt_ (1906, Eng. trans. 1907) and _Die Apostelgeschichte_ + (1908, Eng. trans. 1909). For the Luke of legend, see authorities + quoted under MARK. (J. V. B.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Tychicus may be the other "brother," in viii. 22. + + [2] So also A. Hilgenfeld, _Zeit. f. theol. Wissenschaft_ (1907), p. + 214, argues that "we" marks the author's wish to give his narrative + more vividness at great turning-points of the story--the passage from + Asia to Europe, and again the real beginning of the solemn progress + of Paul towards the crisis in Jerusalem, as yet later towards Rome, + xxvii. 1 ff. + + [3] Note that Luke is at pains to explain why Paul passed by Asia and + Bithynia in the first instance (xvi. 6 f.). + + [4] Compare what A. W. Verrall has said of the poet Statius and "the + gentle doctrine of humanity" on Hellenic soil, as embodied in his + description of The Altar of Mercy at Athens (_Oxford and Cambridge + Review_, i. 101 ff.). + + + + +LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST, the third of the four canonical Gospels of the +Christian Church. + +1. _Authorship and Date._--The earliest indication which we possess of +the belief that the author was Luke, the companion of the Apostle Paul +(Col. iv. 14; Philem. 24; 2 Tim. iv. 11), is found in Justin Martyr, +who, in his _Dialogue with Trypho_ (c. 103), when making a statement +found only in our Luke, instead of referring for it simply to the +"Apostolic Memoirs," his usual formula, says that it is contained in the +memoirs composed by "the Apostles and _those that followed them_." But +the first distinct mention of Luke as the author of the Gospel is that +by Irenaeus in his famous passage about the Four Gospels (_Adv. Haer._ +III. i. 2, c. A.D. 180). + +This tradition is important in spite of the fact that it first comes +clearly before us in a writer belonging to the latter part of the 2nd +century, because the prominence and fame of Luke were not such as would +of themselves have led to his being singled out to have a Gospel +attributed to him. The question of the authorship cannot, however, be +decided without considering the internal evidence, the interpretation of +which in the case of the Third Gospel and the Acts (the other writing +attributed to Luke) is a matter of peculiar interest. It is generally +admitted that the same person is the author of both works in their +present form. This is intimated at the beginning of the second of them +(Acts i. 1); and both are marked, broadly speaking throughout, though in +some parts much more strongly than in others, by stylistic +characteristics which we may conveniently call "Lucan" without making a +premature assumption as to the authorship. The writer is more versed +than any other New Testament writer except the author of the Epistle to +the Hebrews, and very much more than most of them, in the literary Greek +of the period of the rise of Christianity; and he has, also, like other +writers, his favourite words, turns of expression and thoughts. The +variations in the degree to which these appear in different passages are +in the main to be accounted for by his having before him in many cases +documents or oral reports, which he reproduces with only slight +alterations in the language, while at other times he is writing freely. + +We have next to observe that there are four sections in Acts (xvi. 9-17, +xx. 4-16, xxi. 1-17, xxvii. 1-xxviii. 16) in which the first person +plural is used. Now it is again generally admitted that in these +sections we have the genuine account of one who was a member of Paul's +company, who may well have been Luke. But it has been and is still held +by many critics that the author of Acts is a different person, and that +as in the Third Gospel he has used documents for the Life of Christ, and +perhaps also in the earlier half of the Acts for the history of the +beginnings of the Christian Church, so in the "we" sections, and +possibly in some other portions of this narrative of Paul's missionary +life, he has used a kind of travel-diary by one who accompanied the +Apostle on some of his journeys. That neither this, nor any other, +companion of Paul can have been the author of the whole work is supposed +to follow both from its theological temper and from discrepancies +between its statements and those of the Pauline Epistles on matters of +fact. + +A careful examination, however, of the "we" sections shows that words +and expressions characteristic of the author of the third Gospel and the +Acts are found in them to an extent which is very remarkable, and that +in many instances they belong to the very texture of the passages. This +linguistic evidence, which is of quite unusual force, has never yet been +fairly faced by those who deny Luke's authorship of Acts. Moreover, the +difficulties in the way of supposing that the author of Acts could at an +earlier period of his life have been a companion of St Paul do not seem +to be so serious as some critics think. Indeed it is easier to explain +some of the differences between the Acts and St Paul's Epistles on this +assumption than on that of authorship by a writer who would have felt +more dependent upon the information which might be gathered from those +Epistles, and who would have been more likely to have had a collection +of them at hand, if his work was composed c. A.D. 100, as is commonly +assumed by critics who reject the authorship by Luke. + +There is then strong reason for believing the tradition that Luke, the +companion of the Apostle Paul, was the author of our third Gospel and +the Acts. Another argument in support of this belief, upon which much +reliance has been placed, is found in the descriptions of diseases, and +the words common in Greek medical writers, contained in these two works. +These, it is said, point to the author's having been a physician, as +Luke (Col. iv. 14) was (see esp. Hobart, _The Medical Language of St +Luke_, 1882). The instances alleged are, many of them at least, not very +distinctive. Yet they have some value as confirming the conclusion based +on a comparison of the "we" sections of the Acts, with the remainder of +the two books. + +If we may assume that the writer who uses the first person plural in +Acts xvi. 10 sqq. was the author of the two works, they can hardly have +been composed later than A.D. 96; he would then have been about 65 years +old, even if he was a very young man when he first joined the Apostle. +An earlier date than A.D. 96 cannot be assigned if it is held that his +writings show acquaintance with the _Antiquities of the Jewish People_ +by Josephus. The grounds for supposing this appear, however, to be +wholly insufficient (see article on Acts by Bishop Lightfoot in 2nd ed. +of Smith's _Dict. of Bible_, p. 39) and it is not easy to see why he +should have deferred writing so long. On the other hand, a comparison of +Luke xxi. 20-24 with Mark xiii. 14 seq. seems to show that in using his +document Luke here mingled with the prophecy the interpretation which +events had suggested and that the siege of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 and +dispersion of its inhabitants had already taken place some little time +before. _Circa_ A.D. 80 may with probability be given as the time of the +composition of his Gospel. + +2. _Contents, Sources and Arrangement._--In the preface to his Gospel, +i. 1-4, Luke alludes to other Gospel-records which preceded his own. He +does not say whether he made any use of them, but he seems to imply that +his own was more complete. And this was true in regard to the two which, +from a comparison of his Gospel with the other two Synoptics, we know +that he did use. These we may call his Marcan and his Logian document. +Luke also claims that he has written "in order." The instances in which +he has departed from the Marcan order, and the manner in which he has +introduced his additional matter into the Marcan outline, do not suggest +the idea that he had any independent knowledge of an exact kind of the +chronological sequence of events. By the phrase "in order" he may +himself have intended chiefly to contrast the orderliness and +consecutiveness of his account with the necessarily fragmentary +character of the catechetical instruction which Theophilus had received. +He may, also, have had in view the fact that he has prefixed a narrative +of the birth and infancy of Jesus and of John and so begun the history +at what he considered to be its true point of departure; to this he +plainly alludes when he says that he has "traced the course of all +things accurately from the first." He may, also, in part be thinking of +those indications which he--and he alone among the evangelists--has +given of the points in the course of secular history at which Jesus was +born and the Baptist began to preach (ii. 1-3, iii. 1, 2), though it may +be doubted whether these are in all respects accurate. + + Chap. i. 5-ii. 52. _The Birth and Infancy of John and of Jesus._--This + portion of the Gospel differs in style and character from all the + remainder. Its source may be an Aramaic or a Hebrew document. Some + critics, however, hold that it is wholly Luke's own composition, and + that the Hebraic style--in which he was able to write in consequence + of his familiarity with the LXX.--has been adopted by him as suitable + to the subject in hand. Perhaps an intermediate view may be the most + probable one; he may have obtained part of his materials, especially + the hymns, from some source, and have skilfully worked these into his + narrative. + + Chap. iii. 1-iv. 13. _From the Commencement of the Preaching of the + Baptist to the End of the Temptation in the Wilderness._--The accounts + of the Baptist's preaching and of the temptation are taken from the + Logian document. The genealogy of Jesus here given is peculiar to this + Gospel. + + Chap. iv. 14-vi. 16 _From the Commencement of the Ministry of Jesus in + Galilee to the Appointment of the Twelve._--In the main Luke here + follows his Marcan document. He has, however, independent narratives + of the visit of Jesus to Nazareth (iv. 16-30) and the call of the + first disciples (v. 1-11). The former, which in Mark is placed some + way on in the Galilean ministry (vi. 1-6_a_), is given by Luke at the + very beginning of it, perhaps because of the previous connexion of + Jesus with Nazareth. But that it is not in its right position here, + before any mention of the work in Capernaum, appears from verse 23. + Luke has also slightly altered the position of the call of the first + disciples in the sequence of events. + + Chap. vi. 17-viii. 3.--This is an insertion into the Marcan outline of + matter chiefly taken from the Logian document (the Address, Luke vi. + 20-49, corresponds with portions of the Sermon on the Mount in Matt, + v.-vii.; the healing of the centurion's servant, Luke vii. 1-10 = + Matt. viii. 5-13; the message of the Baptist and the discourse for + which it gave occasion, Luke vii. 18-35 = Matt. xi. 2-19). He includes + besides, a few pieces peculiar to this Gospel which Luke had probably + himself collected. + + Chap. viii. 4-ix. 50. _From the Adoption of Parabolic Teaching to the + End of the Ministry in Galilee._--He begins again to follow his Marcan + document for what he gives. Many sections, however, contained in the + corresponding part of Mark have no parallel in Luke, while the + parallel to one of them is placed later and differs considerably in + form. Possibly this fact points to his Marcan document having been + briefer than our Mark, and to its having afterwards received + interpolations (see MARK, GOSPEL OF ST). + + Chap. ix. 51-xviii. 14. _Incidents and Teaching connected with Journey + towards Jerusalem._--This is another insertion into the Marcan + outline, much longer than the previous one, and consisting partly of + matter taken from the Logian document (warnings to men who offer to + become disciples, Luke ix. 57-60 = Matt. viii. 19-22; a + mission-charge, Luke x. 2-16 = Matt. ix. 37 and x. 7-16, 40; + thanksgiving that the Father reveals to the simple that which is + hidden from the wise, Luke x. 21-24 = Matt. xi. 25-27 and xiii. 16, + 17, &c., &c.) and partly of sections peculiar to Luke, about which the + same remark may be made as before. + + Chap. xviii. 15-xxii. 13. _From the Bringing of young Children to + Jesus to the Preparation for the Passover._--Luke again takes up his + Marcan document, nearly at the point at which he left it, and follows + it in the main, though he adds the story of Zacchaeus and the parable + of the Minae (the Ten Pieces of Money), and omits the withering of the + fig-tree and some matter at the end of the discourse on the Last + Things, which are given in Mark. + + Chap. xxii. 14 to end. _The Last Supper, Passion and Resurrection._-- + Though in this portion of his Gospel signs of use of Mark are not + wanting, he also has much that is peculiar to himself. It is supposed + by some that he here made use of another document. It seems more + likely that he had a good many distinct oral traditions for this part + of the history and that he used them freely, sometimes substituting + them for passages of the Marcan document, sometimes altering the + latter in accordance therewith. + +3. _Doctrinal, Ethical and Literary Characteristics._--The thought of +divine forgiveness, as set forth in the teaching of Jesus and manifested +in His own attitude towards, and power over, the hearts of the outcasts +among the people, is peculiarly prominent in this Gospel. This feature +of Christ's ministry appears only in one passage of Mark; some other +illustrations of it are mentioned in Matthew, but in Luke there are +several more which are peculiar to himself (see the three individual +cases vii. 36 sqq.; xix. 1 sqq., xxiii. 40 sqq.; also the description at +xv. 1, and the three parables that follow). These were "lost sheep of +the house of Israel"; but Christ's freedom from Jewish exclusiveness is +also brought out (1) as regards Samaritans, by the rebuke administered +to the disciples at ix. 52 sqq., the parable in x. 30 sqq., and the +incident at xvii. 15-19; whereas they are not mentioned in Mark, and in +Matthew only in the saying (x. 5) in which the Twelve are forbidden to +enter any village of theirs; (2) as regards Gentiles, by the words of +Jesus at iv. 25-27, not to mention sayings which have parallels in the +other Gospels. The promises of Old Testament prophets that the Gentiles +would share in the blessing of the coming of Christ are also recalled, +ii. 32-iii. 6. Once more the word [Greek: euangelizesthai] ("to proclaim +good tidings") is a favourite one with Luke. These are all traits which +we should expect to find in one who was a companion of Paul and a +Gentile (Col. iv. 11, 14). + +With the breadth and depth of the Saviour's sympathy, which are so fully +exhibited in this Gospel, we may connect the clearness with which His +true humanity is here portrayed. An incident of His boyhood is related +in which His sense of vocation is revealed, and this is followed by the +years of quiet growth that succeeded (ii. 41-52). Further, during the +years of His public ministry more glimpses of His inner life are given +us than in either Matthew or Mark. His being engaged in prayer is +mentioned several times where there is no parallel in those Gospels +(iii. 21, v. 16, vi. 12, ix. 18, 28, 29, xi. 1). Again, besides +narrating the Temptation in the Wilderness and the Agony in the Garden, +this evangelist gives a saying which implies that Jesus had undergone +many temptations, or rather a life of temptation (xxii. 28). Once more +he records a saying that shows Christ's sense of the intense painfulness +of the work He was sent into the world to do, arising from the divisions +which it caused (xii. 49 sqq.). + +Among practical duties, the stress laid on that of almsgiving is +remarkable (see especially xi. 41, xii. 33, xvi. 9 sqq., which are +peculiar to this Gospel). In the second of these passages the disciples +are exhorted to choose a life of voluntary poverty; the nearest parallel +is the ideal set before the rich young man at Mark x. 21 = Matt. xix. 21 += Luke xviii. 22. In the Beatitudes in Luke vi. 20, 21 a condition of +physical want is contemplated, not, as in Matt. v. 3, 6, poverty of +spirit and spiritual hunger, while woes are denounced against the rich +and the full (vi. 24, 25). The folly of absorption in the amassing and +enjoyment of wealth is also shown (xii. 15 sqq. and xvi. 19 sqq.). But +it would be an exaggeration to say, as some have done, that the poor are +represented as being the heirs of a blessed hereafter, simply on the +ground that they are now poor. In the Beatitudes Christ's own disciples +are addressed, who were blessed _though_ poor, whereas the rich as a +class were opposed or indifferent to the kingdom of God. Again, the +contrast between Lazarus and Dives in the future state pictures vividly +the reversals that are in store; but it is unreasonable to take it as +implying that every poor man, whatever his moral character, will be +blessed. + +But while there is in Luke's Gospel this strain of asceticism--as to +many in modern times it will appear to be--the prevailing spirit is +gentle and tender, and there is in it a note of spiritual gladness, +which is begun by the song and the messages of angels and the hymns and +rejoicing of holy men and women, accompanying the birth of the Christ +(chaps. i. and ii., _passim_), and prolonged by the expressions of joy, +the ascriptions of thanksgiving and praise, called forth by the words +and works of Christ and the wonders of the cross and resurrection, which +are peculiarly frequent and full (iv. 15, v. 25, 26, vii. 16, x. 17, +xiii. 13, 17, xvii. 15-18, xviii. 43, xix. 6, 37, 38, xxiii. 47, xxiv. +41, 52, 53. Cf. also xv. 5, 7, 10, 32). + +The peculiar charm which this Gospel has been generally felt to possess +is largely due to the spiritual and ethical traits which have been +noted. But from a purely literary point of view, also, it is +distinguished by great excellences. The evangelist's phraseology is +indeed affected to some extent by the rhetorical style of the period +when he wrote. Nevertheless his mode of narration is simple and direct. +And the many fascinating character-sketches, which he has added to the +portrait gallery of Scripture, are drawn clearly and without signs of +effort. In some cases he has skilfully suggested parallelisms and +contrasts. The chief instance is his careful interweaving of the +accounts of the births and early years of John the Baptist and of Jesus. +Later examples are the two sisters, Martha and Mary (x. 38-42), and the +penitent and the impenitent thief (xxiii. 39-48). That he was a man of +great versatility appears in the Acts from the speeches introduced on +various occasions, if (as is probable) they were in part, at least, his +own composition. In the Gospel he had no opportunity for showing his +power in a manner strictly analogous. But if the hymns in the two +introductory chapters owe even their Greek form in any measure to him, +he was a poet of no mean order. His style varies greatly; at times, as +in i. 1-4, it is Hellenistic; at others, as in i. 5 to end of ii., it is +strongly Hebraic. Such differences are largely due, no doubt, to the +degree in which he was in various parts independent of, or dependent +upon, sources. But he would seem in some degree to have adapted his +manner of writing to the subject-matter in hand. And at all events it is +worthy of note that we pass without any sense of jar from passages in +one style to those in another. + + See Godet, _Commentaire sur l'évangile de S. Luc_ (Eng. trans., 1875); + Plummer's _Comm. on St Luke_ (in international Series, 4th ed., 1906); + W. Ramsay, _Was Christ born in Bethlehem?_ (3rd ed., 1905); A. + Harnack, _Lukas der Arzt_ (1906); B. Weiss, _Die Quellen des + Lukas-Evangeliums_ (1907); also books on the Four Gospels, or the + Synoptic Gospels, mentioned at end of article GOSPEL. (V. H. S.) + + + + +LULEÅ, a seaport of Sweden, capital of the district (_län_) of +Norrbotten, on the peninsula of Sandö, at the mouth of the Lule river +and the north-west corner of the Gulf of Bothnia. Pop. (1900) 9484. It +is connected at Boden (22 m. N.) with the main line of railway from +Stockholm to Gellivara and Narvik on Ofoten Fjord in Norway. By this +line Luleå is 723 m. N.N.E. of Stockholm. It is the shipping place for +the iron ore mined at Gellivara, 127 m. N. by W., and there are smelting +works at Karlsvik in the vicinity. Timber is also exported, being +floated in large quantities down the Lule. As a rule the port is closed +by ice from November to the end of May. The town was almost entirely +burnt down in 1887, and its buildings are new--the church (1888-1893), +the Norrbotten Museum and a technical school being the most important. +Luleå as founded by Gustavus Adolphus was 7 m. higher up the river, but +was moved to the present site in 1649. + + + + +LULL (or LULLY), RAIMON, or RAYMOND (c. 1235-1315), Catalan author, +mystic and missionary, was born at Palma (Majorca). Inheriting the +estate conferred upon his father for services rendered during the +victorious expedition (1229) against the Balearic Islands, Lull was +married at an early age to Bianca Picany, and, according to his own +account, led a dissipated life till 1266 when, on five different +occasions, he beheld the vision of Christ crucified. After his +conversion, he resolved to devote himself to evangelical work among the +heathen, to write an exposure of infidel errors, and to promote the +teaching of foreign tongues in seminaries. He dedicated nine years to +the study of Arabic, and in 1275 showed such signs of mental exaltation +that, at the request of his wife and family, an official was appointed +to administer his estate. He withdrew to Randa, there wrote his _Ars +major_ and _Ars generalis_, visited Montpellier, and persuaded the king +of Majorca to build a Franciscan monastery at Miramar. There for ten +years he acted as professor of Arabic and philosophy, and composed many +controversial treatises. After a fruitless visit to Rome in 1285-1286, +he journeyed to Paris, residing in that city from 1287 to 1289, and +expounding his bewildering theories to auditors who regarded him as half +insane. In 1289 he went to Montpellier, wrote his _Ars veritatis +inventiva_, and removed to Genoa where he translated this treatise into +Arabic. In 1291, after many timorous doubts and hesitations for which he +bitterly blamed himself, Lull sailed for Tunis where he publicly +preached Christianity for a year; he was finally imprisoned and +expelled. In January 1293 he reached Naples where tradition alleges that +he studied alchemy; there appears to be no foundation for this story, +and the treatises on alchemy which bear his name are all apocryphal.[1] +His efforts to interest Clement V. and Boniface VIII. in his favourite +project of establishing missionary colleges were unavailing; but a visit +to Paris in 1298 was attended with a certain measure of success. He was, +however, disappointed in his main object, and in 1300 he sailed to +Cyprus to seek support for his plan of teaching Oriental languages in +universities and monasteries. He was rebuffed once more, but continued +his campaign with undiminished energy. Between 1302 and 1305 he wrote +treatises at Genoa, lectured at Paris, visited Lyons in the vain hope of +enlisting the sympathies of Pope Clement V., crossed over to Bougie in +Africa, preached the gospel, and was imprisoned there for six months. On +being released he lectured with increasing effect at Paris, attended the +General Council at Vienne in 1311, and there witnessed the nominal +adoption of his cherished proposals. Though close on eighty years of +age, Lull's ardour was unabated. He carried on his propaganda at +Majorca, Paris, Montpellier and Messina, and in 1314 crossed over once +more to Bougie. Here he resumed his crusade against Mahommedanism, +raised the fanatical spirit of the inhabitants, was stoned outside the +city walls and died of his wounds on the 29th of June 1315. There can be +no reasonable doubt that these events actually occurred, but the scene +is laid by one biographer at Tunis instead of Bougie. + + The circumstances of Lull's death caused him to be regarded as a + martyr, local patriotism helped to magnify his merits, and his + fantastic doctrines found many enthusiastic partisans. The _doctor + illuminatus_ was venerated throughout Catalonia and afterwards + throughout Spain, as a saint, a thinker and a poet; but his doctrines + were disapproved by the powerful Dominican order, and in 1376 they + were formally condemned in a papal bull issued at the instance of the + inquisitor, Nicolas Emeric. The authenticity of this document was + warmly disputed by Lull's followers, and the bull was annulled by + Martin V. in 1417. The controversy was renewed in 1503 and again in + 1578; but the general support of the Jesuits and the staunch fidelity + of the Majorcans saved Lull from condemnation. His philosophical + treatises abound with incoherent formulae to which, according to their + inventor, every demonstration in every science may be reduced, and + posterity has ratified Bacon's disdainful verdict on Lull's + pretensions as a thinker; still the fact that he broke away from the + scholastic system has recommended him to the historians of philosophy, + and the subtle ingenuity of his dialectic has compelled the admiration + of men so far apart in opinion as Giordano Bruno and Leibniz. + + The speculations of Lull are now obsolete outside Majorca where his + philosophy still flourishes, but his more purely literary writings are + extremely curious and interesting. In _Blanquerna_ (1283), a novel + which describes a new Utopia, Lull renews the Platonic tradition and + anticipates the methods of Sir Thomas More, Campanella and Harrington, + and in the _Libre de Maravelles_ (1286) he adopts the Oriental + apologue from _Kalilah and Dimnah_. And as a poet Lull takes a + prominent position in the history of Catalan literature; such pieces + as _El Desconort_ (1295) and _Lo Cant de Ramon_ (1299) combine in a + rare degree simple beauty of expression with sublimity of thought and + impassioned sincerity. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Histoire littéraire de la France_ (Paris, 1885), vol. + xxix.; _Obras rimadas de Ramon Lull_ (Palma, 1859), edited by G. + Rosselló; _Obras de Ramon Lull_ (Palma, in progress), edited by G. + Rosselló; José R. de Luanco, _Ramon Lull, considerado como alquimista_ + (Barcelona, 1870) and _La Alquimia en España_ (2 vols., Barcelona, + 1889-1897); K. Hofmann, "Ein Katalanische Thierepos," in the Bavarian + Academy's _Abhandlungen_ (Munich, 1872), vol. xii. pp. 173-240; M. + Menéndez y Pelayo, _Origenes de la novela_ (Madrid, 1905), pp. 72-86; + Havelock Ellis in _Contemporary Review_ (May 1906). (J. F.-K.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The alchemical works ascribed to Lull, such as _Testamentum_, + _Codicillus seu Testamentum_ and _Experimenta_, are of early although + uncertain date. De Luanco ascribes some of them to a Raimundo de + Tárraga (c. 1370), a converted Jew who studied the occult. Others are + ascribed by Morhof to a Raymundus Lullius Neophytus, who lived about + 1440. See ALCHEMY, and also J. Ferguson, _Bibliotheca chemica_ + (1906). + + + + +LULLABY, a cradle-song, a song sung to children to "lull" them to sleep; +the melody being styled in Fr. _berceuse_ and in Ger. _Wiegenlied_. +"Lull," cf. Swed. _lulla_, Du. _lullen_, &c., is of echoic or +onomatopoeic origin, cf. Lat. _lallare_, to chatter. + + + + +LULLY, JEAN-BAPTISTE (c. 1633-1687), Italian composer, was born in +Florence. Through the duc de Guise he entered the services of Madame de +Montpensier as scullery-boy, and with the help of this lady his musical +talents were cultivated. A scurrilous poem on his patroness resulted in +his dismissal. He then studied the theory of music under Métra and +entered the orchestra of the French court, being subsequently appointed +director of music to Louis XIV. and director of the Paris opera. The +influence of his music produced a radical revolution in the style of the +dances of the court itself. Instead of the slow and stately movements +which had prevailed until then, he introduced lively ballets of rapid +rhythm. In December 1661 he was naturalized as a Frenchman, his original +name being Giovanni Battista Lulli. In 1662 he was appointed music +master to the royal family. In 1681 he was made a court secretary to the +king and ennobled. While directing a _Te Deum_ on the 8th of January +1687 with a rather long baton he injured his foot so seriously that a +cancerous growth resulted which caused his death on the 22nd of March. +Having found a congenial poet in Quinault, Lully composed twenty operas, +which met with a most enthusiastic reception. Indeed he has good claim +to be considered the founder of French opera, forsaking the Italian +method of separate recitative and aria for a dramatic consolidation of +the two and a quickened action of the story such as was more congenial +to the taste of the French public. He effected important improvements in +the composition of the orchestra, into which he introduced several new +instruments. Lully enjoyed the friendship of Molière, for some of whose +best plays he composed illustrative music. His _Miserere_, written for +the funeral of the minister Sequier, is a work of genius; and very +remarkable are also his minor sacred compositions. On his death-bed he +wrote _Bisogna morire, peccatore_. + + + + +LUMBAGO, a term in medicine applied to a painful aliment affecting the +muscles of the lower part of the back, generally regarded as of +rheumatic origin. An attack of lumbago may occur alone, or be associated +with rheumatism in other parts of the body. It usually comes on by a +seizure, often sudden, of pain in one or both sides of the small of the +back, of a severe cutting or stabbing character, greatly aggravated on +movement of the body, especially in attempting to rise from the +recumbent posture and also in the acts of drawing a deep breath, +coughing or sneezing. So intense is the suffering that it is apt to +suggest the existence of inflammation in some of the neighbouring +internal organs, such as the kidneys, bowels, &c., but the absence of +the symptoms specially characteristic of these latter complaints, or of +any great constitutional disturbance beyond the pain, renders the +diagnosis a matter of no great difficulty. Lumbago seems to be brought +on by exposure to cold and damp, and by the other exciting causes of +rheumatism. Sometimes it follows a strain of the muscles of the loins. +The attack is in general of short duration, but occasionally it +continues for a long time, as a feeling of soreness and stiffness on +movement. The treatment includes that for rheumatic affections in +general (see RHEUMATISM) and the application of local remedies to allay +the pain. + + + + +LUMBER, a word now meaning (1) useless discarded furniture or other +rubbish, particularly if of a bulky or heavy character; (2) timber, when +roughly sawn or cut into logs or beams (see TIMBER); (3) as a verb, to +make a loud rumbling noise, to move in a clumsy heavy way, also to +burden with useless material, to encumber. "Lumber" and "lumber-house" +were formerly used for a pawnbroker's shop, being in this sense a +variant of "Lombard," a name familiar throughout Europe for a banker, +money-changer or pawnbroker. This has frequently been taken to be the +origin of the word in sense (1), the reference being to the store of +unredeemed and unsaleable articles accumulating in pawnbrokers' shops. +Skeat adopts this in preference to the connexion with "lumber" in sense +(3), but thinks that the word may have been influenced by both sources +(_Etym. Dict._, 1910). This word is probably of Scandinavian origin, and +is cognate with a Swedish dialect word _lomra_, meaning "to roar," a +frequentative of _ljumma_, "to make a noise." The English word may be of +native origin and merely onomatopoeic. The _New English Dictionary_, +though admitting the probability of the association with "Lombard," +prefers the second proposed derivation. The application of the word to +timber is of American origin; the _New English Dictionary_ quotes from +_Suffolk_ (Mass.) _Deeds_ of 1662--"Freighted in Boston, with beames ... +boards ... and other lumber." + + + + +LUMBINI, the name of the garden or grove in which Gotama, the Buddha, +was born. It is first mentioned in a very ancient Pali ballad preserved +in the _Sutta Nipata_ (verse 583). This is the _Song of Nalaka_ (the +Buddhist Simeon), and the words put in the mouth of the angels who +announce the birth to him are: "The Wisdom-child, that jewel so +precious, that cannot be matched, has been born at Lumbini, in the +Sakiya land, for weal and for joy in the world of men." The commentaries +on the _Jatakas_ (i. 52, 54), and on a parallel passage in the +_Majjhima_ (_J.R.A.S._, 1895, p. 767), tell us that the mother of the +future Buddha was on her way from Kapilavastu (Kapilavatthu), the +capital of the Sakiyas, to her mother's home at Devadaha, the capital of +the adjoining tribe, the Koliyas, to be confined there. Her pains came +upon her on the way, and she turned aside into this grove, which lay not +far from Devadaha, and gave birth there to her son. All later Buddhist +accounts, whether Pali or Sanskrit, repeat the same story. + +A collection of legends about Asoka, included in the _Divyavadana_, a +work composed probably in the 1st or 2nd century A.D., tells us (pp. +389, 390) how Asoka, the Buddhist emperor, visited the traditional site +of this grove, under the guidance of Upagupta. This must have been about +248 B.C. Upagupta (Tissa: see PALI) himself also mentions the site in +his _Katha Vatthu_ (p. 559). The Chinese pilgrims, Fa Hien and Hsuan +Tsang, visiting India in the 5th and 7th centuries A.D., were shown the +site; and the latter (ed. Watters, ii. 15-19) mentions that he saw there +an Asoka pillar, with a horse on the top, which had been split, when +Hsuan Tsang saw it, by lightning. This pillar was rediscovered under the +following circumstances. + +The existence, a few miles beyond the Nepalese frontier, of an inscribed +pillar had been known for some years when, in 1895, the discovery of +another inscribed pillar at Nigliva, near by, led to the belief that +this other, hitherto neglected, one must also be an Asoka pillar, and +very probably the one mentioned by Hsuan Tsang. At the request of the +Indian government the Nepalese government had the pillar, which was +half-buried, excavated for examination; and Dr Führer, then in the +employ of the Archaeological Survey, arrived soon afterwards at the +spot. + +The stone was split into two portions, apparently by lightning, and was +inscribed with Pali characters as used in the time of Asoka. Squeezes of +the inscription were sent to Europe, where various scholars discussed +the meaning, which is as follows: "His Majesty, Piyadassi, came here in +the 21st year of his reign and paid reverence. And on the ground that +the Buddha, the Sakiya sage, was born here, he (the king) had a flawless +stone cut, and put up a pillar. And further, since the Exalted One was +born in it, he reduced taxation in the village of Lumbini, and +established the dues at one-eighth part (of the crop)." + +The inscription, having been buried for so many centuries beneath the +soil, is in perfect preservation. The letters, about an inch in height, +have been clearly and deeply cut in the stone. No one of them is +doubtful. But two words are new, and scholars are not agreed in their +interpretation of them. These are the adjective _vigadabhi_ applied to +the stone, and rendered in our translation "flawless"; and secondly, the +last word, rendered in our translation "one-eighth part (of the crop)." +Fortunately these words are of minor importance for the historical value +of this priceless document. The date, the twenty-first year after the +formal coronation of Asoka, would be 248 B.C. The name Piyadassi is the +official epithet always used by Asoka in his inscriptions when speaking +of himself. The inscription confirms in every respect the Buddhist +story, and makes it certain that, at the time when it was put up, the +tradition now handed down in the books was current at the spot. Any +further inference that the birth really took place there is matter of +probability on which opinions will differ. + +The grove is situate about 3 m. north of Bhagwanpur, the chief town of a +district of the same name in the extreme south of Nepal, just over the +frontier dividing Nepal from the district of Basti in British territory. +It is now called Rummin-dei, i.e. the shrine of the goddess of Rummin, a +name no doubt derived from the ancient name Lumbini. There is a small +shrine at the spot, containing a bas-relief representing the birth of +the Buddha. But the Buddha is now forgotten there, and the bas-relief is +reverenced only for the figure of the mother, who has been turned into a +tutelary deity of the place. Except so far as the excavation of the +pillar is concerned the site has not been explored, and four small +stupas there (already noticed by Hsuan Tsang) have not been opened. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Sutta Nipata_, ed. V. Fansböll (London Pali Text + Society, 1884); _Katha Vatthu_, ed. A. C. Taylor (London, 1897); + _Jataka_, ed. V. Fansböll, vol. i. (London, 1877); _Divyavadana_, ed. + Cowell and Niel (Cambridge, 1886); G. Bühler in the _Proceedings of + the Vienna Academy_ for Jan. 1897, in _Epigraphia Indica_, vol. v. + (London, 1898) and in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1897), + p. 429. See also ibid. (1895), pp. 751 ff.; (1897) pp. 615, 644; + (1898) pp. 199-203; A. Barth in the _Journal des savants_ (Paris, + 1897); R. Pischel in _Sitzungsberichte der königl. preussischen + Akademie_ for the 9th July 1903; Babu P. Mukherji, _Report on a Tour + of Exploration of the Antiquities in the Terai_ (Calcutta, 1903); V. + A. Smith in _Indian Antiquary_ (Bombay, 1905). (T. W. R. D.) + + + + +LUMP-SUCKER, or LUMP-FISH (_Cyclopterus lumpus_), a marine fish, which +with another British genus (_Liparis_) and a few other genera forms a +small family (Cyclopteridae). Like many littoral fishes of other +families, the lump-suckers have the ventral fins united into a circular +concave disk, which, acting as a sucker, enables them to attach +themselves firmly to rocks or stones. The body (properly so called) is +short and thick, with a thick and scaleless skin, covered with rough +tubercles, the larger of which are arranged in four series along each +side of the body. The first dorsal fin is almost entirely concealed by +the skin, appearing merely as a lump on the back. The lump-sucker +inhabits the coasts of both sides of the North Atlantic; it is not rare +on the British coasts, but becomes more common farther north. It is so +sluggish in its habits that individuals have been caught with sea-weed +growing on their backs. In the spring the fish approaches the shores to +spawn, clearing out a hollow on a stony bottom in which it deposits an +immense quantity of pink-coloured ova. Fishermen assert that the male +watches the spawn until the young are hatched, a statement which +receives confirmation from the fact that the allied gobies, or at least +some of them, take similar care of their progeny. The vernacular name, +"cock and hen paddle," given to the lump-fish on some parts of the +coast, is probably expressive of the difference between the two sexes in +their outward appearance, the male being only half or one-third the size +of the female, and assuming during the spawning season a bright blue +coloration, with red on the lower parts. This fish is generally not +esteemed as food, but Franz Faber (_Fische Islands_, p. 53) states that +the Icelanders consider the flesh of the male as a delicacy.[1] The +bones are so soft, and contain so little inorganic matter, that the old +ichthyologists placed the lump-sucker among the cartilaginous fishes. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The "cock-padle" was formerly esteemed also in Scotland, and + figures in the _Antiquary_, chap. xi. + + + + +LUMSDEN, SIR HARRY BURNETT (1821-1896), Anglo-Indian soldier, son of +Colonel Thomas Lumsden, C.B., was born on the 12th of November 1821. He +joined the 59th Bengal Native Infantry in 1838, was present at the +forcing of the Khyber Pass in 1842, and went through the first and +second Sikh wars, being wounded at Sobraon. Having become assistant to +Sir Henry Lawrence at Lahore in 1846, he was appointed in 1847 to raise +the Corps of Guides. The object of this corps, composed of horse and +foot, was to provide trustworthy men to act as guides to troops in the +field, and also to collect intelligence beyond as well as within the +North-West frontier of India. The regiment was located at Mardan on the +Peshawar border, and has become one of the most famous in the Indian +army. For the equipment of this corps, Lumsden originated the _khaki_ +uniform. In 1857 he was sent on a mission to Kandahar with his younger +brother, Sir Peter Lumsden, in connexion with the subsidy paid by the +Indian government to the amir, and was in Afghanistan throughout the +Mutiny. He took part in the Waziri Expedition of 1860, was in command of +the Hyderabad Contingent from 1862, and left India in 1869. He became +lieutenant-general in 1875, and died on the 12th of August 1896. + + See Sir Peter Lumsden and George Elsmie, _Lumsden of the Guides_ + (1899). + + + + +LUNA, ÁLVARO DE (d. 1453), Constable of Castile, Grand Master of +Santiago, and favourite of King John II. of Castile, was the natural son +of Álvaro de Luna, a Castilian noble. He was introduced to the court as +a page by his uncle Pedro de Luna, archbishop of Toledo, in 1410. Álvaro +soon secured a commanding influence over John II., then a mere boy. +During the regency of the king's uncle Ferdinand, which ended in 1412, +he was not allowed to be more than a servant. When, however, Ferdinand +was elected king of Aragon, and the regency remained in the hands of the +king's mother, Constance, daughter of John of Gaunt, a foolish and +dissolute woman, Álvaro became a very important person. The young king +regarded him with an affection which the superstition of the time +attributed to witchcraft. As the king was surrounded by greedy and +unscrupulous nobles, among whom his cousins, the sons of Ferdinand, +commonly known as the Infantes (princes) of Aragon, were perhaps the +worst, his reliance on a favourite who had every motive to be loyal to +him is quite intelligible. Álvaro too was a master of all the +accomplishments the king admired--a fine horseman, a skilful lance and a +writer of court verse. Until he lost the king's protection he was the +central figure of the Castilian history of the time. It was a period of +constant conflict conducted by shifting coalitions of the nobles, who +under pretence of freeing the king from the undue influence of his +favourite were intent on making a puppet of him for their own ends. The +part which Álvaro de Luna played has been diversely judged. To Mariana +he appears as a mere self-seeking favourite. To others he has seemed to +be a loyal servant of the king who endeavoured to enforce the authority +of the crown, which in Castile was the only alternative to anarchy. He +fought for his own hand, but his supremacy was certainly better than the +rule of gangs of plundering nobles. His story is in the main one of +expulsions from the court by victorious factions, and of his return when +his conquerors fell out among themselves. Thus in 1427 he was solemnly +expelled by a coalition of the nobles, only to be recalled in the +following year. In 1431 he endeavoured to employ the restless nobles in +a war for the conquest of Granada. Some successes were gained, but a +consistent policy was impossible with a rebellious aristocracy and a +king of indolent character. In 1445 the faction of the nobles allied +with Álvaro's main enemies, the Infantes de Aragon, were beaten at +Olmedo, and the favourite, who had been constable of Castile and count +of Santestéban since 1423, became Grand Master of the military order of +Santiago by election of the Knights. His power appeared to be thoroughly +established. It was, however, based on the personal affection of the +king. The king's second wife, Isabella of Portugal, was offended at the +immense influence of the constable, and urged her husband to free +himself from slavery to his favourite. In 1453 the king succumbed, +Álvaro was arrested, tried and condemned by a process which was a mere +parody of justice, and executed at Valladolid on the 2nd of June 1453. + + The _Chronicle of Álvaro de Luna_ (Madrid, 1784), written by some + loyal follower who survived him, is a panegyric and largely a romance. + The other contemporary authority--the _Chronicle of John II._--is much + less favourable to the constable. Don Jose Quintana has summarized the + two chronicles in his life of Luna in the _Vidas de Españoles + célebres; Biblioteca de Aulores Españoles_ (Madrid, 1846-1880), vol. + xix. + + + + +LUNA (mod. _Luni_), an ancient city of Etruria, Italy, 4½ m. S.E. of the +modern Sarzana. It was the frontier town of Etruria, on the left bank of +the river, Macra, the boundary in imperial times between Etruria and +Liguria. When the Romans first appeared in these parts, however, the +Ligurians were in possession of the territory as far as Pisa. It derived +its importance mainly from its harbour, which was the gulf now known as +the Gulf of Spezia, and not merely the estuary of the Macra as some +authors have supposed. The town was apparently not established until 177 +B.C., when a colony was founded here, though the harbour is mentioned by +Ennius, who sailed hence for Sardinia in 205 B.C. under Manlius +Torquatus. An inscription of 155 B.C., found in the forum of Luna in +1857, was dedicated to M. Claudius Marcellus in honour of his triumph +over the Ligurians and Apuani. It lost much of its importance under the +Empire, though traversed by the coast road (Via Aurelia), and it was +renowned for the marble from the neighbouring mountains of Carrara, +which bore the name of Luna marble. Pliny speaks of the quarries as only +recently discovered in his day. Good wine was also produced. There are +some remains of the Roman period on the site, and a theatre and an +amphitheatre may be distinguished. No Etruscan remains have come to +light. O. Cuntz's investigations (_Jahreshefte des Österr. Arch. +Instituts_, 1904, 46) seem to lead to the conclusion that an ancient +road crossed the Apennines from it, following the line of the modern +road (more or less that of the modern railway from Sarzana to Parma), +and dividing near Pontremoli, one branch going to Borgotaro, Veleia and +Placentia, and the other over the Cisa pass to Forum Novum (Fornovo) and +Parma. The town was destroyed by the Arabs in 1016, and the episcopal +see transferred to Sarzana in 1204. + + See G. Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_ (London, 1883), ii. + 63. (T. As.) + + + + +LUNATION, the period of return of the moon (_luna_) to the same position +relative to the sun; for example, from full moon to full moon. Its +duration is 29.5305884 days. + + + + +LUNAVADA, a native state in India, in the Gujarat division of Bombay. +Area, 388 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 63,967, showing a decrease of 28% in the +decade, due to famine. The chief, whose title is maharana, is a Rajput +of high lineage. Estimated revenue, £12,000; tribute, £1000. The capital +is Lunavada town, said to have been founded in 1434; pop. (1901) 10,277. + + + + +LUNCHEON, in present usage the name given to a meal between breakfast +and tea or dinner. When dinner was taken at an early hour, or when it is +still the principal midday meal, luncheon was and is still a light +repast. The derivation of the word has been obscured, chiefly owing to +the attempted connexion with "nuncheon," with which the word has nothing +to do etymologically. "Luncheon" is an extended form of "lunch" (another +form of "lump," as "hunch" is of "hump"). Lunch and luncheon in the +earliest meanings found are applied to a thick piece of bread, bacon, +meat, &c. + + The word "nuncheon," or "nunchion," with which "luncheon" has been + frequently connected, appears as early as the 14th century in the form + _noneschenche_. This meant a refreshment or distribution, properly of + drink, but also accompanied with some small quantity of meat, taken in + the early afternoon. The word means literally "noon-drink," from none + or noon, i.e. _nona hora_, the ninth hour, originally 3 o'clock P.M., + but later "midday"--the church office of "nones," and also the second + meal of the day, having been shifted back--and _schenchen_, to pour + out; cf. German _schenken_, which means to retail drink and to give, + present. _Schenche_ is the same as "shank," the shin-bone, and the + sense development appears to be shin-bone, pipe, hence tap for drawing + liquor. See also Skeat, _Etymological Dict. of English Language_ + (1910), s.v. "nunchion." + + + + +LUND, TROELS FREDERIK (1840- ), Danish historian, was born in +Copenhagen on the 5th of September 1840. He entered the university of +Copenhagen in 1858. About the age of thirty he took a post which brought +before his notice the treasures of the archives of Denmark. His first +important work, _Historiske Skitser_, did not appear until 1876, but +after that time his activity was stupendous. In 1879 was published the +first volume of his _Danmarks og Norges Historie i Slutningen af det +xvi. Aarhundrede_, a history of daily life in Denmark and Norway at the +close of the 16th century. Troels Lund was the pioneer of the remarkable +generation of young historians who came forward in northern Europe about +1880, and he remained the most original and conspicuous of them. Saying +very little about kings, armies and governments, he concentrates his +attention on the life, death, employments, pleasures and prejudices of +the ordinary men and women of the age with which he deals, using to +illustrate his theme a vast body of documents previously neglected by +the official historian. Lund was appointed historiographer-royal to the +king of Denmark and comptroller of the Order of the Dannebrog. There was +probably no living man to whom the destruction of the archives, when +Christiansborg Castle was accidentally burned in 1884, was so acute a +matter of distress. But his favourite and peculiar province, the MSS. of +the 16th century, was happily not involved in that calamity. + + + + +LUND, a city of Sweden, the seat of a bishop, in the district (_län_) of +Malmöhus, 10 m. N.E. of Malmö by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,621. A university +was founded here in 1668 by Charles XI., with faculties of law, +medicine, theology and philosophy. The number of students ranges from +600 to 800, and there are about 50 professors. Its library of books and +MSS. is entitled to receive a copy of every work printed in Sweden. +Important buildings include the university hall (1882), the academic +union of the students (1851) containing an art museum; the astronomical +observatory, built in 1866, though observations have been carried on +since 1760; the botanical museum, and ethnographical and industrial art +collections, illustrating life in southern Sweden from early times. Each +student belongs to one of twelve nations (_landskap_), which mainly +comprises students from a particular part of the country. The Romanesque +cathedral was founded about the middle of the 10th century. The crypt +under the raised transept and choir is one of the largest in the world, +and the church is one of the finest in Scandinavia. A statue of the poet +Esaias Tegner stands in the Tegners Plads, and the house in which he +lived from 1813 to 1826 is indicated by an inscribed stone slab. The +chief industries are sugar-refining, iron and brick works, and the +manufacture of furniture and gloves. + +Lund (_Londinum Gothorum_), the "Lunda at Eyrarsund" of Egil's Saga, was +of importance in Egil's time (c. 920). It appears that, if not actually +a seaport, it was at least nearer the Sound than now. In the middle of +the 11th century it was made a bishopric, and in 1103 the seat of an +archbishop who received primatial rank over all Scandinavia in 1163, but +in 1536 Lund was reduced to a bishopric. Close to the town, at the hill +of Sliparabacke, the Danish kings used to receive the homage of the +princes of Skare, and a monument records a victory of Charles XI. over +the Danes (1676), which extinguished the Danish claim to suzerainty over +this district. + + + + +LUNDY, BENJAMIN (1789-1839), American philanthropist, prominent in the +anti-slavery conflict, was born of Quaker parentage, at Hardwick, Warren +county, New Jersey, on the 4th of January 1789. As a boy he worked on +his father's farm, attending school for only brief periods, and in +1808-1812 he lived at Wheeling, Virginia (now W. Va.), where he served +an apprenticeship to a saddler, and where--Wheeling being an important +headquarters of the inter-State slave trade--he first became deeply +impressed with the iniquity of the institution of slavery, and +determined to devote his life to the cause of abolition. In 1815, while +living at Saint Clairsville, Ohio, he organized an anti-slavery +association, known as the "Union Humane Society," which within a few +months had a membership of more than five hundred men. For a short time +he assisted Charles Osborne in editing the _Philanthropist_; in 1819 he +went to St Louis, Missouri, and there in 1810-1820 took an active part +in the slavery controversy; and in 1821 he founded at Mount Pleasant, +Ohio, an anti-slavery paper, the _Genius of Universal Emancipation_. +This periodical, first a monthly and later a weekly, was published +successively in Ohio, Tennessee, Maryland, the District of Columbia and +Pennsylvania, though it appeared irregularly, and at times, when Lundy +was away on lecturing tours, was issued from any office that was +accessible to him. From September 1829 until March 1830 Lundy was +assisted in the editorship of the paper by William Lloyd Garrison +(q.v.). Besides travelling through many states of the United States to +deliver anti-slavery lectures, Lundy visited Haiti twice--in 1825 and +1829, the Wilberforce colony of freedmen and refugee slaves in Canada in +1830-1831, and in 1832 and again in 1833 Texas, all these visits being +made, in part, to find a suitable place outside the United States to +which emancipated slaves might be sent. Between 1820 and 1830, according +to a statement made by Lundy himself, he travelled "more than 5000 m. on +foot and 20,000 in other ways, visited nineteen states of the Union, and +held more than 200 public meetings." He was bitterly denounced by +slaveholders and also by such non-slaveholders as disapproved of all +anti-slavery agitation, and in January 1827 he was assaulted and +seriously injured by a slave-trader, Austin Woolfolk, whom he had +severely criticized in his paper. In 1836-1838 Lundy edited in +Philadelphia a new anti-slavery weekly, _The National Enquirer_, which +he had founded, and which under the editorship of John G. Whittier, +Lundy's successor, became _The Pennsylvania Freeman_. In 1838 Lundy +removed to Lowell, La Salle county, Illinois, where he printed several +copies of the _Genius of Universal Emancipation_. There, on the 22nd of +August 1839, he died. Lundy is said to have been the first to deliver +anti-slavery lectures in the United States. + + See _The Life, Travels and Opinions of Benjamin Lundy_ (Philadelphia, + 1847), compiled (by Thomas Earle) "under the direction and on behalf + of his children." + + + + +LUNDY, ROBERT (fl. 1689), governor of Londonderry. Nothing is known of +Lundy's parentage or early life; but he had seen service in the foreign +wars before 1688, when he was at Dublin with the rank of +lieutenant-colonel in the regiment of Lord Mountjoy. When the +apprentices of Derry closed the gates in the face of the earl of Antrim, +who was approaching the city at the head of an Irish Catholic force in +the interests of James II., the viceroy Tyrconnel despatched Mountjoy to +pacify the Protestants. Mountjoy and his regiment were well received in +the north, and the citizens of Derry permitted him to leave within their +walls a small Protestant garrison under the command of Lundy, who +assumed the title of governor. Popular feeling in Derry ran so strongly +in favour of the prince of Orange that Lundy quickly declared himself an +adherent of William; and he obtained from him a commission confirming +his appointment as governor. Whether Lundy was a deliberate traitor to +the cause he had embraced with explicit asseveration of fidelity in a +signed document, or whether, as Macaulay suggests, he was only a +cowardly poltroon, cannot certainly be known. What is certain is that +from the moment Londonderry was menaced by the troops of King James, +Lundy used all his endeavours to paralyse the defence of the city. In +April 1689 he was in command of a force of Protestants who encountered +some troops under Richard Hamilton at Strabane, when, instead of holding +his ground, he told his men that all was lost and ordered them to shift +for themselves; he himself was the first to take flight back to Derry. +King James, then at Omagh on his way to the north, similarly turned in +flight towards Dublin on hearing of the skirmish, but returned next day +on receiving the true account of the occurrence. On the 14th of April +English ships appeared in the Foyle with reinforcements for Lundy under +Colonel Cunningham. Lundy dissuaded Cunningham from landing his +regiments, representing that a defence of Londonderry was hopeless; and +that he himself intended to withdraw secretly from the city. At the same +time he sent to the enemy's headquarters a promise to surrender the city +at the first summons. As soon as this became known to the citizens +Lundy's life was in danger, and he was vehemently accused of treachery. +When the enemy appeared before the walls Lundy gave orders that there +should be no firing. But all authority had passed out of his hands. The +people flew to arms under the direction of Major Henry Baker and Captain +Adam Murray, who organized the famous defence in conjunction with the +Rev. George Walker (q.v.). Lundy, to avoid popular vengeance, hid +himself until nightfall, when by the connivance of Walker and Murray he +made his escape in disguise. He was apprehended in Scotland and sent to +the Tower of London. He was excluded from the Act of Indemnity in 1690, +but his subsequent fate is unknown. + + See Lord Macaulay, _History of England_, vol. iii. (Albany edition of + complete works, London, 1898); Rev. George Walker, _A True Account of + the Siege of Londonderry_ (London, 1689); J. Mackenzie, _Narrative of + the Siege of Londonderry_ (London, 1690); John Hempton, _The Siege and + History of Londonderry_ (Londonderry, 1861); Rev. John Graham, _A + History of the Siege of Derry and Defence of Enniskillen, 1688-9_ + (Dublin, 1829). (R. J. M.) + + + + +LUNDY, an English island at the entrance of the Bristol Channel, 12 m. +N.W. by N. of the nearest point on the mainland, namely Hartland Point +on the Devonshire coast. The nearest ports are Clovelly and Bideford. +The extreme length of the island is 3 m. from N. to S., the mean breadth +about half a mile, but at the south the breadth is nearly 1 m. The area +is about 1150 acres. The component rock is a hard granite, except at the +south, where slate occurs. This granite was used in the construction of +the Victoria Embankment, London. An extreme elevation of about 450 ft. +is found in the southern half of the island; the northern sloping gently +to the sea, but the greater part of the coast is cliff-bound and very +beautiful. The landing, at the south-east, is sheltered by the small Rat +Island, where the once common black rat survives. There are a few +prehistoric remains on Lundy, and the foundations of an ancient chapel +of St Helen. There are also ruins, and the still inhabited keep, of +Marisco Castle, occupying a strong precipitous site on the south-east, +held in the reign of Henry II. by Sir Jordan de Marisco. The Mariscos, +in their inaccessible retreat, lived lawlessly until in 1242 Sir William +Marisco was hanged for instigating an attempt on the life of Henry III. +In 1625 the island was reported to be captured by Turkish pirates, and +in 1633 by Spaniards. Later it became an object of attack and a hiding +place for French privateers. The island, which is reckoned as +extra-parochial, has some cultivable land and heath pasture, and had a +population in 1901 of 94. + + + + +LÜNEBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, +situated near the foot of a small hill named the Kalkberg, on the +navigable Ilmenau, 14 m. above its confluence with the Elbe and 30 m. by +rail S.E. of Hamburg by the main line to Hanover. Pop. (1905) 26,751. +Numerous handsome medieval buildings testify to its former prosperity as +a prominent member of the Hanseatic league, and its many quaint houses +with high gables and overhanging eaves have gained for it the +appellation "the Nüremberg of the North." Portions of the old walls +survive, but the greater part of the former circumvallation has been +converted into promenades and gardens, outside which a modern town has +sprung up. The finest of its squares are the market-place and the +so-called Sand. The churches of St John, with five aisles and a spire +375 ft. in height; of St Michael, containing the tombs of the former +princes of Lüneburg, and of St Nicolas, with a huge nave and a lofty +spire, are fine Gothic edifices of the 14th and 15th centuries. The old +town-hall in the market square is a huge pile, dating originally from +the 13th century, but with numerous additions. It has an arcade with +frescoes, restored by modern Munich artists, and contains a magnificent +hall--the Fürstensaal--richly decorated with wood-carving and +stained-glass windows. Galvanoplastic casts of the famous Lüneburg +silver plate, consisting of 36 pieces which were acquired in 1874 by the +Prussian government for £33,000 and are now housed in the art museum in +Berlin, are exhibited here. Among other public edifices are the old +palace; the convent of St Michael (now converted into a school and law +court), and the Kaufhaus (merchants' hall). There are a museum, a +library of 36,000 volumes, classical and commercial schools, and a +teachers' seminary. Lüneburg owes its importance chiefly to the gypsum +and lime quarries of the Kalkberg, which afford the materials for its +cement works, and to the productive salt-spring at its base which has +been known and used since the 10th century. Hence the ancient saying +which, grouping with these the commercial facilities afforded by the +bridge over the Ilmenau, ascribes the prosperity of Lüneburg to its +_mons, fons, pons_. Other industries are the making of chemicals, +ironware, soda and haircloth. There is a considerable trade in French +wines, for which Lüneburg has for centuries been one of the chief +emporia in north Germany, and also in grain and wool. Celebrated are its +lampreys, _Lüneburger Bricken_. + +Lüneburg existed in the days of Charlemagne, but it did not gain +importance until after the erection of a convent and a castle on the +Kalkberg in the 10th century. After the destruction of Bardowiek, then +the chief commercial centre of North Germany, by Henry the Lion, duke of +Saxony, in 1189, Lüneburg inherited much of its trade and subsequently +became one of the principal towns of the Hanseatic league. Having +belonged to the extensive duchy of Saxony it was the capital of the +duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg from 1235 to 1369; later it belonged to one +or other of the branches of the family of Brunswick, being involved in +the quarrels, and giving its name to cadet lines, of this house. From +the junior line of Brunswick-Lüneburg the reigning family of Great +Britain is descended. The reformed doctrines were introduced into the +town in 1530 and it suffered heavily during the Thirty Years' War. It +reached the height of its prosperity in the 15th century, and in the +17th century it was the depot for much of the merchandise exported from +Saxony and Bavaria to the mouth of the Elbe; then after a period of +decay the 19th century witnessed a revival of its prosperity. In 1813 +the German war of liberation was begun by an engagement with the French +near Lüneburg. + + See W. F. Volger, _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Lüneburg_ (3 vols., + Lüneburg, 1872-1877); E. Bodemann, _Die älteren Zunfturkunden der + Stadt Lüneburg_ (Hanover, 1883); O. Jürgens, _Geschichte der Stadt + Lüneburg_ (Lüneburg, 1891); _Des Propstes Jakob Schomaker Lüneburger + Chronik_, edited by T. Meyer (Hanover, 1904); A. Wrede, _Die + Einführung der Reformation in Lüneburg_ (Göttingen, 1887), and W. + Reinecke, _Lüneburgs ältestes Stadtbuch und Verfasstungsregister_ + (Hanover, 1903). For the history of the principality see von Leuthe, + _Archiv für Geschichte und Verfassung des Fürstentums Lüneburg_ + (Celle, 1854-1863). + + + + +LÜNEBURGER HEIDE, a district of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Hanover, lying between the Aller and the Elbe and intersected by the +railways Harburg-Hanover and Bremen-Stendal. Its main character is that +of a broad saddle-back, running for 55 m. from S.E. to N.W. of a mean +elevation of about 250 ft. and attaining its greatest height in the +Wilseder Berg (550 ft.) at its northern end. The soil is quartz sand and +is chiefly covered with heather and brushwood. In the north, and in the +deep valleys through which the streams descend to the plain, there are +extensive forests of oak, birch and beech, and in the south, of fir and +larch. Though the climate is raw and good soil rare, the heath is not +unfertile. Its main products are sheep--the celebrated Heidschnucken +breed,--potatoes, bilberries, cranberries and honey. The district is +also remarkable for the numerous Hun barrows found scattered throughout +its whole extent. + + See Rabe, _Die Lüneburger Heide und die Bewirthschaftung der Heidhöfe_ + (Jena, 1900); Kniep, _Führer durch die Lüneburger Heide_ (Hanover, + 1900); Linde, _Die Lüneburger Heide_ (Lüneburg, 1905), and Kück, _Das + alte Bauernleben der Lüneburger Heide_ (Leipzig, 1906). + + + + +LUNETTE (French diminutive of _lune_, moon), a crescent-shaped, +semi-circular object. The term is particularly applied in architecture +to a circular opening at the intersection of vaulting by a smaller +vault, as in a ceiling for the entrance of light or in the lower stories +of towers for the passage of bells. It is also used of a panel space of +semi-circular shape, filled by a fresco or other decorative treatment. +In fortification a "lunette" was originally an earthwork of half-moon +shape; later it became a redan with short flanks, in trace somewhat +resembling a bastion standing by itself without curtains on either side. +The gorge was generally open. + + + + +LUNÉVILLE, an industrial and garrison town of north-eastern France, +capital of an arrondissement in the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, 21 +m. E.S.E. of Nancy on the railway to Strassburg. Pop. (1906) town, +19,199; commune, 24,266 (including troops). The town stands on the right +bank of the Meurthe between that river and its affluent the Vezouze, a +little above their confluence. Its château, designed early in the 18th +century by the royal architect Germain Boffrand, was the favourite +residence of Duke Leopold of Lorraine, where he gathered round him an +academy composed of eminent men of the district. It is now a cavalry +barracks, and the gardens form a public promenade. Lunéville is an +important cavalry station with a large riding school. The church of St +Jacques with its two domed towers dates from 1730-1745. There are +statues of General Count Antoine de Lasalle, and of the Conventional +Abbé Henri Grégoire. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect, and has a +tribunal of first instance and a communal college. It carries on +cotton-spinning and the manufacture of railway material, motor vehicles, +porcelain, toys, hosiery, embroidery, straw-hats and gloves. Trade is in +grain, wine, tobacco, hops and other agricultural produce. + +The name of Lunéville (_Lunae villa_) is perhaps derived from an ancient +cult of Diana, the moon goddess, a sacred fountain and medals with the +effigy of this goddess having been found at Leormont, some 2 m. E. of +the town. Lunéville belonged to Austrasia, and after various changes +fell, in 1344, to the house of Lorraine. A walled town in the middle +ages, it suffered in the Thirty Years' War and in the campaigns of Louis +XIV. from war, plague and famine. The town flourished again under Dukes +Leopold and Stanislas, on the death of the latter of whom, which took +place at Lunéville, Lorraine was united to France (1766). The treaty of +Lunéville between France and Austria (1801) confirmed the former power +in the possession of the left bank of the Rhine. + +LUNG, in anatomy, the name of each of the pair of organs of respiration +in man and other air-breathing animals, the corresponding organs in +fishes being the _branchiae_ or gills (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM). The word +in Old English was _lungen_; it appears in many Teutonic languages, cf. +Ger. _Lunge_, Du. _long_, Swed. _lunga_; the Teutonic root from which +these are derived meant "light," and the lungs were so-called from their +lightness. The word "lights" was formerly used as synonymous with +"lungs," but is now confined to the lungs of sheep, pigs or cattle; it +is etymologically connected with "lung," the pre-Teutonic root being +seen in Sansk. _laghu_, Gr. [Greek: elaphros]. + + SURGERY OF THE LUNG AND PLEURA.--When a person meets with a severe + injury to the chest, as from a wheel passing over him, the ribs may be + broken and driven into the lung. Air then entering into the pleural + space, the lung collapses, and breathing becomes so difficult that + death may ensue from asphyxia. Short of this, however, there is a + cough with the spitting of frothy, blood-stained mucus or of bright + red blood. All that can be done is to place the person on his back, + slightly propped up by pillows, and to combat syncope by subcutaneous + injections of ether and strychnia. + + _Empyema_ means the presence of an abscess between the lung and the + chest wall, i.e. in the pleural space; it is the result of a septic + inflammation of the pleura by the micro-organisms of pneumonia or of + typhoid fever, or by some other germs. As the abscess increases in + size, the lung is pushed towards the spine, and that side of the chest + gives a dull note on percussion. If much fluid collects the heart may + be pushed out of its place, and, the lung-space being taken up, + respiration is embarrassed. Having made sure of the presence of an + abscess by exploring with syringe and hollow needle, the surgeon opens + and drains it. The drainage is made more effectual by removing an inch + or so of one of the ribs, for, unless this is done, there is a risk of + the rubber drainage tube being compressed as the ribs come closer + together again. + + The lung itself has sometimes to be operated on, as when it is the + seat of an hydatid cyst, or when it contains an abscess cavity which + cannot otherwise be drained, or when it becomes necessary to remove a + foreign body the exact situation of which has been revealed by the + X-rays. Portions of some of the ribs having been resected, the pleural + cavity is opened, and if the lung has not already become glued to the + chest-wall by inflammatory adhesions, it is stitched up to the + chest-wall, and in a few days, when adhesions have taken place, an + incision is safely made into the lung-tissue. See also RESPIRATORY + SYSTEM. (E. O.*) + + + + +LUNG, one of the four symbolical creatures of Chinese legend. It is a +dragon with a scaly snake-like body, long claws, horns, a bristly face, +and its back-bone armed with spikes. Originally three-clawed, it has +become, as the official dragon of the present dynasty, a five-clawed +beast. The form is embroidered on the state robes of the emperor of +China, and it is traditionally connected with the dynasty's history and +fortunes. + + + + +LUNGCHOW, a town in the province of Kwangsi, China, in 22° 21´ N., 106° +45´ E., near the Tongking frontier, and at the junction of the Sung-chi +and Kao-ping rivers. Pop. (estimate) 22,000. The town is prettily +situated in a circular valley. From a military point of view it is +considered important, and considerable bodies of troops are stationed +here. It was selected as the seat of frontier trade by the French +convention of 1886, and was opened in 1889. In 1898 the total value of +its trade amounted to only £20,000, but in 1904 the figures increased to +£56,692. + + + + +LUNGE, GEORG (1839- ), German chemist, was born at Breslau on the 15th +of September 1839. He studied at Heidelberg (under R. W. Bunsen) and +Breslau, graduating at the latter university in 1859. Turning his +attention to technical chemistry, he became chemist at several works +both in Germany and England, and in 1876 he was appointed professor of +technical chemistry at Zürich polytechnic. Lunge's original +contributions cover a very wide field, dealing both with technical +processes and analysis. In addition, he was a voluminous writer, +enriching scientific literature with many standard works. His treatises +_Coal Tar and Ammonia_ (5th ed. 1909; 1st ed. 1867), _Destillation des +Steinkohlentheers_ and _Sulphuric Acid and Alkali_ (1st ed. 1878, 4th +ed. 1909), established his position as the highest authority on these +subjects, while the _Chemische-technische Untersuchungs-Methoden_ +(1899-1900; Eng. trans.), to which he contributed, testified to his +researches in technical analysis. His jubilee was celebrated at Zürich +on the 15th of September 1909. + + + + +LUPERCALIA, a very ancient, possibly pre-Roman, pastoral festival in +honour of Lupercus. Its rites were under the superintendence of a +corporation of priests called Luperci,[1] whose institution is +attributed either to the Arcadian Evander, or to Romulus and Remus. In +front of the Porta Romana, on the western side of the Palatine hill, +close to the Ficus Ruminalis and the Casa Romuli, was the cave of +Lupercus; in it, according to the legend, the she-wolf had suckled the +twins, and the bronze wolf, which is still preserved in the Capitol, was +placed in it in 296 B.C. But the festival itself, which was held on +February 15th, contains no reference to the Romulus legend, which is +probably later in origin, though earlier than the grecizing Evander +legend. The festival began with the sacrifice by the Luperci (or the +flamen dialis) of goats and a dog; after which two of the Luperci were +led to the altar, their foreheads were touched with a bloody knife, and +the blood wiped off with wool dipped in milk; then the ritual required +that the two young men should laugh. The smearing of the forehead with +blood probably refers to human sacrifice originally practised at the +festival. The sacrificial feast followed, after which the Luperci cut +thongs from the skins of the victims and ran in two bands round the +walls of the old Palatine city, the line of which was marked with +stones, striking the people who crowded near. A blow from the thong +prevented sterility in women. These thongs were called _februa_, the +festival Februatio, and the day _dies februatus_ (_februare_ = to +purify); hence the name of the month February, the last of the old Roman +year. The object of the festival was, by expiation and purification, to +secure the fruitfulness of the land, the increase of the flocks and the +prosperity of the whole people. The Lupercal (cave of Lupercus), which +had fallen into a state of decay, was rebuilt by Augustus; the +celebration of the festival had been maintained, as we know from the +famous occurrence of it in 44 B.C. It survived until A.D. 494, when it +was changed by Gelasius into the feast of the Purification. Lupercus, in +whose honour the festival was held, is identified with Faunus or Inuus, +Evander ([Greek: Euandros]), in the Greek legend being a translation of +Faunus (the "kindly"). The Luperci were divided into two _collegia_, +called Quinctiliani (or Quinctiales) and Fabiani, from the gens +Quinctilia (or Quinctia)[2] and Fabia; at the head of each of these +colleges was a magister. In 44 B.C. a third college, Luperci Julii, was +instituted in honour of Julius Caesar, the first magister of which was +Mark Antony. In imperial times the members were usually of equestrian +standing. + + See Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. (1885) p. 438; W. + Warde Fowler, _Roman Festivals_ (1899), p. 390 foll., and article in + Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_ (3rd ed. 1891). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Many derivations are suggested, but it seems most probable that + Luperci simply means "wolves" (the last part of the word exhibiting a + similar formation to _nov-erca_), the name having its origin in the + primitive worship of the wolf as a wolf-god. + + [2] Mommsen considers the Quinctia to be the older gens, and the + Quinctilia a later introduction from Alba. + + + + +LUPINE (_Lupinus_), in botany, a genus of about 100 species of annual +and perennial herbaceous plants of the tribe _Genisteae_, of the order +Leguminosae. Species with digitate leaves range along the west side of +America from British Columbia to northern Chile, while a few occur in +the Mediterranean regions. A few others with entire leaves are found in +Brazil and eastern North America. The leaves are remarkable for +"sleeping" in three different ways. From being in the form of a +horizontal star by day, the leaflets either fall and form a hollow cone +with their bases upwards (_L. pilosus_), or rise and the cone is +inverted (_L. luteus_), or else the shorter leaflets fall and the longer +rise, and so together form a vertical star as in many species; the +object in every case being to protect the surfaces of the leaflets from +radiation and consequent wetting with dew (Darwin, _Movements of +Plants_, p. 340). The flowers are of the usual "papilionaceous" or +pea-like form, blue, white, purple or yellow, in long terminal spikes. +The stamens are monadelphous and bear dimorphic anthers. The species of +which earliest mention is made is probably _L. Termis_, which was +cultivated by the ancient Egyptians. It is wild in some parts of the +Mediterranean area and is extensively cultivated in Egypt. Its seeds are +eaten by the poor after being steeped in water to remove their +bitterness; the stems furnish fuel and charcoal for gunpowder. The +lupine of the ancient Greeks and Romans was probably _L. albus_, which +is still extensively cultivated in Italy, Sicily and other Mediterranean +countries for forage, for ploughing in to enrich the land, and for its +round flat seeds, which form an article of food. Yellow lupine (_L. +luteus_) and blue lupine (_L. angustifolius_) are also cultivated on the +European continent as farm crops for green manuring. + + Lupines are easily cultivated in moderately good garden soil; they + include annuals which are among the most ornamental and most easily + grown of summer flowering plants (sow in open borders in April and + May), and perennials, which are grown from seed or propagated by + dividing strong plants in March and April. Many of the forms in + cultivation are hybrid. One of the best known of the perennial species + is _L. polyphyllus_, a western North American species. It grows from 3 + to 6 ft. high, and has numerous varieties, including a charming + white-flowered one. The tree lupine (_L. arboreus_) is a Californian + bush, 2 to 4 ft. high, with fragrant yellow flowers. It is only hardy + in the most favoured parts of the kingdom. + + + + +LUPUS, PUBLIUS RUTILIUS, Roman rhetorician, flourished during the reign +of Tiberius. He was the author of a treatise on the figures of speech +([Greek: Schêmata lexeôs]), abridged from a similar work by the +rhetorician Gorgias (of Athens, not the well-known sophist of Leontini), +the tutor of Cicero's son. In its present form it is incomplete, as is +clearly shown by the express testimony of Quintilian (_Instit._ ix. 2, +103, 106) that Lupus also dealt with figures of sense, rhetorical +figures ([Greek: Schêmata dianoias]). The work is valuable chiefly as +containing a number of examples, well translated into Latin, from the +lost works of Greek rhetoricians. The author has been identified with +the Lupus mentioned in the Ovidian catalogue of poets (_Ex Ponto_, iv. +16), and was perhaps the son of the Publius Rutilius Lupus, who was a +strong supporter of Pompey. + + Editions by D. Ruhnken (1768), F. Jacob (1837), C. Halm in _Rhetores + latini minores_ (1863); see also monographs by G. Dzialas (1860 and + 1869), C. Schmidt (1865), J. Draheim (1874), Thilo Krieg (1896). + + + + +LUPUS (Lat. _lupus_, wolf), a disease characterized by the formation in +the skin or mucous membrane of small tubercles or nodules consisting of +cell growth which has an inclination to retrograde change, leading to +ulceration and destruction of the tissues, and, if it heals, to the +subsequent formation of permanent white scars. _Lupus vulgaris_ is most +commonly seen in early life, and occurs chiefly on the face, about the +nose, cheeks or ears. But it may also affect the body or limbs. It first +shows itself as small, slightly prominent, nodules covered with thin +crusts or scabs. These may be absorbed and removed at one point whilst +spreading at another. Their disappearance is followed by a permanent +white cicatrix. The disease may be superficial, in which case both the +ulceration and the resulting scar are slight (_lupus non-exedens_); or +the ulcerative process may be deep and extensive, destroying a large +portion of the nose or cheek, and leaving much disfigurement (_lupus +exedens_). A milder form, _lupus erythematosus_, occurs on the nose and +adjacent portions of the cheeks in the form of red patches covered with +thin scales, underneath which are seen the widened openings of the +sebaceous ducts. With a longitudinal patch on the nose and spreading +symmetrical patches on each cheek the appearance is usually that of a +large butterfly. It is slow in disappearing, but does not leave a scar. +Lupus is more frequently seen in women than in men; it is connected with +a tuberculous constitution. In the superficial variety the application +of soothing ointments when there is much redness, and linear incisions, +or scrapings with a sharp spoon, to destroy the increased blood supply, +are often serviceable. In the ordinary form the local treatment is to +remove the new tissue growth by solid points of caustic thrust into the +tubercles to break them up, or by scraping with a sharp spoon. The +light-treatment has been successfully applied in recent years. As +medicines, cod-liver oil, iron and arsenic are useful. (E. O.*) + + + + +LUQMAN, or LOKMAN, the name of two, if not of three (cf. note to +Terminal Essay in Sir Rd. Burton's translation of the _Arabian Nights_), +persons famous in Arabian tradition. The one was of the family of 'Ad, +and is said to have built the great dike of Marib and to have received +the gift of life as long as that of seven vultures, each of which lived +eighty years. The name of the seventh vulture--Lubad--occurs in +proverbial literature. The name of the second Luqman, called "Luqman the +Sage," occurs in the Koran (31, 11). Two accounts of him are current in +Arabian literature. According to Mas'udi (i. 110) he was a Nubian +freedman who lived in the time of David in the district of Elah and +Midian. According to some commentators on the Koran (e.g., Baidawi) he +was the son of Ba'ura, one of the sons of Job's sister or maternal aunt. +Derenbourg in his _Fables de Loqmân le sage_ (1850) identifies Ba'ura +with Beoi, and believes the name Luqman to be a translation of _Balaam_. +The grave of _Luqman_ was shown on the east coast of the lake of +Tiberias, also in Yemen (cf. Yaqut, vol. iii. p. 512). + + The so-called _Fables of Luqman_ are known to have existed in the 13th + century, but are not mentioned by any Arabian writer. They were edited + by Erpenius (Leiden, 1615) and have been reprinted many times. For the + relation of these to similar literature in other lands, see J. + Jacobs's edition of Caxton's _Fables of Aesop_, vol. i. (London, + 1889). The name of Luqman also occurs in many old verses, anecdotes + and proverbs; cf. G. Freytag's _Arabum Proverbia_ (Bonn, 1838-1843) + and such Arabian writers as Tabari, Mas'udi, Damiri and the _Kitab + al-Mu'ammarin_ (ed. by I. Goldziher, Leiden, 1899). (G. W. T.) + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 17, Slice 1, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43427 *** |