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diff --git a/43409.txt b/43409.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 083b1d4..0000000 --- a/43409.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,21688 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Kingdom of God is Within You, What is -Art, by Lyof N. Tolstoi - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Kingdom of God is Within You, What is Art - -Author: Lyof N. Tolstoi - -Translator: Aline Delano - -Release Date: August 7, 2013 [EBook #43409] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK KINGDOM OF GOD IS WITHIN YOU *** - - - - -Produced by David Edwards and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - LYOF N. TOLSTOI - - XIX - - THE KINGDOM OF GOD - IS WITHIN YOU - - WHAT IS ART? - - [Illustration: COUNT TOLSTOI PLOWING - - FROM THE PAINTING BY REPIN] - - - - - THE NOVELS AND OTHER WORKS OF - - LYOF N. TOLSTOI - - THE KINGDOM OF - GOD IS WITHIN YOU - - WHAT IS ART? - - [Illustration: publisher mark] - - NEW YORK - CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS - 1902 - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1899, - BY THOMAS V. CROWELL & CO. - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -The present volume contains two contrasting treatises. The first is -religious, and shows in Count Tolstoi's earnest and eloquent manner -the meaning of Christ's words which he takes for his text,--"The -Kingdom of God is within you." The outward forms of religion, -however helpful they may be to some souls, are not essential; the -superstitions with which Faith sometimes clothes or masks herself -may or may not be uplifting; but the foundation of Christianity is -the truth contained in Christ's words, his simple, plain, undogmatic -commands and prohibitions. - -One word sums it all up, and that word is Love. If the world should -take love for its guiding star, it is evident that all the evils -of the world would cease,--wars, crimes, poverty, ambitions; the -millennium would come! Count Tolstoi shows how that blessed period -may begin in every man. The translation of this beautiful and -inspiring book has been made by Mrs. Aline Delano of Boston. - -In answering the question, "What is Art?" Count Tolstoi analyzes and -tests the various definitions given by other writers. He shows up -with merciless severity what he considers the fallacy in the popular -delusion that the fetish of Art pardons bestiality, obscenity, and -whatever conduces to stimulating the passions. The work is strongly -controversial, and attacks unsparingly many of the popular notions -of the day, as, for instance, that "Art is the manifestation of some -mysterious idea of God," or "the expression of man's emotions by -external signs," or the production of pleasing objects. He believes -that art has a loftier function, and he proceeds elaborately to -argue in favor of this universal activity, which should be to effect -a union among men so that they may have the same noble feelings and -progress together toward universal and individual well-being. "Art -for art's sake" is meaningless to him. It is interesting to notice -that the most original and independent of the French critics has -recently taken practically the same ground in a lecture, in which he -asserts that it is the critic's business to test art and literature, -and that art has a most intimate relation with morality. - -Much of the book is racy and amusing; much of it is abstruse, -and requires close attention. But whether one follows the author -in his individual opinions or not, it cannot be denied that the -general tone of the treatise is helpful and uplifting, and that it -is based on sound common sense. Mr. Aylmer Maude of England is the -translator of this work, and has had the benefit of Count Tolstoi's -own suggestions in regard to certain points. As the special preface -explains, the translation accurately represents the author's views, -while the edition published in Russia was in many ways garbled -and distorted. The translators of both treatises have seized the -opportunity of carefully revising their work. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - THE KINGDOM OF GOD IS WITHIN YOU - - PAGE - - INTRODUCTORY 1 - - CHAPTER I - - Doctrine of non-resistance to evil, from the origin - of Christianity, has been, and still is, professed - by the minority of men 3 - - CHAPTER II - - Opinions of believers and unbelievers in regard to - non-resistance 30 - - CHAPTER III - - Misconception of Christianity by non-believers 47 - - CHAPTER IV - - Misconception of Christianity by scientists 79 - - CHAPTER V - - Contradiction of our life and Christian consciousness 100 - - CHAPTER VI - - Attitude of men of the present day toward war 122 - - CHAPTER VII - - Significance of the military conscription 152 - - CHAPTER VIII - - Certainty of the acceptance of the Christian doctrine - of non-resistance to evil by violence by the men - of our world 171 - - CHAPTER IX - - The acceptance of the Christian life-conception - delivers men from the miseries of our pagan life 194 - - CHAPTER X - - Uselessness of violence for the destruction of - evil--The moral advance of mankind is accomplished, - not only through the knowledge of truth, but also - through the establishment of public opinion 218 - - CHAPTER XI - - Christian public opinion already arises in our - society, and will inevitably destroy the system - of violence of our life--When this will come about 242 - - CHAPTER XII - - Conclusion: "Repent, for the Kingdom of Heaven is at - hand!" 254 - - - - - WHAT IS ART? - - TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE 339 - - AUTHOR'S PREFACE 341 - - CHAPTER I - - Time and labor spent on art--Lives stunted in its - service--Morality sacrificed to and anger - justified by art--The rehearsal of an opera - described 345 - - CHAPTER II - - Does art compensate for so much evil?--What is - art?--Confusion of opinions--Is it "that which - produces beauty"?--The word "beauty" in - Russian--Chaos in aesthetics 351 - - CHAPTER III - - Summary of various aesthetic theories and definitions, - from Baumgarten to to-day 360 - - CHAPTER IV - - Definitions of art founded on beauty--Taste not - definable--A clear definition needed to enable - us to recognize works of art 376 - - CHAPTER V - - Definitions not founded on beauty--Tolstoi's - definition--The extent and necessity of - art--How people in the past have distinguished - good from bad in art 383 - - CHAPTER VI - - How art for pleasure has come into esteem--Religions - indicate what is considered good and bad--Church - Christianity--The Renaissance--Skepticism of the - upper classes--They confound beauty with goodness 389 - - CHAPTER VII - - An aesthetic theory framed to suit this view of life 396 - - CHAPTER VIII - - Who have adopted it?--Real art needful for all men--Our - art too expensive, too unintelligible, and too - harmful for the masses--The theory of "the elect" - in art 401 - - CHAPTER IX - - Perversion of our art--It has lost its natural - subject-matter--Has no flow of fresh - feeling--Transmits chiefly three base emotions 406 - - CHAPTER X - - Loss of comprehensibility--Decadent art--Recent French - art--Have we a right to say it is bad and that what - we like is good art?--The highest art has always - been comprehensible to normal people--What fails - to infect normal people is not art 412 - - CHAPTER XI - - Counterfeits of art produced by: Borrowing; Imitating; - Striking; Interesting--Qualifications needful for - production of real works of art, and those - sufficient for production of counterfeits 436 - - CHAPTER XII - - Causes of production of counterfeits--Professionalism-- - Criticism--Schools of art 446 - - CHAPTER XIII - - Wagner's "Nibelung's Ring" a type of counterfeit - art--Its success, and the reasons thereof 455 - - CHAPTER XIV - - Truths fatal to preconceived views are not readily - recognized--Proportion of works of art to - counterfeits--Perversion of taste and incapacity - to recognize art--Examples 468 - - CHAPTER XV - - THE QUALITY OF ART, CONSIDERED APART FROM ITS - SUBJECT-MATTER--The sign of art: Infectiousness-- - Incomprehensible to those whose taste is - perverted--Conditions of infection: Individuality; - Clearness; Sincerity 476 - - CHAPTER XVI - - THE QUALITY OF ART, CONSIDERED ACCORDING TO ITS - SUBJECT-MATTER--The better the feeling the better - the art--The cultured crowd--The religious - perception of our age--The new ideals put fresh - demands to art--Art unites--Religious art--Universal - art--Both cooperate to one result--The new - appraisement of art--Bad art--Examples of art--How - to test a work claiming to be art 479 - - CHAPTER XVII - - Results of absence of true art--Results of perversion - of art: Labor and lives spent on what is useless - and harmful--The abnormal life of the rich-- - Perplexity of children and plain folk--Confusion - of right and wrong--Nietzsche and Redbeard-- - Superstition, Patriotism, and Sensuality 497 - - CHAPTER XVIII - - The purpose of human life is the brotherly union of - man--Art must be guided by this perception 507 - - CHAPTER XIX - - The art of the future not a possession of a select - minority, but a means toward perfection and unity 510 - - CHAPTER XX - - The connection between science and art--The mendacious - sciences; the trivial sciences--Science should deal - with the great problems of human life, and serve as - a basis for art 517 - - APPENDICES - - APPENDIX I 528 - - APPENDIX II 530 - - APPENDIX III 537 - - APPENDIX IV 542 - - - - - THE KINGDOM OF GOD IS - WITHIN YOU - - OR, - - CHRISTIANITY NOT AS A MYSTICAL DOCTRINE, - BUT AS A NEW-LIFE CONCEPTION - - - - -AUTHOR'S PREFACE - - -In this book I have endeavored to show that our modern Christianity -has been tried and found wanting, that the armed camp of Europe -is not Christian, but Pagan, as is latter-day religion, of which -the present state of affairs is the outcome. The book contains -three principal ideas,--the first, that Christianity is not only -the worship of God and a doctrine of salvation, but is, above all -things, a new conception of life, which is changing the whole fabric -of human society; the second, that from the first appearance of -Christianity there entered into it two opposite currents,--the one -establishing the true and new conception of life, which it gave to -humanity, and the other perverting the true Christian doctrine and -converting it into a Pagan religion, and that this contradiction -has attained in our days the highest degree of tension which now -expresses itself in universal armaments, and on the Continent in -general conscription; and the third, that this contradiction, which -is masked by hypocrisy, can only be solved by an effort of sincerity -on the part of every individual endeavoring to conform the acts of -his life,--independent of what are regarded as the exigencies of -family, society, and the State,--with those moral principles which -he considers to be true. - - * * * * * - -_The above is an extract (slightly adapted) from an article on -Count Tolstoi which appeared in the London_ Daily Chronicle _of -26th December,1893. Sent by Miss Tatiana Tolstoi, on behalf of -her father, to the publishers of this edition of his work, it is -inserted here as a Preface at the suggestion of Count Tolstoi._ - - - - THE KINGDOM OF GOD IS - WITHIN YOU; - - OR, - - CHRISTIANITY NOT AS A MYSTICAL DOCTRINE, - BUT AS A NEW LIFE-CONCEPTION - - "And ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you - free."--JOHN viii. 32. - - "And fear not them which kill the body, but are not able to kill - the soul; but rather fear him which is able to destroy both soul - and body in hell."--MATTHEW x. 28. - - "Ye are bought with a price; be not ye the servants of men."--I - CORINTHIANS vii. 23. - - -INTRODUCTORY - -In 1884 I wrote a book entitled "My Religion," wherein I formulated -my creed. - -While affirming my faith in the doctrine taught by Christ, I could -not refrain from manifesting at the same time the reason why I look -upon the ecclesiastical doctrine commonly called Christianity as -erroneous, and to me incredible. - -Among the many deviations of the latter from the doctrine of Christ, -I called attention to the principal one; namely--the evasion of -the commandment that forbids man to resist evil by violence, as a -striking example of the perversion of the doctrine of Christ by -ecclesiastical interpretation. - -I knew but little, no more than other men, of what had been taught -or written on the subject of non-resistance in former times. I -was familiar with the opinions of the Fathers of the Church, -Origen, Tertullian, and others; and I also knew of the existence -of certain sects called Mennonites, Herrnhuters, and Quakers, all -of which forbid Christians the use of arms, and will not submit to -conscription, but I never knew the arguments by which these sects -sought to maintain their views. - -My book, as I had anticipated, was prohibited by the Russian -censors, but partly in consequence of my reputation as a writer, -partly because it excited curiosity, it had a circulation in -manuscript, and while, on the one hand, it called forth from those -persons who sympathized with my ideas, information concerning works -written on the same subject, on the other, it excited criticisms on -the opinions therein maintained. - -These two results, together with the historical events of recent -years, made many things clear to me, and led me to many new -deductions and conclusions which I now desire to set forth. - -I shall speak in the first place of the information I received in -regard to the history of this matter of non-resistance to evil; -and in the second place, of the arguments upon the subject offered -by religious critics, that is, by critics who profess the religion -of Christ, as well as those of secular critics, that is to say, of -men who make no such profession; and finally, the conclusions which -I drew from the arguments of both parties, as well as from the -historical events of later years. - - - - -CHAPTER I - -DOCTRINE OF NON-RESISTANCE TO EVIL FROM THE ORIGIN OF CHRISTIANITY, -HAS BEEN, AND STILL IS, PROFESSED BY THE MINORITY OF MEN - - Concerning the book "My Religion"--Information called forth by - this book--Letters of Quakers--Professions of Garrison--Adin - Ballou, his works and Catechism--"The Net of Faith" of - Helchitsky--Relations of men toward works that explain the - teachings of Christ--The book of Dymond "On War"--Assertion of - Non-resistance by Musser--Relations of government in 1818 toward - those who refuse to join the military service--General inimical - attitude of governments and liberal men toward those who refused - to take part in the violence of governments and their conscious - effort to conceal and ignore these demonstrations of Christian - Non-resistance. - - -Among the early responses called forth by my book were letters -from American Quakers. In these letters, while expressing their -sympathy with my ideas in regard to the unlawfulness of violence -and war where Christians are concerned, the Quakers made known to -me many details in relation to their sect, which for more than two -hundred years has professed the doctrine of Christ in the matter of -non-resistance, and which never has, nor does it now use weapons for -self-defense. Together with the letters, the Quakers sent me many -of their pamphlets, periodicals, and books. From these publications -I learned that already, many years ago, they had demonstrated the -Christian's duty of keeping the commandment of non-resistance to -evil by violence, and the error of the church which countenances -wars and executions. - -Having shown by a succession of arguments and texts that war--the -slaughter and mutilation of men--is inconsistent with a religion -founded on peace and good-will to men, the Quakers go on to assert -that nothing is so conducive to the defamation of Christ's truth in -the eyes of the heathen, or so successful in arresting the spread -of Christianity throughout the world, as the refusal to obey this -commandment, made by men who call themselves Christians, and by the -sanction thus given to war and violence. The doctrine of Christ, -which has entered into the consciousness of men, not by force or by -the sword, as they say, but by non-resistance to evil, by humility, -meekness, and the love of peace, can only be propagated among men by -the example of peace, love, and concord given by its followers. - -A Christian, according to the teaching of the Lord, should be guided -in his relations toward men only by the love of peace, and therefore -there should be no authority having power to compel a Christian to -act in a manner contrary to God's law, and contrary to his chief -duty toward his fellow-men. - -The requirements of the civil law, they say, may oblige men, who, -to win some worldly advantages, seek to conciliate that which is -irreconcilable, to violate the law of God; but for a Christian, -who firmly believes that his salvation depends upon following the -teaching of Christ, this law can have no meaning. - -My acquaintance with the activity of the Quakers and with their -publications, with Fox, Paine, and particularly with a work -published by Dymond in 1827, proved to me not only that men have -long since recognized the impossibility of harmonizing Christianity -and war, but that this incompatibility has been proved so clearly -and irrefragably, that one can only wonder how it is possible for -this incongruous union of Christianity with violence--a doctrine -which is still taught by the church--to remain in force. - -Besides the information obtained from the Quakers, I also received -from America about the same time advices on the subject from another -and hitherto unknown source. The son of William Lloyd Garrison, the -famous anti-slavery champion, wrote to me that, having read my book, -wherein he had found ideas similar to those expressed by his father -in 1838, and taking it for granted that I should be interested to -know that fact, he sent me a book written by Mr. Garrison some fifty -years ago, entitled "Non-resistance." - -This avowal of principle took place under the following -circumstances:--In 1838, on the occasion of a meeting of the Society -for the Promotion of Peace, William Lloyd Garrison, while discussing -means for the suppression of war, arrived at the conclusion that the -establishment of universal peace can have no solid foundation save -in the literal obedience to the commandment of non-resistance by -violence (Matthew v. 39), as understood by the Quakers, with whom -Garrison was on friendly terms. Having arrived at this conclusion, -he wrote, offering to the Society the following proclamation, which -at that time, in 1838, was signed by many of its members:-- - - "_Declaration of Sentiments adopted by the Peace Convention, - held in Boston, September 18, 19, and 20, 1838_:-- - - "Assembled in Convention, from various sections of the American - Union, for the promotion of Peace on earth and Good-will among - men, We, the undersigned, regard it as due to ourselves, to the - cause which we love, to the country in which we live, and to the - world, to publish a Declaration, expressive of the principles - we cherish, the purposes we aim to accomplish, and the measures - we shall adopt to carry forward the work of peaceful, universal - reformation. - - "We cannot acknowledge allegiance to any human government; - neither can we oppose any such government by a resort to - physical force. We recognize but one King and Lawgiver, one - Judge and Ruler of mankind. We are bound by the laws of a - Kingdom which is not of this world; the subjects of which are - forbidden to fight; in which Mercy and Truth are met together, - and Righteousness and Peace have kissed each other; which has no - state lines, no national partitions, no geographical boundaries; - in which there is no distinction of rank or division of caste, - or inequality of sex; the officers of which are Peace, its - exactors Righteousness, its walls Salvation, and its gates - Praise; and which is destined to break in pieces and consume - all other kingdoms. Our country is the world, our countrymen - are all mankind. We love the land of our nativity only as - we love all other lands. The interests, rights, liberties of - American citizens are no more dear to us than are those of the - whole human race. Hence, we can allow no appeal to patriotism to - revenge any national insult or injury; the Principle of Peace, - under whose stainless banner we rally, came not to destroy, but - to save, even the worst of enemies. He has left us an example, - that we should follow His steps. God commendeth his love toward - us, in that while we were yet sinners, Christ died for us. - - "We conceive that if a nation has no right to defend itself - against foreign enemies, or to punish its invaders, no - individual possesses that right in his own case. The unit - cannot be of greater importance than the aggregate. If one - man may take life, to obtain or defend his rights, the same - license must necessarily be granted to communities, states, - and nations. If _he_ may use a dagger or a pistol, _they_ may - employ cannon, bombshells, land and naval forces. The means - of self-preservation must be in proportion to the magnitude - of interests at stake, and the number of lives exposed to - destruction. But if a rapacious and bloodthirsty soldiery, - thronging these shores from abroad, with intent to commit - rapine and destroy life, may not be resisted by the people - or magistracy, then ought no resistance to be offered to - domestic troubles of the public peace or of private security. - No obligation can rest upon Americans to regard foreigners as - more sacred in their persons than themselves, or to give them a - monopoly of wrong-doing with impunity. - - "The dogma, that all the governments of the world are - approvingly ordained of God, and that the powers that be in the - United States, in Russia, in Turkey, are in accordance with His - will, is not less absurd than impious. It makes the impartial - Author of human freedom and equality unequal and tyrannical. It - cannot be affirmed that the powers that be, in any nation, are - actuated by the spirit or guided by the example of Christ, in - the treatment of enemies; therefore, they cannot be agreeable - to the will of God; and therefore their overthrow, by a - spiritual regeneration of their subjects, is inevitable. - - "We register our testimony not only against all wars, whether - offensive or defensive, but all preparations for war; against - every naval ship, every arsenal, every fortification; against - the militia system and a standing army; against all military - chieftains and soldiers; against all monuments commemorative - of victory over a fallen foe, all trophies won in battle, all - celebrations in honor of military or naval exploits; against all - appropriations for the defense of a nation by force and army, - on the part of any legislative body; against every edict of - government requiring of its subjects military service. Hence we - deem it unlawful to bear arms, or to hold a military office. - - "As every human government is upheld by physical strength, and - its laws are enforced virtually at the point of the bayonet, - we cannot hold any office which imposes upon its incumbent the - obligation to compel men to do right, on pain of imprisonment - or death. We therefore voluntarily exclude ourselves from every - legislative and judicial body, and repudiate all human politics, - worldly honors, and stations of authority. If we cannot occupy - a seat in the legislature or on the bench, neither can we elect - _others_ to act as our substitutes in any such capacity. - - "It follows that we cannot sue any man at law, to compel him by - force to restore anything which he may have wrongfully taken - from us or others; but if he has seized our coat, we shall - surrender up our cloak, rather than subject him to punishment. - - "We believe that the penal code of the old covenant, 'An eye - for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth,' has been abrogated by - Jesus Christ; and that under the new covenant, the forgiveness - instead of the punishment of enemies has been enjoined upon all - His disciples, in all cases whatsoever. To extort money from - enemies, or set them upon a pillory, or cast them into prison, - or hang them upon gallows, is obviously not to forgive, but to - take retribution. 'Vengeance is mine, I will repay, saith the - Lord.' - - "The history of mankind is crowded with evidences proving that - physical coercion is not adapted to moral regeneration; that the - sinful disposition of men can be subdued only by love; that evil - can be exterminated from the earth only by goodness; that it is - not safe to rely upon an arm of flesh, upon man whose breath is - in his nostrils, to preserve us from harm; that there is great - security in being gentle, harmless, long-suffering, and abundant - in mercy; that it is only the meek who shall inherit the earth, - for the violent who resort to the sword are destined to perish - with the sword. Hence, as a measure of sound policy--of safety - to property, life, and liberty--of public quietude and private - enjoyment--as well as on the ground of allegiance to Him who - is King of kings and Lord of lords, we cordially adopt the - non-resistance principle; being confident that it provides for - all possible consequences, will insure all things needful to us, - is armed with omnipotent power, and must ultimately triumph over - every assailing force. - - "We advocate no jacobinical doctrine. The spirit of jacobinism - is the spirit of retaliation, violence, and murder. It neither - fears God nor regards man. We would be filled with the spirit of - Jesus Christ. If we abide by our principles, it is impossible - for us to be disorderly, or plot treason, or participate in any - evil work; we shall submit to every ordinance of man, for the - Lord's sake; obey all the requirements of government, except - such as we deem contrary to the commands of the gospel; and in - no case resist the operation of law, except by meekly submitting - to the penalty of disobedience. - - "But while we shall adhere to the doctrine of non-resistance and - passive submission, we purpose, in a moral and spiritual sense, - to speak and act boldly in the cause of God; to assail iniquity - in high places and in low places; to apply our principles - to all existing civil, political, legal, and ecclesiastical - institutions; and to hasten the time when the kingdoms of this - world will have become the kingdoms of our Lord and of His - Christ, and He shall reign forever. - - "It appears to us a self-evident truth, that, whatever the - gospel is designed to destroy at any period of the world, being - contrary to it, ought now to be abandoned. If, then, the time - is predicted when swords shall be beaten into plowshares, and - spears into pruning-hooks, and men shall not learn the art of - war any more, it follows that all who manufacture, sell, or - wield those deadly weapons do thus array themselves against the - peaceful dominion of the Son of God on earth. - - "Having thus briefly stated our principles and purposes, we - proceed to specify the measures we propose to adopt in carrying - our object into effect. - - "We expect to prevail through the foolishness of - preaching,--striving to commend ourselves unto every man's - conscience, in the sight of God. From the press we shall - promulgate our sentiments as widely as practicable. We shall - endeavor to secure the cooperation of all persons, of whatever - name or sect. The triumphant progress of the cause of Temperance - and of Abolition in our land, through the instrumentality of - benevolent and voluntary associations, encourages us to combine - our own means and efforts for the promotion of a still greater - cause. Hence, we shall employ lecturers, circulate tracts - and publications, form societies, and petition our state and - national governments, in relation to the subject of Universal - Peace. It will be our leading object to devise ways and means - for effecting a radical change in the views, feelings, and - practices of society, respecting the sinfulness of war and the - treatment of enemies. - - "In entering upon the great work before us, we are not unmindful - that, in its prosecution, we may be called to test our sincerity - even as in a fiery ordeal. It may subject us to insult, outrage, - suffering, yea, even death itself. We anticipate no small amount - of misconception, misrepresentation, calumny. Tumults may arise - against us. The ungodly and violent, the proud and pharisaical, - the ambitious and tyrannical, principalities and powers, and - spiritual wickedness in high places, may contrive to crush - us. So they treated the Messiah, whose example we are humbly - striving to imitate. If we suffer with Him we know that we - shall reign with Him. We shall not be afraid of their terror, - neither be troubled. Our confidence is in the Lord Almighty, - not in man. Having withdrawn from human protection, what can - sustain us but that faith which overcomes the world? We shall - not think it strange concerning the fiery trial which is to - try us, as though some strange thing had happened unto us; but - rejoice, inasmuch as we are partakers of Christ's sufferings. - Wherefore, we commit the keeping of our souls to God, in - well-doing, as unto a faithful Creator. For every one that - forsakes house, or brethren, or sisters, or father, or mother, - or wife, or children, or lands, for Christ's sake, shall receive - a hundredfold, and shall inherit everlasting life. - - "Firmly relying upon the certain and universal triumph of the - sentiments contained in this declaration, however formidable may - be the opposition arrayed against them--in solemn testimony of - our faith in their divine origin--we hereby affix our signatures - to it, commending it to the reason and conscience of mankind, - giving ourselves no anxiety as to what may befall us, and - resolving in the strength of the Lord God calmly and meekly to - abide the issue." - -Later on, Garrison founded a Non-resistance Society and started -a periodical entitled _The Non-resistant_, wherein the full -significance and consequences of the doctrine were plainly -set forth, as has been stated in the proclamation. I gained, -subsequently, further information concerning the fate of this -society and the periodical from a biography of William Lloyd -Garrison, written by his sons. - -Neither the periodical nor the society enjoyed a long life. The -majority of Garrison's associates in the work of liberating the -slaves, apprehensive lest the too radical views expressed in -the _The Non-resistant_ might alienate men from the practical -business of the abolition of slavery, renounced the doctrine of -non-resistance as expressed in the declaration, and both periodical -and society passed out of existence. - -One would suppose that this declaration of Garrison, formulating, -as it did, an important profession of faith in terms both energetic -and eloquent, would have made a deeper impression on men, and have -become a subject for universal consideration. On the contrary, not -only is it unknown in Europe, but even among those Americans who -honor the memory of Garrison there are but few who are familiar with -this. - -A similar fate befell another American champion of the same -doctrine, Adin Ballou, who died recently, and who for fifty years -had preached in favor of non-resistance to evil. How little is known -in regard to the question of non-resistance may be gathered from -the fact that the younger Garrison (who has written an excellent -biography of his father in four large volumes), in answer to my -inquiry whether any society for the defense of the principles of -non-resistance was yet alive and possessed adherents, wrote me -that, so far as he knew, the society had dissolved and its members -were no longer interested, while at this very time Adin Ballou, who -had shared Garrison's labors, and who had devoted fifty years of -his life to the teaching of the doctrine of non-resistance, both -by pen and by tongue, was still living in Hopedale, Massachusetts. -Afterward I received a letter from Wilson, a disciple and co-worker -of Ballou, and subsequently I entered into correspondence with -Ballou himself. I wrote to him, and he sent me his works, from -one of which I made the following extract:--"Jesus Christ is my -Lord and Master," says Ballou in one of his articles, written to -show the inconsistency of Christians who believe in the right of -defensive and offensive warfare. "I have covenanted to forsake all -and follow Him, through good and evil report, until death. But I am -nevertheless a Democratic Republican citizen of the United States, -implicitly sworn to bear true allegiance to my country, and to -support its Constitution, if need be, with my life. Jesus Christ -requires me to do unto others as I would that others should do -unto me. The Constitution of the United States requires me to do -unto twenty-seven hundred thousand slaves" (they had slaves then; -now they could easily be replaced by workmen) "the very contrary -of what I would have them do unto me--viz., assist to keep in a -grievous bondage.... But I am quite easy. I vote on. I help govern -on. I am willing to hold any office I may be elected to under the -Constitution. And I am still a Christian. I profess on. I find -difficulty in keeping covenant both with Christ and the Constitution. - -"Jesus Christ forbids me to resist evil-doers by taking -'eye for eye, tooth for tooth, blood and life for life.' My -government requires the very reverse, and depends, for its own -self-preservation, on the halter, the musket, and the sword, -seasonably employed against its domestic and foreign enemies. - -"In the maintenance and use of this expensive life-destroying -apparatus we can exemplify the virtues _of forgiving our injuries, -loving our enemies, blessing them that curse us, and doing good -to those that hate us_. For this reason we have regular Christian -chaplains to pray for us and call down the smiles of God on our holy -murders. - -"I see it all" (that is, the contradiction between profession and -life), "and yet I insist that I am as good a Christian as ever. I -fellowship all; I vote on; I help govern on; I profess on; _and I -glory in being at once a devoted Christian and a no less devoted -adherent to the existing government_. I will not give in to those -miserable non-resistant notions. I will not throw away my political -influence, and leave unprincipled men to carry on government alone. - -"The Constitution says--'Congress shall have power to declare -war, grant letters of marque and reprisal,' and I agree to this, -I indorse it. I swear to help carry it through. I vote for men to -hold office who are sworn to support all this. What, then, am I less -a Christian? Is not war a Christian service? Is it not perfectly -Christian to murder hundreds of thousands of fellow human beings; to -ravish defenseless females, sack and burn cities, and enact all the -other cruelties of war? Out upon these new-fangled scruples! This is -the very way to forgive injuries, and love our enemies! If we only -do it all in true love nothing can be more Christian than wholesale -murder!" - -In another pamphlet, entitled "How many does it take?" he says--"One -man must not kill. If he does, it is murder; two, ten, one hundred -men, acting on their responsibility, must not kill. If they do, it -is still murder. But a state or nation may kill as many as they -please, and it is no murder. It is just, necessary, commendable, and -right. Only get people enough to agree to it, and the butchery of -myriads of human beings is perfectly innocent. But how many does it -take? This is the question. Just so with theft, robbery, burglary, -and all other crimes. Man-stealing is a great crime in one man, or -a very few men only. But a whole nation can commit it, and the act -becomes not only innocent, but highly honorable." - -The following is, in substance, a catechism of Ballou, compiled for -the use of his congregation:-- - - -THE CATECHISM OF NON-RESISTANCE.[1] - - [1] From the Russian version, which Count Tolstoi calls a free - translation made with some omissions. After diligent search and - inquiry I have been unable to find this catechism among Ballou's - works.--TR. - -_Q._ Whence comes the word non-resistance? - -_A._ From the utterance: "But I say unto you, That ye resist not -evil."--Matthew v. 39. - -_Q._ What does this word denote? - -_A._ It denotes a lofty Christian virtue, commanded by Christ. - -_Q._ Are we to understand the word non-resistance in its broad -sense, that is, as meaning that one should offer no resistance to -evil whatsoever? - -_A._ No; it should be understood literally as Christ taught it--that -is, not to return evil for evil. Evil should be resisted by all -lawful means, but not by evil. - -_Q._ From what does it appear that Christ gave that meaning to -non-resistance? - -_A._ From the words which he used on that occasion. He said: "Ye -have heard that it hath been said, An eye for an eye, and a tooth -for a tooth. But I say unto you, That ye resist not evil: but -whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other -also. And if any man will sue thee at the law, and take away thy -coat, let him have thy cloke also." - -_Q._ Whom did he mean by the words: "Ye have heard that it hath been -said"? - -_A._ The patriarchs and the prophets, and that which they spoke and -which is contained in the Old Testament, that the Jews generally -call the Law and Prophets. - -_Q._ To what laws did Christ allude in the words: "Ye have heard"? - -_A._ To those in which Noah, Moses, and other prophets grant the use -of personal violence against those who commit it, for the purpose of -punishing and destroying evil deeds. - -_Q._ Mention such commandments. - -_A._ "Whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be -shed."--Genesis ix. 6. - -"He that smiteth a man, so that he die, shall be surely put to -death. And if any mischief follow, then thou shalt give life for -life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, -burning for burning, wound for wound, stripe for stripe."--Exodus -xxi. 12, 23, 24, 25. - -"And he that killeth any man shall surely be put to death. And if -a man cause a blemish in his neighbor; as he hath done, so shall -it be done to him; breach for breach, eye for eye, tooth for -tooth."--Leviticus xxiv. 17, 19, 20. - -"And the judges shall make diligent inquisition: and, behold, if -the witness be a false witness, and hath testified falsely against -his brother; then shall ye do unto him, as he had thought to have -done unto his brother. And thine eye shall not pity; but life shall -go for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for -foot."--Deuteronomy xix. 18, 19, 21. - -These are the injunctions of which Jesus speaks. - -Noah, Moses, and the prophets taught that he who murders, mutilates, -or tortures his neighbor doeth evil. In order to combat and destroy -this evil, the evil-doer must be chastised by death, mutilation, -or some personal torture. Transgressions are to be avenged by -transgressions, murder by murder, torture by torture, evil by evil. -Thus taught Noah, Moses, and the prophets. But Christ forbids all -this. The gospel says: "I say unto you, resist ye not evil, avenge -not one transgression by another, but rather bear a repetition of -the offense from the evil-doer." That which has been allowed is now -forbidden. Having understood what resistance we have been taught, we -know exactly what Christ meant by non-resistance. - -_Q._ Did the teaching of the Ancients admit of resisting -transgression by transgression? - -_A._ Yes; but Christ forbade it. A Christian has no right in any -case to take the life of, or to offend against, the evil-doer. - -_Q._ May he not kill or wound another in self-defense? - -_A._ No. - -_Q._ May he enter a complaint to the magistrates for the purpose of -chastising the offender? - -_A._ No. For that which he does through others, he practically does -himself. - -_Q._ May he fight in the army against foreign or domestic enemies? - -_A._ Certainly not. He can take no part in war, or in the -preparation therefor. He cannot make use of weapons. He cannot -resist one transgression by another, whether he is alone or in -company, either personally or through other agents. - -_Q._ May he voluntarily select or drill soldiers for the government? - -_A._ He cannot do this, if he wishes to be _faithful_ to the law of -Christ. - -_Q._ May he voluntarily contribute money to assist a government -which is supported by military power, executions, and violence in -general? - -_A._ No; unless the money is to be used for some special purpose, -justifiable in itself, where the object and the means employed are -good. - -_Q._ May he pay taxes to such a government? - -_A._ No; he should not pay taxes on his own accord, but he should -not resist the levying of a tax. A tax imposed by the government -is levied independently of the will of the citizens. It may not be -resisted without recourse to violence, and a Christian should not -use violence; therefore he must deliver his property to the forced -damage caused by authorities. - -_Q._ May a Christian vote at elections and take part in courts of -law or in the government? - -_A._ No. To take a part in elections, courts of law, or in the -administration of government is the same thing as a participation in -the violence of the government. - -_Q._ What is the chief significance of the doctrine of -non-resistance? - -_A._ To show that it is possible to extirpate evil from one's own -heart, as well as from that of one's neighbor. This doctrine forbids -men to do that which perpetuates and multiplies evil in this world. -He who attacks another, and does him an injury, excites a feeling -of hatred, the worst of all evil. To offend our neighbor because he -has offended us, with ostensible motive of self-defense, means but -to repeat the evil act against him as well as against ourselves,--it -means to beget, or at least to let loose, or to encourage the Evil -Spirit whom we wish to expel. Satan cannot be driven out by Satan, -falsehood cannot be purged by falsehood, nor can evil be conquered -by evil. True non-resistance is the only real method of resisting -evil. It crushes the serpent's head. It destroys and exterminates -all evil feeling. - -_Q._ But admitting that the idea of the doctrine is correct, is it -practicable? - -_A._ As practicable as any virtue commanded by the law of God. -Good deeds cannot be performed under all circumstances without -self-sacrifice, privations, suffering, and, in extreme cases, -without the loss of life itself. But he who prizes life more than -the fulfilment of God's will is already dead to the only true life. -Such a man, in trying to save his life, will lose it. Furthermore, -wherever non-resistance costs the sacrifice of one's life, or of -some essential advantage of life, resistance costs thousands of such -sacrifices. - -_Non-resistance preserves; resistance destroys._ - -It is much safer to act justly than unjustly; to endure an offense -rather than resist it by violence; safer even in regard to the -present life. If all men refused to resist evil, the world would be -a happy one. - -_Q._ But if only a few were to act thus, what would become of them? - -_A._ Even if but one man were to act thus, and the others should -agree to crucify him, would it not be more glorious for him to die -in the glory of non-resisting love, praying for his enemies, than -live wearing the crown of Caesar, besprinkled with the blood of the -murdered? But whether it be one man or thousands of men who are -firmly determined not to resist evil by evil, still, whether in the -midst of civilized or uncivilized neighbors, men who do not rely -on violence are safer than those who do. A robber, a murderer, a -villain, will be less likely to harm them if he finds them offering -no armed resistance. "All they that take the sword shall perish with -the sword," and he who seeks peace, who acts like a friend, who is -inoffensive, who forgives and forgets injuries, generally enjoys -peace, or if he dies, he dies a blessed death. - -Hence, if all were to follow the commandment of non-resistance, -there would manifestly be neither offense nor evil-doing. If even -the majority were composed of such men they would establish the rule -of love and good-will even toward the offenders, by not resisting -evil by evil nor using violence. Even if such men formed a numerous -minority, they would have such an improving moral influence over -society that every severe punishment would be revoked, and violence -and enmity would be replaced by peace and good-will. If they formed -but a small minority, they would rarely experience anything worse -than the contempt of the world, while the world, without preserving -it or feeling grateful therefor, would become better and wiser from -its latent influence. And if, in the most extreme cases, certain -members of the minority might be persecuted unto death, these men, -thus dying for the truth, would have left their doctrine already -sanctified by the blood of martyrdom. - -Peace be with all ye who seek peace; and may the all-conquering love -be the imperishable inheritance of every soul who submits of its own -accord to the law of Christ. - -_Resist not evil by violence._--ADIN BALLOU. - - * * * * * - -For fifty years Ballou wrote and published books chiefly on the -subject of non-resistance. In these writings, remarkable for their -eloquence and simplicity of style, the question is considered in -all its aspects. He proved it to be the duty of every Christian -who professes to believe that the Bible is a revelation from God, -to obey this commandment. He enumerates the arguments against the -commandment of non-resistance, drawn from the Old as well as the -New Testament, the expulsion from the Temple, among others, and -answers each one in turn. Setting the Bible aside, he points out the -practical good sense on which this principle is founded, sums up the -arguments against it, and refutes them. For instance, in one chapter -of his work he treats of non-resistance to evil in exceptional -cases, and affirms that granting the truth of the supposition that -there are cases to which the rule of non-resistance cannot be -applied, that would prove that the rule in general is inconsistent. -Citing such exceptional cases, he proves that these are the very -occasions when the application of this rule is both wise and -necessary. The question has been viewed from every side, and no -argument, whether of opponent or sympathizer, has been neglected or -left unanswered. I mention this in order to call attention to the -deep interest which works of this class ought to excite in men who -profess Christianity; and it would seem therefore that Ballou's -zeal should have been recognized, and the ideas he expressed either -accepted or disproved. But such was not the case. - -The life-work of Garrison, the father, his founding the society -of the Non-resistant, and his declaration, convinced me, more -even than my intercourse with the Quakers, that the divergence of -the Christianity of the State from Christ's law of non-resistance -by violence has been long since noticed and pointed out, and men -have labored and still do labor to counteract it. Thus Ballou's -earnestness has fortified my opinion. But the fate of Garrison, and -particularly that of Ballou, almost unknown, notwithstanding fifty -years of active and persistent work in one direction, has confirmed -me in the belief that there exists a certain inexpressed but fixed -determination to oppose all such attempts by a wall of silence. - -In August of 1890 Ballou died, and his obituary appeared in the -American _Religio-Philosophical Journal_ of August 23d. - -From this obituary we learn that Ballou was the spiritual leader of -a community, that he had preached from 8000 to 9000 sermons, married -1000 couples, and written 500 articles, but in regard to the object -of his life's devotion not a word is said; the word "non-resistance" -is never mentioned. - -All the exhortations of the Quakers for 200 years, all the efforts -of Garrison, the father, the foundation of his society, his -periodical, and his declarations, as well as the life-work of -Ballou, are the same as if they had never existed. - -Another striking example of the obscurity into which a work written -for the purpose of explaining the principle of non-resistance, and -to denounce those who refuse to recognize this commandment, may -fall, is the fate of a book by the Czech Helchitsky, which has only -recently been discovered, and which up to the present time has never -been printed. - -Shortly after the publication of my book in German, I received a -letter from a professor of the Prague University, who wrote to tell -me of a book which had never been printed, a work written in the -fifteenth century by the Czech Helchitsky, and entitled "The Net of -Faith." In this work, written four centuries ago, Helchitsky, as -the professor tells me, has expressed exactly the same opinion in -regard to true and false Christianity that I did in my work entitled -"My Religion." The professor wrote that the work of Helchitsky was -to appear in print for the first time in the Czech language in one -of the publications of the St. Petersburg Academy of Science. As I -was unable to obtain the book, I endeavored to ascertain all that -was known of Helchitsky himself, and this knowledge I gained from -a German book sent to me by the same professor in Prague. Besides -that I learned something from Pipin's "History of Czech Literature." -Pipin says:-- - - "'The Net of Faith' is the doctrine of Christ, wherewith man - is to be raised from the gloomy depths of the social sea of - iniquity. True faith is to believe the words of God; but we are - living in times when men call the true faith heresy; hence it is - upon our own reason that we must rely to discover the truth if - we possess it not. Darkness has concealed it from men, and they - no longer recognize the true law of Christ. - - "As an illustration of the law, Helchitsky cites the original - social organization of Christian society, which is considered by - the Church of Rome of the present time as rank heresy. - - "This primitive church was his own ideal of a social order - founded upon equality, liberty, and fraternity. Christianity, - according to Helchitsky, still preserves this foundation, and - has but to return to its pure teaching to render any other - social order, whose existence requires the authority of pope or - king, quite superfluous. The law of love will suffice for all.... - - "Historically, Helchitsky assigns the decadence of Christianity - to the time of Constantine the Great, whom the Pope Silvester - received into the Church in spite of his pagan life and morals. - Constantine, in return, rewarded the Pope by endowing him with - riches and temporal power. Since then these two forces have - played into each other's hands, seeking only outward glory. - Doctors, men of learning, and the clergy, caring only to - maintain their influence over the world, excited the nations one - against the other, encouraging the crimes of murder and rapine, - and thus destroying Christianity, both in faith and practice. - Helchitsky totally denies the right of man to wage war or to - exact the penalty of death. According to him, every soldier, - even if he be a 'knight,' is only a transgressor, a criminal, - and a murderer." - -All this, with the addition of some biographical details and -extracts from the correspondence of Helchitsky, is related in the -German book. - -Having thus become acquainted with the essence of Helchitsky's -teachings, I waited with still greater impatience the appearance of -"The Net of Faith" in the Academy's periodical. But one, two, three -years passed, and the book was not forthcoming. It was only in 1888 -that I learned that the printing had been suspended. I obtained -the proof-sheets of what had been printed, and read them. In many -respects it was a wonderful book. - -Its contents have been accurately summarized by Pipin. Helchitsky's -principal idea is that Christianity, in league with sovereignty -during the reign of Constantine the Great, and continuing to -develop under these conditions, became corrupted, and ceased to be -Christianity. He called his book "The Net of Faith" because he had -chosen for his motto that verse from the New Testament which speaks -of the disciples as fishers of men. He carries on the simile thus: -"Through His disciples, Christ caught the world in the net of His -faith, but the larger fishes, breaking the net, escaped; then others -followed through these same holes made by the large fishes, and the -net was left almost empty." By the big fish he means the popes, -emperors, and sovereigns who, without giving up their authority, -accepted Christianity, not in its reality, but in its semblance. - -Helchitsky teaches the same doctrine that is now taught by the -non-resistant Mennonites and Quakers, and in former times by -the Bogomiles, the Paulicians, and other sects. He teaches that -Christianity, requiring, as it does from its followers, humility, -gentleness, a forgiving spirit, the turning of the other cheek when -one is struck, and the love of one's enemies, is not compatible -with that violence which is an essential element of authority. A -Christian, according to Helchitsky, should not only refuse to be a -commander or a soldier, but he should take no part in government, -neither should he become a tradesman, nor even a landowner. He -might be an artisan or a farmer. This book is among the few which -have been saved from the flame into which books denouncing official -Christianity were commonly cast. As all such so-called heretical -works were usually burned with their authors, very few of those -which denounce official Christianity have been preserved--and for -this reason the book of which we speak has a special interest. - -But apart from its interest, concerning which there may be -differences of opinion, it is one of the most remarkable results of -human thought, both on account of its profundity and the wonderful -power and beauty of its language, not to mention its antiquity. And -yet this book has remained unprinted for centuries, and continues to -be unknown except to a few specialists. (_See Note, end of Chapter._) - -One would think that works like these of the Quakers, of Garrison, -of Ballou, and of Helchitsky,--which affirm and prove by the -authority of the Bible that the world misinterprets the teaching of -Christ,--would arouse an interest, would make a sensation, would -give rise to discussions between the clergy and their flocks. - -One might suppose that works which deal with the very essence of the -Christian doctrine would be reviewed, and either acknowledged to be -just, or else refuted and condemned. - -Not at all. Every one of these works suffers the same fate. Men -of widely differing opinions, believers, and, what is still more -surprising, unbelieving liberals, as though by common consent, -preserve an obstinate silence in regard to them. Thus every attempt -to explain the true meaning of Christ's doctrine goes for nothing. - -And more astonishing still is the ignorance concerning two works -whose existence was made known to me after the publication of my -own book. One is a work by Dymond, "On War," printed for the first -time in London in 1824, and the other by Daniel Musser, entitled -"Non-resistance Asserted," was written in 1864. - -The ignorance in regard to these books is amazing; the more so, that -apart from their merit, both treat, not so much of the theory as of -its practical application to life; of the relations of Christianity -to military service, which is particularly interesting in view of -the system of conscription. It may be asked, perhaps, what action is -befitting for a subject who believes that war is incompatible with -religion when his government calls upon him for military service? - -One would take this to be a vital question, whose answer, in view -of our present system of conscription, becomes one of serious -importance. All men, or the majority of mankind, are Christians, -and every male is required to do military duty. How man, in his -Christian character, is to meet this demand, Dymond gives the -following reply:-- - -"_It is his duty, mildly and temperately, yet firmly, to refuse to -serve._ - -"There are some persons who, without any determinate process of -reasoning, appear to conclude that responsibility for national -measures attaches solely to those who direct them; that it is the -business of governments to consider what is good for the community, -and that, in these cases, the duty of the subject is merged in the -will of the sovereign. Considerations like these are, I believe, -often voluntarily permitted to become opiates of the conscience. I -have no part, it is said, in the councils of the government, and -am not, therefore, responsible for its crimes. We are, indeed, not -responsible for the crimes of our rulers, but we are responsible for -our own; and the crimes of our rulers are our own, if, whilst we -believe them to be crimes, we promote them by our cooperation.... - -"Those who suppose that obedience in all things is required, or that -responsibility in political affairs is transferred from the subject -to the sovereign, reduce themselves to a great dilemma. It is to -say that we must resign our conduct and our consciences to the will -of others, and act wickedly, or well, as their good or evil may -preponderate, without merit for virtue or responsibility for crime." - -It is worthy of notice that the same is expressed in a maxim to -soldiers, which they are required to memorize. Dymond says that only -a commander answers for the consequences of his order. But this -is unjust. A man cannot remove the responsibility for his actions -from himself. And this is evident from the following: "If your -superior orders you to kill your child, your neighbor, your father, -or your mother, will you obey? If you will not, there is an end of -the argument; for if you may reject his authority in one instance, -where is the limit to rejection? There is no rational limit but that -which is assigned by Christianity, and that is both rational and -practicable.... - -"We think, then, that it is the business of every man who believes -that war is inconsistent with our religion, respectfully, but -steadfastly, to refuse to engage in it. Let such as these remember -that an honorable and an awful duty is laid upon them. It is upon -their fidelity, so far as human agency is concerned, that the -cause of peace is suspended. Let them, then, be willing to avow -their opinions and to defend them. Neither let them be contented -with words, if more than words, if suffering also, is required. -It is only by the unyielding fidelity of virtue that corruption -can be extirpated. If you believe that Jesus Christ has prohibited -slaughter, let not the opinions or the commands of a world induce -you to join in it. By this 'steady and determinate pursuit of -virtue,' the benediction which attaches to those who hear the -sayings of God, and do them, will rest upon you, and the time will -come when even the world will honor you as contributors to the work -of human reformation." - -Musser's work, entitled "Non-resistance Asserted; or, Kingdom of -Christ and Kingdom of this World Separated," was published in 1864. - -This book deals with the same question, drawing its illustrations -from the drafting of the United States citizens during the time of -the Civil War. In setting forth the reasons why men should have -the right to decline military service, his arguments are no less -applicable to the present time. In his Introduction the author says: -"It is well known that there are great numbers of people in the -United States who profess to be conscientiously opposed to war. They -are mostly called non-resistants, or defenseless Christians, and -refuse to defend their country, or take up arms at the call of the -government and go forth to battle against its enemies. Hitherto this -conscientious scruple has been respected by the government in this -country; and those claiming it have been relieved or excused from -this service. - -"Since the commencement of the present civil war in the United -States the public mind has been unusually agitated on this subject. -It is not unreasonable that such persons as feel it to be their -duty to go forth and endure the hardships of camp life, and imperil -health, life, and limb in defense of their country and government, -should feel some jealousy of those who have, with themselves, long -enjoyed the protection and benefits of the government, and yet, in -the hour of its need, refuse to share the burden of its defense -and protection. Neither is it strange that such a position should -be looked upon as most unreasonable and monstrous, and those who -hold it be regarded with some suspicion. "Many able speakers and -writers," says the author, "have raised their voices and pens -to refute the idea of non-resistance, as both unreasonable and -unscriptural. This is not to be wondered at, seeing that those who -profess the principle and do not possess it, or correctly understand -it, act inconsistently, and thereby bring the profession into -disrepute and contempt. However much misapplication or abuse of a -principle may prejudice the minds of those who are unacquainted with -a subject, it is yet no argument against its truth." - -The author at first proves it to be the duty of each Christian to -obey the rule of non-resistance. He says that the rule is perfectly -explicit, and that it has been given by Christ to all Christianity -without any possibility of being misinterpreted. "Judge for -yourselves, whether it is right or wrong to obey man more than you -do the Lord," said both Peter and John; and in exactly the same way -every man who wishes to be a Christian should regard the requirement -of his nation to be a soldier, remembering that Christ has told him, -"Do not resist evil." - -This, in the opinion of Musser, decides the question of principle. -Another point, as to the right of declining military duty while -one enjoys the advantages accruing through violence, the author -considers in detail, and arrives at the conclusion that should a -Christian who follows the teaching of Christ refuse to go to the -war, he must also decline to take any position under the government -or any part in the elections, neither must he have recourse to any -officer of the law for his own personal advantage. Our author goes -on to consider the relation between the Old and New Testaments, -and the significance of government for non-Christians; arguments -against the doctrine of non-resistance are enumerated and refuted. -The author closes his book with the following words:--"Christians -need no governments: for they ought not to obey it in those matters -wherein Christ's teaching is set at naught, and still less should -they take an active part in it. Christ has chosen His disciples out -of the world. They have no promise of temporal good or happiness, -but the contrary. Their promise is in the world to come. The spirit -which they possess renders them happy and contented in any sphere of -life. So long as the world tolerates them, they are contented; but -if it will not let them dwell in peace, they flee to another city or -place; and so they are true pilgrims and strangers on earth, having -no certain abiding place.... They are well contented that the dead -may bury their dead, if they are only permitted to follow Christ." - -Without deciding upon the merits of this definition of a Christian's -duty in regard to war, which we find set down in these two works, we -cannot fail to see the urgent need for a decision in regard to the -question itself. - -There are men--hundreds of thousands of Quakers, Mennonites, our -own Duhobortzi, Molokani, men who belong to no sect whatsoever--who -believe that violence and therefore military service is incompatible -with Christianity; every year, for instance, we see in Russia a -number of men refusing to obey the conscription because of their -religious opinions. And how does the government deal with them? -Does it release them? Oh, no!... Does it use force, and in case -of disobedience punish them? Not exactly.... In 1818, government -managed the affair in this wise. - -The following is an extract, hardly known to any one in Russia, from -a letter of Muraviev-Karsky, which was prohibited by the Russian -censor:-- - - "TIFLIS, _October 2d, 1818_. - - "This morning the commander of the fortress told me that five - peasants belonging to the landowners of the government of Tambov - had been recently sent into the province of Grusia. These men - were intended to serve as soldiers, but they refused to obey. - They were flogged several times and made to run the gantlet, - but they were ready to give themselves up to the most cruel - tortures, yea, even to death itself, to escape military service. - 'Let us go our way and harm us not; we do no harm ourselves. All - men are equal. The sovereign is a man like one of us, why should - we pay him taxes, and wherefore should we risk our lives to - kill in battle those who have never done us any harm? Draw and - quarter us, if you will, and we shall never change our minds; we - will never wear the uniform, nor mess at the soldier's table. - Some pitying soul may give us alms but from the government we - neither have had nor will have anything whatsoever.' Such are - the words of these peasants, who assure us that there are many - men in Russia like themselves. Four times they were brought - before the Committee of Ministers, and it was finally decided - that a report be made to the Czar, who ordered them to be sent - to Grusia for discipline, and desired the Commander-in-Chief to - forward a monthly report of the progress made in bringing these - peasants to a proper frame of mind." - -The final result of this discipline is not known, for the matter was -kept a profound secret, and the episode may never have been made -public. - -This was the conduct of the government seventy-five years ago in the -greater number of cases, always carefully hiding the truth from the -people; and it pursues the same policy at the present day, except -in regard to the German Mennonites, who live in the government of -Kherson, and who in lieu of military duty serve a corresponding term -as foresters,--the justice of their refusal to obey the conscription -being recognized. - -But they are the sole exception; all others who, from religious -scruples, refuse to perform military duty are treated in the manner -just described. - -At first the government employs all the methods of coercion now in -use to discipline and _convert_ the rebels, while at the same time -the most profound secrecy envelops all these proceedings. I know of -a process which was begun in 1884 against a man who had declined to -serve,--a long-drawn-out trial which was guarded by the Ministry as -a great secret. - -The first step is usually to send the accused to the priests, -and, be it said to their shame, they always try to win over the -insubordinate. But as the influence exercised in the name of Christ -is generally unsuccessful, the delinquent is sent from the clergy to -the gendarmes, who, finding in him no political offense, send him -back; whereupon he is despatched to the scientists, the doctors, and -thence into the insane hospital. While he is thus sent to and fro, -the delinquent, deprived of his liberty like a condemned convict, -is made to endure every kind of indignity and suffering. Four such -cases have come to my knowledge. The doctors generally release the -man from the insane hospital, and then every underhanded and crafty -device is employed to delay the accused, because his release might -encourage others to follow his example. He is not allowed to remain -among the soldiers lest they discover from him that conscription -is not, as they are taught to believe, in accordance with the law -of God, but opposed to it. The most satisfactory arrangement for a -government would be either to execute the delinquent, or beat him -with rods until he died, as was done in former times. But it is -awkward to condemn a man to public execution because he is true to -the doctrine which we all profess to believe. Nor is it possible to -take no notice of a man when he refuses to obey. So the government -either tortures the man in order to compel him to deny Christ, or -tries to rid itself of him by some means which will hide both the -man and the crime from the eyes of the world, rather than resort to -public execution. All sorts of cunning manoeuvers and tricks are -employed to torment the man. He is either banished to some remote -province, or exasperated to disobedience and then imprisoned, or -sent to the reform battalion, where he may be subjected to torture -without publicity or restriction; or he is pronounced insane and -locked up in the insane asylum. For instance, one was exiled to -Tashkent; that is to say, a pretense was made of transferring him -thither. Another was sent to Omsk, a third was court-martialed for -disobedience and imprisoned, and a fourth was put into a house for -the insane. The same thing is repeated on every side. Not only -the government, but the majority of liberal free-thinkers, as -though by preconcerted agreement, carefully avoid alluding to what -has been said, written, or done in this matter of denouncing the -inconsistency of violence, as embodied in its most shocking, crude, -and striking form, in the person of a soldier,--this readiness to -commit murder,--not only with the precepts of Christianity, but with -the dictates of mere humanity, which the world professes to obey. - -Hence all the information that I have gathered concerning what -has been accomplished, and what is still going on in this work of -explaining the doctrine of Christ and the light in which it is -regarded by the ruling powers of Europe and America, has confirmed -me in the conviction that a spirit inimical to true Christianity -dwells in these authorities, exhibited chiefly by the conspiracy of -silence with which they enshroud any manifestation of it. - -NOTE - - "The publication of this book ('The Net of Faith') was ended - [completed] by the Academy in the last months of the present - year (1893)."--_Note received by the Publisher from Count - Tolstoi while this work was going to press._ - - - - -CHAPTER II - -OPINIONS OF BELIEVERS AND UNBELIEVERS IN REGARD TO NON-RESISTANCE - - The fate of the book, "My Religion"--The evasive answers - of religious critics to the questions propounded in that - book--1st answer, Violence does not contradict Christianity--2d - answer, Necessity of violence for the purpose of repressing - evil-doers--3d answer, Necessity of violence for the defense of - one's neighbor--4th answer, The violation of the commandment of - Non-resistance regarded as a weakness--5th answer, Evasion of - the answer by a pretense that this matter has long since been - decided--The cloak of church authority, antiquity, the holiness - of religious men, explain for many the contradictions between - violence and Christianity, in theory as well as in life--Usual - attitude of the clergy and authorities in regard to the - profession of true Christianity--General character of Russian - secular writers--Foreign secular critics--Incorrectness of the - opinions of the former and the latter caused by a failure to - understand the true meaning of the doctrine of Christ. - - -All the criticisms of the statements contained in my own book have -given me a similar impression of a wish to ignore the subject. - -As I had anticipated, no sooner was the book published than it -was prohibited, and should, according to law, have been burned. -But instead of being consumed by the flames, every copy was taken -by the government officials and circulated in large numbers, -both in manuscript and in the lithographed sheets, as well as in -translations which were published abroad. It was not long before -criticisms began to appear, not only from the clergy, but from the -secular world, which the government, so far from forbidding, took -pains to encourage. Hence the very refutation of the book, the -existence of which they assumed to be unknown, was made the theme of -theological controversy. - -These criticisms, both foreign and domestic, may be divided into two -classes, religious and secular; the former by persons who consider -themselves believers, and the latter by free-thinkers. I shall -begin by considering the former. In my book I accuse the clergy -of inculcating doctrines contrary to the commandments of Christ, -plainly and clearly expressed in the Sermon on the Mount, and -particularly in regard to the commandment of non-resistance to evil, -thereby depriving the doctrine of Christ of all its significance. -Do the ministers of the gospel believe the Sermon on the Mount, -including the commandment of non-resistance, to be of divine origin? -Having felt themselves obliged to review my book, it would seem as -if they must first of all answer the principal charge, and declare -at once whether they do or do not consider the Sermon on the Mount -and the commandment of non-resistance obligatory upon a Christian. -Instead of making the usual reply, couched in words such as, "Though -one cannot deny, neither can one affirm, the more so as," etc., -let them give a categorical answer to my question: Did Christ -practically require his disciples to do that which he taught in -the Sermon on the Mount, and therefore may a Christian appeal to a -legal tribunal, either for defense or prosecution, and still remain -a Christian? May he consistently take a part in a government which -is the instrument of violence? And that most important question, -which, since the introduction of the general conscription, concerns -us all: May a Christian remain a Christian and still disobey the -direct command of Christ; may he promise to conduct himself in a -manner directly opposed to the doctrine of Christ, by entering into -military service and putting himself in training to be a murderer? - -The questions are put plainly and directly, and would seem to call -for plain and direct answers. But no; my book has been received -just as all previous denunciations have been, those denunciations -of the clergy who have deviated from the law of Christ, with which -history abounds since the time of Constantine the Great. Many -words have been expended in noting the errors of my interpretation -of this or that passage of the Scriptures, of how wrong I am in -referring to the Trinity, the Redemption, and the Immortality of -the soul, but never a word of that vital question: How are we to -reconcile those lessons of forgiveness, humility, patience, and -love toward all mankind, our neighbors as well as our enemies, -taught us by the Teacher, which dwell in the heart of each of us, -with the necessities caused by military aggressions against our -own countrymen as well as against foreigners? All that deserves -the name of a response to these questions may be summed up under -five headings. I have endeavored to bring together in this book not -only the criticisms upon my book, but everything that has ever been -written on this subject. - -The first criticisms with which I deal come mostly from men of high -position, either in Church or State, who feel quite sure that no one -will venture to combat their assertions; should any one make the -attempt, they would never hear the arguments. These men, intoxicated -for the most part by their authority, have forgotten that there is a -Christianity in whose name they hold their places. They condemn as -sectarian all that which is truly Christ-like in Christianity, while -on the other hand, every text in both Old and New Testaments which -can be wrested from its meaning so as to justify an anti-Christian -or pagan sentiment--upon these they establish the foundation of -Christianity. In order to confirm their statement that Christianity -is not opposed to violence, these men generally quote, with the -greatest assurance, equivocal passages from the Old and New -Testaments, interpreting them in the most anti-Christian spirit--the -death of Ananias and Sapphira, the execution of Simon the Sorcerer, -etc. All of Christ's words that can possibly be misinterpreted are -quoted in vindication of cruelty--the expulsion from the Temple, the -words "... it shall be more tolerable in that day for Sodom than -for that city" (Luke x. 12), and other passages. According to these -men, a Christian is not at all obliged to be guided by the spirit -of humility, forgiveness, and love of his enemies. It is useless -to try to refute such a doctrine, because men who affirm it refute -themselves, or rather they turn away from Christ Himself, to invent -an ideal and a form of religion all their own, forgetful of Him in -whose name both the Church and the offices they hold exist. If men -but knew that the Church preaches an unforgiving, murder-loving, and -belligerent Christ, they would not believe in that Church, and its -doctrines would be defended by none. - -The second method, somewhat more awkward, consists in affirming that -though Christ did, in point of fact, teach us to turn the other -cheek, and to share our cloak, and that these are indeed lofty -moral laws, still ... the world abounds in evil-doers, and if these -wretches are not subdued by force, the righteous will perish and the -world will be destroyed. I met with this argument for the first time -in St. John Chrysostom, and have called attention to its unfairness -in my book entitled "My Religion." - -This argument is groundless, because if we allow ourselves to look -upon our fellow-men as evil-doers, outcasts (Raka), we sap the very -foundations of the Christian doctrine, which teaches us that we, -the children of the Heavenly Father, are brothers, and equal one to -the other. In the second place, if the same Father had permitted -us to use violence toward wrong-doers, as there is no infallible -rule for distinguishing the good from the evil, every individual -or every community might class its neighbors under the head of -evil-doers, which is practically the case at the present time. In -the third place, if it were possible to distinguish the righteous -from the unrighteous, even then it would not be expedient in a -Christian community to put to death, to cripple, or to imprison the -evil-doers, as in such a community there would be no one to execute -these sentences, since every man in his quality of Christian is -forbidden to do violence to a malefactor. - -The third mode of reply, more ingenious than the preceding ones, -consists in affirming that while to obey the commandment of -non-resistance is every Christian's duty, when the injury is a -personal one, it ceases to be obligatory when harm is done to one's -neighbor, and that in such an emergency a Christian is bound to -break the commandment and use force against the evil-doer. This -assertion is purely arbitrary, and one finds no justification for it -throughout the whole body of the doctrine of Christ. - -Such an interpretation is not only a narrow one, but actually -amounts to a direct negation. If every man has the right to employ -violence whenever his neighbor is threatened with danger, then the -question becomes reduced to this: How may one define what is called -danger to one's neighbor? If, however, my private judgment is to be -arbiter in this matter, then any violence which I might commit on -any occasion whatever could be excused by the declaration that my -neighbor was in danger. Magicians have been burned, aristocrats and -Girondists put to death, because the men in power considered them -dangerous. - -If this important condition, which destroys the significance of the -commandment, ever entered into the thought of Christ, it would have -been formulated somewhere. Not only is no such exception to the -commandment to be found throughout the Teacher's life and lessons, -but there is on the other hand a warning against an interpretation -so false and misleading. - -The error and the impracticability of such a definition is vividly -illustrated in the Bible story of Caiaphas, who made use of this -very same interpretation. He admitted that it was not well to put -to death the innocent Jesus, but at the same time he perceived the -existence of a danger, not for himself, but for all the people, and -therefore declared it better for one man to die, rather than that a -whole nation should perish. - -And we have a still more explicit proof of the fallacy of this -interpretation in the words addressed to Peter, when he tried to -revenge by violence the attack upon Jesus (Matthew xxvi. 51). Peter -was defending not himself, but his beloved and divine Master, and -Christ distinctly forbade him, saying, "For all they that take -the sword shall perish with the sword" (Matthew xxvi. 52). One -can never justify an act of violence against one's fellow-man by -claiming to have done it in defense of another who was enduring some -wrong, because in committing an act of violence, it is impossible -to compare the one wrong with the other, and to say which is the -greater, that which one is about to commit, or the wrong done -against one's neighbor. We release society from the presence of a -criminal by putting him to death, but we cannot possibly know that -the former might not have so changed by the morrow as to render the -execution a useless cruelty. We imprison another, we believe him a -dangerous man; but no later than next day this very man may have -ceased to be dangerous, and his imprisonment has become unnecessary. -I see a robber, a man known to me, pursuing a girl; I hold a gun -in my hand; I wound or perhaps kill the robber, and save the girl. -The fact that I have either wounded or killed the robber remains, -but I know not what might have happened had I not done so. And what -a vast amount of harm must and does accrue from the assurance that -a man feels of his right to provide against a possible calamity. -Ninety-nine parts of the world's iniquity, from the Inquisition to -the bomb-throwing of the present day, and the execution of tens of -thousands of political criminals, so called, result from this very -assurance. - -The fourth and still more ingenious reply to this question of -the Christian's responsibility in regard to the commandment of -Christ concerning non-resistance to evil by violence, consists in -asserting that this commandment is not denied, but acknowledged, -like all the others; it is only the special significance attributed -to it by sectarians that is denied. Our critics declare that the -views of Garrison, Ballou, and Dymond, as well as those professed -by the Quakers, the Shakers, the Mennonites, the Moravians, the -Waldenses, Albigenses, Bogomiles, and Paulicians, are those of -bigoted sectarians. This commandment, they say, has the importance, -no more and no less, of all the others; and one who through weakness -has transgressed against any of the commandments, whether that of -non-resistance or another, does not for that cause cease to be a -Christian, provided his creed be true. - -This is a very cunning and persuasive subterfuge, especially for -those who are willing to be deceived, reducing the direct negation -of the commandment to its accidental infraction. One has, however, -but to compare the attitude of the clergy toward this or any of the -other commandments which they do acknowledge, to be convinced that -it is quite different from their attitude toward this one. - -The commandment against fornication they acknowledge without -reservation, and in no case will they ever admit that this sin is -not an evil. There are no circumstances mentioned by the clergy -when the commandment against fornication may be broken, and they -always insist that the occasions for this sin must be avoided. -But in regard to non-resistance it is a very different matter. -Every clergyman believes that there are circumstances wherein this -commandment may be held in abeyance, and they preach accordingly. -So far from teaching their parishioners to avoid the temptations -to this sin, chief among which is the oath of allegiance, they -take the oath themselves. Clergymen have never been known to -advocate the breaking of any other commandment; but in regard to -the doctrine of non-resistance, they distinctly teach that this -prohibition must not be taken too literally, that so far from -always obeying this commandment, one should on occasion follow -the opposite course--that is, one should sit in judgment, should -go to war, and should execute criminals. Thus in most of the cases -where non-resistance to evil by violence is in question, the -preachers will be found to advocate disobedience. Obedience to this -commandment, they say, is difficult, and can only be practicable -in a state of society whose members are perfect. But how is it to -become less difficult, when its infraction is not only condoned, but -directly encouraged, when legal tribunals, prisons, the implements -of warfare, the cannon and muskets, armies and battles, receive the -blessing of the Church? Therefore this reply is not true. Evidently -the statement that this commandment is acknowledged by the clergy to -be of equal validity with the other commandments cannot be true. - -Clergymen do not really acknowledge it, yet, unwilling to admit this -fact, they try by evasion to conceal their non-acknowledgment. - -Such is the fourth method of answering. - -The fifth, more ingenious than its predecessor, is the popular one -of all. It consists in quietly evading reply, pretending that the -question was solved ages ago, in a cogent and satisfactory manner, -and that it would be a waste of words to reopen the subject. This -method is employed by all the more cultured authors, who, if they -made answer at all, would feel themselves bound to be logical. -Realizing that the inconsistency between that doctrine of Christ, -of which we make a verbal profession, and the scheme of our daily -lives, is not to be solved by words, and that the more it is talked -the more glaring this inconsistency becomes, they evade it with -more or less circumspection, pretending that the question of union -between Christianity and the law of violence has either been already -solved, or else that it cannot be solved at all.[2] - - [2] I know of but one criticism, or rather essay, for it can hardly - be termed criticism, in the strict sense of the word, which treats - of the same subject, having my book in view. It is a pamphlet by - Troitzky, called "The Sermon on the Mount" (printed in Kazan). - Evidently the author acknowledges the doctrine of Christ in the - fullness of its meaning. He declares that the commandment of - non-resistance to evil means what it says, and the same with the - commandment as to taking an oath. He does not deny, as others have - done, the meaning of Christ's teaching, but unfortunately neither - does he draw those inevitable conclusions which must result from - a conception such as his own of Christ's doctrine. If one is not - to resist evil by violence, nor to take an oath, it is but natural - to ask: Then what is the duty of a soldier? And what is to be done - about taking the oath of allegiance? But to these questions the - author makes no reply, and surely a reply should have been given. If - he had none to make, it would have been better to have said nothing - at all. - -Most of my clerical critics have made use of this method. I might -quote scores of criticisms of this class, wherein everything -is discussed except the vital principle of the book. As a -characteristic specimen of these criticisms I will quote from an -article by that well-known and scholarly Englishman, the writer and -preacher, Canon Farrar, who, like so many other learned theologians, -is an expert in the art of silently ignoring and evading a -statement. The article appeared in an American magazine, _The -Forum_, for October, 1888. - -After briefly but conscientiously setting forth the subject-matter -of my book, Farrar says:--"After repeated search the central -principle of all Christ's teaching seemed to him [Tolstoi] to be, -'Resist not evil' or 'him that is evil.' He came to the conclusion -that a coarse deceit had been palmed upon the world when these words -were held by civil society to be compatible with war, courts of -justice, capital punishment, divorce, oaths, national prejudice, -and indeed with most of the institutions of civil and social life. -He now believes that the Kingdom of God would come if all men -kept these five commandments, which he holds to be the pith of -all Christ's teaching--viz.: 1. Live in peace with all men. 2. Be -pure. 3. Take no oaths. 4. Never resist evil. 5. Renounce national -distinctions.... Most of the Bible does not seem to him to reflect -the spirit of Christ at all, though it has been brought into -artificial and unwarrantable connection with it. Hence he rejects -the chief doctrines of the Church: that of the Atonement by blood, -that of the Trinity, that of the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the -Apostles and the transmission to the priesthood by laying on of -hands, that of the need of the seven sacraments for salvation. He -sets aside the authority of Paul, of councils, of fathers, popes, -or patriarchs, and believes himself to be the immediate disciple of -Christ alone.... But we are compelled to ask, Is this interpretation -of Christ a true one? Are all men bound, or is any man bound, to act -as this great writer has done?" - -One might naturally expect that this vital question, which alone -could induce a man to write a dissertation on the book, would be -answered either by admitting that my interpretation of the doctrine -of Christ is correct and should be accepted, or declaring that -it is erroneous, proving his point, and offering a more correct -interpretation of the words which I have misconstrued. But no; -Farrar merely expresses his belief that "though actuated by the -noblest sincerity, Count Tolstoi has been misled by partial and -one-sided interpretations of the meaning of the gospel and the -mind and will of Christ." In what this error consists he does not -explain, but says: "_To enter into the proof of this is impossible -in this article, for I have already exceeded the space at my -command_." And concludes with equanimity: "Meanwhile the reader -who feels troubled lest it should be his duty also to forsake all -the conditions of his life, and to take up the position and work -of a common laborer, may rest for the present on the principle, -'Securus judicat orbis terrarum.' With few and rare exceptions the -whole of Christendom, from the days of the Apostles down to our -own, has come to the firm conclusion that it was the object of -Christ to lay down great eternal principles, but not to disturb the -bases and revolutionize the institutions as well as all inevitable -conditions. Were it my object to prove how untenable is the doctrine -of communism, based by Count Tolstoi upon the divine paradoxes, -which can be interpreted on only historical principles in accordance -with the whole method of the teaching of Jesus, it would require an -ampler canvas than I have here at my disposal." What a pity that he -has no space! And, wonderful to relate, no one for fifteen centuries -ever had the space to prove that the Christ whom we profess said one -thing and meant another. And of course they could prove it if they -would! But it is not worth while to prove what everybody knows to be -true. It is enough to say: "Securus judicat orbis terrarum." - -The criticisms of all educated believers are very much alike, -because realizing as they must the danger of their position, they -feel that their only safeguard lies in the hope that by sheltering -themselves behind the authority and holiness of the Church, they may -succeed in intimidating their readers, or diverting them from any -idea of reading the Bible for themselves or using their own reason -to solve this question. And this is a method that succeeds. To whom -would it ever occur, indeed, that all these assurances, repeated -with so much solemnity, century after century, by archdeacons, -bishops, and archbishops, synods and popes, are a base falsehood, -a calumny against the character of Christ, uttered for the purpose -of assuring to themselves the money they require to lead a life -of ease at the expense of others,--a falsehood and a calumny so -palpable, particularly now, that the only chance of perpetuating -this falsehood lies in holding the people in awe by their arrogance -and audacity? - -The very same thing has been going on of late years in the Bureau -of military conscription. A number of aged officials, decorated -and self-important, are at a table, a full-lengthed portrait of -the Emperor with the mirror of justice before them, and, while -leisurely chatting with each other, they write, call out the names, -and give their orders. Here also, with a cross upon his breast, his -hair blowing over his stole, a genial and venerable-looking priest -dressed in a silk robe sits before a pulpit on which is placed a -golden cross and a Bible with gilt clasps. - -Ivan Petrov is called. An untidy, poorly clad youth, with a -frightened expression, twitching muscles, and gleaming eyes that -have a wandering look, steps forward, and in a hesitating, broken -voice almost whispers: "I ... according to law ... as a Christian -... I ... I cannot...." "What is he muttering?" asks the chairman, -impatiently, squinting and making an effort to hear, as he raises -his head from the book. "Speak louder!" exclaims the colonel with -the glittering shoulder-straps. "As a Christian ... I ... I...." -And at last it becomes plain that the youth refuses to enter the -military service because he is a Christian. "Don't talk nonsense! -Measure him! Doctor, be kind enough to look at the measure. Will he -do?" "He will do." "Holy Father, let him take the oath." - -Not only is there no uneasiness on the part of the officers, but no -one pays the least attention to the muttering of this frightened, -pitiable youth. "They always mutter, and we are in a hurry; we have -still so many more to receive." - -The recruit tries to speak again. "This is against the law of -Christ!" "Move on! move on! We know what is lawful and what is not! -Move on! Father, make him understand! Next! Vassili Nikitin!" - -Then the trembling youth is led away. Now which of all these men, -the soldiers, Vassili Nikitin, the new man on the list, or any other -witness of the scene,--which of these would ever dream that the -unintelligible, broken utterances of the youth, silenced forthwith -by the magistrates, embodied the real truth, while the loud, -arrogant speeches of the officials, of the priest, uttered with -authority, were actually false? - -The same impression is made not only by Farrar's essay, but by -all those grandiloquent sermons, reviews, and other publications -which spring into existence on every side wherever truth is found -combating the arrogance of falsehood. At once these orators and -writers, subtle or bombastic, begin by dwelling upon points closely -allied to the vital question, while preserving an artful silence on -the question itself. - -And this is the fifth and most efficacious method of accounting for -the inconsistent attitude of ecclesiastical Christianity, which, -while professing Christ, with its own life denies, and teaches -others to deny, this doctrine in the practice of daily life. -They who employ the first method of justification by boldly and -distinctly affirming that Christ sanctioned violence, meaning wars -and murders, put themselves beyond the pale of Christ's teaching; -while they who defend themselves according to the second, third, and -fourth methods soon become entangled, and are easily convicted of -falsehood; but the fifth class, they who condescend not to reason, -use their dignity for a screen, and insist that all these questions -were settled ages ago, and need no reconsideration; they, apparently -invulnerable, will maintain an undisputed authority, and men will -repose under the hypnotic suggestion of Church and State, nor seek -to throw off the yoke. - -Such were the views of the clergy, of the professors of -Christianity, in regard to my book, nor could anything different -have been expected: they are in bonds to their inconsistent -position, believers in the divinity of the Teacher, and yet -discrediting His plainest words,--an inconsistency which they are -bound to reconcile in some way. Hence it is not to be supposed -that they would give unbiased opinions in regard to the essential -question of that change which must take place in the life of one -who makes a practical application of the doctrine of Christ to -the existing order. From secular critics and free-thinkers, who -acknowledge no obligation to the doctrine of Christ, and who might -be expected to judge them without prejudice, I had prepared myself -for criticisms such as these. I thought that the Liberals would look -upon Christ not only as the founder of a religion involving personal -salvation (as understood by the ecclesiastics and their followers), -but, to use their own expression, as upon a reformer who tears down -the old foundations to make way for new ones, and whose reformation -is not even yet complete. - -To set forth that conception of Christ and his doctrine has been -the object of my book. But to my surprise not one out of the many -criticisms, Russian or foreign, that have appeared, has accepted my -view, or even discussed it from my standpoint, which is, that the -teaching of Christ is a philosophical, moral, and social doctrine. -(I use the phraseology of the scientists.) The Russian secular -critics, conceiving the sum and substance of my book to be a plea -in favor of resistance to evil, and taking it for granted (probably -for the sake of argument) that the doctrine forbade any struggle -whatsoever against the wrong, made a virulent, and for several -years, most successful attack upon this doctrine, proving that the -teaching of Christ must be false, since it forbids any effort to -overcome evil. Their refutations of this so-called _false_ doctrine -had all the more chance of success, because the censorship had -prohibited, not only the book itself, but also all articles in its -defense, and consequently they knew beforehand that their arguments -could not be assailed. - -It is worthy of note that here in Russia, where not a word against -the Holy Scriptures is allowed by the censor, for several years -in succession the distinct and unmistakable commandment of Christ -(Matthew v. 39) was criticized, distorted, condemned, and mocked at -in all the leading periodicals. - -The Russian secular critics, apparently ignorant of all that had -been said and done in regard to non-resistance to evil, seemed to -think that I had invented the principle myself, and attacked it -as if it were my idea, first distorting and then refuting it with -great ardor, bringing forward time-worn arguments that had been -analyzed and refuted over and over again, showing that the oppressed -and downtrodden should be defended by violence, and declaring the -doctrine of Christ concerning non-resistance to be immoral. - -All the significance that the Russian critics saw in Christ's -preaching was, that it seemed expressly intended to hamper them -in their struggles against what they believe to be an evil in the -present day. Thus it came about that the principle of non-resistance -to evil by violence was attacked from two opposite camps; the -Conservatives, because this principle interfered with them in their -efforts to suppress sedition, and as opposed to all persecution, -as well as to the punishment of death; the Revolutionists, because -this principle forbade them to resist the oppression of the -Conservatives, or to attempt their overthrow. The Conservatives were -indignant that the doctrine of non-resistance to evil by violence -should thwart an energetic suppression of revolutionary elements, -which might imperil the welfare of a nation; the Revolutionists -in the like manner were indignant because this same doctrine -averted the downfall of the Conservatives, who, in their opinion, -imperil the welfare of the people. It is a circumstance worthy -of notice that the Revolutionists should attack the principle of -non-resistance to evil by violence; for of all the doctrines dreaded -by despotism, and dangerous to its existence, this is the chief one. -Since the creation of the world the opposite principle of resistance -by violence has been the corner-stone of every despotic institution, -from the Inquisition to the fortress of Schluesselburg. - -Moreover, the Russian critics declared that the progress of -civilization itself would be checked were this commandment of -non-resistance applied to everyday life, by which they mean the -civilization of Europe, which is, according to them, the model for -all mankind. - -Such was the substance of Russian criticism. - -Foreign critics start from the same premises, but their deductions -differ somewhat from those of the Russian critics; not only are they -less captious and more cultivated, but their modes of analysis are -not the same. - -In discussing my book, and more particularly the gospel doctrine -as it is expressed in the Sermon on the Mount, the foreign critics -affirmed that the latter could not really be called Christian -doctrine (they believe that the Christian doctrine is embodied in -Catholicism or Protestantism), and that the precepts of the Sermon -on the Mount are only a series of the delightful but unpractical -visions of the "charmant docteur," as Renan says, suited to the -artless, half-civilized Galileans who lived 1800 years ago, or to -the Russian and semi-barbarous peasants, to Sutaev and Bondarev, and -to the Russian mystic Tolstoi, but which are by no means adapted to -the lofty plane of European culture. The foreign secular critics, in -a courteous way, in order not to wound my feelings, have endeavored -to show that my belief that mankind may be guided by so simple a -doctrine as the Sermon on the Mount arises partly from my limited -knowledge of history and ignorance of the many vain attempts to -carry out in daily life the principles of the Sermon on the Mount, -which history tells us have always proved an utter failure, and -partly from my misconception of the significance of our modern -civilization, with its Krupp guns, its smokeless powder, its African -colonization, its Home Rule, its parliaments, journalism, strikes, -and constitutions, not to mention the Eiffel Tower,--on which the -entire population of Europe is at present reposing. - -Thus wrote Voguee, thus wrote Leroy-Beaulieu, Matthew Arnold, the -American writer Talmage, who is also a popular preacher, the -free-thinker Ingersoll, and others. - -"The teaching of Christ is no longer practicable, because it does -not suit our industrial times," Ingersoll ingenuously remarks, and -thereby he no doubt gives utterance to the views which this cultured -generation holds in regard to the doctrine of Christ. The doctrine -has no affinity with the industrialism of the present age, as though -industrialism were a sacred institution which can suffer no change. -A drunkard might thus reply to one who calls upon him to be sober, -that a man in liquor finds such advice absurd. - -The arguments of all secular writers, Russian as well as foreign, -however varied in form or expression, are substantially alike; -they all agree in misapprehending the doctrine of Christ, with its -outcome of non-resistance, and in affirming that it is not expedient -because it implies a need of a change of life. - -The doctrine of life is inexpedient, because if we lived up to it -our lives could not go on as they have done hitherto; in other -words, if we were to begin to live like righteous men, as Christ -bids us, we must abandon the wicked ways to which we have grown -accustomed. So far from discussing the question of non-resistance of -evil by violence, the very mention of the fact that the precepts of -Christ include such a command is considered as sufficient proof of -the inexpediency of the whole doctrine. - -And yet it would seem necessary to offer some solution of this -question, as it lies at the root of all that most interests us. - -The question is how to settle these differences among men, when the -very action that is considered evil by one man is considered good by -another. It is no answer to say that I think an action evil although -my adversary may consider it a good one. There are but two ways of -solving the difficulty. One is to find a positive and indisputable -standard of evil, and the other is to obey the command, resist not -evil by violence. - -Men have tried to achieve the former from the earliest historical -ages, and we all know with what unsuccessful results. - -The second solution--that is, the non-resistance of what we must -consider evil until we have found a universal standard: that -solution has been suggested by Christ himself. - -It might be thought that the solution suggested by Christ was the -wrong one, and a better one might be substituted after the standard -had been found which is to define evil once and for all. One might -not know of the existence of such a question, as is the case with -the barbarous races, but no one can be permitted to pretend, -like the learned critics of the Christian doctrine, that no such -question does exist, or that the recognition of the right of certain -individuals or groups of individuals, and still less of one's own -right, to define evil, and to resist it by violence, decides the -question, because we all know that such a recognition does not -decide it at all, for there are always persons who will refuse to -admit that such a prerogative can exist. - -And yet this very acknowledgment, that anything that seems evil to -us is evil, or else an utter misconception of the question, affords -a basis for the conclusions of secular critics concerning the -doctrine of Christ; hence not only the utterances of the clerical, -but also those of the secular critics in regard to my book, have -made it evident to me that most men totally fail to comprehend -either the doctrine of Christ, or the questions which it is intended -to decide. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -MISCONCEPTION OF CHRISTIANITY BY NON-BELIEVERS - - The meaning of the Christian doctrine, which is clear for - the minority, has become unintelligible for the majority of - men--The cause of it is the false conception of Christianity - and the misguided assurance of believers, as well as of - unbelievers, that they apprehend it--The apprehension of - Christianity for believers is concealed by the Church--The - apprehension of Christianity--Its essence and its unlikeness - to the pagan doctrines--Misunderstood at first, it has grown - clear to those who embrace it owing to its correspondence with - the truth--Contemporaneously with it arose the assertion that - the true meaning of the doctrine was understood, and had been - confirmed by miraculous transmission--The Council of Disciples - according to the Acts--Authoritative and miraculous assertion - of the true conception of Christ's doctrine has found its - logical conclusion in the acknowledgment of the Credo and - the Church--The Church could not have been established by - Christ--Definition of Churches according to the Catechism--There - are various Churches, ever antagonistic to one another--Where is - heresy?--The work of Mr. Arnold concerning heresies--Heresies - are the sign of activity in the Churches--Churches always divide - mankind, and are ever inimical to Christianity--In what the - activity of the Russian Church consists--Matthew xxiv. 23--The - Sermon on the Mount, or the Credo--The Orthodox Church conceals - from the people the true meaning of Christianity--The same is - done by other Churches--All the contemporary external conditions - are such that they destroy the doctrine of the Church, and - therefore Churches use all their efforts to defend it. - - -The knowledge which I obtained after the publication of my book in -regard to the views which the minority of mankind have held, and -still hold, concerning the doctrine of Christ in its simplicity -and real significance, as well as the criticisms of clerical and -secular writers, who deny the possibility of apprehending it in -its actual meaning, have convinced me that while the minority has -not only always possessed a true conception of this doctrine, and -that this conception has grown steadily more and more clear, for -the majority, on the other hand, its sense has become more and more -vague, reaching at last such a degree of obscurity that men fail to -understand the simplest commands expressed in the Bible, even when -couched in the plainest possible language. - -The inability that prevails at the present time to comprehend the -doctrine of Christ in its true, simple, and actual meaning, when -its light has penetrated into the remotest recesses of the human -understanding, when, as Christ said, they proclaim from the roofs -that which He whispered in the ear; when this doctrine penetrates -every phase of human life, domestic, economical, civil, politic, and -international,--this failure to apprehend it would be inexplicable, -if one had not discovered the reasons for it. - -One of the reasons is, that believers as well as unbelievers are -perfectly sure that they long ago understood the doctrine of Christ -so completely, unquestionably, and finally, that it can have no -other meaning but the one which they attribute to it. That is -because the tradition of this false conception has been handed down -for ages,--and therefore its misconception. - -The most powerful stream of water cannot add one single drop to a -vessel that is already full. - -One might succeed in explaining to the dullest of men the most -difficult of problems, if he had no previous conception in regard to -them; but it is impossible to explain to the cleverest man even the -simplest matters, if he is perfectly sure that he knows everything -about it. - -The Christian doctrine appears to men of the present times to be a -doctrine of that kind, known for ages, and never to be questioned -in its most trivial details, and which is susceptible of no other -interpretation. - -At the present time Christianity is conceived by those who profess -the doctrines of the Church as a supernatural, miraculous revelation -of all that is expressed in the Credo; while unbelievers look upon -it as an affair of the past, a manifestation of the demand of -humanity for a belief in the supernatural, as an historical fact, -which has found its fullest expression in Catholicism, Orthodoxy, -and Protestantism, and which has for us no vital meaning. For the -believers the real significance of the doctrine is concealed by the -Church; for the unbelievers it is hidden by science. - -Let us begin by considering the former. - -Eighteen hundred years ago, in the pagan world of Rome, there -appeared a strange and novel doctrine, unlike any of its -predecessors, which was ascribed to the man Christ. - -It was a doctrine wholly new in form as well as in substance, both -for the Hebrew world, from whose midst it had sprung, as well as for -the Roman world, in whose midst it was preached and promulgated. - -Among the accurately defined religious precepts of the Jews, where, -according to Isaiah, there was precept upon precept, and among the -highly perfected Roman legislative assemblies, there appeared a -doctrine that not only repudiated all deities, all fear of them, -all augury and all faith in it, but also denied the necessity for -any human institutions whatsoever. Instead of the precepts and -creeds of former times, this doctrine presented only an image of -interior perfection, truth, and love in the person of Christ, and -the attainment of this interior perfection possible for men, and, as -a consequence, of the outward perfection foretold by the prophets: -the coming of the Kingdom of God, when all enmity shall cease, when -every man will hear the word of the Lord and be united with another -in brotherly love, and when the lion and the lamb shall lie down -together. Instead of threats of punishment for the non-observance of -the commandments of the old laws, religious no less than secular, -instead of tempting men by promise of rewards to observe these laws, -this doctrine attracted mankind only by proclaiming itself to be the -truth. - -"If any man will do his will, he shall know of the doctrine, whether -it be of God, or whether I speak of myself."--John vii. 17. - -"Which of you convinceth me of sin? And if I say the truth, why do -ye not believe me?"--John viii. 46. - -"But now ye seek to kill me, a man that hath told you the -truth...."--John viii. 40. - -"And ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you -free."--John viii. 32. - -God must be worshiped in truth. All the doctrine will be made plain -by the Spirit of Truth. Do as I command you, and you will know -whether what I say is the truth. - -No evidence was brought to prove the doctrine, except the truth and -its harmony therewith. The whole substance consisted in learning the -truth and in following its guidance, drawing nearer and nearer to it -in the affairs of everyday life. - -According to this doctrine, there is no mode of action that can -justify a man or make him righteous; as regards interior perfection -we have only the image of truth, in the person of Christ, to win our -hearts, and outward perfection is expressed by a realization of the -Kingdom of God. In order to fulfil the doctrine it needs but to take -Christ for our model, and to advance in the direction of interior -perfection by the road which has been pointed out to us, as well as -in that of exterior perfection, which is the establishment of the -Kingdom of God. The degree of human happiness, whether it be more -or less, depends, according to this doctrine, not on the degree -of perfection at which it arrives, but on the comparative rate of -progress toward that perfection. - -The advance toward perfection of Zacchaeus the publican, of the -adulteress, of the thief on the cross, is, according to this -doctrine, better than the stagnation of the righteous Pharisee. -The shepherd rejoices more over the one sheep which was lost and -is found than over the ninety and nine which are in the fold. The -prodigal returned, the piece of money which was lost and is found, -is more precious unto God than that which was never lost. - -According to this doctrine, each state is but a step on the road -toward the unattainable interior and exterior perfection, and -therefore it has no significance in itself. The progress of this -movement toward perfection is its merit; the least cessation of this -movement means the cessation of good works. - -"Let not thy left hand know what thy right hand doeth," and "No -man, having put his hand to the plow, and looking back, is fit for -the kingdom of God." "Rejoice not that the spirits are subject unto -you; but rather rejoice, because your names are written in heaven." -"Be ye therefore perfect, even as your Father which is in heaven is -perfect." "Seek ye first the kingdom of God and his righteousness." - -The fulfilment of the doctrine lies in a continual progress toward -the attainment of a higher truth, and in the growing realization of -that truth within one's self, by means of an ever increasing love; -as well as in a more and more keen realization of the Kingdom of -God in the world around us. It is evident that the doctrine that -appeared in the midst of the Hebrew and pagan world could not be -accepted by the majority of men, who lived a life so totally unlike -the one prescribed by this new doctrine; and even those who did -accept it could not comprehend its full meaning, because of its -contradiction of all former ideas. - -It is only through a series of misapprehensions, errors, one-sided -explanations, corrected and supplemented by generations of men, -that the meaning of the Christian doctrine has become more and more -plain. The Christian world-conception and that of the Hebrew and -pagan peoples mutually acted and reacted upon each other, and the -Christian principle being the more vital, it penetrated deeper and -deeper into the Hebrew and pagan principles that had outlived their -usefulness, and became more clearly defined, freeing itself from -the spurious admixtures imposed upon it. Men understood its meaning -better and better, and realized it more and more unmistakably in -life. - -The older the world grew, the more lucid became its apprehension of -Christianity, as must always be the case with any doctrine relating -to human life. - -Successive generations rectified the mistakes of the preceding ones -and approached nearer and nearer to the apprehension of its true -meaning. Thus it was from the very beginning of Christianity. And -it was then that certain men came to the front who affirmed that -the only true interpretation was the one which they themselves -proclaimed, adducing the miracles as a proof thereof. - -This was the principal cause of its misapprehension in the first -place, and of its complete perversion in the second. - -The doctrine of Christ was supposed to be transmitted to mankind not -like any other truth, but in a peculiar, supernatural manner; hence -they propose to prove its authority, not because it satisfies the -demands of reason and of human nature in general, but because of the -miraculous character of its transmission, which is supposed to be -an incontrovertible proof of the validity of its conception. This -idea sprang from a misconception, and the result was that it became -impossible to understand it. - -It originated at the very beginning, when the doctrine was so -imperfectly understood and often so erroneously construed; as, for -example, in the Gospels and the Acts. The less men understood it, -the more mysterious it appeared, and the greater need was there for -visible proof of its authenticity. The rule for doing unto others as -you would wish them to do unto you, called for no miraculous proof, -neither did it require faith, because the proposition is convincing -in itself, both to reason and to human nature. But the proposition -that Christ was God needed miraculous testimony. - -The more mystical grew the apprehension of Christ's teaching, the -more the miraculous element entered into it; and the more miraculous -it became, the farther it was from its original meaning; and the -more complicated, mystical, and remote from its original meaning it -came to be, the more necessary it was to declare its infallibility, -and the less intelligible it became. - -From the very beginning of Christianity one could see from the -Gospels, the Acts, and the Epistles how the misapprehension of the -doctrine called forth the necessity of proofs--miraculous and beyond -human intelligence. - -It dated from the time mentioned in the Acts, when the disciples -went up to Jerusalem to consult with the elders in regard to the -question that had arisen as to whether the uncircumcised and those -who abstained not from the meat offered to idols should be baptized. - -The very manner of asking the question showed that those who -discussed it misconceived the doctrine of Christ, who rejected all -external rites, such as the washing of the feet, purification, -fasts, and the Sabbath. It is said distinctly: "Not that which goeth -into the mouth defileth a man; but those things which proceed out -of the mouth come forth from the heart; and they defile the man." -And therefore the question in regard to the baptism of those not -circumcised could only arise among men who, loving their Teacher and -with the intuitive perception of the grandeur of his doctrine, could -not as yet comprehend its exact meaning. And so it was. - -And in proportion as the members of the assembly failed to -comprehend the doctrine, did they stand in need of an outward -affirmation of their incomplete conception. And in order to decide -the question, whose very proposal proves the misconception of -the doctrine, it was that in this assembly for the first time, -according to the description given in the Acts, were uttered those -awful words, productive of so much harm, by which the truth of -certain propositions has been for the first time confirmed: "For it -seemed good to the Holy Ghost, and to us;" that is to say, it was -a declaration that the truth of what they said was witnessed by a -miraculous participation of the Holy Ghost, that is--of God. - -But the assertion that the Holy Ghost--that is to say, God--had -spoken through the apostles, in its turn required proof. And -therefore it became necessary to declare that on the fiftieth day -the Holy Ghost, in the shape of fiery tongues, descended on those -who had made this assertion. [In the description the descent of the -Holy Ghost precedes the council, but the Acts were written much -later than either.] But the descent of the Holy Ghost must also -be proved, though it would be difficult to say why a fiery tongue -hovering over a man's head should be a proof of the truth of what -he says any more than the miracles, the cures, the resurrections, -the martyrdoms, and all the rest of those persuasive miracles with -which the Acts are filled, and which serve rather to repel than to -convince one of the truth of the Christian dogmas. The results of -these methods were such that the more pains they took to confirm -their statements, accumulating stories of miracles, the more the -doctrine itself deviated from its original meaning, and the less -intelligible it became. - -Thus it was from the beginning of the Christian era, and thus -it continued to increase, until in its own time it has reached -its logical consummation in the dogma of transubstantiation, the -infallibility of the Pope, the bishops, and Scriptures, which is -something utterly incomprehensible and nonsensical, requiring -a blind faith, not in God or Christ, nor even in the doctrine, -but a faith either in one person, as in Catholicism, or in many -persons, as in Orthodoxy, or in a book, as in Protestantism. The -more widely spread Christianity became, and the larger the number -of uninstructed men it received, the less it was understood, the -more the infallibility of its conceptions was insisted upon, -and the more slender grew the possibility of understanding its -true meaning. Already, about the time of Constantine, the entire -conception of the doctrine amounted to the _resume_ formulated by -the temporal power,--the outcome of discussions that took place in -the council,--to the Credo, in which it is said: I believe in this -and that, etc., and at the end, "in the one holy, Apostolic and -OEcumenical Church," that is, in the infallibility of the persons -who constitute it; so that it all amounted to this, that a man -believed not in God, nor in Christ, as they revealed themselves to -him, but in that which was believed by the Church. - -But the Church is holy, and was founded by Christ. God could not -allow men to interpret His doctrine as they chose, and therefore He -established the Church. All these propositions are so unjust and -unfounded, that one is actually ashamed to refute them. In no place, -and in no manner whatsoever, save in the assertion of the Church, -is it seen that either God or Christ can ever have founded anything -like the Church in its ecclesiastical sense. There is a distinct -and evident warning in the New Testament against the Church, as -an outside authority, in the passage which bids the disciples of -Christ call no man father or master. But nowhere is there a word -in regard to the establishment of what the ecclesiastics call the -Church. The word "church" is used in the New Testament twice, once -in speaking of the assembly which is to decide a dispute; the second -time in connection with the obscure words in regard to the rock, -Peter, and the gates of hell. From these two references, where the -word is used only in the sense of an assembly, men have derived the -institution which we recognize at present under the same of the -Church. - -But Christ could by no means have founded a church, that is, what we -understand by that word at the present time, because nothing like -our Church, as we know it in these days, with the sacraments, the -hierarchy, and above all the establishment of infallibility, was to -be found either in the words of Christ, or in the ideas of the men -of those times. - -Because men have called something which has been established since, -by the same word that Christ used in regard to another thing, by no -means gives them a right to assert that Christ founded only one true -Church. - -Moreover, if Christ had it in his mind to establish a church which -was to be the depository of the whole doctrine and faith, He would -surely have expressed this so plainly and clearly, and would have -given, apart from all stories of miracles which are repeated with -every variety of superstition, such signs as would leave no doubt as -to its authenticity; yet this was not the case, and now, as always, -one finds different institutions, each one calling itself the only -true Church. - -The Catholic catechism says: "L'Eglise est la societe des fideles -etablie par N.-S. Jesus-Christ, repandue sur toute la terre et -soumise a l'autorite de pasteurs legitimes, principalement notre -S.-P. le pape,"--meaning by "pasteurs legitimes,"[3] a human -institution made up of a number of men bound together by a certain -organization of which the Pope is the head. - - [3] The Church is the society of the faithful, established by our - Lord Jesus Christ, diffused throughout the world, subject to the - authority of its lawful pastors and our holy father the Pope. - -The Orthodox catechism says: "Our Church is a society established -on earth by Jesus Christ, united by the divine doctrine and the -sacraments under the government and direction of a hierarchy -established by the Lord,"--those words, "established by the Lord," -signifying a Greek hierarchy, composed of certain men who are -ordained to fill certain places. - -The Lutheran catechism says: "Our Church is a holy Christian society -of believers under Christ, our Master, in which the Holy Ghost, by -means of the Bible and the sacraments, offers, communicates, and -dispenses the divine salvation,"--meaning by that, that the Catholic -Church is in error, and has fallen away from grace, and that the -genuine tradition has been preserved in Protestantism. - -For Catholics the divine Church is identified with the Pope and -the Roman hierarchy. For the Orthodox it is identified with the -institution of the Eastern and Russian hierarchy.[4] For Lutherans -the divine Church signifies a congregation of men who acknowledge -the Bible and the Lutheran catechism. - - [4] The definition of Homiakov, which had a certain success among - the Russians, does not help the case, if one believes with him - that the Orthodox is the only true Church. Homiakov asserts that - a church is a society of men (without distinction between the - ecclesiastics and the laity) united by love, and to whom the truth - is revealed ("Let us love one another, that we may unanimously - profess," etc.), and that such a church is, in the first place, one - that professes the Nicene creed, and, secondly, one which, after - the division of the churches, refused to recognize the authority of - the Pope and the new dogmas. With such a definition as this, the - difficulty of identifying a church which is united by love with a - church professing the Nicene creed, and the accuracy of Photius, as - Homiakov would have it, is still greater. Hence the statement of - Homiakov that this church united by love, and therefore holy, is - the same as that of the Greek hierarchy, is still more arbitrary - than the assertions of the Catholics and the old Greek Orthodox - believers. If we admit the existence of the Church according to the - idea of Homiakov, that is, as a society of men united by love and - truth, then all that any man can say in regard to it, is that it - would be most desirable to be a member of that society,--if such - an one exists,--that is, to live in the spirit of love and truth; - but there are no outward manifestations by which one could either - acknowledge one's self, or recognize others as members of this holy - society, or exclude one's self from it, for there is no outward - institution to be found which corresponds to that idea. - -When those who belong to any one of the existing churches speak of -the beginnings of Christianity, they generally use the word "church" -in the singular, as though there had never been but one church. This -is quite unfair. The Church, which as an institution declares itself -to be the depository of infallible truth, did not arise until there -were already two. - -While the faithful still agreed among themselves, the congregation -was united, and there was no occasion for calling itself a church. -It was only when it separated into two hostile parties that each -party felt obliged to assert its possession of the truth by claiming -infallibility. - -During the course of the controversies between the two parties, -while each one claimed infallibility for itself and declared its -opponent heretical, arose the idea of the one church. - -We know that there was a church in the year 51, which granted -the admission of the uncircumcised, and we know it only because -there was another, the Jewish Church, which denied their right to -membership. - -If at the present time there is a Catholic Church which asserts -its infallibility, it is because there are other churches, namely, -the Greek Orthodox and the Lutheran, each one asserting its own -infallibility, and thus disowning all other churches. Hence the idea -of one church is but the product of the imagination, containing not -a shadow of reality. - -It is an historical fact that there have existed, and still continue -to exist, numerous bodies, each one of whom maintains itself to be -the true Church established by Christ, declaring at the same time -that all the others who call themselves churches are heretical and -schismatic. - -The catechisms of those churches which possess the greatest number -of communicants, the Catholic, the Orthodox, and the Lutheran, -express this in the plainest language. - -The Catholic catechism says: "Quels sont ceux qui sont hors de -l'Eglise? Les infideles, heretiques, et schismatiques."[5] By -schismatics it means the so-called Orthodox, and by heretics the -Lutherans; so that, according to the Catholic catechism, the Church -is composed only of Catholics. - - [5] Who are those outside the Church? The infidels, heretics, and - schismatics. - -In the so-called Orthodox catechism it says: "The name Church of -Christ means only the Orthodox Church, which has remained in perfect -union with the universal Church. As to the Roman Church and the -Protestant creeds" (they are not even called a church), "they cannot -belong to the one true Church, for they have separated themselves -from it." - -According to this definition the Catholics and the Protestants are -outside of the Church, and only the Orthodox are in it. - -The Lutheran catechism says: "Die wahre Kirche wird darein erkannt, -das in ihr das Wort Gottes lauter und rein ohne Menschenzusetzung -gelehrt und die Sacramenten treu nach Christ Einsetzung gewartet -werden."[6] - - [6] Thereby may be the true Church known that in it the word of God - is taught plainly and clearly, without human additions, and that - sacraments are administered faithfully according to the teaching of - Christ. - -According to this definition, those who have added anything -whatsoever to the teaching of Christ and the apostles, as the -Catholic and Greek Churches have done, are outside the Church, and -the Lutherans alone are in it. - -The Catholics assert that the Holy Ghost dwells perpetually with -their hierarchy; the Orthodox assert that the same Holy Ghost -resides also with them; the Arians claim that the Holy Ghost -manifests itself to them (and they have the same right to assert -this as have the prevailing religions of the present day); all the -denominations of Protestants--Lutherans, Reformed Presbyterians, -Methodists, Swedenborgians, and Mormons--assert that the Holy Ghost -manifests itself only with them. - -If the Catholics assert that the Holy Ghost during the separation of -the Arian and Greek Churches withdrew from the separating churches -and remained in the one true Church, then the Protestants of any -denomination whatsoever may assert with as much right that during -the separation of their Church from the Catholic, the Holy Ghost -left the Catholic Church and entered into their own. And this is -exactly what they do say. Every church professes to derive its creed -by an unbroken tradition from Christ and the apostles. And certainly -every Christian creed derived from Christ must have reached the -present generation through tradition of some sort. But this is no -proof that any one of these traditions embodies infallible truth, to -the exclusion of all others. - -Every branch proceeds from the root without interruption; but the -fact that each one comes from one root, by no means proves it to -be the only branch. And so it is in regard to the churches. The -proofs which each church offers of its apostolic succession, and -the miracles which are to prove its authenticity, are the same in -every case; consequently there is but one exact definition of what -is called a church (not the imaginary church which we may desire, -but the actual church which has really existed). The Church is a -body of men which lays claim to the exclusive possession of the -truth. All these various societies which were afterward transformed -by State authority into powerful organizations have really been the -chief obstacles to the diffusion of true Christianity. It could not -be otherwise: for the principal characteristic which distinguishes -the doctrine of Christ from those of earlier times is that the men -who accepted it strove to understand and to fulfil it more and more -perfectly; whereas the doctrine of the Church affirmed that it was -already thoroughly understood and also fulfilled. - -However strange this may seem to us, reared as we have been in the -false doctrine of the Church, as if it were a Christian institution, -and taught to despise heresy, it is nevertheless in that which men -call heresy that true progress, that is, true Christianity, was -manifested, and it only ceased to be such when these heresies were -checked, and it was, so to speak, stamped with the immutable imprint -of the Church. - -What, then, is heresy? Read all the theological works which treat of -heresies, of that subject which above all others calls for an exact -definition, for every theologian speaks of the true doctrine in the -midst of the false ones by which it is surrounded, and nowhere will -you find even the shadow of a definition of heresy. - -As an instance of the complete absence of the definition of what -is understood by the word heresy, we will quote the opinion of a -learned Christian historian, E. de Pressense in "Histoire du Dogme," -with its epigraph, "Ubi Christus, ibi Ecclesia" (Paris, 1869). This -is what he says in his preface (p. 4):-- - -"I know that they dispute our right to qualify thus" (that is, to -pronounce them heretical) "the tendencies which were so actively -resisted by the early Fathers. The very name of heresy seems an -attack upon liberty of conscience and thought. We cannot share -these scruples, for they would simply deprive Christianity of any -individual character." - -And having said that after Constantine the Church did in fact -abuse its authority to describe the dissenters as heretics and -to persecute them, he says, in speaking of the early ages of -Christianity: "The Church is a free association; there is an -advantage to be gained in separating from it. The controversy -against error is based on feelings and ideas; no uniform body of -dogma has as yet been adopted; differences of secondary importance -appear in the East and West with perfect freedom; theology is not -limited by unalterable formulas. If amid these varying opinions a -common groundwork of faith is discerned, have we not the right to -see in this, not a definite system devised and formulated by the -representatives of a school, but faith itself in its most unerring -instinct and spontaneous manifestation? If this very unanimity -which is revealed in the essential matters of faith is found to be -antagonistic to certain tendencies, have we not the right to infer -that these tendencies disagreed with the fundamental principles of -Christianity? Will not this supposition become a certainty if we -recognize in the doctrine rejected by the Church the characteristic -features of one of the religions of the past? If we admit that -gnosticism or ebionitism are legitimate forms of Christian thought, -we must boldly declare that Christian thought does not exist, nor -does it possess any specific characteristic by which it may be -recognized. We should destroy it even while pretending to enlarge -its limits. In the time of Plato no one would have dared to advocate -a doctrine which would leave no room for the theory of ideas, and he -would have been subjected to the well-deserved ridicule of Greece, -if he attempted to make of Epicurus or of Zeno a disciple of the -Academy. Let us then admit that if there exists a religion or a -doctrine called Christianity, it may have its heresies." - -The writer's argument amounts to this, that every opinion which does -not accord with the code of dogmas that we have professed at any -given time, is a heresy. At a certain time and in a certain place -men make a certain profession, but this profession can never be a -fixed criterion of the truth. All is summed up in the "Ubi Christus, -ibi Ecclesia," and Christ is wherever we are. - -Every so-called heresy which claims that what it professes is the -actual truth, may likewise find in the history of the Church a -consistent explanation of the faith it professes, and apply all -the arguments to its own use. Pressense simply calls his own creed -Christian truth, precisely as every heretical sect has done. - -The primary definition of the word heresy (the word +hairesis+ -means a part) is the name given by a society of men to any opinion -contradicting any part of the doctrine professed by the society. A -more specific meaning is an expression of an opinion which denies -the truth of the creed, established and maintained by the temporal -power. - -There is a remarkable, although little known, work entitled -"Unpartheyische Kirchen und Ketzer-Historie," 1729, by Gottfried -Arnold, which treats of this subject, and points out the illegality, -the perversity, the lack of sense, and the cruelty of employing the -word heresy in the sense of refutation. This book is an attempt to -relate the history of Christianity in the form of a history of -heresies. - -In his introduction the author asks a series of questions: (1) Of -those who make heretics (Von denen Ketzermachern selbst); (2) Of -those who have become heretics; (3) Of the subjects of heresy; (4) -Of the ways of making heretics; and (5) Of the aims and consequences -of the making of heretics. To each of these points he adds scores -of other questions, giving the answers from the works of well-known -theologians, but principally leaving it to the reader to draw his -own deductions from the contents of the book. As instances of -questions which are to a certain extent their own answers I will -quote the following:--Concerning the 4th question, of the methods -for making heretics, he asks in one of the questions (the 7th): -"Does not all history tend to show us that the greatest makers of -heretics, the adepts in the art, were those very wiseacres from -whom the Father concealed his secrets--that is, the hypocrites, the -Pharisees, and the Scribes, or utterly godless and evil-minded men? -(Question 20-21) And in the corrupted times of Christianity did -not the hypocrites and envious ones reject the very men, talented -and especially indorsed by the Lord, who would have been highly -esteemed in periods of pure Christianity? (21) And, on the other -hand, would not those men who during the decadence of Christianity -rose above all others, and set themselves up as teachers of the -purest Christianity, would not they, during the times of the -apostles of Christ and his disciples, have been considered as the -shameful heretics and anti-Christians?" Among other things, while -expressing the idea that the verbal declaration of the essence of -faith which was required by the Church, the abjuration of which was -regarded as a heresy, could never cover all the ideas and beliefs -of the faithful, and that hence the requirement that faith shall be -expressed by a certain formula of words is the immediate cause of -heresy, he says in the 21st question:-- - -"And supposing that holy acts and thoughts appear to a man so high -and so profound that he finds no adequate words wherewith to convey -them, should he be considered a heretic if he is unable to formulate -his conception? (33) And was not this the reason why there were no -heresies in the early times of Christianity, because Christians -judged each other, not by their words, but by their hearts and by -their deeds, enjoying a perfect freedom of expression, without the -fear of being called heretic?" "Was it not one of the convenient and -easiest methods of the Church," he asks in the 31st question, "when -the ecclesiastics wished to rid themselves of any one, or ruin his -reputation, to excite suspicion in regard to the doctrine he held, -and by investing him in the garment of heresy, condemn and cast him -out?" - -"Although it is true that among so-called heretics sins and errors -have been committed, it is no less true, as the numerous examples -here quoted bear testimony" (that is to say, in the history of -the Church and of heresies), "that there has never been a sincere -and conscientious man of any importance whose safety has not been -endangered through the envy of the ecclesiastics." - -This was the interpretation of heresy almost 200 years ago, and the -same meaning is attached to it to-day, and so long as the idea of -the Church shall exist it will never change. Where the Church exists -there must also exist the idea of heresy. The Church is a body of -men claiming possession of indisputable truth. A heresy is the -opinion of men who do not acknowledge the truth of the Church to be -indisputable. - -Heresy is the manifestation of a movement in the Church; it is -an attempt to destroy the immutable assertion of the Church, the -attempt of a living apprehension of the doctrine. Each advance that -has been made toward the comprehension and the practice of the -doctrine has been accomplished by heretics: Tertullian, Origen, -Augustine, and Luther, Huss, Savonarola, Helchitsky, and others were -all heretics. It could not be otherwise. - -A disciple of Christ, who possesses an ever growing sense of -the doctrine and of its progressive fulfilment as it advances -toward perfection, cannot, either for himself or others, affirm, -simply because he is a disciple of Christ, that he understands and -practises the doctrine of Christ to its fullest extent; still less -could he affirm this in regard to any body of men. To whatsoever -state of comprehension and perfection he may have arrived, he -must always feel the inadequacy both of his conception and of its -application, and must ever strive for something more satisfactory. -And therefore to claim for one's self, or for any body of men -whatsoever, the possession of a complete apprehension and practice -of the doctrine of Christ is in direct contradiction to the spirit -of Christ's doctrine itself. - -However strange this statement may appear, every church, as a -church, has always been, and always must be, an institution not -only foreign, but absolutely hostile, to the doctrine of Christ. It -is not without reason that Voltaire called it "_l'infame_"; it is -not without reason that all so-called Christian sects believe the -Church to be the Scarlet Woman prophesied by the Revelation; it is -not without reason that the history of the Church is the history of -cruelties and horrors. - -Churches in themselves are, as some persons believe, institutions -based upon a Christian principle, from which they have deviated to a -certain extent; but considered in the light of churches, of bodies -of men claiming infallibility, they are anti-Christian institutions. -Between churches in the ecclesiastical sense and Christianity, -not only is there nothing in common except the name, but they are -two utterly contradictory and hostile elements. One is pride, -violence, self-assertion, inertia, and death. The other is meekness, -repentance, submission, activity, and life. - -No man can serve these two masters at the same time; he must choose -either the one or the other. - -The servants of the churches of every creed, especially in these -modern times, strive to represent themselves as the partisans of -progress in Christianity; they make concessions, they try to correct -the abuses that have crept into the Church, and protest that it is -wrong to deny the principle of the Christian Church on account of -these abuses, because it is only through the medium of the Church -that unity can be obtained, and that the Church is the only mediator -between God and man. All this is untrue. So far from fostering the -spirit of unity, the churches have ever been the fruitful source of -human enmity, of hatred, wars, conflicts, inquisitions, Eves of St. -Bartholomew, and so on; neither do the churches act as the mediators -between God and man,--an office, moreover, quite unnecessary, and -directly forbidden by Christ himself, who has revealed his doctrine -unto each individual; it is but the dead formula, and not the living -God, which the churches offer to man, and which serves rather to -increase than diminish the distance between man and his Creator. -The churches, which were founded upon a misconception, and which -preserve this misconception by their immutability, must of necessity -harass and persecute any new conception, because they know, however -they may try to conceal it, that every advance along the road -indicated by Christ is undermining their own existence. - -Whenever one reads or listens to the essays and sermons in which -ecclesiastical writers of modern times belonging to the various -creeds discuss the Christian truths and virtues, when one hears -and reads these artificial arguments, these exhortations, these -professions of faith, elaborated through centuries, that now and -then sound sincere, one is almost ready to doubt if the churches can -be inimical to Christianity. "It cannot be possible that men like -John Chrysostom, Fenelon, Butler, and other Christian preachers, -could be inimical to it." One would like to say, "The churches may -have gone astray from Christianity, may have committed errors, but -they cannot have been hostile to it." But one must first see the -fruit before he can know the tree, as Christ has taught, and one -sees that their fruits were evil, that the result of their works has -been the distortion of Christianity; and one cannot help concluding -that, however virtuous the men may have been, the cause of the -church in which these men served was not Christian. The goodness -and virtue of certain individuals who served the churches were -peculiar to themselves, and not to the cause which they served. All -these excellent men, like Francis of Assisi and Francis de Sales, -Tichon Zadonsky, Thomas a Kempis, and others, were good men, even -though they served a cause hostile to Christianity; and they would -have been still more charitable and more exemplary had they not -yielded obedience to false doctrines. - -But why do we speak of, or sit in judgment on, the past, which may -be falsely represented, and is, in any event, but little known to -us? The churches, with their principles and their works, are not of -the past; we have them with us to-day, and can judge them by their -works and by their influence over men. - -What, then, constitutes their power? How do they influence men? What -is their work in the Greek, the Catholic, and in all the Protestant -denominations? and what are the consequences of such work? - -The work of our Russian so-called Orthodox Church is visible to all. -It is a factor of primary importance, which can neither be concealed -nor disputed. - -In what manner is the activity of the Russian Church -displayed,--that vast institution which labors with so much zeal, -that institution which numbers among its servants half a million of -men, and costs the people tens of millions? - -The activity of the Church consists in forcing, by every means in -its power, upon the one hundred millions of Russian people, those -antiquated, time-worn beliefs which have lost all significance, -and which were formerly professed by foreigners, with whom we had -nothing in common, beliefs in which nearly every man has lost -his faith, even in some cases those very men whose duty it is to -inculcate them. - -The endeavor to force upon the people those formulas of the -Byzantine clergy, marvelous to them and senseless to us, concerning -the Trinity, the Virgin, the sacraments, grace, and so forth, -embraces one province of the activity of the Russian Church; another -function is the encouragement given to idolatry, in the literal -sense of the word: the veneration of holy relics and holy images, -the sacrifices offered to them in the faith that they will hear and -grant prayers. I will pass over in silence what is written in the -ecclesiastical magazines by the clergy who possess a semblance of -learning and liberality, and will speak only of what is really done -by the clergy throughout the immense extent of Russia, among its one -hundred millions of inhabitants. What is it that is taught to the -people with such unremitting pains and endeavor, and with so much -earnestness? What is required of them for the sake of the so-called -Christian religion? - -I will start at the beginning, with the birth of the child. When -a child is born, we are taught that a prayer must be read over -the mother and child, in order to purify them, for without that -prayer the mother remains unclean. For that purpose, and facing the -ikons of the saints, whom the common people simply call gods, the -priest takes the infant in his arms, reads the exhortation, and by -that means he is supposed to cleanse the mother. Then the parents -are instructed, nay, even ordered, under penalty of punishment -in the event of non-compliance, to christen the child--that is, -to let the priest immerse it three times in the water, while -words unintelligible to all present are read, and still less -intelligible ceremonies are performed, such as the application of -oil to different parts of the body, the cutting of the hair, the -blowing and spitting of the sponsors at the imaginary devil. All -this is necessary to cleanse the child, and make a Christian of -him. Then the parents are told that the child must receive the -holy sacrament--that is, he is to swallow, in the form of bread -and wine, a particle of the body of Christ, by which means the -child will receive the blessing of Christ, and so on. Then they -are told that as the child grows it must be taught to pray, which -means that he is to stand in front of boards upon which the faces -of Christ, the Virgin, and the saints are painted, bow his head -and body, while with his right hand, his fingers being folded in -a peculiar manner, he touches his forehead, his shoulders, and -his stomach, and utters certain Slavonic words, the commonest of -which, those which all children learn, are the following: "Mother -of God, ... Virgin, rejoice," etc. Then the child is taught that he -must repeat this--that is, that he must make the sign of the cross -whenever he sees a church or an ikon. Furthermore, he is taught -that on a holiday (holidays are either the day on which Christ was -born, although no one knows when that took place, or the day of his -circumcision, or that on which the Virgin died, or when the cross or -the ikon was brought, or when some fanatic beheld a vision, etc.) he -should array himself in his best clothes, go to church, buy candles, -and set them up before the ikons of the saints, give to the priest -memoranda bearing the names of the dead who are to be prayed for, -receive bread with triangular pieces cut out of it, pray repeatedly -for the health and welfare of the Czar and bishops, as well as for -himself and his own affairs, and then kiss the cross and the hand of -the priest. - -Thus is he taught to pray; and besides this, he is also taught -that he must perform his devotions once a year. To perform one's -devotions means to go to church and tell one's sins to the priest, -it being assumed that this recital of one's sins to a stranger will -have a purifying effect on a man; then he is to swallow a spoonful -of bread and wine, which will purify him still more. Moreover, -men are told that if a man and woman desire to have their sexual -relation sanctified they must come to church, put crowns of metal -upon their heads, swallow some wine, walk three times round a table, -accompanied by the sound of singing, and this will make their sexual -relation holy and entirely different from any others. - -In daily life the observation of the following rules is enjoined: -to eat no meat nor drink no milk on certain days, to say _Te Deums_ -and _Requiems_ on certain other days, to invite the priest to -one's house on holidays and present him with money; to take from -the church several times a year boards upon which are painted the -images of the saints, and to carry them on towels through fields and -houses. Before death a man must without fail receive a spoonful of -bread and wine; and if there be time to be anointed with oil, that -is still better, for it insures his welfare in the future life. -After his death his relatives are told that, in order to save his -soul, it is well to place in his hand a printed prayer; it is also a -good thing to read a certain book over the dead, and for his name to -be mentioned in church at stated times. - -This is what constitutes every man's religious obligation. But -if any one wishes to take a special care of his soul, this creed -teaches that the greatest amount of happiness may be secured in -the next world by bequeathing money for churches and monasteries, -thereby obliging the saints to pray for one. According to this faith -it is also well to visit monasteries and kiss the miraculous ikons -and the relics. - -These are believed to impart a peculiar holiness, strength, and -grace; and to be near these objects, as one must be in kissing them, -placing tapers before them, crawling under them, and repeating _Te -Deums_ before them, greatly promotes salvation. - -And this is the faith called Orthodox, this is the true faith, -the one which, under the garb of a Christian religion, has been -energetically taught to the people for many centuries, and is -inculcated at the present time more vigorously than ever. - -Let it not be said that the Orthodox teachers look upon all this as -an ancient form of faith which it was not considered worth while -to abolish, and that the essence of the doctrine abides elsewhere. -This is not the truth. Throughout Russia, and lately with increased -energy, the entire Russian clergy teaches this faith, and this -alone. Nothing else is taught. Men may write about other doctrines -and discuss them in the capitals, but among the hundred million -inhabitants this, and only this, is taught. The ecclesiastics may -discuss other doctrines, but only this is what is taught. - -All this--the worship of relics and shrines--is included in theology -and the catechism; the people are carefully instructed in all this, -theoretically and practically, by every kind of solemnity, splendor, -authority, and violence; the people are compelled to believe in it -all; they are hypnotized, and the faith is jealously guarded against -any attempt to deliver them from these foolish superstitions. - -As I said in my book, I have during the course of many years had -frequent opportunities to remark the ridicule and rude jests -that have been applied to Christ's words and doctrine, and the -ecclesiastics not only failed to condemn it, they even encouraged -this scoffing; but let a man venture to say one disrespectful word -of the ugly idol called the Iverskaya,[7] sacrilegiously carried -around Moscow by intoxicated men, and a groan of indignation will -rise from these same Orthodox ecclesiastics. In fact, it is only an -external worship in the form of idolatry that is propagated. And -let it not be said that the one does not exclude the other, that -"All therefore whatsoever they bid you observe, that observe and do; -but do not ye after their works: for they say, and do not" (Matthew -xxiii. 3). This is said concerning the Pharisees, who fulfilled -all the outward commands of the law, and therefore the words, -"whatsoever they bid you observe, that observe and do," refer to -acts of benevolence and charity; whereas the words, "do not ye after -their works, for they say and do not," refer to their observances of -the rites and their indifference to works of charity, and directly -contradicts the clerical interpretation of this passage, which -explains it as a commandment which has to do only with the rites. An -external worship is hardly compatible with the service of charity -and truth; one is apt to exclude the other. It was so with the -Pharisees, and the same may be said of our professing Christians. - - [7] The ikon of the Virgin which stands in a chapel in the heart - of Moscow, and which is the object of a special veneration to the - Russians.--TR. - -If a man is to be saved by redemption, the sacraments, and prayer, -good works are no longer of any value to him. It must be either the -Sermon on the Mount or the Credo. No man can believe in both, and -the ecclesiastics have chosen the latter. The Credo is taught and -recited as a prayer in the churches, while the Sermon on the Mount -is excluded even from selections from the Bible which are read in -churches, so that the congregation never hear it, except on the days -when the entire Bible is read. It is inevitable; the men who can -believe that a cruel and unreasonable God had condemned humanity to -eternal death and sacrificed his own Son, and who had destined a -certain portion of mankind to everlasting torture, cannot believe -in a God of love. A man who believes in God, in the Christ who is -coming in his glory to judge and punish the dead and the living, -cannot believe in a Christ who commands us to turn the other cheek -to the offender, who forbids us to sit in judgment, and who bids us -to forgive our enemies and to love them. A man who believes in the -inspiration of the Old Testament and in the holiness of David, who -on his deathbed ordered the murder of an old man who had offended -him, and whom he could not kill himself because he was bound by -an oath (1 Kings ii. 8,9), and many other horrors of a similar -character, in which the Old Testament abounds, cannot believe in the -moral law of Christ; a man who believes in the doctrine and sermons -of the Church, wherein the practice of war and the penalty of death -are reconciled with Christianity, cannot believe in the brotherhood -of humanity. - -But, above all, a man who believes in salvation through faith, in -redemption, and in the sacraments, cannot strive with all his might -to live up to the moral precepts of Christ. A man who has been -taught by the Church the sacrilegious doctrine that he is to be -saved through a certain medium, and not by his own efforts, will -surely have recourse to that medium; he will not trust to his own -efforts, on which, he has been assured, it is sinful to rely. Every -Church, with its doctrines of redemption and salvation, and above -all, the Orthodox faith, with its idolatry, excludes the doctrine -of Christ. But it is said, "This has always been the faith of the -people, and that they will continue to hold it is proved by the -whole history of the Russian nation. It would be wrong to deprive -them of their traditions." Herein lies the fallacy. The people, -it is true, did once upon a time profess something like what is at -present professed by the Church; but besides this worship of images -and relics, the people had always a profound moral conception of -Christianity never possessed by the Church, and only met with in -her noblest representatives; but the people, in the better class, -and in spite of the obstacles raised by the State and the Church, -have long since abandoned the cruder phase of belief, a fact that -is proved by the rationalistic sects that are beginning to spring -up on every side, sects that Russia is filled with at the present -day, and against which the ecclesiastics wage so hopeless a warfare. -The people are beginning to recognize the moral, vital side of -Christianity more and more plainly. And now the Church appears, -failing to give them a moral support, but forcibly teaching old-time -paganism,--the Church, with its immutable formulas, endeavoring to -thrust men back into the gloom from which they are struggling so -earnestly to escape. - -The ecclesiastics say: "We are teaching nothing new; it is the same -faith which the people already hold, only we teach it in a more -perfect manner." It is like binding a chicken and trying to put it -back into the shell from which it came. I have often been struck by -the spectacle, which would be simply absurd were not its results so -terrible, of men traveling, so to speak, in a circle, deceived and -deceiving, but wholly unable to escape from the charmed circle. - -The first question, the first doubt, that enters the head of -every Russian when he begins to reason, is a suspicion of the -miraculous ikons, and principally of the relics: is it true that -they are incorruptible, and that they perform miracles? Hundreds -and thousands of men ask these questions, and are at a loss for an -answer, especially since bishops and metropolitans and other eminent -persons kiss both the relics and the miraculous images. Ask the -bishops and other personages of importance why they do this, and -they will tell you that they do it in order to impress the masses, -and the masses do it because the bishops and other magnates do it. - -The activity of the Russian Church, despite the veneer of modernity -and the scientific and spiritual standards which its members have -begun to establish by their essays, their religious reviews, and -their sermons, consists not only in encouraging the people in a -coarse and grotesque idolatry, but in strengthening and promulgating -superstition and religious ignorance, and in endeavoring to destroy -the vital conception of Christianity that exists in the people side -by side with this idolatry. - -I remember being once in a book-shop of the monastery of Optinae -Desert while an old peasant was selecting spiritual reading for -his educated grandson. The monk was offering him a description of -relics, of holy days, of miraculous ikons, the Book of Psalms, and -the like. I asked the old man if he had a Bible. "No," he replied. -"Give him a Russian Bible," I said to the monk. "We don't sell that -to them," said the monk. This, in short, is the activity of our -Church. - -But the European or American reader may say, "That only happens in -barbaric Russia," and the remark will be correct, but only so far as -it applies to the government, which supports the Church to maintain -in our land its stupefying and demoralizing influence. - -It is true that there is nowhere in Europe a government so despotic, -or that is in more perfect accord with the established Church. -Therefore in Russia the government authorities play an important -part in demoralizing the people; but it is not true that the Russian -Church differs from other churches in respect to its influence over -the people. - -Churches are everywhere alike, and if the Catholic, Anglican, and -Lutheran have not at their beck so submissive a government as the -Russian, we may be sure that they would not fail to take advantage -of it were it within their reach. - -The Church as a church, whether it be Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran, -or Presbyterian, or any denomination whatsoever, inasmuch as it is -a church, cannot help striving after the same object as the Russian -Church--namely, to conceal the true meaning of the doctrine of -Christ, and to substitute a meaning of its own, which imposes no -obligations, which excludes the possibility of understanding the -true, living doctrine of Christ, and which above all justifies the -existence of a priesthood living at the expense of the people. - -Do we not find Catholicism with its prohibition against reading the -Bible, and with its demand for implicit obedience to the clergy -and the infallible Pope? Wherein does Catholicism differ in its -preaching from the Russian Church? The same external worship, the -same relics, miracles, and statues, miracle-performing Madonnas -and processions; the same vague and mystical utterances concerning -Christianity in books and sermons, and all in support of the -grossest idolatry. - -And is it not the same in the Anglican or in the Lutheran, or in any -other Protestant denomination with an established form of church? - -The same demands that the congregation shall acknowledge a belief in -dogmas which were defined in the fourth century, and which have lost -all meaning for the men of our time; the same call for idol worship, -if not of relics or ikons, at least of the Sabbath and the letter -of the Bible; the same endeavor to conceal the real requirement of -Christianity and the substitution of exterior rites, and "cant," as -the English so happily define the tendency which finds such sway -among them. - -This activity is more noticeable in Protestantism, because that -creed has not even the excuse of antiquity. And is not the same -thing going on in the present "Revivalism," a regenerated Calvinism, -which has given birth to the Salvation Army? Inasmuch as the -attitude of all ecclesiastical dogmas toward the doctrine of Christ -is very much the same, so are their methods of a similar character. - -The attitude they have taken obliges them to make every effort to -conceal the doctrine of that Christ in whose name they speak. - -The disparity between ecclesiastical creeds and the doctrine of -Christ is so great that a special effort is required to keep mankind -in ignorance. Indeed, one needs but to consider the position of -any adult, I do not say educated, but one who has assimilated -superficially the current notions concerning geology, physics, -chemistry, cosmography, and history, when for the first time he -actually reflects on the faith impressed upon him in his childhood, -and maintained by the Church, concerning the creation of the world -in six days, the appearance of light before the sun was created, the -story of Noah's ark and the animals preserved in it,--concerning -Jesus and his divine origin as the Son of God who created all things -before time existed; that this God came down to earth because of -Adam's sin; that he rose from the dead, ascended into heaven, and -sits on the right hand of the Father; that he will come in the -clouds to judge the living and the dead, etc. - -All these ideas evolved by the men of the fourth century, which had -for them a certain meaning, have none whatever for us. The present -generation may repeat these words, but it can never believe in them, -because the statements that God dwells in heaven, that the heavens -opened and a voice was heard to utter certain words, that Christ -arose from the dead and ascended into heaven, that he will come -again from some place in the clouds, etc., have no meaning for us. - -It was possible for a man who believed that heaven was a substantial -arch of limited dimensions to believe or to disbelieve that God -created it, that it opened, and that Christ ascended thither,--but -for us there is no sense in such ideas. Men of our time can only -affirm that it is one's duty to believe all this,--which they do. -But they cannot really believe in what has no meaning in it for them. - -But if all these utterances are supposed to have an allegorical -signification and are only intended as similes, then we know in the -first place that all the churchmen will not agree to this--on the -contrary, the majority insist on taking the Scriptures literally; -and in the second place, that these interpretations differ greatly, -and are supported by no reliable authority. - -And even if a man wished to believe the doctrine of the Church as -it is taught, the increase of culture, the reading of the Bible, -and the intercourse among the members of different churches, form a -greater and more insurmountable obstacle to belief. - -Nowadays a man has but to buy the Bible for threepence, and to read -the simple, indisputable words of Christ to the Samaritan woman, -that the Father seeketh worshipers neither in Jerusalem nor in this -or that mountain, but worshipers in spirit and truth; or the words, -that a Christian should pray not like the heathen in the temples, -nor at the corners of streets, but in the secrecy of his closet; or, -that a disciple of Christ may call no one father or mother,--one has -but to read these words to be indubitably convinced that priests who -call themselves teachers in opposition to the teaching of Christ, -and dispute among themselves, cannot be authorities, and that that -which they teach is not Christian. - -But this is not enough. If the modern man were to go on believing -in miracles and never read the Bible, the fellowship with men of -other creeds and professions, which is so much a matter of course in -these days, will compel him to question the truth of his religion. -It was natural enough for a man who had never met a believer in a -creed different from his own, to think that his was the only faith; -but an intelligent man has but to encounter--and that is an everyday -occurrence--good and bad men of all creeds, who criticize each -other's beliefs, in order to question the truth of his own religion. -Now, only a man either totally ignorant or indifferent to the -problems of life as dealt with by religion can remain in the faith -of the Church. - -What shrewdness is needed, and what efforts must the churches make, -in order to go on, in the face of all these faith-destroying -influences, building temples, saying masses, preaching, instructing, -converting, and above all receiving for this the large compensations -which all those priests, pastors, stewards, superintendents, abbots, -archdeacons, bishops, and archbishops receive! - -A special and supernatural effort is called for, and to this the -Church responds, exerting herself more and more. In Russia, besides -many other measures, they employ a simple, rude violence, by virtue -of the power invested in the Church. People who shrink from an -outward observance of faith and who do not conceal the fact are -simply punished or deprived of their civil rights; and to those who -strictly comply with the rites, privileges and rewards are granted. - -So much for the Orthodoxy; but every church, without exception, -makes the most of the means at its disposal, and hypnotism is one of -the chief agents. - -Every art, from architecture to poetry, is enlisted, in order to -move and intoxicate the human soul. This hypnotic and mesmerizing -influence is markedly displayed in the activity of the Salvation -Army, which employs novel, and to us abnormal, methods, such, for -instance, as drums, horns, singing, banners, uniforms, processions, -dancing, outbursts of tears, and dramatic gestures. - -Still, these methods are startling simply because of their novelty. -Is not the familiar form of worship in cathedrals, with their -peculiar illumination, the golden pomp, the candles, choirs, organs, -bells, vestments, the weeping preachers, etc., of a similar nature? -And yet, however powerful may be the influence of this hypnotism, -it is by no means the chief or most harmful form which the activity -of the Church assumes. Its most malign activity is that which is -devoted to deceiving the children--those little ones of whom Jesus -has said, "Woe be unto him who tempts the least of these." From -the earliest awakening of a child's intelligence he is deceived -and formally taught that which his teachers no longer believe -themselves, and this goes on until the delusion becomes from habit -a part of his nature. A child is systematically deceived concerning -the most important affair in life, and when this deception has -become so incorporated with his being that it is difficult to uproot -it, then the world of science and reality is opened to him--a world -that is wholly at variance with the faith which he has imbibed from -his teachers--and he is left to reconcile those contradictions as -best he may. - -Given the problem of how to muddle a man so that he will be unable -to discriminate between two antagonistic conceptions that have been -taught to him since his childhood, one could never have devised -anything more effectual than the education of every young man in our -so-called Christian society. - -Shocking as it is to contemplate the work of the churches among men, -still, if we consider their position, we shall see that they cannot -act otherwise. They are face to face with a dilemma: the Sermon on -the Mount or the Nicene creed; the one excludes the other. If a man -sincerely believes the Sermon on the Mount, the Nicene creed must -inevitably lose all its meaning for him, and the same would hold -true as regards the Church and its representatives; but if a man -accepts the Nicene creed, that is to say, the Church, or those who -call themselves its representatives, then he will find no use for -the Sermon on the Mount. Hence it is incumbent on the churches to -make every effort to obscure the meaning of the Sermon on the Mount -and to endeavor to draw the people toward them. It is only due to -their intense activity in that direction that the influence of the -churches has not decreased. Let the Church but pause in this effort -to influence the masses by hypnotizing men and deceiving children -for ever so short a time, and men will comprehend the doctrine -of Christ, and this comprehension will do away with churches and -their influence. Therefore the churches cease not for one moment -their compulsory activity through the hypnotism of adults and the -deception of children. And it is this activity of the churches that -gives people a false conception of Christ's doctrine, and prevents -the majority of men, the so-called believers, from understanding it. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -MISCONCEPTION OF CHRISTIANITY BY SCIENTISTS - - The relation of scientists to religions in general--What - are religions, and their significance to human life--Three - conceptions of life--The Christian doctrine is the expression of - the divine life-conception--The misconception of Christianity - by scientists who study its outward manifestations due to - the fact that they consider it from the standpoint of the - social life-conception--Opinion resulting therefrom, that - the teaching of Christ is exaggerated and unpractical--The - expression of the life-conception of the gospel--Erroneous - judgments of scientists concerning Christianity are based upon - the assurance that they possess an infallible criterion of - knowledge--Hence arise two misapprehensions in regard to the - Christian doctrine--The first misapprehension concerning the - impracticability of the doctrine arises from the fact that the - Christian doctrine presents a conduct of life different from - that of the social life-conception--Christianity offers not a - rule, but an ideal--Christ adds the consciousness of a divine - power to that of an animal power--Christianity seems to exclude - the possibility of life only when the indication of the ideal - is taken for the rule--An ideal cannot be belittled--According - to the doctrine of Christ, life is movement--The ideal and - the commandments--The second misapprehension arises from the - attempt to replace the love of God and His service by the love - and service of humanity--Scientists believe that Christianity - and their doctrine concerning the service of humanity are - identical--The doctrine of love toward humanity has for its - foundation the social life-conception--The love for humanity - which springs logically from love for the individual has no - meaning, because humanity is a fiction--Christian love springing - from the love of God has for its object not only humanity but - the whole world--Christianity teaches a life in accordance with - its divine nature--It indicates that the essence of a man's soul - is love, and that its good is obtained from its love of God, - whom he feels to be within him through love. - - -Let us now turn our attention to another fallacious conception of -Christianity, which is antagonistic to its actual principles,--the -scientific conception. - -The Christianity of the churchmen is something which they have -evolved for themselves, and which they believe to be the only true -interpretation of Christian doctrine. - -The scientists take the professions of faith of the various -churches for Christianity, and assuming that these dogmas embody -an exhaustive definition of Christian doctrine, they affirm that -Christianity has had its day. - -One needs but to take into consideration the important part -which all religions, and especially Christianity, have played in -the life of man, and the significance which science attaches to -them, to see at once how impossible it would be to obtain any just -apprehension of Christian doctrine through these conceptions. As -each individual must possess certain impressions in regard to the -meaning of his life, and, though often unconsciously, conform his -conduct thereunto, so mankind in the aggregate, or groups of men -living under the same conditions, must likewise possess a conception -of the meaning of their common life and its consequent activities. -As an individual passing from one period of life to another -inevitably changes his ideas, the point of view of a grown-up man -differs from that of a child, so also mankind in the aggregate--the -nation--inevitably, and in conformity with its age, changes its -views of life and the activity that springs therefrom. - -The difference in this respect between an individual and mankind -in general lies in the fact that while the individual, in forming -his conception of the significance and responsibilities of that new -period of life upon which he is about to enter, may avail himself of -the advice of his predecessors who have already passed that stage, -mankind can have no such advantage, because it is advancing along an -unbeaten track and there is no one of whom it can ask for the clue -to the mystery of life, or how it shall demean itself under these -unfamiliar conditions to which no nation has ever yet been subjected. - -The married man with a family of children will not continue to -view life as he did when he was a child; neither is it possible -for mankind, with the many changes that have taken place,--the -density of the population, the constant intercourse of nations, -the perfected means of combating the forces of nature, and the -increase of knowledge generally,--to view the life of the present -day in the light of the past; hence it becomes necessary to evolve -a life-conception from which activities corresponding with a new -system which is to be established will naturally develop. - -And this need is supplied by that peculiar capacity of the race for -producing men able to impart a new significance to human life,--a -significance developing a different set of activities. - -The birth of the life-conception, which always takes place when -mankind enters upon new conditions and its subsequent activities, is -what we call religion. - -Therefore, in the first place, religion is not, as science regards -it, a phenomenon which formerly traveled hand in hand with the -development of mankind, and which has since been left behind; on the -contrary, it is a phenomenon inherent to human existence itself, and -never more distinctly manifested than at the present day. In the -second place, religion defines future rather than past activities; -therefore it is evident that an investigation of the phenomena of -the past can by no means touch the essence of religion. - -The longing to typify the forces of nature is no more the essence -of religion than is the fear of those same forces, or the need of -the miraculous and its outward manifestations, as the scientists -suppose. The essence of religion lies in the power of man to -foreknow and to point out the way in which mankind must walk. It is -a definition of a new life which will give birth to new activities. - -This faculty of foreknowledge concerning the destiny of humanity -is more or less common, no doubt, to all people; still from time -to time a man appears in whom the faculty has reached a higher -development, and these men have the power clearly and distinctly -to formulate that which is vaguely conceived by all men, thus -instituting a new life-conception from which is to flow an unwonted -activity, whose results will endure for centuries to come. Thus far -there have been three of these life-conceptions; two of them belong -to a bygone era, while the third is of our own time and is called -Christianity. It is not that we have merged the various conceptions -of the significance of life into three arbitrary divisions, but that -there really have been but three distinct conceptions, by which the -actions of mankind have been influenced, and save through these we -have no means of comprehending life. - -These three life-conceptions are--firstly, the individual or animal; -secondly, the social or pagan; and thirdly, the universal or divine. - -According to the first of these, a man's life is his personality, -and that only, and his life's object is to gratify his desires. -According to the second, his life is not limited to his own -personality; it includes the sum and continuity of many -personalities,--of the family, of the race, and of the State, -and his life's object is to gratify the will of the communities -of individuals. And according to the third, his life is confined -neither to his personality nor to that of the aggregate of -individuals, but finds its significance in the eternal source of all -life,--in God Himself. - -These three life-conceptions serve as the basis for the religions of -every age. - -The savage sees life only through the medium of his own desires. He -cares for nothing but himself, and for him the highest good is the -full satisfaction of his own passions. The incentive of his life is -personal enjoyment. His religion consists of attempts to propitiate -the gods in his favor, and of the worship of imaginary deities, who -exist only for their own personal ends. - -A member of the pagan world recognizes life as something concerning -others besides himself; he sees it as concerning an aggregate of -individuals,--the family, the race, the nation, the State, and is -ready to sacrifice himself for the aggregate. The incentive of his -life is glory. His religion consists in honoring the chiefs of his -race, his progenitors, his ancestors, his sovereigns, and in the -worship of those gods who are the exclusive patrons of his family, -his tribe, his race, and his State.[8] - - [8] The unity of this social and pagan life-conception is by no - means destroyed by the numerous and varied systems which grow out of - it, such as the existence of the family, of the nation, and of the - State, and even of that life of humanity conceived according to the - theory of the Positivists. - - These multifarious systems of life are based upon the fundamental - idea of the insignificance of the individual, and the assurance that - the meaning of life is to be sought and found only in humanity, - taken in its broadest sense.--AUTHOR. - -The man who possesses the divine life-conception neither looks upon -life as centered in his own personality nor in that of mankind at -large, whether family, tribe, race, nation, or State; but rather -does he conceive of it as taking its rise in the eternal life of -God, and to fulfil His will he is ready to sacrifice his personal, -family, and social well-being. Love is the impelling motive of his -life, and his religion is the worship, in deed and in truth, of the -beginning of all things,--of God Himself. - -History is but the transcript of the gradual transition from the -animal life-conception of the individual to the social, and from -the social to the divine. The history of the ancients for thousands -of centuries, culminating in that of Rome, is the history of the -evolution from the animal life-conception of the individual to that -of society and the State. From the advent of Christianity and the -fall of Imperial Rome we have the history of that change which is -still going on from the social to the divine life-conception. - -The latter, together with the Christian doctrine which is based -upon it, and by which our lives are shaped, and our activities, -both practical and scientific, are quickened, is regarded by the -pseudo-scientists, who judge it only by its outward signs, as -something outlived, which has lost all meaning for us. - -According to scientists this doctrine is embodied in the dogmas -of the Trinity, the Redemption, the miracles, the Church and its -sacraments, etc., and is only one of the many religions which have -arisen during the progress of human history, and now, having played -its part and outlived its time, is vanishing before the dawn of -science and true enlightenment. - -The grossest of human errors spring in most cases from the fact -that men who stand on a low intellectual plane, when they encounter -phenomena of a higher order, instead of trying to rise to the -higher plane from which these phenomena may be fitly regarded, and -making an effort to understand them, judge them by their own low -standard, and the less they know of what they speak, the more bold -and determined are their judgments. - -Most scientists, who treat of the moral doctrine of Christ from the -lower standpoint of a social life-conception, regard it as nothing -more than an amalgam without cohesion of the asceticism of India -with the doctrine of the Stoics and Neo-Platonists, and of vague -anti-social dreams, devoid of all serious meaning in these latter -days; they simply see its outward manifestation in the form of -dogmas in Catholicism, in Protestantism, and in its struggle with -the powers of the world. Interpreting the design of Christianity -from its outward aspects, they are like unto deaf men, who judge -of the meaning and excellence of music by the movements of the -musicians. - -Hence it is that all such men, from Comte and Strauss to Spencer -and Renan, not understanding the purport of Christ's words, knowing -nothing whatever of their intention, ignorant of the question -to which they serve as an answer, and taking no pains to learn -it,--such men, if they are inimical to Christianity, utterly deny -the sense of the doctrine; but if they are leniently inclined, then, -from the height of their superior wisdom, they amend it, taking for -granted that Christ would have said what they think He meant, had He -known how to express himself. They treat His doctrine just as men -of overweening self-conceit treat their inferiors, correcting them -in their speech: "You mean so and so." And the spirit of emendation -is always such as to reduce the doctrine of the higher, the divine -life-conception, to that of the lower and the social conception. - -It is usually admitted that the moral teaching of Christianity -is good but exaggerated; that in order to make it perfect, its -hyperboles, which are incompatible with our present mode of life, -should be discarded. "A doctrine which requires so much that is -impracticable is more hurtful than one which demands of men only -what is in proportion to their strength." Thus declare the learned -interpreters of Christianity, thus unwittingly reiterating the -assertion of those who misunderstood the Christian doctrine long -years ago, and crucified the Master. - -The Hebrew law, "An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth," the -retributive justice known to mankind thousands of years ago, seems -far better suited to the court of contemporary scientists than the -law of love which Christ preached 1800 years ago, and which was to -replace this identical law of justice. - -It would seem that every action of those men who accepted the -teaching of Christ in its literal sense, and lived up to it, all the -words and deeds of sincere Christians, and all the agencies which, -under the guise of socialism and communism, are now transforming -the world, are merely exaggeration, not worth discussing. Nations -which have lived under Christian influences, and which are now -represented by their advanced thinkers, the scientists, have -arrived at the conclusion that the Christian doctrine is a matter -of dogma; that its practical teaching has been a mistake and an -exaggeration, inimical to the just requirements of morality that -are in accord with human nature, and that the very doctrine which -Christ repudiated, and for which he substituted a dogma of his own, -is far better suited to us. The scientist considers the commandment -of non-resistance to evil by violence an exaggeration, and even an -act of folly. It would be far better, in his opinion, to reject it, -never dreaming that it is not the doctrine of Christ which he is -controverting, but something which he assumes to be the doctrine in -question. He does not realize when he says that the commandment of -non-resistance in the doctrine of Christ is an exaggeration, that -he is like one who, teaching the theory of the circle, declares -that the equality of the radii is an exaggeration. It is just as -if one who has no idea of the form of a circle were to affirm that -the law which requires that each point of its circumference shall -be equidistant from its center, is an exaggeration. As a suggestion -to reject or modify the proposition concerning the equality of the -radii of a circle signifies an ignorance in regard to the circle -itself, so also does the idea of rejecting or modifying, in the -practical teaching of Christ, the commandment of non-resistance to -evil by violence signify a misunderstanding of the doctrine. - -And those who entertain these views do not really comprehend the -doctrine. They do not understand that it is the unfolding of a new -conception of life, corresponding to the new phase of existence -upon which the world entered 1800 years ago, and a definition of -the new activity to which it gave birth. Either they do not believe -that Christ said what He meant to say, or that what is found in the -Sermon on the Mount and elsewhere He said either from His enthusiasm -or lack of wisdom and simplicity of character.[9] - - [9] Here, for example, is a characteristic expression of opinion - in the American periodical, _The Arena,_ for November, 1890, - from an article entitled "New Basis of Church Life." Discussing - the significance of the Sermon on the Mount, and especially the - doctrine of non-resistance to evil, the author, having no reason for - obscuring its meaning as the ecclesiastics do, says:-- - - "Devout common sense must gradually come to look upon Christ - as a philanthropic teacher, who, like every enthusiast who - ever taught, went to an Utopian extreme in his own philosophy. - Every great agitation for the betterment of the world has been - led by men who beheld their own mission with such absorbing - intensity that they could see little else. It is no reproach to - Christ to say that he had the typical reformer's temperament; - that his precepts cannot be literally accepted as a complete - philosophy of life; and that men are to analyze them reverently, - but, at the same time, in the spirit of ordinary truth-seeking - criticism," etc. - - "Christ did in fact preach absolute communism and anarchy; but," - and so on. Christ would have been glad to have expressed Himself - in more fitting terms, but He did not possess our critical - faculty in the use of exact definitions, therefore we will set - Him right. All He said concerning meekness, sacrifice, poverty, - and of taking no thought for the morrow, were but haphazard - utterances, because of His ignorance of scientific phraseology. - - Matt. vi. 25-34.--25. _Therefore I say unto you, Take no thought - for your life, what ye shall eat, or what ye shall drink; nor - yet for your body, what ye shall put on. Is not the life more - than meat, and the body than raiment?_ - - 26. _Behold the fowls of the air: for they sow not, neither - do they reap, nor gather into barns; yet your heavenly Father - feedeth them. Are ye not much better than they?_ - - 27. _Which of you by taking thought can add one cubit unto his - stature?_ - - 28. _And why take ye thought for raiment? Consider the lilies of - the field, how they grow; they toil not, neither do they spin:_ - - 29. _And yet I say unto you, That even Solomon in all his glory - was not arrayed like one of these._ - - 30. _Wherefore, if God so clothe the grass of the field, which - to-day is, and to-morrow is cast into the oven, shall he not - much more clothe you, O ye of little faith?_ - - 31. _Therefore take no thought, saying, What shall we eat? or, - What shall we drink? or, Wherewithal shall we be clothed?_ - - 32. _(For after all these things do the Gentiles seek:) for your - heavenly Father knoweth that ye have need of all these things._ - - 33. _But seek ye first the kingdom of God, and his - righteousness; and all these things shall be added unto you._ - - 34. _Take therefore no thought for the morrow: for the morrow - shall take thought for the things of itself. Sufficient unto the - day is the evil thereof._ - - Luke xii. 33-34.--33. _Sell that ye have, and give alms; provide - yourselves bags which wax not old, a treasure in the heavens - that faileth not, where no thief approacheth, neither moth - corrupteth._ - - 34. _For where your treasure is, there will your heart be also._ - - Matt. xix. 21.--"_Go and sell that thou hast, and give to the - poor, and thou shalt have treasure in heaven: and come and - follow me._" - - Mark viii. 34.--"_Whosoever will come after me, let him deny - himself, and take up his cross, and follow me._" - - John iv. 34.--"_My meat is to do the will of him that sent me, - and to finish his work._" - - Luke xxii. 42.--"_Not my will, but thine, be done._" - - _Not what I wish, but what Thou wishest, and not as I wish, but - as Thou wishest. Life consists in doing not your own will, but - the will of God._ - -All these doctrines are regarded by men who adhere to the lower -life-conception as expressions of enthusiastic exaltation, with no -special reference to daily life. And yet these doctrines are no less -the natural outcome of the Christian life-conception than is the -idea of giving one's labor for the common good, or of sacrificing -one's life to defend one's country, the outcome of the social -life-conception. - -As the believer in the social life-conception says to the savage: -"Rouse yourself! Consider what you are doing! The life that man -lives for himself alone cannot be the true one, for life is fleeting -and full of woe. It is the life of the community at large, the -race, the family, the State, that endures: therefore a man must -sacrifice his personality for the life of the family and the State;" -Christianity in like manner says unto him who believes in a social -life-conception of the community: "Repent, +metanoeta+, that -is, arouse yourself, consider your ways, else shall you perish. Know -you that this bodily, animal life is born to-day and dies to-morrow; -nothing can assure its permanence, no outward expedients, no system -whatsoever can give it stability. Consider your ways and learn that -the life you live is not the real life, that neither family, social, -nor State life will save you from perdition. An honest rational -life is possible for man provided that he be, not a participant -of the life of the family or life of the State, but a partaker of -the source of all life--that of the Father Himself; then his life -is united to the life of the Father." Such is beyond a doubt the -meaning of the Christian conception of life, clearly set forth in -every maxim of the New Testament. - -One may not share such a conception of life, one may deny it, or -prove it to be inaccurate and fallacious; but no man can possibly -judge a doctrine without having first made himself familiar with the -life-conception which forms its basis; and still more impossible is -it to judge a lofty subject from a low standpoint, to pronounce upon -the belfry from a knowledge of the foundation. Yet this is precisely -what is done by contemporary scientists. And this is because they -are laboring under an error similar to that of the clergy, in -believing that they possess such infallible methods of studying -their subject that, if they but bring their so-called scientific -methods to bear upon the subject under consideration, there can be -no doubt as to the accuracy of their conclusion. - -The possession of a guide to knowledge, which they believe to be -infallible, is really the chief obstacle to the comprehension of -the Christian doctrine among unbelievers and so-called scientists, -by whose opinions the great majority of unbelievers, the so-called -educated classes, are guided. All the errors of the scientists -concerning Christianity, and especially two strange misapprehensions -that avail more than anything else to blind men to its real -signification, arise therefrom. - -One of these misapprehensions is that the doctrine of a Christian -life not being practical, it remains optional with the individual -whether he take it for his guide or no; and if he chooses to do -so, it may then be modified to suit the exigencies of our social -life. The second misapprehension is that the Christian doctrine of -love of God, and therefore of the service due to Him, is a mystical -requirement, neither clearly expressed nor offering any well-defined -object of love: consequently the more definite and intelligible -doctrine of love of man and of the service of humanity may be -substituted for it. - -The first misapprehension which relates to the impracticability of -the Christian doctrine arises from the fact that men who believe in -the social life-conception, not comprehending the rule obeyed by -men who hold the Christian doctrine, and mistaking the Christian -standard of perfection for the guiding principle of life, believe -and declare that it is impossible to follow the teaching of Christ, -because implicit obedience to this doctrine would end by destroying -life. "If man were to fulfil the precepts of Christ, he would -destroy his life; and if all the world were to fulfil them, the -human race would soon become extinct. If you were to take no thought -for the morrow, neither of what ye shall eat or drink, nor what -ye shall put on; if one may not resist evil by violence or defend -one's life, nor even give up one's life for his friend; if one is to -preserve absolute chastity, mankind could not long exist;" so they -believe and affirm. - -And they are right, if one takes the incentives to perfection -offered by the teaching of Christ as laws which each man must obey, -just as, for instance, in the social order every man must pay his -taxes, and some must serve in the courts of law, and so on. - -The misapprehension consists in overlooking the fact that the -doctrine of Christ, and the doctrine formulated by a lower -life-conception, guide men in very different ways. The doctrines of -the social life-conception guide men in fulfilling the requirements -of the law. The doctrine of Christ guides men by manifesting the -infinite perfection of the Heavenly Father, to which it is natural -for every man to aspire, whatever may be his shortcomings. - -The misconception of those who judge the Christian doctrine by the -standard of the state or civil doctrine is this,--that they imagine -that the perfection of which Christ speaks may be attained in this -life, and ask themselves just as they would ask concerning some law -of the State, what will happen when all this shall be fulfilled? -This hypothesis is fallacious, because the perfection indicated -by Christianity is infinite and can never be attained; and Christ -promulgates his doctrine, knowing that although absolute perfection -will never be attained, yet the aspiration toward it will ever -contribute to the welfare of mankind, that this welfare may by this -means be everlastingly increased. - -Christ is not teaching angels, but men who live and move in an -animal life, and whose impulses are of an animal nature. And to -this animal impulse Christ, so to speak, adds another force by -communicating to man a sense of the divine perfection, guiding the -current of life between these two forces. - -To take it for granted that human life is to follow the direction -indicated by Christ would be like expecting the boatman, who, -crossing a swift river, steers almost directly against the current, -to float in that direction. - -Christ recognizes the fact that a parallelogram has two sides, -and that a man's life is controlled by two indestructible forces: -his animal nature and his consciousness of a filial relationship -to God. Disregarding the factor of the animal life, which never -looses its hold, and is beyond man's control, Christ speaks of the -divine consciousness, urging man to its fuller recognition, its -complete emancipation from all that fetters it, and to its utmost -development. - -Man's true life, according to the precepts of Christ, is only to -be found in this emancipation and in the growth of the divine -consciousness. According to the old dispensation, a true life meant -the fulfilment of the precepts of the law; but according to Christ, -it means the closest approach to the divine perfection which has -been manifested to every man, and which every man recognizes,--a -closer and closer union of his will to the will of God; a union -which every man is striving to attain, and which would utterly -destroy the life we now lead. - -God's perfection is the asymptote of human life, toward which it is -forever aspiring and drawing nearer, although it can only reach its -goal in the infinite. - -It is only when men mistake the suggestion of an ideal for a rule -of conduct that the Christian doctrine seems at odds with life. -Indeed, the reverse is true, for it is by the doctrine of Christ, -and that alone, that a true life is rendered possible. "It is a -mistake to require too much," men usually say, when discussing the -demands of the Christian religion. "One ought not to be required -to take no thought for the morrow, as the Bible teaches, but of -course one should not be over-anxious; one cannot give all that he -possesses to the poor, still he should bestow a certain portion of -his goods in charity; one ought not to remain unmarried, but let him -avoid a dissolute life; one need not renounce his wife and children, -although one must not idolize them." - -These arguments are equivalent to telling a man who is crossing a -swift river and steering his boat against the current, that no one -can cross a river by steering against the current, but that he must -direct his boat in a straight line toward the point he wishes to -reach. - -The doctrine of Christ differs from former doctrines in that it -influences men, not by outward observances, but by the interior -consciousness that divine perfection may be attained. - -It is this illimitable and divine perfection that absorbs the soul -of man, not restricted laws of justice and philanthropy. It needs -but the aspiration toward this divine perfection to impel the -course of human life from the animal to the divine, so far as may be -humanly possible. - -In order to land at any given point one must steer beyond it. To -lower the standard of an ideal means not only to lessen the chances -of attaining perfection, but to destroy the ideal itself. The -ideal that influences mankind is not an ingenious invention; it is -something that dwells in the soul of each individual. It is this -ideal of utter and infinite perfection that excites men and urges -them to action. A possible degree of perfection would have no appeal -to the souls of men. - -It is because the doctrine of Christ requires illimitable -perfection, that is to say, the blending of the divine essence, -which is in each man's soul, with the will of God, the union of -the Son with the Father, that it has authority. It is only the -emancipation of the Son of God, who dwells with each one of us, from -the animal element within us, and the drawing near to the Father, -that can, in the Christian sense of the word, be called life. - -The presence of the animal element in man is not enough of itself to -constitute human life. Neither is a spiritual life, which is guided -only by the will of God, a human life. A true human life is composed -of an animal and of a spiritual life united to the will of God, and -the nearer this component life approaches to the life of God, the -more it has life. - -According to the Christian doctrine, life is a condition of progress -toward the perfection of God; hence no one condition can be either -higher or lower than another, because each is in itself a certain -stage in human progress toward the unattainable perfection, and -therefore of equal importance with all the others. Any spiritual -quickening, according to this doctrine, is simply an accelerated -movement toward perfection. Therefore the impulse of Zacchaeus the -publican, of the adulteress, and the thief on the cross, show forth -a higher order of life than does the passive righteousness of the -Pharisee. This doctrine, therefore, can never be enforced by -obligatory laws. The man who, from a lower plane, lives up to the -doctrine he professes, ever advancing toward perfection, leads a -higher life than one who may perhaps stand on a superior plane of -morality, but who is making no progress toward perfection. - -Thus the stray lamb is dearer to the Father than those which are in -the fold; the prodigal returned, the coin that was lost and is found -again, more highly prized than those that never were lost. - -Since the fulfilment of this doctrine is an impulse from self toward -God, it is evident that there can be no fixed laws for its movement. -It may spring from any degree of perfection or of imperfection; the -fulfilment of rules and fulfilment of the doctrine are by no means -synonymous; there could be no rules or obligatory laws for its -fulfilment. - -The difference between social laws and the doctrine of Christ -is the natural result of the radical dissimilarity between the -doctrine of Christ and those earlier doctrines which had their -source in a social life-conception. The latter are for the most -part positive, enjoining certain acts, by the performance of which -men are to be justified and made righteous, whereas the Christian -precepts (the precept of love is not a commandment in the strict -sense of the word, but the expression of the very essence of the -doctrine), the five commandments of the Sermon on the Mount, are all -negative, only meant to show men who have reached a certain degree -of development what they must avoid. These commandments are, so to -speak, mile-stones on the infinite road to perfection, toward which -humanity is struggling; they mark the degrees of perfection which it -is possible for it to attain at a certain period of its development. - -In the Sermon on the Mount Christ expressed the eternal ideal to -which mankind instinctively aspires, showing at the same time the -point of perfection to which human nature in its present stage may -attain. - -The ideal is to bear no malice, excite no ill-will, and to love all -men. The commandment which forbids us to offend our neighbor is one -which a man who is striving to attain this ideal must not do less -than obey. And this is the first commandment. - -The ideal is perfect chastity in thought, no less than in deed; and -the commandment which enjoins purity in married life, forbidding -adultery, is one which every man who is striving to attain this -ideal must not do less than obey. And this is the second commandment. - -The ideal is to take no thought for the morrow, to live in the -present, and the commandment, the fulfilment of which is the point -beneath which we must not fall, is against taking oath or making -promises for the future. Such is the third commandment. - -The ideal--to use no violence whatsoever--shows us that we must -return good for evil, endure injuries with patience, and give up the -cloak to him who has taken the coat. Such is the fourth commandment. - -The ideal is to love your enemies, to do good to them that -despitefully use you. In order to keep the spirit of this -commandment one must at least refrain from injuring one's enemies, -one must speak kindly of them, and treat all one's fellow-creatures -with equal consideration. Such is the fifth commandment. - -All these commandments are reminders of that which we, in our -striving for perfection, must and can avoid; reminders, too, that we -must labor now to acquire by degrees habits of self-restraint, until -such habits become second nature. But these commandments, far from -exhausting the doctrine, do not by any means cover it. They are but -stepping-stones on the way to perfection, and must necessarily be -followed by higher and still higher ones, as men pursue the course -toward perfection. - -That is why a Christian doctrine would make higher demands than -those embodied in the commandments, and not in the least decrease -its demands, as they who judge the Christian doctrine from a social -life-conception seem to think. - -This is one of the mistakes of the scientists in regard to the -significance of Christ's doctrine. And the substitution of the -love of humanity for the love and service of God is another, and it -springs from the same source. - -In the Christian doctrine of loving and of serving God, and (as -the natural consequence of such love and service) of loving and -serving one's neighbor, there seems to the scientific mind a certain -mysticism, something at once confused and arbitrary; and, believing -that the doctrine of love for humanity rests on a firmer basis and -is altogether more intelligible, they utterly reject the requirement -of love and service of God. - -The theory of a scientist is that a virtuous life, a life with a -purpose, must be useful to the world at large; and in a life of this -kind they discover the solution of the Christian doctrine, to which -they reduce Christianity itself. Assuming their own doctrine to be -identical with that of Christianity, they seek and believe that they -find in the latter an affirmation of their own views. - -This is a fallacy. The Christian doctrine, and the doctrine of the -Positivists, and of all advocates of the universal brotherhood of -man, founded on the utility of such a brotherhood, have nothing -in common, and especially do they differ in that the doctrine of -Christianity has a solid and a clearly defined foundation in the -human soul, whereas love of humanity is but a theoretical conclusion -reached through analogy. - -The doctrine of the love of humanity has for its basis the social -life-conception. - -The essence of the social life-conception consists in replacing the -sense of individual life by that of the life of the group. In its -first steps, this is a simple and natural progression, as from the -family to the tribe; from the family to the race is more difficult, -and requires special education,--which has arrived at its utmost -limits when the State has been reached. - -It is natural for every man to love himself, and he needs no -incentive thereto; to love his tribe, which lends both support and -protection; to love his wife, the delight and comfort of his daily -life; the children, who are his consolation and his future hope; his -parents, who gave him life and cherished him,--all this, although -not so intense as love of self, is natural and common to mankind. - -To love one's race, one's people, for their own sake, although not -so instinctive, is also common. To love one's ancestors, one's -kinsfolk, through pride, is also natural and frequent; and a man may -feel love for his fellow-countrymen, who speak the same language -and profess the same faith as himself, although the emotion is -less strong than love of self or love of family. But love for a -nation, Turkey, for instance, or Germany, England, Austria, Russia, -is almost impossible, and notwithstanding the training given in -that direction, it is only a fictitious semblance; it has no real -existence. At this aggregate ceases man's power of transfusing -his innermost consciousness; for such a fiction he can feel no -direct sentiment. And yet the Positivists and all the preachers -of the scientific fraternity, not taking into consideration the -fact that this feeling is weakened in proportion to the expansion -of its object, continue to theorize on the same lines. They say: -"If it were to the advantage of an individual to transfuse his -consciousness into the family, and thence into the nation and the -State, it follows that it will be to his further advantage to -transfuse his consciousness into the universal entity, mankind, that -all men may live for humanity, as they have lived for the family and -for the State." - -And theoretically they are right. - -After having transferred the consciousness and love for the -individual to the family, and from the family to the race, the -nation, and the State, it would be perfectly logical for men, in -order to escape the strife and disasters that result from the -division of mankind into nations and states, to transfer their love -to humanity at large. This would appear to be the logical outcome, -and it has been offered as a theory by those who forget that love -is an innate sentiment, which can never be inspired by preaching; -that it must have a real object, and that the entity which men call -humanity is not a real object, but a fiction. - -A family, a race, even a State, are no inventions of men; these -things have formed themselves like a hive of bees, or a colony of -ants, and possess an actual existence. The man who loves his family, -after a human fashion, knows whom he is loving--Ann, Maria, John, or -Peter. The man who loves his ancestors, and is proud of them, knows -that he loves the Guelphs, for instance, or the Ghibellines; the man -who loves his country knows that he loves France from the Rhine to -the Pyrenees, that he loves its capital, Paris, and all its history. -But the man who loves humanity, what is it that he loves? There is a -State, there is a people, there is the abstract conception of man. -But humanity as a concrete conception is impossible. - -Humanity? Where is its limit? Where does it end and where does -it begin? Does it exclude the savage, the idiot, the inebriate, -the insane? If one were to draw a line of demarcation so as to -exclude the lower representatives of the human race, where ought -it to be drawn? Ought it to exclude the Negro, as they do in the -United States, or the Hindoos, as some Englishmen do, or the Jews, -as does another nation? But if we include all humanity without -exception, why should we restrict ourselves to men? Why should we -exclude the higher animals, some of whom are superior to the lowest -representatives of the human race? - -We do not know humanity in the concrete, nor can we fix its limits. -Humanity is a fiction, and therefore it cannot be loved. Indeed, -it would be advantageous if men could love humanity as they love -the family. It would be very useful, as the communists say, to -substitute a community of interests for individual competition, -or the universal for the personal; in a word, to make the whole -world a mutual benefit society,--only that there are no motives to -bring about such a result. The Positivists, communists, and all -the exponents of the scientific fraternity exhort us to extend -the love which men feel for themselves, their families, their -fellow-countrymen, over humanity at large, forgetting that the love -of which they speak is a personal love, which may be kindled for the -family, and even extend to include one's native country, but which -expires altogether when it is appealed to in behalf of an artificial -state, such as Austria, England, or Turkey; and when claimed for -that mystical object, humanity in general, one cannot even grasp the -idea. - -"A man loves himself, his physical personality, he loves his family, -he even loves his country. Why should he not also love mankind? -It would seem such a happy consummation! And it so happens that -Christianity inculcates the same precept." These are the opinions of -the Positivist, the communist, and the socialist fraternities. - -It would indeed be fortunate, but it is impossible, because love -founded on a personal and social life-conception can go no further -than the love of country. - -The flaw in the argument arises from the fact that the social -life-conception, the basis of family love and of patriotism, is -itself an individual love, and such a love, in its transference from -a person to a family, a race, a nation, and a State, gradually loses -its efficiency, and in the State has reached its final limit, and -can go no further. - -The necessity for widening the sphere of love is not to be denied, -and yet it is the very attempt to satisfy this requirement that -destroys its possibility, and proves the inadequacy of personal -human love. - -And here it is that the advocates of the Positivist, communist, and -socialist brotherhood offer as a prop to the humanitarianism that -has proved its inefficiency, a Christian love, not in its essence, -but only in its results; in other words, not the love of God, but -the love of man. - -But there can be no such love; it has no _raison d'etre_. Christian -love comes only from a Christian life-conception, whose sole -manifestation is the love and service of God. - -By a natural sequence in the extension of love from the individual -to the family, and thence to the race, the nation, and the State, -the social life-conception has brought men not to the consciousness -of love for humanity,--which is illimitable--the unification of -every living creature,--but to a condition which evokes no feeling -in man, to a contradiction for which it provides no reconciliation. - -It is only the Christian doctrine which, by lending to human life -a new significance, is able to solve the difficulty. Christianity -presents the love of self and the love of the family, as well as -patriotism and the love of humanity, but it is not to be restricted -to humanity alone; it is to be given to every living creature; it -recognizes the possibility of an indefinite expansion of the kingdom -of love, but its object is not to be found outside itself, in the -aggregate of individuals, neither in the family, nor in the race, -nor in the State, nor in mankind, nor all the wide world, but in -itself, in its personality,--a divine personality, whose essence is -the very love which needed a wider sphere. - -The distinction between the Christian doctrine and those which -preceded it may be thus defined. The social doctrine says: Curb thy -nature (meaning the animal nature alone); subject it to the visible -law of the family, of society, and of the State. Christianity says: -Live up to thy nature (meaning the divine nature); make it subject -to nothing; neither to thine own animal nature, nor to that of -another, and then thou shalt attain what thou seekest by subjecting -thine outward personality to visible laws. The Christian doctrine -restores to man his original consciousness of self, not the animal -self, but the godlike self, the spark of divinity, as the son -of God, like unto the Father, but clothed in a human form. This -consciousness of one's self as a son of God, whose essence is love, -satisfies at once all those demands made by the man who professes -the social life-conception for a broader sphere of love. Again, in -the social life-conception the enlargement of the domain of love was -a necessity for the salvation of the individual; it was attached -to certain objects, to one's self, to one's family, to society, -and to humanity. With the Christian world-conception love is not a -necessity, neither is it attached to any special object; it is the -inherent quality of a man's soul; he loves because he cannot help -loving. - -The Christian doctrine teaches to man that the essence of his soul -is love; that his well-being may be traced, not to the fact that he -loves this object or that one, but to the fact that he loves the -principle of all things--God, whom he recognizes in himself through -love, and will by the love of God love all men and all things. - -This is the essential difference between the Christian doctrine and -that of the Positivists, and all other non-Christian theorists of a -universal brotherhood. - -Such are the two chief misapprehensions in regard to the Christian -doctrine, and from those most of the false arguments on the subject -have originated. - -One is, that the doctrine of Christ, like the doctrines which -preceded it, promulgates rules which men must obey, and that these -rules are impracticable. The other, that the whole meaning of -Christianity is contained in the doctrine of a cooperative union of -mankind, in one family, to attain which, leaving aside the question -of love of God, one should obey only the rule of love of one's -fellow-men. - -Finally, the mistake of scientists, in supposing that the doctrine -of the supernatural contains the essence of Christianity, that -its life-teaching is not practicable, together with the general -misapprehensions that result from such a misconception, further -explains why men of our time have so misunderstood Christianity. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -CONTRADICTION OF OUR LIFE AND CHRISTIAN CONSCIOUSNESS - - Men consider that they may accept Christianity without changing - their life--The pagan life-conception no longer corresponds to - the present age of humanity, which the Christian life-conception - alone can satisfy--The Christian life-conception is still - misunderstood by men, but our life itself necessitates its - acceptance--The requirements of a new life-conception always - seem unintelligible, mystical, and supernatural--Such, for - the majority of men, seem the requirements of the Christian - life-conception--The acceptance of a Christian life-conception - will inevitably be accomplished both through spiritual and - material agencies--The fact that men, conscious of a higher - life-conception, continue to entertain the lower forms of - life, causes contradiction and suffering, which embitter life - and require its alteration--Contradictions of our life--The - economical contradiction, and the suffering it causes to the - working-men and to the rich--The contradiction of State, and - the sufferings that arise from obedience to State laws--The - international contradiction, and its acknowledgment by - contemporary writers: Komarvosky, Ferri, Booth, Passy, Lawson, - Wilson, Bartlett, Defourny, Moneta--The military contradiction - the extreme. - - -Many causes have contributed toward the misunderstanding of the -teaching of Christ. One of these is that men assumed to understand -the doctrine, when, like the faithful of the Church, they accepted -the statement that it had been transmitted in a supernatural -manner; or, like the scientists, after having investigated certain -of its outward manifestations. Another reason may be found in the -conviction that it is impracticable, and that it may be replaced by -the doctrine of love of humanity. But the principal reason of all -such misconceptions is that men look upon the doctrine of Christ as -one that may be accepted or rejected without any special change in -one's life. - -Men, attached by habit to the existing order, shrink from -attempting to change it, hence they agree to consider this doctrine -as a mass of revelations and laws that may be accepted without -making any change in one's life: whereas the doctrine of Christ -is not a doctrine of rules for man to obey, but unfolds a new -life-conception, meant as a guide for men who are now entering upon -a new period, one entirely different from the past. - -The life of humanity continues its course and has its stages, like -the life of an individual; each age has its own life-conception, -which a man must adopt whether he will or no. Those who do not adopt -it consciously, adopt it unconsciously. The same change that takes -place in the views of the individual, as life goes on, occurs also -in the existence of nations and of humanity in general. - -If a father were to conduct his affairs like a child, his life would -certainly become so unbearable that he would cast about for a -different plan of life, and would eagerly grasp at one better suited -to his years. - -And the human race is at the present time passing through a -similar experience, in its transition from a pagan to a Christian -life-conception. A man of the society of the present day finds that -the pagan life-conception is no longer suited to the times, hence he -is induced to submit to the requirements of the Christian religion, -whose truths, however misunderstood and falsely interpreted they -may be, are yet familiar to his ears, and seem to offer the only -practical solution of the contradictions that beset his path. If the -demands of the Christian doctrine seem unintelligible, peculiar, and -dangerous to a man who has hitherto held the social life-conception, -the demands of the latter seemed none the less so to a savage of a -previous age, who neither fully apprehended them, nor was able to -foresee their consequences. - -The savage reasoned thus: "It would be folly for me to sacrifice -my peace or my life to defend an incomprehensible, intangible, and -uncertain ideal, family, race, country, and, above all, it would be -dangerous to deliver myself into the hands of an unknown power." But -there came a time in the life of the savage when, on the one hand, -he had begun, although vaguely, to understand the meaning of social -life, as well as that of its chief incentive,--social approval or -condemnation: glory,--while, on the other hand, the sufferings -of his personal life had become so severe that it was no longer -possible for him to go on believing in the truth of his former -life-conception; whereupon he accepted the social and State doctrine -and submitted to its laws. - -And he who holds the social life-conception is now undergoing a -similar experience. - -"It is madness"--thus reasons the man holding such views--"to -sacrifice one's interests or those of one's family and of one's -country, in order to fulfil the requirements of a law that would -compel one to renounce the most natural and praiseworthy feelings -toward one's self, one's family, and one's country, and, above all, -the guarantee of protection afforded by the State." - -But there comes a time when, on the one hand, a vague awakening -consciousness stirs the soul, the consciousness of the higher law, -love of God and one's neighbor, and the sufferings a man endures -from the contradictions of life, compel him to renounce the social -life-conception and to adopt the new Christian life-conception which -is offered him. And this time has now arrived. - -To us, who underwent the transition from the individual to the -social life-conception thousands of years ago, this transition -appears to have been both natural and inevitable, just as the -present transition, through which we have been passing these last -1800 years, seems arbitrary, unnatural, and overwhelming. But it -seems so for the simple reason that the former change is a thing -of the past, and has fixed in us certain habits, whereas we are -still practically accomplishing the present transition, and have to -accomplish it consciously. - -It was centuries, indeed thousands of years, before the social -life-conception was adopted by all mankind; it passed through -various phases, and we ourselves possess it through heredity, -education, and unconscious habit; hence it seems natural to us. But -5000 years ago it seemed as strange and unnatural to men as the -Christian doctrine in its true meaning seems to them now. - -The universal brotherhood of man, the equality of races, the -abolition of property, the anomalous doctrine of non-resistance, -all these requirements of the Christian religion seem to us -impossibilities. But in olden times, thousands of years ago, not -only the requirements of the State, but even those of the family, -as, for instance, the obligation of parents to feed their children, -of children to support their aged parents, and that of conjugal -fidelity, seemed equally impossible. And still more unreasonable -seemed the demands of the State, requiring citizens to submit -to established authority, to pay taxes, to perform military -duty in defense of their country, etc. We find no difficulty in -comprehending these requirements now; they seem perfectly simple -and natural, with nothing mystical or alarming in their aspect; -but five or even three thousand years ago, such demands seemed -intolerable. - -Thus the social life-conception served as a foundation for religion, -for at the time when it was first manifested to men it seemed to -them to be utterly incomprehensible, mystical, and supernatural. Now -that we have passed that phase of human life, we can understand the -reasons for the aggregation of men into families, communities, and -states. But in the early ages the demand for these aggregations was -made in the name of the supernatural, and its fulfilment assured by -the same authority. - -The patriarchal religion deified the family, the race, the people. -State religions deified the sovereigns and the State. Even at -the present day the uneducated masses, the Russian peasants, for -instance, who call the Czar a God upon earth, obey the laws from -religious instinct, not because their reason counsels them to do so, -nor because they have the least idea of a State. - -And to those men of our own times who hold the social -life-conception, the Christian doctrine seems to be a supernatural -religion, whereas in reality there is nothing mystical or -supernatural about it; it is only a doctrine concerning human life, -corresponding with the degree of development which man has attained, -and one which he cannot refuse to accept. - -The time will come, and it is already near at hand, when the -Christian foundations of life--equality, brotherly love, community -of goods, non-resistance of evil by violence--will seem as natural -and simple as the foundations of family, social, and State life -appear to us at the present time. - -There can be no retrogression for humanity. Men have outgrown the -lower life-conception of the family and the State, and must press -forward to embrace the next higher conception, as they have already -begun to do. - -This movement is accomplished in two ways: consciously, by moral -causes; unconsciously, by material ones. It rarely happens that a -man changes his mode of life at the dictates of reason; however -conscious he may be of the new design and purpose revealed to him by -his reason, he goes on in the old fashion until his life has become -intolerably inconsistent, and therefore distressing. Likewise, the -larger portion of mankind, after learning through its religious -teachers a new conception of life and its objects, to which it has -yet to adjust itself, will for a long time pursue its wonted course, -and only make the change in the end because its former life has -become impossible. - -In spite of the necessity for a change of life, acknowledged and -proclaimed by our religious guides and admitted by the wisest men, -in spite of the religious respect entertained for these guides, the -majority of men continue to be influenced in life, now additionally -complicated, by their former views. It is as if the father of a -family, knowing well enough how to conduct himself properly, should -through force of habit or thoughtlessness continue to live as if he -were still a child. - -At this very moment we are experiencing one of these transitions. -Humanity has outgrown its social, its civic age, and has entered -upon a new epoch. It knows the doctrine that must underlie the -foundations of life in this new epoch; but, yielding to inertia, -it still clings to its former habits. From this inconsistency -between the theory of life and its practice follow a series of -contradictions and sufferings that embitter man's life and compel -him to make a change. - -One needs but to compare the practice of life with its theory to be -horrified at the extraordinary contradictions between the conditions -of life and our inner consciousness. - -Man's whole life is a continual contradiction of what he knows to -be his duty. This contradiction prevails in every department of -life, in the economical, the political, and the international. As -though his intelligence were forgotten and his faith temporarily -eclipsed,--for he must have faith, else would his life have no -permanence,--he acts in direct opposition to the dictates of his -conscience and his common sense. - -In our economical and international relations we are guided by -the fundamental principles of bygone ages,--principles quite -contradictory to our mental attitude and the conditions of our -present life. - -It was right for a man who believed in the divine origin of -slavery, and in its necessity, to live in the relation of a master -to his slaves. But is such a life possible in these days? A man -of antiquity might believe himself justified in taking advantage -of his fellow-man, oppressing him for generations, merely because -he believed in diversity of origin, noble or base, descent from -Ham or Japheth. Not only have the greatest philosophers of ancient -times, the teachers of mankind, Plato and Aristotle, justified the -existence of slavery and adduced proofs of its legality, but no -longer than three centuries ago those who described an ideal state -of society could not picture it without slaves. - -In ancient times, and even in the Middle Ages, it was honestly -thought that men were not born equal, that the men worthy of respect -were only Persians, only Greeks, only Romans, or only Frenchmen; -but no one believes it now. And the enthusiastic advocates of the -principles of aristocracy and patriotism at this present day cannot -believe in their own statements. - -We all know, and cannot help knowing, even if we had never heard -it defined and never attempted to define it ourselves, that we all -possess an inherent conviction deep in our hearts of the truth of -that fundamental doctrine of Christianity, that we are all children -of one Father, yea, every one of us, wheresoever we may live, -whatsoever language we may speak; that we are all brothers, subject -only to the law of love implanted in our hearts by our common Father. - -Whatever may be the habits of thought or the degree of education of -a man of our time, whether he be an educated liberal, whatsoever -his shade of opinion, a philosopher, whatsoever may be his system, -a scientist, an economist of any of the various schools, an -uneducated adherent of any religious faith,--every man in these -days knows that in the matter of life and worldly goods all men -have equal rights; that no man is either better or worse than his -fellow-men, but that all men are born free and equal. Every man -has an instinctive assurance of this fact, and yet he sees his -fellow-beings divided into two classes, the one in poverty and -distress, which labors and is oppressed, the other idle, tyrannical, -luxurious; and not only does he see all this, but, whether -voluntarily or otherwise, he falls in line with one or the other of -these divisions,--a course repugnant to his reason. Hence he must -suffer both from his sense of the incongruity and his own share in -it. - -Whether he be master or slave, a man in these days is forever -haunted by this distressing inconsistency between his ideal and the -actual fact, nor can he fail to perceive the suffering that springs -therefrom. - -The masses--that is to say, the majority of mankind, who suffer -and toil, their lives dull and uninteresting, never enlivened by a -ray of brightness, enduring numberless privations--are those who -recognize most clearly the sharp contrasts between what is and what -ought to be, between the professions of mankind and their actions. - -They know that they work like slaves, that they are perishing in -want and in darkness, that they may minister to the pleasures of -the minority. And it is this very consciousness that enhances its -bitterness; indeed, it constitutes the essence of their suffering. - -A slave in old times knew that he was a slave by birth, whereas the -working-man of our day, while he feels himself to be a slave, knows -that he ought not to be one, and suffers the tortures of Tantalus -from his unsatisfied yearning for that which not only could be -granted him, but which is really his due. The sufferings of the -working-classes that spring from the contradictions of their fate -are magnified tenfold by the envy and hatred which are the natural -fruits of the sense of these contradictions. - -A working-man in our period, even though his work may be less -fatiguing than the labor of the ancient slave, and even were he to -succeed in obtaining the eight-hour system and twelve-and-sixpence -a day, still has the worst of it, because he manufactures objects -which he will never use or enjoy;--he is not working for himself; -he works in order to gratify the luxurious and idle, to increase -the wealth of the capitalist, the mill-owner, or manufacturer. He -knows that all this goes on in a world where men acknowledge certain -propositions such as the economic principle that labor is wealth, -that it is an act of injustice to employ another man's labor for -one's own benefit, that an illegal act is punishable by law, in a -world, moreover, where the doctrine of Christ is professed,--that -doctrine which teaches us that all men are brothers, and that it -is the duty of a man to serve his neighbor and to take no unfair -advantage of him. - -He realizes all this, and must suffer keenly from the shocking -contradiction between the world as it should be and the world as -it is. "According to what I am told and what I hear men profess," -says a working-man to himself, "I ought to be a free man equal to -any other man, and loved; I am a slave, hated and despised." Then -he in his turn is filled with hatred, and seeks to escape from his -position, to overthrow the enemy that oppresses him, and to get the -upper hand himself. - -They say: "It is wrong for a workman to wish himself in the place -of a capitalist, or for a poor man to envy the rich." But this is -false. If this were a world where God had ordained masters and -slaves, rich and poor, it would be wrong for the working-man or the -poor man to wish himself in the place of the rich: but this is not -so; he wishes it in a world which professes the doctrine of the -gospel, whose first principle is embodied in the relation of the -son to the Father, and consequently of fraternity and equality. -And however reluctant men may be to acknowledge it, they cannot -deny that one of the first conditions of Christian life is love, -expressed, not in words, but in deeds. - -The man of education suffers even more from these inconsistencies. If -he has any faith whatever he believes, perhaps, in fraternity,--at -least in the sentiment humanity; and if not in the sentiment -humanity, then in justice; and if not in justice, then surely -in science; and he cannot help knowing all the while that -the conditions of his life are opposed to every principle of -Christianity, humanity, justice, and science. - -He knows that the habits of life in which he has been bred, and -whose abandonment would cause him much discomfort, can only be -supported by the weary and often suicidal labor of the down-trodden -working-class--that is, by the open infraction of those principles -of Christianity, humanity, justice, and even of science (political -science), in which he professes to believe. He affirms his faith -in the principles of fraternity, humanity, justice, and political -science, and yet the oppression of the working-class is an -indispensable factor in his daily life, and he constantly employs it -to attain his own ends in spite of his principles; and he not only -lives in this manner, but he devotes all his energies to maintain a -system which is directly opposed to all his beliefs. - -We are brothers: but every morning my brother or my sister performs -for me the most menial offices. We are brothers: but I must have -my morning cigar, my sugar, my mirror, or what not,--objects whose -manufacture has often cost my brothers and sisters their health, -yet I do not for that reason forbear to use these things; on the -contrary, I even demand them. We are brothers: and yet I support -myself by working in some bank, commercial house, or shop, and am -always trying to raise the price of the necessities of life for -my brothers and sisters. We are brothers: I receive a salary for -judging, convicting, and punishing the thief or the prostitute, -whose existence is the natural outcome of my own system of life, and -I fully realize that I should neither condemn nor punish. We are all -brothers: yet I make my living by collecting taxes from the poor, -that the rich may live in luxury and idleness. We are brothers: -and yet I receive a salary for preaching a pseudo-Christian -doctrine, in which I do not myself believe, thus hindering men from -discovering the true one; I receive a salary as priest or bishop for -deceiving people in a matter which is of vital importance to them. -We are brothers: but I make my brother pay for all my services, -whether I write books for him, educate him, or prescribe for him -as a physician. We are all brothers: but I receive a salary for -fitting myself to be a murderer, for learning the art of war, or for -manufacturing arms and ammunition and building fortresses. - -The whole existence of our upper classes is utterly contradictory, -and the more sensitive a man's nature the more painful is the -incongruity. - -A man with a sensitive conscience can enjoy no peace of mind in such -a life. Even supposing that he succeeds in stifling the reproaches -of his conscience, he is still unable to conquer his fears. - -Those men and women of the dominant classes who have hardened -themselves, and have succeeded in stifling their consciences, -must still suffer through their fear of the hatred they inspire. -They are quite well aware of its existence among the laboring -classes; they know that it can never die; they know, too, that -the working-men realize the deceits practised upon them, and the -abuses that they endure; that they have started organizations to -throw off the yoke, and to take vengeance on their oppressors. The -happiness of the upper classes is poisoned by fear of the impending -calamity, foreshadowed by the unions, the strikes, and First of -May demonstrations. Recognizing the calamity that threatens them, -their fear turns to defiance and hatred. They know that if they -relax for one moment in this conflict with the oppressed, they are -lost, because their slaves, already embittered, grow more and more -so with every day's oppression. The oppressors, though they may -see it, cannot cease to oppress. They realize that they themselves -are doomed from the moment they abate one jot of their severity. -So they go on in their career of oppression, notwithstanding their -affectation of interest in the welfare of the working-men, the -eight-hour system, the laws restricting the labor of women and -children, the pensions, and the rewards. All this is mere pretense, -or at best the natural anxiety of the master to keep his slave in -good condition; but the slave remains a slave all the while, and the -master, who cannot live without the slave, is less willing than ever -to set him free. The governing classes find themselves in regard to -the working-men very much in the position of one who has overthrown -his opponent, and who holds him down, not so much because he does -not choose to let him escape, but because he knows that should he -for one moment lose his hold on him, he would lose his own life, for -the vanquished man is infuriated, and holds a knife in his hand. - -Hence our wealthy classes, whether their consciences be tender or -hardened, cannot enjoy the advantages they have wrung from the poor, -as did the ancients, who were convinced of the justice of their -position. All the pleasures of life are poisoned either by remorse -or fear. - -Such is the economic inconsistency. Still more striking is that of -the civil power. - -A man is trained first of all in habits of obedience to state laws. -At the present time every act of our lives is under the supervision -of the State, and in accordance with its dictates a man marries and -is divorced, rears his children, and in some countries accepts the -religion it prescribes. What is this law, then, that determines the -life of mankind? Do men believe in it? Do they consider it true? Not -at all. In most cases they recognize its injustice, they despise -it, and yet they obey it. It was fit that the ancients should obey -their law. It was chiefly religious, and they sincerely believed -it to be the only true law, to which all men owed obedience. Is -that the case with us? We cannot refuse to acknowledge that the -law of our State is not the eternal law, but only one of the many -laws of many states, all equally imperfect, and frequently wholly -false and unjust,--a law that has been openly discussed in all its -aspects by the public press. It was fit that the Hebrew should obey -his laws, since he never doubted that the finger of God Himself -had traced them; or for the Roman, who believed that he received -them from the nymph Egeria; or even for those peoples who believed -that the rulers who made the laws were anointed of God, or that -legislative assemblies have both the will and the ability to devise -laws as good as possible. But we know that laws are the offspring -of party conflicts, false dealing, and the greed of gain, that they -are not, and can never be, the depository of true justice; and -therefore it is impossible for people of the present day to believe -that obedience to civil or state laws can ever satisfy the rational -demands of human nature. Men have long since realized that there -is no sense in obeying a law whose honesty is more than doubtful, -and therefore they must suffer when, though privately denying its -prerogative, they still conform to it. When a man's whole life is -held in bondage by laws whose injustice, cruelty, and artificiality -he plainly discerns, and yet is compelled to obey these laws under -penalty of punishment, he must suffer; it cannot be otherwise. - -We recognize the disadvantages of custom-houses and import duties, -but we are yet obliged to pay them; we see the folly of supporting -the court and its numerous officials, we admit the harmful influence -of church preaching, and still we are compelled to support both; we -also admit the cruel and iniquitous punishments inflicted by the -courts, and yet we play our part in them; we acknowledge that the -distribution of land is wrong and immoral, but we have to submit to -it; and despite the fact that we deny the necessity for armies or -warfare, we are made to bear the heavy burden of supporting armies -and waging war. - -These contradictions, however, are but trifling in comparison with -the one which confronts us in the problem of our international -relations, and which cries aloud for solution, since both human -reason and human life are at stake, and this is the antagonism -between the Christian faith and war. - -We, Christian nations, whose spiritual life is one and the same, -who welcome the birth of every wholesome and profitable thought -with joy and pride, from whatsoever quarter of the globe it may -spring, regardless of race or creed; we, who love not only the -philanthropists, the poets, the philosophers, and the scientists -of other lands; we, who take as much pride in the heroism of a -Father Damien as if it was our own; we, who love the French, the -Germans, the Americans, and the English, not only esteeming their -qualities, but ready to meet them with cordial friendship; we, who -not only would be shocked to consider war with them in the light of -an exploit,--when we picture to ourselves the possibility that at -some future day a difference may arise between us that can only be -reconciled by murder, and that any one of us may be called upon to -play his part in an inevitable tragedy,--we shudder at the thought. - -It was well enough for a Hebrew, a Greek, or a Roman to maintain -the independence of his country by murder, and even to subdue other -nations by the same means, because he firmly believed himself a -member of the one favored people beloved by God, and that all the -others were Philistines and barbarians. Also, in the times of the -Middle Ages men might well have held these opinions, and even they -who lived toward the end of the last century and at the beginning -of this. But we, whatever provocation may be offered us, we cannot -possibly believe as they did; and this difficulty is so painful for -us in these times that it has become impossible to live without -trying to solve it. - -"We live in a time replete with contradictions," writes Count -Komarovsky, the Professor of International Law, in his learned -treatise. "Everywhere the tone of the public press seems to indicate -a general desire for peace, and shows the need of it for all -nations. And the representatives of the government, in their private -as well as in their public capacity, in parliamentary speeches and -diplomatic negotiations, express themselves in the same temper. -Nevertheless, the governments increase the military force year after -year, impose new taxes, negotiate loans, and will leave as a legacy -to future generations the responsibilities of the present mistaken -policy. How are the word and the deed at variance! - -"By way of justification the governments claim that all their -armaments and the consequent outlay are simply defensive in their -character, but to the uninitiated the question naturally suggests -itself: Whence is to come the attack if all the great powers are -devoting themselves _to a defensive policy_? It certainly looks as -if each one of them lived in hourly expectation of attack from his -neighbor, and the consequence is a strife between the different -governments to surpass each other in strength. The very existence of -this spirit of rivalry favors the chances of war: the nations, no -longer able to support the increased armament, will sooner or later -prefer open war to the tension in which they live and the ruin which -menaces them, so that the slightest pretext will avail to kindle -in Europe the conflagration of a general war. It is a mistake to -suppose that such a crisis will heal the political and economic ills -under which we groan. The experience of late wars shows us that each -one served only to exacerbate the animosity of the nations against -each other, to increase the unbearable burden of military despotism, -and has involved the political and economic situation of Europe in a -more melancholy and pitiable plight than ever." - -"Contemporary Europe keeps under arms nine millions of men," says -Enrico Ferri, "and a reserve force of fifteen millions, at a cost -of four milliards of francs a year. By increasing its armament -it paralyzes more and more the springs of social and individual -welfare, and may be compared to a man who, in order to obtain -weapons, condemns himself to anaemia, thereby depriving himself of -the strength to use the weapons he is accumulating, whose weight -will eventually overpower him." - -The same idea has been expressed by Charles Booth, in his address -delivered in London, July 26, 1887, before the Association for the -Reform and Codification of National Laws. Having mentioned the same -numbers,--over nine millions in active service and fifteen millions -in reserve, and the enormous sums required to support these armies -and armaments,--he says, in substance: "These numbers represent -but a small part of the actual expenditure, because outside of the -expenses enumerated in the budgets of the nations we must take -into consideration the great losses to society from the removal -of so many able-bodied men, lost to industry in all its branches, -and moreover, the interest on the enormous sums spent in military -preparations, which yield no returns. As might be expected, the -constantly increasing national debts are the inevitable result of -these outlays in preparation for war. By far the greater proportion -of the debt of Europe has been contracted for munitions of war. -The sum total is four milliards of pounds, or forty milliards of -roubles, and these debts are increasing every year." - -Komarovsky, whom we lately quoted, says elsewhere: "We are living -in hard times. Everywhere we hear complaints of the stagnation of -commerce and industry, and of the wretched economical situation. -They tell us of the hard conditions of life among the laboring -classes and the general impoverishment of the people. But regardless -of this, governments, determined to maintain their independence, go -to the utmost limits of folly. Additional taxes are levied on every -side, and the financial oppression of the people knows no bounds. -If we glance at the budgets of European states for the last hundred -years, we shall be struck with their constantly increasing figures. -How can we explain this abnormal condition that sooner or later -threatens to overwhelm us with inevitable bankruptcy? - -"Most assuredly it is caused by the expense of maintaining armies, -which absorbs one-third, or even one-half, of the budget of all -European nations. The saddest part of it, however, is that there is -no end to this increase of budgets and consequent impoverishment of -the masses. What is socialism but a protest against the abnormal -situation in which the majority of mankind of our continent finds -itself?" - -"We are being ruined," says Frederic Passy, in a paper read before -the last Peace Congress in London (1890), "to enable us to take part -in the senseless wars of the future, or to pay the interest of debts -left us by the criminal and insane wars and contests of the past. We -shall perish with hunger, to have success in murder." - -Going on to speak of the opinion of France in regard to this -matter, he says: "We believe that now, a hundred years after the -proclamation formulating the belief in the rights of men and -citizens, the time has come to declare the rights of nations and -to repudiate once and for all time those undertakings of fraud and -violence, which, under the name of conquests, are actually crimes -against humanity, and which, however much the pride of nations or -the ambition of monarchs may seek to justify them, serve only to -enervate the conquerors." - -"I am always very much surprised at the way religion is carried on -in this country," says Sir Wilfred Lawson before the same Congress. -"You send a boy to the Sunday-school, and you tell him: 'My dear -boy, you must love your enemies; if any boy strikes you, don't -strike him again; try to reform him by loving him.' Well, the boy -goes to the Sunday-school till he is fourteen or fifteen years of -age, and then his friends say, 'Put him in the army.' What has he to -do in the army? Why, not love his enemies, but whenever he sees an -enemy, to run him through the body with a bayonet is the nature of -all religious teaching in this country. I do not think that that is -a very good way of carrying out the precepts of religion. I think if -it is a good thing for the boy to love his enemy, it is a good thing -for the man to love his enemy."... - -And later! - -"In Europe great Christian nations keep among them 28,000,000 of -armed men to settle quarrels by killing one another, instead of -by arguing. This is what the Christian nations of the world are -doing at this moment. It is a very expensive way also; for in a -publication which I saw--I believe it was correct--it was made -out that since the year 1812 these nations had spent the almost -incredible amount of 1,500,000,000 of money in preparing and -settling their quarrels by killing one another. Now it seems to -me that with that state of things one of two positions must be -accepted,--either that Christianity is a failure, or that those -who profess to expound Christianity have failed in expounding it -properly." - -"So long as our men-of-war are not disarmed and our army not -disbanded, we have no right to be called a Christian nation," said -Mr. F. L. Wilson. - -In a conversation in regard to the duty of Christian ministers in -the matter of preaching against war, Mr. G. D. Bartlett remarked, -among other things:-- - -"If I understand the Scriptures, I say that men are only playing -with Christianity when they ignore this question.... I have lived -a long life, I have heard many sermons, and I can say without any -exaggeration that I never heard universal peace recommended from -the pulpit half a dozen times in my life.... Some twenty years -ago I happened to stand in a drawing-room where there were forty -or fifty people, and I dared to make the proposition that war was -incompatible with Christianity. They looked upon me as an arrant -fanatic. The idea that we could get on without war was regarded as -unmitigated weakness and folly." - -A Catholic priest, the Abbe Defourny, has spoken in a similar -spirit. "One of the first commandments of the eternal law, engraved -in every man's conscience," says the Abbe Defourny, "forbids a man -to take his neighbor's life or shed his blood" (without sufficient -cause, being forced to it by stress of circumstance). "This is a -commandment more deeply engraved in the human heart than all the -others.... But as soon as it becomes a question of war, that is, -a question of the wholesale shedding of human blood, men in these -days do not wait for a sufficient cause. Those who are active in -war forget to ask themselves if there is any justification for the -numerous manslaughters that take place, whether they are just or -unjust, legal or illegal, innocent or criminal, or whether they -break the principal law that forbids us to commit murder" (without -just cause). "Their conscience is silent.... War has ceased to be a -matter connected with morality. The soldier, amid all the fatigues -and dangers he undergoes, knows no joy but conquest, no sorrow but -defeat. Don't tell me that they serve the country. A great genius -has long ago answered this statement in words that have since become -a proverb: 'Take away justice, and what is then a nation but a great -band of robbers? And is not a band of robbers in itself a small -state? They, too, have their laws. They, too, fight for booty, and -even honor.' - -"The aim of this organization" (it was a question of establishing -international tribunals) "is to influence the European nations until -they cease to be nations of thieves, and their armies bands of -robbers. Yes, our armies are nothing less than a rabble of slaves -belonging to one or two monarchs and their ministers, who, as we all -know, rule them tyrannically and without any responsibility other -than nominal, as we know. - -"It is the characteristic of a slave that he is a tool in the hands -of his master. Such are the soldiers, officers, and generals, who -at the beck of their sovereign go forth to slay or to be slain. -There is a military slavery, and it is the worst of all slaveries, -particularly now, when by means of conscription it forges chains for -the necks of all the free and strong men of the nation, in order to -use them as instruments of murder, to make them executioners and -butchers of human flesh, since that is the sole reason why they are -drafted and drilled.... - -"Two or three potentates in their cabinets make treaties, without -protocols, without publicity, and therefore without responsibility, -sending men to the slaughter. - -"'Protests against increased armaments began before our time,' said -Signor E. G. Moneta. Listen to Montesquieu: 'France' (for France we -might now substitute Europe) 'is perishing from an overgrown army. A -new disease is spreading throughout Europe. It has affected kings, -and obliges them to maintain an incredible number of troops. It is -like a rash, and therefore contagious; for no sooner does one nation -increase its troops than all the others follow suit. Nothing can -result from this condition of affairs but general calamity. - -"'Each government maintains as many troops as it would require if -its people were threatened with destruction, and this state of -tension is called peace. Europe is in truth ruined. If private -individuals were reduced to such straits as these, the richest man -among them would be practically destitute. The wealth of the world -and its commerce are in our hands, and yet we are poor.' - -"This was written almost 150 years ago. It seems like a picture of -the present. One thing alone has changed--the form of government. -In the time of Montesquieu it was said that the reason for the -maintenance of large armies might be found in the unlimited power of -kings, who carried on war in the hope of increasing their private -property and their glory. - -"Then it was said: 'Ah! if the people could but choose -representatives who would have a right to refuse the governments -when they called for soldiers and money--there would be an end of -a military policy.' Now, almost everywhere in Europe there are -representative governments, and still the military expenditure in -preparation for war has increased in frightful proportion. - -"It looks as though the folly of the rulers had passed into the -ruling classes. Now they no longer fight because one king has -been rude to another king's mistress, as in the time of Louis -XIV., but by exaggerating the importance of national dignity -and patriotism,--emotions which are natural and honorable in -themselves,--and exciting the public opinion of one country against -the other, until they have arrived at such a pitch of sensitiveness -that it is enough to say, for instance (even were the report to -prove false), one country has refused to receive the ambassador -of another, to precipitate the most frightful and disastrous war. -Europe maintains under arms at the present time more soldiers than -were in the field during the great wars of Napoleon. Every citizen -on our continent, with a few exceptions, is forced to spend several -years in the barracks. Fortresses, arsenals, men-of-war are built, -new firearms are invented, which in a short time are replaced by -others, because science, which should always be devoted to the -promotion of human welfare, contributes, it must be regretfully -acknowledged, to human destruction, inventing ever new means of -killing greater numbers of men in the shortest possible time. - -"In these stupendous preparations for slaughter, and in the -maintenance of these vast numbers of troops, hundreds of millions -are yearly expended--sums that would suffice to educate the masses, -and to carry on the most important works of public improvement, -thereby contributing toward a perfect solution of the social problem. - -"Therefore, notwithstanding all our scientific victories, Europe -finds herself in this respect not one whit better off than she was -in the most barbarous times of the Middle Ages. Every one laments -a state of things which is neither war nor peace, and longs to be -delivered from it. The heads of governments emphatically affirm -that they desire peace, and eagerly emulate each other in their -pacific utterances, but almost immediately thereafter they propose -to the legislative assemblies measures for increasing the armament, -asserting that they take these precautions for the preservation of -peace. - -"But this is not the sort of peace we care for, and the nations -are not deceived by it. True peace has for its foundation mutual -confidence, whereas these appalling armaments show, if not a -declared hostility, at least a secret distrust among the different -nations. What should we say of a man who, wishing to show his -friendly feelings to his neighbor, should invite him to consider a -certain scheme, holding a loaded pistol while he unfolds it before -him? - -"It is this monstrous contradiction between the assurances of peace -and the military policy of the governments, that good citizens wish -to put an end to, at any cost." - -One is amazed to learn that there are 60,000 suicides reported in -Europe, not including Turkey and Russia, every year, and these are -all well-substantiated cases; but it would be far more remarkable -if the number were less. Any man in these times who investigates the -antagonism between his convictions and his actions, finds himself -in a desperate plight. Setting aside the many other contradictions -between actual life and conviction which abound in the life of a -man of the present day, to view the military situation in Europe in -the light of its profession of Christianity is enough to make a man -doubt the existence of human reason, and drive him to escape from a -barbarous and insane world by putting an end to his own life. This -inconsistency, which is the very quintessence of all the others, is -so shocking, that one can only go on living and taking any part in -it, by dint of trying not to think about it,--to forget it all. - -What can it mean? We are Christians, who not only profess to love -one another, but are actually leading one common life; our pulses -beat in harmony; we meet each other in love and sympathy, deriving -support and counsel from our mutual intercourse. Were it not for -this sympathy life would have no meaning. But at any moment some -demented ruler may utter a few rash words, to which another gives -reply, and lo! I am ordered to march at the risk of my life, to slay -those who have never injured me, whom I really love. And it is no -remote contingency, but an inevitable climax for which we are all -preparing ourselves. - -Fully to realize this is enough to drive one to madness and to -suicide, and this is but too common an occurrence, especially among -soldiers. - -A moment's reflection shows us why this seems an inevitable -conclusion. - -It explains the frightful intensity with which men plunge into all -kinds of dissipation,--wine, tobacco, cards, newspaper reading, -travel, all manner of shows and pleasures. They pursue all these -amusements in deadly earnest, as if they were serious avocations, -as indeed they are. If men possessed none of these distractions, -half of them would kill themselves out of hand, for to live a life -that is made up of contradictions is simply unbearable, and such is -the life that most of us lead at the present day. We are living in -direct contradiction to our inmost convictions. This contradiction -is evident both in economic and in political relations; it -is manifested most unmistakably in the inconsistency of the -acknowledgment of the Christian law of brotherly love and military -conscription, which obliges men to hold themselves in readiness -to take each other's lives,--in short, every man to be at once a -Christian and a gladiator. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -ATTITUDE OF MEN OF THE PRESENT DAY TOWARD WAR - - Men do not endeavor to destroy the contradiction between life - and consciousness by a change of life, but educated men use - all their power to stifle the demands of consciousness and to - justify their lives, and thus degrade society to a condition - worse than pagan, to a state of primeval savagery--Uncertainty - of the attitude of our leading men toward war, universal - armament, and general military conscription--Those who regard - war as an accidental political phenomenon easily to be remedied - by external measures--The Peace Congress--Article in the Revue - des Revues--Proposition of Maxime du Camp--Significance of - Courts of Arbitration and Disarmament--Relations of governments - to these, and the business they pursue--Those who regard war as - a cruel inevitable phenomenon--Maupassant--Rod--Those who regard - it as indispensable, even useful--Camille Doucet, Claretie, - Zola, Voguee. - - -The contradictions of life and of consciousness may be solved in two -ways: by change of life, or by change of consciousness; and it would -seem as if there could be no hesitation in a choice between the two. - -When a man acknowledges a deed to be evil he may refrain from the -deed itself, but he can never cease to regard it as evil. Indeed, -the whole world might cease from evil-doing, and yet have no power -to transform, or even to check for a season, the progress of -knowledge in regard to that which is evil, and which ought not to -exist. One would think that the alternative of a change of life to -accord with consciousness might be settled without question, and -that it would therefore seem unavoidable for the Christian world of -the present day to abandon those pagan forms which it condemns, and -regulate its life by the Christian precepts which it acknowledges. - -Such would be the result were it not for the principle of inertia -(a principle no less unalterable in human life than in the world -of matter), which finds its expression in the psychological law -defined in the gospel by the words: "Men loved darkness rather than -light, because their deeds were evil" (John iii. 19). Most persons, -in conformity to this principle, do not use their reason in order -to ascertain the truth, but rather to persuade themselves that they -possess it, and that their daily life, which is pleasant for them, -is in harmony with the precepts of truth. - -Slavery conflicted with all the moral principles taught by Plato -and Aristotle, and yet neither of them perceived this, because the -disavowal of slavery must have destroyed that life by which they -lived. And the same thing is repeated in our times. - -The division of mankind into two classes, the existence of political -and military injustice, is opposed to all those moral principles -which our society professes, and yet the most progressive and -cultivated men of the age seem not to perceive this. - -Almost every educated man at the present day is striving -unconsciously to preserve the old-time conception of society, which -justifies his attitude, and to conceal from others and from himself -its inconsistencies, chief among which is the necessity of adopting -the Christian ideal, which is subversive of the very structure of -our social existence. It is this antiquated social system, in which -they no longer believe, because it is really a thing of the past, -that men are trying to uphold. - -Contemporary literature, philosophical, political, and -artistic,--all contemporary literature affords a striking proof -of the truth of my statement. What wealth of imagination, what -form and color, what erudition and art, but what a lack of serious -purpose, what reluctance to face any exact thought! Ambiguity of -expression, indirect allusion, witticisms, vague reflection, but no -straightforward or candid dealing with the subject they treat of, -namely, life. - -Indeed, our writers treat of obscenities and improprieties; in the -guise of refined paradox they convey suggestions which thrust men -back to primeval savagery, to the lowest dregs, not only of pagan -life, but animal life, which we outlived 5000 years ago. Delivering -themselves from the Christian life-conception, which for some simply -interferes with the accustomed current of their lives, while for -others it interferes with certain advantages, men must of necessity -return to the pagan life-conception and to the doctrines to which it -gave rise. Not only are patriotism and the rights of the aristocracy -preached at the present time as they used to be 2000 years ago, but -also the coarsest epicureanism and sensuality, with this difference -only,--that the teachers of old believed in the doctrines they -taught, whereas those of the present day neither do nor can possess -any faith in what they utter, because there is no longer any sense -in it. When the ground is shifting under our feet, we cannot stand -still, we must either recede or advance. It sounds exaggerated to -say that the enlightened men of our time, the advanced thinkers, are -speciously degrading society, plunging it into a condition worse -than pagan,--into a state of primeval barbarism. - -In no other matter has this tendency of the leading men of our -time been so plainly shown as in their attitude toward that -phenomenon in which at present all the inconsistency of social life -is concentrated,--toward war, universal armament, and military -conscription. - -The equivocal, if not unscrupulous, attitude of the educated men -of our time toward this question is a striking one. It may be -stated from three points of view. Some regard this phenomenon as -an accidental state of affairs, which has sprung from the peculiar -political situation of Europe, and believe it to be susceptible -of adjustment by diplomatic and international mediation, without -injury to the structure of nations. Others look upon it as something -appalling and cruel, fatal yet unavoidable,--like disease or -death. Still others, in cold blood, calmly pronounce war to be an -indispensable, salutary, and therefore desirable event. - -Men may differ in their views in regard to this matter, but all -discuss it as something with which the will of the individuals who -are to take part in it has nothing whatever to do; therefore they -do not even admit the natural question which presents itself to -most men; viz., "Is it my duty to take part in it?" In the opinion -of these judges there is no reason in such a question, and every -man, whatever may be his personal prejudices in regard to war, must -submit in this matter to the demands of the ruling powers. - -The attitude of those in the first category, who expect deliverance -from war by means of diplomatic and international mediation, is -well defined in the results of the London Peace Congress, and in -an article, together with letters concerning war from prominent -writers, which may be found in the _Revue des Revues_ (No. 8, 1891). - -These are the results of the Congress. - -Having collected from all parts of the globe the opinions of -scientists, both written and oral, the Congress, opening with a _Te -Deum_ in the cathedral, and closing with a dinner and speeches, -listened for five days to numerous addresses, and arrived at the -following conclusions:-- - -Resolution I. The Congress affirms its belief that the brotherhood -of man involves as a necessary consequence a brotherhood of -nations, in which, the true interests of all are acknowledged to -be identical. The Congress is convinced that the true basis for an -enduring peace will be found in the application by nations of this -great principle in all their relations one to another. - -II. The Congress recognizes the important influence which -Christianity exercises upon the moral and political progress of -mankind, and earnestly urges upon ministers of the gospel and other -teachers of religion and morality the duty of setting forth these -principles of Peace and Good-will, which occupy such a central -place in the teaching of Jesus Christ, of philosophers and of -moralists, and _it recommends that the third Sunday in December in -each year be set apart for that purpose_. - -III. The Congress expresses its opinion that all teachers of history -should call the attention of the young to the grave evils inflicted -on mankind in all ages by war, and to the fact that such war has -been waged, as a rule, for most inadequate causes. - -IV. The Congress protests against the use of military drill in -connection with the physical exercises of schools, and suggests -the formation of brigades for saving life rather than any of -quasi-military character; and it urges the desirability of -impressing on the Board of Examiners, who formulate the questions -for examination, the propriety of guiding the minds of children into -the principles of Peace. - -V. The Congress holds that the doctrine of the universal rights -of man requires that aboriginal and weaker races shall be guarded -from injustice and fraud when brought into contact with civilized -peoples, alike as to their territories, their liberties, and their -property, and that they shall be shielded from the vices which are -so prevalent among the so-called advanced races of men. It further -expresses its conviction that there should be concert of action -among the nations for the accomplishment of these ends. The Congress -desires to express its hearty appreciation of the conclusions -arrived at by the late Anti-Slavery Conference, held in Brussels, -for the amelioration of the condition of the peoples of Africa. - -VI. The Congress believes that the warlike prejudices and traditions -which are still fostered in the various nationalities, and the -misrepresentations by leaders of public opinion in legislative -assemblies, or through the press, are not infrequently indirect -causes of war. The Congress is therefore of opinion that these ends -should be counteracted by the publication of accurate statements -and information that would tend to the removal of misunderstanding -amongst nations, and recommends to the Inter-Parliamentary -Committee the importance of considering the question of starting an -international newspaper, which should have such a purpose as one of -its primary objects. - -VII. The Congress proposes to the Inter-Parliamentary Conference -that the utmost support should be given to every project for the -unification of weights and measures, of coinage, tariffs, postal -and telegraphic arrangements, means of transport, etc., which would -assist in constituting a commercial, industrial, and scientific -union of the peoples. - -VIII. In view of the vast moral and social influence of woman, the -Congress urges upon every woman throughout the world to sustain, as -wife, mother, sister, or citizen, the things that make for peace, -as otherwise she incurs grave responsibilities for the continuance -of the systems of war and militarism, which not only desolate -but corrupt the home-life of the nation. To concentrate and to -practically apply this influence, the Congress recommends that -women should unite themselves with societies for the promotion of -international peace. - -IX. This Congress expresses the hope that the Financial Reform -Association and other similar societies in Europe and America should -unite in convoking at an early date a conference to consider the -best means of establishing equitable commercial relations between -States by the reduction of import duties as a step toward Free -Trade. The Congress feels that it can affirm that the whole of -Europe desires Peace, and is impatiently waiting for the moment when -it shall see the end of those crushing armaments which, under the -plea of defense, become in their turn a danger, by keeping alive -mutual distrust, and are, at the same time, the cause of the general -economic disturbance which stands in the way of settling in a -satisfactory manner the problems of labor and poverty, which should -take precedence of all others. - -X. This Congress, recognizing that a general disarmament would be -the best guarantee of _Peace_, and would lead to the solution, -in the general interest, of those questions which now must divide -States, expresses the wish that a Congress of Representatives of -all the States of Europe may be assembled as soon as possible to -consider the means of effecting a gradual general disarmament, which -already seems feasible. - -XI. This Congress, considering that the timidity of a single Power -or other cause might delay indefinitely the convocation of the -above-mentioned Congress, is of the opinion that the Government -which should first dismiss any considerable number of soldiers would -confer a signal benefit on Europe and mankind, because it would -oblige other Governments, urged on by public opinion, to follow its -example, and by the moral force of this accomplished fact would have -increased rather than diminished the conditions of its national -defense. - -XII. This Congress, considering the question of disarmament, as -well as the Peace question generally, depends upon public opinion, -recommends the Peace Societies here represented, and all friends of -Peace, to carry on an active propaganda among the people, especially -at the time of Parliamentary elections, in order that the electors -should give their votes to those candidates who have included in -their programme Peace, Disarmament, and Arbitration. - -XIII. This Congress congratulates the friends of Peace on the -resolution adopted by the International American Conference -(with the exception of the representatives of Chili and Mexico) -at Washington in April last, by which it was recommended that -arbitration should be obligatory in all controversies concerning -diplomatic and consular privileges, boundaries, territories, -indemnities, right of navigation, and the validity, construction, -and enforcement of treaties, and in all other causes, whatever -their origin, nature, or occasion, except only those which, in the -judgment of any of the nations involved in the controversy, may -imperil its independence. - -XIV. This Congress respectfully recommends this resolution to the -statesmen of Europe, and expresses the ardent desire that treaties -in similar terms be speedily entered into between the other nations -of the world. - -XV. This Congress expresses its satisfaction at the adoption -by the Spanish Senate, on June 18th last, of a project of law -authorizing the Government to negotiate general or special treaties -of arbitration for the settlement of all disputes, except those -relating to the independence and internal government of the States -affected; also at the adoption of resolutions to a like effect -by the Norwegian Storthing on March 6th last, and by the Italian -Chamber on July 11th. - -XVI. That a committee of five be appointed to prepare and address -communications, in the name of the Congress, to the principal -religious, political, economical, labor, and peace organizations -in civilized countries, requesting them to send petitions to the -governmental authorities of their respective countries, praying that -measures be taken for the formation of suitable tribunals for the -adjudication of international questions, so as to avoid the resort -to war. - -XVII. Seeing (1) that the object pursued by all Peace Societies is -the establishment of juridical order between nations: - -(2) That neutralization by international treaties constitutes a step -toward this juridical state, and lessens the number of districts in -which war can be carried on: - -This Congress recommends a larger extension of the rule of -neutralization, and expresses the wish:-- - -(1) That all treaties which at present assure to certain States -the benefit of neutrality remain in force, or, if necessary, be -amended in a manner to render the neutrality more effective, either -by extending neutralization to the whole of the State, of which -a part only may be neutralized, or by ordering the demolition of -fortresses, which constitute rather a peril than a guarantee for -neutrality. - -(2) That new treaties, provided that they are in harmony with the -wishes of the populations concerned, be concluded for establishing -the neutralization of other States. - -XVIII. The Committee Section proposes:-- - -(1) That the next Congress be held immediately before or immediately -after the next session of the Inter-Parliamentary Conference, and at -the same places. - -(2) That the question of an international Peace Emblem be postponed -_sine die_. - -(3) The adoption of the following resolutions:-- - -(_a_) Resolved, that we express our satisfaction at the formal and -official overtures of the Presbyterian Church in the United States -of America, addressed to the highest representatives of each church -organization in Christendom, inviting the same to unite with itself -in a general conference, the object of which shall be to promote the -substitution of international arbitration for war. - -(_b_) That this Congress, assembled in London from the 14th to -the 19th July, desires to express its profound reverence for the -memory of Aurelio Salfi, the great Italian jurist, a member of the -Committee of the International League of Peace and Liberty. - -(4) That the memorial to the various heads of the civilized States -adopted by this Congress, and signed by the President, should, so -far as practicable, be presented to each Power by an influential -deputation. - -(5) That the Organization Committee be empowered to make the needful -verbal emendations in the papers and resolutions presented. - -(6) That the following resolutions be adopted:-- - -(_a_) A resolution of thanks to the Presidents of the various -sittings of the Congress. - -(_b_) A resolution of thanks to the chairman, the secretary, and the -members of the Bureau of this Congress. - -(_c_) A resolution of thanks to the conveners and members of the -sectional committees. - -(_d_) A resolution of thanks to Rev. Canon Scott Holland, Rev. Dr. -Reuan Thomas, and Rev. J. Morgan Gibbon, for their pulpit addresses -before the Congress, and that they be requested to furnish copies -of the same for publication; and also Stamford Hall Congregational -Church for the use of those buildings for public services. - -(_e_) A letter of thanks to Her Majesty for permission to visit -Windsor Castle. - -(_f_) And also a resolution of thanks to the Lord Mayor and Lady -Mayoress, to Mr. Passmore Edwards, and other friends who have -extended their hospitality to the members of the Congress. - -XIX. This Congress places on record a heartfelt expression of -gratitude to Almighty God for the remarkable harmony and concord -which have characterized the meetings of the Assembly, in which so -many men and women of varied nations, creeds, tongues, and races -have gathered in closest cooperation; and in the conclusion of -the labors of this Congress, it expresses its firm and unshaken -belief in the ultimate triumph of the cause of _Peace_, and of the -principles which have been advocated at these meetings. - - * * * * * - -The fundamental idea of the Congress is--firstly, that it is -necessary to disseminate by all means among all men the belief that -war is not advantageous for mankind, and that peace is a great -benefit; and secondly, to influence governments, impressing upon -them the advantages and necessity of disarmament. - -To accomplish the first end, the Congress advises teachers of -history, women, and ministers of the gospel, to teach people, every -third Sunday of December, the evils of war and the benefits of -peace; to accomplish the second, the Congress addresses itself to -governments, suggesting to them disarmament and arbitration. - -To preach the evils of war and the benefits of peace! But the evils -of war are so well known to men, that from the earliest ages the -most welcome greeting was always: "Peace be unto you!" - -Not only Christians but all pagans were fully aware of the benefits -of peace and of the evils of war thousands of years ago, so that the -advice to the ministers of the gospel to preach against the evils -of war and to advocate the benefits of peace every third Sunday in -December is quite superfluous. - -A real Christian cannot do otherwise than preach thus, constantly, -as long as he lives. But if there are those who are called -Christians, or Christian preachers, who do not do this, there must -be a cause for it, and so long as this cause exists no advice will -avail. Still less effective will be the advice to governments -to disband armies and have recourse to International Courts of -Arbitration. Governments know very well all the difficulties and -burdens of conscription and of maintaining armies, and if in the -face of such difficulties and burdens they still continue to do -so, it is evident that they have no means of doing otherwise, and -the advice of a Congress could in no way bring about a change. -But scientists will not admit this, and still hope to find some -combination of influences by means of which those governments which -make war may be induced to restrain themselves. - -"Is it possible to avoid war?" writes a scientist in the _Revue des -Revues_ (No. 8 of 1891). "All agree in recognizing the fact that -if war should ever break out in Europe, its consequences would be -similar to those of the great invasions. It would imperil the very -existence of nations; it would be bloody, atrocious, desperate. This -consideration, and the consideration of the terrible nature of the -engines of destruction at the command of modern science, retards -its declaration and temporarily maintains the present system,--a -system which might be continued indefinitely, if it were not for the -enormous expenses that burden the European nations and threaten to -culminate in disasters fully equal to those occasioned by war. - -"Impressed with these thoughts, men of all nationalities have -sought for means to arrest, or at least to diminish, the shocking -consequences of the carnage that threatens us. - -"Such are the questions which are to be debated by the next Congress -of Universal Peace to be held in Rome, which have already been -discussed in a recently published pamphlet on Disarmament. - -"Unfortunately, it is quite certain that with the present -organization of the greater number of the European states, isolated -one from the other and controlled by different interests, the -absolute cessation of war is an illusion which it would be folly to -cherish. Still, the adoption of somewhat wiser rules and regulations -in regard to these international duels would at least tend to -limit their horrors. It is equally Utopian to build one's hope on -projects of disarmament, whose execution, owing to considerations of -a national character, which exist in the minds of all our readers, -is practically impossible." (This probably means that France cannot -disarm until she has retaliated.) "Public opinion is not prepared -to accept them, and, furthermore, the international relations make -it impossible to adopt them. Disarmament demanded by one nation -of another, under conditions imperiling its security, would be -equivalent to a declaration of war. - -"Still, we must admit that an exchange of opinions between the -nations interested may to a certain extent aid in establishing an -international understanding, and also contribute to lessen the -military expenses that now crush European nations, to the great -detriment of the solution of social questions, the necessity of the -solution of which is realized by each nation individually, under the -penalty of being confronted by a civil war, due to the efforts made -to prevent a foreign one. - -"One may at least hope for a decrease of the enormous expenses -necessary for the present military organization, which is maintained -for the purpose of invading a foreign territory in twenty-four -hours, or of a decisive battle a week after the declaration of war." - -It ought not to be possible for one nation to attack another and -take possession of its territory within twenty-four hours. This -practical sentiment was expressed by Maxime du Camp, and is the -conclusion of his study of the subject. - -Maxime du Camp offers the following propositions:-- - -"1st. A Diplomatic Congress, to assemble every year. - -"2d. No war to be declared until two months after the incident -which gave rise to it." (Here the difficulty lies in determining -the nature of the incident that kindled the war--that is, every -declaration of war is caused by several circumstances, and it would -be necessary to determine from which one the two months are to be -reckoned.) - -"3d. No war shall be declared until the vote of the people shall -have been taken. - -"4th. Hostilities must not begin until a month after the declaration -of war." - -"_No war shall be declared_ ..." etc. But who is to _prevent_ -hostilities _beginning_? Who will compel men to do this or that? -Who will compel governments to wait a certain stated time? Other -nations. But all the other nations are in the very same position, -requiring to be restrained and kept within bounds, in other words, -_coerced_. And who will _coerce_ them? And how is it to be done? -By public opinion. But if public opinion has sufficient influence -to force a nation to postpone its action until a stated time, this -public opinion can prevent it from waging war at any time. - -But, it is said, there might be a balance of power, which would -oblige nations to restrain themselves. This very experiment has been -and is still being tried; this was the object of the Holy Alliance, -the League of Peace, etc. - -But all would agree to this, it is said. If all would agree to this, -then wars would cease, and there would be no need of Courts of -Appeal or of Arbitration. - -"A Court of Arbitration would take the place of war. Disputes would -be decided by a Board of Arbitrators, like that which pronounced -on the Alabama claims. The Pope has been requested to decide the -question concerning the Caroline Islands: Switzerland, Belgium, -Denmark, and Holland have declared that they prefer the decision of -a Court of Arbitration to war." - -I believe Monaco has expressed a similar wish. It is a pity that -Germany, Russia, Austria, and France have thus far shown no sign of -imitating their example. - -It is astonishing how easily men can deceive themselves when they -feel inclined. - -The governments will agree to allow their disputes to be decided -by a Board of Arbitration and to dismiss their armies. The trouble -between Russia and Poland, England and Ireland, Austria and the -Czechs, Turkey and the Slavs, France and Germany, will be settled -by mutual consent. This is very much like suggesting to merchants -and bankers that they shall sell at cost price, and devote their -services gratuitously to the distribution of property. - -Of course the essence of commerce and banking consists in buying -cheap and selling dear, and therefore the suggestion to sell at cost -price and the consequent overthrow of money amounts to a proposal of -self-destruction. - -The same is true in regard to governments. - -The suggestion to governments to desist from violence, and to adjust -all differences by arbitration, would be to recommend a suicidal -policy, and no government would ever agree to that. Learned men -found societies (there are more than one hundred of them), they -assemble in Congresses (like those held in London and Paris and the -one which is to be held in Rome), they read essays, hold banquets, -make speeches, edit journals devoted to the subject, and by all -these means they endeavor to prove that the strain upon nations who -are obliged to support millions of soldiers has become so severe -that something must be done about it; that this armament is opposed -to the character, the aims, and the wishes of the populations; -but they seem to think that if they consume a good deal of paper, -and devote a good deal of eloquence to the subject, that they may -succeed in conciliating opposing parties and conflicting interests, -and at last effect the suppression of war. - -When I was a child I was told that if I wished to catch a bird I -must put salt on its tail. I took a handful and went in pursuit of -the birds, but I saw at once that if I could sprinkle salt on their -tails I could catch them, and that what I had been told was only a -joke. Those who read essays and works on Courts of Arbitration and -the disarmament of nations must feel very much the same. - -If it were possible to sprinkle salt on a bird's tail it would be -tantamount to saying that the bird could not fly, and therefore it -would be no effort to catch it. If a bird has wings and does not -wish to be caught, it will not allow any salt to be put on its tail, -for it is the nature of a bird to fly. Likewise it is the nature -of a government not to be ruled, but to rule its subjects. And a -government rightly is named such only when it is able to rule its -subjects, and not be ruled by them. This, therefore, is its constant -aim, and it will never voluntarily resign its power. And as it -derives its power from the army it will never give up the army, nor -will it ever renounce that for which the army is designed,--war. - -The misapprehension springs from the fact that the learned jurists, -deceiving themselves as well as others, depict in their books an -ideal of government,--not as it really is, an assembly of men who -oppress their fellow-citizens, but in accordance with the scientific -postulate, as a body of men who act as the representatives of the -rest of the nation. They have gone on repeating this to others -so long that they have ended by believing it themselves, and -they really seem to think that justice is one of the duties of -governments. History, however, shows us that governments, as seen -from the reign of Caesar to those of the two Napoleons and Prince -Bismarck, are in their very essence a violation of justice; a man or -a body of men having at command an army of trained soldiers, deluded -creatures who are ready for any violence, and through whose agency -they govern the State, will have no keen sense of the obligation of -justice. Therefore governments will never consent to diminish the -number of those well-trained and submissive servants, who constitute -their power and influence. - -Such is the attitude of certain scientists toward that -self-contradiction under which the world groans, and such are their -expedients for its relief. Tell these scientists that the question -deals only with the personal relations of each individual toward -the moral and religious question, and then ask them what they think -of the lawfulness or unlawfulness of taking part in the general -conscription, and their sole reply will be a shrug of the shoulders; -they will not even deign to give a thought to your question. Their -way of solving the difficulty is to make speeches, write books, -choose their presidents, vice-presidents, and secretaries; assembled -in a body, to hold forth in one city or another. They think that -the result of their efforts will be to induce governments to -cease to recruit soldiers, on whom all their power depends; they -expect that their appeals will be heard, and that armies will be -disbanded, leaving governments defenseless, not only in the presence -of neighbors, but of their subjects; that they, like highwaymen -who, having bound their defenseless victims in order to rob them, -no sooner hear the outcries of pain than they loosen the rope that -causes it, and let their prisoners go free. - -And there really are men who believe in this, who spend their time -in promoting Leagues of Peace, in delivering addresses, and in -writing books; and of course the governments sympathize with it all, -pretending that they approve of it; just as they pretend to support -temperance, while they actually derive the larger part of their -income from intemperance; just as they pretend to maintain liberty -of the constitution, when it is the absence of liberty to which they -owe their power; just as they pretend to care for the improvement -of the laboring classes, while on oppression of the workman rest -the very foundations of the State; just as they pretend to uphold -Christianity, when Christianity is subversive of every government. - -In order to accomplish these ends they have long since instituted -laws in regard to intemperance that can never avail to destroy it; -educational projects that not only do not prevent the spread of -ignorance, but do everything to increase it; decrees in the name -of liberty that are no restraint upon despotism; measures for the -benefit of the working-man which will never liberate him from -slavery; they have established a Christianity which serves to prop -the government rather than destroy it. And now another interest -is added to their cares,--the promotion of peace. Governments, -or rather those rulers who are going about at present with their -ministers of state, making up their minds on such radical questions -as, for instance, whether the slaughter of millions shall begin -this year or next,--they are quite well assured that discussions on -peace are not going to prevent them from sending millions of men to -slaughter whenever they see fit to do so. They like to hear these -discussions, they encourage them, and even take part themselves. - -It does no harm to the government; on the contrary, it is useful, by -way of diverting observation from that radical question: When a man -is drafted, ought he or ought he not to fulfil his military duty? - -Thanks to all these unions and congresses, peace will presently be -established; meanwhile put on your uniforms, and be prepared to -worry and harass each other for our benefit, say the governments. -And the scientists, the essayists, and the promoters of congresses -take the same view. - -This is one way of looking at it, and so advantageous for the State -that all prudent governments encourage it. - - * * * * * - -The way another class has of regarding it is more tragic. They -declare that although it is the fate of humanity to be forever -striving after love and peace, it is nevertheless abnormal and -inconsistent. Those who affirm this are mostly the sensitive men of -genius, who see and realize all the horror, folly, and cruelty of -war, but by some strange turn of mind never look about them for any -means of escape, but who seem to take a morbid delight in realizing -to the utmost the desperate condition of mankind. The view of the -famous French writer, Maupassant, on the subject of war, affords a -noteworthy example of this kind. Gazing from his yacht upon a drill -and target-practice of French soldiers, the following thoughts arise -in his mind:-- - - "I have but to think of the word 'war' and a paralyzing sense - of horror creeps over me, as though I were listening to stories - of witchcraft, or tales of the Inquisition, or of things - abominable, monstrous, unnatural, of ages past. - - "When people talk of cannibals we smile contemptuously with a - sense of superiority to such savages. But who are the savages, - the true savages? Those who fight that they may drive off the - conquered, or those who fight for the pure pleasure of killing? - Those sharp-shooters running over yonder are destined to be - killed like a flock of sheep who are driven by the butcher to - the slaughter-house. Those men will fall on some battlefield - with a sabre-cut in the head, or with a ball through the heart. - Yet they are young men, who might have done useful work. Their - fathers are old and poor; their mothers, who have idolized them - for twenty years as only mothers can idolize, will learn after - six months, or perhaps a year, that the son, the baby, the - grown-up child on whom so much love and pains were lavished, - who was reared at such an expense, has been torn by a bullet, - trampled under foot, or crushed by a cavalry charge, and finally - flung like a dead dog into some ditch. Why must her boy, her - beautiful, her only boy, the hope and pride of her life, why - must he be killed? She knows not; she can but ask why. - - "War!... The fighting!... The murdering!... The slaughter of - men!... And to-day, with all our wisdom, civilization, with the - advancement of science, the degree of philosophy to which the - human spirit has attained, we have schools where the art of - murder, of aiming with deadly accuracy and killing large numbers - of men at a distance, is actually taught, killing poor, harmless - devils who have families to support, killing them without even - the pretext of the law. - - "_It is stupefying that the people do not rise up in arms - against the governments. What difference is there between - monarchies and republics? It is stupefying that society does not - revolt as a unit at the very sound of the word war._ - - "Alas! we shall never be free from oppression of the hateful, - hideous customs, the criminal prejudices, and the ferocious - impulses of our barbarous ancestors, for we are beasts; and - beasts we shall remain, moved by our instincts and susceptible - of no improvement. - - "Any one but Victor Hugo would have been banished when he - uttered his sublime cry of freedom and truth:-- - - "'To-day force is called violence, and the nations condemn it; - they inveigh against war. Civilization, listening to the appeal - of humanity, undertakes the case and prepares the accusation - against the victors and the generals. The nations begin to - understand that the magnitude of a crime cannot lessen its - wickedness; that if it be criminal to kill one man, the killing - of numbers cannot be regarded in the light of extenuation; that - if it be shameful to steal, it cannot be glorious to lead an - invading army. - - "'Let us proclaim these absolute truths, let us dishonor the - name of war!' - - "But the wrath and indignation of the poet are all in vain," - continues Maupassant. "War is more honored than ever. - - "A clever expert in this business, a genius in the art of - murder, Von Moltke, once made to a peace-delegate the following - astonishing reply:-- - - "'War is sacred; it is a divine institution; it fosters - every lofty and noble sentiment in the human heart: honor, - self-sacrifice, virtue, courage, and saves men, so to speak, - from settling into the most shocking materialism.' - - "Assembling in herds by the hundred thousand, marching night and - day without rest, with no time for thought or for study, never - to read, learning nothing, of no use whatsoever to any living - being, rotting with filth, sleeping in the mud, living like a - wild beast in a perennial state of stupidity, plundering cities, - burning villages, ruining whole nations; then to encounter - another mountain of human flesh, rush upon it, cause rivers - of blood to flow, and strew the fields with the dead and the - dying, all stained with the muddy and reddened soil, to have - one's limbs severed, one's brain scattered as wanton waste, and - to perish in the corner of a field while one's aged parents, - one's wife and children, are dying of hunger at home,--this - is what it means to be saved from falling into the grossest - materialism! - - "Soldiers are the scourge of the world. We struggle against - nature, ignorance, all kinds of obstacles, in the effort to make - our wretched lives more endurable. There are men, scientists - and philanthropists, who devote their whole lives to benefit - their fellow-men, seeking to improve their condition. They - pursue their efforts tirelessly, adding discovery to discovery, - expanding the human intelligence, enriching science, opening - new fields of knowledge, day by day increasing the well-being, - comfort, and vigor of their country. - - "Then war comes upon the scene, and in six months all the - results of twenty years of patient labor and of human genius are - gone forever, crushed by victorious generals. - - "And this is what they mean when they speak of man's rescue from - materialism! - - "We have seen war. We have seen men maddened; returned to the - condition of the brutes, we have seen them kill in wanton sport, - out of terror, or for mere bravado and show. Where right exists - no longer, and law is dead, where all sense of justice has - been lost, we have seen innocent men shot down on the highway, - because they were timid and thus excited suspicion. We have - seen dogs chained to their masters' doors killed by way of - target-practice, we have seen cows lying in a field fired at by - the mitrailleuses, just for the fun of shooting at something. - - "And this is what they call saving men from the most shocking - materialism! - - "To invade a country, to kill the man who defends his home - because he wears a blouse and does not wear a _kepi_, to burn - the dwellings of starving wretches, to ruin or plunder a man's - household goods, to drink the wine found in the cellars, to - violate the women found in the streets, consume millions of - francs in powder, and to leave misery and cholera in their track. - - "This is what they mean by saving men from the most shocking - materialism! - - "What have military men ever done to prove that they possess the - smallest degree of intelligence? Nothing whatever. What have - they invented? The cannon and the musket; nothing more. - - "Has not the inventor of the wheelbarrow, by the simple and - practical contrivance of a wheel and a couple of boards, - accomplished more than the inventor of modern fortification? - - "What has Greece bequeathed to the world? Its literature and its - marbles. Was she great because she conquered, or because she - produced? Was it the Persian invasion that saved Greece from - succumbing to the most shocking materialism? - - "Did the invasions of the Barbarians save and regenerate Rome? - - "Did Napoleon I. continue the great intellectual movement - started by the philosophers at the end of the last century? - - "Very well, then; can it be a matter of surprise, since - governments usurp the rights of life and death over the people, - that the people from time to time assume the right of life and - death over their governments? - - "They defend themselves, and they have the right. No man has an - inalienable right to govern others. It is allowable only when it - promotes the welfare of the governed. It is as much the duty of - those who govern to avoid war as it is that of a captain of a - ship to avoid shipwreck. - - "When a captain has lost his ship he is indicted, and if he - is found to have been careless or even incompetent, he is - convicted. As soon as war has been declared why should not the - people sit in judgment upon the act of the government? - - "If they could once be made to understand the power that would - be theirs, _if they were the judges of the rulers who lead them - on to slay their fellow-men, if they refused to allow themselves - to be needlessly slaughtered, if they were to turn their weapons - against the very men who have put them into their hands--that - day would see the last of war.... But never will that day - arrive."_--"Sur l'Eau." - -The author perceives the full horror of war, realizes that the -government is its author, that government forces men to go slay, or -be slain, when there is no need for it; he realizes that the men who -make up the armies might turn their weapons against the government -and demand a reckoning. Still the author does not believe that this -will ever happen, or that there is any possible deliverance from the -existing condition of affairs. - -He grants that the result of war is shocking, but he believes it -to be inevitable; assuming that the never ceasing requisition of -soldiers on the part of government is as inevitable as death, then -wars must follow as a matter of course. - -These are the words of a writer of talent, endowed with a faculty of -vividly realizing his subject, which is the essence of the poetic -gift. He shows us all the cruel contradictions between creed and -deed; but since he fails to offer a solution, it is evident that -he feels that such a contradiction must exist, and regards it as a -contribution to the romantic tragedy of life. Another and an equally -gifted writer, Edouard Rod, paints with colors still more vivid the -cruelty and folly of the present situation, but he, like Maupassant, -feels the influence of the dramatic element, and neither suggests a -remedy nor anticipates any change. - - "Why do we toil? Why do we plan and hope to execute? And how - can one even love one's neighbor in these troublous times, - when the morrow is nothing but a menace?... Everything that - we have begun, our ripening schemes, our plans for work, the - little good that we might accomplish, will it not all be swept - away by the storm that is gathering?... Everywhere the soil - quakes beneath our feet, and threatening clouds hang low on the - horizon. Ah! if we had nothing more to fear than the bugbear of - the Revolution!... Unable to conceive a society worse than our - own, I am more inclined to distrust than to fear the one that - may replace it, and if I should suffer in consequence of the - change, I should console myself with the reflection that the - executioners of the present were victims of the past, and the - hope of a change for the better would make me endure the worst. - But it is not this remote danger which alarms me. I see another - close at hand and far more cruel, since it is both unjustifiable - and irrational, and nothing good can come out of it. Day by day - the chances of war are weighed, and day by day they become more - pitiless. - - "The human mind refuses to believe in the catastrophe which even - now looms up before us, and which the close of this century - must surely witness, a catastrophe which will put an end to all - the progress of our age, and yet we must try to realize it. - Science has devoted all her energy these twenty years to the - invention of destructive weapons, and soon a few cannon-balls - will suffice to destroy an army;[10] not the few thousands of - wretched mercenaries, whose life-blood has been bought and paid - for, but whole nations are about to exterminate each other; - during conscription their time is stolen from them in order to - steal their lives with more certainty. By way of stimulating a - thirst for blood mutual animosities are excited, and gentle, - kind-hearted men allow themselves to be deluded, and it will - not be long before they attack each other with all the ferocity - of wild beasts; multitudes of peace-loving citizens will obey - a foolish command, God only knows on what pretext,--some - stupid frontier quarrel, perhaps, or it may be some colonial - mercantile interest.... They will go like a flock of sheep to - the slaughter, yet knowing where they go, conscious that they - are leaving their wives and their children to suffer hunger; - anxious, but unable to resist the enticement of those plausible - and treacherous words that have been trumpeted into their ears. - _Unresistingly they go; although they form a mass and a force, - they fail to realize the extent of their power, and that if - they were all agreed they might establish the reign of reason - and fraternity_, instead of lending themselves to the barbarous - trickeries of diplomacy. - - [10] The book was published a year ago, and since then dozens - of new weapons and smokeless powder have been invented for the - annihilation of mankind.--AUTHOR. - - "So self-deceived are they that bloodshed takes on the aspect of - duty, and they implore the blessing of God upon their sanguinary - hopes. As they march, they trample underfoot the harvests which - they themselves have planted, burning the cities which they have - helped to build, with songs, shouts of enthusiasm, and music. - And their sons will raise a statue to those who have slain them - by the most approved methods.... The fate of a whole generation - hangs on the hour when some saturnine politician shall make the - sign, and the nations will rush upon each other. We know that - the noblest among us will be cut down, and that our affairs - will go to destruction. _We know this, we tremble in anger, yet - are powerless._ We have been caught in a snare of bureaucracy - and waste paper from which we can only escape by measures too - energetic for us. We belong to the laws which we have made for - our protection, and which oppress us. _We are nothing more - than the creatures of that antinomic abstraction, the State, - which makes of each individual a slave in the name of all, each - individual of which all, taken separately, would desire the - exact contrary of what he will be made to do._ - - "And if it were but the sacrifice of a single generation! But - many other interests are involved. - - "Paid orators, demagogues, taking advantage of the passions - of the masses and of the simple-minded who are dazzled by - high-sounding phrases, have so embittered national hatreds - that to-morrow's war will decide the fate of a race: one of - the component parts of the modern world is threatened; the - vanquished nation will morally disappear; it matters not which - chances to be the victim, a power will disappear (as though - there had ever been one too many for the good). A new Europe - will then be established on a basis so unjust, so brutal, so - bloodstained, that it cannot fail to be worse than that of - to-day,--more iniquitous, more barbarous, and more aggressive.... - - "Thus a fearful depression hangs over us. We are like men - dashing up and down a narrow passageway, with muskets pointed at - us from all the roofs. We work like sailors executing their last - manoeuver after the ship has begun to sink. Our pleasures are - those of the prisoner to whom a choice dish is offered a quarter - of an hour before his execution. Anxiety paralyzes our thought, - and the utmost we can do is to wonder, as we con the vague - utterances of ministers, or construe the meaning of the words - of monarchs, or turn over those ascribed to the diplomatists, - retailed at random by the newspapers, never sure of their - information, whether all this is to happen to-morrow or the day - after, whether it is this year or next that we are all to be - killed. In truth, one might seek in vain throughout the pages - of history for an epoch more unsettled or more pregnant with - anxiety."--"Le Sens de la Vie." - -He shows us that the power is really in the hands of those who allow -themselves to be destroyed, in the hands of separate individuals who -compose the mass; that the root of all evil is the State. It would -seem as if the contradiction between one's faith and one's actual -life had reached its utmost limit, and that the solution could not -be far to seek. - -But the author is of a different opinion. All that he sees in -this is the tragedy of human life, and having given us a detailed -description of the horror of this state of things, he perceives -no reason why human life should not be spent in the midst of this -horror. Such are the views of the second class of writers, who -consider only the fatalistic and tragic side of war. - -There is still another view, and this is the one held by men who -have lost all conscience, and are consequently dead to common sense -and human feeling. - -To this class belong Moltke, whose opinions are quoted by -Maupassant, and nearly all military men who have been taught to -believe this cruel superstition, who are supported by it, and who -naturally regard war not only as an inevitable evil, but as a -necessary and even profitable occupation. And there are civilians -too, scientists, men of refinement and education, who hold very much -the same views. - -The famous academician Doucet, in reply to a query of the editor of -the _Revue des Revues_ in regard to his opinions on war, replies as -follows in the number containing letters concerning war:[11]-- - - "DEAR SIR,--When you ask of the least belligerent of all the - academicians if he is a partizan of war, his reply is already - given. Unfortunately you yourself classify the peaceful - contemplations which inspire your fellow-countrymen at the - present hour as idle visions. - - "Ever since I was born I have always heard good men protesting - against this shocking custom of international carnage. All - recognize this evil and lament it. But where is its remedy? - - "The effort to suppress duelling has often been made. It seems - to be so easy. Far from it. All that has been accomplished - toward achieving this noble purpose amounts to nothing, nor - will it ever amount to more. Against war and duelling the - congresses of the two hemispheres vote in vain. Superior to all - arbitrations, conventions, and legislations will ever remain - human honor, which has always demanded the duel, and national - interests, which have always called for war. Nevertheless, I - wish with all my heart that the Universal Peace Congress may - succeed at last in its difficult and honorable task.--Accept the - assurance, etc., - - "CAMILLE DOUCET." - - [11] _La Revue des Revues_, "La guerre, etat de la question, juge - par nos grands hommes contemporains."--TR. - -It amounts to this, that honor obliges men to fight, that it is for -the interest of nations that they should attack and destroy one -another, and that all endeavors to abolish war can but excite a -smile. - -Jules Claretie expresses himself in similar terms:-- - - "DEAR SIR,--A sensible man can have but one opinion on the - question of war and peace. Humanity was created to live--to - live for the purpose of perfecting its existence by peaceful - labor. The mutual relations of cordiality which are promoted and - preached by the Universal Congress of Peace may be but a dream - perhaps, yet certainly is the most delightful of dreams. The - vision of the land of promise is ever before the eyes, and upon - the soil of the future the harvest will ripen, secure from the - plowing of the projectile, or the crushing of cannon-wheels. - But, alas!... Since philosophers and philanthropists are not the - rulers of mankind, it is fit that our soldiers should guard our - frontiers and our homes, and their weapons, skilfully wielded, - are perhaps the surest guarantees of the peace we love so well. - Peace is given only to the strong and the courageous.--Accept - the assurances of, etc., - - "JULES CLARETIE." - -The substance of this is, that there is no harm in talking about -what no one intends to do, and what ought not in any event to be -done. When fighting is in order, there is no alternative but to -fight. - -Emile Zola, the most popular novelist in Europe, gives utterance to -his views on the subject of war in the following terms:-- - - "I look upon war as a fatal necessity which seems to us - indispensable because of its close connection with human nature - and all creation. Would that it might be postponed as long as - possible! Nevertheless a time will come when we shall be forced - to fight. At this moment I am regarding the subject from the - universal standpoint, and am not hinting at our unfriendly - relations with Germany, which are but a trifling incident in the - world's history. I affirm that war is useful and necessary, - since it is one of the conditions of human existence. The - fighting instinct is to be found not only among the different - tribes and peoples, but in domestic and private life as - well. It is one of the chief elements of progress, and every - advancing step taken by mankind up to the present time has been - accompanied by bloodshed. - - "Men have talked, and still do talk, of disarmament; and yet - disarmament is utterly impossible, for even though it were - possible, we should be compelled to renounce it. It is only an - armed nation that can be powerful and great. I believe that a - general disarmament would be followed by a moral degradation, - assuming the form of a widespread effeminacy which would impede - the progress of humanity. Warlike nations have always been - vigorous. The military art has contributed to the development - of other arts. History shows us this. In Athens and Rome, for - instance, commerce, industry, and literature reached their - highest development when these cities ruled the world by the - force of arms. And nearer to our own time we found an example - in the reign of Louis XIV. The wars of the great king, so far - from impeding the advance of arts and sciences, seemed rather to - promote and to favor their progress." - -War is useful! - -But chief among the advocates of these views, and the most talented -of all the writers of this tendency, is the academician Voguee, who, -in an article on the military section of the Exhibition of 1889, -writes as follows:-- - - "On the Esplanade des Invalides, the center of exotic and - colonial structures, a building of a more severe order stands - out from the midst of the picturesque bazaar; these various - fragments of our terrestrial globe adjoin the palace of war. A - magnificent theme and antithesis for humanitarian rhetoric which - never loses a chance to lament a juxtaposition of this kind, and - to utter its 'this will kill that' [_ceci tuera cela_[12]]; - that the confederacy of nations brought about by science and - labor will overpower the military instinct. Let it cherish this - vision of a golden age, caressing it with fond hopes. We have - no objection; but should it ever be realized, it would very - soon become an age of corruption. History teaches us that the - former has been accomplished by the means of the latter, that - blood is necessary to hasten and to seal the confederacy of - nations. In our own time the natural sciences have strengthened - the mysterious law which revealed itself to Joseph de Maistre - through the inspiration of his genius and meditation on - primordial dogmas; he saw how the world would redeem its - hereditary fall by offering a sacrifice. Science shows us that - the world is made better by struggle and violent selection; - this affirmation of the same law, with varied utterance, comes - from two sources. It is by no means a pleasant one. The laws - of the world, however, are not established for our pleasure, - but for our perfection. Let us then enter this necessary and - indispensable palace of war, and we shall have the opportunity - to observe how our most inveterate instinct, losing nothing - of its power, is transformed in its adaptation to the various - demands of historical moments." - - [12] Words taken from Victor Hugo's "Notre Dame," where he says that - printing will kill architecture.--AUTHOR. - -This idea, namely, that the proof of the necessity of war may -be found in the writings of De Maistre and of Darwin, two great -thinkers, as he calls them, pleases Voguee so much that he repeats it. - -"Sir," he writes to the editor of the _Revue des Revues_, "you ask -my opinion in regard to the possible success of the Universal Peace -Congress. I believe, with Darwin, that vehement struggle is the -law governing all being, and I believe, with Joseph de Maistre, -that it is a divine law,--two different modes of characterizing -the same principle. If, contrary to all expectations, a certain -fraction of humanity--for example, all the civilized West--should -succeed in arresting the issue of this law, the more primitive races -would execute it against us; in these races the voice of nature -would prevail over human intellect. And they would succeed, because -the certainty of _peace_--I do not say peace, but the absolute -_certainty of peace_--would in less than half a century produce a -corruption and a decadence in men more destructive than the worst of -wars. I believe that one should act in regard to war--that criminal -law of humanity--as in regard to all criminal laws: modify it, or -endeavor to make its execution as rare as possible, and use every -means in our power to render it superfluous. But experience of all -history teaches us that it cannot be suppressed, so long as there -shall be found on earth two men, bread, money, and a woman between -them. I should be very glad if the Congress could prove to me the -contrary; but I doubt if it can disprove history, and the law of God -and of nature.--Accept my assurance, etc., - - "E. M. DE VOGUeE." - -This may be summed up as follows: History and nature, God and man, -show us that so long as there are two men left on earth, and the -stakes are bread, money, and woman, just so long there will be war. -That is, that no amount of civilization will ever destroy that -abnormal concept of life which makes it impossible for men to divide -bread, money (of all absurdities), and woman without a fight. It is -odd that people meet in congresses and hold forth as to the best -method of catching birds by putting salt on their tails, although -they must know that this can never be done! It is astonishing that -men like Rod, Maupassant, and others, clearly realizing all the -horrors of war, and all the contradictions that ensue from men not -doing what they ought to do, and what it would be to their advantage -to do, who bemoan the tragedy of life, and yet fail to see that -this tragic element would vanish as soon as men ceased to discuss a -subject which should not be discussed, and ceased to do that which -is both painful and repulsive for them to do! - -One may wonder at them; but men who, like Voguee and others, believe -in the law of evolution, and look upon war as not only unavoidable, -but even useful, and therefore desirable,--such men are fairly -shocking, horrible in their moral aberration. The former at least -declare that they hate evil and love good, but the latter believe -there is neither good nor evil. - -All this discussion of the possibility of establishing peace instead -of continual warfare is but the mischievous sentimentalism of idle -talkers. There is a law of evolution which seems to prove that I -must live and do wrong. What, then, can I do? I am an educated -man,--I am familiar with the doctrine of evolution; hence it follows -that I shall work evil. "Entrons au palais de la guerre." There is a -law of evolution, and therefore there can be no real evil; and one -must live one's life and leave the rest to the law of evolution. -This is the last expression of refined civilization; it is with -this idea that the educated classes at the present day deaden their -conscience. - -The desire of these classes to preserve their favorite theories and -the life that they have built up on them can go no further. They -lie, and by their specious arguments deceive themselves as well as -others, obscuring and deadening their intuitive perceptions. - -Rather than adapt their lives to their consciousness, they try by -every means to befog and to silence it. But the light shines in the -darkness, and even now it begins to dawn. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MILITARY CONSCRIPTION - - General military conscription is not a political accident, but - the extreme limit of contradiction contained in the social - life-conception--Rise of power in society--The basis of power - is personal violence--The organization of armed men, an army, - is required by power to enable it to accomplish violence--The - rise of power in society, that is, of violence, destroys by - degrees the social life-conception--Attitude of power toward - the masses, that is to say, the oppressed--Governments endeavor - to make workmen believe in the necessity of State violence for - their preservation from external foes--But the army is needed - principally to defend government from its own subjects, the - oppressed working-men--Address of Caprivi--All the privileges of - the ruling classes are assured by violence--Increase of armies - leads to a general military conscription--General military - conscription destroys all the advantages of social life which it - is the duty of the State to guard--General military conscription - is the extreme limit of obedience, as it demands in the name of - the State the abnegation of all that may be dear to man--Is the - State needed?--The sacrifices which it requires from citizens - through the general military conscription have no longer any - basis--Hence it is more advantageous for man to rebel against - the demands of the State than to submit to them. - - -The efforts which the educated men of the upper classes are making -to silence the growing consciousness that the present system of -life must be changed, are constantly on the increase, while life -itself, continuing to develop and to become more complex without -changing its direction, as it increases the incongruities and -suffering of human existence, brings men to the extreme limit of -this contradiction. An example of this uttermost limit is found in -the general military conscription. - -It is usually supposed that this conscription, together with the -increasing armaments and the consequent increase of the taxes and -national debts of all countries, are the accidental results of a -certain crisis in European affairs, which might be obviated by -certain political combinations, without change of the interior life. - -This is utterly erroneous. The general conscription is nothing -but an internal contradiction which has crept into the social -life-conception, and which has only become evident because it has -arrived at its utmost limits at a period when men have attained a -certain degree of material development. - -The social life-conception transfers the significance of life -from the individual to mankind in general, through the unbroken -continuity of the family, the tribe, and the State. - -According to the social life-conception it is supposed that as the -significance of life is comprised in the sum total of mankind, each -individual will of his own accord sacrifice his interests to those -of the whole. This in fact has always been the case with certain -aggregates, like the family or the tribe. - -In consequence of custom, transmitted by education and confirmed by -religious suggestion, and without compulsion, the individual merges -his interests in those of the group, and sacrifices himself for the -benefit of the whole. - -But the more complex became societies, the larger they -grew,--conquest especially contributing to unite men in social -organizations,--the more individuals would be found striving to -attain their ends at the expense of their fellow-men; and thus the -necessity for subjugation by power, or, in other words, by violence, -became more and more frequent. - -The advocates of the social life-conception usually attempt to -combine the idea of authority, otherwise violence, with that of -moral influence; but such a union is utterly impossible. - -The result of moral influence upon man is to change his desires, -so that he willingly complies with what is required of him. A man -who yields to moral influence takes pleasure in conforming his -actions to its laws; whereas authority, as the word is commonly -understood, is a means of coercion, by which a man is forced to act -in opposition to his wishes. A man who submits to authority does not -do as he pleases, he yields to compulsion, and in order to force -a man to do something for which he has an aversion, the threat of -physical violence, or violence itself, must be employed: he may be -deprived of his liberty, flogged, mutilated, or he may be threatened -with these punishments. And this is what constitutes power both in -the past and in the present. - -Despite the unremitting efforts of rulers to conceal these facts, -and to attribute a different significance to authority, it simply -means the rope and chain wherewith a man is bound and dragged, the -lash wherewith he is flogged, the knife or ax wherewith his limbs, -nose, ears, and head are hewed off. Authority is either the menace -or the perpetration of these acts. This was the practice in the -times of Nero and Genghis Khan, and is still in force even in the -most liberal governments, like the republics of France and America. -If men submit to authority, it is only because they fear that if -they were to resist, they would be subjected to violence. All the -requisitions of the State, such as the payment of taxes and the -fulfilment of public duties, the submission to penalties in the form -of exile, fines, etc., to which men seem to yield voluntarily, are -always enforced by the physical threat or the reality of physical -punishment. - -Physical violence is the basis of authority. - -It is the military organization that makes it possible to inflict -physical violence, that organization wherein the entire armed force -acts as one man, obeying a single will. This assemblage of armed -men, submitting to one will, forms what is called an army. The army -has ever been and still is the basis of an authority, vested in -the commanding generals; and the most engrossing interest of every -sovereign, from the Roman Caesars to the Russian and German emperors, -has always been to protect and flatter the army, for they realize -that when the army is on their side, power is also in their hands. - -It is the drilling and the increase of the troops required for -the maintenance of authority which has brought into the social -life-conception an element of dissolution. - -The aim of authority, and its consequent justification, is to -restrain those men who are endeavoring, by methods which are -detrimental to those of mankind in general, to promote their own -interests. But whether authority has been acquired by force of arms, -or by hereditary succession, or by election, men who have gained -authority are in no way different from their fellow-men; they are -just like all others, not inclined to waive their own interests in -favor of the many, but, since they hold power in their hands, are -more likely to make the interests of the many give way to their -own. Whatever measures may have been devised by way of restraining -those in authority who might seek their own ends at the expense of -the public, or to vest authority in the hands of infallible men, no -satisfactory results have as yet been attained. - -Attributing divine right to kings, hereditary succession, election; -congresses, parliaments, and senates;--none of these have ever -yet proved effectual. Everybody knows that no expedient has -ever succeeded either in committing authority into the hands of -infallible men, or of preventing its abuses. On the contrary, we -know that men who have the authority, be they emperors, ministers of -State, chiefs of police, or even policemen, always are more liable, -because of their position, to become immoral,--that is, to put their -own private interests before those of the public,--than men who do -not possess such an authority; and this is inevitable. - -The social life-conception could be justified only while all -men voluntarily sacrificed their private interests to those of -the public in general; but no sooner did men appear who refused -to sacrifice their interests, than authority, in other words, -violence, was required to restrain these men. Thus there entered -into the social life-conception, and the organization based on it, -a principle containing within itself the germs of dissolution,--the -principle of authority, or the tyranny of the few over the many. -In order that the authority held by certain men might fulfil its -object, which is to restrain those who are trying to further their -own interests to the detriment of society in general, it would be -necessary to have it in the hands of infallible men, as is supposed -to be the case in China, or as it was believed to be in the Middle -Ages, and is even at the present time by those who have faith in -consecration by unction. It is only under such conditions that the -social organization can be justified. - -But as no such conditions exist, and, furthermore, as men who are -in authority, from the very fact of its possession, must ever be -far from being saints, the social organization that is based upon -authority cannot possibly have any justification. - -If there ever was a time when a low standard of morality, and the -general tendency of men toward violence, called for an authority -possessing the power to restrict this violence, an authority whose -existence may have been an advantage,--that is, when the violence -of the State was less than the violence of individuals toward -each other,--we cannot help seeing now that this prerogative of -the State, when violence no longer exists, cannot go on forever. -Morals improved in proportion to the gradual decrease of individual -violence, while the prerogative of authority lost ground in measure -as it became corrupted by the possession of unbridled power. - -The entire history of the last 2000 years will have been told -when we have described this change in the relations between the -moral development of man and the demoralization of governments. -In its simplest form it runs thus: men lived together in tribes, -in families, and in races, and were at enmity one with another; -they employed violence, they spread desolation, they murdered one -another. Thus devastation was on a scale both great and small: man -fought with man, tribe with tribe, family with family, race with -race, nation with nation. The larger and more powerful communities -absorbed the weaker ones; and the greater and more vigorous became -the aggregation of men, the more seldom did one hear of acts -of violence within these communities, and the more secure the -continuity of their existence appeared. - -When the members of a tribe or a family unite together to form one -community, they are naturally less hostile to each other, and the -tribes and families are not so likely to die out; while among the -citizens of a State subjected to one authority the contentions seem -even less frequent, and hence is the life of the State on a basis -still more assured. - -These fusions into larger and larger aggregates took place, not -because men realized that it would be to their advantage, as is -illustrated by the fable that tells of the falling of the Varegs in -Russia, but are due rather to natural growth on the one hand, and -struggle and conquest on the other. - -When conquest was achieved, the authority of the conqueror put -an end to internal strife, and the social life-conception was -justified. But this justification is only temporary. Internal feuds -cease only when the pressure of authority is brought to bear with -greater weight upon individuals formerly inimical to one another. -The violence of the internal struggle, not annihilated by authority, -is the offspring of authority itself. Authority is in the hands -of men who, like all the rest, are ever ready to sacrifice the -common weal if their own personal interests are at stake; with the -sole difference that these men, encountering no resistance from -the oppressed, are wholly subject to the corrupting influence of -authority itself. - -Therefore it is that the evil principle of violence relegated -to authority is ever increasing, and the evil becomes in time -worse than that which it is supposed to control: whereas, in the -individual members of society, the inclination to violence is always -diminishing, and the violence of authority becomes less and less -necessary. - -As its power increases in measure of its duration, State authority, -though it may eradicate internal violence, introduces into life -other and new forms of violence, always increasing in intensity. -And though the violence of authority in the State is less striking -than that of individual members of society toward each other, its -principal manifestation being not that of strife, but of oppression, -it exists none the less, and in the highest degree. - -It cannot be otherwise; for not only does the possession of -authority corrupt men, but, either from design or unconsciously, -rulers are always striving to reduce their subjects to the lowest -degree of weakness,--for the more feeble the subject, the less the -effort required to subdue him. - -Therefore violence employed against the oppressed is pushed to its -utmost limit, just stopping short of killing the hen that lays the -golden egg. But if the hen has ceased to lay, like the American -Indians, the Fiji Islanders, or the Negroes, then it is killed, -despite the sincere protests of the philanthropists against that -mode of procedure. - -The most conclusive proof of this assertion, at the present time, is -the position of the working-men, who are in truth simply vanquished -men. - -Despite all the pretended efforts of the upper classes to lighten -their position, all the working-men of the world are subjected to an -immutable iron rule, which prescribes that they shall have scarcely -enough to live upon, in order that their necessities may urge them -to unremitting toil, the fruits of which are to be enjoyed by their -masters, in other words, their conquerors. - -It has always been the case that, after the long continuance and -growth of power, the advantages accruing to those who have submitted -to it have failed, while the disadvantages have multiplied. - -Thus it is and thus it always has been, under whatsoever form of -government the nation may have lived; only that where despotism -prevails authority is confined to a limited number of oppressors, -and violence takes on a ruder form, while in the constitutional -monarchies, and in the republics of France and America, authority -is distributed among a greater number of oppressors, and its -manifestations are less rude; but the result, in which the -disadvantages of dominion are greater than the advantages, and the -method--reduction of the oppressed to the lowest possible degree of -abjection, for the benefit of the oppressors, remain ever the same. - -Such has been the position of all the oppressed, but until lately -they have been unaware of the fact, and for the most part have -innocently believed that governments were instituted for their -benefit, to preserve them from destruction, and that to permit the -idea that men might live without governments would be a thought -sacrilegious beyond expression; it would be the doctrine of anarchy, -with all its attendant horrors. - -Men believed, as in something so thoroughly proved that it needed no -further testimony, that as all nations had hitherto developed into -the State form, this was to remain the indispensable condition for -the development of mankind forever. - -And so it has gone on for hundreds, nay, thousands of years, and the -governments, that is to say, their representatives, have endeavored, -and still go on endeavoring, to preserve this delusion among the -people. - -As it was during the time of the Roman emperors, so it is now. -Although the idea of the uselessness, and even of the detriment, -of power enters more and more into the consciousness of men, it -might endure forever, if governments did not think it necessary to -increase the armies in order to support their authority. - -It is the popular belief that governments increase armies as a -means of defense against other nations, forgetting that troops are -principally needed by governments to protect them against their own -enslaved subjects. - -This has always been necessary, and has grown more so with the -spread of education, the increase of intercourse among different -nationalities; and at the present time, in view of the communist, -socialist, anarchist, and labor movements, it is a more urgent -necessity than ever. Governments realize this fact, and increase -their principal means of defense,--the disciplined army.[13] - - [13] That the abuse of authority exists in America, despite the - small number of troops, by no means refutes our argument; on the - contrary, it serves rather as a testimony in its favor. In America - there are fewer troops than in other States, and nowhere do we find - less oppression of the downtrodden classes, and nowhere have men - come so near to the abolition of governmental abuses, and even of - government itself. However, it is in America that, owing to the - growing unity among the working-men, voices have been heard, more - and more frequently of late, calling for an increase of troops, - and this when no foreign invasion threatens the States. The ruling - classes are fully aware that an army of 50,000 men is insufficient, - and, having lost confidence in Pinkerton's forces, they believe that - their salvation can only be secured by the increase of the army. - -It was but recently that in the German Reichstag, in giving the -reason why more money was needed to increase the pay of the -subaltern officers, the German Chancellor answered candidly that -trusty subaltern officers are needed in order to fight against -socialism. Caprivi put into words what every one knows, although -it has been carefully concealed from the people. The reason why -the Swiss and Scottish Guards were hired to protect the popes and -the French kings, and why the Russian regiments are so carefully -shuffled, is in order that those which are posted in the interior -may be recruited by men from the borders, and those on the borders -by men from the interior. The meaning of Caprivi's reply, translated -into simple, everyday language, means that money is needed, not to -repel a foreign enemy, but to bribe the subaltern officers to hold -themselves in readiness to act against the oppressed working-men. - -Caprivi incidentally expressed what every man knows--or if he does -not know it he feels it--namely, that the existing system of life is -such as it is, not because it is natural for it to be so, or that -the people are content to have it so, but because violence on the -part of governments, the army, with its bribed subaltern officers, -its captains and generals, sustains it. - -If a working-man has no land, if he is not allowed to enjoy the -natural right possessed by every man, to draw from the soil the -means of subsistence for himself and his family, it is not so -because the people oppose it, but because the right to grant or -to withhold this privilege from working-men is given to certain -individuals--namely, to the landed proprietors. And this unnatural -order of things is maintained by the troops. If the enormous wealth -earned and saved by working-men is not regarded as common property, -but as something to be enjoyed by the chosen few; if certain men -are invested with the power of levying taxes on labor, and with -the right of using that money for whatsoever purposes they deem -necessary; if the strikes of the working-men are suppressed, and -the trusts of the capitalists are encouraged; if certain men are -allowed to choose in the matter of religious and civil education -and the instruction of children; if to certain others the right -is given to frame laws which all men must obey, and if they are -to enjoy the control of human life and property,--all this is not -because the people wish it, or because it has come about in the -course of nature, but because the governments will have it so for -their own advantage and that of the ruling classes; and all this is -accomplished by means of physical violence. - -If every man is not yet aware of this, he will find it out whenever -attempts are made to change the present order of things. - -And therefore all the governments and the ruling classes stand in -need of troops above all things, in order to maintain a system of -life which, far from having developed from the needs of the people, -is often detrimental to them, and is only advantageous for the -government and the ruling classes. - -Every government requires troops to enforce obedience, that it may -profit by the labor of its subjects. But no government exists alone: -side by side with it stands the government of the adjacent country, -which is also profiting by the enforced labor of its subjects, and -ever ready to pounce upon its neighbor and take possession of the -goods which it has won from the labor of its own subjects. Hence it -is that every government needs an army, not only for home use, but -to guard its plunder from foreign depredations. Thus each government -finds itself obliged to outdo its neighbor in the increase of its -army, and, as Montesquieu said one hundred and fifty years ago, the -expansion of armies is a veritable contagion. - -One State makes additions to its army in order to overawe its own -subjects; its neighbor takes alarm, and straightway follows the -example. - -Armies have reached the millions which they now number not only -from the fear of foreign invasion; the increase was first caused -by the necessity for putting down all attempts at rebellion on the -part of the subjects of the State. The causes for the expansion of -armies are contemporary, the one depending on the other; armies -are needed against internal attempts at revolt, as well as for -external defense. The one depends upon the other. The despotism of -governments increases exactly in proportion to the increase of their -strength and their internal successes, and their foreign aggression -with the increase of internal despotism. - -European governments try to outdo one another, ever increasing their -armaments, and compelled at last to adopt the expedient of a general -conscription as a means of enrolling the greatest number of troops -at the smallest possible expense. - -Germany was the first to whom this plan suggested itself. And no -sooner was it done by one nation than all the others were forced -to do likewise. Thus all the citizens took up arms to assist in -upholding the wrongs that were committed against them; in fact, they -became their own oppressors. - -General military conscription was the inevitable and logical -consummation at which it was but natural to arrive; at the same -time it is the last expression of the innate contradiction of the -social life-conception which sprang into existence when violence was -required for its support. - -General military conscription made this contradiction a conspicuous -fact. Indeed, the very significance of the social life-conception -consists in this,--that a man, realizing the cruelty of the struggle -of individuals among themselves, and the peril that the individual -incurs, seeks protection by transferring his private interests to a -social community; whereas the result of the system of conscription -is that men, after having made every sacrifice to escape from the -cruel struggle and uncertainties of life, are once more called upon -to undergo all the dangers they had hoped to escape, and moreover, -the community--the State for which the individuals gave up their -previous advantages--is now exposed to the same risk of destruction -from which the individual himself formerly suffered. Governments -should have set men free from the cruelty of the personal struggle, -and given them confidence in the inviolable structure of State life; -but instead of doing this they impose on individuals a repetition -of the same dangers, with this difference, that in the place of -struggle between individuals of the same group, it is a case of -struggle between groups. - -The establishment of a general military conscription is like the -work of a man who props a crumbling house. The walls have settled, -sloping inward--he braces them; the ceiling begins to hang down--he -supports that; and when the boards between give way, other braces -are supplied. At last it reaches the point when, although the braces -hold the house together, they actually make it uninhabitable. - -The same may be said of the general conscription system. The general -military conscription nullifies all those advantages of social life -which it is expected to protect. - -The advantages of social life are those guarantees which it offers -for the protection of property and labor, as well as cooperation for -the purposes of mutual advantage; the general military conscription -destroys all this. - -The taxes collected from the people for purposes of war absorb the -greater part of the productions of their labor, which the army ought -to protect. - -When men are taken from the ordinary avocations of daily life, labor -is practically destroyed. Where war is ever threatening to break -forth, it does not seem worth while to improve social conditions. - -If a man had formerly been told that unless he submitted to the -civil authority he would run the risk of being assaulted by wicked -men, that he would be in danger from domestic as well as from -foreign foes, against whom he would be forced to defend himself, -that he might be murdered, and therefore he would find it for -his advantage to suffer certain privations if by that means he -succeeded in escaping all these perils, he might have believed this, -especially as the sacrifices required by the State promised him the -hope of a peaceful existence within the well-established community -in whose name he had made them. But now, when these sacrifices are -not only multiplied, but the promised advantages are not realized, -it is quite natural for men to think that their subjection to -authority is utterly useless. - -But the fatal significance of the general conscription, as the -manifestation of that contradiction which dwells in the social -life-conception, lies not in this. Wherever military conscription -exists, every citizen who becomes a soldier likewise becomes a -supporter of the State system, and a participant in whatsoever the -State may do, at the same time that he does not acknowledge its -validity; and this may be called its chief manifestation. - -Governments declare that armies are principally required for -external defense; but this is untrue. They are, in the first place, -needed to overawe their own subjects, and every man who yields to -military conscription becomes an involuntary participator in all the -oppressive acts of government toward its subjects. It is necessary -to remember what goes on in every State in the name of order and -the welfare of the community, all the while enforced by military -authority, to be convinced that every man who fulfils military -duty becomes a participant in acts of the State of which he cannot -approve. Every dynastic and political feud, all the executions -resulting from such feuds, the crushing of rebellions, the use -of the military in dispersing mobs, in putting down strikes, all -extortionate taxation, the injustice of land ownership and the -limitations of freedom of labor,--all this is done, if not directly -by the troops, then by the police supported by the troops. He who -performs his military duty becomes a participant in all these acts, -about which he often feels more than dubious, and which are in most -cases directly opposed to his conscience. Men do not wish to leave -the land which they have tilled for generations; they do not wish to -disperse on the bidding of the government; they do not wish to pay -the taxes which are extorted from them; neither do they willingly -submit to laws which they have not helped to make; they do not wish -to give up their nationality. And I, if I am performing military -duty, must come forward and strike these men down. I cannot take -part in such proceedings without asking myself if they be right. And -ought I to cooperate in carrying them out? - -General military conscription is the last step in the process of -coercion required by governments for the support of the whole -structure; for subjects it is the extreme limit of obedience. It is -the keystone of the arch that supports the walls, the abstraction -of which would destroy the whole fabric. The time has come when -the ever growing abuses of governments, and their mutual contests, -have required from all their subjects not only material but moral -sacrifices, till each man pauses and asks himself, Can I make these -sacrifices? And for whose sake am I to make them? These sacrifices -are demanded in the name of the State. In the name of the State I am -asked to give up all that makes life dear to a man,--peace, family, -safety, and personal dignity. What, then, is this State in whose -name such appalling sacrifices are demanded? And of what use is it? - -We are told that the State is necessary, in the first place, because -were it not for that no man would be safe from violence and the -attacks of wicked men; in the second place, without the State -we should be like savages, possessing neither religion, morals, -education, instruction, commerce, means of communication, nor any -other social institutions; and, in the third place, because without -the State we should be subject to the invasion of the neighboring -nations. - -"Were it not for the State," we are told, "we should be subjected to -violence and to the attacks of evil men in our own land." - -But who are these evil men from whose violence and attacks the -government and the army saves us? If such men existed three or -four centuries ago, when men prided themselves on their military -skill and strength of arm, when a man proved his valor by killing -his fellow-men, we find none such at the present time: men of -our time neither use nor carry weapons, and, believing in the -precepts of humanity and pity for their neighbors, they are as -desirous for peace and a quiet life as we are ourselves. Hence this -extraordinary class of marauders, against whom the State might -defend us, no longer exists. But if, when they speak of the men -from whose attacks the government defends us, we understand that -they mean the criminal classes, in that case we know that they are -not extraordinary beings, like beasts of prey among sheep, but are -men very much like ourselves, who are naturally just as reluctant -to commit crimes as those against whom they commit them. We know -now that threats and punishments are powerless to decrease the -numbers of such men, but that their numbers may be decreased by -change of environment and by moral influence. Hence the theory of -the necessity of State violence in order to protect mankind against -evil-doers, if it had any foundation three or four centuries ago, -has none whatever at the present time. One might say quite the -reverse nowadays, for the activity of governments, with their -antiquated and merciless methods of punishment, their galleys, -prisons, gallows, and guillotines, so far below the general plane -of morality, tends rather to lower the standard of morals than to -elevate it, and therefore rather to increase than to lessen the -number of criminals. - -It is said that "without the State there would be no institutions, -educational, moral, religious, or international; there would be no -means of communication. Were it not for the State, we should be -without organizations necessary to all of us." - -An argument like this could only have had a basis several centuries -ago. If there ever was a time when men had so little international -communication, and were so unused to intercourse or interchange -of thought that they could not come to an agreement on matters of -general interest--commercial, industrial, or economical--without -the assistance of the State, such is not the case at present. The -widely diffused means of communication and transmission of thought -have achieved this result,--that when the modern man desires to -found societies, assemblies, corporations, congresses, scientific, -economical, or political institutions, not only can he easily -dispense with the assistance of governments, but in the majority -of cases governments are more of a hindrance than a help in the -pursuit of such objects. - -Since the end of the last century almost every progressive movement -on the part of mankind has been not only discouraged, but invariably -hampered, by governments. Such was the case with the abolition of -corporal punishment, torture, and slavery; with the establishment -of freedom of the press and liberty of meeting. Furthermore, State -authorities and governments nowadays not only do not cooperate, -but they directly hinder the activity by means of which men work -out new forms of life. The solution of labor and land questions, -of political and religious problems, is not only unencouraged, but -distinctly opposed, by the government authority. - -"If there were no State and government authority, nations would be -subjugated by their neighbors." - -It is not worth while to answer this last argument. It refutes -itself. - -We are told that the government and its armies are necessary for our -defense against the neighboring States which might subject us. But -all the governments say this of one another; and yet we know that -every European nation professes the same principles of liberty and -fraternity, and therefore needs no defense against its neighbor. -But if one speaks of defense against barbarians, then one per cent -of the troops under arms at the present time would suffice. It is -not only that the increase of armed force fails to protect us from -danger of attack from our neighbors, it actually provokes the very -attack which it deprecates. - -Hence no man who reflects on the significance of the State, in -whose name he is required to sacrifice his peace, his safety, and -his life, can escape the conviction that there is no longer any -reasonable ground for such sacrifices. - -Even regarding the subject theoretically, a man must realize that -the sacrifices demanded by the State are without sufficient reason; -and when he considers the matter from a practical point of view, -weighing all the different conditions in which he has been placed -by the State, every man must see that so far as he himself is -concerned, the fulfilment of the requirements of the State and his -own subjection to military conscription is indubitably and in every -case less advantageous for him than if he refused to comply with it. -If the majority of people prefer obedience to insubordination, it is -not because they have given the subject dispassionate consideration, -weighing the advantages and disadvantages, but because they are, -so to speak, under the influence of hypnotic suggestion. Men -submit to demands like this without using their reason or making -the least effort of the will. It requires independent reasoning, -as well as effort, to refuse submission,--effort which some men -are incapable of making. But supposing we exclude the moral -significance of submission and non-submission, and consider only -their advantages, then non-submission will always prove more -advantageous than submission. Whoever I may be, whether I belong to -the well-to-do--the oppressing class--or to the oppressed laboring -class, in either case the disadvantages of non-submission are less -numerous than the disadvantages of submission, and the advantages of -non-submission greater than those of submission. - -If I belong to the oppressive, which is the smallest class, and -refuse to submit to the demands of the government, I shall be tried -as one who refuses to fulfil his obligations,--I shall be tried, and -in case my trial terminates favorably, I shall either be declared -not guilty, or I may be dealt with as they treat the Mennonites -in Russia--that is, be compelled to serve my term of military -service by performing some non-military work; if, on the contrary, -an unfavorable verdict is rendered, I shall be condemned to exile -or imprisonment for two or three years (I am speaking of cases in -Russia); or possibly my term of imprisonment may be longer. And I -may even be condemned to suffer the penalty of death, although that -is not at all probable. Such are the disadvantages of non-submission. - -The disadvantages of submission are as follows:--If I am fortunate -I shall not be sent to murder men, neither shall I run the risk -myself of being disabled or killed; they will simply make a military -slave of me. I shall be arrayed in the garments of a clown; my -superior officers, from the corporal to the field-marshal, will -order me about. At their word of command I shall be put through -a series of gymnastic contortions, and after being detained from -one to five years I shall be released, but still obliged for ten -years longer to hold myself in readiness at any moment I may be -summoned to execute the orders these people give me. And if I am -less fortunate I shall be sent to the wars, still in the same -condition of slavery, and there I shall be forced to slay fellow-men -of other countries who never did me any harm. Or I may be sent to a -place where I may be mutilated or killed; perhaps find myself, as -at Sevastopol, sent to certain death; these things happen in every -war. Worse than all things else, I may be sent to fight against my -fellow-countrymen, and compelled to kill my own brethren for some -matter dynastic or governmental, and to me of foreign interest. Such -are the comparative disadvantages. - -The comparative advantages of submission and non-submission are as -follows:--For him who has submitted the advantages are these: after -he has subjected himself to all the degradations and committed all -the cruel deeds required of him, he may, provided he be not killed, -receive some scarlet or golden bauble to decorate his clown's -attire; or if he be especially favored, hundreds of thousands of -just such brutal men like himself may be put under his command, and -he be called field-marshal, and receive large sums of money. - -By refusing to submit he will possess the advantages of preserving -his manly dignity, of winning the respect of good men, and, above -all, he will enjoy the assurance that he is doing God's business, -and therefore an unquestionable benefit to mankind. - -Such are the advantages and disadvantages, on either side, for -the oppressor, a member of the wealthy class. For a man of the -working-class--a poor man--the advantages and disadvantages -are about the same, if we include one important addition to -the disadvantages. The special disadvantage for a man of the -working-class who has not refused to perform military service is -that, when he enters the service, his participation and his tacit -consent go toward confirming the oppression in which he finds -himself. - -But the question concerning the State, whether its continued -existence is a necessity, or whether it would be wiser to abolish -it, cannot be decided by discussion on its usefulness for the men -who are required to support it by taking part in the military -service, and still less by weighing the comparative advantages and -disadvantages of submission or non-submission for the individual -himself. It is decided irrevocably and without appeal by the -religious consciousness, by the conscience of each individual, to -whom no sooner does military conscription become a question than it -is followed by that of the necessity or non-necessity of the State. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -CERTAINTY OF THE ACCEPTANCE OF THE CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE OF -NON-RESISTANCE TO EVIL BY VIOLENCE BY THE MEN OF OUR WORLD - - Christianity is not a legislation but a new life-conception; - hence it was not obligatory, nor has it been accepted by all men - in its full meaning, but only by a few; the rest have accepted - it in a corrupted form--Moreover, Christianity is a prophecy - of the disappearance of the pagan life, and therefore of the - necessity of accepting the Christian doctrine--Non-resistance - of evil by violence is one of the principles of the Christian - doctrine which must inevitably be accepted by men at the present - day--Two methods of solving every struggle--The first method - consists in believing the general definitions of evil to be - binding upon all, and to resist this evil by violence--The - second, the Christian method, consists in not resisting evil - by violence--Although the failure of the first method was - recognized in the first centuries of Christianity, it is still - employed; but as humanity advanced it has become more evident - that there is not, nor can there be, a general definition of - evil--Now this has become evident to all, and if the violence - which is destined to combat evil exists, it is not because it - is considered necessary, but because men do not know how to - dispense with it--The difficulty of dispensing with it is due - to the skilfulness and complexity of political violence--This - violence is supported by four methods: by threats, bribes, - hypnotism, and the employment of military force--Deliverance - from State violence cannot be accomplished by overthrowing - the State--Through experience of the misery of pagan life men - are compelled to acknowledge the doctrine of Christ, with its - non-resistance to evil,--a doctrine which they have hitherto - ignored--To this same necessity of acknowledging the Christian - doctrine we are brought by the consciousness of its truth--This - consciousness is in utter contradiction to our life, and is - especially evident in regard to general military conscription; - but, in consequence of habit and the four methods of State - violence, men do not see this inconsistency of Christianity - with the duties of a soldier--Men do not see it even when the - authorities themselves show them plainly all the immorality of - the duties of a soldier--The call of the general conscription is - the extreme trial for every man,--the command to choose between - the Christian doctrine of non-resistance or servile submission - to the existing organization of the State--Men generally submit - to the demands of the State organization, renouncing all that - is sacred, as though there were no other issue--For men of the - pagan life-conception, indeed, no other issue does exist; they - are compelled to acknowledge it, regardless of all the dreadful - calamities of war--Society composed of such men must inevitably - perish, and no social changes can save it--The pagan life has - reached its last limits; it works its own destruction. - - -It is frequently said that if Christianity be a truth, it would -have been accepted by all men on its first appearance, and would -straightway have changed and improved the lives of men. One might -as well say that if the seed is alive it must instantly sprout and -produce its flower or its fruit. - -The Christian doctrine is not a law which, being introduced by -violence, can forthwith change the life of mankind. Christianity -is a life-conception more lofty and excellent than the ancient; -and such a new conception of life cannot be enforced; it must be -adopted voluntarily, and by two processes, the spiritual or interior -process, and the experimental or external process. - -Some men there are--but the smaller proportion--who instantly, -and as though by prophetic intuition, divine the truth, surrender -themselves to its influence, and live up to its precepts; -others--and they are the majority--are brought to the knowledge of -the truth, and the necessity for its adoption, by a long series of -errors, by experience and suffering. - -It is to this necessity of adopting the doctrine by the external -process of experience that Christendom has at last arrived. - -Now and then one wonders why the mistaken presentment of -Christianity, which even at the present time prevents men from -accepting it in its true significance, could have been necessary. -And yet the very errors, having brought men to their present -position, have been the medium through which it has become possible -for the majority to accept Christianity in its true meaning. - -If instead of that corrupted form of Christianity which was given -to the people, it had been offered to them in its purity, the -greater portion of mankind would have refused it, like the Asiatic -peoples to whom it is yet unknown. But having once accepted it in -its corrupted form, the nations embracing it were subjected to its -slow but sure influence, and by a long succession of errors, and -the suffering that ensued therefrom, have now been brought to the -necessity of adopting it in its true meaning. - -The erroneous presentation of Christianity, and its acceptance by -the majority of mankind, with all its errors, was then a necessity, -just as the seed, if it is to sprout, must for a time be buried in -the soil. - -The Christian doctrine is the doctrine of truth as well as of -prophecy. - -Eighteen hundred years ago the Christian doctrine revealed to men -the true conduct of life, and at the same time foretold the result -of disobeying its injunctions and of continuing to pursue their -former course, guided only by the precepts which were taught before -the dawn of Christianity; and it also showed them what life may -become if they accept the Christian doctrine and obey its dictates. - -Having taught in the Sermon on the Mount those precepts by which men -should order their daily lives, Christ said: "Therefore whosoever -heareth these sayings of mine, and doeth them, I will liken him -unto a wise man, which built his house upon a rock: and the rain -descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon -that house; and it fell not: for it was founded upon a rock. And -every one that heareth these sayings of mine, and doeth them not, -shall be likened unto a foolish man, which built his house upon the -sand: and the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds -blew, and beat upon that house; and it fell: and great was the fall -of it" (Matthew vii. 24-27). - -And thus, after eighteen centuries, the prophecy has been fulfilled. -As the result of the abandonment of Christ's teachings, having -disregarded the principle of non-resistance to evil, men have -unwittingly fallen into the condition of imminent peril foretold by -Christ to those who refused to follow His precepts. - -Men often think that the question of resistance or non-resistance to -evil by violence is an artificial question, which may be evaded. And -yet this is the question that life presents to mankind in general, -and to each thinking man in particular, and it is one that must be -solved. In social life, ever since Christianity was first preached, -this question has been like the doubt that confronts the traveler -when he comes to a place where the road which he has followed -divides, and he knows not which branch to choose. He must pursue -his way, and he can no longer go on without pausing to deliberate, -because there are now two roads from which to choose, whereas before -there was but one; he must make up his mind which he will take. - -In like manner, since the doctrine of Christ has been made known to -men, they can no longer say, I will go on living as I did before, -without deciding the question of resistance or non-resistance to -evil by violence. One must decide at the beginning of every fresh -struggle whether one ought or ought not to resist by violence that -which one believes to be evil. - -The question of resistance or non-resistance of evil by violence -arose with the first contest among men, for every contest is simply -the resistance by violence of something which each combatant -believes to be an evil. But before the time of Christ men did not -understand that resistance by violence of whatever the individual -believed to be evil--only the same action which seems evil to one -man may seem good to another--is simply one mode of settling the -difficulty, and that the other method consists in not resisting evil -by violence. - -Before the appearance of the doctrine of Christ men believed -that there could be but one way of deciding the contest, that of -resisting evil by violence, and acted accordingly, while each -combatant strove to persuade himself and others that what he -regarded as evil was in fact the actual and absolute evil. For this -purpose, dating from the oldest times, men began to invent certain -definitions of evil which should be obligatory for all, and for the -purpose of establishing definitions which should be thus binding, -were issued, either certain laws supposed to have been received in a -supernatural manner, or commands of individuals or of bodies of men -to whom an infallible wisdom was ascribed. Men used violence against -their fellow-men and assured themselves and others that they were -but using such violence against an evil acknowledged by all. - -This was the custom from the most ancient times, particularly among -men who had usurped authority, and men have been long in seeing its -baselessness. - -But the longer mankind existed the more complex grew its mutual -relations, and the more evident it became that to resist by violence -everything that is considered evil is unwise; that the struggle is -not diminished thereby, and that no human wisdom can ever define an -infallible standard of evil. - -When Christianity first appeared in the Roman Empire it had already -become evident to most men that whatever Nero or Caligula called -evil, and sought to overcome by violence, was not necessarily an -evil for the rest of mankind. Even then men had already begun to -realize that the human laws for which a divine origin was claimed -were really written by men; that men cannot be infallible, no -matter with what external authority they may be invested; and that -fallible men will not become infallible because they meet together -and call themselves a Senate, or any other similar name. Even then -this had been perceived and understood by many. And it was then -that Christ preached His doctrine, which not only embodied the -principle of non-resistance, but which revealed a new conception -of life, of which the application to social life would lead to the -suppression of strife among men, not by obliging one class to yield -to whatsoever authority shall ordain, but by forbidding all men, and -especially those in power, to employ violence against others. - -The doctrine was at that time embraced by a very limited number -of disciples, while the majority of men, particularly those who -were in authority, although they nominally accepted Christianity, -continued to follow the practice of resisting by violence whatever -they regarded as evil. So it was during the times of the Roman and -Byzantine emperors, and so it went on in later times. - -The inconsistency of an authoritative definition of evil and its -resistance by violence, already apparent in the first centuries -of Christianity, had grown still more evident at the time of the -dissolution of the Roman Empire and its subdivision into numerous -independent states hostile to one another and torn by internal -dissensions. - -But men were not yet ready to accept the law of Christ, and -the former method of defining an evil to be resisted by the -establishment of laws, enforced by coercion and binding upon all -men, continued to be employed. The arbiter, whose office it was -to decide upon the nature of the evil to be resisted by violence, -was alternately the Emperor, the Pope, the elected body, or the -nation at large. But both within and without the State men were -always to be found who refused to hold themselves bound, either by -those laws which were supposed to be the expression of the divine -will, or by the human laws which claimed to manifest the will of -the people;--men whose views on the subject of evil were quite at -variance with those of the existing authorities, men who resisted -the authorities, employing the same methods of violence that had -been directed against themselves. - -Men invested with religious authority would condemn as evil a -matter which to men and institutions invested with a temporal -authority commended itself as desirable, and _vice versa_, and more -and more furious grew the struggle. And the oftener men had recourse -to violence in settling the difficulty, the more evident it became -that it was ill chosen, because there is not, nor can there ever be, -a standard authority of evil to which all mankind would agree. - -Thus matters went on for eighteen centuries, and at last arrived at -their present condition, which is, that no man can dispute the fact -that an infallible definition of evil will never be made. We have -reached the point when men have ceased not only to believe in the -possibility of finding a universal definition which all men will -admit, but they have even ceased to believe in the necessity of -such a definition. We have reached the point when men in authority -no longer seek to prove that that which they consider evil is evil, -but candidly acknowledge that they consider that to be evil which -does not please them, and those who are subject to authority obey, -not because they believe that the definitions of evil made by -authority are just, but only because they have no power to resist. -The annexation of Nice to France, Lorraine to Germany, the Czechs -to Austria, the partition of Poland, the subjection of Ireland and -India to the English rule, the waging of war against China, the -slaughter of Africans, the expulsion of the Chinese, the persecution -of the Jews in Russia, or the derivation of profits by landowners -from land which they do not cultivate, and by capitalists from the -results of labor performed by others,--none of all this is done -because it is virtuous, or because it will benefit mankind and is -essentially opposed to evil, but because those who hold authority -will have it so. The result at the present time is this: certain -men use violence, no longer in the name of resistance to evil, but -from caprice, or because it is for their advantage; while certain -other men submit to violence, not because they believe, like those -of former ages, that violence is used to defend them from evil, but -simply because they cannot escape it. - -If a Roman, or a man of the Middle Ages, or a Russian, such -a man as I can remember fifty years ago, believed implicitly -that the existing violence of authority was needed to save him -from evil,--that taxes, duties, serfdom, prisons, the lash, the -knout, galleys, executions, military conscription, and wars were -unavoidable,--it would be difficult to find a man at the present -time who believes that all the violences committed saves a single -man from evil; on the contrary, not one could be found who had not -a distinct assurance that most of the violations to which he is -subjected, and in which he himself participates, are in themselves a -great and unprofitable calamity. - -There is hardly a man to be found at the present time who fails -to realize all the uselessness and absurdity of collecting taxes -from the laboring classes for the purpose of enriching idle -officials; or the folly of punishing weak and immoral men by exile -or imprisonment, where, supported as they are, and living in -idleness, they become still weaker and more depraved; or, again, the -unspeakable folly and cruelty of those preparations for war, which -can neither be explained nor justified, and which ruin and imperil -the safety of nations. Nevertheless these violations continue, and -the very men who realize and even suffer from their uselessness, -absurdity, and cruelty, contribute to their encouragement. - -If fifty years ago it was possible that the wealthy man of leisure -and the illiterate laborer should both believe that their positions, -the one a continual holiday, the other a life of incessant labor, -were ordained by God--in these days, not only throughout Europe, and -even in Russia, owing to the activity of the people, the growth of -education, and the art of printing, it is hardly possible to find -a man, either rich or poor, who in one way or another would not -question the justice of such an order of things. Not only do the -rich realize that the possession of wealth is in itself a fault, -for which they strive to atone by donations to science and art, -as formerly they redeemed their sins by endowing churches; but -even the majority of the laboring class now understand that the -existing order is false, and should be altered, if not abolished. -Men who profess religion, of whom we have millions in Russia, the -so-called sectarians, acknowledge, because they interpret the gospel -doctrine correctly, that this order of things is false and should -be destroyed. The working-men consider it false because of the -socialistic, communistic, or anarchical theories that have already -found way into their ranks. In these days the principle of violence -is maintained, not because it is considered necessary, but simply -because it has been so long in existence, and is so thoroughly -organized by those who profit by it--that is to say, by the -governments and ruling classes--that those who are in their power -find it impossible to escape. - -Nowadays every government, the despotic as well as the most -liberal, has become what Herzen has so cleverly termed a Genghis -Khan with a telegraphic equipment, that is, with an organization -of violence, having for basis nothing less than the most brutal -tyranny, and converting all the means invented by science for the -inter-communication and peaceful activities of free and equal men to -its own tyrannous and oppressive ends. - -The existing governments and the ruling classes no longer care -to present even the semblance of justice, but rely, thanks to -scientific progress, on an organization so ingenious that it is able -to inclose all men within a circle of violence through which it is -impossible to break. This circle is made up of four expedients, each -connected with and supporting the other like the rings of a chain. - -The first and the oldest expedient is intimidation. It consists -in representing the actual organization of the State, whether it -be that of a liberal republic or of an arbitrary despotism, as -something sacred and immutable, which therefore punishes by the most -cruel penalties any attempt at revolution. This expedient has been -put into practice recently wherever a government exists: in Russia -against the so-called nihilists, in America against the anarchists, -in France against the imperialists, monarchists, communists, and -anarchists. Railroads, telegraphs, telephones, photography, the -improved method of disposing of criminals by imprisoning them in -solitary confinement for the remainder of their lives in cells, -where, hidden from human view, they die forgotten, as well as -numerous other modern inventions upon which governments have the -prior claim, give them such power, that if once the authority -fell into certain hands, and the regular and secret police, -administrative officials, and all kinds of procureurs, jailers, and -executioners labored zealously to support it, there would be no -possibility whatsoever of overthrowing the government, however cruel -or senseless it might be. - -The second expedient is bribery. This consists in taking the -property of the laboring classes by means of taxation and -distributing it among the officials, who, in consideration of this, -are bound to maintain and increase the bondage of the people. The -bribed officials, from the prime ministers to the lowest scribes, -form one unbroken chain of individuals, united by a common interest, -supported by the labor of the people, fulfilling the will of the -government with a submission proportionate to their gains, never -hesitating to use any means in any department of business to promote -the action of that governmental violence on which their well-being -rests. - -The third expedient I can call by no other name than hypnotism. -It consists in retarding the spiritual development of men, and, -by means of various suggestions, influencing them to cling to the -theory of life which mankind has already left behind, and upon -which rests the foundation of governmental authority. We have at -the present time a hypnotizing system, organized in a most complex -manner, beginning in childhood and continued until the hour of -death. This hypnotism begins during the early years of a man's life -in a system of compulsory education. Children receive in school -the same ideas in regard to the universe which their ancestors -entertained, and which are in direct contradiction to contemporary -knowledge. In countries where a State religion exists, children -are taught the senseless and sacrilegious utterances of church -catechisms, with the duty of obedience to authorities; in the -republics they are taught the absurd superstition of patriotism, -and the same obligation of obedience to the government. In maturer -years this hypnotizing process is continued by the encouragement -of religious and patriotic superstition. Religious superstition is -encouraged by the erection of churches built from money collected -from the people, by holidays, processions, painting, architecture, -music, by incense that stupefies the brain, and, above all, by -the maintenance of the so-called clergy, whose duty consists in -befogging the minds of men and keeping them in a continual state -of imbecility, what with the solemnity of their services, their -sermons, their intervention with the private lives of men in time -of marriage, birth, and death. The patriotic superstition is -encouraged by the governments and the ruling classes by instituting -national festivals, spectacles, and holidays, by erecting monuments -with money collected from the people, which will influence men to -believe in the exclusive importance and greatness of their own State -or country and its rulers, and encourage a feeling of hostility -and even of hatred toward other nations. Furthermore, autocratic -governments directly forbid the printing and circulation of books -and the delivery of speeches that might enlighten men; and those -teachers who have the power to rouse the people from its torpor -are either banished or imprisoned. And every government, without -exception, conceals from the masses all that would tend to set them -free, and encourages all that would demoralize them,--all those -writings, for instance, that tend to confirm them in the crudeness -of their religious and patriotic superstition; all kinds of sensual -pleasures, shows, circuses, theaters; and all means for producing -physical stupor, especially those, like tobacco or brandy, which are -among the principal sources of national income. Even prostitution is -encouraged; it is not only recognized, but organized by the majority -of governments. Such is the third expedient. - -The fourth expedient consists in this: certain individuals are -selected from among the mass of enslaved and stupefied beings, -and these, after having been subjected to a still more vigorous -process of brutalization, are made the passive instruments of the -cruelties and brutalities indispensable to the government. This -state of brutality and imbecility is produced by taking men in their -youth, before they have yet had time to gain any clear conception -of morality; and then, having removed them from all the natural -conditions of human life, from home, family, birthplace, and the -possibility of intelligent labor, by shutting them up together in -barracks, where, dressed in a peculiar uniform, to the accompaniment -of shouts, drums, music, and the display of glittering gewgaws, they -are daily forced to perform certain prescribed evolutions. By these -methods they are reduced to that hypnotic condition when they cease -to be men and become imbecile and docile machines in the hands of -the hypnotizer. These physically strong young men thus hypnotized -(and at the present time, with the general conscription system, -all young men answer to this description), supplied with murderous -weapons, ever obedient to the authority of the government, and ready -at its command to commit any violence whatsoever, constitute the -fourth and the principal means for subjugating men. So the circle of -violence is completed. - -Intimidation, bribery, and hypnotism force men to become soldiers; -soldiers give power and make it possible to execute and to rob -mankind (with the aid of bribed officials), as well as to hypnotize -and to recruit men who are in their turn to become soldiers. - -The circle is complete, and there is no possibility of escape from -it. - -If some men believe that deliverance from violence, or even a -certain abatement of its energy, may be the result of its overthrow -by the oppressed, who will then replace it by a system which will -require no such violence and subjugation, and if, so believing, -they attempt to bring this about, they only deceive themselves and -others. So far from improving the position, these attempts will only -render things worse. - -The activity of such men only strengthens the despotism of -governments by giving the latter a convenient pretext for increasing -their defenses. For even when, following a train of circumstances -highly demoralizing to the government,--take the case of France -in 1870, for example,--a government is overthrown by violence -and the authority passes into other hands, this new authority -is by no means likely to be less oppressive than the former. On -the contrary, obliged to defend itself from its exasperated and -overthrown enemies, it will be even more cruel and despotic than its -predecessor, as has ever been the case in periods of revolution. - -If socialists and communists believe that the possession of -individual capital is a pernicious influence in society, and -anarchists regard government itself as an evil, there are, on the -other hand, monarchists, conservatives, and capitalists who look -upon the social and communal state as an evil order of society, -no less than anarchy itself; and all these parties have nothing -better to offer by way of reconciling mankind than violence. Thus, -whichever party gains the upper hand, it will be forced, in order -to introduce and maintain its own system, not only to avail itself -of all former methods of violence, but to invent new ones as well. -It simply means a change of slavery with new victims and a new -organization; but the violence will remain,--nay, increase,--because -human hatred, intensified by the struggle, will devise new means -for reducing the conquered to subjection. This has always been the -result of every revolution and violent overthrow of government. Each -struggle serves but to increase the power of those in authority at -the time to enslave their fellow-men. - -One domain of human activity, and only one, has hitherto escaped -the encroachments of the governments--the domain of the family, -the economical domain of private life and domestic labor. But now -even this domain, in consequence of the struggle of socialists and -communists, is gradually passing into the hands of the governments, -so that labor and recreation, the dwellings, clothes, and food of -the people will by degrees, if the desires of the reformers are -accomplished, be determined and regulated by the government. - -The long experiment of Christian life by nation after nation, during -eighteen centuries, has inevitably brought men to the necessity -of deciding whether the doctrine of Christ is to be accepted or -refused, and of deciding, too, the question of social life dependent -thereupon,--the resistance or non-resistance of evil by violence. -But there is this difference,--that formerly men could either accept -or reject the decision given by Christianity, whereas now it has -become imperative, because it affords the sole means of deliverance -from that condition of slavery in which, as in a net, men find -themselves entangled. - -Nor is it alone this sad plight that brings them to this necessity. - -Parallel with the negative proof of the falsehood of the pagan -order of things there has been positive proof of the truth of the -Christian doctrine. - -Indeed, in the course of the eighteen centuries, the best men in all -Christendom, through an inner spiritual medium, having recognized -the truths of the doctrine, have borne witness of it, regardless of -threats, privations, miseries, and torture. These nobler men, by -their martyrdom, have sealed the truth of the doctrine. - -Christianity penetrated into human consciousness, not alone by the -method of negative proof, that, namely, it had become impossible to -go on with the pagan life; but by its simplifying process, by its -explanation of, and its deliverance from, superstition, and by its -consequent spread among all classes of society. - -Eighteen centuries of the profession of Christianity have not -passed in vain for those who accepted it, even if it were but in -outward form. These eighteen centuries have made men realize all -the miseries of the pagan state, even though they have continued -to lead a pagan existence, out of harmony with an age of humanity; -and at the bottom of their hearts they believe now (and herein -lies the only reason for living at all) that salvation from such -an existence can be found in the fulfilment of the Christian -doctrine in its true sense. As to when and where this salvation is -to be accomplished, opinions differ, according to the intellectual -development of men and the prejudices among which they live; but -every educated man recognizes that our salvation is to be found -in the fulfilment of the Christian doctrine. Certain believers, -those who consider the Christian doctrine divine, affirm that this -salvation will be accomplished when all men believe in Christ and -the time of the second advent approaches; others, who also have -faith in the divinity of Christ's doctrine, believe that this -salvation will come through the churches, which, having got all -men within the fold, will implant in their hearts those Christian -virtues which will transform their lives. Others, again, who do -not accept the divinity of Christ, believe that the salvation of -men will be accomplished by means of a slow, continuous progress, -during which the groundwork of pagan life will be gradually replaced -by the groundwork of liberty, equality, and fraternity--that is, -by the basis of Christianity. Still others there are who preach a -new social organization, and who believe that this salvation will -be brought about when, by means of a violent revolution, men are -forced to a community of goods, to the abolition of governments, to -collective rather than individual labor--that is, by the realization -of one of the aspects of Christianity. Thus, after one fashion -or another, all men of our epoch not only renounce the existing -order of life as no longer suited to the times, but acknowledge, -often without realizing it, and regarding themselves as enemies of -Christianity, that our salvation lies only in the adaptation to life -of a whole or a part of the Christian doctrine in its true sense. - -For the majority of men Christianity, as its Teacher has expressed -it, could not be comprehended at once, but was to grow, like unto a -huge tree, from the tiniest seed. "The kingdom of heaven is like to -a grain of mustard seed, ... which indeed is the least of all seeds: -but when it is grown, it is the greatest among herbs, and becometh -a tree." And thus it has grown and continues to grow, if not in -manifestation, then in human consciousness. - -It is no longer reserved for the minority of men, who have -always understood Christianity by its veritable truth; but it is -acknowledged by the great majority, who, if we are to judge by their -social life, are far removed from it. - -Look at the private life of individuals, listen to their estimation -of human actions as they pronounce judgment on each other; listen -not only to public sermons and orations, but to the precepts which -parents and teachers offer to their charges, and you will see that, -however far removed from the practice of Christian truths may be the -political or social existence of men who are in bonds to violence, -yet Christian virtues are admired and exalted by all; while, on the -contrary, the anti-Christian vices are unhesitatingly condemned -as harmful to all mankind. Those who sacrifice their lives in the -service of humanity are looked upon as the better men; while those -who take advantage of the misfortune of their neighbors to further -their own selfish interests are universally condemned. - -There may still be men who, insensible to Christian ideals, have set -up for themselves other ideals, such as power, courage, or wealth; -but these ideals are passing away; they are not accepted by all, nor -by the men of the better class. Indeed, the Christian ideals are the -only ones which are recognized as obligatory for all. - -The position of our Christian world, looked at from without, with -its cruelty and slavery, is indeed appalling. But if we consider -it from the standpoint of human consciousness, it presents a very -different aspect. All the evil of our life seems to exist only -because it always has existed from all ages, and the men whose -actions are evil have had neither the time nor the experience to -overcome their evil habits, although all are willing to abandon -them. Evil seems to exist by reason of some cause apparently -independent of the consciousness of men. - -Strange and contradictory as it may seem, modern men hate the very -order of things which they themselves support. - -I believe it is Max Mueller who describes the astonishment of an -Indian converted to Christianity, who, having apprehended the -essence of the Christian doctrine, came to Europe and beheld the -life of Christians. He could not recover from his astonishment in -the presence of the reality, so different from the state of things -he had expected to find among Christian nations. - -If we are not surprised at the contradiction between our convictions -and our actions, it is only because the influences which obscure -this contradiction act upon us. We have but to look at our life -from the standpoint of the Indian, who understood Christianity in -its true significance, without any concessions or adaptations, and -to behold the barbarous cruelties with which our life is filled, in -order to be horrified at the contradictions in the midst of which we -live, without noticing them. - -One has but to remember the preparations for war, the -cartridge-boxes, the silver-plated bullets, the torpedoes, and--the -Red Cross; the establishment of prisons for solitary confinement, -experiments with _electrocution_, and--the care for the welfare of -the prisoners; the philanthropic activity of the rich, and--their -daily life, which brings about the existence of the poor, whom they -seek to benefit. And these contradictions arise, not, as it might -seem, because men pretend to be Christians while they are actually -heathens, but because they lack something, or because there is some -power which prevents them from being what they really desire to -be, and what they even conscientiously believe themselves to be. -It is not that modern men merely pretend to hate oppression, the -inequality of class distinctions, and all kinds of cruelty, whether -practised against their fellow-men or against animals. They _are_ -sincere in their hatred of these abuses; but they do not know how -to abolish them, or they lack the courage to alter their own mode -of life, which depends upon all this, and which seems to them so -important. - -Ask, indeed, any individual if he considers it praiseworthy or -even honorable for a man to fill a position for which he receives -a salary so high as to be out of all proportion to the amount of -his labor, as, for instance, that of collecting from the people, -often from beggars, taxes which are to be devoted to the purchase -of cannon, torpedoes, and other instruments for murdering the men -with whom we wish to live in peace, and who wish to live in peace -with us; or, to receive a salary for spending his life either -in perfecting these instruments of murder, or in the military -exercises by which men are trained for slaughter? Ask whether it -be praiseworthy or compatible with the dignity of man, or becoming -to a Christian, to undertake, also for money, to arrest some -unfortunate man, some illiterate drunkard, for some petty theft not -to be compared with the magnitude of our own appropriation, or for -manslaughter not conducted by our advanced methods; and for such -offenses to throw people into prison, or put them to death? Ask -whether it be laudable and becoming in a man and a Christian, also -for money, to teach the people foolish and injurious superstitions -instead of the doctrine of Christ? Whether, again, it be laudable -and worthy of a man to wrench from his neighbor, in order to -gratify his own caprice, the very necessaries of life, as the great -landowners do; or to exact from his fellow-man an excessive and -exhausting toil for the purpose of increasing his own wealth, as -the mill-owners and manufacturers do; or to take advantage of human -necessities to build up colossal fortunes, as the merchants do? - -Every individual would reply not, especially if the question -regarded his neighbor. And at the same time the very man who -acknowledges all the ignominy of such deeds, when the case is -presented to him, will often, of his own accord, and for no -advantage of a salary, but moved by childish vanity, the desire to -possess a trinket of enamel, a decoration, a stripe, voluntarily -enter the military service, or become an examining magistrate, a -justice of the peace, a minister of state, an _uriadnik_, a bishop, -accepting an office whose duties will oblige him to do things, the -shame and ignominy of which he cannot help realizing. - -Many of these men will, I am sure, defend themselves on the ground -of the lawfulness and necessity of their position; they will argue -that the authorities are of God, that the functions of State are -indispensable for the good of mankind, that Christianity is not -opposed to wealth, that the rich youth was bidden to give up his -goods only if he wished to be perfect, that the present distribution -of wealth and commerce is beneficial to all men, and that it -is right and lawful. But however much they may try to deceive -themselves and others, they all know that what they do is opposed to -the highest interests of life, and at the bottom of their hearts, -when they listen only to their consciences, they are ashamed and -pained to think of what they are doing, especially when the baseness -of their deeds has been pointed out to them. A man in modern life, -whether he does or does not profess to believe in the divinity -of Christ, must know that to be instrumental either as a czar, -minister, governor, or policeman, as in selling a poor family's last -cow to pay taxes to the treasury, the money of which is devoted to -the purchase of cannon or to pay the salaries or pensions of idle -and luxurious officials, is to do more harm than good; or to be -a party to the imprisonment of the father of a family, for whose -demoralization we are ourselves responsible, and to bring his family -to beggary; or to take part in piratical and murderous warfare; -or to teach absurd superstitions of idol-worship instead of the -doctrine of Christ; or to impound a stray cow belonging to a man -who has no land; or to deduct the value of an accidentally injured -article from the wages of a mechanic; or to sell something to a poor -man for double its value, only because he is in dire necessity;--the -men of our modern life cannot but know that all such deeds are -wrong, shameful, and that they ought not to commit them. They do all -know it. They know that they are doing wrong, and would abstain from -it, had they but the strength to oppose those forces which blind -them to the criminality of their actions while drawing them on to do -wrong. - -But there is nothing that demonstrates so vividly the degree of -contradiction to which human life has attained as the system that -embodies both the method and the expression of violence,--the -general conscription system. It is only because a general armament -and military conscription have come imperceptibly and by slow -degrees, and that governments employ for their support all the means -of intimidation at their disposal,--bribery, bewilderment, and -violence,--that we do not realize the glaring contradiction between -this state of affairs and those Christian feelings and ideas with -which all modern men are penetrated. - -This contradiction has become so common that we fail to see the -shocking imbecility and immorality of the actions, not only of -those men who, of their own accord, choose the profession of murder -as something honorable, but of those unfortunates who consent to -serve in the army, and of those who, in countries where military -conscription has not yet been introduced, give of their own free -will the fruits of their labor to be used for the payment of -mercenaries and for the organization for murder. All these men are -either Christians or men professing humanitarianism and liberalism, -who know that they participate in the most imbecile, aimless, and -cruel murders; yet still they go on committing them. But this -is not all. In Germany, where the system of general military -conscription originated, Caprivi has revealed something that has -always been carefully hidden: that the men who run the risk of -being killed are not only foreigners, but are quite as likely to -be fellow-countrymen,--working-men,--from which class most of the -soldiers are obtained. Nevertheless, this admission neither opened -men's eyes nor shocked their sensibilities. They continue just as -they did before, to go like sheep, and submit to anything that -is demanded of them. And this is not all. The German Emperor has -recently explained with minute precision the character and vocation -of a soldier, having distinguished, thanked, and rewarded a private -for killing a defenseless prisoner who attempted to escape. In -thanking and rewarding a man for an act which is looked upon even -by men of the lowest type of morality as base and cowardly, Wilhelm -pointed out that the principal duty of a soldier, and one most -highly prized by the authorities, is that of an executioner,--not -like the professional executioners who put to death condemned -prisoners only, but an executioner of the innocent men whom his -superiors order him to kill. - -Yet more. In 1891 this same Wilhelm, the _enfant terrible_ of State -authority, who expresses what other men only venture to think, in a -talk with certain soldiers, uttered publicly the following words, -which were repeated the next day in thousands of papers:-- - -"Recruits! You have given _me_ the oath of allegiance before the -altar and the servant of the Lord. You are still too young to -comprehend the true meaning of what has been said here, but first of -all take care ever to follow the orders and instructions that are -given to you. You have taken the oath of allegiance to _me_; this -means, children of my guards, that you are now _my_ soldiers, that -you have given yourselves up to me, body and soul. - -"But one enemy exists for you--_my_ enemy. With the present -socialistic intrigues _it may happen that I shall command you to -shoot your own relatives, your brothers, even your parents_ (from -which may God preserve us!), _and then you are in duty bound to obey -my orders unhesitatingly_." - -This man expresses what is known, but carefully concealed, by all -wise rulers. He says outright that the men who serve in the army -serve _him_and _his_ advantage, and should be ready for that purpose -to kill their brothers and fathers. - -Roughly but distinctly he lays bare all the horror of the crime -for which men who become soldiers prepare themselves,--all that -abyss of self-abasement into which they fling themselves when they -promise obedience. Like a bold hypnotizer, he tests the depth of the -slumber; he applies red-hot iron to the sleeper's body; it smokes -and shrivels, but the sleeper does not awaken. - -Poor, sick, miserable man, intoxicated with power, who by these -words insults all that is sacred to men of modern civilization! -And we, Christians, liberals, men of culture, so far from feeling -indignant at this insult, pass it over in silence. Men are put to -the final test in its rudest form; but they hardly observe that a -test is in question, that a choice is put before them. It seems -to them as if there were no choice, but only the one necessity -of slavish submission. It would seem as if these insane words, -offensive to all that a civilized human being holds sacred, ought -to rouse indignation,--but nothing of the kind happens. Year after -year every young man in Europe is subjected to the same test, and -with very few exceptions they all forswear what is and should be -sacred to every man; all manifest a readiness to kill their brothers -and even their fathers, at the order of the first misguided man who -wears a red and gold livery, asking only when and whom they are to -be ordered to kill--for they are ready to do it. - -Even by savages certain objects are held sacred, for whose sake -they are ready to suffer rather than submit. But what is sacred for -the man of the modern world? He is told: Be my slave, in a bondage -where you may have to murder your own father; and he, oftentimes a -man of learning, who has studied all the sciences in the university, -submissively offers his neck to the halter. He is dressed in a -clown's garments, ordered to leap, to make contortions, to salute, -to kill--and he submissively obeys; and when at last allowed to -return to his former life, he continues to hold forth on the dignity -of man, freedom, equality, and brotherhood. - -"But what is to be done?" we often hear men ask in perplexity. "If -every man were to refuse, it would be a different matter; but, as it -is, I should suffer alone without benefiting any one." And they are -right; for a man who holds the social life-conception cannot refuse. -Life has no significance for him except as it concerns his personal -welfare; it is for his advantage to submit, therefore he does so. - -To whatever torture or injury he may be subjected he will submit, -because he can do nothing alone; he lacks the foundation which -alone would enable him to resist violence, and those who are in -authority over him will never give him the chance of uniting with -others. - -It has often been said that the invention of the terrible military -instruments of murder will put an end to war, and that war will -exhaust itself. This is not true. As it is possible to increase the -means for killing men, so it is possible to increase the means for -subjecting those who hold the social life-conception. Let them be -exterminated by thousands and millions, let them be torn to pieces, -men will still continue like stupid cattle to go to the slaughter, -some because they are driven thither under the lash, others that -they may win the decorations and ribbons which fill their hearts -with pride. - -And it is with material like this that the public -leaders--conservatives, liberals, socialists, anarchists--discuss -the ways and means of organizing an intelligent and moral society, -with men who have been so thoroughly confused and bewildered -that they will promise to murder their own parents. What kind of -intelligence and morality can there be in a society organized from -material like this? Just as it is impossible to build a house -from bent and rotten timber, however manipulated, so also is it -impossible with such materials to organize an intelligent and moral -society. They can only be governed like a drove of cattle, by the -shouts and lash of the herdsman. And so, indeed, they are governed. - -Again, while on the one hand we find men, Christians in name, -professing the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity, on -the other hand we see these same men ready, in the name of liberty, -to yield the most abject and slavish obedience; in the name of -equality, to approve of the most rigid and senseless subdivision of -men into classes; and in the name of fraternity, ready to slay their -own brothers.[14] - - [14] The fact that some nations, like the English and American, have - no general conscription system (although one hears already voices in - its favor), but a system of recruiting and hiring soldiers, nowise - alters the case as regards the slavery of the citizens under the - government. In the former system every man must go himself to kill - or be killed; in the latter, he must give the proceeds of his labor - to employ and drill murderers. - -The contradiction of the moral consciousness, and hence the misery -of life, has reached its utmost limit, beyond which it can go no -further. Life, based on principles of violence, has culminated in -the negation of the basis on which it was founded. The organization, -on principles of violence, of a society whose object was to insure -the happiness of the individual and the family, and the social -welfare of humanity, has brought men to such a pass that these -benefits are practically annulled. - -The first part of the prophecy in regard to those men and their -descendants who adopted this doctrine has been fulfilled, and now -their descendants are forced to realize the justice of its second -part. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -THE ACCEPTANCE OF THE CHRISTIAN LIFE-CONCEPTION DELIVERS MEN FROM -THE MISERIES OF OUR PAGAN LIFE - - The external life of Christian nations remains pagan, but they - are already penetrated by the Christian life-conception--The - issue from this contradiction is in the acceptance of the - Christian life-conception--In it alone is every man free, and - it alone frees him from all human authority--This deliverance - is brought about, not by a change of external conditions, - but only by a change in the conception of one's life--The - Christian life-conception demands the renunciation of violence, - and, in delivering the man who accepts it, it frees the world - from all external authority--The issue from the present - apparently hopeless position consists in every man accepting - the Christian life-conception and living accordingly--But - men consider this method too slow, and see their salvation - in change of the material conditions of life made with the - aid of the authority of the State--This method will have no - issue, because men themselves cause the evil from which they - suffer--This is especially evident in regard to the submissive - acceptance of military duty, for it is more advantageous for - a man to refuse than accept--Human freedom will be brought - about only through the liberation of each individual man, and - already there are signs of this liberation, which threatens to - destroy State organization--The repudiation of the un-Christian - demands of governments undermines their authority and makes - men free--Therefore instances of such refusals are feared by - governments more than conspiracies or violence--Instances, in - Russia, of refusals to take the oath of allegiance, to pay - taxes, to accept passports or positions in the police, to take - part in courts of law, or to be drafted as soldiers--Similar - instances in other countries--Governments know not how to - dispose of men who refuse to obey their requirements because of - the Christian doctrine--These men destroy without a struggle - the foundations of governments from the inside--To punish them - would mean for governments to deny Christianity themselves, and - to contribute to the diffusion of that consciousness from which - such refusals spring--Hence the position of governments is a - desperate one, and men who preach the uselessness of personal - deliverance only arrest the destruction of the existing system - of government founded on violence. - - -The Christian nations of the present day are in a position no less -cruel than that of pagan times. In many respects, especially in the -matter of oppression, their position has grown worse. - -A contrast like that of modern and ancient times may be seen in the -vegetation of the last days of autumn as compared with that of the -early days of spring. In the autumn the outward decay and death -correspond to the interior process, which is the suspension of life; -in the spring the apparent lifelessness is in direct contradiction -to the real vitality within, and the approaching transition to new -forms of life. - -And thus it is as regards the apparent resemblance between pagan -life and that of the present day. It exists only in appearance. The -inner lives of men in the times of paganism were quite unlike those -of the men of our days. - -In the former the external aspect of cruelty and slavery -corresponded with the inner consciousness of men, a conformity which -only increased as time went on; in the latter the external condition -of cruelty and slavery is in utter contradiction to the Christian -consciousness of men, a contradiction which grows more and more -striking every year. - -The misery and suffering resulting therefrom seem so useless. It is -like prolonged suffering in child-labor. Everything is ready for the -coming life, and yet no life appears. - -Apparently the situation is without deliverance. It would indeed -be so were it not that to men, and therefore to the world, there -has been vouchsafed the capacity for a loftier conception of life, -which has the power to set free, and at once, from all fetters, -however firmly riveted. - -And this is the Christian life-conception presented to men 1800 -years ago. - -A man has but to assimilate this life-conception and he will be set -free, as a matter of course, from the fetters that now restrain him, -and feel free as a bird who spreads his wings and flies over the -wall that has kept him a prisoner. - -They talk of setting the Christian Church free from the State, of -granting freedom to or withholding it from Christians. Such thoughts -and expressions are strangely misleading. Liberty can neither be -granted to nor withheld from a Christian or Christians. - -But if there is a question of granting or withholding liberty, then -evidently it is not the true Christians who are meant, but only men -who call themselves by that name. A Christian cannot help being -free, because in the pursuit and attainment of his object no one can -either hinder or retard him. - -A man has but to understand his life as Christianity teaches him to -understand it; that is, he must realize that it does not belong to -himself, nor to his family, nor to the State, but to Him who sent -him into the world; he must therefore know that it is his duty to -live, not in accordance with the law of his own personality, nor of -that of his family or State, but to fulfil the infinite law of Him -who gave him life, in order to feel himself so entirely free from -all human authority that he will cease to regard it as a possible -obstacle. - -A man needs but to realize that the object of his life is the -fulfilment of God's law; then the preeminence of that law, claiming -as it does his entire allegiance, will of necessity invalidate the -authority and restrictions of all human laws. - -The Christian who contemplates that law of love implanted in every -human soul, and quickened by Christ, the only guide for all mankind, -is set free from human authority. - -A Christian may suffer from external violence, may be deprived of -his personal freedom, may be a slave to his passions,--the man who -commits sin is the slave of the sin,--but he cannot be controlled -or coerced by threats into committing an act contrary to his -consciousness. He cannot be forced to this, because the privations -and sufferings that are so powerful an influence over men who hold -the social life-conception have no influence whatever over him. The -privations and sufferings that destroy the material welfare which is -the object of the social life-conception produce no effect upon the -welfare of the Christian's life, which rests on the consciousness -that he is doing God's will--nay, they may even serve to promote -that welfare when they are visited upon him for fulfilling that will. - -A Christian, therefore, who submits to the inner, the divine law, -is not only unable to execute the biddings of the outward law when -they are at variance with his consciousness of God's law of love, -as in the case of the demands made upon him by the government; but -he cannot acknowledge the obligation of obeying any individual -whomsoever, cannot acknowledge himself to be what is called a -subject. For a Christian to promise to subject himself to any -government whatsoever--a subjection which may be considered the -foundation of State life--is a direct negation of Christianity; -since an individual who promises beforehand to obey implicitly every -law that men may enact, by that promise utters an emphatic denial of -Christianity, whose very essence is obedience in all contingencies -to the law which he feels to be within him--the law of love. - -With the pagan life-conception it was possible to promise to obey -the will of temporal authorities without violating the laws of -God, which were supposed to consist in carrying out such customs -as circumcision, the observance of the Sabbath, the utterance of -prayer at certain periods, abstinence from certain kinds of food, -etc. The one did not contradict the other. But Christianity differs -from paganism inasmuch as its requirements are not of an external -or negative character; on the contrary, they are such as reverse -man's former relations toward his fellow-men, and may call for -acts on his part which could not be anticipated, and consequently -are not defined. Hence it is that a Christian can neither promise -to obey nor to disobey the will of another, ignorant as he must -be of the nature of its requirements; not only must he refuse to -obey human laws, but he cannot promise to do or abstain from doing -anything definite at any given time, because he can never tell at -what hour or in what manner the Christian law of love, on which his -life-conception is based, will demand his cooperation. A Christian, -promising in advance to obey unconditionally the laws of men, admits -by that promise that the inner law of God does not constitute for -him the sole law of his life. - -When a Christian promises to obey the commands or laws of men, he -is like a craftsman who, having hired himself out to one master, -promises at the same time to execute the orders of other persons. No -man can serve two masters. - -A Christian is freed from human authority by acknowledging -the supremacy of one authority alone, that of God, whose law, -revealed to him through Christ, he recognizes within himself, and -obeys,--that and no other. - -And this deliverance is accomplished neither by means of a struggle, -nor by the destruction of previous customs of life, but only through -a change in his life-conception. The deliverance proceeds, in the -first place, from the Christian's acknowledgment of the law of love, -as revealed to him by his Teacher, which suffices to determine the -relations of men, and according to which every act of violence seems -superfluous and unlawful. Secondly, because those privations and -miseries, or the anticipations of such, which influence a man who -holds the social life-conception and reduces him to obedience, seem -to him no more than the inevitable consequences of existence, which -he would never dream of opposing by violence, but bears patiently, -as he would bear disease, hunger, or any other misery; which, -indeed, have no possible influence over his actions. The Christian's -only guide must be the divine indwelling element, subject neither to -restriction nor to control. - -A Christian lives in accordance with the words spoken by the Master: -"He shall not strive, nor cry; neither shall any man hear his voice -in the streets. A bruised reed shall he not break, and smoking flax -shall he not quench, _till he send forth judgment unto victory_."[15] - - [15] Matthew xii. 19, 20. - -A Christian enters into no dispute with his neighbor, he neither -attacks nor uses violence; on the contrary, he suffers violence -himself without resistance, and by his very attitude toward evil not -only sets himself free, but helps to free the world at large from -all outward authority. - -"And ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you -free."[16] If there were any doubt of the truth of Christianity -there could be no more indubitable proof of its authenticity than -the complete freedom, recognizing no fetters, which a man feels as -soon as he assimilates the Christian life-conception. - - [16] John viii. 32. - -Human beings in their present condition may be likened to bees in -the act of swarming, as we see them clinging in a mass to a single -bough. Their position is a temporary one, and must inevitably be -changed. They must rise and find themselves a new abode. Every bee -knows this, and is eager to shift its own position, as well as that -of the others, but not one of them will do so until the whole swarm -rises. The swarm cannot rise, because one bee clings to the other -and prevents it from separating itself from the swarm, and so they -all continue to hang. It might seem as if there were no deliverance -from this position, precisely as it seems to men of the world who -have become entangled in the social net. Indeed, there would be no -outlet for the bees if each one were not a living creature possessed -of a pair of wings. Neither would there be any issue for men if -each one were not a living individual, being gifted with a capacity -for assimilating the Christian life-conception. - -If among these bees who are able to fly not one could be found -willing to start, the swarm would never change its position. And it -is the same among men. If the man who has assimilated the Christian -life-conception waits for others before he proceeds to live in -accordance with it, mankind will never change its attitude. And as -all that is needed to change a solid mass of bees into a flying -swarm is for one bee to spread its wings and fly away, when the -second, the third, the tenth, and the hundredth will follow suit; so -all that is needed to break through the magic circle of social life, -deliverance from which seems so hopeless, is, that one man should -view life from a Christian standpoint and begin to frame his own -life accordingly, whereupon others will follow in his footsteps. - -But men think that the deliverance of mankind by this method is -too slow a process, and that a simultaneous deliverance might be -effected by some other method. Just as if bees, when the swarm was -ready to rise, were to decide that it would be too long a process if -they waited for each bee to spread its wings and rise separately, -and that some means must be devised whereby the swarm may rise all -at once, whenever it pleases. But that is impossible. Not until the -first, second, third, and hundredth bee has unfolded its wings and -flown away can the swarm take flight and find for itself a new home. -Not until each individual man adopts the Christian life-conception, -and begins to live in conformity with its precepts, will the -contradictions of human life be solved, and new forms of life become -established. - -One of the most striking events of our time is the propaganda -of slavery which is spread among the masses, not only by the -government, to whom it is of use, but by those exponents of -socialistic theories who consider themselves the champions of -freedom. - -These men preach that the amelioration in the conditions of life, -the reconciliation between actuality and consciousness, will not be -brought about by the personal efforts of individual men, but that it -will evolve itself out of a certain forced reorganization of society -by some unknown influence. Their theory is that men should not -proceed of their own accord to the place where they wish to go, but -that they should have a platform built under their feet, upon which -they may be carried to the spot they desire to reach. Hence they -must not move as far as their strength will permit, but all their -efforts must be directed toward building this imaginary platform -without stirring from their position. - -There is a theory in economics preached in these days of which the -essential principle is this: the worse the condition of affairs, -the better the prospect; the greater the accumulation of capital -and oppression of the working-man resulting therefrom, the nearer -the day of deliverance; and therefore any effort on the part of -the individual to free himself from the oppression of capital is -useless. In regard to the government it is declared that the greater -its authority, which, according to this theory, should include the -domain of private life, hitherto uninvaded, the better it will be, -and hence one should solicit the interference of governments with -private life. In regard to international politics, it is declared -that the increase of armies and modes of extermination will lead -to the necessity of a general disarmament through the agency of -congresses, arbitration, etc. And the most surprising part of all is -that human lethargy is so profound that men credit these theories, -although the whole structure of life, and every stage in human -progress, demonstrate their fallacy. - -Men suffer from oppression, and by way of deliverance certain -expedients are suggested for the improvement of their condition, -these means of relief to be administered by authority, to which they -continue to submit. This will naturally tend to augment authority -and to increase the consequent oppression of government. - -Of all the errors of humanity there is none that so retards its -progress as this. Men will do anything in the world to achieve their -purpose save the one simple deed, which it is every man's duty to -perform. Men will invent the most ingenious devices for changing the -position which is burdensome to them, but never dream of the simple -remedy of abstaining from the acts which cause it. - -I was told of an incident which happened to an intrepid _stanovoy_, -who, on arriving in a village where the peasants had revolted, and -whither troops had been sent, undertook, like the Emperor Nicholas -I., to quell the disturbance by his personal influence. He ordered -several loads of rods to be brought, and having gathered all the -peasants into the barn, he entered himself, shut himself in with -them, and so terrified them by his shouts and threats that in -compliance with his commands they began to flog each other. And so -they went on flogging one another until some fool revolted, and, -shouting to his comrades, bade them leave off. It was not until then -that the flogging ceased, and the _stanovoy_ escaped from the barn. - -It is this very advice of the fool that men who believe in the -necessity of civil government seem unable to follow. They are unable -to stop punishing themselves, and setting an absurd example for -others to imitate. Such is the consummation of merely human wisdom. - -Is it possible, indeed, to imagine a more striking imitation of -those men flogging one another than the meekness with which the -men of these days fulfil those social duties that lead them into -bondage, especially the military conscription? It is clear that men -enslave themselves; they suffer from this slavery, and yet they -believe it inevitable; they also believe that it will not affect -the ultimate emancipation of mankind, which they declare the final -outcome, in spite of the fact that slavery is ever increasing. - -The man of modern times, whoever he may be (I do not mean a true -Christian), educated or ignorant, a believer or an unbeliever, rich -or poor, married or single, does his work, takes his pleasures, and -dreads all restrictions and privations, all enmity and suffering. -Thus he is living, peaceably. Suddenly men come to him and say: -"First, promise on your oath that you will obey us like a slave -in all that we command; believe that whatever we tell you is -unquestionably true, and submit to all that we shall call laws. Or, -secondly, give us a share in the product of your labor, that we -may use it to keep you in bondage, and prevent you from revolting -against our commands. Or, thirdly, choose, or be chosen among, the -so-called officials of the government, knowing that the government -will go on quite regardless of the foolish speeches which you, or -others like you, may utter; that it will be carried on in accordance -with our wishes and the wishes of those who control the army. -Or, fourthly, come to the law-courts, and take part in all the -senseless cruelties which we commit against men, who are erring and -depraved men, and who have become so through our fault,--in the -form of imprisonment, exile, solitary confinement, and execution. -Or, lastly, although you may be on the most friendly terms with -men who belong to other nations, you must be ready at a moment's -notice, whenever the command is issued, to look upon such of them -as we shall indicate as your enemies, and either personally or by -substitute contribute to the ruin, robbery, and murder of these men, -of old men, women, and children--even, if we require it, of your -fellow-countrymen and your parents." - -One would think that in these days there could be but one reply from -any man in his senses. - -"Why must I do all this? Why must I promise to obey all the orders -of Salisbury to-day, those of Gladstone to-morrow; Boulanger to-day, -and to-morrow the orders of an assembly composed of men like -Boulanger; Peter III. to-day, Catharine to-morrow, and the next day -Pugatchov; to-day the insane King of Bavaria, to-morrow the Emperor -William? Why should I promise this to men whom I know to be wicked -or foolish, or men whom I know nothing at all about? Why should I, -in the form of taxes, hand over to them the fruits of my labor, -knowing that this money will be used to bribe officials, to support -prisons, churches, and armies, to pay for the execution of evil acts -destined for my oppression? In other words, why should I apply the -rod to my own back? Why should I go on wasting my time, averting -my eyes, helping to give a semblance of legality to the acts of -wrong-doers, play a part in elections, and pretend to participate -in the government, when I know perfectly well that the country is -ruled by those who control the army? Why should I go into the courts -and be a party to the infliction of tortures and executions upon -my erring fellow-beings, knowing, if I am a Christian, that the -law of love has been substituted for the law of vengeance, and if -I am an educated man, that punishment, so far from reforming its -victims, serves only to demoralize them? Why should I, in person or -in substitute, go and kill and despoil, and expose myself to the -dangers of war, simply because the key of the temple of Jerusalem -happens to be in the keeping of one bishop rather than in that -of another; because Bulgaria is to be ruled by one German prince -instead of another; or because the privileges of the seal fishery -are reserved for the English to the exclusion of the American -merchants. Why should I regard as my enemies the inhabitants of a -neighboring country, with whom up to the present day I have lived, -and still wish to live, in peace and amity,--why should I go myself, -or pay for soldiers, to murder and ruin them? - -"And, above all, why should I contribute, whether in person or by -paying for military service, to the enslavement and destruction of -my brothers and parents? Why should I scourge myself? All this is -of no use to me; on the contrary, it does me harm. It is altogether -degrading, immoral, mean, and contemptible. Why, then, should I do -all this? If I am told that I shall be made to suffer in any event, -I reply that in the first place, there can be no possible suffering -greater than that which would befall me were I to execute your -commands. And in the second place, it is perfectly evident to me -that if we refuse to scourge ourselves, no one else will do it for -us. Governments are but sovereigns, statesmen, officials, who can -no more force me against my will, than the _stanovoy_ could force -the peasants; I should be brought before the court, or thrown into -prison, or executed, not by the sovereign, or the high officials, -but by men in the same position as myself; and as it would be -equally injurious and disagreeable for them to be scourged as for -me, I should probably open their eyes, and they would not only -refrain from injuring me, but would doubtless follow my example. -And in the third place, though I were made to suffer for this, it -would still be better for me to be exiled or imprisoned, doing -battle in the cause of common sense and truth, which must eventually -triumph, if not to-day, then to-morrow, or before many days, than -to suffer in the cause of folly and evil. It would rather be to my -advantage to risk being exiled, imprisoned, or even executed, than -remain, through my own fault, a life-long slave of evil men, to be -ruined by an invading enemy, or mutilated like an idiot, or killed -while defending a cannon, a useless territory, or a senseless piece -of cloth called a flag. I have no inclination to scourge myself, -it would be of no use. You may do it yourselves if you choose--I -refuse." - -It would seem as though not only the religious and moral element -in human nature, but ordinary common sense and wise counsel, would -influence every man of the present day thus to make reply, and -to suit the action to the word. But no. Men who hold the social -life-conception consider such a course not only useless, but even -prejudicial to the object in view,--the deliverance of mankind from -slavery. They advise us to go on, like the peasants, punishing -one another, comforting ourselves with the reflection that our -chatter in parliaments and assemblies, our trade unions, our First -of May demonstrations, our conspiracies and covert threats to the -governments that scourge us, must result in our final deliverance, -even though we go on strengthening our fetters. Nothing so hampers -human liberty as this wonderful delusion. Instead of making -individual efforts to achieve freedom, every man for himself -devoting all his energies to that object, through the attainment of -a new life-conception, men are looking for a universal scheme of -deliverance, and are in the meanwhile sinking deeper and deeper into -slavery. It is as if a man were to declare that in order to obtain -heat one must merely place every lump of coal in a certain position, -never minding whether it kindled or not. And yet that the liberation -of mankind can only be accomplished by means of the deliverance of -the individual grows more and more evident. - -The liberation of individuals from the dominion of the State, in -the name of the Christian life-conception, which was formerly an -exceptional occurrence and one that attracted but little attention, -has attained in these days a menacing significance for the authority -of State. - -If in the days of ancient Rome it happened that a Christian, -professing his faith, refused to take a part in sacrifices, or in -the worship of the emperors or the gods, or in the Middle Ages -refused to worship ikons or to acknowledge the temporal authority of -the Pope, such refusals were the exception; a man might be obliged -to confess to his faith, but he might perhaps live all his life -without being forced to do so. But now all men, without exception, -are subjected to trial of faith. Every man of modern times is -obliged, either to participate in the cruelties of pagan life, or -to repudiate them. And secondly, in those days any refusal to bow -before the gods, the ikons, or the Pope was of no consequence to the -State. Whether those who bowed before the gods, the ikons, or the -Pope were many or few, the State lost none of its power. Whereas -at the present time every refusal to execute the un-Christian -demands of the government undermines the authority of the State, -because the authority of the State rests on the fulfilment of these -anti-Christian requirements. - -Temporal authority, in order to maintain itself, has been forced by -the conditions of life to demand from its subjects certain actions -which it is impossible for men who profess true Christianity to -perform. Therefore at the present time every man who professes -it helps to undermine the authority of the government, and will -eventually pave the way for the liberation of mankind. - -Of what apparent importance are such acts as the refusal of a score -or two of fools, as they are called,--men who decline to take the -oath of allegiance, to pay taxes, or to take part in courts of law, -or to serve in the army? Such men are tried and condemned, and life -remains unchanged. These occurrences may seem unimportant, and -yet these are precisely the factors that undermine the authority -of the government more than any others, and thus prepare the way -for the liberation of mankind. These are the bees who are the -first to separate themselves from the swarm, and, still hovering -near, they wait for the whole swarm to rise and follow them. The -governments are aware of this, and look upon such occurrences with -more apprehension than upon all the socialists, anarchists, and -communists, with their conspiracies and their dynamite bombs. - -A new _regime_ is inaugurated. Each subject, according to custom, -is required to take the oath of allegiance to the new government. -A proclamation is issued, and all are bidden to assemble in the -cathedral to take the oath. Suddenly one man in Perm, another in -Tula, a third in Moscow, a fourth in Kaluga, refuse to take the -oath and (without preconcerted action) justify their refusal by -the same argument,--that the Christian law forbids the oath; but, -even were the oath not forbidden, they could not, according to the -spirit of this law, promise to perform such evil deeds as the oath -requires,--such as reporting those antagonistic to the interests -of the government, defending that government by armed force, or -attacking its enemies. They are summoned to appear before the -_stanovoys_, _spravniks_, priests, governors; they are reasoned -with, coaxed, threatened, and punished; yet they adhere to their -determination, and refuse to take the oath. They are asked, "Is it -true that you never took the oath?" - -"It is." - -"And what was done to you?" - -"Nothing." - -Every subject is required to pay his taxes, and the taxes are paid. -But one man in Charkov, another in Iver, and a third in Samara, -refuse to comply, and, as by one accord, each man alleges the same -reason. One of them says that he will pay after he has learned the -object for which his money is to be used. "If it is to be used for -charity, he will give of his own free will, and even more than is -demanded of him. But if it is to be applied to evil purposes, he -will give nothing of his own free will, because, according to the -law of Christ, which he obeys, he can take no part in doing evil." -And the others who refuse to pay taxes, except on compulsion, -express the same idea, perhaps in other words. Those who have -property are forced to pay, and those who have none are simply let -alone. - -"Then you have not paid your tax?" - -"No." - -"And what was done to you?" - -"Nothing." - -The passport system is instituted. Every man who leaves his home -must apply for one, and pay a tax for it. Suddenly, in different -places, are to be found those who declare that passports should -not be used, that a man should not acknowledge his dependence upon -the State, which is supported by violence; and these men take no -passports, consequently they pay no tax for them. And again, there -are no means of coercing them to comply with the demand. They are -imprisoned, but when after a time they find themselves at liberty -again, they go on living without passports. - -Every peasant is expected to perform police duty as _sotsky_ or -_dessiatsky_,[17] etc.; but some peasant in Charkov refuses to -fulfil this duty, because, as he says in explanation of his refusal, -the law of Christ, which he professes, forbids him to arrest, -imprison, or transport his fellow-men. Another peasant in Iver or -in Tambov makes the same statement. The peasants are threatened, -beaten, and imprisoned, but they adhere to their resolution, and -refuse to perform actions contrary to their religious belief. And -they cease to be elected _sotsky_, and are gradually left in peace. - - [17] Petty rural police.--TR. - -It is the duty of every citizen to serve on the jury. All at once -men of widely different classes,--carriage-makers, professors, -merchants, peasants, nobles,--as if moved by a single impulse, -refuse to fulfil this duty, not for reasons valid in the eyes of -the law, but because the tribunal itself is, in their opinion, -illegal and un-Christian, and ought not to exist. These men are -fined, and false reasons are ascribed for their refusal, the true -ones meanwhile remaining hidden from the public. The same treatment -is employed in regard to those who, for similar reasons, refuse to -appear as witnesses in courts of law. These, too, are finally left -undisturbed. - -Every man at the age of twenty-one must draw lots. Suddenly there -is found a man in Moscow, another in Iver, another in Charkov, and -still another in Kiev, who, as it were by agreement, go to the -department and declare that they will neither take the oath of -allegiance nor serve in the army, because they are Christians. Here -are the details of an affair which was among the earlier cases,--of -late these refusals have begun to multiply,--a case with which I am -myself familiar,[18] which is but one example among many. - - [18] The details of this case are authentic. - -In the City Hall of Moscow a young man of average education gives -his reasons for refusing to comply. His words are not heeded, and -he is bidden to repeat the words of the oath with the other men. -He still persists in his refusal, and quotes a certain passage in -the Bible that forbids men to take an oath. No attention is paid -to his arguments, and again he is ordered to take the oath, which -he declines to do. Whereupon it is taken for granted that he is -a sectarian, and therefore misunderstands Christianity; in other -words, that he differs from the priests paid by the State. He is -then sent under guard to the priests that they may convince him, -which they endeavor to do; but the arguments uttered in the name -of Christ, by which they strive to persuade him to deny Christ, -evidently have no effect on the young man. So they declare him -incorrigible, and send him back to the army. Still he openly refuses -to take the oath and to fulfil his military duties. - -It is a case not anticipated by the law. A refusal to comply -with the demands of the government cannot be overlooked, neither -can this case be called one of ordinary insubordination. After -conferring, the military authorities decide that, in order to rid -themselves of this objectionable youth, the better way will be -to consider him as a rebel and forward him under military escort -to the Department of the Secret Police. The police officials and -the gendarmes question the young man, but his replies will not -serve to classify his offense under the heading of any crime that -comes within their jurisdiction; they cannot either accuse him of -revolutionary motives, or of conspiracy, because he declares that -he has no desire to destroy anything whatsoever; on the contrary, -he opposes all violence. He says that he has nothing to conceal; -he desires only an opportunity for saying and doing all things in -the most open manner. And as it resulted with the clergy, so also -with the gendarmes, who, though rarely embarrassed as to how to put -the law in operation, can find no pretext for an accusation against -the young man, and send him back to the ranks. Once more there is a -conference, and his superiors decide that, although he has not taken -the oath of allegiance, he is to be regarded as a soldier. He is put -into uniform, his name is entered on the lists, and he is sent under -convoy to his post. Here his immediate superiors once more order -him to perform his military duty, and still he refuses to obey, and -in the presence of the other soldiers he states his reasons, saying -that, as a Christian, he cannot of his own free will prepare himself -to commit murder, which was forbidden even by the law of Moses. - -All this takes place in a provincial city. The occurrence excites -the interest and the sympathy, not only of outsiders, but even of -the officers, and therefore there is hesitation about employing -the usual punishment for contumacy. However, for the sake of -appearances, he is thrown into jail, and a request is sent to the -higher military authorities for further instructions in the case. -From an official standpoint this refusal to take part in a military -organization, in which the Czar himself serves, and which is -blessed by the Church, must be regarded as insanity, and therefore -the message is received from St. Petersburg that the young man is -probably insane, and that before any violent measures are used -against him he must be sent to the insane hospital. Thither he is -sent in the hope that he will remain there, as happened some ten -years ago in the case of a young man from Iver, who also refused -to serve, and who was tortured in the hospital until at last he -was subdued. But in the present instance even this measure fails -to relieve the military authorities from this troublesome young -man. The doctors examine him, become interested in him, and, -discovering no symptoms of insanity, they return him to his post. -He is received, and pretending that his refusal and its causes are -forgotten, he is once more invited to join the drill, and again he -refuses, in the presence of other soldiers, stating his reasons -for his refusal. The affair attracts more and more notice from -soldiers as well as from civilians. Again the question is referred -to St. Petersburg, and thence comes the order to transfer the young -man to the frontier, where the troops are in active service, and -where, if he refuses to obey orders, he may be shot without exciting -attention, as there are but few Russians and Christians in that -far-away territory, the majority being foreigners and Mohammedans. -This is done. The young man is ordered to join the Trans-Caspian -troops, and with other criminals he is delivered into the hands of -commanders noted for their severity and determination. - -Meanwhile, during all these transportations from place to place, -the young man has suffered from harsh treatment, from cold, hunger, -and filth, and his life has been made miserable. Yet all these -trials do not weaken his resolution. In the Trans-Caspian province, -where he is once more ordered to serve as a sentry under arms, he -refuses to obey. He consents to stand where he is sent, beside the -hayricks, but declines to take a weapon in his hand, declaring that -on no account will he use violence against any one whomsoever. -All this occurs in the presence of the soldiers. Such contumacy -cannot go unpunished; consequently he is court-martialed for an -infringement of military discipline, convicted, and sentenced to two -years' confinement in a military prison. And once again, with the -criminals, he is sent by _etape_ to the Caucasus and then thrown -into prison, his fate being left to the discretionary power of the -jailer. There he is tortured for a year and a half, but still his -resolution to avoid the use of weapons remains unchanged, and he -continues to explain to every one whom he meets the reasons for his -refusal. Toward the end of the second year, before his term has -really expired, he is set at liberty; and although not in accordance -with the law, they are so anxious to rid themselves of him, that his -imprisonment is accepted as an equivalent of further active service. - -And in various parts of Russia others are found who, as if by a -concerted plan, imitate his example, and in every case the action -of the government is undecided, vacillating, and underhanded. -Some of these men are confined in the insane hospitals, some are -appointed military clerks and sent to serve in Siberia, some are -made foresters, others are thrown into prison, others are fined. -At the present time several of these men are imprisoned, not for -their substantial offense, denying the legality of the acts of -the government, but for disobeying the particular orders of their -superiors. For instance, an officer of the reserve recently failed -to give information of the place of his residence, and declined -to serve further in the army; he was fined thirty roubles for -disobeying the orders of the authorities,--and this he declined to -pay, except under compulsion. Several peasants and soldiers who -refused to take part in a drill and to use weapons were put under -arrest for disobedience and contention. - -Such instances of a refusal to comply with the demands of the -State when opposed to Christianity, especially refusals to perform -military service, occur not only in Russia, but everywhere. I -know that in Servia, men from the so-called sect of Nazarenes -steadily refuse to enter the army, and the Austrian government has -for several years made futile attempts to convert them by means -of imprisonment. In 1885 there were 130 refusals of this kind. I -know that in Switzerland, in 1890, there were men in confinement in -the castle of Chillon for refusing to perform military duty whose -determination was not to be influenced by punishment. Such refusals -have occurred in Sweden; the men there also were imprisoned, and the -government carefully concealed the affairs from the people. Similar -instances occurred in Prussia. I know of one subaltern officer in -the guards who, in 1891, in Berlin, announced to his superiors that -he, as a Christian, could not continue his military service, and in -spite of all remonstrances and threats he adhered to his resolution. -In the south of France a community of men called the Hinschist has -recently been established (my information is derived from the _Peace -Herald_ of July, 1891), who, as professing the Christian doctrine, -refuse to perform military duty. At first they were told off to -serve in hospitals, but now, with the increase of the sect, they are -punished for insubordination, while they still refuse to bear arms. - -Socialists, communists, and anarchists, with their bombs and their -revolutions, are far less dangerous to governments than these men, -who from different places proclaim their refusals, all based upon -the same doctrine, familiar to all. Every government knows how to -defend itself from revolutionists; it holds the means in its own -hands, and therefore does not fear these external foes. But what can -a government do to protect itself from men who declaim against all -authority as useless, superfluous, and injurious, offering, however, -no opposition to authority, merely rejecting its offices, dispensing -with its services, and therefore refusing to participate in it? - -The revolutionists say: "State organization is bad, either for one -reason or for another; it should be destroyed, and replaced by such -and such a system." But a Christian says: "I know nothing of State -organization, whether it be good or bad, and it is for this very -reason that I do not wish to support it. And I cannot undertake -submission, because such submission is contrary to my conscience." - -All the institutions of the State are opposed to the conscience of a -Christian: the oath of allegiance, taxation, courts of law, armies; -while the whole authority of government is dependent upon them. -Revolutionary foes struggle against the government, but Christianity -enters not into this contest; internally, it destroys the principles -on which government is based. - -With the Russian people, in whose midst, particularly since the -time of Peter I., the protest of Christianity against the State has -never ceased; in the midst of this people, where the conditions -of life are such that whole communes emigrate to Turkey, China, -and uninhabited portions of the globe, who, so far from needing -the government, always consider it an unnecessary burden, and -only endure it as a calamity, whether it be Russian, Chinese, or -Turkish,--the cases of isolated individuals who, from Christian -motives, have liberated themselves from the control of government -have grown more and more frequent in these latter days. Such -manifestations are particularly dreaded by the government at the -present time, because the men who protest often belong not to the -so-called lower, the uneducated classes, but are men of average -and even superior education, and because these men explain their -refusals, not by some mystical belief peculiar to the individual, -as in olden times, nor do they complicate them with superstition -and fanaticism, like the sects of the Self-burners or Bieguni, but -assign as the reason for their refusals the simplest, most obvious -of truths, patent to and admitted by all the world. - -Thus men refuse to pay taxes of their own free will, because the -money is used to promote violence; in other words, to pay the wages -of the violators in the army, for building prisons and fortresses, -or for manufacturing cannon,--in all of which, as Christians, they -consider it wrong and immoral to take a part. - -They refuse to take the oath of allegiance, for were they to promise -to obey the authorities,--that is, men who use violence,--they must -contradict the sense of the Christian doctrine. - -They refuse to swear in court, because an oath is distinctly -forbidden by the gospel. - -They decline police duties, because in that office they would be -compelled to use violence against their brethren and to distress -them, and a Christian cannot do this. - -They refuse to take part in courts of law, because they look upon -every tribunal as a vehicle for the law of vengeance, and therefore -incompatible with the Christian law of forgiveness and love. - -They decline to have anything to do with military preparations, or -to enter the ranks of the army, because they neither can nor will be -executioners, nor prepare themselves for such an office. - -And the reasons alleged for these refusals are of such a nature -that, however arbitrary the governments may be, they cannot punish -openly those who refuse. - -Were the governments to punish men for such refusals, they would be -forced to abjure forever both justice and virtue, those principles -by which, as they assure us, all their authority is supported. - -What are governments to do with these men? Of course they have the -power to execute, to imprison, and to condemn to transportation -and penal servitude all enemies who attempt to overthrow them by -violence; they can obtain by bribery half the men they need, and -have at their command millions of armed soldiers, who are ready to -put to death all the enemies of authority. But what can be done with -men who wish neither to destroy nor to establish anything, whose -sole desire is to avoid in their own private lives any act that -may be opposed to the Christian law, and who consequently refuse -to perform duties which are regarded by the government as the most -natural and obligatory of all? - -If they were revolutionists, preaching violence and practising it, -it would be an easy matter to oppose them. Some might be bribed, -some deceived, others intimidated, and those who could neither be -bought, deceived, nor intimidated would be manifestly criminals, -enemies of society who, as such, could be executed or beaten to -death; and the people would approve the acts of the government. If -they were fanatics belonging to some particular sect, one might, in -view of the superstitions inherent in their doctrine, refute at the -same time what truth their arguments contained. But what is to be -done with men who neither preach rebellion nor any special dogmas, -who wish to live in peace with all mankind, who refuse to take the -oath of allegiance or to pay taxes, or to take part in tribunals, -to perform military service, and the various duties of a similar -nature, on which the whole organization of the State is founded? -What is to be done with them? They cannot be bribed. The very risk -they are willing to take shows their integrity. Neither can they be -deceived when these things are represented as the commands of God, -because their refusal is based on the indubitable law of God, by -which the very men who are trying to coerce them to disobey this law -profess to hold themselves bound. It is vain to hope to intimidate -them by threats, because the very suffering and privations which -they endure for righteousness' sake serve but to strengthen their -devotion to their faith, whose law distinctly commands them first of -all to obey God, to fear not them that kill the body, but to fear -those who can kill both body and soul. Neither can they be executed -or imprisoned for life. Their past lives, their thoughts and -actions, their friends, speak for them; every one knows them to be -gentle, kindly, and harmless men, and it is impossible to represent -them in the light of criminals whose suppression is needed for the -salvation of society. Moreover, the execution of men acknowledged -by all to be virtuous would arouse defenders who would endeavor to -explain the causes for their disobedience. And when all men are -made to recognize the reasons why these Christians refuse to obey -the demands of the State, they cannot fail to acknowledge the same -obligation, and to admit that all men should long since have refused -obedience. - -Confronted with these insubordinations, governments find themselves -in a desperate plight. They realize that the prophecies of -Christianity are about to be fulfilled, that it is loosening the -fetters of them that are in bonds and setting men free; they realize -that such freedom will inevitably destroy those who have held -mankind in bondage. Governments realize this; they know that their -hours are counted, that they are helpless to resist. All that they -are able to do is to retard the hour of dissolution. And this they -try to do; but their position is still a desperate one. - -It is like the predicament of a conqueror who wishes to preserve the -town set on fire by the inhabitants. No sooner does he put the fire -out in one place than two other fires break out; when he separates -the burning portion from the main body of a large building the -flames burst out at both extremities. These outbreaks are not, as -yet, of frequent occurrence, but the spark has been kindled, and the -fire will burn steadily until all is consumed. - -The position of governments in the presence of men who profess -Christianity is so precarious that very little is needed to shake -to pieces their power, built up through so many centuries, and -apparently so solid in structure. And it is now that the sociologist -comes forward, preaching that it is useless, and even hurtful and -immoral, for the individual to emancipate himself alone. - -Let us suppose that men have been working for a long time to divert -the course of a river; they have at last succeeded in digging a -canal, and all that remains now is to make an opening and let the -water flow through it into the canal; suppose now certain other men -arrive upon the scene and suggest that, instead of letting the water -flow into the canal, it would be much better to erect over the river -some form of machinery, by means of which the water would be poured -from one side to the other. - -But things have gone too far. Governments are aware of their -weakness and helplessness, and men of the Christian faith are -awakening from their torpor, beginning already to realize their -power. - -"I am come to send fire on the earth," said Christ. - -And this is the fire that begins to burn. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -USELESSNESS OF VIOLENCE FOR THE DESTRUCTION OF EVIL. THE MORAL -ADVANCE OF MANKIND IS ACCOMPLISHED, NOT ONLY THROUGH THE KNOWLEDGE -OF TRUTH, BUT ALSO THROUGH THE ESTABLISHMENT OF PUBLIC OPINION - - Christianity destroys the State--Which is more necessary, - Christianity or the State?--There are men who defend the - necessity of the State, and others who, on the same grounds, - deny this necessity--Neither can be proved by abstract - reasoning--The question decides the character of a man's - consciousness, which either allows or forbids him to participate - in the organization of the State--Realization of the uselessness - and immorality of taking part in the organization of the - State, which is contradictory to Christian doctrine, decides - this question for each one, regardless of the destiny of the - State--Argument of the defenders of the State, as a form of - social life indispensable for the defense of the good from the - wicked, until all nations, and all members of each nation, - shall have become Christians--The more wicked are always those - in power--History is but a recital of the usurpation of power - by the bad over the good--The acknowledgment by authority of - the necessity of struggle with evil by violence is equivalent - to self-destruction--The annihilation of violence is not - only possible, but is going on before our eyes--However, it - is not destroyed by State violence, but through those men - who, obtaining power by violence, and recognizing its vanity - and futility, benefit by experience and become incapable of - using violence--This is the process through which individual - men, as well as whole nations, have passed--It is in that - way that Christianity penetrates into the consciousness of - men, and not only is this accomplished despite the violence - used by authority, but through its agency, and therefore the - abolition of authority is not only without danger, but it goes - on continually as life itself--Objection of the defenders - of the State system that the diffusion of Christianity is - improbable--Diffusion of Christian truth interdicting violence - accomplished not only slowly and gradually, by the internal - method, by individual recognition of the truth, by prophetic - intuition, by the realizing of the emptiness of power and - abandonment of it by individual men, but accomplished also by - the external method, by which large numbers of men, inferior in - intellectual development, at once, in view of their confidence - in the others, adopt the new truth--The diffusion of truth at - a certain stage creates a public opinion, which compels the - majority of men who have previously opposed it to recognize - the new truth at once--Therefore a universal renunciation of - violence may very soon come to pass; namely, when a Christian - public opinion shall be established--The conviction of the - necessity of violence prevents the establishment of Christian - public opinion--Violence compels men to discredit the moral - force which can alone exalt them--Neither nations nor individual - men have been conquered by violence, but by public opinion, - which no violence can resist--It is possible to conquer savage - men and nations only by the diffusion of Christian public - opinion among them, whereas the Christian nations, in order - to conquer them, do everything in their power to destroy the - establishment of a Christian public opinion--These unsuccessful - experiments cannot be cited as a proof of the impossibility of - conquering men by Christianity--Violence which corrupts public - opinion only prevents the social organization from becoming - what it should be, and with the abolition of violence Christian - public opinion will be established--Whatever may take place - when violence has been abolished, the unknown future can be no - worse than the present, and therefore one need not fear it--To - penetrate to the unknown and move toward it is the essence of - life. - - -Christianity, faithfully interpreted, saps the foundations of the -civil law, and this was always understood from the very outset. -It was for this that Christ was crucified; and until men felt the -necessity for justifying the establishment of the Christian state, -they always accepted that interpretation. The cleverly constructed -theories intended to reconcile the doctrines of Christianity with -that of the State date back to the time when rulers of nations -adopted a nominal external Christianity. But in these times it -is impossible for a sincere and earnest man not to perceive the -incompatibility of the Christian doctrine of love, meekness of -spirit, and forgiveness of injuries, with the despotism, the -violence, and the wars of the State. The profession of true -Christianity not only forbids the recognition of the State, but -strikes at its very foundations. - -But if it be true that Christianity is incompatible with the State, -one naturally asks which is the better adapted to promote the -well-being of mankind, the system prescribed by the State, or the -precepts of Christianity? - -There are those who affirm that the State organization is the more -indispensable; they declare that its overthrow would check all -human progress, that no development is possible save through the -channels of civil government, and that all those evils which we -find prevailing among nations who live under State laws are not -the result of the organization, which permits progress and the -attainment of the highest degree of civilization. - -They who hold these views quote, in support of their position, -certain historical, philosophical, and even religious arguments, -which seem to them irrefutable. But there are others who entertain -views diametrically opposed to these. For instance, they say -that the fact of the world having existed at one time without a -government, might be taken to prove the State to be only a temporary -condition; that the time was sure to come when men would require -a change, which time had now arrived. To support their theory, -these men in turn adduce historical, philosophical, and religious -arguments which seem to them irrefutable. - -Volumes may be and have been written in defense of the former -position, and of late years a great deal has been written, and ably -written too, from the opposite standpoint. - -It can neither be proved on the one hand, as the partizans of the -State claim, that its destruction would be followed by a general -upheaval, by robberies and murders, and by the nullification of all -social laws, and the return of man to a condition of barbarism; nor -on the other, as the enemies of the State affirm, that man has grown -so virtuous and well disposed that, preferring peace to enmity, he -will no longer rob and murder his neighbor; that he is quite able, -without State assistance, to establish a community, and conduct -his own affairs; and that the State itself, while assuming an air -of protection, is really exerting a demoralizing influence. It is -impossible to prove either one or the other by abstract arguments. -And naturally neither point can be proved by experience, as it is a -question first of all of getting the requisite experience. - -Whether or not the time has arrived for abolishing the State is a -question which could not be answered were it not that we possess -other means that will assist us to settle it beyond dispute. - -It needs no one to tell the young birds when it is time to burst the -shell; they know very well when there is no longer room for them -in the eggs, and begin of their own accord to break the shell and -leave it behind. So it is with this question of a change in human -affairs. Has the time come for men to cast aside the customs of the -State and establish a new order? When a man's inner consciousness -has so developed that he feels himself hampered by the requirements -of the State, and can no longer submit to the restraint, realizing -at the same time that he has ceased to need its protecting care, -the question whether or no men have matured sufficiently to enable -them to dispense with the State is disposed of without reference to -former arguments. A man who has outgrown the State can no more be -coerced into submission to its laws than can the fledgling be made -to reenter its shell. - -"The State may have been necessary at one time, and for aught that -I know it may even now serve the purposes you mention," says the -man who holds the Christian life-conception. "I can only say that -_I_ have no need of it, nor can _I_ conform to its requirements. -You must decide for yourself whether it be advantageous or no. I -shall not attempt to generalize on the subject with the expectation -of proving my point. I only recognize what I need and what I don't -need; what I can, and what I cannot do. I know, as far as I am -myself concerned, that _I_ do not need to separate from the men of -other nations, and therefore I can neither recognize an exclusive -affiliation to this or that one, nor acknowledge myself the subject -of any one government. I need none of the institutions established -by the State, and therefore I am not willing to surrender the fruits -of my labor in the form of taxes to support institutions which I -believe to be not only unnecessary but positively injurious. I know -that _I_ need neither magistrates, nor tribunals founded on and -supported by violence, and therefore I can have nothing to do with -them; I know that _I_ feel no inclination to attack other nations -and put their citizens to death, neither do I wish to defend myself -against them by force of arms, and therefore I can take no part -in wars nor in preparations for wars. Doubtless there are men who -believe that all these things are an indispensable part of human -life,--I cannot argue with them,--but I know that for me they have -no meaning, and that I will have nothing to do with them. - -"And this is not a matter of personal selection, but because I must -obey the commands of Him who has sent me into the world, and has -given me an unmistakable law by which I am to be guided through -life." - -Whatever arguments may be advanced to prove that harm and probably -disaster will accrue from abolishing the authority of the State, -the man who has already outgrown the State ideal cannot possibly -be bound by it. And whatever arguments may be adduced to prove its -necessity, he can never return to it. He is like the young bird who -can never return to its outgrown shell. - -"But granting this to be true," say the partizans of the existing -order, "we cannot dispense with the supremacy of the State until all -men are Christians, because even among those who claim the title -there are many who are very far from being Christians--evil-doers, -who seek their own gratification at the expense of their fellow-men, -and if the governments were overthrown, so far from improving the -condition of the people, it would greatly add to their miseries. The -subversion of the State would be a misfortune, not only where the -minority are true Christians, but even supposing the whole people to -be so; while the neighboring nations are still non-Christian, these -latter would make their lives a martyrdom by rapine and murder and -all manner of violence. It would serve only to provide the vicious -and unprincipled with an opportunity to oppress the innocent. -Therefore the State should not be abolished until all the wicked -have ceased from troubling, which will not happen just at present. -Hence, however much certain individual Christians may wish to escape -from the authority of the State, the greater good of the greater -number demands its preservation." So say the defenders of the State -principle. "If it were not," they say, "for State authority there -would be no protection against the malice and injustice of the -oppressor; that authority alone makes it possible to restrain the -wicked." - -But in uttering these sentiments the partizans of the existing order -take it for granted that they have proved the truth of what they -assert. When they declare that the evil-doers would ride roughshod -over the defenseless and the innocent were it not for the authority -of the State, they imply that the governing power is vested at -the present time in a body of virtuous men, who control all the -wrong-doers. But this is a proposition which must be proved. It -could only be a correct statement if we happened to resemble the -inhabitants of China, where it is popularly believed, although -the belief is not justified by fact, that the good are always in -authority, because should it become known that the rulers are -no better than those over whom they rule, it is the duty of the -citizens to overthrow the government. But although this is supposed -to be one of the customs of China, it is not, nor would it be -possible for it to be so, since, in order to overthrow a criminal -government, one needs the power as well as the right. Even in China -this is a mere supposition, and in our own Christian land we have -never so much as dreamed of it. As far as we are concerned, there -is no reason to believe that power is in the hands of the virtuous -and high-minded, rather than in those of men who took it by violence -and have held it for themselves and their descendants. For surely -it would be impossible for a high-minded man to usurp authority by -violence and to continue to hold it. - -In order to gain possession of power, and to retain it, one -must have a love for it, and the love of power is incompatible -with goodness; it accords with the opposite qualities of pride, -duplicity, and cruelty. - -Both the origin and the maintenance of power depend upon the -exaltation of the individual, and the degradation of the people by -means of hypocrisy and fraud, by prisons, fortresses, and murders. -"If State authority were to be abolished, then would the more wicked -people dominate over the less wicked," say the upholders of State -organization. But if the Egyptians conquered the Hebrews, and the -Persians the Egyptians, and the Macedonians the Persians, and the -Romans the Greeks, and the barbarians the Romans, is it really -possible that the conquerors are always better than the conquered? -And so with political changes in the State; is the power always -transferred to the better men? When Louis XVI. was deposed, and -control passed into the hands of Robespierre, and when, later, he -was in turn succeeded by Napoleon, was it the better or the worse -man who held the power? Again, were they of Versailles or the -communists the better men? Charles the First or Cromwell? When Peter -III. reigned, or, after his murder, when Catharine ruled over one -part of Russia, and Pugatchov over the other--who then was good and -who was wicked? - -All those in authority affirm that their office is required in -order that the unprincipled may be hindered from oppressing the -innocent, implying thereby that they themselves, being virtuous, -are protecting other virtuous men from the malice of the evil-doer. -To possess power and to do violence are synonymous terms; to do -violence means doing something to which the victim of violence -objects, and which the aggressor would resent were it directed -against himself. Therefore the possession of power really means -doing unto others what we should not like if it were done to -ourselves,--that is, harm. - -Obedience signifies that a man holds patience to be better than -violence, and to choose patience rather than violence means to be -good, or, at least, not so wicked as those who do unto others what -they would not wish to have done to themselves. - -Therefore all the probabilities are that those in authority were -in past times, as they are in present, worse men than those they -ruled over. Doubtless there are wicked men among those who submit -to authority, but it is impossible that the better men should rule -over the worse. - -This might be thought in pagan times, when the definition of -goodness was inaccurate; but with the clear and exact conception of -the qualities of good and evil presented by Christianity before us -we cannot imagine it. If in the pagan world they who were more or -less good, and they who were more or less bad, might not be easily -distinguished, the characteristics of goodness and wickedness have -been so clearly defined by the Christian conception that it is -impossible to mistake them. According to the doctrine of Christ, the -good are those who submit and are long-suffering, who do not resist -evil by violence, who forgive injuries, and love their enemies; the -wicked are the vainglorious, who tyrannize, who are arrogant and -violent with others. Therefore, if we are guided by the doctrine of -Christ, we shall have no difficulty in deciding where to seek the -good and the wicked among rulers and subjects. It is even absurd to -speak of Christians as sovereigns or rulers. - -The non-Christians--that is, those to whom life is but a matter of -temporal welfare--must always rule over the Christians, for whom -life means self-denial and disregard of temporal things. - -And thus it has always been, and it has been manifested more and -more plainly as the Christian doctrine has become more clearly -defined and widespread. - -The farther true Christianity extended, the firmer the hold it -gained on the consciousness of men, the less possible it became -for Christians to belong to the dominant class, and the easier for -non-Christians to gain the ascendancy. - -"To abolish the supremacy of the State before all men have become -true Christians would only afford the wicked a chance to tyrannize -over the good and maltreat them with impunity," say the upholders of -the existing order. - -It has always been the same from the beginning of the world until -this present time, and it always will be. _The wicked always -rule over the good and do violence to them_. Cain did violence -to Abel, the astute Jacob betrayed the trusting Esau, and was -himself deceived by Laban; Caiaphas and Pilate sat in judgment on -Christ; the Roman emperors ruled over Seneca, Epictetus, and other -high-minded Romans of those times; Ivan IV. with his Opritchniks, -the tipsy syphilitic Peter with his clowns, the prostitute Catharine -with her lovers, ruled over the industrious, God-fearing Russian -people of those times, and trampled upon them. William rules the -Germans, Stambulov the Bulgarians, and the Russian officials rule -over the Russian people; the Germans ruled over the Italians, and -now they rule over the Hungarians and the Slavs. The Turks ruled -over the Greeks and now rule over the Slavs, the English over the -Hindoos, the Mongolians over the Chinese. - -So we see that whether the tyranny of the State is or is not to be -abolished, the position of the innocent, who are oppressed by the -tyrants, will not be materially affected thereby. - -Men are not to be frightened by being told that the wicked will -oppress the good, because that is the natural course, and will never -change. - -The whole of pagan history is a mere narrative of events wherein -the wicked have got the upper hand, and, once in power, by craft -and cruelty have kept their hold upon men, announcing themselves -meanwhile as the guardians of justice and the defenders of the -innocent against the oppressor. All revolutions are but the result -of the appropriation of power by the wicked and their rule over the -good. When the rulers say that if their power were to be destroyed -the evil-doers would tyrannize over the innocent, what they really -mean is that the tyrants in power are reluctant to yield to those -other tyrants who would fain wrest from them their authority. When -they protest that this authority of theirs, which is actually -violence, is necessary to defend the people against the possible -tyranny of others,[19] they are simply denouncing themselves. The -reason why violence is dangerous is that, whenever it is employed, -all the arguments which the perpetrators advanced in their own -defense may be used against them with even greater force. They talk -of the violence done in the past, and more frequently of future and -imaginary violence, while they themselves are the real offenders. -"You say that men committed robbery and murder in former times, and -profess anxiety lest all men be robbed or murdered unless protected -by your authority. This may or may not be true, but the fact that -you allow thousands of men to perish in prisons by enforced labor, -in fortresses, and in exile, that your military requisitions ruin -millions of families and imperil, morally and physically, millions -of men, this is not a supposititious but an actual violence, which, -according to your own reasoning, should be resisted by violence. -And therefore, by your own admission, the wicked ones, against whom -one should use violence, are yourselves." Thus should the oppressed -reply to their oppressors. And such are the language, the thoughts, -and the actions of non-Christians. Wherever the oppressed are more -wicked than the oppressor, they attack and overthrow them whenever -they are able; or else--and this is more frequently the case--they -enter the ranks of the oppressors and take part in their tyranny. - - [19] Such declarations on the part of Russian authorities, who are - noted for their oppression of foreign nationalities,--the Poles, the - Germans of the Baltic provinces, and the Jews,--strike one as both - amusing and artless. The Russian government, which has oppressed - its own subjects for centuries, and which has never protected the - Malo-Russians in Poland, the Latishi in the Baltic provinces, - nor the Russian peasants, of whom all sorts of people have taken - advantage for hundreds of years, suddenly becomes a champion of - the oppressed, of the very same people whom it still continues to - oppress. - -Thus the dangers of which the defenders of State rights make a -bugbear--that if authority were overthrown the wicked would prevail -over the good--potentially exist at all times. The destruction of -State violence, in fact, never can, for this very reason, lead to -any real increase of violence on the part of the wicked over the -good. - -If State violence disappeared, it is not unlikely that other acts -of violence would be committed; but the sum of violence can never be -increased simply because the power passes from the hands of one into -those of another. - -"State violence can never be abolished until all the wicked -disappear," say the advocates of the existing order, by which -they imply that there must always be violence, because there will -always be wicked people. This could only prove true, supposing -the oppressors to be really beneficent, and supposing the true -deliverance of mankind from evil must be accomplished by violence. -Then, of course, violence could never cease. But as, on the -contrary, violence never really overcomes evil, and since there is -another way altogether to overcome it, the assertion that violence -will never cease is untrue. Violence is diminishing, and clearly -tending to disappear; though not, as is claimed by the defenders of -the existing order, in consequence of the amelioration of those who -live under an oppressive government (their condition really gets -worse), but because the consciousness of mankind is becoming more -clear. Hence even the wicked men who are in power are growing less -and less wicked, and will at last become so good that they will be -incapable of committing deeds of violence. - -The reason why humanity marches forward is not because the inferior -men, having gained possession of power, reform their subjects -by arbitrary methods, as is claimed both by Conservatives and -Revolutionists, but is due above all to the fact that mankind in -general is steadily, and with an ever increasing appreciation, -adopting the Christian life-conception. There is a phenomenon -observable in human life in a manner analogous to that of boiling. -Those who profess the social life-conception are always ambitious -to rule, and struggle to attain power. In this struggle the most -gross and cruel, the least Christian elements of society, bubble up, -as it were, and rise, by reason of their violence, into the ruling -or upper classes of society. But then is fulfilled what Christ -prophesied: "Woe unto you that are rich! Woe unto you that are full! -Woe unto you, when all men shall speak well of you!" (Luke vi. -24-26). The men who have attained power, and glory, and riches, and -who have realized all their cherished aims, live to discover that -all is vanity, and gladly return to their former estate. Charles -V., Ivan the Terrible, Alexander I., having realized the evils of -power and its futility, renounced it because they recognized it as -a calamity, having lost all pleasure in the deeds of violence which -they formerly enjoyed. - -But it is not alone kings like Charles V. and Alexander I. who -arrive at this disgust of power, but every man who has attained the -object of his ambition. Not only the statesman, the general, the -millionaire, the merchant, but every official who has gained the -position for which he has longed this half score of years, every -well-to-do peasant who has saved one or two hundred roubles, finds -at last the same disillusion. - -Not only individuals, but entire nations, mankind as a whole, have -passed through this experience. - -The attractions of power and all it brings--riches, honors, -luxury--seem to men really worth struggling for only until they are -won; for no sooner does a man hold them within his grasp than they -manifest their own emptiness and gradually lose their charm, like -clouds, lovely and picturesque in outline seen from afar, but no -sooner is one enveloped in them than all their beauty vanishes. - -Men who have obtained riches and power, those who have struggled for -them, but more particularly those who have inherited them, cease to -be greedy for power or cruel in its acquisition. - -Having learned by experience, sometimes in one generation, sometimes -in several, how utterly worthless are the fruits of violence, men -abandon those vices acquired by the passion for riches and power, -and growing more humane, they lose their positions, being crowded -out by others who are less Christian and more wicked; whereupon they -fall back into a stratum, which, though lower in the social scale, -is higher in that of morality, thus increasing the mean level of -Christian consciousness. But straightway, the worse, the rougher, -and less Christian elements rise to the surface, and being subject -to the same experience as their predecessors, after one or two -generations these men, too, recognize the hollowness of violent -ambitions, and, being penetrated with the spirit of Christianity, -fall back into the ranks of the oppressed. These are in turn -replaced by new oppressors, less despotic than the former, but -rougher than those whom they oppress. So that although the authority -is to all outward seeming unchanged, yet the number of those who -have been driven by the exigencies of life to adopt the Christian -life-conception increases with every change of rulers. They may be -more harsh, more cruel, and less Christian than their subjects; -but always men less and less violent replace their predecessors in -authority. - -Violence chooses its instruments from among the worst elements -of society; men who gradually become leavened, and, softened and -changed for the better, are returned into society. - -Such is the process by means of which Christianity takes fuller -possession of men day by day. Christianity enters into the -consciousness of men in spite of the violence of power, and even -owing to that violence. - -The argument of the defenders of the State, that if power were -abolished the wicked would tyrannize over the good, not only fails -to prove that the domination of the wicked is a new thing to be -dreaded,--as it exists already,--but proves, on the contrary, that -the tyranny of the State, which allows the wicked to govern the -good, is itself the real evil which we ought to eradicate, and which -is constantly decreasing by the very nature of things. - -"But if State violence is not to cease until the rulers have become -so far Christianized that they will renounce it of their own accord -and no others will be found to take their places,--if these things -are coming to pass," say the defenders of the existing order, "when -is it to happen? If 1800 years have passed, and still so many long -to rule, it is wholly improbable that we shall soon behold this -change, if it ever takes place at all. - -"Even though there may be at present, as there always have been, -certain individuals who would not rule if they could, who do not -choose to benefit themselves in that way, still the number of those -who do prefer to rule rather than to be ruled is so great that it is -difficult to imagine a time when the number will be exhausted. - -"In order to accomplish the conversion of all men, to induce each -one to exchange the pagan for the Christian life-conception, -voluntarily resigning riches and power, there being none left to -profit by these, it would be necessary that not only all the rude, -half-barbarous people, unfitted either to accept Christianity or -follow its precepts, who are always to be found in every Christian -community, should become Christians, but that all savage and -non-Christian nations, which are still numerous, should also become -Christian. - -"Therefore were one to admit that the Christianizing process may -at some future time embrace all humanity, we must still take into -consideration the degree of progress that has been made in 1800 -years, and realize that this can only happen after many centuries. -Hence we need not for the present trouble ourselves about the -overthrow of authority; all we have to do is to look to it that it -is in the best hands." - -Thus reply the partizans of the existing system. And this reasoning -would be perfectly consistent, provided that the transition of men -from one life-conception to another were only to be effected by the -process of individual conversion; that is to say, that each man, -through his personal experience, should realize the vanity of power, -and apprehend Christian truth. This process is constantly going on, -and in that way, one by one, men are converted to Christianity. - -But men do not become converted to Christianity merely in this way; -there is an exterior influence brought to bear which accelerates -the process. The progression of mankind from one system of life -to another is accomplished not only gradually, as the sand glides -through the hour-glass, grain by grain, until all has run out, but -rather as water which enters an immersed vessel, at first slowly, -at one side, then, borne down by its weight, suddenly plunges, and -at once fills completely. - -And this is what happens in human communities during a change in -their life-conception, which is equivalent to the change from one -organization to another. It is only at first that men by degrees, -one by one, accept the new truth and obey its dictates; but after -it has been to a certain extent disseminated, it is accepted, not -through intuition, and not by degrees, but generally and at once, -and almost involuntarily. - -And therefore the argument of the advocates of the present system, -that but a minority have embraced Christianity during the last -1800 years, and that another 1800 years must pass away before the -rest of mankind will accept it, is erroneous. For one must take -into consideration another mode, in addition to the intuitive of -assimilating new truth, and of making the transition from one mode -of life to another. This other mode is this: men assimilate a truth -not alone because they may have come to realize it through prophetic -insight or through individual experience, but the truth having been -spread abroad, those who dwell on a lower plane of intelligence -accept it at once, because of their confidence in those who have -received it and incorporated it in their lives. - -Every new truth that changes the manner of life and causes humanity -to move onward is at first accepted by a very limited number, who -grasp it by knowledge of it. The rest of mankind, accepting on faith -the former truth upon which the existing system has been founded, is -always opposed to the spread of the new truth. - -But as, in the first place, mankind is not stationary, but is -ever progressing, growing more and more familiar with truth and -approaching nearer to it in everyday life: and secondly, as all -men progress according to their opportunities, age, education, -nationality, beginning with those who are more, and ending with -those who are less, capable of receiving new truth--the men nearest -those who have perceived the truth intuitively pass, one by one, -and with gradually diminishing intervals, over to the side of the -new truth. So, as the number of men who acknowledge it increases, -the truth itself becomes more clearly manifested. The feeling of -confidence in the new truth increases in proportion to the numbers -who have accepted it. For, owing to the growing intelligibility of -the truth itself, it becomes easier for men to grasp it, especially -for those lower intellectually, until finally the greater number -readily adopt it, and help to found a new _regime_. - -The men who go over to the new truth, once it has gained a certain -hold, go over _en masse_, of one accord, much as ballast is rapidly -put into a ship to maintain its equilibrium. If not ballasted, -the vessel would not be sufficiently immersed, and would change -its position every moment. This ballast, which at first may seem -superfluous and a hindrance to the progress of the ship, is -indispensable to its equipoise and motion. - -Thus it is with the masses when, under the influence of some new -idea that has won social approval, they abandon one system to adopt -another, not singly, but in a body. It is the inertia of this mass -which impedes the rapid and frequent transition from one system of -life, not ratified by wisdom, to another; and which for a long time -arrests the progress of every truth destined to become a part of -human consciousness. - -It is erroneous, then, to argue that because only a small percentage -of the human race has in these eighteen centuries adopted the -Christian doctrine, that many, many times eighteen centuries must -elapse before the whole world will accept it,--a period of time so -remote that we who are now living can have no interest in it. It is -unfair, because those men who stand on a lower plane of development, -whom the partizans of the existing order represent as hindrances to -the realization of the Christian system of life, are those men who -always go over in a body to a truth accepted by those above them. - -And therefore that change in the life of mankind, when the powerful -will give up their power without finding any to assume it in their -stead, will come to pass when the Christian life-conception, -rendered familiar, conquers, not merely men one by one, but masses -at a time. - -"But even if it were true," the advocates of the existing order -may say, "that public opinion has the power to convert the inert -non-Christian mass of men, as well as the corrupt and gross who are -to be found in every Christian community, how shall we know that -a Christian mode of life is born, and that State violence will be -rendered useless? - -"After renouncing the despotism by which the existing order has been -maintained, in order to trust to the vague and indefinite force of -public opinion, we risk permitting those savages, those existing -among us, as well as those outside, to commit robbery, murder, and -other outrages upon Christians. - -"If even with the help of authority we have a hard struggle against -the anti-Christian elements ever ready to overpower us, and destroy -all the progress made by civilization, how then could public -opinion prove an efficient substitute for the use of force, and -avail for our protection? To rely upon public opinion alone would -be as foolhardy as to let loose all the wild beasts of a menagerie, -because they seem inoffensive when in their cages and held in awe by -red-hot irons. - -"Those men entrusted with authority, or born to rule over others by -the divine will of God, have no right to imperil all the results of -civilization, simply to make an experiment, and learn whether public -opinion can or cannot be substituted for the safeguard of authority." - -Alphonse Karr, a French writer, forgotten to-day, once said, in -trying to prove the impossibility of abolishing the death penalty: -"Que Messieurs les assassins commencent par nous donner l'exemple." -And I have often heard this witticism quoted by persons who really -believed they were using a convincing and intellectual argument -against the suppression of the penalty of death. Nevertheless, there -could be no better argument against the violence of government. - -"Let the assassins begin by showing us an example," say the -defenders of government authority. The assassins say the same, but -with more justice. They say: "Let those who have set themselves up -as teachers and guides show us an example by the suppression of -legal assassination, and we will imitate it." And this they say, not -by way of a jest, but in all seriousness, for such is in reality the -situation. - -"We cannot cease to use violence while we are surrounded by those -who commit violence." - -There is no more insuperable barrier at the present time to the -progress of humanity, and to the establishment of a system that -shall be in harmony with its present conception of life, than this -erroneous argument. - -Those holding positions of authority are fully convinced that men -are to be influenced and controlled by force alone, and therefore to -preserve the existing system they do not hesitate to employ it. And -yet this very system is supported, not by violence, but by public -opinion, the action of which is compromised by violence. The action -of violence actually weakens and destroys that which it wishes to -support. - -At best, violence, if not employed as a vehicle for the ambition of -those in high places, condemns in the inflexible form a law which -public opinion has most probably long ago repudiated and condemned; -but there is this difference, that while public opinion rejects -and condemns all acts that are opposed to the moral law, the law -supported by force repudiates and condemns only a certain limited -number of acts, seeming thus to justify all acts of a like order -which have not been included in its formula. - -From the time of Moses public opinion has regarded covetousness, -lust, and cruelty as crimes, and condemned them as such. It condemns -and repudiates every form that covetousness may assume, not only -the acquisition of another man's property by violence, fraud, or -cunning, but the cruel abuse of wealth as well. It condemns all -kinds of lust, let it be impudicity with a mistress, a slave, a -divorced wife, or with one's wife; it condemns all cruelty,--blows, -bad usage, murder,--all cruelty, not only toward human beings, but -toward animals. Whereas, the law, based upon violence, attacks only -certain forms of covetousness, such as theft and fraud, and certain -forms of lust and cruelty, such as conjugal infidelity, assault, -and murder; and thus it seems to condone those manifestations of -covetousness, lust, and cruelty which do not fall within its narrow -limits. - -But violence not only demoralizes public opinion, it excites in the -minds of men a pernicious conviction that they move onward, not -through the impulsion of a spiritual power, which would help them -to comprehend and realize the truth by bringing them nearer to that -moral force which is the source of every progressive movement of -mankind,--but, by means of violence,--by the very factor that not -only impedes our progress toward truth, but withdraws us from it. -This is a fatal error, inasmuch as it inspires in man a contempt for -the fundamental principle of his life,--spiritual activity,--and -leads him to transfer all his strength and energy to the practice of -external violence. - -It is as though men would try to put a locomotive in motion by -turning its wheels with their hands, not knowing that the expansion -of steam was the real motive-power, and that the action of the -wheels was but the effect, and not the cause. If by their hands -and their levers they move the wheels, it is but the semblance of -motion, and, if anything, injures the wheels and makes them useless. - -The same mistake is made by those who expect to move the world by -violence. - -Men affirm that the Christian life cannot be established save by -violence, because there are still uncivilized nations outside of the -Christian world, in Africa and Asia (some regard even the Chinese -as a menace of our civilization), and because, according to the new -theory of heredity, there exist in society congenital criminals, -savage and irredeemably vicious. - -But the savages whom we find in our own community, as well as -those beyond its pale, with whom we threaten ourselves and others, -have never yielded to violence, and are not yielding to it now. -One people never conquered another by violence alone. If the -victors stood on a lower plane of civilization than the conquered, -they always adopted the habits and customs of the latter, never -attempting to force their own methods of life upon them. It is by -the influence of public opinion, not by violence, that nations are -reduced to submission. - -When a people have accepted a new religion, have become Christians, -or turned Mohammedans, it has come to pass, not because it was -made obligatory by those in power (violence often produced quite -the opposite result), but because they were influenced by public -opinion. Nations constrained by violence to accept the religion of -the conqueror have never really done so. - -The same may be said in regard to the savage elements found in -all communities: neither severity nor clemency in the matter of -punishments, nor modifications in the prison system, nor augmenting -of the police force, have either diminished or increased the -aggregate of crimes, which will only decrease through an evolution -in our manner of life. No severities have ever succeeded in -suppressing the vendetta, or the custom of dueling in certain -countries. However many of his fellows may be put to death for -thieving, the Tcherkess continues to steal out of vainglory. No girl -will marry a Tcherkess who has not proved his daring by stealing a -horse, or at least a sheep. When men no longer fight duels, and the -Tcherkess cease to steal, it will not be from fear of punishment -(the danger of capital punishment adds to the prestige of daring), -but because public manners will have undergone a change. The same -may be said of all other crimes. Violence can never suppress that -which is countenanced by general custom. If public opinion would but -frown upon violence, it would destroy all its power. - -What would happen if violence were not employed against hostile -nations and the criminal element in society we do not know. But -that the use of violence subdues neither we do know through long -experience. - -And how can we expect to subdue by violence nations whose education, -traditions, and even religious training all tend to glorify -resistence to the conqueror, and love of liberty as the loftiest -of virtues? And how is it possible to extirpate crime by violence -in the midst of communities where the same act, regarded by the -government as criminal, is transformed into an heroic exploit by -public opinion? - -Nations and races may be destroyed by violence--it has been done. -They cannot be subdued. - -The power transcending all others which has influenced individuals -and nations since time began, that power which is the convergence -of the invisible, intangible, spiritual forces of all humanity, is -public opinion. - -Violence serves but to enervate this influence, disintegrating it, -and substituting for it one not only useless, but pernicious to the -welfare of humanity. - -In order to win over all those outside the Christian fold, all the -Zulus, the Manchurians, the Chinese, whom many consider uncivilized, -and the uncivilized among ourselves, there is _only one way_. This -is by the diffusion of a Christian mode of thought, which is only to -be accomplished by a Christian life, Christian deeds, a Christian -example. But instead of employing this _one way_ of winning those -who have remained outside the fold of Christianity, men of our epoch -have done just the opposite. - -In order to convert uncivilized nations who do us no harm, whom we -have no motive for oppressing, we ought, above all, to leave them -in peace, and act upon them only by our showing them an example of -the Christian virtues of patience, meekness, temperance, purity, and -brotherly love. Instead of this we begin by seizing their territory, -and establishing among them new marts for our commerce, with the -sole view of furthering our own interests--we, in fact, rob them; -we sell them wine, tobacco, and opium, and thereby demoralize them; -we establish our own customs among them, we teach them violence and -all its lessons; we teach them the animal law of strife, that lowest -depth of human degradation, and do all that we can to conceal the -Christian virtues we possess. Then, having sent them a score of -missionaries, who gabble an absurd clerical jargon, we quote the -results of our attempt to convert the heathen as an indubitable -proof that the truths of Christianity are not adaptable to everyday -life. - -And as for those whom we call criminals, who live in our midst, -all that has just been said applies equally to them. There is -only _one way_ to convert them, and that is by means of a public -opinion founded on true Christianity, accompanied by the example of -a sincere Christian life. And by way of preaching this Christian -gospel and confirming it by Christian example, we imprison, we -execute, guillotine, hang; we encourage the masses in idolatrous -religions calculated to stultify them; the government authorizes the -sale of brain-destroying poisons--wine, tobacco, opium; prostitution -is legalized; we bestow land upon those who need it not; surrounded -by misery, we display in our entertainments an unbridled -extravagance; we render impossible in such ways any semblance of a -Christian life, and do our best to destroy Christian ideas already -established; and then, after doing all we can to demoralize men, we -take and confine them like wild beasts in places from which they -cannot escape, and where they will become more brutal than ever; -or we murder the men we have demoralized, and then use them as an -example to illustrate and prove our argument that people are only to -be controlled by violence. - -Even so does the ignorant physician act, who, having placed his -patient in the most unsanitary conditions, or having administered -to him poisonous drugs, afterward contends that his patient has -succumbed to the disease, when had he been left to himself he would -have recovered long ago. - -Violence, which men regard as an instrument for the support of -Christian life, on the contrary, prevents the social system from -reaching its full and perfect development. The social system is such -as it is, not because of violence, but in spite of it. - -Therefore the defenders of the existing social system are -self-deceived when they say that, since violence barely holds the -evil and un-Christian elements of society in awe, its subversion, -and the substitution of the moral influence of public opinion, would -leave us helpless in face of them. They are wrong, because violence -does not protect mankind; but it deprives men of the only possible -chance of an effectual defense by the establishment and propagation -of the Christian principle of life. - -"But how can one discard the visible and tangible protection of the -policeman with his baton, and trust to invisible, intangible public -opinion? And, moreover, is not its very existence problematical? -We are all familiar with the actual state of things; whether it be -good or bad we know its faults, and are accustomed to them; we know -how to conduct ourselves, how to act in the present conditions; but -what will happen when we renounce the present organization, and -confide ourselves to something invisible, intangible, and utterly -unfamiliar?" - -Men dread the uncertainty into which they would plunge if they -were to renounce the familiar order of things. Certainly were our -situation an assured and stable one, it would be well to dread -the uncertainties of change. But so far from enjoying an assured -position, we know that we are on the verge of a catastrophe. - -If we are to give way to fear, then let it be before something that -is really fearful, and not before something that we imagine may be -so. - -In fearing to make an effort to escape from conditions that are -fatal to us, only because the future is obscure and unknown, we are -like the passengers of a sinking ship who crowd into the cabin and -refuse to leave it, because they have not the courage to enter the -boat that would carry them to the shore; or like sheep who, in fear -of the fire that has broken out in the farmyard, huddle together in -a corner and will not go out through the open gate. - -How can we, who stand on the threshold of a shocking and devastating -social war, before which, as those who are preparing for it tell -us, the horrors of 1793 will pale, talk seriously about the danger -threatened by the natives of Dahomey, the Zulus, and others who live -far away, and who have no intention of attacking us; or about the -few thousands of malefactors, thieves, and murderers--men whom we -have helped to demoralize, and whose numbers are not decreased by -all our courts, prisons, and executions? - -Moreover, this anxiety lest the visible protection of the police be -overthrown, is chiefly confined to the inhabitants of cities--that -is, to those who live under abnormal and artificial conditions. -Those who live normally in the midst of nature, dealing with its -forces, require no such protection; they realize how little avails -violence to protect us from the real danger that surrounds us. There -is something morbid in this fear, which arises chiefly from the -false conditions in which most of us have grown up and continue to -live. - -A doctor to the insane related how, one day in summer, when he was -about to leave the asylum, the patients accompanied him as far as -the gate that led into the street. - -"Come with me into town!" he proposed to them. - -The patients agreed, and a little band followed him. But the farther -they went through the streets where they met their sane fellow-men -moving freely to and fro, the more timid they grew, and pressed more -closely around the doctor. At last they begged to be taken back to -the asylum, to their old but accustomed mode of insane life, to -their keepers and their rough ways, to strait jackets and solitary -confinement. - -And thus it is with those whom Christianity is waiting to set -free, to whom it offers the untrammeled rational life of the -future, the coming century; they huddle together and cling to their -insane customs, to their factories, courts, and prisons, their -executioners, and their warfare. - -They ask: "What security will there be for us when the existing -order has been swept away? What kind of laws are to take the place -of those under which we are now living? Not until we know exactly -how our life is to be ordered will we take a single step toward -making a change." It is as if a discoverer were to insist upon -a detailed description of the region he is about to explore. If -the individual man, while passing from one period of his life to -another, could read the future and know just what his whole life -were to be, he would have no reason for living. And so it is with -the career of humanity. If, upon entering a new period, a program -detailing the incidents of its future existence were possible, -humanity would stagnate. - -We cannot know the conditions of the new order of things, because -we have to work them out for ourselves. The meaning of life is to -search out that which is hidden, and then to conform our activity to -our new knowledge. This is the life of the individual as it is the -life of humanity. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -CHRISTIAN PUBLIC OPINION ALREADY ARISES IN OUR SOCIETY, AND WILL -INEVITABLY DESTROY THE SYSTEM OF VIOLENCE OF OUR LIFE. WHEN THIS -WILL COME ABOUT - - The condition and organization of our society is shocking; it - is upheld by public opinion, but can be abolished by it--Men's - views in regard to violence have already changed; the number of - men ready to serve the governments decreases, and functionaries - of government themselves begin to be ashamed of their position, - to the point of often not fulfilling their duties--These facts, - signs of the birth of a public opinion, which, in becoming - more and more general, will lead finally to the impossibility - of finding men willing to serve governments--It becomes more - and more clear that such positions are no longer needed--Men - begin to realize the uselessness of all the institutions of - violence; and if this is realized by a few men, it will later - be understood by all--The time when the deliverance will be - accomplished is unknown, but it depends on men themselves; it - depends on how much each man is willing to live by the light - that is within him. - - -The position of the Christian nations, with their prisons, their -gallows, their factories, their accumulations of capital, taxes, -churches, taverns, and public brothels, their increasing armaments, -and their millions of besotted men, ready, like dogs, to spring -at a word from the master, would be shocking indeed if it were the -result of violence; but such a state of things is, before all, the -result of public opinion; and what has been established by public -opinion not only may be, but will be, overthrown by it. - -Millions and millions of money, tens of millions of disciplined -soldiers, marvelous weapons of destruction, an infinitely perfected -organization, legions of men charged to delude and hypnotize the -people,--this is all under the control of men who believe that this -organization is advantageous for them, who know that without it they -would disappear, and who therefore devote all their energy to its -maintenance. What an indomitable array of power it seems! And yet -we have but to realize whither we are fatally tending, for men to -become as much ashamed of acts of violence, and to profit by them, -as they are ashamed now of dishonesty, theft, beggary, cowardice; -and the whole complicated and apparently omnipotent system will die -at once without any struggle. To accomplish this transformation it -is not necessary that any new ideas should find their way into the -human consciousness, but only that the mist which now veils the true -significance of violence should lift, in order that the growing -Christian public opinion and methods may conquer the methods of the -pagan world. And this is gradually coming to pass. We do not observe -it, as we do not observe the movement of things when we are turning, -and everything around us is turning as well. - -It is true that the social organization seems for the most part as -much under the influence of violence as it seemed a thousand years -ago, and in respect of armaments and war seems even more; but the -Christian view of life is already having its effect. The withered -tree, to all appearance, stands as firmly as ever; it seems even -firmer, because it has grown harder, but it is already rotten at the -heart and preparing to fall. It is the same with the present mode -of life based upon violence. The outward position of man appears -the same. There are the same oppressors, the same oppressed, but -the feeling of both classes in regard to their respective positions -has undergone a change. The oppressors, that is, those who take -part in the government, and those who are benefited by oppression, -the wealthy classes, do not constitute, as formerly, the _elite_ -of society, nor does their condition suggest that ideal of human -prosperity and greatness to which formerly all the oppressed -aspired. Now, it often happens that the oppressors renounce of their -own accord the advantages of their position, choosing the position -of the oppressed, and endeavor, by the simplicity of their mode of -life, to resemble them. - -Not to speak of those offices and positions generally considered -contemptible, such as that of the spy, the detective, the usurer, -or the keeper of a tavern, a great many of the positions held by -the oppressors, and formerly considered honorable, such as those of -police officers, courtiers, judges, administrative functionaries, -ecclesiastical or military, masters on a large scale, and bankers, -are not only considered little enviable, but are already avoided -by estimable men. Already there are men who choose to renounce -such once envied positions, preferring others which, although less -advantageous, are not associated with violence. - -It is not merely such as these who renounce their privileges; men -influenced, not by religious motives, as was the case in former -ages, but by growing public opinion, refuse to accept fortunes -fallen to them by inheritance, because they believe that a man ought -to possess only the fruits of his own labor. - -High-minded youths, not as yet depraved by life, when about to -choose a career, prefer the professions of doctors, engineers, -teachers, artists, writers, or even of farmers, who live by their -daily toil, to the positions of judges, administrators, priests, -soldiers in the pay of government; they decline even the position of -living on their income. - -Most of the monuments at the present day are no longer erected in -honor of statesmen or generals, still less of men of wealth, but to -scientists, artists, and inventors, to men who not only had nothing -in common with government or authority, but who frequently opposed -it. It is to their memory that the arts are thus consecrated. - -The class of men who will govern, and of rich men, tends every day -to grow less numerous, and so far as intellect, education, and -especially morality, are concerned, rich men and men in power are -not the most distinguished members of society, as was the case -in olden times. In Russia and Turkey, as in France and America, -notwithstanding the frequent changes of officials, the greater -number are often covetous and venal, and so little to be commended -from the point of view of morality that they do not satisfy even the -elementary exigencies of honesty demanded in government posts. Thus -one hears often the ingenuous complaints of those in government that -the best men among us, strangely enough as it seems to them, are -always found among those opposed to them. It is as if one complained -that it is not the nice, good people who become hangmen. - -Rich men of the present day, as a general thing, are mere vulgar -amassers of wealth, for the most part having but little care beyond -that of increasing their capital, and that most often by impure -means; or are the degenerate inheritors, who, far from playing an -important part in society, often incur general contempt. - -Many positions have lost their ancient importance. Kings and -emperors now hardly direct at all; they seldom effect internal -changes or modify external policy, leaving the decision of such -questions to the departments of State, or to public opinion. Their -function is reduced to being the representatives of state unity and -power. But even this duty they begin to neglect. Most of them not -only fail to maintain themselves in their former unapproachable -majesty, but they grow more and more democratic, they prefer even to -be bourgeois; they lay down thus their last distinction, destroying -precisely what they are expected to maintain. - -The same may be said of the army. The high officers, instead of -encouraging the roughness and cruelty of the soldiers, which befit -their occupation, promote the diffusion of education among them, -preach humanity, often sympathize with the socialistic ideas of -the masses, and deny the utility of war. In the late conspiracies -against the Russian government many of those concerned were military -men. It often happens, as it did recently, that the troops, when -called upon to establish order, refuse to fire on the people. -The barrack code of ideas is frankly deprecated by military men -themselves, who often enough make it the subject of derision. - -The same may be said of judges and lawyers. Judges, whose duty it -is to judge and condemn criminals, conduct their trials in such a -fashion as to prove them innocent; thus the Russian government, -when it desires the condemnation of those it wishes to punish, -never confides them to the ordinary tribunals; it tries them by -court-martial, which is but a parody of justice. The same may be -said of lawyers, who often refuse to accuse, and, twisting round -the law, defend those they should accuse. Learned jurists, whose -duty it is to justify the violence of authority, deny more and more -frequently the right of punishment, and in its place introduce -theories of irresponsibility, often prescribing, not punishment, but -medical treatment for so-called criminals. - -Jailers and turnkeys in convict prisons often become the protectors -of those it is a part of their business to torture. Policemen -and detectives are constantly saving those they ought to arrest. -Ecclesiastics preach tolerance; they often deny the right of -violence, and the more educated among them attempt in their sermons -to avoid the deception which constitutes all the meaning of their -position, and which they are expected to preach. Executioners -refuse to perform their duty; the result is that often in Russia -death-warrants cannot be carried out for lack of executioners, -for, notwithstanding all the advantages of the position, the -candidates, who are chosen from convicts, diminish in number every -year. Governors, commissioners, and tax-collectors, pitying the -people, often try to find pretexts for remitting the taxes. Rich -men no longer dare to use their wealth for themselves alone, but -sacrifice a part of it to social charities. Landowners establish -hospitals and schools on their estates, and some even renounce their -estates and bestow them on the cultivators of the soil, or establish -agricultural colonies upon them. Manufacturers and mill-owners found -schools, hospitals, and savings-banks, institute pensions, and build -houses for the workmen; some start associations of which the profits -are equally divided among all. Capitalists expend a portion of their -wealth on educational, artistic, and philanthropic institutions for -the public benefit. Many men who are unwilling to part with their -riches during their lifetime bequeath them to public institutions. - -These facts might be deemed the result of chance were it not that -they all originate from one source, as, when certain trees begin -to bud in the spring of the year, we might believe it accidental, -only we know the cause; and that if on some trees the buds begin to -swell, we know that the same thing will happen to all of them. - -Even so is it in regard to Christian public opinion and its -manifestations. If this public opinion already influences some of -the more sensitive men, and makes each one in his own sphere decline -the advantages obtained by violence or its use, it will continue to -influence men more and more, until it brings about a change in their -mode of life and reconciles it with that Christian consciousness -already possessed by the most advanced. - -And if there are already rulers who do not venture on any -undertaking on their own responsibility, and who try to be like -ordinary men rather than monarchs, who declare themselves ready to -give up their prerogatives and become the first citizens of their -country, and soldiers who, realizing all the sin and evil of war, -do not wish to kill either foreigners or their fellow-countrymen, -judges and lawyers who do not wish to accuse and condemn criminals, -priests who evade preaching lies, tax-gatherers who endeavor to -fulfil as gently as possible what they are called upon to do, and -rich men who give up their wealth, then surely it will ultimately -come to pass that other rulers, soldiers, priests, and rich men will -follow their example. And when there are no more men ready to occupy -positions supported by violence, the positions themselves will cease -to exist. - -But this is not the only way by which public opinion leads toward -the abolition of the existing system, and the substitution of a new -one. As the positions supported by violence become by degrees less -and less attractive, and there are fewer and fewer applicants to -fill them, their uselessness becomes more and more apparent. - -We have to-day the same rulers and governments, the same armies, -courts of law, tax-gatherers, priests, wealthy landowners, -manufacturers, and capitalists as formerly, but their relative -positions are changed. - -The same rulers go about to their various interviews, they have the -same meetings, hunts, festivities, balls, and uniforms; the same -diplomatists have the same conversations about alliances and armies; -the same parliaments, in which Eastern and African questions are -discussed, and questions in regard to alliances, ruptures, "Home -Rule," the eight-hour day. Changes of ministry take place just as of -old, accompanied by the same speeches and incidents. But to those -who know how an article in a newspaper changes perhaps the position -of affairs more than dozens of royal interviews and parliamentary -sessions, it becomes more and more evident that it is not these -meetings, interviews, and parliamentary discussions that control -affairs, but something independent of all this, something which has -no local habitation. - -The same generals, officers, soldiers, cannon, fortresses, parades, -and evolutions. But one year elapses, ten, twenty years elapse, and -there is no war. And troops are less and less to be relied on to -suppress insurrection, and it becomes more and more evident that -generals, officers, and soldiers are only figure-heads in triumphal -processions, the plaything of a sovereign, a sort of unwieldy and -expensive _corps-de-ballet_. - -The same lawyers and judges, and the same sessions, but it becomes -more and more evident that as civil courts make decisions in a great -variety of causes without anxiety about purely legal justice, and -that criminal courts are useless, because the punishment does not -produce the desired result, therefore these institutions have no -other object than the maintenance of men incapable of doing other -things more useful. - -The same priests, bishops, churches, and synods, but it becomes more -and more evident to all that these men themselves have long since -ceased to believe what they preach, and are therefore unable to -persuade any one of the necessity of believing what they no longer -believe themselves. - -The same tax-gatherers, but more and more incapable of extorting -money from the people by force, and it becomes more and more evident -that, without such collectors, it would be possible to obtain by -voluntary contribution all that is required for social needs. - -The same rich men, and yet it becomes more and more evident -that they can be useful only when they cease to be personal -administrators of their possessions, and surrender to society their -wealth in whole or part. - -When this becomes as plain to all men as it now is to a few, the -question will naturally arise: Why should we feed and support all -those emperors, kings, presidents, members of departments, and -ministers, if all their interviews and conversations amount to -nothing? Would it not be better, as some wit expressed it, to set up -an india-rubber queen? - -And of what use to us are armies, with their generals, their -musicians, their horses, and drums? Of what use are they when there -is no war, when no one wishes to conquer anybody else? And even if -there were a war, other nations would prevent us from reaping its -advantages; while upon their compatriots the troops would refuse to -fire. - -And what is the use of judges and attorneys whose decisions in -civil cases are not according to the law, and who, in criminal ones, -are aware that punishments are of no avail? - -And of what use are tax-gatherers who are reluctant to collect the -taxes, when all that is needed could be contributed without their -assistance? - -And where is the use of a clergy which has long ceased to believe -what it preaches? - -And of what use is capital in the hands of private individuals -when it can be beneficial only when it becomes public property? -Having once asked all these questions, men cannot but arrive at the -conclusion that institutions which have lost their usefulness should -no longer be supported. - -And furthermore, men who themselves occupy positions of privilege -come to see the necessity of abandoning them. - -One day, in Moscow, I was present at a religious discussion which -is usually held during St. Thomas's week, near the church in the -Okhotny Ryad. A group of perhaps twenty men had gathered on the -pavement, and a serious discussion concerning religion was in -progress. Meanwhile, in the nobles' club near at hand, a concert -was taking place, and a police-officer, having noticed the group of -people gathered near the church, sent a mounted policeman to order -them to disperse,--not that the police-officer cared in the least -whether the group stayed where it was or dispersed. The twenty -men who had gathered inconvenienced no one, but the officer had -been on duty all the morning and felt obliged to do something. The -young policeman, a smart-looking fellow, with his right arm akimbo -and a clanking sword, rode up to us, calling out in an imperative -tone: "Disperse, you fellows! What business have you to gather -there?" Every one turned to look at him, while one of the speakers, -a modest-looking man in a peasant's coat, replied calmly and -pleasantly: "We are talking about business, and there is no reason -why we should disperse; it might be better for you, my young friend, -if you were to jump off from your horse and to listen to us. Very -likely it would do you good;" and turning away he continued the -conversation. The policeman turned his horse without a word and rode -away. - -Such scenes as this must be of frequent occurrence in countries -where violence is employed. The officer was bored; he had nothing -to do, and the poor fellow was placed in a position where he felt -in duty bound to give orders. He was deprived of a rational human -existence; he could do nothing but look on and give orders, give -orders and look on, although both were works of supererogation. It -will not be long before all those unfortunate rulers, ministers, -members of parliaments, governors, generals, officers, bishops, -priests, and even rich men, will find themselves--indeed they -have already done so--in precisely the same position. Their -sole occupation consists in issuing orders; they send out their -subordinates, like the officer who sent the policeman to interfere -with the people; and as the people with whom they interfere ask not -to be interfered with, this seems to their official intelligence -only to prove that they are very necessary. - -But the time will surely come when it will be perfectly evident to -every one that they are not only useless, but an actual impediment, -and those whose course they obstruct will say gently and pleasantly, -like the man in the peasant's coat: "We beg that you will let us -alone." Then the subordinates as well as their instructors will find -themselves compelled to take the good advice that is offered them, -cease to prance about among men with their arms akimbo, and having -discarded their glittering livery, listen to what is said among men, -and unite with them to help to promote the serious work of the world. - -Sooner or later the time will surely come when all the present -institutions supported by violence will cease to be; their too -evident uselessness, absurdity, and even unseemliness, will finally -destroy them. - -There must come a time when the same thing that happened to the king -in Andersen's fairy tale, "The King's New Clothes," will happen to -men occupying positions created by violence. - -The tale tells of a king who cared enormously for new clothes, and -to whom one day came two tailors who agreed to make him a suit woven -from a wonderful stuff. The king engaged them and they set to work, -saying that the stuff possessed the remarkable quality of becoming -invisible to any one unfit for the office he holds. The courtiers -came to inspect the work of the tailors, but could see nothing, -because these men were drawing their needles through empty space. -However, remembering the consequences, they all pretended to see the -cloth and to be very much pleased with it. Even the king himself -praised it. The hour appointed for the procession when he was to -walk wearing his new garment arrived. The king took off his clothes -and put on the new ones--that is, he remained naked all the while, -and thus he went in procession. But remembering the consequences, no -one had the courage to say that he was not dressed, until a little -child, catching sight of the naked king, innocently exclaimed, "But -he has nothing on!" Whereupon all the others who had known this -before, but had not acknowledged it, could no longer conceal the -fact. - -Thus will it be with those who, through inertia, continue to -fill offices that have long ceased to be of any consequence, -until some chance observer, who happens not to be engaged, as the -Russian proverb has it, in "washing one hand with the other," will -ingenuously exclaim, "It is a long time since these men were good -for anything!" - -The position of the Christian world, with its fortresses, cannon, -dynamite, guns, torpedoes, prisons, gallows, churches, factories, -custom-houses, and palaces is monstrous. But neither fortresses nor -cannon nor guns by themselves can make war, nor can the prisons lock -their gates, nor the gallows hang, nor the churches themselves lead -men astray, nor the custom-houses claim their dues, nor palaces and -factories build and support themselves; all these operations are -performed by men. And when men understand that they need not make -them, then these things will cease to be. - -And already men are beginning to understand this. If not yet -understood by all, it is already understood by those whom the rest -of the world eventually follows. And it is impossible to cease to -understand what once has been understood, and the masses not only -can, but inevitably must, follow where those who have understood -have already led the way. - -Hence the prophecy: that a time will come when all men will hearken -unto the word of God, will forget the arts of war, will melt their -swords into plowshares and their lances into reaping-hooks;--which, -being translated, means when all the prisons, the fortresses, the -barracks, the palaces, and the churches will remain empty, the -gallows and the cannon will be useless. This is no longer a mere -Utopia, but a new and definite system of life, toward which mankind -is progressing with ever increasing rapidity. - -But when will it come? - -Eighteen hundred years ago Christ, in answer to this question, -replied that the end of the present world--that is, of the pagan -system--would come when the miseries of man had increased to their -utmost limit; and when, at the same time, the good news of the -Kingdom of Heaven--that is, of the possibility of a new system, -one not founded upon violence--should be proclaimed throughout the -earth.[20] - - [20] Matt. xxiv. 3-28. - -"But of that day and hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels of -heaven, but my Father only,"[21] said Christ. "Watch therefore: for -ye know not what hour your Lord doth come." - - [21] Matt. xxiv. 36. - -When will the hour arrive? Christ said that we cannot know. And for -that very reason we should hold ourselves in readiness to meet it, -as the goodman should watch his house against thieves, or like the -virgins who await with their lamps the coming of the bridegroom; -and, moreover, we should work with all our might to hasten the -coming of that hour, as the servants should use the talents they -have received that they may increase.[22] - - [22] Matt. xxiv. 43; xxv. 1--13, 14-30. - -And there can be no other answer. The day and the hour of the advent -of the Kingdom of God men cannot know, since the coming of that hour -depends only on men themselves. - -The reply is like that of the wise man who, when the traveler asked -him how far he was from the city, answered, "Go on!" - -How can we know if it is still far to the goal toward which humanity -is aiming, when we do not know how it will move toward it; that it -depends on humanity whether it moves steadily onward or pauses, -whether it accelerates or retards its pace. - -All that we can know is what we who form humanity should or should -not do in order to bring about this Kingdom of God. And that we all -know; for each one has but to begin to do his duty, each one has but -to live according to the light that is within him, to bring about -the immediate advent of the promised Kingdom of God, for which the -heart of every man yearns. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -CONCLUSION - -"REPENT, FOR THE KINGDOM OF HEAVEN IS AT HAND!" - -1 - - Encounter with a train carrying soldiers to establish order - among famine-stricken peasants--The cause of the disorder--How - the mandates of the higher authorities are carried out in case - of peasants' resistance--The affair at Orel as an example of - violence and murder committed for the purpose of asserting the - rights of the rich--All the advantages of the rich are founded - on like acts of violence. - -2 - - The Tula train and the behavior of the persons composing it--How - men can behave as these do--The reasons are neither ignorance, - nor cruelty, nor cowardice, nor lack of comprehension or of - moral sense--They do these things because they think them - necessary to maintain the existing system, to support which - they believe to be every man's duty--On what the belief of the - necessity and immutability of the existing order of things is - founded--For the upper classes it is based on the advantages - it affords them--But what compels men of the lower classes to - believe in the immutability of this system, when they derive - no advantage from it, and maintain it with acts contrary to - their conscience?--The reason lies in the deceit practised by - the upper classes upon the lower in regard to the necessity - of the existing order, and the legitimacy of acts of violence - for its maintenance--General deception--Special deception--The - conscription. - -3 - - How men reconcile the legitimacy of murder with the precepts of - morality, and how they admit the existence in their midst of a - military organization for purposes of violence which incessantly - threatens the safety of society--Admitted only by the powers - for whom the present organization is advantageous--Violence - sanctioned by the higher authorities and carried out by the - lower, notwithstanding the knowledge of its immorality, because, - owing to the organization of the State, the moral responsibility - is divided among a large number of participants, each of whom - considers some other than himself responsible--Moreover, the - loss of consciousness of moral responsibility is also due to a - mistaken opinion as to the inequality of men, the consequent - abuse of power by the authorities, and servility of the lower - classes--The condition of men who commit acts contrary to their - conscience is like the condition of a hypnotized person acting - under the influence of suggestion--In what does submission to - the suggestion of the State differ from submission to men of a - higher order of consciousness or to public opinion?--The present - system, which is the outcome of ancient public opinion, and - which is already in contradiction to the modern, is maintained - only through torpor of conscience, induced by auto-suggestion - among the upper classes, and by the hypnotization of the - lower--The conscience or intelligent consciousness of these - men may awaken, and there are instances when it does awaken; - therefore it cannot be said that any one of them will, or will - not, do what he sets out to do--Everything depends on the degree - of comprehension of the illegitimacy of the acts of violence, - and this consciousness in men may either awaken spontaneously or - be roused by those already awakened. - -4 - - Everything depends upon the strength of conviction of each - individual man in regard to Christian truth--But the advanced - men of the present day consider it unnecessary to explain - and profess Christian truth, regarding it sufficient for the - improvement of human life to change its outward conditions - within the limits allowed by power--Upon this scientific theory - of hypocrisy, which has taken the place of the hypocrisy of - religion, men of the wealthy classes base the justification of - their position--In consequence of this hypocrisy, maintained by - violence and falsehood, they can pretend before each other to - be Christians, and rest content--The same hypocrisy allows men - who preach the Christian doctrine to take part in a _regime_ - of violence--No external improvements of life can make it - less miserable; its miseries are caused by disunion; disunion - springs from following falsehood instead of truth--Union - is possible only in truth--Hypocrisy forbids such a union, - for while remaining hypocrites, men conceal from themselves - and others the truth they know--Hypocrisy changes into evil - everything destined to ameliorate life--It perverts the - conception of right and wrong, and therefore is a bar to the - perfection of men--Acknowledged malefactors and criminals do - less harm than those who live by legalized violence cloaked by - hypocrisy--All recognize the iniquity of our life, and would - long since have modified it, if it were not covered by the cloak - of hypocrisy--But it seems as if we had reached the limits of - hypocrisy, and have but to make an effort of consciousness in - order to awaken--like the man who has nightmare--to a different - reality. - -5 - - Can man make this effort?--According to the existing - hypocritical theory, man is not free to change his life--He - is not free in his acts, but is always free to acknowledge or - disregard certain truths already known to him--The recognition - of truth is the cause of action--The cause of the apparent - insolvability of the question of man's freedom--It lies only - in the acknowledgment of the truth revealed unto him--No other - freedom exists--The acknowledgment of the truth gives freedom, - and points the way in which a man, willingly or unwillingly, - must walk--The recognition of truth and of true freedom allows - man to become a participant of the work of God, to be not the - slave but a creator of life--Men have but to forego the attempt - to improve the external conditions of life, and direct all their - energies toward the recognition and profession of the truth - that is known to them, and the present painful system of life - will vanish forthwith, and that portion of the Kingdom of God - which is accessible to men would be established--One has only to - cease lying and shamming to accomplish this--But what awaits us - in the future?--What will happen to mankind when they begin to - obey the dictates of their conscience, and how will they exist - without the customary conditions of civilization?--Nothing truly - good and beneficial can perish because of the realization of the - truth, but will only increase in strength when freed from the - admixture of falsehood and hypocrisy. - -6 - - Our system of life has reached the limit of misery, and cannot - be ameliorated by any pagan reorganization--All our life, with - its pagan institutions, is devoid of meaning--Are we obeying - the will of God in maintaining our present privileges and - obligations?--We are in this position, not because such is - the law of the universe, that it is inevitable, but because - we wish it, because it is advantageous for some of us--All - our consciousness contradicts this, and our deliverance - consists in acknowledging the Christian truth, not to do to - one's neighbor that which one would not have done to one's - self--As our obligations in regard to ourselves should be - subordinate to our obligations to others, so in like manner our - obligations to others should be subordinate to our obligations - to God--Deliverance from our position consists, if not in - giving up our position and its rights at once, at least in - acknowledging our guilt, and neither lying nor trying to justify - ourselves--The true significance of our life consists in knowing - and professing the truth, whereas our approval of, and our - activity in, the service of the State takes all meaning from - life--God demands that we serve Him, that is, that we seek to - establish the greatest degree of union among all human beings, - which union is possible only in truth. - - -I was just putting the finishing touches to this two years' work -when, on the 9th day of September,[23] I had occasion to go by -rail to visit districts in the governments of Tula and Ryazan, -where certain peasants were suffering from last year's famine, and -others were enduring still greater suffering from the same causes -this year.[24] At one of the stations the train in which I was a -passenger met the express, which carried the Governor and troops -supplied with rods and loaded rifles for torturing and murdering the -famine-stricken peasants. - - [23] 1892.--Tr. - - [24] 1893. - -Although corporal punishment was legally abolished in Russia -thirty years ago, the custom of flogging as a means of making the -decisions of authority respected has been revived, and has of late -been frequently employed. I had heard of it, had read in the papers -of the frightful tortures of which the Governor of Nijni-Novgorod, -Baranov, has gone so far as to boast, and of the tortures that have -been inflicted in Tchernigov, Tambov, Saratov, Astrakhan, and Orel, -but I had never yet witnessed, as I did now, how these things were -actually done. - -And I myself saw well-meaning Russians, penetrated with the spirit -of Christ, but armed with muskets and carrying rods, on their way to -murder and torture their starving brothers. - -The pretext was as follows:-- - -On the estate of a rich landowner, upon a piece of ground held by -him in common with the peasants, a forest had been allowed to grow. -(When I say that the forest "grew," I mean that the peasants had -not only planted it, but had continued to take care of it.) They -had always had the use of it, and therefore looked upon it as their -own, or at least as common property; but the landowner, confiscating -it entirely to himself, began to cut down the trees. The peasants -lodged a complaint. The judge of the lower court pronounced an -illegal decision (I call it illegal on the authority of the -Procureur[25] and the Governor, who surely ought to understand the -case) in favor of the landowner. The higher courts, as well as the -Senate, although they could see that the case had been unfairly -tried, confirmed the decision, and the wood was awarded to the -landowner, who continued to fell the trees. But the peasants, -believing it impossible that such an injustice could be perpetrated -by the higher magistrates, refused to submit to the decision, and -drove away the workmen sent to cut down the trees, saying that the -forest belonged to them, and that they would appeal to the Czar -himself before they would allow it to be touched. - - [25] Attorney-General. - -The case was reported to St. Petersburg, from whence the Governor -received the order to enforce the decision of the courts, and in -order to execute the command, asked for troops. - -Hence these soldiers who, armed with bayonets and provided with -cartridges and rods expressly prepared for the occasion and stored -in one of the vans, were on their way to enforce the decision of -the higher authorities. The execution of an order from the ruling -powers can be accomplished either by threats of torture and death, -or by the enforcement of those threats, according to the degree of -resistance on the part of the people. - -If, for instance, in Russia (it is practically the same in other -lands where state authority and the rights of ownership exist), the -peasants offer to resist, the result is as follows: The superior -officer makes a speech and orders them to obey. The excited crowd, -accustomed to be duped by those in high places, understands not -a word that the representative of authority is saying in his -official, conventional language, and is by no means pacified. -Whereupon the commanding officer declares that unless they submit -and disperse, he will be forced to have recourse to arms. If the -crowd still refuses to yield and does not disperse, he orders his -men to load the muskets and to fire over their heads, and then, if -the peasants still stand their ground, he orders the soldiers to -aim at the crowds; they fire, and men fall wounded and killed in -the street. The crowd is dispersed, the soldiers, carrying out the -orders of their commanders, having laid hands upon those whom they -suppose to be the chief instigators, and arrested them. The dying, -stained with blood, the wounded, mutilated, and dead, among whom -are often women and children, are picked up. The dead are buried, -the wounded sent to the hospitals. Those who are supposed to be the -ringleaders are taken to the city and court-martialed, and if proved -that they have used violence, they are summarily hung. This has -happened in Russia repeatedly, and similar scenes must take place -wherever the system of government is based upon violence. Such is -the course adopted in cases of revolt. - -If, on the other hand, the peasants submit, the scene that ensues -is entirely original and peculiarly Russian. The Governor, on his -arrival at the place, either quarters the soldiers in the different -houses of the village, where their maintenance ruins the peasants, -or, satisfied by threatening the people, he graciously pardons -them and departs. Or, as more frequently happens, he addresses the -multitude, upbraids it for disobedience, and announces that the -ringleaders must be punished; he seizes a certain number of men -considered as such, and without any form of trial causes them to be -beaten with rods in his presence. - -In order to give an idea of the manner in which such an affair -is conducted, I will describe an instance of the kind which -happened in Orel, which was approved by the higher authorities. -Like the landowner in Tula, the landed proprietor at Orel chose -to take possession of the peasants' property, and here, too, as -in the former instance, the peasants resisted. In this case, the -landowner, without the consent of the peasants, wished to dam up, -for the benefit of his mill, a flow of water which supplied the -meadows. The peasants resisted this. - -The landlord lodged a complaint with the rural commissary, who -illegally (as was afterward admitted by the court) decided the case -in favor of the landowner, giving him leave to divert the water. The -landowner sent workmen to close the channel through which the water -descended. The peasants, excited at this unfair judgment, sent their -women to prevent the landowner's men from damming the channel. The -women proceeded to the dam, upset the carts, and drove the workmen -away. The landowner entered a complaint against them for committing -a lawless act. The rural commissary gave the order to arrest and -lock up in the village jail one woman out of every family,--an order -rather difficult to execute, since each family included several -women; and as it was impossible to tell which of them to arrest, the -police could not fulfil the order. The landowner complained to the -Governor of the laxity of the police. The Governor, without stopping -to consider the case, gave strict orders to the _Ispravnik_ to -carry out at once the orders of the rural commissary. In obedience -to his superior the _Ispravnik_ arrived in the village, and with -that contempt for the individual peculiar to Russian authorities, -ordered the police to seize the first women they could. Disputes -and resistance arose. The _Ispravnik_, paying no attention to -this, persisted in his order that the police should take one -woman, innocent or guilty, from every household, and put her under -arrest. The peasants defended their wives and mothers; they refused -to give them up, and resisted the police and the _Ispravnik_. -Thus another and a greater offense was committed,--resistance to -authority,--which was at once reported in town. Then the Governor, -just as I saw the Governor of Tula, with a battalion of soldiers -supplied with rods and muskets, backed by all due accessories of -telegraph and telephone, accompanied by a learned physician who was -to superintend the flogging from a medical standpoint, started -on an express train for the spot, like the modern Genghis Khan -predicted by Herzen. In the _Volostnoye Pravlenie_[26] were the -soldiers, a detachment of police with their revolvers suspended on -red cords, the principal peasants of the neighborhood, and the men -accused. Around them had collected a crowd of perhaps a thousand. - - [26] House of the rural communal government. - -Driving up to the house of the _Volostnoye Pravlenie_, the Governor -alighted from his carriage and delivered an address, which had been -prepared in advance, after which he inquired for the criminals, and -ordered a bench to be brought. No one understood what he meant until -the policeman, who always accompanied the Governor and made all the -arrangements for the punishments which had already been enforced -several times in the government of Orel, explained that the bench -was to be used for flogging. This bench and the rods that had been -brought by the party were both produced. The executioners had been -previously selected from certain horse-thieves taken from the same -village, the military having refused to do the business. - -When all was ready the Governor bade the first of the twelve men who -were pointed out to him by the landowner as the ringleaders to step -forward. It so happened that he was the father of a family, a man -forty-five years of age, respected in the community, whose rights he -had manfully defended. - -He was led to the bench, stripped, and ordered to lie down. - -He would have begged for mercy, but realizing how little it -would avail, he made the sign of the cross and stretched himself -out on the bench. Two policemen held him down, and the learned -doctor stood by, ready in case of need to give his scientific -assistance. The executioners having spat upon their hands, swung -the rods, and the flogging began. The bench, it seemed, was too -narrow, and it was found difficult to keep the writhing victim, -whose muscles twitched convulsively, from falling off. Then the -Governor ordered to be brought another bench, to which a plank -was adjusted in such a way as to support it. The soldiers, ever -ready with their continual salutes and responses of "Yes, your -Excellency," swiftly and obediently executed the orders, while in -the meantime the half-naked, pale, and suffering man, trembling, -with contracted brows and downcast eyes, stood by waiting. When the -bench was readjusted, he was again stretched out upon it, and the -horse-stealers renewed their blows. His back, his legs, and even his -sides were covered with bleeding wounds, and every blow was followed -by the muffled groan which he could no longer repress. In the crowd -that stood by one could hear the sobs of the wife and mother, the -children, and the kinsfolk of the man, as well as of all who had -been called to witness the punishment. - -The wretched Governor, intoxicated with power, who had no doubt -convinced himself of the necessity for this performance, counted the -strokes on his fingers, while he smoked cigarette after cigarette, -for the lighting of which several obliging persons hastened to offer -him a burning match. - -After fifty blows had been given, the peasant lay motionless, -without uttering a sound, and the doctor, who had been educated in -a government school that he might devote his scientific knowledge -to the service of his country and his sovereign, approached the -tortured man, felt his pulse, listened to the beating of his heart, -and reported to the representative of authority that the victim had -become unconscious, and declared that, from a scientific point of -view, it might prove dangerous to prolong the punishment. But the -unfortunate Governor, utterly intoxicated by the sight of blood, -ordered the flogging to go on until seventy strokes had been given, -the number which he for some reason deemed necessary. After the -seventieth blow the Governor said:-- - -"That will do! Now bring on the next one!" - -They raised the mutilated and unconscious man, with his swollen -back, and carried him away, and the next was brought forward. The -sobs and groans of the crowd increased, but the tortures were -continued. - -So it went on until each of the twelve men had received seventy -strokes. They begged for mercy, they groaned and screamed. The -sobs and moans of the women grew louder and more heartrending, and -the faces of the men of the crowd more gloomy. But there stood the -troops, and the torture did not cease until it had seemed sufficient -to the unfortunate, half-intoxicated, erring man called the Governor. - -Not only did the magistrates, the officers, and the soldiers -sanction this act by their presence, but they took part in it, -preventing the crowd from interfering with the order of its -execution. - -When I asked one of the chief officials why these tortures were -inflicted after the men had already submitted, he replied, with -the significant air of a man who understands all the fine points -of political wisdom, that it was done because it had been proved -by experience that if the peasants are not punished they will -soon begin again to oppose the decrees of authority, and that the -punishment of a few strengthens forever the power of authority. - -And now I saw the Governor of Tula, with his clerks, officers, and -soldiers, on his way to perform a similar act. Once more by murder -or torture the sentence of the higher authorities was to be carried -out,--a sentence whose object was to enable a young landowner, the -possessor of a yearly income of 100,000 roubles, to receive 3000 -more for a tract of wood of which he had basely defrauded a whole -community of needy and starving peasants, the price of which he -would squander in a few weeks in the restaurants of St. Petersburg, -Moscow, and Paris. Such was the errand of the men I met. - -It would seem as if there must be some purpose in this encounter, -when, after two years of incessant contemplation, of continuous -thought in one direction, fate should, for the first time in -my life, bring me face to face with this phenomenon, a living -illustration of the theory I have so long cherished; namely, that -the entire organization of our life rests, not on any principle of -justice, as men who occupy and enjoy advantageous positions under -the existing system like to imagine, but on the rudest and most -barefaced violence, on the murder and torture of human beings. - -Those who possess large estates and large capital, or who receive -high salaries collected from the needy working-classes, from the -people who often lack the necessaries of life; merchants, clerks, -doctors, lawyers, artists, scientists, writers, coachmen, cooks, and -valets, who earn their living in the service of rich men,--fondly -believe that the privileges which they enjoy are not the outcome -of violence, but the natural result of a voluntary interchange of -services; that these privileges are by no means the result of the -outrages and floggings endured by their fellow-men, such as took -place last summer, in Russia, in Orel and elsewhere, as the like -took place in many parts of Europe and America. They prefer to -believe that the privileges they enjoy are the spontaneous result -of a mutual agreement among men; that violence is only the natural -result of certain universal and superior laws, judicial, political, -or economic. They try not to see that the privileges they possess -are only held by them in consequence of some circumstance, not -unlike that which compelled the peasants, who had tended the growing -forest and greatly needed it, to surrender it to the rich landowner, -who had taken no pains to preserve it, and who did not require -it for his own use; men who will either be flogged or murdered -if they refuse to surrender it. Now, if it is an undeniable fact -that the mill in Orel was made to yield an increased income to the -proprietor, and that the forest raised by the peasants was given to -the landowner only because of the flogging and the executions either -threatened or actually suffered, then it must be equally evident -that all the other exclusive rights of the rich, which deprive the -poor of the bare necessaries of life, rest on the same basis. - -If the peasants who need land in order to support their families -may not cultivate the land around them, and if land sufficient to -feed a thousand families is in the hands of one man, a Russian, an -Englishman, an Austrian, a rich landowner of whatever nationality; -and if the merchant who buys grain from the needy grower keeps -it in his warehouses in the midst of a destitute and famishing -population, or sells it for three times its value to those of whom -he bought it at the lowest price,--it evidently springs from the -same cause. - -And if, beyond a certain line called the frontier, one man is not -allowed to purchase certain goods without paying duties to other -men who have nothing to do with their production, and if a man is -obliged to part with his last cow in order to pay taxes which are -distributed by the government among its officials, or used for -the support of soldiers who may kill the taxpayers, it would seem -evident that all this is not the result of certain abstract rights, -but of incidents like those which may even now be going on in the -government of Tula, which in one form or another occur periodically -all the world over, wherever state organization exists, and wherever -there are rich and poor. - -Owing to the fact that outrage and murder do not accompany all -social relations founded on violence, those who possess the -exclusive privileges of the governing classes assure themselves and -others that the advantages which they enjoy are not the result of -violence and bloodshed, but derived from certain vague and abstract -rights. Still it ought to be evident that if those men, who realize -the injustice of it all (as is the case with the working-classes at -the present day), continue to surrender the greater part of their -earnings to the capitalist and the landowner, and if they pay taxes, -knowing that such taxes are not put to a good use, they do this, not -because they acknowledge the justice of certain abstract rights, -whose meaning is unknown to them, but only because they know that -they will be whipped and put to death if they refuse to comply. - -If it is not always necessary to imprison men, to flog them, or to -put them to death when the landowner collects his rents, if the -needy peasant pays a treble price to the merchant who deceives him, -or the mechanic accepts wages absurdly small in comparison with the -income of his master, or the poor man parts with his last rouble -for duties and taxes, it is because he remembers that men have been -flogged and put to death for trying to avoid compliance with what -was demanded of them. Like a caged tiger, who does not touch the -meat that lies before his eyes, and who when he is ordered to leap -over a stick obeys at once, not because he likes it, but because -he has not forgotten past hunger or the red-hot iron which he felt -every time he refused to obey; so it is with men, who, when they -submit to a law which is not for their advantage, to a law which is -disastrous to their interests, or to one which they firmly believe -to be unjust, do so because they remember what they will have to -suffer if they refuse to comply. - -Those who benefit by privileges born of violence long since -perpetrated, often forget, and are very glad to forget, how such -privileges were obtained. And yet one has but to recall the annals -of history,--not the history of the exploits of kings, but genuine -history,--the history of the oppression of the majority by the -minority, in order to acknowledge that the scourge, the prison, and -the gallows have been the original and only sources whence all the -advantages of the rich over the poor have sprung. One has but to -remember the persistent and undying passion for gain among men, the -mainspring of human action in these days, to become convinced that -the advantages of the rich over the poor can be maintained in no -other way. - -At rare intervals, oppression, flogging, imprisonment, executions, -the direct object of which is not to promote the welfare of the -rich, may possibly occur, but we can positively declare that in -our community, where for every man who lives at ease there are -ten overworked, hungry, and often cruelly suffering families of -working-men, all the privileges of the rich, all their luxury, all -their superfluities, are acquired and maintained only by tortures, -imprisonments, and executions. - -The train that I met on the 9th day of September carrying soldiers, -muskets, ammunition, and rods to the famine-stricken peasants, in -order that the wealthy landowner might possess in peace the tract of -wood he had wrested from the peasants, a necessity of life to them, -to him a mere superfluity, affords a vivid proof of the degree to -which men have unconsciously acquired the habit of committing acts -wholly at variance with their convictions and their conscience. - -The express consisted of one first-class carriage for the Governor, -officials, and officers, and several vans crowded with soldiers. -The jaunty young fellows in their fresh new uniforms were crowded -together, either standing, or sitting with their legs dangling -outside the wide open sliding doors of the vans. Some were smoking, -laughing, and jesting, some cracking seeds and spitting out the -shells. A few who jumped down upon the platform to get a drink of -water from the tub, meeting some of the officers, slackened their -pace and made that senseless gesture of lifting one hand to the -forehead; then, with serious faces, as though they had been doing -something not only sensible but actually important, they passed by, -watching the officers as they went. Soon they broke into a run, -evidently in high spirits, stamping on the planks of the platform as -they ran, and chatting, as is but natural for good-natured, healthy -young fellows who are making a journey together. These men, who were -on their way to murder starving fathers and grandfathers, seemed as -unconcerned as though they were off on the pleasantest, or at least -the most everyday, business in the world. - -The gaily dressed officers and officials who were scattered about -on the platform and in the first-class waiting-room produced the -same impression. At a table laden with bottles sat the Governor, the -commander of the expedition, attired in his semi-military uniform, -eating his luncheon and quietly discussing the weather with some -friends he had met, as though the business that called him hither -was so simple a matter that it could neither ruffle his equanimity -nor diminish his interest in the change of the weather. - -At some distance, but tasting no food, sat the chief of the police -with a mournful countenance, seemingly oppressed with the tiresome -formalities. Officers in gaudy, gold-embroidered uniforms moved -to and fro, talking loudly; one group was seated at a table just -finishing a bottle of wine; an officer at the bar who had eaten a -cake brushed away the crumbs that had fallen on his uniform, and -with a self-sufficient air flung a coin upon the counter; some -walked nonchalantly up and down in front of our train looking at the -faces of the women. - -All these men on their way to commit murder, or to torture the -starved and defenseless peasants, by whose toil they were supported, -looked as if engaged upon some important business which they were -really proud to execute. - -What did it mean? - -These men, who were within half an hour's ride of the spot where, -in order to procure for a rich man an extra 3000 roubles, of which -he had no need whatever, which he was unjustly confiscating from -a community of famished peasants, might be obliged to perform the -most shocking deeds that the imagination can conceive,--to murder -and torture, as they did in Orel, innocent men, their brothers. -These men were now calmly approaching the time and place when these -horrors were to begin. - -Since the preparations had been made, it could not very well be -claimed that all these men, officers and privates, did not know what -was before them, and what they were expected to do. The Governor had -given orders for the rods, the officials had purchased the birch -twigs, bargained for them, and noted the purchase in their accounts. -In the military department orders had been given and received -concerning ball cartridges. They all knew that they were on their -way to torture and possibly to put to death their brothers exhausted -by famine, and that perhaps in an hour they might begin the work. - -To say, as they themselves would say, that they are acting from -principle, from a conviction that the state system must be -maintained, is untrue. Those men, in the first place, have rarely, -if ever, bestowed a single thought upon political science; and -in the second place, because they could never be convinced that -the business on which they are engaged serves to support rather -than destroy the State; and finally, because, as a matter of fact, -the majority of these men, if not all of them, would not only be -unwilling to sacrifice their peace and comfort to maintain the -State, but would never miss the opportunity to promote their own -interests at the expense of the State,--therefore it is not for the -sake of so vague a principle as that of maintaining the State that -they do this. - -What, then, does all this mean? - -I know these men. I may not know them as individuals, it is -true, yet I know their dispositions, their past lives, their -modes of thought. They have had mothers, some have wives and -children. Actually, they are, for the most part, kindly, gentle, -tender-hearted men, who abhor any kind of cruelty, to say nothing -of killing or torturing; moreover, every one of them professes -Christianity, and considers violence perpetrated against -the defenseless a contemptible and shameful act. Each taken -individually, in everyday life, is not only incapable, for the sake -of personal advantage, of doing one-hundredth part of what was -done by the Governor at Orel, but any one of them would consider -himself insulted if it were suggested that he could be capable of -doing anything like it in private life. And yet they are within -a half-hour's ride of the spot where they will inevitably find -themselves compelled to do such deeds. - -What can it mean, then? - -It is not only the men on this train who are ready to commit murder -and violence, but those others with whom the affair originated, -the landowner, the steward, the judge, those in St. Petersburg who -issue orders,--the Minister of State, the Czar, also worthy men and -professors of Christianity,--how can they, knowing the consequences, -conceive such a scheme, and direct its execution? - -How can they, even, who take no active part in it,--the spectators, -whose indignation would be aroused by accounts of private violence, -even though it be but the ill-usage of a horse,--how can they allow -this shocking business to go on without rising in wrath to resist -it, crying aloud, "No, we will not allow you to flog or to kill -starving men because they refuse to surrender their last property -villainously attempted to be wrested from them!" And not only are -men found willing to do these deeds, but most of them, even the -chief instigators, like the steward, the landowner, the judge, and -those who take part in originating prosecution and punishment, the -Governor, the Minister of State, the Czar, remain perfectly calm, -and show no sign of remorse over such things. And they who are about -to execute this crime are equally calm. - -Even the spectators, who, it would seem, have no personal interest -in the matter, look upon these men who are about to take part in -this dastardly business with sympathy rather than with aversion or -condemnation. - -In the same compartment with me sat a merchant who dealt in timber, -a peasant by birth, who in loud and decided tones expressed his -approval of the outrage which the peasants were about to suffer. -"The government must be obeyed; that's what it's for. If we pepper -them well, they will never rebel again. It's no more than they -deserve!" he said. - -What did it all mean? - -It could not be said that all these men, the instigators, the -participants, the accomplices in this business, were rascals, who, -in defiance of conscience, realizing the utter abomination of the -act, were, either from mercenary motives or from fear of punishment, -determined to commit it. Any man of them would, given the requisite -circumstances, stand up for his convictions. Not one of those -officials would steal a purse, or read another man's letter, or -endure an insult without demanding satisfaction from the offender. -Not one of those officers would cheat at cards, or neglect to pay a -gambling debt, or betray a companion, or flee from the battlefield, -or abandon a flag. Not one of those soldiers would dare to reject -the sacrament, or even taste meat on Good Friday. Each of these men -would choose to endure any kind of privation, suffering, or danger, -rather than consent to do a deed which he considered wrong. Hence -it is evident that they are able to resist whatever is contrary to -their convictions. - -Still less true would it be to pronounce these men brutes, to whom -such deeds are congenial rather than repulsive. One needs but to -talk with them to become convinced that all,--landowner, judge, -minister, governor, Czar, officers, and soldiers,--at the bottom of -their hearts not only disapprove of such deeds, but when a sense -of their true significance is borne in upon them, really suffer at -being forced to take part in these scenes. They can only try not to -think of them. - -One needs but to speak to those who are actors in this business, -beginning with the landowner and ending with the lowest policeman -or soldier, to discover that at the bottom of their hearts they all -acknowledge the wickedness of the deed, and know that it would be -better to abstain from it; and this knowledge makes them suffer. - -A lady of liberal views in our train, seeing the Governor and the -officers in the first-class waiting-room, and learning the object of -their journey, began to talk in an ostensibly loud tone, in order -that they might hear what she said, condemning the present laws and -crying shame upon the men who took part in this business. This made -everybody feel uncomfortable. The men knew not where to look, yet -no one ventured to argue the point. The passengers pretended that -remarks so senseless deserved no reply, but it was evident by the -expression of their faces and their wandering eyes that they felt -ashamed. I noticed the same in regard to the soldiers. They knew -well enough that they were going about an evil business, and they -preferred not to think of what was before them. When the timber -merchant, insincerely, in my opinion, and simply by way of showing -his superior knowledge, began to speak of the necessity of these -measures, the soldiers who heard him turned away frowning, and -pretended not to listen to him. - -The landowner, his steward, the minister, the Czar, all who are -parties to this business, those who were traveling by this train, -even those who, taking no part in the affair, were but lookers-on, -all really know it to be wicked. Why, then, do they do these things, -why do they repeat them, why do they permit them to be? - -Ask the landowner who started the affair; the judge who rendered a -decision legal in form, but absolutely unjust; and those who, like -the soldiers and the peasants, will, with their own hands, execute -this work of beating and murdering their brothers,--all of them, -instigators, administrators, and executioners, will make essentially -the same reply. - -The officials will say that the present system requires to be -supported in this manner, and it is for this reason that they do -these things, because the good of the country, the welfare of -mankind in general, of social life and civilization, demand it. - -The soldiers, men of the lower classes, who are forced to execute -this violence with their own hands, will answer that the higher -authorities, who are supposed to know their business, have commanded -it, and that it is for them to obey. It never occurs to them to -question the capacity of those who represent the higher authorities. -If the possibility of error is ever admitted, it is only in the case -of some subordinate authority; the higher power whence all things -emanate is supposed to be absolutely infallible. - -Thus, while attributing their actions to various motives, both -principals and subordinates agree that the existing order is the one -best suited to the present time, and that it is the sacred duty of -every man to maintain it. - -This assurance of the necessity and immutability of the existing -order is continually advanced by all participators in violence -committed by the State, and that, as the existing order never can be -changed, the refusal of a single individual to perform the duties -imposed on him will make no difference as far as the fundamental -principle is concerned, and will only result in the substitution of -another who may be more cruel and do more harm. - -This belief that the existing order is immutable, and that it is -the sacred duty of every man to lend it support, encourages every -man of good moral character to take part, with a conscience more or -less clear, in such affairs as that which occurred in Orel, and the -one in which those in the train for Tula were going to take part. - -On what, then, is this belief founded? - -It is but natural that it should seem pleasant and desirable to a -landowner to believe that the existing order is indispensable and -immutable, because it secures to him the income from his hundreds -and thousands of _dessiatins_ by which his idle and luxurious -existence is maintained. - -It is also natural that the judge should willingly admit the -necessity of a system through which he receives fifty times more -than the most hard-working laboring man. And the same may be said -in regard to the other higher functionaries. It is only while the -present system endures that he, as governor, procureur, senator, -or member of the council, can receive his salary of several -thousands, without which he and his family would certainly perish; -for outside the place which he fills, more or less well according -to his abilities and diligence, he could command only a fraction of -what he receives. The ministers, the head of the State, and every -person in high authority are all alike in this, save that the higher -their rank, the more exclusive their position, the more important -it becomes that they should believe no order possible, except that -which now exists; for were it overthrown, not only would they find -it impossible to gain similar positions, but they would fall lower -in the scale than other men. The man who voluntarily hires himself -out as a policeman for ten roubles a month, a sum which he could -easily earn in any other position, has but little interest in the -preservation of the existing system, and therefore may or may not -believe in its immutability. - -But the king or emperor, who receives his millions, who knows that -around him there are thousands of men envious to take his place, who -knows that from no other quarter could he draw such an income or -receive such homage, that, if overthrown, he might be judged for -abuse of power,--there is neither king nor emperor who can help -believing in the immutability and sanctity of the existing order. -The higher the position in which a man is placed, the more unstable -it is; and the more perilous and frightful the possible downfall, -the more firmly will he believe in the immutability of the existing -order; and he is able to do wicked and cruel deeds with a perfectly -peaceful conscience, because he persuades himself that they are -done, not for his own benefit, but for the support of the existing -order. - -And so it is with every individual in authority, from obscure -policemen to the man who occupies the most exalted rank,--the -positions they occupy being more advantageous than those which they -might be capable of filling if the present system did not exist. All -these men believe more or less in its immutability, because it is -advantageous to them. - -But what influences the peasants, the soldiers, who stand on -the lowest rung of the ladder and who derive no advantage from -the existing system, who are in the most enslaved and degraded -condition; what induces them to believe that the existing order, -which serves to keep them in this inferior position, is the best, -and one which should be maintained; and why are they willing, -in order to promote this end, to violate their consciences by -committing wicked deeds? - -What urges them to the false conclusion that the existing order is -immutable and ought therefore to be maintained, when the fact is -that its immutability is due only to their own effort to maintain it? - -Why do those men, taken from the plow, whom we see masquerading in -ugly, objectionable uniforms, with blue collars and gold buttons, go -about armed with muskets and sabers to kill their famishing fathers -and brothers? They derive no advantage from their present position; -they would be no losers were they deprived of it, since it is worse -than the one from which they were taken. - -Those in authority belonging to the higher classes, the landowners -and merchants, the judges, senators, governors, ministers, and -kings, the officials in general, participate in such actions and -maintain the present system, because such a system is for their -interest. Often enough they are kind-hearted and gentle men. They -play no personal part in these acts; all they do is to institute -inquiries, pronounce judgments, and issue commands. Those in -authority do not themselves execute the deeds which they have -devised and ordered. They but rarely see in what manner these -dreadful deeds are executed. But the unfortunate members of the -lower classes, who receive no benefit from the existing system, who, -on the other hand, find themselves greatly despised because of the -duties which they perform in order that a system which is opposed to -their own interests may be maintained,--they who tear men from the -bosom of their families to send them to the galleys, who bind and -imprison them, who stand on guard over them, who shoot them, why do -they do this? What is it that compels these men to believe that the -existing order is immutable, and that it is their duty to maintain -it? Violence exists only because there are those who with their -own hands maltreat, bind, imprison, and murder. If there were no -policemen, or soldiers, or armed men of any sort ready when bidden -to use violence and to put men to death, not one of those who sign -death-warrants, or sentence for imprisonment for life or hard labor -in the galleys, would ever have sufficient courage himself to hang, -imprison, or torture one thousandth part of those whom now, sitting -in their studies, these men calmly order to be hung or tortured, -because they do not see it done, they do not do it themselves. Their -servants do it for them in some far-away corner. - -All these deeds of injustice and cruelty have become an integral -part of the existing system of life, only because there are men ever -ready to execute them. If there were no such men, the multitude of -human beings who are now the victims of violence would be spared, -and furthermore, the magistrates would never dare to issue, nor even -dream of issuing, those commands which they now send forth with -such assurance. If there were no men to obey the will of others -and to execute commands to torture and murder, no one would ever -dare to defend the declaration so confidently made by landowners -and men of leisure; namely, that the land lying on all sides of -the unfortunate peasants, who are perishing for the want of it, is -the property of the man who does not till it, and that reserves -of grain, fraudulently obtained, are to be held intact amidst a -famine-stricken and dying population, because the merchant must -have his profit. If there were no men ready at the bidding of the -authorities to torture and murder, the landowner would never dream -of seizing a forest which had been tended by the peasants; nor would -officials consider themselves entitled to salaries paid to them from -money wrung from the famished people whom they oppress, or which -they derive for the prosecution, imprisonment, and exile of men who -denounce falsehood and preach the truth. - -All this is done because those in authority well know that they have -always at hand submissive agents ready to obey their commands to -outrage and to murder. - -It is to this crowd of submissive slaves, ready to obey all orders, -that we owe the deeds of the whole series of tyrants, from Napoleon -to the obscure captain who bids his men fire upon the people. It is -through the agency of policemen and soldiers (especially the latter, -since the former can act only when supported by military force) -that these deeds of violence are committed. What, then, has induced -those who are by no means benefited by doing with their hands -these dreadful deeds,--what is it that has led these kindly men -into an error so gross that they actually believe that the present -system, which is so distressing, so baleful, so fatal, is the one -best suited to the times? Who has led them into this extraordinary -aberration? - -They can never have persuaded themselves that a course which is not -only painful and opposed to their interests, but which is fatal -to their class, which forms nine-tenths of the entire population, -one which, too, is opposed to their conscience, is right. "What -reason can you give for killing men, when God's commandment says, -'Thou shalt not kill'?" is a question I have often put to different -soldiers. And it always embarrassed them to have a question put -which recalled what they would rather not remember. - -They knew that the divine law forbade murder,--_thou shalt not -kill_,--and they had always known of this compulsory military duty, -but had never thought of one as contradictory to the other. The -hesitating replies to my question were usually to the effect that -the act of killing a man in war and the execution of criminals by -order of the government were not included in the general prohibition -against murder. But when I rejoined that no such limitation existed -in the law of God, and cited the Christian doctrine of brotherhood, -the forgiveness of injuries, the injunction to love one's neighbor, -all of which precepts are quite contrary to murder, the men of the -lower class would usually agree with me and ask, "How then can it be -that the government (which they believe cannot err) sends troops to -war and orders the execution of criminals?" When I replied that this -was a mistake on the part of the government, my interlocutors became -still more uncomfortable, and either dropped the conversation or -showed annoyance. - -"Probably there is a law for it. I should think the bishops know -more than you do," a Russian soldier once said to me. And he -evidently felt relieved, confident that his superiors had found a -law, one that had authorized his ancestors and their successors, -millions of men like himself, to serve the State, and that the -question I had asked is in the nature of a conundrum. - -Every man in Christendom has undoubtedly been taught by tradition, -by revelation, and by the voice of conscience, which can never be -gainsaid, that murder is one of the most heinous crimes men can -commit; it is thus affirmed in the gospel, and they know that this -sin of murder is not altered by conditions--that is to say, if it -is sinful to kill one man, it is sinful to kill another. Any man -knows that, if murder be a sin, it is not changed by the character -or position of the man against whom it is committed, which is the -case also with adultery, theft, and all other sins, and yet men are -accustomed from childhood to see murder, not only acknowledged, but -blessed by those whom they are taught to regard as their spiritual -directors appointed by Christ, and to know that their temporal -leaders, with calm assurance, countenance the custom of murder, and -summon all men, in the name of the law and even the name of God, to -its participation. Men perceive the existence of an inconsistency, -but finding themselves unable to discern its cause, they naturally -attribute the idea to their own ignorance. The obviousness and -crudity of the contradiction confirms them in this belief. They -cannot imagine that their superiors and teachers, even the -scientists, could advocate with so much assurance two principles so -utterly at variance as the command to follow the law of Christ, and -the requirement to commit murder. No pure-minded, innocent child, no -youth, could imagine that men who stand so high in his esteem, whom -he looks upon with such reverence, could for any purpose deceive him -so unscrupulously. - -And yet it is this very deception which is constantly practised. In -the first place, to all working-men, who have personally no time to -analyze moral and religious problems, it is taught from childhood, -by example and precept, that tortures and murders are compatible -with Christianity, and in certain cases they should not only be -permitted, but must be employed; in the second place, to certain -among them, engaged in the army either through conscription or -voluntarily, it is conveyed that the accomplishment with their own -hands of torture or homicide is not only their sacred duty, but a -glorious exploit, meriting praise and recompense. - -This universal deception is propagated by all catechisms or their -substitutes, those books which at the present time teachers are -compelled to use in the instruction of the young. It is taught that -violence,--outrage, imprisonment, execution,--the murder that takes -place in civil or in foreign war, has for its object the maintenance -and security of the political organization,--whether this be an -absolute or a constitutional monarchy, consulate, republic, or -commune,--that it is perfectly legitimate, and that it is in -contradiction neither to morality nor Christianity. - -And men are so firmly convinced of this that they grow up, live, and -die in the belief, never for a moment doubting it. - -So much for this universal deception. And now for another, which is -special, and practised upon soldiers and police, the instruments by -whose agency outrages and murders, necessary for the support and -maintenance of the existing order, are accomplished. - -The military rules and regulations of every country are practically -the same as those formulated in the Russian military code. - -"87. To fulfil exactly, and without comment, the orders of the -superior officers, means--to execute orders with precision, without -considering whether they are good or bad, or whether their execution -be possible. Only the superior is responsible for the consequences -of his order. - -"88. The only occasion on which the inferior should not obey the -order of his superior is when he sees plainly that in obeying it -..." (Here one naturally thinks it will surely go on to say when -he plainly sees that in fulfilling the order of his superior he -violates the law of God. Not at all; it goes on to say:) "_sees -plainly that he violates the oath of allegiance and duty to his -sovereign_." - -It is stated in the code that a man, in becoming a soldier, can and -must execute _all_ the orders, without exception, which he receives -from his superior; orders which, for a soldier, are for the most -part connected with murder. He may violate every law, human and -divine, as long as he does not violate his oath of allegiance to him -who, at a given time, happens to be in power. - -Thus it stands in the Russian military code, and this is the -substance of the military codes of other nations. It could not be -otherwise. The foundations of the power of the State rest upon the -delusion by means of which men are set free from their obligations -to God and to their own consciences, and bound to obey the will of a -casual superior. - -This is the basis of the appalling conviction that prevails among -the lower classes, that the existing system, so ruinous to them, is -necessary and justifiable, and that it must be maintained by outrage -and murder. - -This is inevitable. In order to force the lower, the more numerous -classes to act as their own oppressors and tormentors, to commit -deeds contrary to their consciences, it is necessary to deceive them. - -And this is done. - -Not long since I saw again put into practice this shameful -deception, and again wondered to see it effected without opposition -and so audaciously. - -In the beginning of November, on my way through Tula, I saw at the -gates of the _Zemskaya Uprava_ the familiar dense crowd of men and -women, from which issued the sounds of drunken voices, blended with -the heartrending sobs of the wives and mothers. - -The military conscription was in progress. - -As usual, I could not pass by without pausing; the sight attracts me -as by fascination. - -Again I mingled with the crowd, and stood looking on, questioning, -and marveling at the facility with which this most terrible of all -offenses is committed in broad daylight, and in the midst of a large -city. - -On the first day of November, in every village in Russia, with its -population of one hundred millions, the _starostas_,[27] according -to custom, take the men whose names are entered on the rolls, -frequently their own sons, and carry them to town. - - [27] Elders. - -On the way the men drink freely, unchecked by the elder men; they -realize that entering upon this insane business of leaving their -wives and mothers, giving up everything that is sacred to them, only -to become the senseless tools of murder, is too painful if one's -senses are not stupefied with wine. - -And thus they journey on, carousing, brawling, singing, and -fighting. The night is spent in a tavern, and on this morning, -having drunk still more, they assemble before the house of the -_Uprava_. - -Some in new sheepskin coats, with knit mufflers wound round their -necks, some with their eyes swollen with drinking, some noisy and -boisterous, by way of stimulating their courage, others silent and -woebegone, they were gathered near the gates, surrounded by their -wives and mothers with tear-stained faces, awaiting their turn (I -happened to be there on the day when the recruits were received, -that is to say, the day on which they were examined), while others -were crowding the entry of the office. - -Meanwhile they are hurrying on the work within. A door opens and -the guard calls for Piotr Sidorov. Piotr Sidorov makes the sign of -the cross, looks around with a startled gaze, and opening a glass -door, he enters the small room where the recruits take off their -clothes. The man before him, his friend, who has just been enrolled, -has but this moment stepped out of the office stark naked, and -with chattering teeth hastens to put on his clothes. Piotr Sidorov -has heard, and can plainly see by the look on his face, that the -man has been enlisted. He longs to question him, but he is ordered -to undress as quickly as possible. He pulls off his sheepskin -coat, drops his waistcoat and his shirt, and with prominent ribs, -trembling and reeking with the odors of liquor, tobacco, and sweat, -steps barefooted into the office, wondering what he shall do with -his large sinewy hands. - -A portrait of the Emperor in uniform, with a ribbon across his -breast, in a large golden frame, hangs in a conspicuous place, while -a small ikon of Christ, clad in a loose garment, with the crown of -thorns on his head, hangs in one corner. In the middle of the room -is a table covered with a green cloth on which papers are lying, -and on which stands a small three-cornered object surmounted by -an eagle and called the mirror of justice. Around the table the -officials sit tranquilly. One smokes, another turns over the papers. -As soon as Sidorov enters a guard comes up and measures him. His -chin is raised and his feet are adjusted. Then a man who is smoking -a cigarette--the doctor--approaches him, and without glancing at -his face, but gazing in another direction, touches his body with an -expression of disgust, measures him, orders the guard to open his -mouth, tells him to breathe, and then proceeds to dictate to another -man who takes down the minutes. Finally, and still without even one -glance at his face, the doctor says: "He will do! The next!" and -with a wearied air he seats himself at the table. Once more the -guard hustles him about, bidding him to make haste. Somehow or other -he pulls on his shirt, fumbling for the sleeves, hastily gets on his -trousers, wraps his feet in the rags he uses for stockings, pulls on -his boots, hunts for his muffler and cap, tucks his sheepskin coat -under his arm, and is escorted to that part of the hall which is -fenced off by a bench, where the recruits who have been admitted are -placed. A young countryman like himself, but from another, far-away -government, who is a soldier already, with a musket to which a -bayonet is attached, guards him, ready to run him through the body -if he should attempt to escape. - -Meanwhile the crowd of fathers, mothers, and wives, hustled by -policemen, presses around the gates, trying to find out who has been -taken and who rejected. A man who has been rejected comes out and -tells them that Piotr has been admitted; then is heard the cry of -Piotr's young wife, for whom this word means a four or five years' -separation, and the dissolute life such as a soldier's wife in -domestic service is. - -But here comes a man with flowing hair and dressed differently from -the others, who has just arrived; he descends from his droschky and -goes toward the house of the _Zemskaya Uprava_, while the policemen -clear a way for him through the crowd. - -"The Father has arrived to swear them in." And this "Father," -who has always been accustomed to believe himself a special and -privileged servant of Christ, and who is usually quite unconscious -of his false position, enters the room where the recruits who have -been admitted are waiting for him; he puts on, as a vestment, a sort -of brocade curtain, disengages from it his flowing hair, opens the -Bible wherein an oath is forbidden, lifts the cross, that cross on -which Christ was crucified for refusing to do what this person, his -supposed servant, commands men to do, and all these defenseless and -deluded young men repeat after him the lie so familiar to his lips, -which he utters with such assurance. He reads while they repeat: -"I promise and swear to the Lord Almighty, upon His holy Bible," -etc. ... to defend (that is, to murder all those whom I shall be -ordered to murder) and to do whatever those men, strangers to me, -who regard me only as a necessary tool to be used in perpetrating -the outrages by which they oppress my brethren and preserve their -own positions, command me to do. All the recruits having stupidly -repeated the words, the so-called Father departs, quite sure that -he has performed his duty in the most accurate and conscientious -manner, while the young men deluded by him really believe that by -the absurd, and to them almost unintelligible, words which they have -just uttered, they are released during their term of service from -all obligations to their fellow-men, and are bound by new and more -imperative ties to the duties of a soldier. - -And this is done publicly, but not a man comes forward to say to the -deceived and the deceivers, "Come to your senses and go your way; -this is all a base and treacherous lie; it imperils not only your -bodies, but your souls." - -No one does this. On the contrary, as if in derision, after they -have all been enrolled and are about to depart, the colonel enters -the hall where these poor, drunken, and deluded creatures are locked -in, and with a solemn air, calls out to them in military fashion: -"Good day, men! I congratulate you upon entering _the Czar's -service_." And they, poor fellows, mumble in their semi-drunken way, -a reply which has already been taught them, to the effect that it -fills their hearts with joy. - -The expectant crowd of fathers, mothers, and wives is still standing -at the gates. Women, with tear-worn, wide-open eyes, watch the door. -Suddenly it opens and the men come rolling out, assuming an air of -bravado, the Petruhas, Vanuhas, and Makars, now enrolled, trying -to avoid the eyes of their relatives, pretending not to see them. -At once break out the sobs and cries of the wives and mothers. -Some of the men clasp them in their arms, weeping, some put on a -devil-may-care look, others make an attempt to console them. The -wives, the mothers, realizing that they are now abandoned, without -support, for three or four years, cry and wail bitterly. The fathers -say little; they only sigh and make a clicking sound with their -tongues that indicates their grief; they know that they are about -to lose that help which they have reared and trained their sons to -render; that when their sons return they will no longer be sober and -industrious laborers, but soldiers, weaned from their former life of -simplicity, grown dissolute, and vain of their uniforms. - -Now the whole crowd has departed, driving down the street in -sleighs to the taverns and inns, and louder grows the chorus of -mingled sobs, songs, and drunken cries, the moaning and muttering -of the wives and mothers, the sounds of the accordion, the noise of -altercations. - -All repair to the eating-houses and taverns, from the traffic of -which part of the revenue of the government is derived, and there -they give themselves up to drink, stupefying their senses so that -they care nothing for the injustice done to them. - -Then they spend several weeks at home, drinking nearly all the time. - -When the day arrives, they are driven like cattle to the appointed -place, where they are drilled in military exercises by those who a -few years ago, like themselves, were deceived and brutalized. During -the instructions the means employed are lying, blows, and _vodka_. -And before the year is over the good, kindly, and intelligent -fellows will have become as brutal as their teachers. - -"Suppose your father were arrested and attempted escape," I once -suggested to a young soldier, "what would you do?" - -"It would be my duty to thrust my bayonet through his body," he -replied, in the peculiar, meaningless monotone of the soldier. "And -if he ran I should shoot," he added, taking pride apparently in -thinking what he should do if his father attempted to run. - -When a good young fellow is reduced to a condition lower than -that of the brute, he is ready for those who wish to use him as -an instrument of violence. He is ready. The man is lost, and a -new instrument of violence has been created. And all this goes on -throughout Russia in the autumn of every year, in broad daylight, in -the heart of a great city, witnessed by all the inhabitants, and the -stratagem is so skilfully managed, that though men at the bottom of -their hearts realize its infamy, still they have not the power to -throw off the yoke. - -After our eyes are once opened, and we view this frightful delusion -in its true light, it is astonishing that preachers of Christianity -and morality, teachers of youth, or even those kindly and sensible -parents who are to be found in every community, can advocate -any principles of morality whatever in the midst of a society -where torture and murder are openly recognized as constituting -indispensable conditions in human life,--openly acknowledged by all -churches and governments,--where certain men among us must be always -ready to murder their brethren, and where any of us may have to do -the same. - -Not to speak of Christian doctrine, how are children, how are -youths, how are any to be taught morality, while the principle that -murder is required in order to maintain the general welfare is -taught; when men are made to believe that murder is lawful, that -some men, and any of us may be among them, must kill and torture -their neighbors, and commit every kind of crime at the command of -those in authority? If this principle is right, then there is not, -nor can there be, any doctrine of morality; might is right, and -there is no other law. This principle, which some seek to justify -on the hypothesis of the struggle for existence, in fact dominates -society. - -What kind of moral doctrine can that be which permits murder for any -object whatsoever? It is as impossible as a mathematical problem -which would affirm that 2 = 3. It may be admitted that 2 = 3 looks -like mathematics, but it is not mathematics at all. Every code of -morals must be founded first of all upon the acknowledgment that -human life is to be held sacred. - -The doctrine of an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, and a life -for a life, has been revoked by Christianity because that doctrine -was but the justification of immorality, a semblance of justice, but -without meaning. Life is a substance which can neither be weighed, -measured, nor compared; hence the taking of one life for another has -no sense. Moreover, the aim of every social law is amelioration of -human life. How, then, can the destruction of certain lives improve -the condition of other lives? The destruction of life is not an act -that tends to improve it; it is suicide. - -To destroy human life, and call it justice, may be likened to the -act of a man who, having lost one arm, cuts off the other, by way of -making matters even. - -Not to speak of the deceit of presenting the most shocking crimes in -the light of a duty, of the shocking abuse of using Christ's name -and authority in order to confirm acts which he condemned, how can -men, looking at the matter from the standpoint merely of personal -safety, suffer the existence of the shocking, senseless, cruel, and -dangerous force which every organized government, supported by the -army, represents? - -The most violent and rapacious band of robbers is less to be -feared than such an organization. Even the authority of the leader -of a band of robbers is more or less limited by the will of each -individual member of the band, who, retaining a certain degree of -independence, has the right to oppose acts with which he does not -agree. But the authority of men who form part of an organized -government, maintained by the army with its present system of -discipline, is unlimited. When their master, be he Boulanger, -Pugatchov, or Napoleon, issues his commands, there is no crime too -hideous for those who form part of the government and the army to -commit. - -It must often occur to one who sees conscriptions, drills, and -military manoeuvers taking place, who sees police going about with -loaded revolvers, sentinels armed with bayonets,--to one who hears -from morning till night, as I do (in the district of Hamovniky,[28] -where I live), the whirring balls and the concussion as they -strike the target,--to ask why these things are tolerated. And -when one sees in the same city, where every attempt at violence is -at once suppressed, where even the sale of powder or medicines is -prohibited, where a doctor is not allowed to practice without a -diploma, thousands of disciplined men, controlled by one individual, -being trained for murder, one cannot help asking how men who have -any regard for their own safety can calmly endure such a condition -of affairs, and allow it to continue? Leaving aside the question -of the immorality and pernicious influence of it, what could be -more dangerous? What are they thinking of,--I speak not now of -Christians, Christian pastors, philanthropists, or moralists, but -simply those who value their lives, their safety, their welfare? -Granting that power is at present in the hands of a moderate -ruler, it may fall to-morrow into those of a Biron, an Elizabeth, -a Catharine, a Pugatchov, a Napoleon. And even though the ruler be -moderate to-day, he may become a mere savage to-morrow; he may be -succeeded by an insane or half-insane heir, like the King of Bavaria -or the Emperor Paul. - - [28] In Moscow. - -It is not only those who fill the highest offices, but all the -lesser authorities scattered over the land--the chiefs of police, -the commanders of companies, even the _stanovoys_[29]--may commit -shocking crimes before they can be dismissed; it is an everyday -occurrence. - - [29] Chiefs of rural police. - -Involuntarily one asks: How can men allow these things to go on? How -can they tolerate them with any regard to their own personal safety? - -It may be replied that some men do oppose it. (Those who are -deluded and live in subjection have nothing either to tolerate or -interdict.) Those who favor the continuance of the present system -are only those who derive some special advantage from it. They -favor it, and even with the disadvantages of having an insane -or tyrannical man at the head of the government and the army, -the position is less disadvantageous to them than if the present -organization were abolished. - -Whether his position be held under a Boulanger, a Republic, a -Pugatchov, or a Catharine,--the judge, the police commissioner, the -governor, the officer, will remain in it. But if the system which -assures their positions were overthrown, they would lose them. -Therefore it is a matter of indifference to these men whether one -man or another be at the head of the organization of violence. What -they do fear is its abolition; so they support it. - -One wonders why men of independent means, who are not obliged to -become soldiers, the so-called _elite_ of society, enter military -service in Russia, in England, in Germany, in Austria, and even in -France, and desire the chance of killing? Why do parents, why do -moral men, send their children to military schools? Why do mothers -buy them such toys as helmets, swords, and muskets? (No child of -a peasant ever plays at being a soldier.) Why do kindly men and -women, who can have no manner of interest in war, go into ecstasies -over the exploits of a man like Skobelev? Why do men who are -under no obligation to do it, and who receive no pay for it, like -Marshals of Nobility in Russia, devote months to the service which -demands such unremitting labor, wearying to the minds as well as -to the body,--the enlistment of recruits? Why do all emperors and -kings wear a military dress, why do they have drills and parades -and military rewards? Why are monuments built to generals and -conquerors? Why do wealthy and independent men regard it as an -honor to occupy the position of lackeys to kings, to flatter them -and feign a belief in their special superiority? Why do men who -have long since ceased to believe in the medieval superstitions -of the Church still constantly and solemnly pretend to do so, -and thus support a sacrilegious and demoralizing institution? -Why is the ignorance of the people so zealously preserved, not -only by the government, but by men of the higher classes? Why do -they so energetically denounce every attempt to overthrow popular -superstition and to promote popular education? Why do historians, -novelists, and poets, who can derive no benefit in exchange for -their flattery, paint in such glowing colors the emperors, kings, -and generals of bygone times? Why do the so-called scientists devote -their lives to formulate theories that violence committed on the -people by power is legitimate violence--is right? - -One often wonders why an artist or a woman of the world, neither of -whom, it would seem, ordinarily take much interest in sociological -or military questions--why should they condemn strikes among -workmen, or advocate war with such partizan zeal? - -But one ceases to feel surprise when one realizes that the members -of the higher classes possess the keenest insight, an intuitive -perception, as it were, concerning those conditions which are -friendly and those which are hostile to the organization upon whose -existence their privileges depend. - -It is true that the woman of society does not deliberately argue -thus: "Were there no capitalists, or armies to defend them, my -husband would have no money, and I should have neither _salon_ -nor fashionable gowns;" nor does the artist tell himself, in -so many words, that if his pictures are to be sold there must -be capitalists, defended by armies, to buy them; yet instinct, -here doing duty for reason, is their surest guide. This instinct -guides, with rare exceptions, all men who support those political, -religious, and economic institutions which are advantageous to -themselves. - -But is it possible that men who belong to the higher classes defend -this organization only because it is for their own advantage? They -surely cannot fail to see that as an organization it is irrational, -incompatible with the present consciousness of men, with public -opinion, and that it is fraught with danger. Good, intelligent, -honest men who belong to the ruling class cannot but suffer from -such contradictions, nor can they close their eyes to the dangers -that menace them. - -And is it possible that the millions of men of the lower classes -can go on calmly committing deeds which are so manifestly criminal, -such as are the murders and tortures which they commit, simply from -fear of punishment? Surely these things could not exist were not the -falsehood and brutality of their actions hidden from all classes of -men by the system of the political organization. - -When such deeds are committed, there are so many instigators, -participants, and abettors that no single individual feels himself -morally responsible. - -Assassins compel all the witnesses of an assassination to strike -the body of the victim, with the intention of dividing the -responsibility among the greatest number possible. And whenever -those crimes by the aid of which the state system is maintained are -to be committed, this same thing is observed. The rulers of State -always endeavor to involve the greatest possible number of citizens -in the participation of the crimes which it is to their interest to -have committed. - -In these latter days this is made especially evident by the -drawing of citizens on the jury in courts of law, by drafting them -into the army as soldiers, and into the communal or legislative -administration as electors or elected. - -As in a wicker basket all the ends are so carefully interwoven that -they cannot be seen, so is it with the responsibility for crime. -Individual responsibilities are so manipulated that no man perceives -precisely what he is incurring. - -In olden times tyrants were responsible for the crimes which were -committed, but in the present age the most frightful crimes are -perpetrated, such as would hardly have been possible in the time of -Nero, and still no one is held responsible. - -Some demand the crime, some propose it, some determine it, some -confirm it, some order it, some execute it. - -Women and old men are hung, are flogged to death--even quite -innocent people, as was recently the case with us in Russia, in -the affair of the factory at Uzova; or, as is done all over in -Europe and America, in the struggle with anarchists and other -revolutionists, hundreds, thousands of men are shot, are killed; -or, as happens in time of war, millions of men are massacred; or, -as is happening always, the souls of men are destroyed by solitary -confinement, by the debauchery of barrack life--and no one is -responsible. - -On the lower scale of the social ladder are posted soldiers armed -with muskets, pistols, swords; they go about doing violence and -killing, and through their doing so force other men to become -soldiers like themselves, and yet they never dream that the -responsibility rests on their shoulders; they shift it on to their -superiors, who give the orders. - -The czars, the presidents, the ministers of State, the general -assemblies, order tortures, murders, conscriptions, and as they -enjoy the absolute assurance that they rule by the grace of God -or by the will of the society they govern, and that that society -demands from them what they order, they cannot regard themselves as -responsible. - -Between these two classes we find a number of intermediaries, who -take charge of the executions, tortures, conscriptions, and they, -too, wash their hands of all responsibility, alleging on the one -hand the orders of their superiors, and on the other that it is for -such as themselves, who stand lower on the social ladder, to do -these things. - -The power that demands and the power that fulfils commands, the two -extremes of governmental organization, unite like the two ends of -a chain, each depending on and supporting the other, and all the -intervening links. - -Were it not for the conviction that there are men who assume the -whole responsibility of such deeds, no soldier would lift his hand -to torture or murder his fellow-man. Were it not for the conviction -that the nation demands it, no king, emperor, president, or assembly -would venture to issue commands for murder and torture. Were it -not that he believes that there are men above him who assume the -responsibility of his actions, and others below him whose welfare -requires this treatment, no man of the intermediate class would ever -perform the functions committed to him. - -The organization of the State is such that on whatever position of -the social ladder a man may stand, his irresponsibility remains -intact. The higher he stands, the more liable he is to feel the -pressure brought to bear on him from below, urging him to issue -commands, and the less likely he will be to be influenced by orders -from above, and _vice versa_. - -But it is not enough that all men bound by the organization of the -State transfer their responsibility from one to the other,--the -peasant, for instance, who becomes a soldier to the merchant who -has become an officer; the officer to the noble who occupies the -position of governor; the governor to the minister of State; the -minister to the sovereign; and the sovereign who in his turn -shifts the responsibility upon all,--officials, nobles, merchants, -peasants. Not only do men in this way merely free themselves from -all sense of responsibility for their actions, but because, as -they adapt themselves to fulfil the requirements of political -organizations, they so constantly, persistently, and strenuously -assure themselves and others that all men are not equal that they -begin to believe it sincerely themselves. Thus we are assured that -some men are superior and must be especially honored and obeyed; -while, on the other hand, we are assured in every way that others -are inferior, and therefore bound to obey without murmur the -commands of their superiors. - -It is to this inequality,--the exaltation of some upon the abasement -of others,--that we may chiefly attribute the incapacity which men -display for discerning the folly of the existing system, with the -cruelty and deceptions committed by some, and suffered by others. - -There are certain men who have been made to believe that they are -possessed of a peculiar importance and greatness, who have become -so intoxicated by their imaginary superiority that they cease to -realize their responsibility for the actions they commit; others -who, on the contrary, have been told that they are insignificant -beings, and that it is their duty to submit to those above them, -and, as the natural result of this continual state of degradation, -fall into a strange condition of stupefied servility, and in this -state they, too, lose all sense of responsibility for their actions. -And as to the intermediate class, subservient to those above them, -and yet to a certain extent regarding themselves as superiors, they -are apt to be both servile and arrogant, and they also lose the -sense of responsibility. - -One needs but to glance at any official of high rank in the act -of reviewing the troops. Accompanied by his staff, mounted on -a magnificently caparisoned charger, equipped in a brilliant -uniform, displaying all his decorations, he rides in front of -the ranks, while the band plays martial music and the soldiers -present arms, standing, as they do, as though verily petrified -with servility,--one has but to see this to understand how in such -moments, under such conditions, both generals and soldiers might -commit deeds which they never would have dreamed of committing. - -But the intoxication to which men succumb under conditions like -parades, pageants, religious ceremonies, and coronations, though -acute, is not enduring, while there is another which is chronic, -shared by all who have any authority whatsoever, from the Czar to -the policemen on the street, shared, too, by the masses who submit -to authority in a state of stupefied servility, and who by way of -justifying their submission, after the usual manner of slaves, -ascribe the greatest importance and dignity to those whom they obey. - -It is this delusion in regard to human inequality and the consequent -intoxication of power and stupefaction of servility, which makes it -possible for those who are associated in a state organization to -commit crimes and suffer no remorse. - -Under the influence of this intoxication,--there is an intoxication -of servility as well as of power,--men seem to others, no less than -to themselves, not the ordinary human beings which they really are, -but specially privileged beings,--nobles, merchants, governors, -judges, officers, kings, statesmen, soldiers, having no longer -ordinary human duties, but only the duties of the class to which -they belong. - -Thus the landed proprietor who prosecuted the peasants on account of -the forest did so because he did not regard himself as an ordinary -man, with the same rights as the peasants, his neighbors, but as a -great landowner and a member of the nobility, and, as such, exalted -by the intoxication of authority, felt himself insulted by the -opposition of the peasants. And regardless of the consequences, he -sends in his petition to be reinstated in his pretended rights. The -judges who rendered an unfair decision in his favor, did so because -they fancied themselves different from ordinary men, who are guided -only by truth; under the spell of the intoxication of authority, -they believed themselves the guardians of a justice which cannot -err; and at the same time, under the influence of servility, they -considered themselves obliged to apply certain texts set forth in a -certain book and called the laws; and all the other persons who took -part in this affair, from the representatives of higher authority -down to the last soldier ready to fire upon his brother,--they all -accepted themselves in their conventionally accredited characters. -Not one asked himself if he should take part in an act which his -conscience reprobated, but each accepted himself as one who had -simply to fulfil a certain function; let it be the Czar, anointed -of God, an exceptional being called to look after the welfare of a -hundred million men; let it be the noble; the priest, the recipient -of grace through ordination; the soldier, bound by oath to fulfil -commands without hesitation,--it is the same with all. - -All their activity, past, present, and future, is stimulated by a -like intoxicating influence. If they had not the firm conviction -that the title of king, statesman, governor, judge, landowner, -marshal of nobility, officer, or soldier is of serious import and -necessity, not one of them could contemplate without horror and -disgust his own share in the deeds done in these latter days. - -Arbitrary distinctions, established hundreds of years ago, -recognized for hundreds of years, described by special names -and distinguished by special dress, sanctioned by all kinds of -solemnities calculated to influence men through their emotions, have -been so thoroughly impressed upon the human imagination that men -have forgotten the common, everyday aspects of life; they look upon -themselves and others from a point of view dependent upon outward -conditions, and regard their own acts and those of their neighbors -accordingly. - -Here, for instance, we see a man of advanced years, a man perfectly -in possession of his senses, who, because he has been decorated -with some bauble, and is attired in a ridiculous habit, or because -he is the holder of certain keys, or has received a bit of blue -ribbon fitter for the wear of a coquettish child, when he is called -general, chamberlain, chevalier of the order of St. Andrew, or some -such absurdity, becomes at once proud, arrogant, happy; if, on the -contrary, he fails to get the gewgaw or the nickname he expected, he -becomes unhappy and ill, really to the point of sickness. - -Or let us take a still more remarkable case. A man, morally -sane, young, free, and absolutely safe from want, has no sooner -received the name of district-attorney, of _Zemsky Nachalnik_, -than he pounces upon some luckless widow, takes her from her small -children, and throws her into jail, all because the poor woman has -been secretly selling wine, and thus depriving the treasury of 25 -roubles' revenue. This man feels no remorse. Another still more -surprising case is that of a man, ordinarily kind and good, who, -because he wears a uniform or carries a medal, and is told that he -is a keeper [_garde-champetre_] or custom-house officer, considers -himself justified in shooting men down, and no one ever dreams of -blaming him for it, nor does he think himself in the wrong; but -if he failed to fire upon his fellow-men he would then indeed be -culpable. I say nothing of judges and jurymen, who condemn men to -death, nor of troops, who slaughter thousands without a vestige of -remorse, because they are told that they are not in the position of -ordinary men, but are jurymen, judges, generals, soldiers. - -This abnormal and surprising state of affairs is formulated in words -like these: "As a man, I sympathize with him, but as a keeper, a -judge, a general, a czar, or a soldier, I must torture or murder -him." - -So it is in this present case; men are on the way to slaughter and -torment their famine-stricken brethren, admitting all the while that -in this dispute between the peasants and the landowner the former -are in the right (all the superior officials told me so). They know -that the peasants are miserable, poor, and hungry, and that the -landowner is wealthy and one who inspires no sympathy, and yet these -men are going to kill the peasants in order that this landowner may -gain 3000 roubles; and all because they regard themselves at the -moment not as men, but one as a governor, another as a general of -gendarmerie, another as an officer, or as soldiers, as the case may -be, and bound not by the eternal laws of the human conscience, but -by the accidental, transitory demands of their positions. - -However strange it may appear, the only explanation of this -surprising phenomenon is that men are like those under hypnotic -influence, who, as suggested by the hypnotizers, imagine themselves -in certain conditions. Thus, for instance, when it is suggested to -a hypnotized patient that he is lame, he proceeds to limp; that he -is blind, he ceases to see; that he is an animal, and he begins to -bite. And this is the state of all those who put their social and -political duties before, and to the detriment of, their duties as -human beings. - -The essential characteristic of this condition is, that men, -influenced by the thought that has been suggested to them, are -unable to weigh their own actions, and simply obey the suggestion -that has been communicated to them. - -The difference between men artificially hypnotized and those under -the influence of governmental suggestion consists in this,--that -to the former their imagined environment is suggested suddenly by -one person, and the suggestion operates only for a short time; -whereas to the latter, their imagined position has been the result -of gradual suggestion, going on, not for years, but for generations, -and proceeds not from a single individual, but from their entire -circumstances. - -"But," it will be objected, "always, in all societies, the majority -of men, all the children, all the women, absorbed in the duties -and cares of motherhood, all the great mass of workers, who are -completely absorbed by their labor, all those of weak mind, all the -enfeebled, the many who have come under the subjection of nicotine, -alcohol, opium, or what not,--all these are not in a position to -think for themselves, and consequently they submit to those who -stand on a higher intellectual level, or they simply act according -to domestic or social tradition, or in accordance with public -opinion,--and in their acting thus there is nothing abnormal or -contradictory." - -Indeed, there is nothing unnatural in it, and the readiness with -which those who reason but little submit to the guidance of men who -stand on a higher plane of consciousness is a universal phenomenon, -and one without which social life could not be. The minority submit -to principles which they have considered for themselves, and in -consequence of the accordance of these principles with their reason; -the rest of men, the majority, submit to the same principles, not -because of personal apprehension of their validity, but because -public opinion demands it. - -Such submission to public opinion of men who can think but little -for themselves has nothing abnormal about it so long as public -opinion maintains its unity. - -But there is a period when the higher forms of truth, having been -revealed to the few, are in process of transmission to the many; -and when the public opinion which was based on a lower plane of -consciousness has already begun to waver, to give place to the new, -ready to be established. And now men begin to view their own and -other men's actions in the light of their new consciousness, while, -influenced by inertia and tradition, they still continue to apply -principles which were the outcome of the once highest consciousness, -but which are now distinctly opposed to it. Hence it is that men -find themselves in an abnormal position, and that, while realizing -the necessity of conforming to this new public opinion, they lack -courage to abandon conformity to the old one. This is the attitude -which men, not only the men on the train, but the greater part of -mankind, occupy toward Christian truths. - -The attitude of those who belong to the upper classes, and who have -all the advantages of high position, is the same as that of the -lower classes who obey implicitly every command that is given to -them. - -Men of the ruling classes, who have no reasonable explanation of -their privileges, and who in order to retain them are forced to -repress all their nobler and more humane tendencies, try to persuade -themselves of the necessity of their superior position; while the -lower classes, stultified and oppressed by labor, are kept by the -higher classes in a state of constant subjection. - -This is the only possible explanation of the amazing phenomena -which I witnessed on the train on the 9th of September, when men, -naturally kindly and inoffensive, were to be seen going with an easy -conscience to commit the most cruel, contemptible and idiotic of -crimes. - -It cannot be said that they are devoid of the conscience which -should forbid them to do these things, as was the case with the men -who, centuries ago, tortured their fellow-men, scourged them to -death, and burned them at the stake;--nay, it does exist in them, -but it is kept dormant; auto-suggestion, as the psychologist calls -it, keeps it thus among the upper classes, while the soldiers, the -executioners, are under the hypnotic influence of the classes above -them. - -Conscience may slumber for a time, but it is not dead, and in spite -of suggestion and auto-suggestion, it still whispers; yet a little -while and it will awaken. - -One might compare these men to a person under the influence of -hypnotism, to whom it has been suggested that he shall commit some -act contrary to his conception of right and wrong, as, for example, -to murder his mother or his child. He feels himself so far coerced -by the suggestion given him that he cannot refrain; and yet as the -appointed time and place draw near, he seems to hear the stifled -voice of conscience reviving, and he begins to draw back, he tries -to awaken himself. And no one can tell whether or not hypnotic -suggestion will conquer in the end; all depends on the relative -strength of conflicting influences. - -So it was with the soldiers on that train, so it is with all men of -our period who take part in state violence and profit by it. - -There was a time when, having gone forth to do violence and murder, -to terrify by an example, men did not return until they had -performed their mission, and then they suffered no doubt or remorse; -but having done their fellow-men to death, they placidly returned to -the bosom of their families, caressed their children, and with jest -and laughter gave themselves up to all the pure joys of the hearth. - -The men who were then benefited by violence, landed proprietors -and men of wealth, believed their own interests to have a direct -connection with these cruelties. It is different now, when men know, -or at least suspect, the real reason why they do these things. They -may close their eyes and try to silence their consciences, but -neither those who commit such outrages, nor those who order them, -can longer fail to discern the significance of their acts. It may -be that they do not fully appreciate it until they are on the point -of committing the deed, or in some cases not until after the deed -has been done. Those soldiers, for instance, who administered the -tortures during the riot at the Yuzovo factory, at Nijni-Novgorod, -Saratov, and Orel, did not fully apprehend the significance of what -they were doing until it was all over; and now, both they who gave -the orders, and they who executed them, suffer agonies of shame in -the condemnation of public opinion and of their own conscience. I -have talked with some of the soldiers about it; they either tried to -change the subject or spoke of it with horror and repugnance. - -There are instances of men coming to their senses, however, just -as they are on the point of committing deeds of the kind. I know -of a sergeant who during the riots was beaten by two peasants; -he reported the fact to the commander of his company, but on the -following day, when he saw the tortures inflicted upon other -peasants, he persuaded his superior officer to destroy his report -and to allow the peasants who had beaten him to depart unpunished. -I know of a case where the soldiers appointed to shoot a prisoner -refused to obey; and of other occasions where the superior officers -have refused to direct tortures and executions. - -The men who were in the train on the 9th of September started with -the intention of torturing and murdering their fellow-men, but -whether they would carry out their intention one could not know. -However each one's share in the responsibility of this affair might -be concealed from him, however strong the hypnotic suggestion -among those taking part in it that they did so, not as men, but as -functionaries, and so could violate all human obligations,--in spite -of this,--the nearer they approached their destination, the more -they must have hesitated about it. - -It is impossible that the Governor should not pause at the moment of -giving the decisive order to begin to murder and torture. He knows -that the conduct of the Governor at Orel has excited the indignation -of the honorable men, and he himself, influenced by public opinion, -has repeatedly expressed his own disapproval of the affair; he knows -that the lawyer who ought to have accompanied him distinctly refused -to do so, denouncing the whole affair as shameful; he knows that -changes are likely to take place in the government at any moment, -the result of which would be that those who were in favor yesterday -may be in disgrace to-morrow; that if the Russian press remains -silent, the foreign press may give an account of this business that -might cover him with opprobrium. Already he feels the influence of -the new public opinion which is to supersede and destroy the old -one. Moreover, he has no assurance that his subordinates may not at -the last moment refuse to obey him. He hesitates; it is impossible -to divine what he will do. - -The functionaries and officers who accompany him feel more or less -as he does. They all know at the bottom of their hearts that they -are engaged in a shameful business, that their share in it stains -and degrades them in the eyes of those persons whose opinion they -value. They know that a man who participates in deeds like these -feels shame in the presence of the woman he loves. And like the -Governor, they, too, feel doubtful whether the soldiers will obey -them at the last moment. What a contrast to the self-assurance of -their bearing on the platform of the station! Not only do they -suffer, but they actually hesitate, and it is partly to hide their -inward agitation that they assume an air of bravado. And this -agitation increases as they draw nearer to their destination. - -And, indeed, the entire body of soldiers, although they give no -outward sign, and seem utterly submissive, are really in the same -state of mind. - -They are no longer like the soldiers of former days, who gave up the -natural life of labor, and surrendered themselves to debauchery, -rapine, and murder, as the Roman legions did, or the veterans of -the Thirty Years' War, or even those soldiers of more modern times, -whose term of service lasted twenty-five years. Now they are for -the most part men newly taken from their families, with all the -memories of the wholesome, rational life from which they have been -torn still fresh in their minds. - -These young men, peasants for the most part, know what they are -going to do; they know that the land-owners generally ill-treat the -peasants, and that this probably is a case in point. Furthermore, -the majority of them can read, and the books they read are -not always in favor of the service; some even demonstrate its -immorality. They find comrades who are independent thinkers, -volunteers and young officers, and the seed of doubt respecting the -merit and rectitude of such deeds as they are about to commit has -already been sown in their minds. True, they have all been subjected -to that ingenious discipline, the work of centuries, which tends to -kill the spirit of independence in every man, and are so accustomed -to automatic obedience that at the words of command, "Fire along the -line!... Fire!" and so forth, their muskets are raised mechanically, -and they perform the customary movements. But now, "Fire!" means -something more than firing at a target; it means the murder of their -abused, downtrodden fathers and brothers, who are grouped yonder in -the street with their wives and children, gesticulating and crying -out one does not know what. - -There they are: here a man with thin beard, clad in a patched -_kaftan_, with bast shoes on his feet, just like the father left -behind in the province of Kazan or Ryazan; there another, with gray -beard and bowed shoulders, leaning on a stout staff, just like the -grandfather; and here a youth, with big boots and red shirt, just -like himself a year ago,--the soldier who is about to shoot him. And -there is a woman, with her bast shoes and petticoat, like the mother -he left behind him. - -And he must fire upon them! - -And God alone knows what each soldier will do at the supreme moment. -The slightest suggestion that they ought not to do it, that they -must not do it,--a single word or hint,--would be enough to make -them pause. - -Every one of these men at the moment of action will be like one -hypnotized, to whom it has been suggested to chop a log, who, as -he approaches the object which is told to him is a log, sees as -he raises the ax that it is not a log at all, but his own brother -who lies sleeping there. He may accomplish the act which has been -suggested to him, or he may awake at the moment of committing it. -It is the same with these men. If they do not awaken, then will a -deed be done as shocking as that committed in Orel, and the reign of -official hypnotism will thereby gain new power. If they awaken, then -not only will the deed remain undone, but many of those who hear -of their refusal to do it will free themselves from the suggestion -under whose influence they have hitherto acted, or at least will -think of the possibility of doing so. - -If only a few of these men come to their senses, and refuse to do -the deed, and fearlessly express their opinion of the wickedness of -such deeds, even such a few men might enable the rest to throw off -the suggestion under the influence of which they act, and such evil -deeds would not be done. - -And another thing: if but a few of those persons who are simply -spectators of the affair would, from their knowledge of other -affairs of the same kind, boldly express their opinion to those -engaged in it, and point out to them their folly, cruelty, and -criminality, even this would not be without a salutary influence. - -This is precisely what happened in the case of Tula. Partly because -certain persons expressed reluctance to take a part in the affair; -because a lady passenger and others showed their indignation at a -railway station; because one of the colonels whose regiment was -summoned to reduce the peasants to obedience declared that soldiers -are not executioners,--because of these and other apparently -trifling influences the affair took on a different aspect, and -the troops, on arriving, did not commit outrages, but contented -themselves with cutting down the trees and sending them to the -landowner. - -Had it not been that certain of these men conceived a distinct idea -that they were doing wrong, and had not the idea got abroad, the -occurrences at Orel would have been repeated. Had the feeling been -stronger, perhaps the Governor and his troops would not have gone -so far as even to fell the trees and deliver them to the landowner. -Had it been more powerful still, perhaps the Governor would not have -dared even to set out for Tula; its influence might even have gone -so far as to prevent the Minister from framing, and the Emperor from -confirming, such decrees. - -All depends, as we come therefore to see, upon the degree of -consciousness that men possess of Christian truth. - -Hence, let all men to-day who wish to promote the welfare of mankind -direct their efforts toward the development of this consciousness of -Christian truth. - -But, strange to say, those men who nowadays talk most of the -amelioration of human life, and who are the acknowledged leaders -of public opinion, declare this to be precisely the wrong thing -to do, and that there are more effectual expedients for improving -human existence. They insist that any improvement in the conditions -of human life must be accomplished, not through individual -moral effort, nor through the propagation of truth, but through -progressive modifications in the general material conditions of -life. Therefore, they say, individual effort should be devoted to -the gradual reform of the everyday conditions of life; and seeing -that any individual profession of the truth which may happen to -be incompatible with the existing order is harmful, because it -provokes, on the part of the government, an opposition which -prevents the individual from continuing efforts which may be of -utility to society. - -According to this theory, all changes in the life of mankind proceed -from the same causes that control the lives of the brute creation. - -And all the religious teachers, like Moses and the Prophets, -Confucius, Lao Tze, Buddha, and Christ, preached their doctrines, -and their followers adopted them, not because they divined and loved -the truth, but because the political, social, and, above all, the -economical conditions of the nations in whose midst these doctrines -found expression were favorable to their exposition and development. - -Therefore the principal activity of a man who wishes to serve the -world and to improve the condition of his kind should be directed, -according to this theory, not to teaching and profession of the -truth, but to the improvement of the outward, political, social, -and, above all, economic conditions of life. The change in these -conditions may be accomplished by serving the government and -introducing liberal and progressive principles, by contributing to -the development of commerce, by propagating socialistic principles, -but, above all, by promoting the diffusion of science. - -According to this doctrine, it is a matter of no consequence whether -one profess the revealed truth or not; there is no obligation to -live in accordance with its precepts, or to refrain from actions -opposed to them,--as, for instance, to serve the government, though -one considers its power detrimental; to profit by the organization -of capital, though one disapproves of it; to subscribe to certain -forms of religion, though one considers them superstitions. Practise -in the courts of law, though one believes them to be corrupt; or -enter the army, or take the oath of allegiance, or indeed lie, or -do anything that is convenient. These things are trivial; for it is -a matter of vital importance, instead of challenging the prevailing -customs of the day, to conform to them, though they be contrary -to one's convictions, satisfied meanwhile to try and liberalize -the existing institutions, by encouraging commerce, propagating -socialistic doctrines, and generally promoting _soi-disant_ -science and civilization. According to this convenient theory, -it is possible for a man to remain a landowner, a merchant, a -manufacturer, a judge, a functionary paid by the government, a -soldier, an officer, and at the same time to be humanitarian, -socialist, and revolutionary. - -Hypocrisy, formerly growing only out of such religious doctrines as -that of original sin, redemption, the Church, has in these latter -days, by means of the new theory, gained for itself a scientific -basis, and those whose intellectual habit of mind renders the -hypocrisy of the Church unendurable, are yet deceived by this new -hypocrisy with the _cachet_ of science. If in old times a man who -professed the doctrines taught by the Church could with a clear -conscience take part in any political crime, and benefit by so -doing, provided he complied with the external forms of his faith, -men of the present day, who deny Christianity, and view the conduct -of life from a secular and scientific standpoint, are every whit as -sure of their own innocence, even of their lofty morality, when they -participate in and benefit by the evil-doings of government. - -It is not alone in Russia, but in France, England, Germany, and -America as well, that we find the wealthy landed proprietor, who, -in return for having allowed the men who live on his estate and who -supply him with the products of the soil, extorts from these men, -who are often poverty-stricken, all that he possibly can. Whenever -these oppressed laborers make an attempt to gain something for -themselves from the lands which the rich man calls his own, without -first asking his consent, troops are called out, who torture and put -to death those who have been bold enough to take such liberties. - -By methods like this are claims to the ownership of land made good. -One would hardly imagine that a man who lived in such a wicked and -selfish manner could call himself a Christian, or even liberal. -One would think that if a man cared to seem Christian or liberal, -he would at least cease to plunder and to torment his fellow-men -with the aid of the government, in order to vindicate his claims -to the ownership of land. And such would be the case were it not -for the metaphysical hypocrisy which teaches that from a religious -standpoint it is immaterial whether one owns land or not, and that, -from the scientific point of view, for a single individual to give -up his land would be a useless sacrifice, without any effect on the -well-being of mankind, the amelioration of which can only be brought -about by a progressive modification of outward conditions. - -Meanwhile, your modern landowner will, without the least hesitation -or doubt, organize an agricultural exhibition, or a temperance -society, or, through his wife and daughters, distribute warm -underclothing and soup to three old women; and he will hold forth -before the domestic circle, or in society, or as a member of -committees, or in the public press, upon the gospel of love for -mankind in general and the agricultural class in particular, that -class which he never ceases to torment and oppress. And those who -occupy a similar position will believe in him and sing his praises, -and take counsel together upon the best methods of improving the -condition of those very laboring classes they spend their lives -in exploiting; and for this purpose they suggest every possible -expedient, save that which would effect it,--namely, to desist from -robbing the poor of the land necessary for their subsistence. - -(A striking example of this hypocrisy was presented by the Russian -landowners during the struggle with the famine of last year,[30] -a famine of which they were themselves the cause, and by which -they profited, not only by selling bread at the highest price, but -even by disposing of the dried potato-plants for five roubles a -_dessiatin_, to be used as fuel by the freezing peasants.) - - [30] 1892. - -The business of the merchant, again (as is the case with business of -any kind), is based upon a series of frauds; he takes advantage of -the necessities of men by buying his merchandise below, and selling -it above, its value. One would think that a man, the mainspring -of whose activity is what he himself in his own language calls -shrewdness, ought to feel ashamed of this, and never dream of -calling himself Christian or liberal while he continues a merchant. -But, according to the new metaphysic of hypocrisy, he may pass for -a virtuous man and still pursue his evil career; the religious man -has but to believe, the liberal man but to cooperate, in the reform -of external conditions to promote the general progress of commerce; -the rest does not signify. So this merchant (who, besides, often -sells bad commodities, adulterates, and uses false weights and -measures, or deals exclusively in commodities that imperil human -life, such as alcohol or opium) frankly considers himself, and is -considered by others,--always provided he only does not cheat his -colleagues in business and knavery, his fellow-tradesmen,--a model -of conscientiousness and honesty. And if he spend one per cent of -his stolen money on some public institution, hospital, museum, -or school, men call him the benefactor of the people on whose -exploitation all his welfare depends; and if he gives but the least -part of this money to the Church or to the poor, then is he deemed -an exemplary Christian indeed. - -Take again the factory-owner, whose entire income is derived -from reducing the pay of his workmen to its lowest terms, and -whose whole business is carried on by forced and unnatural labor, -endangering the health of generations of men. One would suppose -that if this man professed Christian or liberal principles he would -cease to sacrifice human lives to his interests. But, according -to the existing theory, he encourages industry, and it would be a -positive injury to society if he were to abandon his operations, -even supposing he were willing to do so. And, too, this man, the -cruel slave-driver of thousands of human beings, having built for -those injured in his service minute houses, with gardens six feet -in extent, or established a fund, or a home for the aged, or a -hospital, is perfectly satisfied that he has more than atoned for -the moral and physical jeopardy into which he has plunged so many -lives; and he continues to live calmly, proud of his work. - -We find that the functionary, civil, military, or ecclesiastical, -who performs his duties to gratify his selfishness or ambition, or, -as is more usually the case, for the sake of the stipend, collected -in the shape of taxes from an exhausted and crippled people,--if, -by a rare exception, he does not directly steal from the public -treasury,--considers himself, and is considered by his equals, a -most useful and virtuous member of society. - -There are judges and other legal functionaries who know that their -decisions have condemned hundreds and thousands of unfortunate men -to be torn from their families and thrown into prison. There these -hapless beings are locked up in solitary confinement, or sent to -the galleys, where they go desperate and put an end to themselves -by starving themselves to death, by swallowing glass, or by some -such means. And who knows what the mothers, wives, and children -of these men suffer by the separation and imprisonment, and the -disgrace of it,--who have vainly begged for pardon for their sons, -husbands, brothers, or that their lot may be a little alleviated. -But the judge or other legal functionary is so primed with the -current hypocrisy that he himself, his colleagues, his wife, and his -friends are all quite sure, despite what he does, that he is a good -and sensible man. According to the current philosophy of hypocrisy, -such a man performs a duty of great importance to the public. And -this man, who has injured hundreds or thousands of human beings, who -owe it to him that they have lost their belief in goodness and their -faith in God, goes to church with a benevolent smile, listens to the -Bible, makes liberal speeches, caresses his children, bestows moral -lessons upon them, for their edification, and grows sentimental over -imaginary suffering. - -Not only these men, their wives and children, but the entire -community around them, all the teachers, actors, cooks, jockeys, -live by preying upon the life-blood of the working-people, which -in one way or another they absorb like leeches. Every one of their -days of pleasure costs thousands of days in the lives of the -workers. They see the suffering and privation of these workmen, -of their wives and children, of their aged and feeble. They know -what punishments are visited upon those who attempt to resist -the organized system of pillage, but so far from abandoning or -concealing their luxurious habits, they flaunt them in the faces of -those whom they oppress and by whom they are hated. All the while -they assure themselves and others that they have the welfare of the -working-man greatly at heart. On Sundays, clad in rich garments, -they drive in their carriages to churches where the mockery of -Christianity is preached, and listen there to the words of men who -have learned their falsehoods by heart. Some of these men wear -stoles, some wear white cravats; they all preach the doctrine of -love for one's neighbor, a doctrine belied by their daily lives. And -they have all grown so accustomed to playing this part that they -really believe themselves to be what they pretend. - -This universal hypocrisy, which has become to every class of -society at the present day like the air it breathes, is so familiar -that men are no longer exasperated by it. It is very fitting that -hypocrisy should signify acting or playing of a part. It has become -so much a matter of course that it no longer excites surprise when -the representatives of Christ pronounce a blessing over murderers -as they stand in rank holding their guns in the position which -signifies, in military parlance, "for prayers," or when the priests -and pastors of various Christian sects accompany the executioner -to the scaffold, and, by lending the sanction of their presence -to murder, make men believe it compatible with Christianity. -(One minister was present when experiments in "electrocution" -took place in the United States.) At the International Prison -Exposition recently held in St. Petersburg, where instruments of -torture, such as chains, and models of prison-cells for solitary -confinement,--means of torture worse than the knout or the -rod,--were on exhibition, sympathetic ladies and gentlemen went to -see them, and seemed greatly entertained. - -No one marvels to find liberal science insisting upon the -equality, fraternity, and liberty of men on the one hand, while -on the other it is striving to prove the necessity of armies, -executions, custom-houses, of censorship of the press, of legalized -prostitution, of the expulsion of foreign labor, of the prohibition -of emigration, and of the necessity and justice of colonization -established by the pillage and extermination of whole races of -so-called savages, etc. - -They talk of what will happen when all men shall profess what they -call Christianity (by which they mean the different conflicting -creeds); when every one will be fed and clothed; when men will -communicate with one another all over the world by telegraph and -telephones, and will travel in balloons; when all working-men will -accept the doctrine of socialism; when the trade unions will embrace -many millions of men and possess millions of money; when all men -will be educated, will read the papers, and be familiar with all the -sciences. - -But what good will this do if after all these improvements men are -still false to the truth? - -The miseries of men are caused by disunion, and disunion arises from -the fact that men follow not truth, but falsehood, of which there is -no end. Truth is the only bond by which men may be united; and the -more sincerely men strive after the truth the nearer they approach -to true unity. - -But how are men to be united in the truth, or even approach it, -if they not only fail to proclaim the truth which they possess, -but actually think it useless to do so, and pretend to believe in -something which they know to be a lie? In reality no improvement in -the condition of mankind is possible while men continue to hide the -truth from themselves, nor until they acknowledge that their unity, -and consequently their welfare, can be promoted only by the spirit -of truth; until they admit that to profess, and to act in obedience -to the truth as it has been revealed to them, is more important than -all things else. - -Let all the material progress ever dreamt of by religious and -scientific men be made; let all men accept Christianity, and let all -the improvements suggested by the Bellamys and Richets, with every -possible addition and correction, be carried out; and yet if the -hypocrisy of to-day still flourishes, if men do not make known the -truth that is within them, but go on pretending to believe what they -know to be untrue, showing respect where they no longer feel it, -their condition will never improve; on the contrary, it will become -worse. The more men are raised above want, the more telegraphs, -telephones, books, newspapers, and reviews they possess, the more -numerous will be the channels for the diffusion of falsehood -and hypocrisy, and the more at variance and miserable will men -become,--and it is even so at the present time. - -Let all those material changes take place, and still the position of -humanity will in no way be improved by them; but let every man, so -far as he is able, begin at once and live up to his highest ideal -of the truth or, at the least, cease to defend a lie, then indeed -should we see even in this year of 1893 such an advance in the -establishment of the truth upon earth, and in the deliverance of -mankind, as could hardly be hoped for in a hundred years. - -It was not without reason that the only harsh and denunciatory words -that Christ uttered were addressed to hypocrites. It is neither -theft, nor robbery, nor murder, nor fornication, nor fraud, but -falsehood, that particular hypocritical falsehood, which destroys -in men's conscience the distinction between good and evil, which -corrupts them and takes from them the possibility of avoiding evil -and of seeking good, which deprives them of that which constitutes -the essence of a true human life,--it is this which bars the way -to all improvement. Those men who do evil, knowing not the truth, -inspire in the beholder compassion for their victims and repugnance -for themselves, but they only injure the few whom they molest. -Whereas those men who, knowing the good, yet pursue the evil, -wearing all the while the mantle of hypocrisy, commit a wrong, -not only against themselves and their victims, but also against -thousands of other men who are deceived by the falsehood under which -they conceal the wrong. - -Thieves, robbers, murderers, rogues, who commit acts which they -themselves, as well as other men, know to be evil, serve as a -warning to show men what is evil, and make them hate it. Those, -however, who steal, rob, torture, and murder, justifying themselves -by pretended religious, scientific, or other motives, like the -landowners, merchants, factory-owners, and government servants of -the present time, by provoking imitation, injure not only their -victims, but thousands and millions of men who are corrupted -by their influence, and who become so blinded that they cannot -distinguish the difference between good and evil. - -One fortune acquired by trading in the necessaries of life or -in articles that tend to demoralize men, or by speculations -in the stock exchange, or by the acquisition of cheap lands -which subsequently rise in value by reason of the increasing -needs of the people, or by the establishment of factories that -endanger human health and human lives, or by rendering civil or -military service to the State, or by any occupation that tends -to the demoralization of mankind,--a fortune acquired in any of -these ways, not only permitted, but approved by the leaders of -society, when, furthermore, it is supported by a show of charity, -surely demoralizes men more than millions of thefts, frauds, or -robberies,--sins committed against the laws of the land and subject -to judicial prosecution. - -A single enforcement of capital punishment, ordained by men of -education and wealth, sanctioned by the approval of the Christian -clergy, and declared to be an act of justice essential to the -welfare of the State, tends far more to degrade and brutalize -mankind than hundreds and thousands of murders committed in passion -by the ignorant. A more demoralizing scene than the execution -suggested by Jukovsky, calculated as it is to excite a feeling of -religious exaltation, it would be difficult to conceive.[31] - - [31] See vol. iv. of the works of Jukovsky (a Russian poet). - -A war, even of the shortest duration,--with all its customary -consequences, the destruction of harvests, the thefts, the unchecked -debauchery and murders, with the usual explanations of its necessity -and justice, with the accompanying glorification and praise bestowed -upon military exploits, upon patriotism, devotion to the flag, with -the assumption of tenderness and care for the wounded,--will do more -in one year to demoralize men than thousands of robberies, arsons, -and murders committed in the course of centuries by individual men -carried away by passion. - -The existence of one household, one not even extravagant beyond -the ordinary limits, esteeming itself virtuous and innocent, which -yet consumes the production of enough to support thousands of the -men who live near in poverty and distress, has a more degrading -influence on mankind than innumerable orgies of gross shopkeepers, -officers, or workmen who are addicted to drink and debauchery, and -who smash mirrors and crockery by way of amusement. - -One solemn procession, one religious service, or one sermon from -the pulpit, embodying a falsehood which the preacher himself does -not believe, does infinitely more harm than thousands of frauds, -adulterations of food, etc. - -Men talk of the hypocrisy of the Pharisees; but the hypocrisy -of our contemporaries far surpasses the comparatively harmless -sanctimoniousness of the Pharisees. They at least had an outward -religious law, whose fulfilment may perhaps have prevented them from -discerning their duty toward their neighbors; indeed, those duties -had not then been distinctly defined. To-day there is no such law. -(I do not consider such gross and stupid men as even now believe -that sacraments or absolution of the Pope can free them from sins.) -On the contrary, the law of the gospel, which in one form or another -we all profess, makes our duties perfectly plain. Indeed, those -precepts which were but vaguely indicated by certain of the prophets -have since been so clearly formulated, have grown to be such -truisms, that the very school-boys and hack writers repeat them. -Therefore men of our times cannot feign ignorance concerning them. - -Those men who enjoy the advantages of the existing system, and who -are always protesting love for their neighbor, without suspicion -that their own lives are an injury to their neighbors, are like -the robber who, caught with an uplifted knife, his victim crying -desperately for help, protests that he did not know that he was -doing anything unpleasant to the man whom he was in the act of -robbing and about to murder. Since the denial of this robber -and murderer would be of no avail, his act being patent to all -observers, it would seem equally futile for our fellow-citizens, who -live by the sufferings of the oppressed, to assure themselves and -others that they desire the welfare of those whom they never cease -to rob, and that they had not realized the nature of the methods by -which their prosperity had been attained. - -We can no longer persuade ourselves that we do not know of the -one hundred thousand men in Russia alone who have been shut up -in galleys or in prisons for the purpose of securing to us our -property and our peace; and that we do not know of the existence -of those courts of law at which we preside, to which we bring -our accusations, which sentence those men, who have attacked our -property or our lives, to the galleys, to imprisonment, or to exile, -where human beings, no worse than they who have pronounced judgment -upon them, become degraded and lost; nor that we do not know that -everything that we possess has been won and is preserved at the -expense of murder and violence. We cannot shut our eyes and pretend -that we do not see the policeman, who, armed with a revolver, paces -before our window, protecting us while we are eating our excellent -dinner, or when we are at the theater seeing a new play; nor do -not know of the existence of the soldiers who will appear armed -with guns and cartridges whenever our property is menaced. We know -perfectly well that if we finish our dinner, see the new play to its -end, enjoy a merry-making at Christmas, take a walk, go to a ball, a -race, or a hunt, we owe it to the policeman's revolver or the ball -in the soldier's musket, which will pierce the hungry belly of the -disinherited man who, with watering mouth, peeps round the corner -at our pleasures, and who might interrupt them if the policeman -or the soldiers in the barracks were not ready to appear at our -first call. Hence, as the man who is caught in the act of robbery -in broad daylight cannot deny that he threatened his victim with a -knife for the purpose of stealing his purse, it might be supposed -that we could no longer represent to ourselves and to others that -the soldiers and policemen whom we see around us are here, not for -the purpose of protecting us, but to repulse foreign enemies, to -assure public order, to adorn by their presence public rejoicings -and ceremonies. We cannot pretend we do not know that men are not -fond of starving to death. We know that they do not like to die -of hunger, being deprived of the right to earn their living from -the soil upon which they live, that they are not anxious to work -ten to fourteen hours a day underground, standing in water, or in -over-heated rooms, twelve or fourteen hours a day, or at night, -manufacturing articles which contribute to our pleasures. It would -seem impossible to deny what is so evident, and yet it is what we do -deny. - -It cannot be denied that there are people of the wealthy class, -and I am glad to say that I meet them more and more frequently, -particularly in the younger generation and among women, who, on -being reminded by what means and at what a price their pleasures -are obtained, instantly admit the truth of it, and with bowed heads -exclaim: "Ah, do not tell us of it! If it is as you say, one cannot -live!" If, however, there are some who are willing to admit their -sin, though they know not how to escape from it, still, the majority -of men nowadays have become so confirmed in hypocrisy that they -boldly deny facts that are patent to every one who has eyes. - -"It is all nonsense," they say. "No one forces the people to work -for the landowners or in the factories. It is a matter of mutual -accommodation. Large properties and capital are indispensable, -because they enable men to organize companies and provide work for -the laboring classes, and the work in mills and factories is by no -means so dreadful as you represent it. When real abuses are found -to exist, the government and society in general take measures to -abolish them and to render the labor of the working-men easier and -more agreeable. The working-classes are used to physical labor, -and are not as yet capable of doing anything else. The poverty -of the people is caused neither by the landowners nor by the -tyranny of the capitalists; it springs from other causes,--from -ignorance, disorder, and intemperance. We, the governing classes, -who counteract this state of poverty by wise administration; and -we, the capitalists, who counteract it by the multiplication of -useful inventions; and we, the liberals, who contribute our share -by instituting trade unions and by diffusing education,--these are -the methods by which we promote the welfare of the people, without -making any radical change in our position. We do not wish all to be -poor like the poor; we wish all to be rich like the rich. - -"As to torturing and killing men for the purpose of making them -work for the rich, that is all sophistry; the troops are sent out -to quell disturbances when men, not appreciating their advantages, -rebel and disturb the peace essential for the general welfare. It -is equally necessary to restrain malefactors, for whom prisons, -gallows, and the like are established. We are anxious enough to -abolish them as far as possible ourselves, and are working for that -purpose." - -Hypocrisy, which nowadays is supported by two methods, the -quasi-religious and the quasi-scientific, has attained such -proportions, that if we did not live in its atmosphere continually, -it would be impossible to believe that humanity could sink to such -depths of self-deception. Men have reached so surprising a state, -their hearts have become so hardened, that they look and do not see; -listen, and do not hear or understand. - -For a long time they have been living a life that is contrary to -their conscience. Were it not for the aid of hypocrisy they would be -unable so to live, for such a life, so opposed to conscience, can -only continue because it is veiled by hypocrisy. - -And the greater the difference between the practice and the -conscience of men, the more elastic becomes hypocrisy. Yet even -hypocrisy has its limits, and I believe that we have reached them. - -Every man of the present day, with the Christian consciousness that -has involuntarily become his, may be likened to a sleeper who dreams -that he is doing what even in his dream he knows he ought not to do. -In the depths of his dream-consciousness he realizes his conduct, -and yet seems unable to change his course, and to cease doing that -which he is aware he should not do. - -Then, in the progress of his dream, his state of mind becoming less -and less endurable, he begins to doubt the reality of what has -seemed so real, and makes a conscious effort to break the spell that -holds him. - -The average man of our Christian world is in exactly the same -strait. He feels that everything going on around him is absurd, -senseless, and impossible; that the situation is becoming more and -more painful, that it has indeed reached the crisis. - -It is impossible that we of the present age, endowed with the -Christian conscience that has become a part of our very flesh and -blood as it were, who live with a full consciousness of the dignity -of man and the equality of all men, who feel our need for peaceable -relations with each other and for the unity of all nations, should -go on living in such a way. It is impossible that all our pleasures, -all our satisfactions, should be purchased by the sufferings and -the lives of our brethren; impossible that we should be ready at a -moment's notice to rush upon each other like wild beasts, one nation -against another, and relentlessly destroy the lives and labor of -men, only because one foolish diplomatist or ruler says or writes -something foolish to another. - -It is impossible; and yet all men of our time see that this is what -does happen every day, and all wait for the catastrophe, while the -situation grows more and more strained and painful. - -And as a man in his sleep doubts the reality of his dream and longs -to awaken and return to real life, so the average man of our day -cannot, in the bottom of his heart, believe the terrible situation -in which he finds himself, and which is growing worse and worse, -to be the reality. He longs to attain to a higher reality, the -consciousness of which is already within him. - -And like this sleeper, who has but to make the conscious effort -to ask himself whether it be a dream, in order to transform its -seeming hopelessness into a joyous awakening, our average man has -but to make a conscious effort and ask himself, "Is not all this -an illusion?" in order to feel himself forthwith like the awakened -sleeper, transported from an hypocritical and horrible dream-world -into a living, peaceful, and joyous real one. - -And for this he has no need of any heroic achievement; he has only -to make the effort prompted by his moral consciousness. - -But is man able to make this effort? - -According to the existing theory, one indispensable from the point -of view of hypocrisy, man is not free and may not change his life. - -"A man cannot change his life, because he is not a free agent. He -is not a free agent, because his acts are the result of preceding -causes. And whatever he may do, certain it is that preceding causes -always determine that a man must act in one way rather than in -another; therefore a man is not free to change his life,"--thus -argue the defenders of the metaphysic of hypocrisy. And they would -be perfectly right if man were an unconscious and stationary being, -incapable of apprehending the truth, and unable to advance to a -higher state by means of it. But man is a conscious being, able to -grow more and more in the knowledge of truth. Therefore if he be -not free in his acts, the causes of these acts, which consist in -the recognition simply of such and such truth, are yet within his -mastery. - -So that if a man is not free to do certain acts, he is yet free to -work toward the suppression of the moral causes which prevent their -performance. He may be likened to the engineer of a locomotive, who, -though not at liberty to change the past or present motion of his -engine, is yet free to determine its future progress. - -No matter what an intelligent man may do, he adopts a certain course -of action only because he acknowledges to himself that at the moment -that course alone is the right one; or because he has formerly -recognized it as such, and now continues to act as he does through -force of habit, or through mental inertia. - -Whether a man eats or abstains from food, whether he works or rests, -whether he avoids danger or seeks it, he acts as he does because he -considers it to be reasonable at the time, or because previously -he saw that the truth consisted in acting in that way and not in -another. - -The admission or the denial of a certain truth depends not on -outward causes, but on certain conditions that man finds within -himself. Thus frequently, with all the outward and, as it may seem, -favorable conditions for recognizing the truth, one may reject it, -while another may receive it under the most unfavorable conditions, -and without apparent motives. As it is said in the gospel: "No -man can come to me, except the Father which hath sent me draw -him;"--that is to say, the recognition of truth, which is the cause -of all the manifestations of a man's life, does not depend on -outward conditions, but on certain inherent qualities which escape -recognition. - -Therefore a man who is not free in his acts still feels himself -free in regard to the cause of his acts; that is, in regard to the -recognition or non-recognition of truth. - -Thus a man who, under the influence of passion, has committed a deed -contrary to the truth he knows, still remains free in recognizing -or denying the truth; in other words, denying the truth, he may -consider his act necessary and justify himself in committing it, -or, accepting the truth, he may acknowledge his deed to be evil and -himself guilty. - -Thus a gambler or a drunkard, who has succumbed to his passion, is -free to acknowledge gambling or drunkenness either as evils, or as -amusements without consequence. In the first instance, if he cannot -get rid of his passion at once, he becomes free from it gradually, -according to the depth of his conviction of its evil. In the second -instance, his passion grows and gradually deprives him of all chance -of deliverance. - -So, too, with a man who, unable to endure the scorching flames for -the rescue of his friend, himself escapes from a burning house, -while he recognizes the truth that a man should save the life of his -fellow-man at the peril of his own, is yet free to look upon his -act as evil, and therefore to condemn himself for it; or, denying -this truth, to judge his act to be both natural and necessary, and -so justify himself in his own opinion. In the first instance, his -recognition of the truth, even though he has not acted in accordance -with it, helps him to prepare for a series of self-sacrificing -actions that will inevitably follow such recognition. In the second -instance, he prepares for a series of actions just as selfish. - -I do not say that a man is always free to recognize or not to -recognize every truth. Certain truths there are, long since -recognized by men, and transmitted by tradition, education, and -mere force of habit until they have become second nature; and there -are other truths which men perceive as but dimly and afar. A man -is not free not to recognize the first of these; he is not free to -recognize the second. But there is a third category of truths, which -have not as yet become unquestioned motors of his activity, but have -revealed themselves to man so unmistakably that he is unable to -disregard them; he must inevitably consider them, and either accept -or reject them. It is by his relation to these truths that a man's -freedom is manifested. - -Each man in his perception of truth is like a wayfarer who walks by -the aid of a lantern whose light he casts before him: he does not -see what as yet has not been revealed by its beams, he does not see -the path he has left behind, merged again in the darkness; but at -any given point he sees that which the lantern reveals, and he is -always at liberty to choose one side of the road or the other. - -There exist for each man certain concealed truths, as yet unrevealed -to his mental vision; certain others, which he has experienced, -assimilated, and forgotten; and yet others, that rise up before -him demanding immediate recognition from his reason. And it is in -the recognition or the disregard of these truths that what we call -freedom becomes evident. - -All the apparent difficulty of the question of man's liberty comes -from the fact that those who seek to solve it represent man as -stationary in the presence of the truth. - -Undoubtedly he is not free if we look upon him as a stationary -being; if we forget that the life of all humanity is an eternal -procession from darkness to light, from the lower conception of -truth to a higher one, from truth mingled with error to purer truth. - -A man would not be free if he were ignorant of all truth; neither -would he be free, nor even have any conception of liberty, if the -truth were suddenly revealed to him in its entire purity and without -any admixture of error. - -But man is not a stationary being. And as he advances in life, every -individual discovers an ever increasing proportion of truth, and -thus becomes less liable to error. - -The relations of man to truth are threefold. Some truths are so -familiar to him that they have become the unconscious springs of -action; others have only been dimly revealed to him; again others, -though still unfamiliar, are revealed to him so plainly that they -force themselves upon his attention, and inevitably, in one way or -another, he is obliged to consider them. He cannot ignore them, but -must either recognize or repudiate them. - -And it is in the recognition or in the disregard of these truths -that man's free agency is manifested. - -A man's freedom does not consist in a faculty of acting -independently of his environment and the various influences it -brings to bear upon his life, but in his power to become, through -recognizing and professing the truth that has been revealed to -him, a free and willing laborer at the eternal and infinite work -performed by God and his universe; or, in shutting his eyes to -truth, to become a slave and be forced against his will into a way -in which he is loath to go. - -Not only does truth point out the direction a man's life _should_ -take, but it opens the only road he _can_ take. Hence, all men will -invariably, free or not, follow the road of truth;--some willingly, -doing the work they have set themselves to do; others involuntarily, -by submitting in spite of themselves to the law of life. It is in -the power of choice that a man's freedom lies. - -Freedom, in limits so narrow as these, appears to men so -insignificant that they fail to perceive it. The believers in -causation prefer to overlook it; the believers in unlimited free -will, keeping in view their own ideal, disdain a freedom to them -so insignificant. Freedom, confined between the limits of entire -ignorance of the truth, or of the knowledge of only a part of it, -does not seem to them to be freedom, the more so that whether a man -is or is not willing to recognize the truth revealed unto him, he -will inevitably be forced to obey it in life. - -A horse harnessed to a load in company with other horses is not free -to remain in one place. If he does not pull the load, the load will -strike him and force him to move in the direction it is going, thus -compelling him to advance. Still, in spite of this limitation of -freedom, the horse is still free to pull the load of his own accord, -or be pushed forward by it. The same reasoning can be applied to -human freedom. - -Be this freedom great or small as compared with the chimerical -freedom for which we sigh, it is the only true freedom, and through -it alone is to be found all the happiness accessible to man. And not -only does this freedom promote the happiness of men, but it is the -only means through which the work of the world can be accomplished. - -According to the doctrine of Christ, a man who limits his -observation of life to the sphere in which there is no freedom--to -the sphere of effects--that is, of acts--does not live a true -life. He only lives a true life who has transferred his life -into the sphere in which freedom lies,--into the domain of first -causes,--that is to say, by the recognition and practice of the -truth revealed to him. - -The man who consecrates his life to sensual acts is ever performing -acts that depend on temporary causes beyond his control. Of -himself he does nothing; it only seems to him that he is acting -independently, whereas in reality all that he imagines he is doing -by himself is done through him by a superior force; he is not the -creator of life, but its slave. But the man who devotes his life to -the acknowledgment and practice of the truth revealed to him unites -himself with the source of universal life, and accomplishes, not -personal, individual acts, that depend on the conditions of time and -space, but acts that have no causes, but are in themselves causes of -all else, and have an endless and unlimited significance. - -Because of their setting aside the essence of true life, which -consists in the recognition and practice of the truth, and directing -their efforts toward the improvement of the external conditions -of life, men of the pagan life-conception may be likened to -passengers on a steamer, who should, in their anxiety to reach their -destination, extinguish the engine-fires, and instead of making use -of steam and screw, try during a storm to row with oars which cannot -reach the water. - -The Kingdom of God is attained by effort, and it is only those who -make the effort that do attain it. It is this effort, which consists -in sacrificing outward conditions for the sake of the truth, by -which the Kingdom of God is attained,--an effort which can and ought -to be made now, in our own epoch. - -Men have but to understand this: that they must cease to care for -material and external matters, in which they are not free; let them -apply one hundredth part of the energy now used by them in outward -concerns to those in which they are free,--to the recognition and -profession of the truth that confronts them, to the deliverance of -themselves and others from the falsehood and hypocrisy which conceal -the truth,--and then the false system of life which now torments us, -which threatens us with still greater suffering, will be destroyed -at once without struggle. Then the Kingdom of Heaven, at least in -that first stage for which men through the development of their -consciousness are already prepared, will be established. - -As one shake is sufficient to precipitate into crystals a liquid -saturated with salt, so at the present time it may be that only the -least effort is needed in order that the truth, already revealed -to us, should spread among hundreds, thousands, millions of men, -and a public opinion become established in conformity with the -existing consciousness, and the entire social organization become -transformed. It depends upon us to make this effort. - -If only each of us would try to understand and recognize the -Christian truth, which in the most varied forms surrounds us on -all sides, pleading to be admitted into our hearts; if we would -cease to lie and pretend that we do not see this truth, or that -we are anxious to fulfil it, excepting in the one thing that it -really demands; if we would only recognize this truth which calls -us, and would fearlessly profess it,--we should find forthwith that -hundreds, thousands, and millions of men are in the same position as -ourselves, fearing like ourselves to stand alone in its recognition, -and waiting only to hear its avowal from others. - -If men would only cease to be hypocrites they would perceive at once -that this cruel organization of society, which alone hampers them -and yet appears to them like something immutable, necessary, and -sacred, established by God, is already wavering, and is maintained -only by the hypocrisy and the falsehood of ourselves and our -fellow-men. - -But if it be true that it depends only on ourselves to change the -existing order of life, have we the right to do it without knowing -what we shall put in its place? What will become of the world if the -present system be destroyed? - -"What is there beyond the walls of the world we leave behind us? - -"Fear seizes us,--emptiness, space, freedom....--how is one to go -on, not knowing whither? How is one to lose, without the hope of -gain?... - -"Had Columbus reasoned thus he never would have weighed anchor. It -was madness to attempt to cross an unknown ocean, to set sail for a -country whose very existence was doubtful. But he discovered a new -world through this madness. To be sure, if people had only to move -from one furnished house into another and a more commodious one, it -would be an easy matter, but the trouble lies in there being no one -to prepare the new apartments. The future looks more uncertain still -than the ocean,--it promises nothing,--it will only be what men and -circumstances make it. - -"If you are content with the old world, try to preserve it; it is -sick, and will not live long. But if you can no longer live in the -eternal conflict between your convictions and life, thinking one way -and acting another, take it upon yourselves to leave the shelter -of the blanched and ruinous arches of the Middle Ages. I am aware -that this is not an easy matter. It is hard to part with all one has -been accustomed to from birth. Men are ready for great sacrifices, -but not those which the new life demands of them. Are they ready -to sacrifice their present civilization, their mode of life, -their religion, their conventional morality? Are they ready to be -deprived of all the results of such prolonged efforts, the results -we have boasted of for three centuries, of all the conveniences and -attractions of our existence, to give the preference to wild youth -rather than to civilized senility, to pull down the palace built -by our fathers simply for the pleasure of laying the foundation -of a new house, which, without doubt, will not be completed till -long after our time."[32] Thus wrote, almost half a century ago, a -Russian author, who, with penetrating vision, clearly discerned even -at that time what is recognized by every man to-day who reflects a -little,--the impossibility of continuing life on the former basis, -and the necessity of establishing some new mode of existence. - - [32] Herzen, vol. v., p. 55. - -It is plain from the simplest and most ordinary point of view that -it is folly to remain under a roof that threatens to fall, and -that one must leave it. Indeed, it is difficult to imagine a more -miserable situation than that of the present Christian world, -with its nations arrayed in arms one against the other, with its -ever increasing taxes for the purpose of supporting its growing -armaments, with the burning hatred of the working-classes for the -rich, with war suspended above all like the sword of Damocles ready -to fall, as it may, at any moment. - -It is doubtful whether any revolution could be more disastrous than -the present social order, or rather disorder, with its perpetual -victims of overwork, misery, drunkenness, dissipation, with all the -horrors of impending war that in one year will sacrifice more lives -than all the revolutions of the present century. - -What will become of mankind if each one fulfils that which God -demands through the conscience that is in him. Shall I be safe if, -under the orders of my master, I accomplish in his great workshop -the tasks he has set me, although, ignorant of his final plans, I -may think it strange? Nor is it alone the question of the future -that troubles men when they hesitate to do the master's bidding. -They are concerned about the question as to how they are to live -without the familiar conditions which we call science, art, -civilization, culture. We feel individually all the burden of our -present way of living; we see that were this order of things to -continue, it would inevitably ruin us; and yet we are anxious to -have these conditions continue, to have our science, our art, our -civilization, and culture remain unchanged. It is as though a man -who dwells in an old house, suffering from cold and discomfort, who -is moreover aware that its walls may tumble at any moment, should -consent to the remodeling of it, only on condition that he may be -allowed to remain there, a condition that is equivalent to a refusal -to have his dwelling rebuilt. "What, if I should leave my house," -he says, "I should be temporarily deprived of its comforts; the -new house may not be built after all, or it may be constructed on -a new plan, which will lack the conveniences to which I have been -accustomed!" But if the materials and the workmen are ready, it is -probable that the new house will be built, and in a better manner -than the old one; while it is not only probable but certain that -the old house will soon fall into ruins, crushing those who remain -within its walls. In order that the old, everyday conditions of life -may disappear and make room for new and better ones, we must surely -leave behind the old conditions, which are at length become fatal -and impossible, and issue forth to meet the future. - -"But science, art, civilization, and culture will cease to be!" But -if all these are only diverse manifestations of truth, the impending -change is to be accomplished for the sake of a further advance -toward truth and its realization. "How, then, can the manifestations -of truth disappear, in consequence of further realization of truth?" -The manifestations of truth will be different, better, loftier, the -error that has been in them will perish, while the verity that is in -them will remain and flourish with renewed vigor. - -Return to yourselves, sons of men, and have faith in the gospel, and -in its doctrine of eternal happiness! If you heed not this warning, -you shall all perish like the men slain by Pilate, like those upon -whom the tower of Siloam fell; like millions of other men, who slew -and were slain, who executed and suffered execution, who tortured -and were tortured; as perished the man who so foolishly filled his -granaries, counting on a long life, on the very night when his soul -was required of him. Return, sons of men, and believe in the words -which Christ uttered 1800 years ago, words which He repeats to-day -with greater force, warning us that the evil day He foretold is at -hand, and that our life has reached its last descent of folly and -wickedness. - -Now, after so many centuries of futile effort to protect ourselves -by the methods of the pagan system of violence, it should be evident -to every man that all such effort, far from insuring our safety, -tends only to add a new element of danger both to individual and -social existence. - -No matter by what names we may be called, nor what garments we may -wear, nor in the presence of what priest we may be anointed, nor -how many millions our subjects may number, nor how many guards -may be posted on our journey, nor how many policemen may protect -our property, nor how many so-called criminals, revolutionists, or -anarchists we may execute; no matter what exploits we may perform, -nor what states we may establish, nor what fortresses and towers -we may erect, from the Tower of Babel to the Eiffel Tower,--we -have before us two ever present and unavoidable conditions, that -deprive our mode of life of all significance: (1) death, that may -overtake each of us at any moment, and (2) the transitory nature -of all our undertakings, that disappear, leaving no trace behind -them. No matter what we may do, found kingdoms, build palaces and -monuments, write poems and songs,--all is but fleeting and leaves no -trace behind. Therefore no matter how much we may attempt to conceal -this from ourselves, we cannot fail to perceive that the true -significance of our life lies neither in our individual, physical -existence, subjected to unavoidable suffering and death, nor in any -institution or social organization. - -Whoever you are, you who read these lines, reflect upon your -position and your duties, not upon the position of landowner, -merchant, judge, emperor, president, minister, priest, or -soldier, which you may assume but for a time, not upon the -imaginary duties which these positions impose upon you, but upon -your actual and eternal position as a being, who, after a whole -eternity of non-existence, is called by the will of Some One from -unconsciousness into life, and who may at any moment return whence -he came by the same will. Consider your duties! Not your imaginary -duties of landowner in regard to your estate, nor of merchant to -your capital, nor of emperor, minister, or governor to the State, -but of your real duties, of a being called forth into life and -endowed with love and reason. Do that which He who has sent you -into this world, and to whom you will shortly return, demands of -you. Are you doing what he requires? Are you doing right when, as -landowner or manufacturer, you take the products of the labor of -the poor, and establish your life on this spoliation; or when, as -governor or judge, you do violence in condemning men to death; or -when, as soldier, you prepare for war, for fighting, robbery, and -murder,--are you doing right? - -You say that the world is as you find it, that it is inevitable -that it should be as it is, that what you do you are compelled to -do. But can it be that, having so strongly rooted an aversion to -the suffering of men, to violence, to murder; having such a need of -loving your fellow-men, and of being loved by them; seeing clearly, -too, that the greatest good possible to men comes from acknowledging -human brotherhood, from one serving another: can it be that your -heart tells you all this, that you are taught it by your reason, -that science repeats it to you, and yet regardless of it, on the -strength of some mysterious and complicated argument, you are forced -to contradict it all in your daily conduct? Is it possible that, -being a landowner or a capitalist, you should establish your life on -the oppression of the people; that, being an emperor or a president, -you should command armies, and be a leader of murderers; that, -being a functionary of State, you should take from the poor their -hard-earned money for your own benefit, or for the benefit of the -rich; that, being a judge or juror, you should condemn erring men to -torture and death, because the truth has not been revealed to them; -or, above all, is it possible that you, a youth, should enter the -army, doing that upon which all the evil of the world is founded, -that, renouncing your own will, all your human sympathy, you should -engage at the will of others to murder those whom they bid you -murder? - -It is impossible! - -If you are told that all this is essential for the support of the -existing system of life; that this system, with its pauperism, -famine, prisons, executions, armies, wars, is necessary for society, -and that if it were to be abolished worse evils would follow, you -are told so only by those who benefit by this system; while those -who suffer from it,--and their numbers are ten times greater,--all -think and say the opposite. And at the bottom of your heart you -know that this is false,--that the existing system has had its day, -and must inevitably be remodeled on new foundations; and that there -is no need whatsoever to support it by the sacrifice of human life. - -Even supposing that the existing system is necessary, how is it -that you should have to support it by trampling upon all finer -feelings? But who has made you a guardian of this crumbling -structure? Neither has the State, nor society, nor has any one -requested you individually to support it by occupying your position -of landowner, merchant, emperor, priest, or soldier, and you are -well aware that you have accepted and are holding it, not for -purposes of self-denial, for the good of your fellow-men, but for -your own selfish interest; for your greed of gain, vainglory, -ambition, through your indolence or your cowardice. If you do not -desire this position you should not persist in doing what is cruel, -false, and contemptible in order to retain it. If you would once -refrain from these things which you do continually for the purpose -of retaining it, you would lose it at once. If you are a ruler or -an official, make only an attempt to cease polite lying, cease to -take part in violences and executions; if you are a priest, desist -from deceiving; if a soldier, cease killing; if a land-owner or -manufacturer, cease defending your property by roguery and violence; -and forthwith you will lose the position which, as you say, is -forced upon you and seems to you burdensome. - -It cannot be that a man should be placed against his will in a -position contrary to conscience. - -If you are put in such a position, it is not because it is necessary -for some one to be there, but only because you are willing to accept -it. And therefore, knowing that such a position is directly opposed -to the mandates of your heart, your reason, your faith, and even to -the teaching of that science you believe in, you cannot but pause -to consider, if you wish to keep it, and especially if you try to -justify it, if you are doing what you ought to do. - -You might run the risk if you had but the time to see your mistake -and correct it, and if you ran the risk for something worth having. -But when you know for certain that you are liable to die at any -moment, without the slightest possibility either for yourself or for -those whom you have drawn in with you of rectifying your mistake; -and, moreover, since you know that no matter what those about you -may accomplish in the material organization of the world, it will -all very shortly disappear as certainly as you yourself, leaving no -trace behind,--it is surely obvious that you have no inducement to -run the risk of making a mistake so terrible. - -This would seem perfectly plain and simple if we did not veil with -hypocrisy the truth that is indubitably revealed to us. - -Share what you have with others; do not amass riches; be not vain; -do not rob, torture, or murder men; do not to others what you would -not that others should do to you,--these things have been said -not eighteen hundred but five thousand years ago, and there can -be no doubt of the truth of them. Save for hypocrisy, it would be -impossible, even if one did not obey these rules, not to acknowledge -that they ought to be obeyed, and that those who do not obey them do -wrong. - -But you say that there is still the general well-being, for the sake -of which one should deviate from these rules. It is allowable for -the general well-being to kill, torture, and rob. "It is better that -one man should perish than a whole nation," you say, like Caiaphas, -when you are signing death-warrants; or you load your gun to shoot -your fellow-man, who is to perish for the general good; or you -imprison him or take away his goods. - -You say that you do these cruel things because you are a part of -society, of the State, and must serve your government and carry out -its laws, as landowner, judge, emperor, or soldier. But if you are -a part of the State and have duties in consequence, you are also a -partaker of the infinite life of God's universe, and have higher -duties in consequence of that. - -As your duties to your family or to society are always subject to -the higher duties that depend upon your citizenship in the State, so -your duties of citizenship are subject to the duties arising from -your relations to the life of the universe, from your sonship to -God. And as it would be unwise to cut down telegraph poles in order -to furnish fuel for the benefit of a family or a few people, because -this would be breaking the laws that protect the welfare of the -State; so it is equally unwise, in order to promote the welfare of -the State, to execute or murder a man, because this is breaking the -immutable laws which preserve the welfare of the world. - -The obligations of citizenship must be subject to the higher and -eternal obligations on your part in the everlasting life of God, and -must not contradict them. As it was said eighteen hundred years ago -by the disciples of Christ, "Whether it be right in the sight of God -to hearken unto you more than unto God, judge ye."[33] "We ought to -obey God rather than men."[34] - - [33] Acts iv. 19. - - [34] Acts v. 29. - -You are told to believe that in order to maintain an ever changing -system, established but yesterday by a few men in a corner of the -globe, you should commit violent deeds that are against the fixed -and eternal order established by God or reason. Can it be possible? - -Do not fail, then, to reflect upon your position of land-owner, -merchant, judge, emperor, president, minister, priest, or -soldier--associated with violence, oppression, deceit, torture, and -murder; refuse to recognize the lawfulness of these crimes. I do -not mean that if you are a landowner you should forthwith give your -land to the poor; or if a capitalist, your money or your factory to -your workmen; or if a czar, a minister, a magistrate, a judge, or a -general, you should forthwith abdicate all your advantages; or if a -soldier, whose occupation in its very nature is based on violence, -you should at once refuse to continue longer a soldier, despite -all the dangers of such a refusal. Should you do this, it will -indeed be an heroic act; but it may happen--and most probably--that -you will not be able to do it. You have connections, a family, -subordinates, chiefs; you may be surrounded by temptations so -strong that you cannot overcome them; but to acknowledge the truth -to be the truth, and not to lie--that you are always able to do. -You can refrain from affirming that you continue to be a landowner -or factory-owner, a merchant, an artist, an author, because you -are thus useful to men; from declaring that you are a governor, an -attorney-general, a czar, not because it is agreeable or you are -accustomed to be such, but for the good of men; from saying that you -remain a soldier, not through fear of punishment, but because you -consider the army indispensable for the protection of men's lives. -To keep from speaking thus falsely before yourself and others--this -you are always able to do, and not only able, but in duty bound to -do, because in this alone--in freeing yourself from falsehood and in -working out the truth--lies the highest duty of your life. And do -but this and it will be sufficient for the situation to change at -once of itself. - -One only thing in which you are free and all-powerful has been given -you; all others are beyond you. It is this,--to know the truth and -to profess it. And it is only because of other miserable and erring -men like yourself that you have become a soldier, an emperor, a -landowner, a capitalist, a priest, or a general; that you commit -evil deeds so obviously contrary to the dictates of your heart and -reason; that you torture, rob, and murder men, establishing your -life on their sufferings; and that, above all, instead of performing -your paramount duty of acknowledging and professing the truth which -is known to you, you pretend not to know it, concealing it from -yourself and others, doing the very opposite of what you have been -called to do. - -And under what conditions are you doing this? Being liable to die -at any moment, you sign a death-warrant, declare war or take part -in it, pass judgment, torture and rob workmen, live in luxury -surrounded by misery, and teach weak and trusting men that all -this is right and for you is a matter of duty, while all the time -you are in danger of your life being destroyed by a bullet or a -bacillus, and you may be deprived forever of the power to rectify or -counteract the evil you have done to others and to yourself; having -wasted a life given you but once in all eternity, having left undone -in it the one thing for which it was given you. - -No matter how trite it may appear to state it, nor how we may -hypocritically deceive ourselves, nothing can destroy the certainty -of the simple and obvious truth that external conditions can -never render safe this life of ours, so fraught with unavoidable -suffering, and ended infallibly by death, that human life can have -no other meaning than the constant fulfilment of that for which the -Almighty Power has sent us here, and for which He has given us one -sure guide in this life, namely, our conscious reason. - -This Power does not require from us what is unreasonable and -impossible,--the organization of our temporal, material life, -the life of society, or of the State. He demands of us only what -is reasonable and possible,--to serve the Kingdom of God, which -establishes the unity of mankind, a unity possible only in the -truth; to recognize and profess the truth revealed to us, which it -is always in our power to do. - -"Seek ye first the kingdom of God, and his righteousness; and all -these things shall be added unto you."[35] - - [35] Matt. vi. 33. - -The only significance of life consists in helping to establish -the Kingdom of God; and this can be done only by means of the -acknowledgment and profession of the truth by each one of us. "The -kingdom of God cometh not with observation: neither shall they say, -Lo here! or, lo there! for, behold the kingdom of God is within -you."[36] - - [36] Luke xvii. 20, 21. - - - - -WHAT IS ART? - - - - -TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE - - -The fundamental thought expressed in this book leads inevitably -to conclusions so new, so unexpected, and so contrary to what is -usually maintained in literary and artistic circles, that although -it is clearly and emphatically expressed (and this I hope has -not been lost in translation), most readers who wish to possess -themselves of it will have to read the work carefully, and to digest -it slowly. - -Especially the introductory Chapters II., III., IV., and V., -need careful perusal by any who, having adopted one or other of -the current theories on beauty and art, may find it difficult to -abandon a preconceived view, and to clear their minds for a fair -appreciation of what is new to them. - -The first four chapters raise the problem, and tell us briefly -what has been said by previous writers. Chapter III. gives (in -highly condensed form) the substance of the teaching of some sixty -philosophers on this subject, and since many of them were extremely -confused, the chapter cannot, in the nature of things, be easy -reading. - -I should like to remark, in passing, that though Tolstoi in this -chapter (presumably for convenience of verification) refers chiefly -to the compilations of Schasler, Kralik, and Knight, he has gone -behind these authorities to the primary sources. To give a single -instance: in the paragraph on Darwin, the foot-note refers us to -Knight, but the remark that the origin of the art of music may be -traced back to the call of the males to the females in the animal -world will be found in Darwin, but will not be found in Knight. - -In Chapter V. we come to Tolstoi's definition of art, which -definition should be kept well in mind while reading the rest of the -book. - -No doubt most of those to whom it is an end in itself, who live by -it, or make it their chief occupation, will read this book (or leave -it unread) and go on in their former way, much as Pharaoh, of old, -hardened his heart, and did not sympathize with what Moses had to -say on the labor question. But for those of us who have felt that -art is too valuable a matter to be lost out of our lives, and who, -in their quest for social justice, have met the reproach that they -were sacrificing the pleasures and advantages of art, this book is -of inestimable value, in that it solves a perplexed question of -far-reaching importance to practical life. - -To this class of readers neither the masterly elucidation of -the former theories contained in the opening chapters, nor the -explanation of how it has come about that such great importance -is attached to the activity we call art (Chapters VI. and VII.), -nor the explanation and illustrations of the perversion that art -has undergone, nor even the elucidation of the terrible evils this -perversion is producing (XVII.), will equal in significance the -remaining chapters of the book. These show us what to look for -in art, how to distinguish it from counterfeits (XV., XVI., and -XVIII.), treat of the true art of the future (XIX.), and explain how -science and art are linked together in man's life, are directed by -his perception of the meaning of life, and inevitably react on all -he thinks and feels. - - - - -THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE - - -This book of mine, "What is Art?" appears now for the first time -in its true form. More than one edition has already been issued in -Russia, but in each case it has been so mutilated by the "Censor," -that I request all who are interested in my views on art only to -judge of them by the work in its present shape. The causes which led -to the publication of the book--with my name attached to it--in a -mutilated form were the following: In accordance with a decision I -arrived at long ago,--not to submit my writings to the "Censorship" -(which I consider to be an immoral and irrational institution), -but to print them only in the shape in which they were written,--I -intended not to attempt to print this work in Russia. However, my -good acquaintance, Professor Grote, editor of a Moscow psychological -magazine, having heard of the contents of my work, asked me to -print it in his magazine, and promised me that he would get the -book through the "Censor's" office unmutilated if I would but agree -to a few very unimportant alterations, merely toning down certain -expressions. I was weak enough to agree to this, and it has resulted -in a book appearing under my name, from which not only have some -essential thoughts been excluded, but into which the thoughts of -other men--even thoughts utterly opposed to my own convictions--have -been introduced. - -The thing occurred in this way. First, Grote softened my -expressions, and in some cases weakened them. For instance, he -replaced the words: _always_ by _sometimes_, _all_ by _some_, -_Church_ religion by _Roman Catholic_ religion, "_Mother of God_" -by _Madonna_, _patriotism_ by _pseudo-patriotism_, _palaces_ -by _palatii_,[37] etc., and I did not consider it necessary -to protest. But when the book was already in type, the Censor -required that whole sentences should be altered, and that instead -of what I said about the evil of landed property, a remark should -be substituted on the evils of a landless proletariate.[38] I -agreed to this also, and to some further alterations. It seemed -not worth while to upset the whole affair for the sake of one -sentence, and when one alteration had been agreed to it seemed not -worth while to protest against a second and a third. So, little by -little, expressions crept into the book which altered the sense -and attributed things to me that I could not have wished to say. -So that by the time the book was printed it had been deprived of -some part of its integrity and sincerity. But there was consolation -in the thought that the book, even in this form, if it contains -something that is good, would be of use to Russian readers whom -it would otherwise not have reached. Things, however, turned out -otherwise. _Nous comptions sans notre hote._ After the legal term -of four days had already elapsed, the book was seized, and, on -instructions received from Petersburg, it was handed over to the -"Spiritual Censor." Then Grote declined all further participation -in the affair, and the "Spiritual Censor" proceeded to do what he -would with the book. The "Spiritual Censorship" is one of the most -ignorant, venal, stupid, and despotic institutions in Russia. Books -which disagree in any way with the recognized state religion of -Russia, if once it gets hold of them, are almost always totally -suppressed and burnt; which is what happened to all my religious -works when attempts were made to print them in Russia. Probably -a similar fate would have overtaken this work also, had not the -editors of the magazine employed all means to save it. The result -of their efforts was that the "Spiritual Censor," a priest who -probably understands art and is interested in art as much as I -understand or am interested in church services, but who gets a good -salary for destroying whatever is likely to displease his superiors, -struck out all that seemed to him to endanger his position, and -substituted his thoughts for mine wherever he considered it -necessary to do so. For instance, where I speak of Christ going -to the Cross for the sake of the truth He professed, the "Censor" -substituted a statement that Christ died for mankind, _i.e_. he -attributed to me an assertion of the dogma of the Redemption, which -I consider to be one of the most untrue and harmful of Church -dogmas. After correcting the book in this way, the "Spiritual -Censor" allowed it to be printed. - - [37] Tolstoi's remarks on Church religion were re-worded so as to - seem to relate only to the Western Church, and his disapproval of - luxurious life was made to apply, not, say, to Queen Victoria or - Nicholas II., but to the Caesars or the Pharaohs.--TR. - - [38] The Russian peasant is usually a member of a village commune, - and has therefore a right to a share in the land belonging to the - village. Tolstoi disapproves of the order of society which allows - less land for the support of a village full of people than is - sometimes owned by a single landed proprietor. The "Censor" will not - allow disapproval of this state of things to be expressed, but is - prepared to admit that the laws and customs, say, of England--where - a yet more extreme form of landed property exists, and the men who - actually labor on the land usually possess none of it--deserve - criticism.--TR. - -To protest in Russia is impossible--no newspaper would publish such -a protest; and to withdraw my book from the magazine, and place the -editor in an awkward position with the public, was also not possible. - -So the matter has remained. A book has appeared under my name -containing thoughts attributed to me which are not mine. - -I was persuaded to give my article to a Russian magazine in order -that my thoughts, which may be useful, should become the possession -of Russian readers; and the result has been that my name is affixed -to a work from which it might be assumed that I quite arbitrarily -assert things contrary to the general opinion, without adducing my -reasons; that I only consider false patriotism bad, but patriotism -in general a very good feeling; that I merely deny the absurdities -of the Roman Catholic Church and disbelieve in the Madonna, but -that I believe in the Orthodox Eastern faith and in the "Mother of -God"; that I consider all the writings collected in the Bible to be -holy books, and see the chief importance of Christ's life in the -Redemption of mankind by His death. - -I have narrated all this in such detail because it strikingly -illustrates the indubitable truth that all compromise with -institutions of which your conscience disapproves,--compromises -which are usually made for the sake of the general good,--instead -of producing the good you expected, inevitably lead you, not only -to acknowledge the institution you disapprove of, but also to -participate in the evil that institution produces. - -I am glad to be able by this statement at least to do something to -correct the error into which I was led by my compromise. - -I have also to mention that besides reinstating the parts excluded -by the Censor from the Russian editions, other corrections and -additions of importance have been made in this edition. - - _29th March, 1898._ - - - - -WHAT IS ART? - - - - -CHAPTER I - - -Take up any one of our ordinary newspapers, and you will find a part -devoted to the theater and music. In almost every number you will -find a description of some art exhibition, or of some particular -picture, and you will always find reviews of new works of art that -have appeared, of volumes of poems, of short stories, or of novels. - -Promptly, and in detail, as soon as it has occurred, an account is -published of how such and such an actress or actor played this or -that role in such and such a drama, comedy, or opera; and of the -merits of the performance, as well as of the contents of the new -drama, comedy, or opera, with its defects and merits. With as much -care and detail, or even more, we are told how such and such an -artist has sung a certain piece, or has played it on the piano or -violin, and what were the merits and defects of the piece and of the -performance. In every large town there is sure to be at least one, -if not more than one, exhibition of new pictures, the merits and -defects of which are discussed in the utmost detail by critics and -connoisseurs. - -New novels and poems, in separate volumes or in the magazines, -appear almost every day, and the newspapers consider it their -duty to give their readers detailed accounts of these artistic -productions. - -For the support of art in Russia (where for the education of the -people only a hundredth part is spent of what would be required to -give every one the opportunity of instruction) the government grants -millions of roubles in subsidies to academies, conservatoires, and -theaters. In France twenty million francs are assigned for art, and -similar grants are made in Germany and England. - -In every large town enormous buildings are erected for museums, -academies, conservatoires, dramatic schools, and for performances -and concerts. Hundreds of thousands of workmen--carpenters, masons, -painters, joiners, paperhangers, tailors, hairdressers, jewelers, -molders, type-setters--spend their whole lives in hard labor to -satisfy the demands of art, so that hardly any other department of -human activity, except the military, consumes so much energy as this. - -Not only is enormous labor spent on this activity, but in it, as in -war, the very lives of men are sacrificed. Hundreds of thousands -of people devote their lives from childhood to learning to twirl -their legs rapidly (dancers), or to touch notes and strings very -rapidly (musicians), or to draw with paint and represent what -they see (artists), or to turn every phrase inside out and find a -rhyme to every word. And these people, often very kind and clever, -and capable of all sorts of useful labor, grow savage over their -specialized and stupefying occupations, and become one-sided and -self-complacent specialists, dull to all the serious phenomena -of life, and skilful only at rapidly twisting their legs, their -tongues, or their fingers. - -But even this stunting of human life is not the worst. I remember -being once at the rehearsal of one of the most ordinary of the new -operas which are produced at all the opera houses of Europe and -America. - -I arrived when the first act had already commenced. To reach the -auditorium I had to pass through the stage entrance. By dark -entrances and passages, I was led through the vaults of an enormous -building, past immense machines for changing the scenery and for -illuminating; and there in the gloom and dust I saw workmen busily -engaged. One of these men, pale, haggard, in a dirty blouse, with -dirty, work-worn hands and cramped fingers, evidently tired and out -of humor, went past me, angrily scolding another man. Ascending by -a dark stair, I came out on the boards behind the scenes. Amid -various poles and rings and scattered scenery, decorations and -curtains, stood and moved dozens, if not hundreds, of painted and -dressed-up men, in costumes fitting tight to their thighs and -calves, and also women, as usual, as nearly nude as might be. These -were all singers, or members of the chorus, or ballet-dancers, -awaiting their turns. My guide led me across the stage and, by means -of a bridge of boards across the orchestra (in which perhaps a -hundred musicians of all kinds, from kettledrum to flute and harp, -were seated), to the dark pit-stalls. - -On an elevation, between two lamps with reflectors, and in an -arm-chair placed before a music-stand, sat the director of the -musical part, _baton_ in hand, managing the orchestra and singers, -and, in general, the production of the whole opera. - -The performance had already commenced, and on the stage a procession -of Indians who had brought home a bride was being presented. Besides -men and women in costume, two other men in ordinary clothes bustled -and ran about on the stage; one was the director of the dramatic -part, and the other, who stepped about in soft shoes and ran from -place to place with unusual agility, was the dancing-master, whose -salary per month exceeded what ten laborers earn in a year. - -These three directors arranged the singing, the orchestra, and -the procession. The procession, as usual, was enacted by couples, -with tinfoil halberds on their shoulders. They all came from one -place, and walked round and round again, and then stopped. The -procession took a long time to arrange: first the Indians with -halberds came on too late; then too soon; then at the right time, -but crowded together at the exit; then they did not crowd, but -arranged themselves badly at the sides of the stage; and each -time the whole performance was stopped and recommenced from the -beginning. The procession was introduced by a recitative, delivered -by a man dressed up like some variety of Turk, who, opening his -mouth in a curious way, sang, "Home I bring the bri-i-ide." He -sings and waves his arm (which is of course bare) from under his -mantle. The procession commences, but here the French horn, in -the accompaniment of the recitative, does something wrong; and the -director, with a shudder as if some catastrophe had occurred, raps -with his stick on the stand. All is stopped, and the director, -turning to the orchestra, attacks the French horn, scolding him in -the rudest terms, as cabmen abuse each other, for taking the wrong -note. And again the whole thing recommences. The Indians with their -halberds again come on, treading softly in their extraordinary -boots; again the singer sings, "Home I bring the bri-i-ide." But -here the pairs get too close together. More raps with the stick, -more scolding, and a recommencement. Again, "Home I bring the -bri-i-ide," again the same gesticulation with the bare arm from -under the mantle, and again the couples, treading softly with -halberds on their shoulders, some with sad and serious faces, some -talking and smiling, arrange themselves in a circle and begin to -sing. All seems to be going well, but again the stick raps, and -the director, in a distressed and angry voice, begins to scold the -men and women of the chorus. It appears that when singing they had -omitted to raise their hands from time to time in sign of animation. -"Are you all dead, or what? Cows that you are! Are you corpses, -that you can't move?" Again they recommence, "Home I bring the -bri-i-ide," and again, with sorrowful faces, the chorus-women sing, -first one and then another of them raising their hands. But two -chorus-girls speak to each other,--again a more vehement rapping -with the stick. "Have you come here to talk? Can't you gossip at -home? You there in red breeches, come nearer. Look toward me! -Recommence!" Again, "Home I bring the bri-i-ide." And so it goes -on for one, two, three hours. The whole of such a rehearsal lasts -six hours on end. Raps with the stick, repetitions, placings, -corrections of the singers, of the orchestra, of the procession, of -the dancers,--all seasoned with angry scolding. I heard the words, -"asses," "fools," "idiots," "swine," addressed to the musicians -and singers at least forty times in the course of one hour. And -the unhappy individual to whom the abuse is addressed,--flautist, -horn-blower, or singer,--physically and mentally demoralized, -does not reply, and does what is demanded of him. Twenty times is -repeated the one phrase, "Home I bring the bri-i-ide," and twenty -times the striding about in yellow shoes with a halberd over the -shoulder. The conductor knows that these people are so demoralized -that they are no longer fit for anything but to blow trumpets and -walk about with halberds and in yellow shoes, and that they are also -accustomed to dainty, easy living, so that they will put up with -anything rather than lose their luxurious life. He therefore gives -free vent to his churlishness, especially as he has seen the same -thing done in Paris and Vienna, and knows that this is the way the -best conductors behave, and that it is a musical tradition of great -artists to be so carried away by the great business of their art -that they cannot pause to consider the feelings of other artists. - -It would be difficult to find a more repulsive sight. I have seen -one workman abuse another for not supporting the weight piled upon -him when goods were being unloaded, or, at hay-stacking, the village -elder scold a peasant for not making the rick right, and the man -submitted in silence. And, however unpleasant it was to witness the -scene, the unpleasantness was lessened by the consciousness that the -business in hand was needful and important, and that the fault for -which the head man scolded the laborer was one which might spoil a -needful undertaking. - -But what was being done here? For what, and for whom? Very likely -the conductor was tired out, like the workman I passed in the -vaults; it was even evident that he was; but who made him tire -himself? And for what was he tiring himself? The opera he was -rehearsing was one of the most ordinary of operas for people who are -accustomed to them, but also one of the most gigantic absurdities -that could possibly be devised. An Indian king wants to marry; they -bring him a bride; he disguises himself as a minstrel; the bride -falls in love with the minstrel and is in despair, but afterwards -discovers that the minstrel is the king, and every one is highly -delighted. - -That there never were, or could be, such Indians, and that they -were not only unlike Indians, but that what they were doing was -unlike anything on earth except other operas, was beyond all manner -of doubt; that people do not converse in such a way as recitative, -and do not place themselves at fixed distances, in a quartet, -waving their arms to express their emotions; that nowhere, except -in theaters, do people walk about in such a manner, in pairs, with -tinfoil halberds and in slippers; that no one ever gets angry in -such a way, or is affected in such a way, or laughs in such a way, -or cries in such a way; and that no one on earth can be moved by -such performances; all this is beyond the possibility of doubt. - -Instinctively the question presents itself: For whom is this being -done? Whom _can_ it please? If there are, occasionally, good -melodies in the opera, to which it is pleasant to listen, they could -have been sung simply, without these stupid costumes and all the -processions and recitatives and hand-wavings. - -The ballet, in which half-naked women make voluptuous movements, -twisting themselves into various sensual wreathings, is simply a -lewd performance. - -So one is quite at a loss as to whom these things are done for. The -man of culture is heartily sick of them, while to a real working-man -they are utterly incomprehensible. If any one can be pleased by -these things (which is doubtful), it can only be some young footman -or depraved artisan, who has contracted the spirit of the upper -classes but is not yet satiated with their amusements, and wishes to -show his breeding. - -And all this nasty folly is prepared, not simply, nor with kindly -merriment, but with anger and brutal cruelty. - -It is said that it is all done for the sake of art, and that art -is a very important thing. But is it true that art is so important -that such sacrifices should be made for its sake? This question is -especially urgent, because art, for the sake of which the labor of -millions, the lives of men, and, above all, love between man and -man, are being sacrificed,--this very art is becoming something more -and more vague and uncertain to human perception. - -Criticism, in which the lovers of art used to find support for their -opinions, has latterly become so self-contradictory, that, if we -exclude from the domain of art all that to which the critics of -various schools themselves deny the title, there is scarcely any art -left. - -The artists of various sects, like the theologians of the various -sects, mutually exclude and destroy themselves. Listen to the -artists of the schools of our times, and you will find, in all -branches, each set of artists disowning others. In poetry the old -romanticists deny the parnassiens and the decadents; the parnassiens -disown the romanticists and the decadents; the decadents disown -all their predecessors and the symbolists; the symbolists disown -all their predecessors and _les mages_; and _les mages_ disown -all, all their predecessors. Among novelists we have naturalists, -psychologists, and "nature-ists," all rejecting each other. And it -is the same in dramatic art, in painting, and in music. So that art, -which demands such tremendous labor-sacrifices from the people, -which stunts human lives and transgresses against human love, is not -only _not_ a thing clearly and firmly defined, but is understood in -such contradictory ways by its own devotees that it is difficult -to say what is meant by art, and especially what is good, useful -art,--art for the sake of which we might condone such sacrifices as -are being offered at its shrine. - - - - -CHAPTER II - - -For the production of every ballet, circus, opera, operetta, -exhibition, picture, concert, or printed book, the intense and -unwilling labor of thousands and thousands of people is needed at -what is often harmful and humiliating work. It were well if artists -made all they require for themselves, but, as it is, they all need -the help of workmen, not only to produce art, but also for their own -usually luxurious maintenance. And, one way or other, they get it; -either through payments from rich people, or through subsidies given -by government (in Russia, for instance, in grants of millions of -roubles to theaters, conservatoires, and academies). This money is -collected from the people, some of whom have to sell their only cow -to pay the tax, and who never get those aesthetic pleasures which art -gives. - -It was all very well for a Greek or Roman artist, or even for a -Russian artist of the first half of our century (when there were -still slaves, and it was considered right that there should be), -with a quiet mind to make people serve him and his art; but in our -day, when in all men there is at least some dim perception of the -equal rights of all, it is impossible to constrain people to labor -unwillingly for art, without first deciding the question whether it -is true that art is so good and so important an affair as to redeem -this evil. - -If not, we have the terrible probability to consider, that while -fearful sacrifices of the labor and lives of men, and of morality -itself, are being made to art, that same art may be not only useless -but even harmful. - -And therefore it is necessary for a society in which works of art -arise and are supported, to find out whether all that professes to -be art is really art; whether (as is presupposed in our society) all -that which is art is good; and whether it is important and worth -those sacrifices which it necessitates. It is still more necessary -for every conscientious artist to know this, that he may be sure -that all he does has a valid meaning; that it is not merely an -infatuation of the small circle of people among whom he lives which -excites in him the false assurance that he is doing a good work; and -that what he takes from others for the support of his often very -luxurious life, will be compensated for by those productions at -which he works. And that is why answers to the above questions are -especially important in our time. - -What is this art, which is considered so important and necessary for -humanity that for its sake these sacrifices of labor, of human life, -and even of goodness may be made? - -"What is art? What a question! Art is architecture, sculpture, -painting, music, and poetry in all its forms," usually replies the -ordinary man, the art amateur, or even the artist himself, imagining -the matter about which he is talking to be perfectly clear, and -uniformly understood by everybody. But in architecture, one inquires -further, are there not simple buildings which are not objects of -art, and buildings with artistic pretensions which are unsuccessful -and ugly and therefore cannot be considered as works of art? Wherein -lies the characteristic sign of a work of art? - -It is the same in sculpture, in music, and in poetry. Art, in all -its forms, is bounded on one side by the practically useful, and on -the other by unsuccessful attempts at art. How is art to be marked -off from each of these? The ordinary educated man of our circle, -and even the artist who has not occupied himself especially with -aesthetics, will not hesitate at this question either. He thinks the -solution has been found long ago, and is well known to every one. - -"Art is such activity as produces beauty," says such a man. - -If art consists in that, then is a ballet or an operetta art? you -inquire. - -"Yes," says the ordinary man, though with some hesitation, "a good -ballet or a graceful operetta is also art, in so far as it manifests -beauty." - -But without even asking the ordinary man what differentiates the -"good" ballet and the "graceful" operetta from their opposites -(a question he would have much difficulty in answering), if you -ask him whether the activity of costumiers and hairdressers, who -ornament the figures and faces of the women for the ballet and -the operetta, is art; or the activity of Worth, the dressmaker; -of scent-makers and men cooks,--then he will, in most cases, deny -that their activity belongs to the sphere of art. But in this the -ordinary man makes a mistake, just because he is an ordinary man -and not a specialist, and because he has not occupied himself with -aesthetic questions. Had he looked into these matters, he would -have seen in the great Renan's book, "Marc Aurele," a dissertation -showing that the tailor's work is art, and that those who do not -see in the adornment of woman an affair of the highest art are very -small-minded and dull. "_C'est le grand art_," says Renan. Moreover, -he would have known that in many aesthetic systems--for instance, -in the aesthetics of the learned Professor Kralik, "Weltschoenheit, -Versuch einer allgemeinen AEsthetik, von Richard Kralik," and in "Les -Problemes de l'Esthetique Contemporaine," by Guyau--the arts of -costume, of taste, and of touch are included. - -"_Es Folgt nun ein Fuenfblatt von Kuensten, die der subjectiven -Sinnlichkeit entkeimen_" (There results then a pentafoliate of arts, -growing out of the subjective perceptions), says Kralik (p. 175). -"_Sie sind die aesthetische Behandlung der fuenf Sinne._" (They are -the aesthetic treatment of the five senses.) - -These five arts are the following:-- - -_Die Kunst des Geschmacksinns_--The art of the sense of taste (p. -175). - -_Die Kunst des Geruchsinns_--The art of the sense of smell (p. 177). - -_Die Kunst des Tastsinns_--The art of the sense of touch (p. 180). - -_Die Kunst des Gehoersinns_--The art of the sense of hearing (p. 182). - -_Die Kunst des Gesichtsinns_--The art of the sense of sight (p. 184). - -Of the first of these--_die Kunst des Geschmacksinns_--he says: -"_Man haelt zwar gewoehnlich nur zwei oder hoechstens drei Sinne fuer -wuerdig, den Stoff kuenstlerischer Behandlung abzugeben, aber ich -glaube nur mit bedingtem Recht. Ich will kein allzugrosses Gewicht -darauf legen, dass der gemeine Sprachgebrauch manch andere Kuenste, -wie zum Beispiel die Kochkunst kennt._"[39] - - [39] Only two, or at most three, senses are generally held worthy - to supply matter for artistic treatment, but I think this opinion - is only conditionally correct. I will not lay too much stress on - the fact that our common speech recognizes many other arts, as, for - instance, the art of cookery. - -And further: "_Und es ist doch gewiss eine aesthetische Leistung, -wenn es der Kochkunst gelingt ans einem thierischen Kadaver einen -Gegenstand des Geschmacks in jedem Sinne zu machen. Der Grundsatz -der Kunst des Geschmacksinns (die weiter ist als die sogenannte -Kochkunst) ist also dieser: Es soll alles Geniessbare als Sinnbild -einer Idee behandelt werden und in jedesmaligem Einklang zur -auszudrueckenden Idee._"[40] - - [40] And yet it is certainly an aesthetic achievement when the art of - cooking succeeds in making of an animal's corpse an object in all - respects tasteful. The principle of the Art of Taste (which goes - beyond the so-called Art of Cookery) is therefore this: All that is - eatable should be treated as the symbol of some Idea, and always in - harmony with the Idea to be expressed. - -This author, like Renan, acknowledges a _Kostuemkunst_ (Art of -Costume) (p. 200), etc. - -Such is also the opinion of the French writer, Guyau, who is highly -esteemed by some authors of our day. In his book, "Les Problemes -de l'Esthetique Contemporaine," he speaks seriously of touch, -taste, and smell as giving, or being capable of giving, aesthetic -impressions: "_Si la couleur manque au toucher, il nous fournit en -revanche une notion que l'oeil seul ne peut nous donner, et qui a -une valeur esthetique considerable, celle du_ doux, _du_ soyeux, -_du_ poli. _Ce qui caracterise la beaute du velours, c'est sa -douceur au toucher non moins que son brillant. Dans l'idee que nous -nous faisons de la beaute d'une femme, le veloute de sa peau entre -comme element essentiel._" - -"_Chacun de nous probablement avec un peu d'attention se rappellera -des jouissances du gout, qui ont ete de veritables jouissances -esthetiques._"[41] And he recounts how a glass of milk drunk by him -in the mountains gave him aesthetic enjoyment. - - [41] If the sense of touch lacks color, it gives us, on the - other hand, a notion which the eye alone cannot afford, and one - of considerable aesthetic value, namely, that of _softness_, - _silkiness_, _polish_. The beauty of velvet is characterized not - less by its softness to the touch than by its luster. In the idea - we form of a woman's beauty, the softness of her skin enters as an - essential element. - - Each of us, probably, with a little attention, can recall pleasures - of taste which have been real aesthetic pleasures. - -So it turns out that the conception of art, as consisting in making -beauty manifest, is not at all so simple as it seemed, especially -now, when in this conception of beauty are included our sensations -of touch and taste and smell, as they are by the latest aesthetic -writers. - -But the ordinary man either does not know, or does not wish to know, -all this, and is firmly convinced that all questions about art may -be simply and clearly solved by acknowledging beauty to be the -subject-matter of art. To him it seems clear and comprehensible that -art consists in manifesting beauty, and that a reference to beauty -will serve to explain all questions about art. - -But what is this beauty which forms the subject-matter of art? How -is it defined? What is it? - -As is always the case, the more cloudy and confused the conception -conveyed by a word, with the more _aplomb_ and self-assurance do -people use that word, pretending that what is understood by it is so -simple and clear that it is not worth while even to discuss what it -actually means. - -This is how matters of orthodox religion are usually dealt with, -and this is how people now deal with the conception of beauty. -It is taken for granted that what is meant by the word beauty is -known and understood by every one. And yet not only is this not -known, but, after whole mountains of books have been written on -the subject by the most learned and profound thinkers during one -hundred and fifty years (ever since Baumgarten founded aesthetics in -the year 1750), the question, What is beauty? remains to this day -quite unsolved, and in each new work on aesthetics it is answered -in a new way. One of the last books I read on aesthetics is a not -ill-written booklet by Julius Mithalter, called "Raetsel des Schoenen" -(The Enigma of the Beautiful). And that title precisely expresses -the position of the question, What is beauty? After thousands of -learned men have discussed it during one hundred and fifty years, -the meaning of the word beauty remains an enigma still. The Germans -answer the question in their manner, though in a hundred different -ways. The physiologist-aestheticians, especially the Englishmen, -Herbert Spencer, Grant Allen, and his school, answer it, each in -his own way; the French eclectics, and the followers of Guyau and -Taine, also each in his own way; and all these people know all the -preceding solutions given by Baumgarten, and Kant, and Schelling, -and Schiller, and Fichte, and Winckelmann, and Lessing, and Hegel, -and Schopenhauer, and Hartmann, and Schasler, and Cousin, and -Leveque, and others. - -What is this strange conception "beauty," which seems so simple -to those who talk without thinking, but in defining which all the -philosophers of various tendencies and different nationalities can -come to no agreement during a century and a half? What is this -conception of beauty, on which the dominant doctrine of art rests? - -In Russian, by the word _krasota_ (beauty) we mean only that which -pleases the sight. And though latterly people have begun to speak of -"an ugly deed," or of "beautiful music," it is not good Russian. - -A Russian of the common folk, not knowing foreign languages, will -not understand you if you tell him that a man who has given his last -coat to another, or done anything similar, has acted "beautifully," -that a man who has cheated another has done an "ugly" action, or -that a song is "beautiful." - -In Russian a deed may be kind and good, or unkind and bad. Music may -be pleasant and good, or unpleasant and bad; but there can be no -such thing as "beautiful" or "ugly" music. - -Beautiful may relate to a man, a horse, a house, a view, or a -movement. Of actions, thoughts, character, or music, if they please -us, we may say that they are good, or, if they do not please us, -that they are not good. But beautiful can be used only concerning -that which pleases the sight. So that the word and conception "good" -includes the conception of "beautiful," but the reverse is not -the case; the conception "beauty" does not include the conception -"good." If we say "good" of an article which we value for its -appearance, we thereby say that the article is beautiful; but if we -say it is "beautiful," it does not at all mean that the article is a -good one. - -Such is the meaning ascribed by the Russian language, and therefore -by the sense of the people, to the words and conceptions "good" and -"beautiful." - -In all the European languages, _i.e._ the languages of those nations -among whom the doctrine has spread that beauty is the essential -thing in art, the words "beau," "schoen," "beautiful," "bello," -etc., while keeping their meaning of beautiful in form, have come -to also express "goodness," "kindness," _i.e._ have come to act as -substitutes for the word "good." - -So that it has become quite natural in those languages to use such -expressions as "belle ame," "schoene Gedanken," of "beautiful deed." -Those languages no longer have a suitable word wherewith expressly -to indicate beauty of form, and have to use a combination of words -such as "beau par la forme," "beautiful to look at," etc., to convey -that idea. - -Observation of the divergent meanings which the words "beauty" and -"beautiful" have in Russian on the one hand, and in those European -languages now permeated by this aesthetic theory on the other hand, -shows us that the word "beauty" has, among the latter, acquired a -special meaning, namely, that of "good." - -What is remarkable, moreover, is that since we Russians have begun -more and more to adopt the European view of art, the same evolution -has begun to show itself in our language also, and some people -speak and write quite confidently, and without causing surprise, of -beautiful music and ugly actions, or even thoughts; whereas forty -years ago, when I was young, the expressions "beautiful music" -and "ugly actions" were not only unusual, but incomprehensible. -Evidently this new meaning given to beauty by European thought -begins to be assimilated by Russian society. - -And what really is this meaning? What is this "beauty" as it is -understood by the European peoples? - -In order to answer this question, I must here quote at least a -small selection of those definitions of beauty most generally -adopted in existing aesthetic systems. I especially beg the reader -not to be overcome by dullness, but to read these extracts through, -or, still better, to read some one of the erudite aesthetic authors. -Not to mention the voluminous German aestheticians, a very good -book for this purpose would be either the German book by Kralik, -the English work by Knight, or the French one by Leveque. It is -necessary to read one of the learned aesthetic writers in order to -form at firsthand a conception of the variety in opinion and the -frightful obscurity which reigns in this region of speculation; not, -in this important matter, trusting to another's report. - -This, for instance, is what the German aesthetician Schasler says -in the preface to his famous, voluminous, and detailed work on -aesthetics:-- - -"Hardly in any sphere of philosophic science can we find such -divergent methods of investigation and exposition, amounting even to -self-contradiction, as in the sphere of aesthetics. On the one hand, -we have elegant phraseology without any substance, characterized -in great part by most one-sided superficiality; and on the other -hand, accompanying undeniable profundity of investigation and -richness of subject-matter, we get a revolting awkwardness of -philosophic terminology, infolding the simplest thoughts in an -apparel of abstract science, as though to render them worthy to -enter the consecrated palace of the system; and finally, between -these two methods of investigation and exposition there is a third, -forming, as it were, the transition from one to the other, a method -consisting of eclecticism, now flaunting an elegant phraseology, and -now a pedantic erudition.... A style of exposition that falls into -none of these three defects but it is truly concrete, and, having -important matter, expresses it in clear and popular philosophic -language, can nowhere be found less frequently than in the domain of -aesthetics."[42] - - [42] M. Schasler, "Kritische Geschichte der AEsthetik," 1872, vol. - i., p. 13. - -It is only necessary, for instance, to read Schasler's own book to -convince oneself of the justice of this observation of his. - -On the same subject the French writer Veron, in the preface to -his very good work on aesthetics, says: "_Il n'y a pas de science, -qui ait ete plus que l'esthetique livree aux reveries des -metaphysiciens. Depuis Platon jusqu'aux doctrines officielles de nos -jours, on a fait de l'art je ne sais quel amalgame de fantaisies -quintessenciees, et de mysteres transcendantaux qui trouvent leur -expression supreme dans la conception absolue du Beau ideal, -prototype immuable et divin des choses reelles_" ("L'Esthetique," -1878, p. 5).[43] - - [43] There is no science which, more than aesthetics, has been handed - over to the reveries of the metaphysicians. From Plato down to the - received doctrines of our day, people have made of art a strange - amalgam of quintessential fancies and transcendental mysteries, - which find their supreme expression in the conception of an absolute - ideal Beauty, immutable and divine prototype of actual things. - -If the reader will only be at the pains to peruse the following -extracts, defining beauty, taken from the chief writers on -aesthetics, he may convince himself that this censure is thoroughly -deserved. - -I shall not quote the definitions of beauty attributed to -the ancients,--Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, etc., down to -Plotinus,--because, in reality, the ancients had not that conception -of beauty separated from goodness which forms the basis and aim of -aesthetics in our time. By referring the judgments of the ancients on -beauty to our conception of it, as is usually done in aesthetics, we -give the words of the ancients a meaning which is not theirs.[44] - - [44] See on this matter Benard's admirable book, "L'Esthetique - d'Aristote," also Walter's "Geschichte der AEsthetik in Altertum." - - - - -CHAPTER III - - -I begin with the founder of aesthetics, Baumgarten (1714-1762). - -According to Baumgarten,[45] the object of logical knowledge is -Truth, the object of aesthetic (_i.e._ sensuous) knowledge is Beauty. -Beauty is the Perfect (the Absolute) recognized through the senses; -Truth is the Perfect perceived through reason; Goodness is the -Perfect reached by moral will. - - [45] Schasler, p. 361. - -Beauty is defined by Baumgarten as a correspondence, _i.e._ an order -of the parts in their mutual relations to each other and in their -relation to the whole. The aim of beauty itself is to please and -excite a desire, "_Wohlgefallen und Erregung eines Verlangens_." (A -position precisely the opposite of Kant's definition of the nature -and sign of beauty.) - -With reference to the manifestations of beauty, Baumgarten considers -that the highest embodiment of beauty is seen by us in nature, and -he therefore thinks that the highest aim of art is to copy nature. -(This position also is directly contradicted by the conclusions of -the latest aestheticians.) - -Passing over the unimportant followers of Baumgarten,--Maier, -Eschenburg, and Eberhard,--who only slightly modified the doctrine -of their teacher by dividing the pleasant from the beautiful, I will -quote the definitions given by writers who came immediately after -Baumgarten, and defined beauty quite in another way. These writers -were Sulzer, Mendelssohn, and Moritz. They, in contradiction to -Baumgarten's main position, recognize as the aim of art, not beauty, -but goodness. Thus Sulzer (1720-1777) says that only that can be -considered beautiful which contains goodness. According to his -theory, the aim of the whole life of humanity is welfare in social -life. This is attained by the education of the moral feelings, to -which end art should be subservient. Beauty is that which evokes and -educates this feeling. - -Beauty is understood almost in the same way by Mendelssohn -(1729-1786). According to him, art is the carrying forward of the -beautiful, obscurely recognized by feeling, till it becomes the true -and good. The aim of art is moral perfection.[46] - - [46] Schasler, p. 369. - -For the aestheticians of this school, the ideal of beauty is a -beautiful soul in a beautiful body. So that these aestheticians -completely wipe out Baumgarten's division of the Perfect (the -Absolute), into the three forms of Truth, Goodness, and Beauty; and -Beauty is again united with the Good and the True. - -But this conception is not only not maintained by the later -aestheticians, but the aesthetic doctrine of Winckelmann arises, again -in complete opposition. This divides the mission of art from the aim -of goodness in the sharpest and most positive manner, makes external -beauty the aim of art, and even limits it to visible beauty. - -According to the celebrated work of Winckelmann (1717-1767), the law -and aim of all art is beauty only, beauty quite separated from and -independent of goodness. There are three kinds of beauty: (1) beauty -of form, (2) beauty of idea, expressing itself in the position of -the figure (in plastic art), (3) beauty of expression, attainable -only when the two first conditions are present. This beauty of -expression is the highest aim of art, and is attained in antique -art; modern art should therefore aim at imitating ancient art.[47] - - [47] Schasler, pp. 388-390. - -Art is similarly understood by Lessing, Herder, and afterwards by -Goethe and by all the distinguished aestheticians of Germany till -Kant, from whose day, again, a different conception of art commences. - -Native aesthetic theories arose during this period in England, -France, Italy, and Holland, and they, though not taken from the -German, were equally cloudy and contradictory. And all these -writers, just like the German aestheticians, founded their theories -on a conception of the Beautiful, understanding beauty in the sense -of a something existing absolutely, and more or less intermingled -with Goodness or having one and the same root. In England, almost -simultaneously with Baumgarten, even a little earlier, Shaftesbury, -Hutcheson, Home, Burke, Hogarth, and others, wrote on art. - -According to Shaftesbury (1670-1713), "That which is beautiful -is harmonious and proportionable, what is harmonious and -proportionable is true, and what is at once both beautiful and true -is of consequence agreeable and good."[48] Beauty, he taught, is -recognized by the mind only. God is fundamental beauty; beauty and -goodness proceed from the same fount. - - [48] Knight, "Philosophy of the Beautiful," i., pp. 165, 166. - -So that, although Shaftesbury regards beauty as being something -separate from goodness, they again merge into something inseparable. - -According to Hutcheson (1694-1747--"Inquiry into the Original of our -Ideas of Beauty and Virtue"), the aim of art is beauty, the essence -of which consists in evoking in us the perception of uniformity amid -variety. In the recognition of what is art we are guided by "an -internal sense." This internal sense may be in contradiction to the -ethical one. So that, according to Hutcheson, beauty does not always -correspond with goodness, but separates from it and is sometimes -contrary to it.[49] - - [49] Schasler, p. 289. Knight, pp. 168, 169. - -According to Home, Lord Kames (1696-1782), beauty is that which is -pleasant. Therefore beauty is defined by taste alone. The standard -of true taste is that the maximum of richness, fullness, strength, -and variety of impression should be contained in the narrowest -limits. That is the ideal of a perfect work of art. - -According to Burke (1729-1797--"Philosophical Inquiry into the -Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful"), the sublime -and beautiful, which are the aim of art, have their origin in the -promptings of self-preservation and of society. These feelings, -examined in their source, are means for the maintenance of the race -through the individual. The first (self-preservation) is attained by -nourishment, defense, and war; the second (society) by intercourse -and propagation. Therefore self-defense, and war, which is bound -up with it, is the source of the sublime; sociability, and the -sex-instinct, which is bound up with it, is the source of beauty.[50] - - [50] R. Kralik, "Weltschoenheit, Versuch einer allgemeinen AEsthetik," - pp. 304-306. - -Such were the chief English definitions of art and beauty in the -eighteenth century. - -During that period, in France, the writers on art were Pere Andre -and Batteux, with Diderot, D'Alembert, and, to some extent, -Voltaire, following later. - -According to Pere Andre ("Essai sur le Beau," 1741), there are three -kinds of beauty,--divine beauty, natural beauty, and artificial -beauty.[51] - - [51] Knight, p. 101. - -According to Batteux (1713-1780), art consists in imitating the -beauty of nature, its aim being enjoyment.[52] Such is also -Diderot's definition of art. - - [52] Schasler, p. 316. - -The French writers, like the English, consider that it is taste that -decides what is beautiful. And the laws of taste are not only not -laid down, but it is granted that they cannot be settled. The same -view was held by D'Alembert and Voltaire.[53] - - [53] Knight, pp. 102-104. - -According to the Italian aesthetician of that period, Pagano, art -consists in uniting the beauties dispersed in nature. The capacity -to perceive these beauties is taste, the capacity to bring them -into one whole is artistic genius. Beauty commingles with goodness, -so that beauty is goodness made visible, and goodness is inner -beauty.[54] - - [54] R. Kralik, p. 124. - -According to the opinion of other Italians: Muratori -(1672-1750),--"_Riflessioni sopra il buon gusto intorno le science -e le arti_,"--and especially Spaletti,[55]--"_Saggio sopra la -bellezza_" (1765),--art amounts to an egotistical sensation, founded -(as with Burke) on the desire for self-preservation and society. - - [55] Spaletti, Schasler, p. 328. - -Among Dutch writers, Hemsterhuis (1720-1790), who had an influence -on the German aestheticians and on Goethe, is remarkable. According -to him, beauty is that which gives most pleasure, and that gives -most pleasure which gives us the greatest number of ideas in the -shortest time. Enjoyment of the beautiful, because it gives the -greatest quantity of perceptions in the shortest time, is the -highest notion to which man can attain.[56] - - [56] Schasler, pp. 331-333. - -Such were the aesthetic theories outside Germany during the last -century. In Germany, after Winckelmann, there again arose a -completely new aesthetic theory, that of Kant (1724-1804), which, -more than all others, clears up what this conception of beauty, and -consequently of art, really amounts to. - -The aesthetic teaching of Kant is founded as follows: Man has a -knowledge of nature outside him and of himself in nature. In -nature, outside himself, he seeks for truth; in himself, he seeks -for goodness. The first is an affair of pure reason, the other of -practical reason (free will). Besides these two means of perception, -there is yet the judging capacity (_Urteilskraft_), which forms -judgments without reasonings and produces pleasure without desire -(_Urtheil ohne Begriff und Vergnuegen ohne Begehren_). This capacity -is the basis of aesthetic feeling. Beauty, according to Kant, in -its subjective meaning is that which, in general and necessarily, -without reasonings and without practical advantage, pleases. In its -objective meaning it is the form of a suitable object, in so far as -that object is perceived without any conception of its utility.[57] - - [57] Schasler, pp. 525-528. - -Beauty is defined in the same way by the followers of Kant, among -whom was Schiller (1759-1805). According to Schiller, who wrote much -on aesthetics, the aim of art is, as with Kant, beauty, the source of -which is pleasure without practical advantage. So that art may be -called a game, not in the sense of an unimportant occupation, but in -the sense of a manifestation of the beauties of life itself without -other aim than that of beauty.[58] - - [58] Knight, pp. 61-63. - -Besides Schiller, the most remarkable of Kant's followers in the -sphere of aesthetics was Wilhelm Humboldt, who, though he added -nothing to the definition of beauty, explained various forms of -it,--the drama, music, the comic, etc.[59] - - [59] Schasler, pp. 740-743. - -After Kant, besides the second-rate philosophers, the writers on -aesthetics were Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, and their followers. -Fichte (1762-1814) says that perception of the beautiful proceeds -from this: the world--_i.e._ nature--has two sides: it is the -sum of our limitations, and it is the sum of our free idealistic -activity. In the first aspect the world is limited, in the second -aspect it is free. In the first aspect every object is limited, -distorted, compressed, confined--and we see deformity; in the second -we perceive its inner completeness, vitality, regeneration--and -we see beauty. So that the deformity or beauty of an object, -according to Fichte, depends on the point of view of the observer. -Beauty therefore exists, not in the world, but in the beautiful -soul (_schoener Geist_). Art is the manifestation of this beautiful -soul, and its aim is the education, not only of the mind--that is -the business of the _savant_, not only of the heart--that is the -affair of the moral preacher, but of the whole man. And so the -characteristic of beauty lies, not in anything external, but in the -presence of a beautiful soul in the artist.[60] - - [60] Schasler, pp, 769-771. - -Following Fichte, and in the same direction, Friedrich Schlegel and -Adam Mueller also defined beauty. According to Schlegel (1772-1829), -beauty in art is understood too incompletely, one-sidedly, and -disconnectedly. Beauty exists, not only in art, but also in nature -and in love; so that the truly beautiful is expressed by the union -of art, nature, and love. Therefore, as inseparably one with -aesthetic art, Schlegel acknowledges moral and philosophic art.[61] - - [61] Schasler, pp. 786, 787. - -According to Adam Mueller (1779-1829), there are two kinds of beauty: -the one, general beauty, which attracts people as the sun attracts -the planet--this is found chiefly in antique art; and the other, -individual beauty, which results from the observer himself becoming -a sun, attracting beauty--this is the beauty of modern art. A world -in which all contradictions are harmonized is the highest beauty. -Every work of art is a reproduction of this universal harmony.[62] -The highest art is the art of life.[63] - - [62] Kralik, p. 148. - - [63] Kralik, p. 820. - -Next after Fichte and his followers came a contemporary of his, the -philosopher Schelling (1775-1854), who has had a great influence -on the aesthetic conceptions of our times. According to Schelling's -philosophy, art is the production or result of that conception of -things by which the subject becomes its own object, or the object -its own subject. Beauty is the perception of the infinite in the -finite. And the chief characteristic of works of art is unconscious -infinity. Art is the uniting of the subjective with the objective, -of nature with reason, of the unconscious with the conscious, and -therefore art is the highest means of knowledge. Beauty is the -contemplation of things in themselves as they exist in the prototype -(_In den Urbildern_). It is not the artist who by his knowledge or -skill produces the beautiful, but the idea of beauty in him itself -produces it.[64] - - [64] Schasler, pp. 828, 829, 834-841. - -Of Schelling's followers the most noticeable was Solger -(1780-1819--"Vorlesungen ueber AEsthetik"). According to him, the idea -of beauty is the fundamental idea of everything. In the world we see -only distortions of the fundamental idea, but art, by imagination, -may lift itself to the height of this idea. Art is therefore akin to -creation.[65] - - [65] Schasler, p. 891. - -According to another follower of Schelling, Krause (1781-1832), -true, positive beauty is the manifestation of the Idea in an -individual form; art is the actualization of the beauty existing in -the sphere of man's free spirit. The highest stage of art is the art -of life, which directs its activity toward the adornment of life so -that it may be a beautiful abode for a beautiful man.[66] - - [66] Schasler, p. 917. - -After Schelling and his followers came the new aesthetic doctrine -of Hegel, which is held to this day, consciously by many, but by -the majority unconsciously. This teaching is not only no clearer or -better defined than the preceding ones, but is, if possible, even -more cloudy and mystical. - -According to Hegel (1770-1831), God manifests himself in nature -and in art in the form of beauty. God expresses himself in two -ways: in the object and in the subject, in nature and in spirit. -Beauty is the shining of the Idea through matter. Only the soul, -and what pertains to it, is truly beautiful; and therefore the -beauty of nature is only the reflection of the natural beauty of -the spirit--the beautiful has only a spiritual content. But the -spiritual must appear in sensuous form. The sensuous manifestation -of spirit is only appearance (_schein_), and this appearance is -the only reality of the beautiful. Art is thus the production of -this appearance of the Idea, and is a means, together with religion -and philosophy, of bringing to consciousness and of expressing the -deepest problems of humanity and the highest truths of the spirit. - -Truth and beauty, according to Hegel, are one and the same thing; -the difference being only that truth is the Idea itself as it exists -in itself, and is thinkable. The Idea, manifested externally, -becomes to the apprehension not only true but beautiful. The -beautiful is the manifestation of the Idea.[67] - - [67] Schasler, pp. 946, 1085, 984, 985, 990. - -Following Hegel came his many adherents, Weisse, Arnold Ruge, -Rosenkrantz, Theodor Vischer, and others. - -According to Weisse (1801-1867), art is the introduction -(_Einbildung_) of the absolute spiritual reality of beauty into -external, dead, indifferent matter, the perception of which latter, -apart from the beauty brought into it, presents the negation of all -existence in itself (_Negation alles Fuersichseins_). - -In the idea of truth, Weisse explains, lies a contradiction between -the subjective and the objective sides of knowledge, in that an -individual _I_ discerns the Universal. This contradiction can be -removed by a conception that should unite into one the universal and -the individual, which fall asunder in our conceptions of truth. Such -a conception would be reconciled (_aufgehoben_) truth. Beauty is -such a reconciled truth.[68] - - [68] Schasler, pp. 966, 655, 956. - -According to Ruge (1802-1880), a strict follower of Hegel, beauty is -the Idea expressing itself. The spirit, contemplating itself, either -finds itself expressed completely, and then that full expression -of itself is beauty; or incompletely, and then it feels the need -to alter this imperfect expression of itself, and becomes creative -art.[69] - - [69] Schasler, p. 1017. - -According to Vischer (1807-1887), beauty is the Idea in the form -of a finite phenomenon. The Idea itself is not indivisible, but -forms a system of ideas, which may be represented by ascending and -descending lines. The higher the idea, the more beauty it contains; -but even the lowest contains beauty, because it forms an essential -link of the system. The highest form of the Idea is personality, and -therefore the highest art is that which has for its subject-matter -the highest personality.[70] - - [70] Schasler, pp. 1065, 1066. - -Such were the theories of the German aestheticians in the Hegelian -direction, but they did not monopolize aesthetic dissertations. In -Germany, side by side and simultaneously with the Hegelian theories, -there appeared theories of beauty not only independent of Hegel's -position (that beauty is the manifestation of the Idea), but -directly contrary to this view, denying and ridiculing it. Such was -the line taken by Herbart and, more particularly, by Schopenhauer. - -According to Herbart (1776-1841), there is not, and cannot be, any -such thing as beauty existing in itself. What does exist is only -our opinion, and it is necessary to find the base of this opinion -(_Aesthetisches Elementarurtheil_). Such bases are connected with our -impressions. There are certain relations which we term beautiful; -and art consists in finding these relations, which are simultaneous -in painting, the plastic art, and architecture, successive and -simultaneous in music, and purely successive in poetry. In -contradiction to the former aestheticians, Herbart holds that objects -are often beautiful which express nothing at all, as, for instance, -the rainbow, which is beautiful for its lines and colors, and not -for its mythological connection with Iris or Noah's rainbow.[71] - - [71] Schasler, pp. 1097-1100. - -Another opponent of Hegel was Schopenhauer, who denied Hegel's whole -system, his aesthetics included. - -According to Schopenhauer (1788-1860), Will objectivizes itself -in the world on various planes; and although the higher the plane -on which it is objectivized the more beautiful it is, yet each -plane has its own beauty. Renunciation of one's individuality and -contemplation of one of these planes of manifestation of Will gives -us a perception of beauty. All men, says Schopenhauer, possess the -capacity to objectivize the Idea on different planes. The genius of -the artist has this capacity in a higher degree, and therefore makes -a higher beauty manifest.[72] - - [72] Schasler, pp. 1124, 1107. - -After these more eminent writers there followed, in Germany, less -original and less influential ones, such as Hartmann, Kirkmann, -Schnasse, and, to some extent, Helmholtz (as an aesthetician), -Bergmann, Jungmann, and an innumerable host of others. - -According to Hartmann (1842), beauty lies, not in the external -world, nor in "the thing in itself," neither does it reside in the -soul of man, but it lies in the "seeming" (_Schein_) produced by the -artist. The thing in itself is not beautiful, but is transformed -into beauty by the artist.[73] - - [73] Knight, pp. 81, 82. - -According to Schnasse (1798-1875), there is no perfect beauty in the -world. In nature there is only an approach toward it. Art gives what -nature cannot give. In the energy of the free _ego_, conscious of -harmony not found in nature, beauty is disclosed.[74] - - [74] Knight, p. 83. - -Kirkmann wrote on experimental aesthetics. All aspects of history -in his system are joined by pure chance. Thus, according to -Kirkmann (1802-1884), there are six realms of history: The realm of -Knowledge, of Wealth, of Morality, of Faith, of Politics, and of -Beauty; and activity in the last-named realm is art.[75] - - [75] Schasler, p. 1121. - -According to Helmholtz (1821), who wrote on beauty as it relates to -music, beauty in musical productions is attained only by following -unalterable laws. These laws are not known to the artist; so that -beauty is manifested by the artist unconsciously, and cannot be -subjected to analysis.[76] - - [76] Knight, pp. 85, 86. - -According to Bergmann (1840) ("Ueber das Schoene," 1887), to -define beauty objectively is impossible. Beauty is only perceived -subjectively, and therefore the problem of aesthetics is to define -what pleases whom.[77] - - [77] Knight, p. 88. - -According to Jungmann (d. 1885), firstly, beauty is a suprasensible -quality of things; secondly, beauty produces in us pleasure by -merely being contemplated; and, thirdly, beauty is the foundation of -love.[78] - - [78] Knight, p. 88. - -The aesthetic theories of the chief representatives of France, -England, and other nations in recent times have been the following:-- - -In France, during this period, the prominent writers on aesthetics -were Cousin, Jouffroy, Pictet, Ravaisson, Leveque. - -Cousin (1792-1867) was an eclectic, and a follower of the German -idealists. According to his theory, beauty always has a moral -foundation. He disputes the doctrine that art is imitation and -that the beautiful is what pleases. He affirms that beauty may be -defined objectively, and that it essentially consists in variety in -unity.[79] - - [79] Knight, p. 112. - -After Cousin came Jouffroy (1796-1842), who was a pupil of Cousin's -and also a follower of the German aestheticians. According to his -definition, beauty is the expression of the invisible by those -natural signs which manifest it. The visible world is the garment by -means of which we see beauty.[80] - - [80] Knight, p. 116. - -The Swiss writer Pictet repeated Hegel and Plato, supposing beauty -to exist in the direct and free manifestation of the divine Idea -revealing itself in sense forms.[81] - - [81] Knight, pp. 118, 119. - -Leveque was a follower of Schelling and Hegel. He holds that beauty -is something invisible behind nature--a force or spirit revealing -itself in ordered energy.[82] - - [82] Knight, pp. 123, 124. - -Similar vague opinions about the nature of beauty were expressed by -the French metaphysician Ravaisson, who considered beauty to be the -ultimate aim and purpose of the world. "_La beaute la plus divine et -principalement la plus parfaite contient le secret du monde._"[83] -And again, "_Le monde entier est l'oeuvre d'une beaute absolue, qui -n'est la cause des choses que par l'amour qu'elle met en elles._" - - [83] "La Philosophie en France," p. 232. - -I purposely abstain from translating these metaphysical expressions, -because, however cloudy the Germans may be, the French, once -they absorb the theories of the Germans and take to imitating -them, far surpass them in uniting heterogeneous conceptions -into one expression, and putting forward one meaning or another -indiscriminately. For instance, the French philosopher Renouvier, -when discussing beauty, says, "_Ne craignons pas de dire qu'une -verite qui ne serait pas belle, ne serait qu'un jeu logique de notre -esprit et que la seule verite solide et digne de ce nom c'est la -beaute._"[84] - - [84] "Du Fondement de l'Induction." - -Besides the aesthetic idealists who wrote and still write under the -influence of German philosophy, the following recent writers have -also influenced the comprehension of art and beauty in France: -Taine, Guyau, Cherbuliez, Coster, and Veron. - -According to Taine (1828-1893), beauty is the manifestation of the -essential characteristic of any important idea more completely than -it is expressed in reality.[85] - - [85] "Philosophie de l'Art," vol. i., 1893, p. 47. - -Guyau (1854-1888) taught that beauty is not something exterior -to the object itself,--is not, as it were, a parasitic growth on -it,--but is itself the very blossoming forth of that on which it -appears. Art is the expression of reasonable and conscious life, -evoking in us both the deepest consciousness of existence and -the highest feelings and loftiest thoughts. Art lifts man from -his personal life into the universal life by means, not only of -participation in the same ideas and beliefs, but also by means of -similarity in feeling.[86] - - [86] Knight, pp. 139-141. - -According to Cherbuliez, art is an activity, (1) satisfying our -innate love of forms (_apparences_), (2) endowing these forms with -ideas, (3) affording pleasure alike to our senses, heart, and -reason. Beauty is not inherent in objects, but is an act of our -souls. Beauty is an illusion; there is no absolute beauty. But what -we consider characteristic and harmonious appears beautiful to us. - -Coster held that the ideas of the beautiful, the good, and the true -are innate. These ideas illuminate our minds and are identical with -God, who is Goodness, Truth, and Beauty. The idea of Beauty includes -unity of essence, variety of constitutive elements, and order, which -brings unity into the various manifestations of life.[87] - - [87] Knight, p. 134. - -For the sake of completeness, I will further cite some of the very -latest writings upon art. - -"La Psychologie du Beau et de l'Art, par Mario Pilo" (1895), says -that beauty is a product of our physical feelings. The aim of art -is pleasure, but this pleasure (for some reason) he considers to be -necessarily highly moral. - -The "Essai sur l'Art Contemporain, par Fierens Gevaert" (1897), says -that art rests on its connection with the past, and on the religious -ideal of the present which the artist holds when giving to his work -the form of his individuality. - -Then again, Sar Peladan's "L'Art Idealiste et Mystique" (1894), -says that beauty is one of the manifestations of God. "_Il n'y -a pas d'autre Realite que Dieu, il n'y a pas d'autre Verite que -Dieu, il n'y a pas d'autre Beaute que Dieu_" (p. 33). This book -is very fantastic and very illiterate, but is characteristic in -the positions it takes up, and noticeable on account of a certain -success it is having with the younger generation in France. - -All the aesthetics diffused in France up to the present time are -similar in kind, but among them Veron's "L'Esthetique" (1878) forms -an exception, being reasonable and clear. That work, though it does -not give an exact definition of art, at least rids aesthetics of the -cloudy conception of an absolute beauty. - -According to Veron (1825-1889), art is the manifestation of emotion -transmitted externally by a combination of lines, forms, colors, or -by a succession of movements, sounds, or words subjected to certain -rhythms.[88] - - [88] "L'Esthetique," p. 106. - -In England, during this period, the writers on aesthetics define -beauty more and more frequently, not by its own qualities, but by -taste; and the discussion about beauty is superseded by a discussion -on taste. - -After Reid (1704-1796), who acknowledged beauty as being entirely -dependent on the spectator, Alison, in his "Essay on the Nature and -Principles of Taste" (1790), proved the same thing. From another -side this was also asserted by Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802), the -grandfather of the celebrated Charles Darwin. - -He says that we consider beautiful that which is connected in our -conception with what we love. Richard Knight's work, "An Analytical -Inquiry into the Principles of Taste," also tends in the same -direction. - -Most of the English theories of aesthetics are on the same lines. The -prominent writers on aesthetics in England during the present century -have been Charles Darwin (to some extent), Herbert Spencer, Grant -Allen, Ker, and Knight. - -According to Charles Darwin (1809-1882--"Descent of Man," 1871), -beauty is a feeling natural not only to man, but also to animals, -and consequently to the ancestors of man. Birds adorn their -nests and esteem beauty in their mates. Beauty has an influence -on marriages. Beauty includes a variety of diverse conceptions. -The origin of the art of music is the call of the males to the -females.[89] - - [89] Knight, p. 238. - -According to Herbert Spencer (b. 1820), the origin of art is -play, a thought previously expressed by Schiller. In the lower -animals all the energy of life is expended in life-maintenance -and race-maintenance; in man, however, there remains, after these -needs are satisfied, some superfluous strength. This excess is -used in play, which passes over into art. Play is an imitation -of real activity; so is art. The sources of aesthetic pleasure are -threefold: (1) That "which exercises the faculties affected in the -most complete ways, with the fewest drawbacks from exercise," (2) -"the difference of a stimulus in large amount, which awakens a glow -of agreeable feeling," (3) the partial revival of the same, with -special combinations.[90] - - [90] Knight, pp. 239, 240. - -In Todhunter's "Theory of the Beautiful" (1872), beauty is -infinite loveliness, which we apprehend both by reason and by the -enthusiasm of love. The recognition of beauty as being such depends -on taste; there can be no criterion for it. The only approach -to a definition is found in culture. (What culture is, is not -defined.) Intrinsically, art--that which affects us through lines, -colors, sounds, or words--is not the product of blind forces, but -of reasonable ones, working, with mutual helpfulness toward a -reasonable aim. Beauty is the reconciliation of contradictions.[91] - - [91] Knight, pp. 240-243. - -Grant Allen is a follower of Spencer, and in his "Physiological -AEsthetics" (1877) he says that beauty has a physical origin. -AEsthetic pleasures come from the contemplation of the beautiful, but -the conception of beauty is obtained by a physiological process. -The origin of art is play; when there is a superfluity of physical -strength man gives himself to play; when there is a superfluity -of receptive power man gives himself to art. The beautiful is -that which affords the maximum of stimulation with the minimum of -waste. Differences in the estimation of beauty proceed from taste. -Taste can be educated. We must have faith in the judgments "of the -finest-nurtured and most discriminative" men. These people form the -taste of the next generation.[92] - - [92] Knight, pp. 250-252. - -According to Ker's "Essay on the Philosophy of Art" (1883), beauty -enables us to make part of the objective world intelligible to -ourselves without being troubled by reference to other parts -of it, as is inevitable for science. So that art destroys the -opposition between the one and the many, between the law and its -manifestation, between the subject and its object, by uniting them. -Art is the revelation and vindication of freedom, because it is free -from the darkness and incomprehensibility of finite things.[93] - - [93] Knight, pp. 258, 259. - -According to Knight's "Philosophy of the Beautiful," Part II. -(1893), beauty is (as with Schelling) the union of object and -subject, the drawing forth from nature of that which is cognate to -man, and the recognition in oneself of that which is common to all -nature. - -The opinions on beauty and on art here mentioned are far from -exhausting what has been written on the subject. And every day fresh -writers on aesthetics arise, in whose disquisitions appear the same -enchanted confusion and contradictoriness in defining beauty. Some, -by inertia, continue the mystical aesthetics of Baumgarten and Hegel -with sundry variations; others transfer the question to the region -of subjectivity, and seek for the foundation of the beautiful in -questions of taste; others--the aestheticians of the very latest -formation--seek the origin of beauty in the laws of physiology; and -finally, others again investigate the question quite independently -of the conception of beauty. Thus Sully, in his "Sensation and -Intuition: Studies in Psychology and AEsthetics" (1874), dismisses -the conception of beauty altogether, art, by his definition, being -the production of some permanent object or passing action fitted -to supply active enjoyment to the producer, and a pleasurable -impression to a number of spectators or listeners, quite apart from -any personal advantage derived from it.[94] - - [94] Knight, p. 243. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - - -To what do these definitions of beauty amount? Not reckoning the -thoroughly inaccurate definitions of beauty which fail to cover -the conception of art, and which suppose beauty to consist either -in utility, or in adjustment to a purpose, or in symmetry, or in -order, or in proportion, or in smoothness, or in harmony of the -parts, or in unity amid variety, or in various combinations of -these--not reckoning these unsatisfactory attempts at objective -definition, all the aesthetic definitions of beauty lead to two -fundamental conceptions. The first is that beauty is something -having an independent existence (existing in itself), that it is one -of the manifestations of the absolutely Perfect, of the Idea, of -the Spirit, of Will, or of God; the other is that beauty is a kind -of pleasure received by us, not having personal advantage for its -object. - -The first of these definitions was accepted by Fichte, Schelling, -Hegel, Schopenhauer, and the philosophizing Frenchmen, Cousin, -Jouffroy, Ravaisson, and others, not to enumerate the second-rate -aesthetic philosophers. And this same objective-mystical definition -of beauty is held by a majority of the educated people of our day. -It is a conception very widely spread, especially among the elder -generation. - -The second view, that beauty is a certain kind of pleasure received -by us, not having personal advantage for its aim, finds favor -chiefly among the English aesthetic writers, and is shared by the -other part of our society, principally by the younger generation. - -So there are (and it could not be otherwise) only two definitions -of beauty: the one objective, mystical, merging this conception -into that of the highest perfection, God--a fantastic definition, -founded on nothing; the other, on the contrary, a very simple and -intelligible subjective one, which considers beauty to be that which -pleases (I do not add to the word "pleases" the words "without the -aim of advantage," because "pleases" naturally presupposes the -absence of the idea of profit). - -On the one hand, beauty is viewed as something mystical and very -elevated, but unfortunately at the same time very indefinite, and -consequently embracing philosophy, religion, and life itself (as in -the theories of Schelling and Hegel, and their German and French -followers); or, on the other hand (as necessarily follows from the -definition of Kant and his adherents), beauty is simply a certain -kind of disinterested pleasure received by us. And this conception -of beauty, although it seems very clear is, unfortunately, again -inexact; for it widens out on the other side, _i.e._ it includes the -pleasure derived from drink, from food, from touching a delicate -skin, etc., as is acknowledged by Guyau, Kralik, and others. - -It is true that, following the development of the aesthetic doctrines -on beauty, we may notice that, though at first (in the times when -the foundations of the science of aesthetics were being laid) the -metaphysical definition of beauty prevailed, yet the nearer we get -to our own times the more does an experimental definition (recently -assuming a physiological form) come to the front, so that at last -we even meet with such aestheticians as Veron and Sully, who try to -escape entirely from the conception of beauty. But such aestheticians -have very little success, and with the majority of the public, as -well as of artists and the learned, a conception of beauty is firmly -held which agrees with the definitions contained in most of the -aesthetic treatises, _i.e._ which regards beauty either as something -mystical or metaphysical, or as a special kind of enjoyment. - -What, then, is this conception of beauty, so stubbornly held to by -people of our circle and day as furnishing a definition of art? - -In the subjective aspect, we call beauty that which supplies us with -a particular kind of pleasure. - -In the objective aspect, we call beauty something absolutely -perfect, and we acknowledge it to be so only because we receive, -from the manifestation of this absolute perfection, a certain kind -of pleasure; so that this objective definition is nothing but -the subjective conception differently expressed. In reality both -conceptions of beauty amount to one and the same thing; namely, -the reception by us of a certain kind of pleasure; _i.e._ we call -"beauty" that which pleases us without evoking in us desire. - -Such being the position of affairs, it would seem only natural -that the science of art should decline to content itself with a -definition of art based on beauty (_i.e._ on that which pleases), -and seek a general definition, which should apply to all artistic -productions, and by reference to which we might decide whether a -certain article belonged to the realm of art or not. But no such -definition is supplied, as the reader may see from those summaries -of the aesthetic theories which I have given, and as he may discover -even more clearly from the original aesthetic works, if he will be -at the pains to read them. All attempts to define absolute beauty -in itself--whether as an imitation of nature, or as suitability to -its object, or as a correspondence of parts, or as symmetry, or as -harmony, or as unity in variety, etc.--either define nothing at all, -or define only some traits of some artistic productions, and are far -from including all that everybody has always held, and still holds, -to be art. - -There is no objective definition of beauty. The existing definitions -(both the metaphysical and the experimental) amount only to one and -the same subjective definition, which (strange as it seems to say -so) is, that art is that which makes beauty manifest, and beauty -is that which pleases (without exciting desire). Many aestheticians -have felt the insufficiency and instability of such a definition, -and, in order to give it a firm basis, have asked themselves why -a thing pleases. And they have converted the discussion on beauty -into a question concerning taste, as did Hutcheson, Voltaire, -Diderot, and others. But all attempts to define what taste is must -lead to nothing, as the reader may see both from the history of -aesthetics and experimentally. There is and can be no explanation -of why one thing pleases one man and displeases another, or _vice -versa_. So that the whole existing science of aesthetics fails to -do what we might expect from it, being a mental activity calling -itself a science; namely, it does not define the qualities and laws -of art, or of the beautiful (if that be the content of art), or -the nature of taste (if taste decides the question of art and its -merit), and then, on the basis of such definitions, acknowledge as -art those productions which correspond to these laws, and reject -those which do not come under them. But this science of aesthetics -consists in first acknowledging a certain set of productions to be -art (because they please us), and then framing such a theory of art -that all those productions which please a certain circle of people -should fit into it. There exists an art canon, according to which -certain productions favored by our circle are acknowledged as being -art,--Phidias, Sophocles, Homer, Titian, Raphael, Bach, Beethoven, -Dante, Shakespear, Goethe, and others,--and the aesthetic laws must -be such as to embrace all these productions. In aesthetic literature -you will incessantly meet with opinions on the merit and importance -of art, founded not on any certain laws by which this or that is -held to be good or bad, but merely on the consideration whether this -art tallies with the art canon we have drawn up. - -The other day I was reading a far from ill-written book by Folgeldt. -Discussing the demand for morality in works of art, the author -plainly says that we must not demand morality in art. And in proof -of this he advances the fact that if we admit such a demand, -Shakespear's "Romeo and Juliet," and Goethe's "Wilhelm Meister," -would not fit into the definition of good art; but since both these -books are included in our canon of art, he concludes that the demand -is unjust. And therefore it is necessary to find a definition of art -which shall fit the works; and instead of a demand for morality, -Folgeldt postulates as the basis of art a demand for the important -(_Bedeutungsvolles_). - -All the existing aesthetic standards are built on this plan. Instead -of giving a definition of true art, and then deciding what is and -what is not good art by judging whether a work conforms or does -not conform to the definition, a certain class of works, which -for some reason please a certain circle of people, is accepted as -being art, and a definition of art is then devised to cover all -these productions. I recently came upon a remarkable instance of -this method in a very good German work, "The History of Art in the -Nineteenth Century," by Muther. Describing the pre-Raphaelites, the -Decadents and the Symbolists (who are already included in the canon -of art), he not only does not venture to blame their tendency, but -earnestly endeavors to widen his standard so that it may include -them all, they appearing to him to represent a legitimate reaction -from the excesses of realism. No matter what insanities appear in -art, when once they find acceptance among the upper classes of our -society, a theory is quickly invented to explain and sanction them; -just as if there had never been periods in history when certain -special circles of people recognized and approved false, deformed, -and insensate art which subsequently left no trace and has been -utterly forgotten. And to what lengths the insanity and deformity -of art may go, especially when, as in our days, it knows that it is -considered infallible, may be seen by what is being done in the art -of our circle to-day. - -So that the theory of art, founded on beauty, expounded by -aesthetics, and, in dim outline, professed by the public, is nothing -but the setting up as good of that which has pleased and pleases us, -_i.e._ pleases a certain class of people. - -In order to define any human activity, it is necessary to understand -its sense and importance. And, in order to do that, it is primarily -necessary to examine that activity in itself, in its dependence on -its causes, and in connection with its effects, and not merely in -relation to the pleasure we can get from it. - -If we say that the aim of any activity is merely our pleasure, and -define it solely by that pleasure, our definition will evidently be -a false one. But this is precisely what has occurred in the efforts -to define art. Now, if we consider the food question, it will not -occur to anyone to affirm that the importance of food consists -in the pleasure we receive when eating it. Every one understands -that the satisfaction of our taste cannot serve as a basis for our -definition of the merits of food, and that we have therefore no -right to presuppose that the dinners with cayenne pepper, Limburg -cheese, alcohol, etc., to which we are accustomed and which please -us, form the very best human food. - -And in the same way, beauty, or that which pleases us, can in no -sense serve as the basis for the definition of art; nor can a series -of objects which afford us pleasure serve as the model of what art -should be. - -To see the aim and purpose of art in the pleasure we get from it, is -like assuming (as is done by people of the lowest moral development, -_e.g._ by savages) that the purpose and aim of food is the pleasure -derived when consuming it. - -Just as people who conceive the aim and purpose of food to be -pleasure cannot recognize the real meaning of eating, so people -who consider the aim of art to be pleasure cannot realize its true -meaning and purpose, because they attribute to an activity, the -meaning of which lies in its connection with other phenomena of -life, the false and exceptional aim of pleasure. People come to -understand that the meaning of eating lies in the nourishment of -the body only when they cease to consider that the object of that -activity is pleasure. And it is the same with regard to art. People -will come to understand the meaning of art only when they cease to -consider that the aim of that activity is beauty, _i.e._ pleasure. -The acknowledgment of beauty (_i.e._ of a certain kind of pleasure -received from art) as being the aim of art, not only fails to assist -us in finding a definition of what art is, but, on the contrary, by -transferring the question into a region quite foreign to art (into -metaphysical, psychological, physiological, and even historical -discussions as to why such a production pleases one person, and -such another displeases or pleases some one else), it renders such -definition impossible. And since discussions as to why one man -likes pears and another prefers meat do not help toward finding a -definition of what is essential in nourishment, so the solution -of questions of taste in art (to which the discussions on art -involuntarily come), not only does not help to make clear what this -particular human activity which we call art really consists in, but -renders such elucidation quite impossible, until we rid ourselves -of a conception which justifies every kind of art, at the cost of -confusing the whole matter. - -To the question, What is this art, to which is offered up the labor -of millions, the very lives of men, and even morality itself? we -have extracted replies from the existing aesthetics, which all amount -to this that the aim of art is beauty, that beauty is recognized -by the enjoyment it gives, and that artistic enjoyment is a good -and important thing, because it _is_ enjoyment. In a word, that -enjoyment is good because it is enjoyment. Thus, what is considered -the definition of art is no definition at all, but only a shuffle -to justify existing art. Therefore, however strange it may seem to -say so, in spite of the mountains of books written about art, no -exact definition of art has been constructed. And the reason of this -is that the conception of art has been based on the conception of -beauty. - - - - -CHAPTER V - - -What is art, if we put aside the conception of beauty, which -confuses the whole matter? The latest and most comprehensible -definitions of art, apart from the conception of beauty, are the -following: (1 _a_) Art is an activity arising even in the animal -kingdom, and springing from sexual desire and the propensity to -play (Schiller, Darwin, Spencer), and (1 _b_) accompanied by a -pleasurable excitement of the nervous system (Grant Allen). This is -the physiological-evolutionary definition. (2) Art is the external -manifestation, by means of lines, colors, movements, sounds, or -words, of emotions felt by man (Veron). This is the experimental -definition. According to the very latest definition (Sully), (3) Art -is "the production of some permanent object or passing action, which -is fitted, not only to supply an active enjoyment to the producer, -but to convey a pleasurable impression to a number of spectators or -listeners, quite apart from any personal advantage to be derived -from it." - -Notwithstanding the superiority of these definitions to the -metaphysical definitions which depended on the conception of -beauty, they are yet far from exact. (1 _a_) The first, the -physiological-evolutionary definition, is inexact, because, instead -of speaking about the artistic activity itself, which is the real -matter in hand, it treats of the derivation of art. The modification -of it (1 _b_), based on the physiological effects on the human -organism, is inexact, because within the limits of such definition -many other human activities can be included, as has occurred in -the neo-aesthetic theories, which reckon as art the preparation of -handsome clothes, pleasant scents, and even of victuals. - -The experimental definition (2), which makes art consist in the -expression of emotions, is inexact, because a man may express his -emotions by means of lines, colors, sounds, or words, and yet may -not act on others by such expression; and then the manifestation of -his emotions is not art. - -The third definition (that of Sully) is inexact, because in the -production of objects or actions affording pleasure to the producer -and a pleasant emotion to the spectators or hearers apart from -personal advantage may be included the showing of conjuring tricks -or gymnastic exercises, and other activities which are not art. -And, further, many things, the production of which does not afford -pleasure to the producer, and the sensation received from which -is unpleasant, such as gloomy, heartrending scenes in a poetic -description or a play, may nevertheless be undoubted works of art. - -The inaccuracy of all these definitions arises from the fact that -in them all (as also in the metaphysical definitions) the object -considered is the pleasure art may give, and not the purpose it may -serve in the life of man and of humanity. - -In order correctly to define art, it is necessary, first of all, -to cease to consider it as a means to pleasure, and to consider it -as one of the conditions of human life. Viewing it in this way, we -cannot fail to observe that art is one of the means of intercourse -between man and man. - -Every work of art causes the receiver to enter into a certain -kind of relationship both with him who produced, or is producing, -the art, and with all those who, simultaneously, previously, or -subsequently, receive the same artistic impression. - -Speech, transmitting the thoughts and experiences of men, serves as -a means of union among them, and art acts in a similar manner. The -peculiarity of this latter means of intercourse, distinguishing it -from intercourse by means of words, consists in this, that whereas -by words a man transmits his thoughts to another, by means of art he -transmits his feelings. - -The activity of art is based on the fact that a man, receiving -through his sense of hearing or sight another man's expression -of feeling, is capable of experiencing the emotion which moved -the man who expressed it. To take the simplest example: one man -laughs, and another, who hears, becomes merry; or a man weeps, and -another, who hears, feels sorrow. A man is excited or irritated, and -another man, seeing him, comes to a similar state of mind. By his -movements, or by the sounds of his voice, a man expresses courage -and determination, or sadness and calmness, and this state of mind -passes on to others. A man suffers, expressing his sufferings by -groans and spasms, and this suffering transmits itself to other -people; a man expresses his feeling of admiration, devotion, fear, -respect, or love to certain objects, persons, or phenomena, and -others are infected by the same feelings of admiration, devotion, -fear, respect, or love to the same objects, persons, and phenomena. - -And it is on this capacity of man to receive another man's -expression of feeling, and experience those feelings himself, that -the activity of art is based. - -If a man infects another or others, directly, immediately, by his -appearance, or by the sounds he gives vent to at the very time he -experiences the feeling; if he causes another man to yawn when he -himself cannot help yawning, or to laugh or cry when he himself -is obliged to laugh or cry, or to suffer when he himself is -suffering--that does not amount to art. - -Art begins when one person, with the object of joining another -or others to himself in one and the same feeling, expresses that -feeling by certain external indications. To take the simplest -example: a boy, having experienced, let us say, fear on encountering -a wolf, relates that encounter; and, in order to evoke in others -the feeling he has experienced, describes himself, his condition -before the encounter, the surroundings, the wood, his own -light-heartedness, and then the wolf's appearance, its movements, -the distance between himself and the wolf, etc. All this, if only -the boy, when telling the story, again experiences the feelings he -had lived through and infects the hearers and compels them to feel -what the narrator had experienced, is art. If even the boy had not -seen a wolf but had frequently been afraid of one, and if, wishing -to evoke in others the fear he had felt, he invented an encounter -with a wolf, and recounted it so as to make his hearers share the -feelings he experienced when he feared the wolf, that also would be -art. And just in the same way it is art if a man, having experienced -either the fear of suffering or the attraction of enjoyment (whether -in reality or in imagination), expresses these feelings on canvas or -in marble so that others are infected by them. And it is also art if -a man feels or imagines to himself feelings of delight, gladness, -sorrow, despair, courage, or despondency, and the transition from -one to another of these feelings, and expresses these feelings by -sounds, so that the hearers are infected by them, and experience -them as they were experienced by the composer. - -The feelings with which the artist infects others may be most -various,--very strong or very weak, very important or very -insignificant, very bad or very good: feelings of love for native -land, self-devotion and submission to fate or to God expressed -in a drama, raptures of lovers described in a novel, feelings of -voluptuousness expressed in a picture, courage expressed in a -triumphal march, merriment evoked by a dance, humor evoked by a -funny story, the feeling of quietness transmitted by an evening -landscape or by a lullaby, or the feeling of admiration evoked by a -beautiful arabesque--it is all art. - -If only the spectators or auditors are infected by the feelings -which the author has felt, it is art. - -_To evoke in oneself a feeling one has once experienced, and having -evoked it in oneself, then, by means of movements, lines, colors, -sounds, or forms expressed in words, so to transmit that feeling -that others may experience the same feeling--this is the activity of -art._ - -_Art is a human activity, consisting in this, that one man -consciously, by means of certain external signs, hands on to others -feelings he has lived through, and that other people are infected by -these feelings, and also experience them._ - -Art is not, as the metaphysicians say, the manifestation of some -mysterious Idea of beauty, or God; it is not, as the aesthetical -physiologists say, a game in which man lets off his excess of -stored-up energy; it is not the expression of man's emotions by -external signs; it is not the production of pleasing objects; and, -above all, it is not pleasure; but it is a means of union among -men, joining them together in the same feelings, and indispensable -for the life and progress toward well-being of individuals and of -humanity. - -As, thanks to man's capacity to express thoughts by words, every man -may know all that has been done for him in the realms of thought by -all humanity before his day, and can, in the present, thanks to this -capacity to understand the thoughts of others, become a sharer in -their activity, and can himself hand on to his contemporaries and -descendants the thoughts he has assimilated from others, as well as -those which have arisen within himself; so, thanks to man's capacity -to be infected with the feelings of others by means of art, all that -is being lived through by his contemporaries is accessible to him, -as well as the feelings experienced by men thousands of years ago, -and he has also the possibility of transmitting his own feelings to -others. - -If people lacked this capacity to receive the thoughts conceived -by the men who preceded them, and to pass on to others their own -thoughts, men would be like wild beasts, or like Kaspar Hauser.[95] - - [95] "The foundling of Nuremberg," found in the market-place of - that town on 26th May, 1828, apparently some sixteen years old. - He spoke little, and was almost totally ignorant even of common - objects. He subsequently explained that he had been brought up in - confinement underground, and visited by only one man, whom he saw - but seldom.--TR. - -And if men lacked this other capacity of being infected by art, -people might be almost more savage still, and, above all, more -separated from, and more hostile to, one another. - -And therefore the activity of art is a most important one, as -important as the activity of speech itself, and as generally -diffused. - -We are accustomed to understand art to be only what we hear and see -in theaters, concerts, and exhibitions; together with buildings, -statues, poems, novels.... But all this is but the smallest part of -the art by which we communicate with each other in life. All human -life is filled with works of art of every kind,--from cradle-song, -jest, mimicry, the ornamentation of houses, dress, and utensils, up -to church services, buildings, monuments, and triumphal processions. -It is all artistic activity. So that by art, in the limited sense of -the word, we do not mean all human activity transmitting feelings, -but only that part which we for some reason select from it and to -which we attach special importance. - -This special importance has always been given by all men to that -part of this activity which transmits feelings flowing from -their religious perception, and this small part of art they have -specifically called art, attaching to it the full meaning of the -word. - -That was how men of old--Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle--looked on -art. Thus did the Hebrew prophets and the ancient Christians regard -art; thus it was, and still is, understood by the Mahommedans, -and thus is it still understood by religious folk among our own -peasantry. - -Some teachers of mankind--as Plato in his "Republic," and people -such as the primitive Christians, the strict Mahommedans, and the -Buddhists--have gone so far as to repudiate all art. - -People viewing art in this way (in contradiction to the prevalent -view of to-day, which regards any art as good if only it affords -pleasure) considered, and consider, that art (as contrasted with -speech, which need not be listened to) is so highly dangerous in its -power to infect people against their wills, that mankind will lose -far less by banishing all art than by tolerating each and every art. - -Evidently such people were wrong in repudiating all art, for they -denied that which cannot be denied,--one of the indispensable means -of communication, without which mankind could not exist. But not -less wrong are the people of civilized European society of our class -and day, in favoring any art if it but serves beauty, _i.e._ gives -people pleasure. - -Formerly, people feared lest among the works of art there might -chance to be some causing corruption, and they prohibited art -altogether. Now, they only fear lest they should be deprived of any -enjoyment art can afford, and patronize any art. And I think the -last error is much grosser than the first, and that its consequences -are far more harmful. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - - -But how could it happen that that very art, which in ancient times -was merely tolerated (if tolerated at all), should have come, in our -times, to be invariably considered a good thing if only it affords -pleasure? - -It has resulted from the following causes. The estimation of the -value of art (_i.e._ of the feelings it transmits) depends on men's -perception of the meaning of life; depends on what they consider to -be the good and the evil of life. And what is good and what is evil -is defined by what are termed religions. - -Humanity unceasingly moves forward from a lower, more partial, and -obscure understanding of life, to one more general and more lucid. -And in this, as in every movement, there are leaders,--those who -have understood the meaning of life more clearly than others,--and -of these advanced men there is always one who has, in his words and -by his life, expressed this meaning more clearly, accessibly, and -strongly than others. This man's expression of the meaning of life, -together with those superstitions, traditions, and ceremonies which -usually form themselves round the memory of such a man, is what -is called a religion. Religions are the exponents of the highest -comprehension of life accessible to the best and foremost men at -a given time in a given society; a comprehension toward which, -inevitably and irresistibly, all the rest of that society must -advance. And therefore only religions have always served, and still -serve, as bases for the valuation of human sentiments. If feelings -bring men nearer the ideal their religion indicates, if they are in -harmony with it and do not contradict it, they are good; if they -estrange men from it and oppose it, they are bad. - -If the religion places the meaning of life in worshiping one God -and fulfilling what is regarded as His will, as was the case among -the Jews, then the feelings flowing from love to that God, and -to His law, successfully transmitted through the art of poetry -by the prophets, by the psalms, or by the epic of the book of -Genesis, is good, high art. All opposing that, as, for instance, -the transmission of feelings of devotion to strange gods, or of -feelings incompatible with the law of God, would be considered bad -art. Or if, as was the case among the Greeks, the religion places -the meaning of life in earthly happiness, in beauty and in strength, -then art successfully transmitting the joy and energy of life -would be considered good art, but art which transmitted feelings -of effeminacy or despondency would be bad art. If the meaning of -life is seen in the well-being of one's nation, or in honoring -one's ancestors and continuing the mode of life led by them, as -was the case among the Romans and the Chinese respectively, then -art transmitting feelings of joy at sacrificing one's personal -well-being for the common weal, or at exalting one's ancestors and -maintaining their traditions, would be considered good art, but -art expressing feelings contrary to this would be regarded as bad. -If the meaning of life is seen in freeing oneself from the yoke of -animalism, as is the case among the Buddhists, then art successfully -transmitting feelings that elevate the soul and humble the flesh -will be good art, and all that transmits feelings strengthening the -bodily passions will be bad art. - -In every age, and in every human society, there exists a religious -sense, common to that whole society, of what is good and what is -bad, and it is this religious conception that decides the value of -the feelings transmitted by art. And therefore, among all nations, -art which transmitted feelings considered to be good by this general -religious sense was recognized as being good and was encouraged; -but art which transmitted feelings considered to be bad by this -general religious conception, was recognized as being bad, and was -rejected. All the rest of the immense field of art by means of which -people communicate one with another, was not esteemed at all, and -was only noticed when it ran counter to the religious conception of -its age, and then merely to be repudiated. Thus it was among all -nations,--Greeks, Jews, Indians, Egyptians, and Chinese,--and so it -was when Christianity appeared. - -The Christianity of the first centuries recognized as productions -of good art only legends, lives of saints, sermons, prayers, and -hymn-singing, evoking love of Christ, emotion at His life, desire to -follow His example, renunciation of worldly life, humility, and the -love of others; all productions transmitting feelings of personal -enjoyment they considered to be bad, and therefore rejected: for -instance, tolerating plastic representations only when they were -symbolical, they rejected all the pagan sculptures. - -This was so among the Christians of the first centuries, who -accepted Christ's teaching, if not quite in its true form, at least -not in the perverted, paganized form in which it was accepted -subsequently. - -But besides this Christianity, from the time of the wholesale -conversion of nations by order of the authorities, as in the days of -Constantine, Charlemagne, and Vladimir, there appeared another, a -Church Christianity, which was nearer to paganism than to Christ's -teaching. And this Church Christianity, in accordance with its own -teaching, estimated quite otherwise the feelings of people and the -productions of art which transmitted those feelings. - -This Church Christianity not only did not acknowledge the -fundamental and essential positions of true Christianity,--the -immediate relationship of each man to the Father, the consequent -brotherhood and equality of all men, and the substitution of -humility and love in place of every kind of violence,--but, on the -contrary, having set up a heavenly hierarchy similar to the pagan -mythology, and having introduced the worship of Christ, of the -Virgin, of angels, of apostles, of saints, and of martyrs, and not -only of these divinities themselves, but also of their images, it -made blind faith in the Church and its ordinances the essential -point of its teaching. - -However foreign this teaching may have been to true Christianity; -however degraded, not only in comparison with true Christianity, -but even with the life-conception of Romans such as Julian and -others,--it was, for all that, to the barbarians who accepted it, -a higher doctrine than their former adoration of gods, heroes, and -good and bad spirits. And therefore this teaching was a religion -to them, and on the basis of that religion the art of the time -was assessed. And art transmitting pious adoration of the Virgin, -Jesus, the saints and the angels, a blind faith in and submission -to the Church, fear of torments and hope of blessedness in a life -beyond the grave, was considered good; all art opposed to this was -considered bad. - -The teaching on the basis of which this art arose was a perversion -of Christ's teaching, but the art which sprang up on this perverted -teaching was nevertheless a true art, because it corresponded to the -religious view of life held by the people among whom it arose. - -The artists of the Middle Ages, vitalized by the same source of -feeling--religion--as the mass of the people, and transmitting, -in architecture, sculpture, painting, music, poetry or drama, the -feelings and states of mind they experienced, were true artists; -and their activity, founded on the highest conceptions accessible -to their age and common to the entire people, though, for our times -a mean art, was, nevertheless a true one, shared by the whole -community. - -And this was the state of things until, in the upper, rich, more -educated classes of European society, doubt arose as to the truth -of that understanding of life which was expressed by Church -Christianity. When, after the Crusades and the maximum development -of papal power and its abuses, people of the rich classes became -acquainted with the wisdom of the classics, and saw, on the one -hand, the reasonable lucidity of the teaching of the ancient sages, -and, on the other hand, the incompatibility of the Church doctrine -with the teaching of Christ, they lost all possibility of continuing -to believe the Church teaching. - -If, in externals, they still kept to the forms of Church teaching, -they could no longer believe in it, and held to it only by inertia -and for the sake of influencing the masses, who continued to believe -blindly in Church doctrine, and whom the upper classes, for their -own advantage, considered it necessary to support in those beliefs. - -So that a time came when Church Christianity ceased to be the -general religious doctrine of all Christian people; some--the -masses--continued blindly to believe in it, but the upper -classes--those in whose hands lay the power and wealth, and -therefore the leisure to produce art and the means to stimulate -it--ceased to believe in that teaching. - -In respect to religion, the upper circles of the Middle Ages found -themselves in the same position in which the educated Romans were -before Christianity arose, _i.e._ they no longer believed in the -religion of the masses, but had no beliefs to put in place of the -worn-out Church doctrine which for them had lost its meaning. - -There was only this difference: that whereas for the Romans, -who lost faith in their emperor-gods and household-gods, it was -impossible to extract anything further from all the complex -mythology they had borrowed from all the conquered nations, and it -was consequently necessary to find a completely new conception of -life, the people of the Middle Ages, when they doubted the truth of -the Church teaching, had no need to seek a fresh one. That Christian -teaching which they professed in a perverted form as Church doctrine -had mapped out the path of human progress so far ahead that they -had but to rid themselves of those perversions which hid the -teaching announced by Christ, and to adopt its real meaning--if not -completely, then at least in some greater degree than that in which -the Church had held it. And this was partially done, not only in the -reformations of Wyclif, Huss, Luther, and Calvin, but by all that -current of non-Church Christianity represented in earlier times by -the Paulicians, the Bogomili,[96] and, afterward, by the Waldenses -and the other non-Church Christians who were called heretics. But -this could be, and was, done chiefly by poor people--who did not -rule. A few of the rich and strong, like Francis of Assisi and -others, accepted the Christian teaching in its full significance, -even though it undermined their privileged positions. But most -people of the upper classes (though in the depth of their souls -they had lost faith in the Church teaching) could not or would not -act thus, because the essence of that Christian view of life, which -stood ready to be adopted when once they rejected the Church faith, -was a teaching of the brotherhood (and therefore the equality) of -man, and this negatived those privileges on which they lived, in -which they had grown up and been educated, and to which they were -accustomed. Not, in the depth of their hearts, believing in the -Church teaching,--which had outlived its age and had no longer any -true meaning for them,--and not being strong enough to accept true -Christianity, men of these rich, governing classes--popes, kings, -dukes, and all the great ones of the earth--were left without any -religion, with but the external forms of one, which they supported -as being profitable and even necessary for themselves, since these -forms screened a teaching which justified those privileges which -they made use of. In reality, these people believed in nothing, just -as the Romans of the first centuries of our era believed in nothing. -But at the same time these were the people who had the power and the -wealth, and these were the people who rewarded art and directed it. - - [96] Eastern sects well known in early Church history, who rejected - the Church's rendering of Christ's teaching, and were cruelly - persecuted.--TR. - -And, let it be noticed, it was just among these people that there -grew up an art esteemed, not according to its success in expressing -men's religious feelings, but in proportion to its beauty,--in other -words, according to the enjoyment it gave. - -No longer able to believe in the Church religion, whose falsehood -they had detected, and incapable of accepting true Christian -teaching, which denounced their whole manner of life, these rich and -powerful people, stranded without any religious conception of life, -involuntarily returned to that pagan view of things which places -life's meaning in personal enjoyment. And then took place among the -upper classes what is called the "Renaissance of science and art," -and which was really not only a denial of every religion, but also -an assertion that religion is unnecessary. - -The Church doctrine is so coherent a system that it cannot be -altered or corrected without destroying it altogether. As soon -as doubt arose with regard to the infallibility of the Pope (and -this doubt was then in the minds of all educated people), doubt -inevitably followed as to the truth of tradition. But doubt as to -the truth of tradition is fatal not only to popery and Catholicism, -but also to the whole Church creed, with all its dogmas: the -divinity of Christ, the resurrection, and the Trinity; and it -destroys the authority of the Scriptures, since they were considered -to be inspired only because the tradition of the Church decided it -so. - -So that the majority of the highest classes of that age, even the -popes and the ecclesiastics, really believed in nothing at all. -In the Church doctrine these people did not believe, for they saw -its insolvency; but neither could they follow Francis of Assisi, -Keltchitsky,[97] and most of the heretics, in acknowledging the -moral, social teaching of Christ, for that teaching undermined their -social position. And so these people remained without any religious -view of life. And, having none, they could have no standard -wherewith to estimate what was good and what was bad art but that of -personal enjoyment. And, having acknowledged their criterion of what -was good to be pleasure, _i.e._ beauty, these people of the upper -classes of European society went back in their comprehension of art -to the gross conception of the primitive Greeks which Plato had -already condemned. And conformably to this understanding of life, a -theory of art was formulated. - - [97] Keltchitsky, a Bohemian of the fifteenth century, was the - author of a remarkable book, "The Net of Faith," directed against - Church and State. It is mentioned in Tolstoi's "The Kingdom of God - is Within You."--TR. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - - -From the time that people of the upper classes lost faith in Church -Christianity, beauty (_i.e._ the pleasure received from art) became -their standard of good and bad art. And, in accordance with that -view, an aesthetic theory naturally sprang up among those upper -classes justifying such a conception,--a theory according to which -the aim of art is to exhibit beauty. The partizans of this aesthetic -theory, in confirmation of its truth, affirmed that it was no -invention of their own, but that it existed in the nature of things, -and was recognized even by the ancient Greeks. But this assertion -was quite arbitrary, and has no foundation other than the fact that -among the ancient Greeks, in consequence of the low grade of their -moral ideal (as compared with the Christian), their conception of -the good, +to agathon+, was not yet sharply divided from -their conception of the beautiful,+to kalon+. - -That highest perfection of goodness (not only not identical with -beauty, but, for the most part, contrasting with it) which was -discerned by the Jews even in the times of Isaiah, and fully -expressed by Christianity, was quite unknown to the Greeks. They -supposed that the beautiful must necessarily also be the good. It is -true that their foremost thinkers--Socrates, Plato, Aristotle--felt -that goodness may happen not to coincide with beauty. Socrates -expressly subordinated beauty to goodness; Plato, to unite the two -conceptions, spoke of spiritual beauty; while Aristotle demanded -from art that it should have a moral influence on people (+katharsis+). -But, notwithstanding all this, they could not quite dismiss the notion -that beauty and goodness coincide. - -And consequently, in the language of that period, a compound word -(+kalo-kagathia+, beauty-goodness) came into use to express that -notion. - -Evidently the Greek sages began to draw near to that perception of -goodness which is expressed in Buddhism and in Christianity, and -they got entangled in defining the relation between goodness and -beauty. Plato's reasonings about beauty and goodness are full of -contradictions. And it was just this confusion of ideas that those -Europeans of a later age, who had lost all faith, tried to elevate -into a law. They tried to prove that this union of beauty and -goodness is inherent in the very essence of things; that beauty and -goodness must coincide; and that the word and conception +kalo-kagathia+ -(which had a meaning for Greeks, but has none at all for Christians) -represents the highest ideal of humanity. On this misunderstanding -the new science of aesthetics was built up. And, to justify its -existence, the teachings of the ancients on art were so twisted -as to make it appear that this invented science of aesthetics had -existed among the Greeks. - -In reality, the reasoning of the ancients on art was quite unlike -ours. As Benard, in his book on the aesthetics of Aristotle, quite -justly remarks, "_Pour qui veut y regarder de pres, la theorie du -beau et celle de l'art sont tout a fait separees dans Aristote, -comme elles le sont dans Platon et chez tous leurs successeurs_" -("L'Esthetique d'Aristote et de ses Successeurs," Paris, 1889, p. -28).[98] And indeed the reasoning of the ancients on art not only -does not confirm our science of aesthetics, but rather contradicts -its doctrine of beauty. But nevertheless all the aesthetic -guides, from Schasler to Knight, declare that the science of the -beautiful--aesthetic science--was commenced by the ancients, by -Socrates, Plato, Aristotle; and was continued, they say, partially -by the Epicureans and Stoics: by Seneca and Plutarch, down to -Plotinus. But it is supposed that this science, by some unfortunate -accident, suddenly vanished in the fourth century, and stayed away -for about 1500 years, and only after these 1500 years had passed did -it revive in Germany, 1750 A.D., in Baumgarten's doctrine. - - [98] Any one examining closely may see that the theory of beauty and - that of art are quite separated in Aristotle as they are in Plato - and in all their successors. - -After Plotinus, says Schasler, fifteen centuries passed away during -which there was not the slightest scientific interest felt for the -world of beauty and art. These one and a half thousand years, says -he, have been lost to aesthetics, and have contributed nothing toward -the erection of the learned edifice of this science.[99] - - [99] Die Luecke von fuenf Jahrhunderten, welche zwischen den - Kunst-philosophischen Betrachtungen des Plato und Aristoteles und - die des Plotins faellt, kann zwar auffaellig erscheinen; dennoch kann - man eigentlich nicht sagen, dass in dieser Zwischenzeit ueberhaupt - von aesthetischen Dingen nicht die Rede gewesen; oder dass gar ein - voelliger Mangel an Zusammenhang zwischen den Kunst-anschauungen - des letztgenannten Philosophen und denen der ersteren existire. - Freilich wurde die von Aristoteles begruendete Wissenschaft in Nichts - dadurch gefoerdert; immerhin aber zeigt sich in jener Zwischenzeit - noch ein gewisses Interesse fuer aesthetische Fragen. Nach Plotin - aber, die wenigen, ihm in der Zeit nahestehenden Philosophen, - wie Longin, Augustin, u. s. f. kommen, wie wir gesehen, kaum in - Betracht und schliessen sich uebrigens in ihrer Anschauungsweise an - ihn an,--vergehen nicht fuenf, sondern _fuenfzehn Jahrhunderte_, in - denen von irgend einer wissenschaftlichen Interesse fuer die Welt des - Schoenen und der Kunst nichts zu spueren ist. - - Diese anderthalbtausend Jahre, innerhalb deren der Weltgeist durch - die mannigfachsten Kaempfe hindurch zu einer voellig neuen Gestaltung - des Lebens sich durcharbeitete, sind fuer die Aesthetik, hinsichtlich - des weiteren Ausbaus dieser Wissenschaft verloren.--MAX SCHASLER. - -In reality nothing of the kind happened. The science of aesthetics, -the science of the beautiful, neither did nor could vanish, because -it never existed. Simply, the Greeks (just like everybody else, -always and everywhere) considered art (like everything else) good -only when it served goodness (as they understood goodness), and -bad when it was in opposition to that goodness. And the Greeks -themselves were so little developed morally, that goodness and -beauty seemed to them to coincide. On that obsolete Greek view -of life was erected the science of aesthetics, invented by men -of the eighteenth century, and especially shaped and mounted in -Baumgarten's theory. The Greeks (as any one may see who will read -Benard's admirable book on Aristotle and his successors and Walter's -work on Plato) never had a science of aesthetics. - -AEsthetic theories arose about one hundred and fifty years ago among -the wealthy classes of the Christian European world, and arose -simultaneously among different nations,--German, Italian, Dutch, -French, and English. The founder and organizer of it, who gave it a -scientific, theoretic form, was Baumgarten. - -With a characteristically German, external exactitude, pedantry, -and symmetry, he devised and expounded this extraordinary theory. -And, notwithstanding its obvious insolidity, nobody else's theory -so pleased the cultured crowd, or was accepted so readily and with -such an absence of criticism. It so suited the people of the upper -classes, that to this day, notwithstanding its entirely fantastic -character and the arbitrary nature of its assertions, it is repeated -by learned and unlearned as though it were something indubitable and -self-evident. - -_Habent sua fata libelli pro capite lectoris_, and so, or even -more so, theories _habent sua fata_ according to the condition of -error in which that society is living, among whom and for whom the -theories are invented. If a theory justifies the false position -in which a certain part of a society is living, then, however -unfounded or even obviously false the theory may be, it is accepted, -and becomes an article of faith to that section of society. Such, -for instance, was the celebrated and unfounded theory, expounded -by Malthus, of the tendency of that population of the world to -increase in geometrical progression, but of the means of sustenance -to increase only in arithmetical progression, and of the consequent -over-population of the world; such, also, was the theory (an -outgrowth of the Malthusian) of selection and struggle for existence -as the basis of human progress. Such, again, is Marx's theory, which -regards the gradual destruction of small private production by large -capitalistic production, now going on around us, as an inevitable -decree of fate. However unfounded such theories are, however -contrary to all that is known and confessed by humanity, and however -obviously immoral they may be, they are accepted with credulity, -pass uncriticized, and are preached, perchance for centuries, until -the conditions are destroyed which they served to justify, or until -their absurdity has become too evident. To this class belongs this -astonishing theory of the Baumgartenian Trinity,--Goodness, Beauty, -and Truth,--according to which it appears that the very best that -can be done by the art of nations after 1900 years of Christian -teaching, is to choose as the ideal of their life the ideal that -was held by a small, semi-savage, slave-holding people who lived -2000 years ago, who imitated the nude human body extremely well, and -erected buildings pleasant to look at. All these incompatibilities -pass completely unnoticed. Learned people write long, cloudy -treatises on beauty as a member of the aesthetic trinity of Beauty, -Truth, and Goodness: _das Schoene_, _das Wahre_, _das Gute_; _le -Beau_, _le Vrai_, _le Bon_, are repeated, with capital letters, by -philosophers, aestheticians, and artists, by private individuals, -by novelists, and by _feuilletonistes_, and they all think, when -pronouncing these sacrosanct words, that they speak of something -quite definite and solid--something on which they can base their -opinions. In reality, these words not only have no definite meaning, -but they hinder us in attaching any definite meaning to existing -art; they are wanted only for the purpose of justifying the false -importance we attribute to an art that transmits every kind of -feeling, if only those feelings afford us pleasure. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - - -But if art is a human activity having for its purpose the -transmission to others of the highest and best feelings to which -men have risen, how could it be that humanity for a certain rather -considerable period of its existence (from the time people ceased -to believe in Church doctrine down to the present day) should exist -without this important activity, and, instead of it, should put up -with an insignificant artistic activity only affording pleasure? - -In order to answer this question, it is necessary, first of all, to -correct the current error people make in attributing to our art the -significance of true, universal art. We are so accustomed, not only -naively to consider the Circassian family the best stock of people, -but also the Anglo-Saxon race the best race if we are Englishmen or -Americans, or the Teutonic if we are Germans, or the Gallo-Latin -if we are French, or the Slavonic if we are Russians, that, when -speaking of our own art, we feel fully convinced, not only that our -art is true art, but even that it is the best and only true art. -But in reality our art is not only not the only art (as the Bible -once was held to be the only book), but it is not even the art of -the whole of Christendom--only of a small section of that part of -humanity. It was correct to speak of a national Jewish, Grecian, or -Egyptian art, and one may speak of a now-existing Chinese, Japanese, -or Indian art shared in by a whole people. Such art, common to a -whole nation, existed in Russia till Peter the First's time, and -existed in the rest of Europe until the thirteenth or fourteenth -century; but since the upper classes of European society, having -lost faith in the Church teaching, did not accept real Christianity -but remained without any faith, one can no longer speak of an art -of the Christian nations in the sense of the whole of art. Since -the upper classes of the Christian nations lost faith in Church -Christianity, the art of those upper classes has separated itself -from the art of the rest of the people, and there have been two -arts,--the art of the people and genteel art. And therefore the -answer to the question, How it could occur that humanity lived for -a certain period without real art, replacing it by art which served -enjoyment only? is, that not all humanity, nor even any considerable -portion of it, lived without real art, but only the highest -classes of European Christian society, and even they only for a -comparatively short time,--from the commencement of the Renaissance -down to our own day. - -And the consequence of this absence of true art showed itself, -inevitably, in the corruption of that class which nourished itself -on the false art. All the confused, unintelligible theories of art, -all the false and contradictory judgments on art, and particularly -the self-confident stagnation of our art in its false path, all -arise from the assertion, which has come into common use and is -accepted as an unquestioned truth, but is yet amazingly and palpably -false, the assertion, namely, that the art of our upper classes[100] -is the whole of art, the true, the only, the universal art. And -although this assertion (which is precisely similar to the assertion -made by religious people of the various Churches who consider that -theirs is the only true religion) is quite arbitrary and obviously -unjust, yet it is calmly repeated by all the people of our circle -with full faith in its infallibility. - - [100] The contrast made is between the classes and the masses; - between those who do not and those who do earn their bread by - productive manual labor; the middle classes being taken as an - offshoot of the upper classes.--TR. - -The art we have is the whole of art, the real, the only art, and yet -two-thirds of the human race (all the peoples of Asia and Africa) -live and die knowing nothing of this sole and supreme art. And even -in our Christian society hardly one per cent of the people make -use of this art which we speak of as being the _whole_ of art; -the remaining ninety-nine per cent live and die, generation after -generation, crushed by toil, and never tasting this art, which, -moreover, is of such a nature that, if they could get it, they would -not understand anything of it. We, according to the current aesthetic -theory, acknowledge art as one of the highest manifestations of -the Idea, God, Beauty, or as the highest spiritual enjoyment; -furthermore, we hold that all people have equal rights, if not to -material, at any rate to spiritual well-being; and yet ninety-nine -per cent of our European population live and die, generation after -generation, crushed by toil, much of which toil is necessary for the -production of our art which they never use, and we, nevertheless, -calmly assert that the art which we produce is the real, true, only -art--all of art! - -To the remark that if our art is the true art every one should have -the benefit of it, the usual reply is that if not everybody at -present makes use of existing art, the fault lies, not in the art, -but in the false organization of society; that one can imagine to -oneself, in the future, a state of things in which physical labor -will be partly superseded by machinery, partly lightened by its just -distribution, and that labor for the production of art will be taken -in turns; that there is no need for some people always to sit below -the stage moving the decorations, winding up the machinery, working -at the piano or French horn, and setting type and printing books, -but that the people who do all this work might be engaged only a -few hours per day, and in their leisure time might enjoy all the -blessings of art. - -That is what the defenders of our exclusive art say. But I think -they do not themselves believe it. They cannot help knowing that -fine art can arise only on the slavery of the masses of the people, -and can continue only as long as that slavery lasts, and they -cannot help knowing that only under conditions of intense labor -for the workers, can specialists--writers, musicians, dancers, and -actors--arrive at that fine degree of perfection to which they -do attain, or produce their refined works of art; and only under -the same conditions can there be a fine public to esteem such -productions. Free the slaves of capital, and it will be impossible -to produce such refined art. - -But even were we to admit the inadmissible, and say that means may -be found by which art (that art which among us is considered to be -art) may be accessible to the whole people, another consideration -presents itself showing that fashionable art cannot be the whole -of art, viz., the fact that it is completely unintelligible to the -people. Formerly men wrote poems in Latin, but now their artistic -productions are as unintelligible to the common folk as if they were -written in Sanscrit. The usual reply to this is, that if the people -do not now understand this art of ours, it only proves that they are -undeveloped, and that this has been so at each fresh step forward -made by art. First it was not understood, but afterward people got -accustomed to it. - -"It will be the same with our present art; it will be understood -when everybody is as well educated as we are--the people of the -upper classes--who produce this art," say the defenders of our -art. But this assertion is evidently even more unjust than the -former; for we know that the majority of the productions of the -art of the upper classes, such as various odes, poems, dramas, -cantatas, pastorals, pictures, etc., which delighted the people of -the upper classes when they were produced, never were afterward -either understood or valued by the great masses of mankind, but have -remained, what they were at first, a mere pastime for rich people -of their time, for whom alone they ever were of any importance. It -is also often urged, in proof of the assertion that the people will -some day understand our art, that some productions of so-called -"classical" poetry, music, or painting, which formerly did not -please the masses, do--now that they have been offered to them -from all sides--begin to please these same masses; but this only -shows that the crowd, especially the half-spoilt town crowd, can -easily (its taste having been perverted) be accustomed to any -sort of art. Moreover, this art is not produced by these masses, -nor even chosen by them, but is energetically thrust upon them -in those public places in which art is accessible to the people. -For the great majority of working-people, our art, besides being -inaccessible on account of its costliness, is strange in its very -nature, transmitting, as it does, the feelings of people far removed -from those conditions of laborious life which are natural to the -great body of humanity. That which is enjoyment to a man of the -rich classes is incomprehensible, as a pleasure, to a working-man, -and evokes in him, either no feeling at all, or only a feeling -quite contrary to that which it evokes in an idle and satiated man. -Such feelings as form the chief subjects of present-day art--say, -for instance, honor,[101] patriotism, and amorousness--evoke in a -working-man only bewilderment and contempt, or indignation. So that -even if a possibility were given to the laboring classes, in their -free time, to see, to read, and to hear all that forms the flower of -contemporary art (as is done to some extent, in towns, by means of -picture galleries, popular concerts, and libraries), the working-man -(to the extent to which he is a laborer, and has not begun to pass -into the ranks of those perverted by idleness) would be able to make -nothing of our fine art, and if he did understand it, that which -he understood would not elevate his soul, but would certainly, in -most cases, pervert it. To thoughtful and sincere people there can, -therefore, be no doubt that the art of our upper classes never can -be the art of the whole people. But if art is an important matter, a -spiritual blessing, essential for all men ("like religion," as the -devotees of art are fond of saying), then it should be accessible -to every one. And if, as in our day, it is not accessible to all -men, then one of two things: either art is not the vital matter it -is represented to be, or that art which we call art is not the real -thing. - - [101] Dueling is still customary among the higher circles in Russia, - as in other continental countries.--TR. - -The dilemma is inevitable, and therefore clever and immoral people -avoid it by denying one side of it, viz., denying that the common -people have a right to art. These people simply and boldly speak -out (what lies at the heart of the matter), and say that the -participators in and utilizers of what, in their esteem, is highly -beautiful art, _i.e._ art furnishing the greatest enjoyment, can -only be "schoene Geister," "the elect," as the romanticists called -them, the "Uebermenschen," as they are called by the followers of -Nietzsche; the remaining vulgar herd, incapable of experiencing -these pleasures, must serve the exalted pleasures of this superior -breed of people. The people who express these views at least do not -pretend, and do not try, to combine the incombinable, but frankly -admit, what is the case, that our art is an art of the upper classes -only. So essentially art has been, and is, understood by every one -engaged on it in our society. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - - -The unbelief of the upper classes of the European world had this -effect--that instead of an artistic activity aiming at transmitting -the highest feelings to which humanity has attained,--those flowing -from religious perception,--we have an activity which aims at -affording the greatest enjoyment to a certain class of society. And -of all the immense domain of art, that part has been fenced off, and -is alone called art, which affords enjoyment to the people of this -particular circle. - -Apart from the moral effects on European society of such a -selection from the whole sphere of art of what did not deserve -such a valuation, and the acknowledgment of it as important art, -this perversion of art has weakened art itself, and well-nigh -destroyed it. The first great result was that art was deprived of -the infinite, varied, and profound religious subject-matter proper -to it. The second result was that having only a small circle of -people in view, it lost its beauty of form and became affected and -obscure; and the third and chief result was that it ceased to be -either natural or even sincere, and became thoroughly artificial and -brain-spun. - -The first result--the impoverishment of subject-matter--followed -because only that is a true work of art which transmits fresh -feelings not before experienced by man. As thought-product is only -then real thought-product when it transmits new conceptions and -thoughts, and does not merely repeat what was known before, so also -an art-product is only then a genuine art-product when it brings a -new feeling (however insignificant) into the current of human life. -This explains why children and youths are so strongly impressed by -those works of art which first transmit to them feelings they had -not before experienced. - -The same powerful impression is made on people by feelings which -are quite new, and have never before been expressed by man. And it -is the source from which such feelings flow of which the art of the -upper classes has deprived itself by estimating feelings, not in -conformity with religious perception, but according to the degree -of enjoyment they afford. There is nothing older and more hackneyed -than enjoyment, and there is nothing fresher than the feelings -springing from the religious consciousness of each age. It could -not be otherwise: man's enjoyment has limits established by his -nature, but the movement forward of humanity, that which is voiced -by religious perception, has no limits. At every forward step taken -by humanity--and such steps are taken in consequence of the greater -and greater elucidation of religious perception--men experience new -and fresh feelings. And therefore only on the basis of religious -perception (which shows the highest level of life-comprehension -reached by the men of a certain period) can fresh emotion, never -before felt by man, arise. From the religious perception of the -ancient Greeks flowed the really new, important, and endlessly -varied feelings expressed by Homer and the tragic writers. It was -the same among the Jews, who attained the religious conception of a -single God,--from that perception flowed all those new and important -emotions expressed by the prophets. It was the same for the poets -of the Middle Ages, who if they believed in a heavenly hierarchy, -believed also in the Catholic commune; and it is the same for a -man of to-day who has grasped the religious conception of true -Christianity,--the brotherhood of man. - -The variety of fresh feelings flowing from religious perception -is endless, and they are all new; for religious perception is -nothing else than the first indication of that which is coming into -existence, viz., the new relation of man to the world around him. -But the feelings flowing from the desire for enjoyment are, on -the contrary, not only limited, but were long ago experienced and -expressed. And therefore the lack of belief of the upper classes of -Europe has left them with an art fed on the poorest subject-matter. - -The impoverishment of the subject-matter of upper-class art was -further increased by the fact that, ceasing to be religious, it -ceased also to be popular, and this again diminished the range of -feelings which it transmitted. For the range of feelings experienced -by the powerful and the rich, who have no experience of labor -for the support of life, is far poorer, more limited, and more -insignificant than the range of feelings natural to working-people. - -People of our circle, aestheticians, usually think and say just -the contrary of this. I remember how Gontchareff, the author, -a very clever and educated man, but a thorough townsman and an -aesthetician, said to me that after Tourgenieff's "Memoirs of a -Sportsman" there was nothing left to write about in peasant life. -It was all used up. The life of working-people seemed to him so -simple that Tourgenieff's peasant stories had used up all there -was to describe. The life of our wealthy people, with their -love-affairs and dissatisfaction with themselves, seemed to him -full of inexhaustible subject-matter. One hero kissed his lady on -her palm, another on her elbow, and a third somewhere else. One man -is discontented through idleness, and another because people don't -love him. And Gontchareff thought that in this sphere there is no -end of variety. And this opinion--that the life of working-people is -poor in subject-matter, but that our life, the life of the idle, is -full of interest--is shared by very many people in our society. The -life of a laboring man, with its endlessly varied forms of labor, -and the dangers connected with this labor on sea and underground; -his migrations, the intercourse with his employers, overseers, and -companions, and with men of other religions and other nationalities; -his struggles with nature and with wild beasts, the associations -with domestic animals, the work in the forest, on the steppe, in -the field, the garden, the orchard; his intercourse with wife and -children, not only as with people near and dear to him, but as -with co-workers and helpers in labor, replacing him in time of -need; his concern in all economic questions, not as matters of -display or discussion, but as problems of life for himself and his -family; his pride in self-suppression and service to others, his -pleasures of refreshment; and with all these interests permeated -by a religious attitude toward these occurrences--all this to us, -who have not these interests and possess no religious perception, -seems monotonous in comparison with those small enjoyments and -insignificant cares of our life,--a life, not of labor nor of -production, but of consumption and destruction of that which others -have produced for us. We think the feelings experienced by people of -our day and our class are very important and varied; but in reality -almost all the feelings of people of our class amount to but three -very insignificant and simple feelings,--the feeling of pride, the -feeling of sexual desire, and the feeling of weariness of life. -These three feelings, with their outgrowths, form almost the only -subject-matter of the art of the rich classes. - -At first, at the very beginning of the separation of the -exclusive art of the upper classes from universal art, its chief -subject-matter was the feeling of pride. It was so at the time of -the Renaissance and after it, when the chief subject of works of art -was the laudation of the strong,--popes, kings, and dukes: odes and -madrigals were written in their honor, and they were extolled in -cantatas and hymns; their portraits were painted, and their statues -carved, in various adulatory ways. Next, the element of sexual -desire began more and more to enter into art, and (with very few -exceptions, and in novels and dramas almost without exception) it -has now become an essential feature of every art-product of the rich -classes. - -The third feeling transmitted by the art of the rich--that of -discontent with life--appeared yet later in modern art. This -feeling, which, at the commencement of the present century, -was expressed only by exceptional men: by Byron, by Leopardi, -and afterward by Heine, has latterly become fashionable, and -is expressed by most ordinary and empty people. Most justly -does the French critic Doumic characterize the works of the new -writers: "_C'est la lassitude de vivre, le mepris de l'epoque -presente, le regret d'un autre temps apercu a travers l'illusion -de l'art, le gout du paradoxe, le besoin de se singulariser, une -aspiration de raffines vers la simplicite, l'adoration enfantine du -merveilleux, la seduction maladive de la reverie, l'ebranlement des -nerfs,--surtout l'appel exaspere de la sensualite_" ("Les Jeunes," -Rene Doumic).[102] And, as a matter of fact, of these three feelings -it is sensuality, the lowest (accessible not only to all men, but -even to all animals), which forms the chief subject-matter of works -of art of recent times. - - [102] It is the weariness of life, contempt for the present epoch, - regret for another age seen through the illusion of art, a taste - for paradox, a desire to be singular, a sentimental aspiration - after simplicity, an infantine adoration of the marvelous, a sickly - tendency toward reverie, a shattered condition of nerves, and, above - all, the exasperated demand of sensuality. - -From Boccaccio to Marcel Prevost, all the novels, poems, and verses -invariably transmit the feeling of sexual love in its different -forms. Adultery is not only the favorite, but almost the only theme -of all the novels. A performance is not a performance unless, under -some pretense, women appear with naked busts and limbs. Songs and -_romances_--all are expressions of lust, idealized in various -degrees. - -A majority of the pictures by French artists represent female -nakedness in various forms. In recent French literature there is -hardly a page or a poem in which nakedness is not described, and -in which, relevantly or irrelevantly, their favorite thought and -word _nu_ is not repeated a couple of times. There is a certain -writer, Rene de Gourmond, who gets printed, and is considered -talented. To get an idea of the new writers, I read his novel, -"Les Chevaux de Diomede." It is a consecutive and detailed account -of the sexual connections some gentleman had with various women. -Every page contains lust-kindling descriptions. It is the same in -Pierre Lou s' book, "Aphrodite," which met with success; it is the -same in a book I lately chanced upon, Huysmans' "Certains," and, -with but few exceptions, it is the same in all the French novels. -They are all the productions of people suffering from erotic mania. -And these people are evidently convinced that as their whole life, -in consequence of their diseased condition, is concentrated on -amplifying various sexual abominations, therefore the life of all -the world is similarly concentrated. And these people, suffering -from erotic mania, are imitated throughout the whole artistic world -of Europe and America. - -Thus in consequence of the lack of belief and the exceptional manner -of life of the wealthy classes, the art of those classes became -impoverished in its subject-matter, and has sunk to the transmission -of the feelings of pride, discontent with life, and, above all, of -sexual desire. - - - - -CHAPTER X - - -In consequence of their unbelief, the art of the upper classes -became poor in subject-matter. But besides that, becoming -continually more and more exclusive, it became at the same time -continually more and more involved, affected, and obscure. - -When a universal artist (such as were some of the Grecian artists -or the Jewish prophets) composed his work, he naturally strove to -say what he had to say in such a manner that his production should -be intelligible to all men. But when an artist composed for a small -circle of people placed in exceptional conditions, or even for a -single individual and his courtiers,--for popes, cardinals, kings, -dukes, queens, or for a king's mistress,--he naturally only aimed -at influencing these people, who were well known to him, and lived -in exceptional conditions familiar to him. And this was an easier -task, and the artist was involuntarily drawn to express himself -by allusions comprehensible only to the initiated, and obscure to -every one else. In the first place, more could be said in this way; -and secondly, there is (for the initiated) even a certain charm in -the cloudiness of such a manner of expression. This method, which -showed itself both in euphemism and in mythological and historical -allusions, came more and more into use, until it has, apparently, -at last reached its utmost limits in the so-called art of the -Decadents. It has come, finally, to this: that not only is haziness, -mysteriousness, obscurity, and exclusiveness (shutting out the -masses) elevated to the rank of a merit and a condition of poetic -art, but even incorrectness, indefiniteness, and lack of eloquence -are held in esteem. - -Theophile Gautier, in his preface to the celebrated "Fleurs du Mal," -says that Baudelaire, as far as possible, banished from poetry -eloquence, passion, and truth too strictly copied ("_l'eloquence, la -passion, et la verite calquee trop exactement_"). - -And Baudelaire not only expressed this, but maintained his thesis -in his verses, and yet more strikingly in the prose of his "Petits -Poemes en Prose," the meanings of which have to be guessed like a -rebus, and remain for the most part undiscovered. - -The poet Verlaine (who followed next after Baudelaire, and was also -esteemed great) even wrote an "Art Poetique," in which he advises -this style of composition:-- - - _De la musique avant toute chose, - Et pour cela prefere l'Impair - Plus vague et plus soluble dans l'air, - Sans rien en lui qui pese ou qui pose._ - - _Il faut aussi que tu n'ailles point - Choisir tes mots sans quelque meprise: - Rien de plus cher que la chanson grise - Ou l'Indecis au Precis se joint._ - -And again:-- - - _De la musique encore et toujours! - Que ton vers soit la chose envolee - Qu'on sent qui fuit d'une ame en allee - Vers d'autres cieux a d'autres amours._ - - _Que ton vers soit la bonne aventure - Eparse au vent crispe du matin, - Qui va fleurant la menthe et le thym.... - Et tout le reste est litterature._[103] - - [103] - - Music, music before all things - The eccentric still prefer, - Vague in air, and nothing weighty, - Soluble. Yet do not err, - - Choosing words; still do it lightly, - Do it too with some contempt; - Dearest is the song that's tipsy, - Clearness, dimness not exempt. - - * * * * - - Music always, now and ever - Be thy verse the thing that flies - From a soul that's gone, escaping, - Gone to other loves and skies. - - Gone to other loves and regions, - Following fortunes that allure, - Mint and thyme and morning crispness.... - All the rest's mere literature. - -After these two comes Mallarme, considered the most important of the -young poets, and he plainly says that the charm of poetry lies in -our having to guess its meaning--that in poetry there should always -be a puzzle:-- - -_Je pense qu'il faut qu'il n'y ait qu'allusion_, says he. _La -contemplation des objets, l'image s'envolant des reveries suscitees -par eux, sont le chant: les Parnassiens, eux, prennent la chose -entierement et la montrent; par la ils manquent de mystere; ils -retirent aux esprits cette joie delicieuse de croire qu'ils creent._ -Nommer un objet, c'est supprimer les trois quarts de la jouissance -du poeme, qui est faite du bonheur de deviner peu a peu: le -suggerer, voila le reve. _C'est le par fait usage de ce mystere qui -constitue le symbole: evoquer petit a petit un objet pour montrer un -etat d'ame, ou, inversement, choisir un objet et en degager un etat -d'ame, par une serie de dechiffrements._ - -.... _Si un etre d'une intelligence moyenne, et d'une preparation -litteraire insuffisante, ouvre par hasard un livre ainsi fait et -pretend en jouir, il y a malentendu, il faut remettre les choses a -leur place._ Il doit y avoir toujours enigme en poesie, _et c'est -le but de la litterature, il n'y en a pas d'autre,--d'evoquer les -objets_.--"Enquete sur l'Evolution Litteraire," Jules Huret, pp. 60, -61.[104] - - [104] I think there should be nothing but allusions. The - contemplation of objects, the flying image of reveries evoked by - them, are the song. The Parnassiens state the thing completely, and - show it, and thereby lack mystery; they deprive the mind of that - delicious joy of imagining that it creates. To _name an object is to - take three-quarters from the enjoyment of the poem, which consists - in the happiness of guessing little by little: to suggest, that is - the dream_. It is the perfect use of this mystery that constitutes - the symbol: little by little, to evoke an object in order to show a - state of the soul; or, inversely, to choose an object, and from it - to disengage a state of the soul by a series of decipherings. - - .... If a being of mediocre intelligence and insufficient literary - preparation chance to open a book made in this way and pretends to - enjoy it, there is a misunderstanding--things must be returned to - their places. _There should always be an enigma in poetry_, and the - aim of literature--it has no other--is to evoke objects. - -Thus is obscurity elevated into a dogma among the new poets. As the -French critic Doumic (who has not yet accepted the dogma) quite -correctly says:-- - -"_Il serait temps aussi d'en finir avec cette fameuse 'theorie de -l'obscurite' que la nouvelle ecole a elevee, en effet, a la hauteur -d'un dogme._"--"Les Jeunes, par Rene Doumic."[105] - - [105] It were time also to have done with this famous "theory of - obscurity," which the new school have practically raised to the - height of a dogma. - -But it is not French writers only who think thus. The poets of -all other countries think and act in the same way: German, and -Scandinavian, and Italian, and Russian, and English. So also do -the artists of the new period in all branches of art: in painting, -in sculpture, and in music. Relying on Nietzsche and Wagner, the -artists of the new age conclude that it is unnecessary for them to -be intelligible to the vulgar crowd; it is enough for them to evoke -poetic emotion in "the finest nurtured," to borrow a phrase from an -English aesthetician. - -In order that what I am saying may not seem to be mere assertion, -I will quote at least a few examples from the French poets who -have led this movement. The name of these poets is legion. I have -taken French writers, because they, more decidedly than any others, -indicate the new direction of art, and are imitated by most European -writers. - -Besides those whose names are already considered famous, such as -Baudelaire and Verlaine, here are the names of a few of them: Jean -Moreas, Charles Morice, Henri de Regnier, Charles Vignier, Adrien -Remacle, Rene Ghil, Maurice Maeterlinck, G. Albert Aurier, Remy de -Gourmont, Saint-Pol-Roux-le-Magnifique, Georges Rodenbach, le comte -Robert de Montesquiou-Fezensac. These are Symbolists and Decadents. -Next we have the "Magi": Josephin Peladan, Paul Adam, Jules Bois, M. -Papus, and others. - -Besides these, there are yet one hundred and forty-one others, whom -Doumic mentions in the book referred to above. - -Here are some examples from the work of those of them who are -considered to be the best, beginning with that most celebrated man, -acknowledged to be a great artist worthy of a monument--Baudelaire. -This is a poem from his celebrated "Fleurs du Mal":-- - - -No. XXIV - - _Je t'adore a l'egal de la voute nocturne, - O vase de tristesse, o grande taciturne, - Et t'aime d'autant plus, belle, que tu me fuis, - Et que tu me parais, ornement de mes nuits, - Plus ironiquement accumuler les lieues - Qui separent mes bras des immensites bleues._ - - _Je m'avance a l'attaque, et je grimpe aux assauts, - Comme apres un cadavre un choeur de vermisseaux, - Et je cheris, o bete implacable et cruelle, - Jusqu'a cette froideur par ou tu m'es plus belle!_[106] - - [106] For translation, see Appendix IV. - -And this is another by the same writer:-- - - -No. XXXVI - -_DUELLUM_ - - _Deux guerriers ont couru l'un sur l'autre; leurs armes - Ont eclabousse l'air de lueurs et de sang. - Ces jeux, ces cliquetis du fer sont les vacarmes - D'une jeunesse en proie a l'amour vagissant._ - - _Les glaives sont brises! comme notre jeunesse, - Ma chere! Mais les dents, les ongles aceres, - Vengent bientot l'epee et la dague traitresse. - O fureur des coeurs murs par l'amour ulceres!_ - - _Dans le ravin hante des chats-pards et des onces - Nos heros, s'etreignant mechamment, ont roule, - Et leur peau fleurira l'aridite des ronces._ - - _Ce gouffre, c'est l'enfer, de nos amis peuple! - Roulons-y sans remords, amazone inhumaine, - Afin d'eterniser l'ardeur de notre haine!_[107] - - [107] For translation, see Appendix IV. - -To be exact, I should mention that the collection contains verses -less comprehensible than these, but not one poem which is plain -and can be understood without a certain effort--an effort seldom -rewarded; for the feelings which the poet transmits are evil and -very low ones. And these feelings are always, and purposely, -expressed by him with eccentricity and lack of clearness. This -premeditated obscurity is especially noticeable in his prose, where -the author could, if he liked, speak plainly. - -Take, for instance, the first piece from his "Petits Poemes":-- - - -_L'ETRANGER_ - - _Qui aimes-tu le mieux, homme enigmatique, dis? ton pere, ta - mere, ta soeur, ou ton frere?_ - - _Je n'ai ni pere, ni mere, ni soeur, ni frere._ - - _Tes amis?_ - - _Vous vous servez la d'une parole dont le sens m'est reste - jusqu'a ce jour inconnu._ - - _Ta patrie?_ - - _J'ignore sous quelle latitude elle est situee._ - - _La beaute?_ - - _Je l'aimerais volontiers, desse et immortelle._ - - _L'or?_ - - _Je le hais comme vous haissez Dieu._ - - _Et qu'aimes-tu donc, extraordinaire etranger?_ - - _J'aime les nuages .... les nuages qui passent .... la bas, .... - les merveilleux nuages!_[108] - -The piece called "La Soupe et les Nuages" is probably intended to -express the unintelligibility of the poet even to her whom he loves. -This is the piece in question:-- - - _Ma petite folle bien-aimee me donnait a diner, et par la - fenetre ouverte de la salle a manger je contemplais les - mouvantes architectures que Dieu fait avec les vapeurs, les - merveilleuses constructions de l'impalpable. Et je me disais, - a travers ma contemplation: "Toutes ces fantasmagories sont - presque aussi belles que les yeux de ma belle bien-aimee, la - petite folle monstrueuse aux yeux verts."_ - - _Et tout a coup je recus un violent coup de poing dans le dos, - et j'entendis une voix rauque et charmante, une voix hysterique - et comme enrouee par l'eau-de-vie, la voix de ma chere petite - bien-aimee, qui me disait, "Allez-vous bientot manger votre - soupe, s.... b.... de marchand de nuages?"_[108] - - [108] For translation, see Appendix IV. - -However artificial these two pieces may be, it is still possible, -with some effort, to guess at what the author meant them to express, -but some of the pieces are absolutely incomprehensible--at least to -me. "Le Galant Tireur" is a piece I was quite unable to understand. - - -_LE GALANT TIREUR_ - - _Comme la voiture traversait le bois, il la fit arreter dans le - voisinage d'un tir, disant qu'il lui serait agreable de tirer - quelques balles pour tuer le Temps. Tuer ce monstre-la, n'est-ce - pas l'occupation la plus ordinaire et la plus legitime de - chacun?--Et il offrit galamment la main a sa chere, delicieuse - et execrable femme, a cette mysterieuse femme a laquelle il - doit tant de plaisirs, tant de douleurs, et peut-etre aussi une - grande partie de son genie._ - - _Plusieurs balles frapperent loin du but propose, l'une d'elles - s'enfonca meme dans le plafond; et comme la charmante creature - riait follement, se moquant de la maladresse de son epoux, - celui-ci se tourna brusquement vers elle, et lui dit: "Observez - cette poupee, la-bas, a droite, qui porte le nez en l'air et qui - a la mine si hautaine. Eh bien! cher ange_, je me figure que - c'est vous." _Et il ferma les yeux et il lacha la detente. La - poupee fut nettement decapitee._ - - _Alors s'inclinant vers sa chere, sa delicieuse, son execrable - femme, son inevitable et impitoyable Muse, et lui baisant - respectueusement la main, il ajouta: "Ah! mon cher ange, combien - je vous remercie de mon adresse!"_[109] - - [109] For translation, see Appendix IV. - -The productions of another celebrity, Verlaine, are not less -affected and unintelligible. This, for instance, is the first poem -in the section called "Ariettes Oublies." - - "_Le vent dans la plaine - Suspend son haleine._"--FAVART. - - _C'est l'extase langoureuse, - C'est la fatigue amoureuse, - C'est tous les frissons des bois - Parmi l'etreinte des brises, - C'est, vers les ramures grises, - Le choeur des petites voix._ - - _O le frele et frais murmure! - Cela gazouille et susurre, - Cela ressemble au cri doux - Que l'herbe agitee expire.... - Tu dirais, sous l'eau qui vire, - Le roulis sourd des cailloux._ - - _Cette ame qui se lamente - En cette plainte dormante - C'est la notre, n'est-ce pas?_ - _La mienne, dis, et la tienne, - Dont s'exhale l'humble antienne - Par ce tiede soir, tout bas?_[110] - - [110] For translation, see Appendix IV. - -What "_choeur des petites voix_"? and what "_cri doux que l'herbe -agitee expire_"? and what it all means, remains altogether -unintelligible to me. - -And here is another "Ariette":-- - - -_VIII_ - - _Dans l'interminable - Ennui de la plaine, - La neige incertaine - Luit comme du sable._ - - _Le ciel est de cuivre, - Sans lueur aucune. - On croirait voir vivre - Et mourir la lune._ - - _Comme des nuees - Flottent gris les chenes - Des forets prochaines - Parmi les buees._ - - _Le ciel est de cuivre, - Sans lueur aucune. - On croirait voir vivre - Et mourir la lune._ - - _Corneille poussive - Et vous, les loups maigres, - Par ces bises aigres - Quoi donc vous arrive?_ - - _Dans l'interminable - Ennui de la plaine,_ - _La neige incertaine - Luit comme du sable._[111] - - [111] For translation, see Appendix IV. - -How does the moon seem to live and die in a copper heaven? And -how can snow shine like sand? The whole thing is not merely -unintelligible, but, under pretense of conveying an impression, it -passes off a string of incorrect comparisons and words. - -Besides these artificial and obscure poems there are others which -are intelligible, but which make up for it by being altogether -bad, both in form and in subject. Such are all the poems under the -heading "La Sagesse." The chief place in these verses is occupied by -a very poor expression of the most commonplace Roman Catholic and -patriotic sentiments. For instance, one meets with verses such as -this:-- - - _Je ne veux plus penser qu'a ma mere Marie, - Siege de la sagesse et source de pardons, - Mere de France aussi_ de qui nous attendons - Inebranlablement l'honneur de la patrie.[112] - - [112] - - I do not wish to think any more, except about my mother Mary, - Seat of wisdom and source of pardon, - Also Mother of France, _from whom we - Steadfastly expect the honor of our country_. - -Before citing examples from other poets, I must pause to note -the amazing celebrity of these two versifiers, Baudelaire and -Verlaine, who are now accepted as being great poets. How the French, -who had Chenier, Musset, Lamartine, and, above all, Hugo,--and -among whom quite recently flourished the so-called Parnassiens: -Leconte de Lisle, Sully-Prudhomme, etc.,--could attribute such -importance to these two versifiers, who were far from skilful in -form and most contemptible and commonplace in subject-matter, is -to me incomprehensible. The conception of life of one of them, -Baudelaire, consisted in elevating gross egotism into a theory, and -replacing morality by a cloudy conception of beauty, and especially -artificial beauty. Baudelaire had a preference, which he expressed, -for a woman's face painted rather than showing its natural color, -and for metal trees and a theatrical imitation of water rather than -real trees and real water. - -The life-conception of the other, Verlaine, consisted in weak -profligacy, confession of his moral impotence, and, as an antidote -to that impotence, in the grossest Roman Catholic idolatry. Both, -moreover, were quite lacking in naivete, sincerity, and simplicity, -and both overflowed with artificiality, forced originality and -self-assurance. So that in their least bad productions one sees more -of M. Baudelaire or M. Verlaine than of what they were describing. -But these two indifferent versifiers form a school, and lead -hundreds of followers after them. - -There is only one explanation of this fact: it is that the art -of the society in which these versifiers lived is not a serious, -important matter of life, but is a mere amusement. And all -amusements grow wearisome by repetition. And, in order to make -wearisome amusement again tolerable, it is necessary to find some -means to freshen it up. When, at cards, ombre grows stale, whist -is introduced; when whist grows stale, ecarte is substituted; when -ecarte grows stale, some other novelty is invented, and so on. The -substance of the matter remains the same, only its form is changed. -And so it is with this kind of art. The subject-matter of the art of -the upper classes growing continually more and more limited, it has -come at last to this, that to the artists of these exclusive classes -it seems as if everything has already been said, and that to find -anything new to say is impossible. And therefore, to freshen up this -art, they look out for fresh forms. - -Baudelaire and Verlaine invent such a new form, furbish it up, -moreover, with hitherto unused pornographic details, and--the -critics and the public of the upper classes hail them as great -writers. - -This is the only explanation of the success, not of Baudelaire and -Verlaine only, but of all the Decadents. - -For instance, there are poems by Mallarme and Maeterlinck which have -no meaning, and yet for all that, or perhaps on that very account, -are printed by tens of thousands, not only in various publications, -but even in collections of the best works of the younger poets. - -This, for example, is a sonnet by Mallarme:-- - - _A la nue accablante tu - Basse de basalte et de laves - A meme les echos esclaves - Par une trompe sans vertu._ - - _Quel sepulcral naufrage (tu - Le soir, ecume, mais y baves) - Supreme une entre les epaves - Abolit le mat devetu._ - - _Ou cela que furibond faute - De quelque perdition haute - Tout l'abime vain eploye - Dans le si blanc cheveu qui traine - Avarement aura noye - Le flanc enfant d'une sirene._[113] - - ("Pan," 1895, No. 1.) - - [113] This sonnet seems too unintelligible for translation.--TR. - -This poem is not exceptional in its incomprehensibility. I have read -several poems by Mallarme, and they also had no meaning whatever. I -give a sample of his prose in Appendix I. There is a whole volume of -this prose called "Divagations." It is impossible to understand any -of it. And that is evidently what the author intended. - -And here is a song by Maeterlinck, another celebrated author of -to-day:-- - - _Quand il est sorti, - (J'entendis la porte)_ - _Quand il est sorti - Elle avait souri ...._ - - _Mais quand il entra - (J'entendis la lampe) - Mais quand il entra - Une autre etait la ...._ - - _Et j'ai vu la mort, - (J'entendis son ame) - Et j'ai vu la mort - Qui l'attend encore ...._ - - _On est venu dire, - (Mon enfant j'ai peur) - On est venu dire - Qu'il allait partir ...._ - - _Ma lampe allumee, - (Mon enfant j'ai peur) - Ma lampe allumee - Me suis approchee ...._ - - _A la premiere porte, - (Mon enfant j'ai peur) - A la premiere porte, - La flamme a tremble ...._ - - _A la seconde porte, - (Mon enfant j'ai peur) - A la seconde porte, - La flamme a parle ...._ - - _A la troisieme porte, - (Mon enfant j'ai peur) - A la troisieme porte, - La lumiere est morte ...._ - - _Et s'il revenait un jour - Que faut-il lui dire?_ - _Dites-lui qu'on l'attendit - Jusqu'a s'en mourir ...._ - - _Et s'il demande ou vous etes - Que faut-il repondre? - Donnez-lui mon anneau d'or - Sans rien lui repondre ...._ - - _Et s'il m'interroge alors - Sur la derniere heure? - Dites lui que j'ai souri - De peur qu'il ne pleure ...._ - - _Et s'il m'interroge encore - Sans me reconnaitre? - Parlez-lui comme une soeur, - Il souffre peut-etre ...._ - - _Et s'il veut savoir pourquoi - La salle est deserte? - Montrez lui la lampe eteinte - Et la porte ouverte ...._[114] - - ("Pan," 1895, No. 2.) - - [114] For translation, see Appendix IV. - -Who went out? Who came in? Who is speaking? Who died? - -I beg the reader to be at the pains of reading through the samples -I cite in Appendix II. of the celebrated and esteemed young -poets--Griffin, Verhaeren, Moreas, and Montesquiou. It is important -to do so in order to form a clear conception of the present position -of art, and not to suppose, as many do, that Decadentism is an -accidental and transitory phenomenon. To avoid the reproach of -having selected the worst verses, I have copied out of each volume -the poem which happened to stand on page 28. - -All the other productions of these poets are equally unintelligible, -or can only be understood with great difficulty, and then not -fully. All the productions of those hundreds of poets, of whom I -have named a few, are the same in kind. And among the Germans, -Swedes, Norwegians, Italians, and us Russians, similar verses are -printed. And such productions are printed and made up into book -form, if not by the million, then by the hundred thousand (some of -these works sell in tens of thousands). For type-setting, paging, -printing, and binding these books, millions and millions of working -days are spent--not less, I think, than went to build the great -pyramid. And this is not all. The same is going on in all the other -arts: millions and millions of working days are being spent on the -production of equally incomprehensible works in painting, in music, -and in the drama. - -Painting not only does not lag behind poetry in this matter, but -rather outstrips it. Here is an extract from the diary of an amateur -of art, written when visiting the Paris exhibitions in 1894:-- - -"I was to-day at three exhibitions: the Symbolists', the -Impressionists', and the Neo-Impressionists'. I looked at the -pictures conscientiously and carefully, but again felt the same -stupefaction and ultimate indignation. The first exhibition, that of -Camille Pissarro, was comparatively the most comprehensible, though -the pictures were out of drawing, had no subject, and the colorings -were most improbable. The drawing was so indefinite that you were -sometimes unable to make out which way an arm or a head was turned. -The subject was generally '_effets_'--_Effet de brouillard_, _Effet -du soir_, _Soleil couchant_. There were some pictures with figures, -but without subjects. - -"In the coloring, bright blue and bright green predominated. And -each picture had its special color, with which the whole picture -was, as it were, splashed. For instance, in 'A Girl Guarding -Geese,' the special color is _vert de gris_, and dots of it were -splashed about everywhere; on the face, the hair, the hands, and the -clothes. In the same gallery--'Durand Ruel'--were other pictures -by Puvis de Chavannes, Manet, Monet, Renoir, Sisley--who are all -Impressionists. One of them, whose name I could not make out,--it -was something like Redon,--had painted a blue face in profile. On -the whole face there is only this blue tone, with white-of-lead. -Pissarro has a water-color all done in dots. In the foreground is a -cow, entirely painted with various-colored dots. The general color -cannot be distinguished, however much one stands back from, or draws -near to, the picture. From there I went to see the Symbolists. I -looked at them long without asking any one for an explanation, -trying to guess the meaning; but it is beyond human comprehension. -One of the first things to catch my eye was a wooden _haut-relief_, -wretchedly executed, representing a woman (naked) who with both -hands is squeezing from her two breasts streams of blood. The blood -flows down, becoming lilac in color. Her hair first descends, and -then rises again, and turns into trees. The figure is all colored -yellow, and the hair is brown. - -"Next--a picture: a yellow sea, on which swims something which is -neither a ship nor a heart; on the horizon is a profile with a halo -and yellow hair, which changes into a sea, in which it is lost. -Some of the painters lay on their colors so thickly that the effect -is something between painting and sculpture. A third exhibit was -even less comprehensible: a man's profile; before him a flame and -black stripes--leeches, as I was afterwards told. At last I asked -a gentleman who was there what it meant, and he explained to me -that the _haut-relief_ was a symbol, and that it represented '_La -Terre_.' The heart swimming in a yellow sea was '_Illusion perdue_,' -and the gentleman with the leeches '_Le Mal_.' There were also some -Impressionist pictures: elementary profiles, holding some sort of -flowers in their hands: in monotone, out of drawing, and either -quite blurred or else marked out with wide black outlines." - -This was in 1894; the same tendency is now even more strongly -defined, and we have Boecklin, Stuck, Klinger, Sasha Schneider, and -others. - -The same thing is taking place in the drama. The play-writers -give us an architect who, for some reason, has not fulfilled his -former high intentions, and who consequently climbs on to the roof -of a house he has erected, and tumbles down head foremost; or an -incomprehensible old woman (who exterminates rats), and who, for an -unintelligible reason, takes a poetic child to the sea, and there -drowns him; or some blind men who, sitting on the seashore, for some -reason always repeat one and the same thing; or a bell of some kind, -which flies into a lake, and there rings. - -And the same is happening in music--in that art which, more than any -other, one would have thought, should be intelligible to everybody. - -An acquaintance of yours, a musician of repute, sits down to the -piano and plays you what he says is a new composition of his own, -or of one of the new composers. You hear the strange, loud sounds, -and admire the gymnastic exercises performed by his fingers; and you -see that the performer wishes to impress upon you that the sounds -he is producing express various poetic strivings of the soul. You -see his intention, but no feeling whatever is transmitted to you -except weariness. The execution lasts long, or at least it seems -very long to you, because you do not receive any clear impression, -and involuntarily you remember the words of Alphonse Karr, "_Plus -ca va vite, plus ca dure longtemps_."[115] And it occurs to you -that perhaps it is all a mystification; perhaps the performer is -trying you--just throwing his hands and fingers wildly about the -keyboard in the hope that you will fall into the trap and praise -him, and then he will laugh and confess that he only wanted to see -if he could hoax you. But when at last the piece does finish, and -the perspiring and agitated musician rises from the piano evidently -anticipating praise, you see that it was all done in earnest. - - [115] The quicker it goes the longer it lasts. - -The same thing takes place at all the concerts, with pieces by -Liszt, Wagner, Berlioz, Brahms, and (newest of all) Richard -Strauss, and the numberless other composers of the new school, who -unceasingly produce opera after opera, symphony after symphony, -piece after piece. - -The same is occurring in a domain in which it seemed hard to be -unintelligible,--in the sphere of novels and short stories. - -Read "La Bas," by Huysmans, or some of Kipling's short stories, or -"L'Annonciateur," by Villiers de l'Isle Adam in his "Contes Cruels," -etc., and you will find them not only "abscons" (to use a word -adopted by the new writers), but absolutely unintelligible both in -form and in substance. Such, again, is the work by E. Morel, "Terre -Promise," now appearing in the _Revue Blanche_, and such are most of -the new novels. The style is very high-flown, the feelings seem to -be most elevated, but you can't make out what is happening, to whom -it is happening, and where it is happening. And such is the bulk of -the young art of our time. - -People who grew up in the first half of this century, admiring -Goethe, Schiller, Musset, Hugo, Dickens, Beethoven, Chopin, Raphael, -da Vinci, Michael Angelo, Delaroche, being unable to make head or -tail of this new art, simply attribute its productions to tasteless -insanity, and wish to ignore them. But such an attitude toward -this new art is quite unjustifiable, because, in the first place, -that art is spreading more and more, and has already conquered for -itself a firm position in society, similar to the one occupied by -the Romanticists in the third decade of this century; and, secondly -and chiefly, because, if it is permissible to judge in this way of -the productions of the latest form of art, called by us Decadent -art, merely because we do not understand it, then remember there are -an enormous number of people,--all the laborers, and many of the -non-laboring folk,--who, in just the same way, do not comprehend -those productions of art which we consider admirable: the verses -of our favorite artists--Goethe, Schiller, and Hugo; the novels of -Dickens, the music of Beethoven and Chopin, the pictures of Raphael, -Michael Angelo, da Vinci, etc. - -If I have a right to think that great masses of people do not -understand and do not like what I consider undoubtedly good because -they are not sufficiently developed, then I have no right to deny -that perhaps the reason why I cannot understand and cannot like the -new productions of art is merely that I am still insufficiently -developed to understand them. If I have a right to say that I, -and the majority of people who are in sympathy with me, do not -understand the productions of the new art, simply because there is -nothing in it to understand, and because it is bad art, then, with -just the same right, the still larger majority, the whole laboring -mass, who do not understand what I consider admirable art, can say -that what I reckon as good art is bad art, and there is nothing in -it to understand. - -I once saw the injustice of such condemnation of the new art -with especial clearness, when, in my presence, a certain poet, -who writes incomprehensible verses, ridiculed incomprehensible -music with gay self-assurance; and, shortly afterwards, a certain -musician, who composes incomprehensible symphonies, laughed at -incomprehensible poetry with equal self-confidence. I have no right, -and no authority, to condemn the new art on the ground that I (a man -educated in the first half of the century) do not understand it; I -can only say that it is incomprehensible to me. The only advantage -the art I acknowledge has over the Decadent art, lies in the fact -that the art I recognize is comprehensible to a somewhat larger -number of people than the present-day art. - -The fact that I am accustomed to a certain exclusive art, and -can understand it, but am unable to understand another still -more exclusive art, does not give me a right to conclude that my -art is the real true art, and that the other one, which I do not -understand, is an unreal, a bad art. I can only conclude that art, -becoming ever more and more exclusive, has become more and more -incomprehensible to an ever increasing number of people, and that, -in this its progress toward greater and greater incomprehensibility -(on one level of which I am standing, with the art familiar to me), -it has reached a point where it is understood by a very small number -of the elect, and the number of these chosen people is ever becoming -smaller and smaller. - -As soon as ever the art of the upper classes separated itself from -universal art, a conviction arose that art may be art and yet be -incomprehensible to the masses. And as soon as this position was -admitted, it had inevitably to be admitted also that art may be -intelligible only to the very smallest number of the elect, and, -eventually, to two, or to one, of our nearest friends, or to oneself -alone. Which is practically what is being said by modern artists: "I -create and understand myself, and if any one does not understand me, -so much the worse for him." - -The assertion that art may be good art, and at the same time -incomprehensible to a great number of people, is extremely unjust, -and its consequences are ruinous to art itself; but at the same time -it is so common and has so eaten into our conceptions, that it is -impossible sufficiently to elucidate all the absurdity of it. - -Nothing is more common than to hear it said of reputed works of art, -that they are very good but very difficult to understand. We are -quite used to such assertions, and yet to say that a work of art -is good, but incomprehensible to the majority of men, is the same -as saying of some kind of food that it is very good, but that most -people can't eat it. The majority of men may not like rotten cheese -or putrefying grouse--dishes esteemed by people with perverted -tastes; but bread and fruit are only good when they please the -majority of men. And it is the same with art. Perverted art may not -please the majority of men, but good art always pleases every one. - -It is said that the very best works of art are such that they cannot -be understood by the mass, but are accessible only to the elect who -are prepared to understand these great works. But if the majority of -men do not understand, the knowledge necessary to enable them to -understand should be taught and explained to them. But it turns out -that there is no such knowledge, that the works cannot be explained, -and that those who say the majority do not understand good works of -art, still do not explain those works, but only tell us that, in -order to understand them, one must read, and see, and hear these -same works over and over again. But this is not to explain, it is -only to habituate! And people may habituate themselves to anything, -even to the very worst things. As people may habituate themselves to -bad food, to spirits, tobacco, and opium, just in the same way they -may habituate themselves to bad art--and that is exactly what is -being done. - -Moreover, it cannot be said that the majority of people lack the -taste to esteem the highest works of art. The majority always -have understood, and still understand, what we also recognize as -being the very best art: the epic of Genesis, the gospel parables, -folk-legends, fairy-tales, and folk-songs, are understood by all. -How can it be that the majority has suddenly lost its capacity to -understand what is high in our art? - -Of a speech it may be said that it is admirable, but -incomprehensible to those who do not know the language in which it -is delivered. A speech delivered in Chinese may be excellent, and -may yet remain incomprehensible to me if I do not know Chinese; but -what distinguishes a work of art from all other mental activity -is just the fact that its language is understood by all, and that -it infects all without distinction. The tears and laughter of a -Chinese infect me just as the laughter and tears of a Russian; -and it is the same with painting and music and poetry, when it is -translated into a language I understand. The songs of a Kirghiz or -of a Japanese touch me, though in a lesser degree than they touch -a Kirghiz or a Japanese. I am also touched by Japanese painting, -Indian architecture, and Arabian stories. If I am but little -touched by a Japanese song and a Chinese novel, it is not that I do -not understand these productions, but that I know and am accustomed -to higher works of art. It is not because their art is above me. -Great works of art are only great because they are accessible -and comprehensible to every one. The story of Joseph, translated -into the Chinese language, touches a Chinese. The story of Sakya -Muni touches us. And there are, and must be, buildings, pictures, -statues, and music of similar power. So that, if art fails to move -men, it cannot be said that this is due to the spectators' or -hearers' lack of understanding; but the conclusion to be drawn may -and should be, that such art is either bad art, or is not art at all. - -Art is differentiated from activity of the understanding, which -demands preparation and a certain sequence of knowledge (so that one -cannot learn trigonometry before knowing geometry), by the fact that -it acts on people independently of their state of development and -education, that the charm of a picture, sounds, or of forms, infects -any man whatever his plane of development. - -The business of art lies just in this,--to make that understood and -felt which, in the form of an argument, might be incomprehensible -and inaccessible. Usually it seems to the recipient of a truly -artistic impression that he knew the thing before but had been -unable to express it. - -And such has always been the nature of good, supreme art; the -"Iliad," the "Odyssey," the stories of Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph, -the Hebrew prophets, the psalms, the gospel parables, the story -of Sakya Muni, and the hymns of the Vedas: all transmit very -elevated feelings, and are nevertheless quite comprehensible now -to us, educated or uneducated, as they were comprehensible to -the men of those times, long ago, who were even less educated -than our laborers. People talk about incomprehensibility; but if -art is the transmission of feelings flowing from man's religious -perception, how can a feeling be incomprehensible which is founded -on religion, _i.e._ on man's relation to God? Such art should be, -and has actually always been, comprehensible to everybody, because -every man's relation to God is one and the same. And therefore -the churches and the images in them were always comprehensible to -every one. The hindrance to understanding the best and highest -feelings (as is said in the gospel) does not at all lie in -deficiency of development or learning, but, on the contrary, in -false development and false learning. A good and lofty work of art -may be incomprehensible, but not to simple, unperverted peasant -laborers (all that is highest is understood by them)--it may be, -and often is, unintelligible to erudite, perverted people destitute -of religion. And this continually occurs in our society, in which -the highest feelings are simply not understood. For instance, I -know people who consider themselves most refined, and who say that -they do not understand the poetry of love to one's neighbor, of -self-sacrifice, or of chastity. - -So that good, great, universal, religious art may be -incomprehensible to a small circle of spoilt people, but certainly -not to any large number of plain men. - -Art cannot be incomprehensible to the great masses only because it -is very good--as artists of our day are fond of telling us. Rather -we are bound to conclude that this art is unintelligible to the -great masses only because it is very bad art, or even is not art at -all. So that the favorite argument (naively accepted by the cultured -crowd), that in order to feel art one has first to understand it -(which really only means habituate oneself to it), is the truest -indication that what we are asked to understand by such a method is -either very bad, exclusive art, or is not art at all. - -People say that works of art do not please the people because they -are incapable of understanding them. But if the aim of works of art -is to infect people with the emotion the artist has experienced, how -can one talk about not understanding? - -A man of the people reads a book, sees a picture, hears a play or -a symphony, and is touched by no feeling. He is told that this is -because he cannot understand. People promise to let a man see a -certain show; he enters and sees nothing. He is told that this is -because his sight is not prepared for this show. But the man well -knows that he sees quite well, and if he does not see what people -promised to show him, he only concludes (as is quite just) that -those who undertook to show him the spectacle have not fulfilled -their engagement. And it is perfectly just for a man who does feel -the influence of some works of art to come to this conclusion -concerning artists who do not, by their works, evoke feeling in him. -To say that the reason a man is not touched by my art is because -he is still too stupid, besides being very self-conceited and also -rude, is to reverse the roles, and for the sick to send the hale to -bed. - -Voltaire said that "_Tous les genres sont bons, hors le genre -ennuyeux_;"[116] but with even more right one may say of art that -_Tous les genres sont bons, hors celui qu'on ne comprend pas, or -qui ne produit pas son effet_,[117] for of what value is an article -which fails to do that for which it was intended? - - [116] All styles are good except the wearisome style. - - [117] All styles are good except that which is not understood, or - which fails to produce its effect. - -Mark this above all: if only it be admitted that art may be art -and yet be unintelligible to any one of sound mind, there is no -reason why any circle of perverted people should not compose works -tickling their own perverted feelings and comprehensible to no one -but themselves, and call it "art," as is actually being done by the -so-called Decadents. - -The direction art has taken may be compared to placing on a large -circle other circles, smaller and smaller, until a cone is formed, -the apex of which is no longer a circle at all. That is what has -happened to the art of our times. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - - -Becoming ever poorer and poorer in subject-matter, and more and -more unintelligible in form, the art of the upper classes, in its -latest productions, has even lost all the characteristics of art, -and has been replaced by imitations of art. Not only has upper-class -art, in consequence of its separation from universal art, become -poor in subject-matter, and bad in form, _i.e._ ever more and more -unintelligible, it has, in course of time, ceased even to be art at -all, and has been replaced by counterfeits. - -This has resulted from the following causes: Universal art arises -only when some one of the people, having experienced a strong -emotion, feels the necessity of transmitting it to others. The -art of the rich classes, on the other hand, arises not from the -artist's inner impulse, but chiefly because people of the upper -classes demand amusement and pay well for it. They demand from art -the transmission of feelings that please them, and this demand -artists try to meet. But it is a very difficult task; for people of -the wealthy classes, spending their lives in idleness and luxury, -desire to be continually diverted by art; and art, even the lowest, -cannot be produced at will, but has to generate spontaneously in -the artist's inner self. And therefore, to satisfy the demands of -people of the upper classes, artists have had to devise methods of -producing imitations of art. And such methods have been devised. - -These methods are those of (1) borrowing, (2) imitating, (3) -striking (effects), and (4) interesting. - -The first method consists in borrowing whole subjects, or merely -separate features, from former works recognized by every one as -being poetical, and in so re-shaping them, with sundry additions, -that they should have an appearance of novelty. - -Such works, evoking in people of a certain class memories of -artistic feelings formerly experienced, produce an impression -similar to art, and, provided only that they conform to other -needful conditions, they pass for art among those who seek for -pleasure from art. Subjects borrowed from previous works of art are -usually called poetical subjects. Objects and people thus borrowed -are called poetical objects and people. Thus, in our circle, all -sorts of legends, sagas, and ancient traditions are considered -poetical subjects. Among poetical people and objects we reckon -maidens, warriors, shepherds, hermits, angels, devils of all sorts, -moonlight, thunder, mountains, the sea, precipices, flowers, long -hair, lions, lambs, doves, and nightingales. In general, all those -objects are considered poetical which have been most frequently used -by former artists in their productions. - -Some forty years ago a stupid but highly cultured--_ayant beaucoup -d'acquis_--lady (since deceased) asked me to listen to a novel -written by herself. It began with a heroine who, in a poetic white -dress, and with poetically flowing hair, was reading poetry near -some water in a poetic wood. The scene was in Russia, but suddenly -from behind the bushes the hero appears, wearing a hat with a -feather _a la Guillaume Tell_ (the book specially mentioned this) -and accompanied by two poetical white dogs. The authoress deemed -all this highly poetical, and it might have passed muster if only -it had not been necessary for the hero to speak. But as soon as the -gentleman in the hat _a la Guillaume Tell_ began to converse with -the maiden in the white dress, it became obvious that the authoress -had nothing to say, but had merely been moved by poetic memories -of other works, and imagined that by ringing the changes on those -memories she could produce an artistic impression. But an artistic -impression, _i.e._ infection, is only received when an author has, -in the manner peculiar to himself, experienced the feeling which -he transmits, and not when he passes on another man's feeling -previously transmitted to him. Such poetry from poetry cannot infect -people, it can only simulate a work of art, and even that only to -people of perverted aesthetic taste. The lady in question being very -stupid and devoid of talent, it was at once apparent how the case -stood; but when such borrowing is resorted to by people who are -erudite and talented and have cultivated the technique of their art, -we get those borrowings from the Greek, the antique, the Christian -or mythological world which have become so numerous, and which, -particularly in our day, continue to increase and multiply, and are -accepted by the public as works of art, if only the borrowings are -well mounted by means of the technique of the particular art to -which they belong. - -As a characteristic example of such counterfeits of art in the realm -of poetry, take Rostand's "Princesse Lointaine," in which there is -not a spark of art, but which seems very poetical to many people, -and probably also to its author. - -The second method of imparting a semblance of art is that which -I have called imitating. The essence of this method consists in -supplying details accompanying the thing described or depicted. -In literary art this method consists in describing, in the -minutest details, the external appearance, the faces, the clothes, -the gestures, the tones, and the habitations of the characters -represented, with all the occurrences met with in life. For -instance, in novels and stories, when one of the characters speaks, -we are told in what voice he spoke, and what he was doing at the -time. And the things said are not given so that they should have as -much sense as possible, but, as they are in life, disconnectedly, -and with interruptions and omissions. In dramatic art, besides -such imitation of real speech, this method consists in having all -the accessories and all the people just like those in real life. -In painting, this method assimilates painting to photography, and -destroys the difference between them. And, strange to say, this -method is used also in music: music tries to imitate, not only by -its rhythm but also by its very sounds, the sounds which in real -life accompany the thing it wishes to represent. - -The third method is by action, often purely physical, on the outer -senses. Work of this kind is said to be "striking," "effectful." In -all arts these effects consist chiefly in contrasts; in bringing -together the terrible and the tender, the beautiful and the hideous, -the loud and the soft, darkness and light, the most ordinary and -the most extraordinary. In verbal art, besides effects of contrast, -there are also effects consisting in the description of things that -have never before been described. These are usually pornographic -details evoking sexual desire, or details of suffering and death -evoking feelings of horror, as, for instance, when describing a -murder, to give a detailed medical account of the lacerated tissues, -of the swellings, of the smell, quantity, and appearance of the -blood. It is the same in painting: besides all kinds of other -contrasts, one is coming into vogue which consists in giving careful -finish to one object and being careless about all the rest. The -chief and usual effects in painting are effects of light and the -depiction of the horrible. In the drama, the most common effects, -besides contrasts, are tempests, thunder, moonlight, scenes at sea -or by the seashore, changes of costume, exposure of the female body, -madness, murders, and death generally: the dying person exhibiting -in detail all the phases of agony. In music the most usual effects -are a _crescendo_, passing from the softest and simplest sounds -to the loudest and most complex crash of the full orchestra; a -repetition of the same sounds _arpeggio_ in all the octaves and on -various instruments; or that the harmony, tone, and rhythm be not at -all those naturally flowing from the course of the musical thought, -but such as strike one by their unexpectedness. Besides these, the -commonest effects in music are produced in a purely physical manner -by strength of sound, especially in an orchestra. - -Such are some of the most usual effects in the various arts, but -there yet remains one common to them all; namely, to convey by -means of one art what it would be natural to convey by another: for -instance, to make music describe (as is done by the programme music -of Wagner and his followers), or to make painting, the drama, or -poetry, induce a frame of mind (as is aimed at by all the Decadent -art). - -The fourth method is that of interesting (that is, absorbing the -mind) in connection with works of art. The interest may lie in -an intricate plot--a method till quite recently much employed in -English novels and French plays, but now going out of fashion and -being replaced by authenticity, _i.e._ by detailed description of -some historical period or some branch of contemporary life. For -example, in a novel, interestingness may consist in a description of -Egyptian or Roman life, the life of miners, or that of the clerks -in a large shop. The reader becomes interested and mistakes this -interest for an artistic impression. The interest may also depend on -the very method of expression; a kind of interest that has now come -much into use. Both verse and prose, as well as pictures, plays, and -music, are constructed so that they must be guessed like riddles, -and this process of guessing again affords pleasure and gives a -semblance of the feeling received from art. - -It is very often said that a work of art is very good because it is -poetic, or realistic, or striking, or interesting; whereas not only -can neither the first, nor the second, nor the third, nor the fourth -of these attributes supply a standard of excellence in art, but they -have not even anything in common with art. - -Poetic--means borrowed. All borrowing merely recalls to the reader, -spectator, or listener some dim recollection of artistic impressions -they have received from previous works of art, and does not infect -them with feeling which the artist has himself experienced. A -work founded on something borrowed, like Goethe's "Faust," for -instance, may be very well executed and be full of mind and every -beauty, but because it lacks the chief characteristic of a work -of art--completeness, oneness, the inseparable unity of form and -contents expressing the feeling the artist has experienced--it -cannot produce a really artistic impression. In availing himself -of this method, the artist only transmits the feeling received by -him from a previous work of art; therefore every borrowing, whether -it be of whole subjects, or of various scenes, situations, or -descriptions, is but a reflection of art, a simulation of it, but -not art itself. And therefore, to say that a certain production is -good because it is poetic--_i.e._ resembles a work of art--is like -saying of a coin that it is good because it resembles real money. - -Equally little can imitation, realism, serve, as many people think, -as a measure of the quality of art. Imitation cannot be such a -measure; for the chief characteristic of art is the infection of -others with the feelings the artist has experienced, and infection -with a feeling is not only not identical with description of the -accessories of what is transmitted, but is usually hindered by -superfluous details. The attention of the receiver of the artistic -impression is diverted by all these well-observed details, and they -hinder the transmission of feeling even when it exists. - -To value a work of art by the degree of its realism, by the -accuracy of the details reproduced, is as strange as to judge of -the nutritive quality of food by its external appearance. When we -appraise a work according to its realism, we only show that we are -talking, not of a work of art, but of its counterfeit. - -Neither does the third method of imitating art--by the use of -what is striking or effectual--coincide with real art any better -than the two former methods; for in effectfulness--the effects of -novelty, of the unexpected, of contrasts, of the horrible--there -is no transmission of feeling, but only an action on the nerves. -If an artist were to paint a bloody wound admirably, the sight of -the wound would strike me, but it would not be art. One prolonged -note on a powerful organ will produce a striking impression, will -often even cause tears, but there is no music in it, because -no feeling is transmitted. Yet such physiological effects are -constantly mistaken for art by people of our circle, and this not -only in music, but also in poetry, painting, and the drama. It is -said that art has become refined. On the contrary, thanks to the -pursuit of effectfulness, it has become very coarse. A new piece -is brought out and accepted all over Europe, such, for instance, -as "Hannele," in which play the author wishes to transmit to the -spectators pity for a persecuted girl. To evoke this feeling in the -audience by means of art, the author should either make one of the -characters express this pity in such a way as to infect every one, -or he should describe the girl's feelings correctly. But he cannot, -or will not, do this, and chooses another way, more complicated -in stage management, but easier for the author. He makes the girl -die on the stage; and, still further to increase the physiological -effect on the spectators, he extinguishes the lights in the theater, -leaving the audience in the dark, and to the sound of dismal music -he shows how the girl is pursued and beaten by her drunken father. -The girl shrinks--screams--groans--and falls. Angels appear and -carry her away. And the audience, experiencing some excitement while -this is going on, are fully convinced that this is true aesthetic -feeling. But there is nothing aesthetic in such excitement; for there -is no infecting of man by man, but only a mingled feeling of pity -for another, and of self-congratulation that it is not I who am -suffering: it is like what we feel at the sight of an execution, or -what the Romans felt in their circuses. - -The substitution of effectfulness for aesthetic feeling is -particularly noticeable in musical art--that art which by its nature -has an immediate physiological action on the nerves. Instead of -transmitting by means of a melody the feelings he has experienced, -a composer of the new school accumulates and complicates sounds, -and by now strengthening, now weakening them, he produces on the -audience a physiological effect of a kind that can be measured by an -apparatus invented for the purpose.[118] And the public mistake this -physiological effect for the effect of art. - - [118] An apparatus exists by means of which a very sensitive arrow, - in dependence on the tension of a muscle of the arm, will indicate - the physiological action of music on the nerves and muscles. - -As to the fourth method--that of interesting--it also is frequently -confounded with art. One often hears it said, not only of a poem, -a novel, or a picture, but even of a musical work, that it is -interesting. What does this mean? To speak of an interesting work of -art means either that we receive from a work of art information new -to us, or that the work is not fully intelligible, and that little -by little, and with effort, we arrive at its meaning, and experience -a certain pleasure in this process of guessing it. In neither case -has the interest anything in common with artistic impression. Art -aims at infecting people with feeling experienced by the artist. -But the mental effort necessary to enable the spectator, listener, -or reader to assimilate the new information contained in the work, -or to guess the puzzles propounded, by distracting him, hinders the -infection. And therefore the interestingness of a work, not only -has nothing to do with its excellence as a work of art, but rather -hinders than assists artistic impression. - -We may, in a work of art, meet with what is poetic, and realistic, -and striking, and interesting, but these things cannot replace the -essential of art,--feeling experienced by the artist. Latterly, in -upper-class art, most of the objects given out as being works of -art are of the kind which only resemble art, and are devoid of its -essential quality,--feeling experienced by the artist. And, for the -diversion of the rich, such objects are continually being produced -in enormous quantities by the artisans of art. - -Many conditions must be fulfilled to enable a man to produce a real -work of art. It is necessary that he should stand on the level of -the highest life-conception of his time, that he should experience -feeling and have the desire and capacity to transmit it, and that -he should, moreover, have a talent for some one of the forms of -art. It is very seldom that all these conditions necessary to the -production of true art are combined. But in order--aided by the -customary methods of borrowing, imitating, introducing effects, and -interesting--unceasingly to produce counterfeits of art which pass -for art in our society and are well paid for, it is only necessary -to have a talent for some branch of art; and this is very often -to be met with. By talent I mean ability: in literary art, the -ability to express one's thoughts and impressions easily and to -notice and remember characteristic details; in the depictive arts, -to distinguish and remember lines, forms, and colors; in music, to -distinguish the intervals, and to remember and transmit the sequence -of sounds. And a man, in our times, if only he possesses such a -talent and selects some specialty, may, after learning the methods -of counterfeiting used in his branch of art,--if he has patience -and if his aesthetic feeling (which would render such productions -revolting to him) be atrophied,--unceasingly, till the end of his -life, turn out works which will pass for art in our society. - -To produce such counterfeits, definite rules or recipes exist in -each branch of art. So that the talented man, having assimilated -them, may produce such works _a froid_, cold drawn, without any -feeling. - -In order to write poems a man of literary talent needs only -these qualifications: to acquire the knack, conformably with the -requirements of rhyme and rhythm, of using, instead of the one -really suitable word, ten others meaning approximately the same; -to learn how to take any phrase which, to be clear, has but one -natural order of words, and despite all possible dislocations still -to retain some sense in it; and lastly, to be able, guided by the -words required for the rhymes, to devise some semblance of thoughts, -feelings, or descriptions to suit these words. Having acquired these -qualifications, he may unceasingly produce poems--short or long, -religious, amatory, or patriotic, according to the demand. - -If a man of literary talent wishes to write a story or novel, he -need only form his style--_i.e._ learn how to describe all that he -sees--and accustom himself to remember or note down details. When he -has accustomed himself to this, he can, according to his inclination -or the demand, unceasingly produce novels or stories--historical, -naturalistic, social, erotic, psychological, or even religious, for -which latter kind a demand and fashion begins to show itself. He can -take subjects from books or from the events of life, and can copy -the characters of the people in his book from his acquaintances. - -And such novels and stories, if only they are decked out with -well-observed and carefully noted details, preferably erotic ones, -will be considered works of art, even though they may not contain a -spark of feeling experienced. - -To produce art in dramatic form, a talented man, in addition to all -that is required for novels and stories, must also learn to furnish -his characters with as many smart and witty sentences as possible, -must know how to utilize theatrical effects, and how to entwine -the action of his characters so that there should not be any long -conversations, but as much bustle and movement on the stage as -possible. If the writer is able to do this, he may produce dramatic -works one after another without stopping, selecting his subjects -from the reports of the law courts, or from the latest society -topic, such as hypnotism, heredity, etc., or from deep antiquity, or -even from the realms of fancy. - -In the sphere of painting and sculpture it is still easier for the -talented man to produce imitations of art. He need only learn to -draw, paint, and model--especially naked bodies. Thus equipped he -can continue to paint pictures, or model statues, one after another, -choosing subjects according to his bent--mythological, or religious, -or fantastic, or symbolical; or he may depict what is written about -in the papers--a coronation, a strike, the Turko-Grecian war, famine -scenes; or, commonest of all, he may just copy anything he thinks -beautiful--from naked women to copper basins. - -For the production of musical art the talented man needs still -less of what constitutes the essence of art, _i.e._ feeling -wherewith to infect others: but on the other hand, he requires -more physical, gymnastic labor than for any other art, unless it -be dancing. To produce works of musical art, he must first learn -to move his fingers on some instrument as rapidly as those who -have reached the highest perfection; next, he must know how in -former times polyphonic music was written, must study what are -called counterpoint and fugue; and, furthermore, he must learn -orchestration, _i.e._ how to utilize the effects of the instruments. -But once he has learned all this, the composer may unceasingly -produce one work after another; whether programme-music, opera, or -song (devising sounds more or less corresponding to the words), or -chamber music, _i.e._ he may take another man's themes and work -them up into definite forms by means of counterpoint and fugue; or, -what is commonest of all, he may compose fantastic music, _i.e._ he -may take a conjunction of sounds which happens to come to hand, and -pile every sort of complication and ornamentation on to this chance -combination. - -Thus, in all realms of art, counterfeits of art are manufactured to -a ready-made, prearranged recipe, and these counterfeits the public -of our upper classes accept for real art. - -And this substitution of counterfeits for real works of art was the -third and most important consequence of the separation of the art of -the upper classes from universal art. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - - -In our society three conditions cooperate to cause the production of -objects of counterfeit art. They are--(1) the considerable remuneration -of artists for their productions, and the professionalization of -artists which this has produced, (2) art criticism, and (3) schools of -art. - -While art was as yet undivided, and only religious art was valued -and rewarded while indiscriminate art was left unrewarded, there -were no counterfeits of art, or, if any existed, being exposed to -the criticism of the whole people, they quickly disappeared. But as -soon as that division occurred, and the upper classes acclaaimed -every kind of art as good if only it afforded them pleasure, and -began to reward such art more highly than any other social activity, -immediately a large number of people devoted themselves to this -activity, and art assumed quite a different character, and became a -profession. - -And as soon as this occurred, the chief and most precious quality -of art--its sincerity--was at once greatly weakened and eventually -quite destroyed. - -The professional artist lives by his art, and has continually -to invent subjects for his works, and does invent them. And it -is obvious how great a difference must exist between works of -art produced on the one hand by men such as the Jewish prophets, -the authors of the Psalms, Francis of Assisi, the authors of the -"Iliad" and "Odyssey," of folk-stories, legends, and folk-songs, -many of whom not only received no remuneration for their work, but -did not even attach their names to it; and, on the other hand, -works produced by court poets, dramatists and musicians receiving -honors and remuneration; and later on by professional artists, who -lived by the trade, receiving remuneration from newspaper editors, -publishers, impresarios, and in general from those agents who come -between the artists and the town public--the consumers of art. - -Professionalism is the first condition of the diffusion of false, -counterfeit art. - -The second condition is the growth, in recent times, of artistic -criticism, _i.e._ the valuation of art, not by everybody, and, above -all, not by plain men, but by erudite, that is, by perverted and at -the same time self-confident individuals. - -A friend of mine, speaking of the relation of critics to artists, -half jokingly defined it thus: "Critics are the stupid who discuss -the wise." However partial, inexact, and rude this definition may -be, it is yet partly true, and is incomparably juster than the -definition which considers critics to be men who can explain works -of art. - -"Critics explain!" What do they explain? - -The artist, if a real artist, has by his work transmitted to others -the feeling he experienced. What is there, then, to explain? - -If a work be good as art, then the feeling expressed by the -artist--be it moral or immoral--transmits itself to other people. If -transmitted to others, then they feel it, and all interpretations -are superfluous. If the work does not infect people, no explanation -can make it contagious. An artist's work cannot be interpreted. -Had it been possible to explain in words what he wished to convey, -the artist would have expressed himself in words. He expressed it -by his art only because the feeling he experienced could not be -otherwise transmitted. The interpretation of works of art by words -only indicates that the interpreter is himself incapable of feeling -the infection of art. And this is actually the case; for, however -strange it may seem to say so, critics have always been people less -susceptible than other men to the contagion of art. For the most -part they are able writers, educated and clever, but with their -capacity of being infected by art quite perverted or atrophied. And -therefore their writings have always largely contributed, and still -contribute, to the perversion of the taste of that public which -reads them and trusts them. - -Artistic criticism did not exist--could not and cannot exist--in -societies where art is undivided, and where, consequently, it is -appraised by the religious understanding of life common to the whole -people. Art criticism grew, and could grow, only on the art of the -upper classes, who did not acknowledge the religious perception of -their time. - -Universal art has a definite and indubitable internal -criterion,--religious perception; upper-class art lacks this, and -therefore the appreciators of that art are obliged to cling to -some external criterion. And they find it in "the judgments of the -finest-nurtured," as an English aesthetician has phrased it, that -is, in the authority of the people who are considered educated, -nor in this alone, but also in a tradition of such authorities. -This tradition is extremely misleading, both because the opinions -of "the finest-nurtured" are often mistaken, and also because -judgments which were valid once cease to be so with the lapse of -time. But the critics, having no basis for their judgments, never -cease to repeat their traditions. The classical tragedians were -once considered good, and therefore criticism considers them to be -so still. Dante was esteemed a great poet, Raphael a great painter, -Bach a great musician--and the critics, lacking a standard by which -to separate good art from bad, not only consider these artists -great, but regard all their productions as admirable and worthy of -imitation. Nothing has contributed, and still contributes, so much -to the perversion of art as these authorities set up by criticism. A -man produces a work of art, like every true artist expressing in his -own peculiar manner a feeling he has experienced. Most people are -infected by the artist's feeling; and his work becomes known. Then -criticism, discussing the artist, says that the work is not bad, -but all the same the artist is not a Dante, nor a Shakespear, nor a -Goethe, nor a Raphael, nor what Beethoven was in his last period. -And the young artist sets to work to copy those who are held up for -his imitation, and he produces not only feeble works, but false -works,--counterfeits of art. - -Thus, for instance, our Pushkin writes his short poems, "Evgeniy -Onegin," "The Gipsies," and his stories--works all varying in -quality, but all true art. But then, under the influence of false -criticism extolling Shakespear, he writes "Boris Godunoff," a cold, -brain-spun work, and this production is lauded by the critics, set -up as a model, and imitations of it appear: "Minin," by Ostrovsky, -and "Tsar Boris," by Alexee Tolstoi, and such imitations of -imitations as crowd all literatures with insignificant productions. -The chief harm done by the critics is this,--that themselves lacking -the capacity to be infected by art (and that is the characteristic -of all critics; for did they not lack this they could not attempt -the impossible--the interpretation of works of art), they pay most -attention to, and eulogize, brain-spun, invented works, and set -these up as models worthy of imitation. That is the reason they so -confidently extol, in literature, the Greek tragedians, Dante, -Tasso, Milton, Shakespear, Goethe (almost all he wrote), and, among -recent writers, Zola and Ibsen; in music, Beethoven's last period, -and Wagner. To justify their praise of these brain-spun, invented -works, they devise entire theories (of which the famous theory of -beauty is one); and not only dull but also talented people compose -works in strict deference to these theories; and often even real -artists, doing violence to their genius, submit to them. - -Every false work extolled by the critics serves as a door through -which the hypocrites of art at once crowd in. - -It is solely due to the critics, who in our times still praise rude, -savage, and, for us, often meaningless works of the ancient Greeks: -Sophocles, Euripides, AEschylus, and especially Aristophanes; or, -of modern writers, Dante, Tasso, Milton, Shakespear; in painting, -all of Raphael, all of Michael Angelo, including his absurd "Last -Judgment"; in music, the whole of Bach, and the whole of Beethoven, -including his last period,--thanks only to them have the Ibsens, -Maeterlincks, Verlaines, Mallarmes, Puvis de Chavannes, Klingers, -Boecklins, Stucks, Schneiders; in music, the Wagners, Liszts, -Berliozes, Brahmses, and Richard Strausses, etc., and all that -immense mass of good-for-nothing imitators of these imitators, -become possible in our day. - -As a good illustration of the harmful influence of criticism, take -its relation to Beethoven. Among his innumerable hasty productions -written to order, there are, notwithstanding their artificiality -of form, works of true art. But he grows deaf, cannot hear, and -begins to write invented, unfinished works, which are consequently -often meaningless and musically unintelligible. I know that -musicians can imagine sounds vividly enough, and can almost hear -what they read, but imaginary sounds can never replace real ones, -and every composer must hear his production in order to perfect it. -Beethoven, however, could not hear, could not perfect his work, and -consequently published productions which are artistic ravings. But -criticism, having once acknowledged him to be a great composer, -seizes on just these abnormal works with special gusto, and searches -for extraordinary beauties in them. And, to justify its laudations -(perverting the very meaning of musical art), it attributed to music -the property of describing what it cannot describe. And imitators -appear--an innumerable host of imitators of these abnormal attempts -at artistic productions which Beethoven wrote when he was deaf. - -Then Wagner appears, who at first in critical articles praises just -Beethoven's last period, and connects this music with Schopenhauer's -mystical theory that music is the expression of Will--not of -separate manifestations of will objectivized on various planes, -but its very essence--which is in itself as absurd as this music -of Beethoven. And afterward he composes music of his own on this -theory, in conjunction with another still more erroneous system of -the union of all the arts. After Wagner yet new imitators appear, -diverging yet further from art: Brahms, Richard Strauss, and others. - -Such are the results of criticism. But the third condition of the -perversion of art, namely, art schools, is almost more harmful still. - -As soon as art became, not art for the whole people, but for a rich -class, it became a profession; as soon as it became a profession, -methods were devised to teach it; people who chose this profession -of art began to learn these methods, and thus professional schools -sprang up: classes of rhetoric or literature in the public schools, -academies for painting, conservatoires for music, schools for -dramatic art. - -In these schools art is taught! But art is the transmission to -others of a special feeling experienced by the artist. How can this -be taught in schools? - -No school can evoke feeling in a man, and still less can it teach -him how to manifest it in the one particular manner natural to him -alone. But the essence of art lies in these things. - -The one thing these schools can teach is how to transmit feelings -experienced by other artists in the way those other artists -transmitted them. And this is just what the professional schools do -teach; and such instruction not only does not assist the spread of -true art, but, on the contrary, by diffusing counterfeits of art, -does more than anything else to deprive people of the capacity to -understand true art. - -In literary art people are taught how, without having anything they -wish to say, to write a many-paged composition on a theme about -which they have never thought, and, moreover, to write it so that -it should resemble the work of an author admitted to be celebrated. -This is taught in schools. - -In painting, the chief training consists in learning to draw and -paint from copies and models, the naked body chiefly (the very -thing that is never seen, and which a man occupied with real art -hardly ever has to depict), and to draw and paint as former masters -drew and painted. The composition of pictures is taught by giving -out themes similar to those which have been treated by former -acknowledged celebrities. - -So also in dramatic schools, the pupils are taught to recite -monologues just as tragedians, considered celebrated, declaimed them. - -It is the same in music. The whole theory of music is nothing but -a disconnected repetition of those methods which the acknowledged -masters of composition made use of. - -I have elsewhere quoted the profound remark of the Russian artist -Bruloff on art, but I cannot here refrain from repeating it, because -nothing better illustrates what can and what cannot be taught in -the schools. Once when correcting a pupil's study, Bruloff just -touched it in a few places, and the poor dead study immediately -became animated. "Why, you only touched it a _wee bit_, and it is -quite another thing!" said one of the pupils. "Art begins where -the _wee bit_ begins," replied Bruloff, indicating by these words -just what is most characteristic of art. The remark is true of -all the arts, but its justice is particularly noticeable in the -performance of music. That musical execution should be artistic, -should be art, _i.e._ should infect, three chief conditions must -be observed,--there are many others needed for musical perfection; -the transition from one sound to another must be interrupted or -continuous; the sound must increase or diminish steadily; it must -be blended with one and not with another sound; the sound must -have this or that timbre, and much besides,--but take the three -chief conditions; the pitch, the time, and the strength of the -sound. Musical execution is only then art, only then infects, when -the sound is neither higher nor lower than it should be, that is, -when exactly the infinitely small center of the required note is -taken; when that note is continued exactly as long as is needed; -and when the strength of the sound is neither more nor less than -is required. The slightest deviation of pitch in either direction, -the slightest increase or decrease in time, or the slightest -strengthening or weakening of the sound beyond what is needed, -destroys the perfection and, consequently, the infectiousness of -the work. So that the feeling of infection by the art of music, -which seems so simple and so easily obtained, is a thing we receive -only when the performer finds those infinitely minute degrees which -are necessary to perfection in music. It is the same in all arts: -a wee bit lighter, a wee bit darker, a wee bit higher, lower, to -the right or the left--in painting; a wee bit weaker or stronger in -intonation, or a wee bit sooner or later--in dramatic art; a wee bit -omitted, over-emphasized, or exaggerated--in poetry, and there is -no contagion. Infection is only obtained when an artist finds those -infinitely minute degrees of which a work of art consists, and only -to the extent to which he finds them. And it is quite impossible to -teach people by external means to find these minute degrees; they -can only be found when a man yields to his feeling. No instruction -can make a dancer catch just the tact of the music, or a singer or -a fiddler take exactly the infinitely minute center of his note, or -a sketcher draw of all possible lines the only right one, or a poet -find the only meet arrangement of the only suitable words. All this -is found only by feeling. And therefore schools may teach what is -necessary in order to produce something resembling art, but not art -itself. - -The teaching of the schools stops there where the _wee bit_ -begins--consequently where art begins. - -Accustoming people to something resembling art, disaccustoms them to -the comprehension of real art. And that is how it comes about that -none are more dull to art than those who have passed through the -professional schools and been most successful in them. Professional -schools produce an hypocrisy of art precisely akin to that hypocrisy -of religion which is produced by theological colleges for training -priests, pastors, and religious teachers generally. As it is -impossible in a school to train a man so as to make a religious -teacher of him, so it is impossible to teach a man how to become an -artist. - -Art schools are thus doubly destructive of art: first, in that they -destroy the capacity to produce real art in those who have the -misfortune to enter them and go through a seven or eight years' -course; secondly, in that they generate enormous quantities of that -counterfeit art which perverts the taste of the masses and overflows -our world. In order that born artists may know the methods of the -various arts elaborated by former artists, there should exist in -all elementary schools such classes for drawing and music (singing) -that, after passing through them, every talented scholar may, by -using existing models accessible to all, be able to perfect himself -in his art independently. - -These three conditions--the professionalization of artists, art -criticism, and art schools--have had this effect: that most people -in our times are quite unable even to understand what art is, and -accept as art the grossest counterfeits of it. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - - -To what an extent people of our circle and time have lost the -capacity to receive real art, and have become accustomed to accept -as art things that have nothing in common with it, is best seen from -the works of Richard Wagner, which have latterly come to be more and -more esteemed, not only by the Germans, but also by the French and -the English, as the very highest art, revealing new horizons to us. - -The peculiarity of Wagner's music, as is known, consists in -this,--that he considered that music should serve poetry, expressing -all the shades of a poetical work. - -The union of the drama with music, devised in the fifteenth century -in Italy for the revival of what they imagined to have been the -ancient Greek drama with music, is an artificial form which had, -and has, success only among the upper classes, and that only when -gifted composers, such as Mozart, Weber, Rossini, and others, -drawing inspiration from a dramatic subject, yielded freely to the -inspiration and subordinated the text to the music, so that in their -operas the important thing to the audience was merely the music on -a certain text, and not the text at all, which latter, even when it -was utterly absurd, as, for instance, in the "Magic Flute," still -did not prevent the music from producing an artistic impression. - -Wagner wishes to correct the opera by letting music submit to the -demands of poetry and unite with it. But each art has its own -definite realm, which is not identical with the realm of other -arts, but merely comes in contact with them; and therefore, if the -manifestation of, I will not say several, but even of two arts--the -dramatic and the musical--be united in one complete production, -then the demands of the one art will make it impossible to fulfil -the demands of the other, as has always occurred in the ordinary -operas, where the dramatic art has submitted to, or rather yielded -place to, the musical. Wagner wishes that musical art should submit -to dramatic art, and that both should appear in full strength. But -this is impossible; for every work of art, if it be a true one, -is an expression of intimate feelings of the artist, which are -quite exceptional, and not like anything else. Such is a musical -production, and such is a dramatic work, if they be true art. -And therefore, in order that a production in the one branch of -art should coincide with a production in the other branch, it is -necessary that the impossible should happen: that two works from -different realms of art should be absolutely exceptional, unlike -anything that existed before, and yet should coincide, and be -exactly alike. - -And this cannot be, just as there cannot be two men, or even two -leaves on a tree, exactly alike. Still less can two works from -different realms of art, the musical and the literary, be absolutely -alike. If they coincide, then either one is a work of art and the -other a counterfeit, or both are counterfeits. Two live leaves -cannot be exactly alike, but two artificial leaves may be. And so it -is with works of art. They can only coincide completely when neither -the one nor the other is art, but only cunningly devised semblances -of it. - -If poetry and music may be joined, as occurs in hymns, songs, -and _romances_--(though even in these the music does not follow -the changes of each verse of the text, as Wagner wants to, but -the song and the music merely produce a coincident effect on the -mind)--this occurs only because lyrical poetry and music have, to -some extent, one and the same aim: to produce a mental condition and -the conditions produced by lyrical poetry and by music can, more or -less, coincide. But even in these conjunctions the center of gravity -always lies in one of the two productions, so that it is one of -them that produces the artistic impression while the other remains -unregarded. And still less is it possible for such union to exist -between epic or dramatic poetry and music. - -Moreover, one of the chief conditions of artistic creation is the -complete freedom of the artist from every kind of preconceived -demand. And the necessity of adjusting his musical work to a work -from another realm of art is a preconceived demand of such a kind -as to destroy all possibility of creative power; and therefore works -of this kind, adjusted to one another, are, and must be, as has -always happened, not works of art, but only imitations of art, like -the music of a melodrama, signatures to pictures, illustrations, and -librettos to operas. - -And such are Wagner's productions. And a confirmation of this is -to be seen in the fact that Wagner's new music lacks the chief -characteristic of every true work of art; namely, such entirety -and completeness that the smallest alteration in its form would -disturb the meaning of the whole work. In a true work of art--poem, -drama, picture, song, or symphony--it is impossible to extract one -line, one scene, one figure, or one bar from its place and put it -in another, without infringing the significance of the whole work; -just as it is impossible, without infringing the life of an organic -being, to extract an organ from one place and insert it in another. -But in the music of Wagner's last period, with the exception of -certain parts of little importance which have an independent musical -meaning, it is possible to make all kinds of transpositions, putting -what was in front behind, and _vice versa_, without altering the -musical sense. And the reason why these transpositions do not alter -the sense of Wagner's music is because the sense lies in the words -and not in the music. - -The musical score of Wagner's later operas is like what the result -would be should one of those versifiers--of whom there are now -many, with tongues so broken that they can write verses on any -theme to any rhymes in any rhythm, which sound as if they had a -meaning--conceive the idea of illustrating by his verses some -symphony or sonata of Beethoven, or some ballade of Chopin, in -the following manner. To the first bars, of one character, he -writes verses corresponding in his opinion to those first bars. -Next come some bars of a different character, and he also writes -verses corresponding in his opinion to them, but with no internal -connection with the first verses, and, moreover, without rhymes and -without rhythm. Such a production, without the music, would be -exactly parallel in poetry to what Wagner's operas are in music, if -heard without the words. - -But Wagner is not only a musician, he is also a poet, or both -together; and therefore, to judge of Wagner, one must know his -poetry also--that same poetry which the music has to subserve. The -chief poetical production of Wagner is "The Nibelung's Ring." This -work has attained such enormous importance in our time, and has such -influence on all that now professes to be art, that it is necessary -for every one to-day to have some idea of it. I have carefully read -through the four booklets which contain this work, and have drawn -up a brief summary of it, which I give in Appendix III. I would -strongly advise the reader (if he has not perused the poem itself, -which would be the best thing to do) at least to read my account of -it, so as to have an idea of this extraordinary work. It is a model -work of counterfeit art, so gross as to be even ridiculous. - -But we are told that it is impossible to judge of Wagner's works -without seeing them on the stage. The Second Day of this drama, -which, as I was told, is the best part of the whole work, was given -in Moscow last winter, and I went to see the performance. - -When I arrived the enormous theater was already filled from top to -bottom. There were grand dukes, and the flower of the aristocracy, -of the merchant class, of the learned, and of the middle-class -official public. Most of them held the libretto, fathoming its -meaning. Musicians--some of them elderly, gray-haired men--followed -the music, score in hand. Evidently the performance of this work was -an event of importance. - -I was rather late, but I was told that the short prelude, with -which the act begins, was of little importance, and that it did not -matter having missed it. When I arrived, an actor sat on the stage -amid decorations intended to represent a cave, and before something -which was meant to represent a smith's forge. He was dressed in -trico-tights, with a cloak of skins, wore a wig and an artificial -beard, and with white, weak genteel hands (his easy movements, -and especially the shape of his stomach and his lack of muscle -revealed the actor) beat an impossible sword with an unnatural -hammer in a way in which no one ever uses a hammer; and at the -same time, opening his mouth in a strange way, he sang something -incomprehensible. The music of various instruments accompanied the -strange sounds which he emitted. From the libretto one was able -to gather that the actor had to represent a powerful gnome, who -lived in the cave, and who was forging a sword for Siegfried, whom -he had reared. One could tell he was a gnome by the fact that the -actor walked all the time bending the knees of his trico-covered -legs. This gnome, still opening his mouth in the same strange way, -long continued to sing or shout. The music meanwhile runs over -something strange, like beginnings which are not continued and do -not get finished. From the libretto one could learn that the gnome -is telling himself about a ring which a giant had obtained, and -which the gnome wishes to procure through Siegfried's aid, while -Siegfried wants a good sword, on the forging of which the gnome is -occupied. After this conversation or singing to himself has gone -on rather a long time, other sounds are heard in the orchestra, -also like something beginning and not finishing, and another actor -appears, with a horn slung over his shoulder, and accompanied by a -man running on all fours dressed up as a bear, whom he sets at the -smith-gnome. The latter runs away without unbending the knees of -his trico-covered legs. This actor with the horn represented the -hero, Siegfried. The sounds which were emitted in the orchestra on -the entrance of this actor were intended to represent Siegfried's -character, and are called Siegfried's _leit-motiv_. And these -sounds are repeated each time Siegfried appears. There is one fixed -combination of sounds, or _leit-motiv_, for each character, and this -_leit-motiv_ is repeated every time the person whom it represents -appears; and when any one is mentioned the _motiv_ is heard which -relates to that person. Moreover, each article also has its own -_leit-motiv_ or chord. There is a _motiv_ of the ring, a _motiv_ -of the helmet, a _motiv_ of the apple, a _motiv_ of fire, spear, -sword, water, etc.; and as soon as the ring, helmet, or apple is -mentioned, the _motiv_ or chord of the ring, helmet, or apple is -heard. The actor with the horn opens his mouth as unnaturally as the -gnome, and long continues in a chanting voice to shout some words, -and in a similar chant Mime (that is the gnome's name) answers -something or other to him. The meaning of this conversation can -only be discovered from the libretto; and it is that Siegfried was -brought up by the gnome, and therefore, for some reason, hates him -and always wishes to kill him. The gnome has forged a sword for -Siegfried, but Siegfried is dissatisfied with it. From a ten-page -conversation (by the libretto), lasting half an hour and conducted -with the same strange openings of the mouth, and chantings, it -appears that Siegfried's mother gave birth to him in the wood, and -that concerning his father all that is known is that he had a sword -which was broken, the pieces of which are in Mime's possession, -and that Siegfried does not know fear and wishes to go out of -the wood. Mime, however, does not want to let him go. During the -conversation the music never omits, at the mention of father, sword, -etc., to sound the _motiv_ of these people and things. After these -conversations fresh sounds are heard--those of the god Wotan--and a -wanderer appears. This wanderer is the god Wotan. Also dressed up in -a wig, and also in tights, this god Wotan, standing in a stupid pose -with a spear, thinks proper to recount what Mime must have known -before, but what it is necessary to tell the audience. He does not -tell it simply, but in the form of riddles which he orders himself -to guess, staking his head (one does not know why) that he will -guess right. Moreover, whenever the wanderer strikes his spear on -the ground, fire comes out of the ground, and in the orchestra the -sounds of spear and of fire are heard. The orchestra accompanies the -conversation, and the _motiv_ of the people and things spoken of -are always artfully intermingled. Besides this the music expresses -feelings in the most naive manner: the terrible by sounds in the -bass, the frivolous by rapid touches in the treble, etc. - -The riddles have no meaning except to tell the audience what the -_nibelungs_ are, what the giants are, what the gods are, and -what has happened before. This conversation also is chanted with -strangely opened mouths and continues for eight libretto pages, -and correspondingly long on the stage. After this the wanderer -departs, and Siegfried returns and talks with Mime for thirteen -pages more. There is not a single melody the whole of this time, -but merely intertwinings of the _leit-motiv_ of the people and -things mentioned. The conversation tells that Mime wishes to teach -Siegfried fear, and that Siegfried does not know what fear is. -Having finished this conversation, Siegfried seizes one of the -pieces of what is meant to represent the broken sword, saws it up, -puts it on what is meant to represent the forge, melts it, and then -forges it and sings: Heiho! heiho! heiho! Ho! ho! Aha! oho! aha! -Heiaho! heiaho! heiaho! Ho! ho! Hahei! hoho! hahei! and Act I. -finishes. - -As far as the question I had come to the theater to decide was -concerned, my mind was fully made up, as surely as on the question -of the merits of my lady acquaintance's novel when she read me the -scene between the loose-haired maiden in the white dress and the -hero with two white dogs and a hat with a feather _a la Guillaume -Tell_. - -From an author who could compose such spurious scenes, outraging all -aesthetic feeling, as those which I had witnessed, there was nothing -to be hoped; it may safely be decided that all that such an author -can write will be bad, because he evidently does not know what a -true work of art is. I wished to leave, but the friends I was with -asked me to remain, declaring that one could not form an opinion by -that one act, and that the second would be better. So I stopped for -the second act. - -Act II., night. Afterward, dawn. In general, the whole piece is -crammed with lights, clouds, moonlight, darkness, magic fires, -thunder, etc. - -The scene represents a wood, and in the wood there is a cave. At the -entrance of the cave sits a third actor in tights, representing -another gnome. It dawns. Enter the god Wotan, again with a spear, -and again in the guise of a wanderer. Again his sounds, together -with fresh sounds of the deepest bass that can be produced. These -latter indicate that the dragon is speaking. Wotan awakens the -dragon. The same bass sounds are repeated, growing yet deeper and -deeper. First the dragon says, "I want to sleep," but afterward he -crawls out of the cave. The dragon is represented by two men; it -is dressed in a green, scaly skin, waves a tail at one end, while -at the other it opens a kind of crocodile's jaw that is fastened -on, and from which flames appear. The dragon (who is meant to be -dreadful, and may appear so to five-year-old children) speaks some -words in a terribly bass voice. This is all so stupid, so like what -is done in a booth at a fair, that it is surprising that people -over seven years of age can witness it seriously; yet thousands of -quasi-cultured people sit and attentively hear and see it, and are -delighted. - -Siegfried, with his horn, reappears, as does Mime also. In the -orchestra the sounds denoting them are emitted, and they talk about -whether Siegfried does or does not know what fear is. Mime goes -away, and a scene commences which is intended to be most poetical. -Siegfried, in his tights, lies down in a would-be beautiful pose, -and alternately keeps silent and talks to himself. He ponders, -listens to the song of birds, and wishes to imitate them. For this -purpose he cuts a reed with his sword and makes a pipe. The dawn -grows brighter and brighter; the birds sing. Siegfried tries to -imitate the birds. In the orchestra is heard the imitation of birds, -alternating with sounds corresponding to the words he speaks. But -Siegfried does not succeed with his pipe-playing, so he plays on -his horn instead. This scene is unendurable. Of music, _i.e._ of -art serving as a means to transmit a state of mind experienced by -the author, there is not even a suggestion. There is something that -is absolutely unintelligible musically. In a musical sense a hope -is continually experienced, followed by disappointment, as if a -musical thought were commenced only to be broken off. If there are -something like musical commencements, these commencements are so -short, so encumbered with complications of harmony and orchestration -and with effects of contrast, are so obscure and unfinished, and -what is happening on the stage meanwhile is so abominably false, -that it is difficult even to perceive these musical snatches, let -alone to be infected by them. Above all, from the very beginning to -the very end, and in each note, the author's purpose is so audible -and visible that one sees and hears neither Siegfried nor the birds, -but only a limited, self-opinionated German, of bad taste and bad -style, who has a most false conception of poetry, and who, in the -rudest and most primitive manner, wishes to transmit to me these -false and mistaken conceptions of his. - -Every one knows the feeling of distrust and resistance which is -always evoked by an author's evident predetermination. A narrator -need only say in advance, Prepare to cry or to laugh, and you are -sure neither to cry nor to laugh. But when you see that an author -prescribes emotion at what is not touching, but only laughable or -disgusting, and when you see, moreover, that the author is fully -assured that he has captivated you, a painfully tormenting feeling -results, similar to what one would feel if an old, deformed woman -put on a ball-dress, and smilingly coquetted before you, confident -of your approbation. This impression was strengthened by the fact -that around me I saw a crowd of three thousand people, who not only -patiently witnessed all this absurd nonsense, but even considered it -their duty to be delighted with it. - -I somehow managed to sit out the next scene also, in which the -monster appears, to the accompaniment of his bass notes intermingled -with the _motiv_ of Siegfried; but after the fight with the monster, -and all the roars, fires, and sword-wavings, I could stand no more -of it, and escaped from the theater with a feeling of repulsion -which, even now, I cannot forget. - -Listening to this opera, I involuntarily thought of a respected, -wise, educated country laborer,--one, for instance, of those wise -and truly religious men whom I know among the peasants,--and I -pictured to myself the terrible perplexity such a man would be in -were he to witness what I was seeing that evening. - -What would he think if he knew of all the labor spent on such -a performance, and saw that audience, those great ones of the -earth,--old, bald-headed, gray-bearded men, whom he had been -accustomed to respect,--sit silent and attentive, listening to and -looking at all these stupidities for five hours on end? Not to speak -of an adult laborer, one can hardly imagine even a child of over -seven occupying himself with such a stupid, incoherent fairy tale. - -And yet an enormous audience, the cream of the cultured upper -classes, sits out five hours of this insane performance, and goes -away imagining that by paying tribute to this nonsense it has -acquired a fresh right to esteem itself advanced and enlightened. - -I speak of the Moscow public. But what is the Moscow public? It is -but a hundredth part of that public which, while considering itself -most highly enlightened, esteems it a merit to have so lost the -capacity of being infected by art, that not only can it witness this -stupid sham without being revolted, but can even take delight in it. - -In Bayreuth, where these performances were first given, people who -consider themselves finely cultured assembled from the ends of the -earth, spent, say one hundred pounds each, to see this performance, -and for four days running they went to see and hear this nonsensical -rubbish, sitting it out for six hours each day. - -But why did people go, and why do they still go to these -performances, and why do they admire them? The question naturally -presents itself: How is the success of Wagner's works to be -explained? - -That success I explain to myself in this way: thanks to his -exceptional position in having at his disposal the resources of a -king, Wagner was able to command all the methods for counterfeiting -art which have been developed by long usage, and, employing these -methods with great ability, he produced a model work of counterfeit -art. The reason why I have selected his work for my illustration is, -that in no other counterfeit of art known to me are all the methods -by which art is counterfeited--namely, borrowings, imitation, -effects, and interestingness--so ably and powerfully united. - -From the subject, borrowed from antiquity, to the clouds and the -risings of the sun and moon, Wagner, in this work, has made use of -all that is considered poetical. We have here the sleeping beauty, -and nymphs, and subterranean fires, and gnomes, and battles, and -swords, and love, and incest, and a monster, and singing-birds--the -whole arsenal of the poetical is brought into action. - -Moreover, everything is imitative; the decorations are imitated, -and the costumes are imitated. All are just as, according to the -data supplied by archaeology, they would have been in antiquity. The -very sounds are imitative; for Wagner, who was not destitute of -musical talent, invented just such sounds as imitate the strokes of -a hammer, the hissing of molten iron, the singing of birds, etc. - -Furthermore, in this work everything is in the highest degree -striking in its effects and in its peculiarities: its monsters, its -magic fires, and its scenes under water; the darkness in which the -audience sit, the invisibility of the orchestra, and the hitherto -unemployed combinations of harmony. - -And besides, it is all interesting. The interest lies not only in -the question who will kill whom, and who will marry whom, and who -is whose son, and what will happen next?--the interest lies also -in the relation of the music to the text. The rolling waves of the -Rhine--now how is that to be expressed in music? An evil gnome -appears--how is the music to express an evil gnome?--and how is it -to express the sensuality of this gnome? How will bravery, fire, -or apples be expressed in music? How are the _leit-motiv_ of the -people speaking to be interwoven with the _leit-motiv_ of the -people and objects about whom they speak? Besides, the music has a -further interest. It diverges from all formerly accepted laws, and -most unexpected and totally new modulations crop up (as is not only -possible, but even easy in music having no inner law of its being); -the dissonances are new, and are allowed in a new way--and this, -too, is interesting. - -And it is this poeticality, imitativeness, effectfulness, and -interestingness which, thanks to the peculiarities of Wagner's -talent, and to the advantageous position in which he was placed, are -in these productions carried to the highest pitch of perfection, -that so act on the spectator, hypnotizing him as one would be -hypnotized who should listen for several consecutive hours to the -ravings of a maniac pronounced with great oratorical power. - -People say: "You cannot judge without having seen Wagner performed -at Bayreuth: in the dark, where the orchestra is out of sight -concealed under the stage, and where the performance is brought -to the highest perfection." And this just proves that we have -here no question of art, but one of hypnotism. It is just what -the spiritualists say. To convince you of the reality of their -apparitions they usually say, "You cannot judge; you must try it, -be present at several seances," _i.e._ come and sit silent in the -dark for hours together in the same room with semi-sane people, and -repeat this some ten times over, and you shall see all that we see. - -Yes, naturally! Only place yourself in such conditions, and you -may see what you will. But this can be still more quickly attained -by getting drunk or smoking opium. It is the same when listening -to an opera of Wagner's. Sit in the dark for four days in company -with people who are not quite normal, and, through the auditory -nerves, subject your brain to the strongest action of the sounds -best adapted to excite it, and you will no doubt be reduced to an -abnormal condition, and be enchanted by absurdities. But to attain -this end you do not even need four days; the five hours during -which one "day" is enacted, as in Moscow, are quite enough. Nor -are five hours needed; even one hour is enough for people who have -no clear conception of what art should be, and who have come to the -conclusion in advance that what they are going to see is excellent, -and that indifference or dissatisfaction with this work will serve -as a proof of their inferiority and lack of culture. - -I observed the audience present at this representation. The people -who led the whole audience and gave the tone to it were those who -had previously been hypnotized, and who again succumbed to the -hypnotic influence to which they were accustomed. These hypnotized -people, being in an abnormal condition, were perfectly enraptured. -Moreover, all the art critics, who lack the capacity to be infected -by art and therefore always especially prize works like Wagner's -opera where it is all an affair of the intellect, also, with much -profundity, expressed their approval of a work affording such ample -material for ratiocination. And following these two groups went -that large city crowd (indifferent to art, with their capacity to -be infected by it perverted and partly atrophied), headed by the -princes, millionaires, and art patrons, who, like sorry harriers, -keep close to those who most loudly and decidedly express their -opinion. - -"Oh, yes, certainly! What poetry! Marvelous! Especially the birds!" -"Yes, yes! I am quite vanquished!" exclaim these people, repeating -in various tones what they have just heard from men whose opinion -appears to them authoritative. - -If some people do feel insulted by the absurdity and spuriousness of -the whole thing, they are timidly silent, as sober men are timid and -silent when surrounded by tipsy ones. - -And thus, thanks to the masterly skill with which it counterfeits -art while having nothing in common with it, a meaningless, coarse, -spurious production finds acceptance all over the world, costs -millions of roubles to produce, and assists more and more to pervert -the taste of people of the upper classes and their conception of -what is art. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - - -I know that most men--not only those considered clever, but even -those who are very clever, and capable of understanding most -difficult scientific, mathematical, or philosophic problems--can -very seldom discern even the simplest and most obvious truth if it -be such as to oblige them to admit the falsity of conclusions they -have formed, perhaps with much difficulty--conclusions of which -they are proud, which they have taught to others, and on which they -have built their lives. And therefore I have little hope that what -I adduce as to the perversion of art and taste in our society will -be accepted or even seriously considered. Nevertheless, I must state -fully the inevitable conclusion to which my investigation into the -question of art has brought me. This investigation has brought me -to the conviction that almost all that our society considers to -be art, good art, and the whole of art, far from being real and -good art, and the whole of art, is not even art at all, but only a -counterfeit of it. This position, I know, will seem very strange and -paradoxical; but if we once acknowledge art to be a human activity -by means of which some people transmit their feelings to others (and -not a service of Beauty, nor a manifestation of the Idea, and so -forth), we shall inevitably have to admit this further conclusion -also. If it is true that art is an activity by means of which one -man, having experienced a feeling, intentionally transmits it to -others, then we have inevitably to admit further, that of all that -among us is termed the art of the upper classes--of all those -novels, stories, dramas, comedies, pictures, sculptures, symphonies, -operas, operettas, ballets, etc., which profess to be works of -art--scarcely one in a hundred thousand proceeds from an emotion -felt by its author, all the rest being but manufactured counterfeits -of art, in which borrowing, imitating, effects, and interestingness -replace the contagion of feeling. That the proportion of real -productions of art is to the counterfeits as one to some hundreds of -thousands or even more, may be seen by the following calculation. -I have read somewhere that the artist painters in Paris alone -number 30,000; there will probably be as many in England, as many -in Germany, and as many in Russia, Italy, and the smaller states -combined. So that in all there will be in Europe, say, 120,000 -painters; and there are probably as many musicians and as many -literary artists. If these 360,000 individuals produce three works -a year each (and many of them produce ten or more), then each year -yields over a million so-called works of art. How many, then, must -have been produced in the last ten years, and how many in the whole -time since upper-class art broke off from the art of the whole -people? Evidently millions. Yet who of all the connoisseurs of art -has received impressions from all these pseudo works of art? Not to -mention all the laboring classes who have no conception of these -productions, even people of the upper classes cannot know one in a -thousand of them all, and cannot remember those they have known. -These works all appear under the guise of art, produce no impression -on any one (except when they serve as pastimes for the idle crowd of -rich people), and vanish utterly. - -In reply to this it is usually said that without this enormous -number of unsuccessful attempts we should not have the real works of -art. But such reasoning is as though a baker, in reply to a reproach -that his bread was bad, were to say that if it were not for the -hundreds of spoiled loaves there would not be any well-baked ones. -It is true that where there is gold there is also much sand; but -that cannot serve as a reason for talking a lot of nonsense in order -to say something wise. - -We are surrounded by productions considered artistic. Thousands -of verses, thousands of poems, thousands of novels, thousands of -dramas, thousands of pictures, thousands of musical pieces, follow -one after another. All the verses describe love, or nature, or the -author's state of mind, and in all of them rhyme and rhythm are -observed. All the dramas and comedies are splendidly mounted and -are performed by admirably trained actors. All the novels are -divided into chapters; all of them describe love, contain effective -situations, and correctly describe the details of life. All the -symphonies contain _allegro_, _andante_, _scherzo_, and _finale_; -all consist of modulations and chords, and are played by highly -trained musicians. All the pictures, in gold frames, saliently -depict faces and sundry accessories. But among these productions -in the various branches of art, there is in each branch one among -hundreds of thousands, not only somewhat better than the rest, but -differing from them as a diamond differs from paste. The one is -priceless, the others not only have no value, but are worse than -valueless, for they deceive and pervert taste. And yet, externally, -they are, to a man of perverted or atrophied artistic perception, -precisely alike. - -In our society the difficulty of recognizing real works of art is -further increased by the fact that the external quality of the work -in false productions is not only no worse, but often better, than in -real ones; the counterfeit is often more effective than the real, -and its subject more interesting. How is one to discriminate? How is -one to find a production in no way distinguished in externals from -hundreds of thousands of others intentionally made to imitate it -precisely? - -For a country peasant of unperverted taste this is as easy as it is -for an animal of unspoilt scent to follow the trace he needs among -a thousand others in wood or forest. The animal unerringly finds -what he needs. So also the man, if only his natural qualities have -not been perverted, will, without fail, select from among thousands -of objects the real work of art he requires,--that infecting him -with the feeling experienced by the artist. But it is not so with -those whose taste has been perverted by their education and life. -The receptive feeling for art of these people is atrophied, and in -valuing artistic productions they must be guided by discussion and -study, which discussion and study completely confuse them. So that -most people in our society are quite unable to distinguish a work of -art from the grossest counterfeit. People sit for whole hours in -concert-rooms and theaters listening to the new composers, consider -it a duty to read the novels of the famous modern novelists, and to -look at pictures representing either something incomprehensible, or -just the very things they see much better in real life; and, above -all, they consider it incumbent on them to be enraptured by all -this, imagining it all to be art, while at the same time they will -pass real works of art by, not only without attention, but even -with contempt, merely because, in their circle, these works are not -included in the list of works of art. - -A few days ago I was returning home from a walk feeling depressed, -as occurs sometimes. On nearing the house I heard the loud singing -of a large choir of peasant women. They were welcoming my daughter, -celebrating her return home after her marriage. In this singing, -with its cries and clanging of scythes, such a definite feeling -of joy, cheerfulness, and energy was expressed, that, without -noticing how it infected me, I continued my way toward the house -in a better mood, and reached home smiling, and quite in good -spirits. That same evening, a visitor, an admirable musician, -famed for his execution of classical music, and particularly of -Beethoven, played us Beethoven's sonata, Opus 101. For the benefit -of those who might otherwise attribute my judgment of that sonata -of Beethoven to non-comprehension of it, I should mention that, -whatever other people understand of that sonata and of other -productions of Beethoven's later period, I, being very susceptible -to music, equally understood. For a long time I used to attune -myself so as to delight in those shapeless improvisations which -form the subject-matter of the works of Beethoven's later period, -but I had only to consider the question of art seriously, and to -compare the impression I received from Beethoven's later works with -those pleasant, clear, and strong musical impressions which are -transmitted, for instance, by the melodies of Bach (his arias), -Haydn, Mozart, Chopin, (when his melodies are not overloaded with -complications and ornamentation), and of Beethoven himself in -his earlier period, and, above all, with the impressions produced -by folk-songs,--Italian, Norwegian, or Russian,--by the Hungarian -_tzardas_, and other such simple, clear, and powerful music, and the -obscure, almost unhealthy excitement from Beethoven's later pieces -that I had artificially evoked in myself was immediately destroyed. - -On the completion of the performance (though it was noticeable that -every one had become dull) those present, in the accepted manner, -warmly praised Beethoven's profound production, and did not forget -to add that formerly they had not been able to understand that last -period of his, but that they now saw that he was really then at his -very best. And when I ventured to compare the impression made on me -by the singing of the peasant women--an impression which had been -shared by all who heard it--with the effect of this sonata, the -admirers of Beethoven only smiled contemptuously, not considering it -necessary to reply to such strange remarks. - -But, for all that, the song of the peasant women was real art, -transmitting a definite and strong feeling; while the 101st sonata -of Beethoven was only an unsuccessful attempt at art, containing no -definite feeling, and therefore not infectious. - -For my work on art I have this winter read diligently, though with -great effort, the celebrated novels and stories, praised by all -Europe, written by Zola, Bourget, Huysmans, and Kipling. At the -same time I chanced on a story in a child's magazine, and by a -quite unknown writer, which told of the Easter preparations in a -poor widow's family. The story tells how the mother managed with -difficulty to obtain some wheat-flour, which she poured on the -table ready to knead. She then went out to procure some yeast, -telling the children not to leave the hut, and to take care of the -flour. When the mother had gone, some other children ran shouting -near the window, calling those in the hut to come to play. The -children forgot their mother's warning, ran into the street, and -were soon engrossed in the game. The mother, on her return with -the yeast, finds a hen on the table throwing the last of the flour -to her chickens, who were busily picking it out of the dust of the -earthen floor. The mother, in despair, scolds the children, who -cry bitterly. And the mother begins to feel pity for them--but the -white flour has all gone. So to mend matters she decides to make the -Easter cake with sifted rye-flour, brushing it over with white of -egg, and surrounding it with eggs. "Rye-bread which we bake is akin -to any cake," says the mother, using a rhyming proverb to console -the children for not having an Easter cake made with white flour. -And the children, quickly passing from despair to rapture, repeat -the proverb and await the Easter cake more merrily even than before. - -Well! the reading of the novels and stories by Zola, Bourget, -Huysmans, Kipling, and others, handling the most harrowing subjects, -did not touch me for one moment, and I was provoked with the authors -all the while, as one is provoked with a man who considers you so -naive that he does not even conceal the trick by which he intends to -take you in. From the first lines you see the intention with which -the book is written, and the details all become superfluous, and -one feels dull. Above all, one knows that the author had no other -feeling all the time than a desire to write a story or a novel, and -so one receives no artistic impression. On the other hand, I could -not tear myself away from the unknown author's tale of the children -and the chickens, because I was at once infected by the feeling -which the author had evidently experienced, reevoked in himself, and -transmitted. - -Vasnetsoff is one of our Russian painters. He has painted -ecclesiastical pictures in Kieff Cathedral, and every one praises -him as the founder of some new, elevated kind of Christian art. He -worked at those pictures for ten years, was paid tens of thousands -of roubles for them, and they are all simply bad imitations of -imitations of imitations, destitute of any spark of feeling. And -this same Vasnetsoff drew a picture for Tourgenieff's story, "The -Quail" (in which it is told how, in his son's presence, a father -killed a quail and felt pity for it), showing the boy asleep with -pouting upper lip, and above him, as a dream, the quail. And this -picture is a true work of art. - -In the English Academy of 1897 two pictures were exhibited together; -one of which, by J. C. Dolman, was the temptation of St. Anthony. -The saint is on his knees praying. Behind him stands a naked woman -and animals of some kind. It is apparent that the naked woman -pleased the artist very much, but that Anthony did not concern him -at all; and that, so far from the temptation being terrible to him -(the artist) it is highly agreeable. And therefore if there be any -art in this picture, it is very nasty and false. Next in the same -book of academy pictures comes a picture by Langley, showing a stray -beggar-boy, who has evidently been called in by a woman who has -taken pity on him. The boy, pitifully drawing his bare feet under -the bench, is eating; the woman is looking on, probably considering -whether he will not want some more; and a girl of about seven, -leaning on her arm, is carefully and seriously looking on, not -taking her eyes from the hungry boy, and evidently understanding for -the first time what poverty is, and what inequality among people is, -and asking herself why she has everything provided for her while -this boy goes barefoot and hungry? She feels sorry, and yet pleased. -And she loves both the boy and goodness.... And one feels that the -artist loved this girl, and that she too loves. And this picture, by -an artist who, I think, is not very widely known, is an admirable -and true work of art. - -I remember seeing a performance of "Hamlet" by Rossi. Both the -tragedy itself and the performer who took the chief part are -considered by our critics to represent the climax of supreme -dramatic art. And yet, both from the subject-matter of the drama -and from the performance, I experienced all the time that peculiar -suffering which is caused by false imitations of works of art. And -I lately read of a theatrical performance among the savage tribe, -the Voguls. A spectator describes the play. A big Vogul and a little -one, both dressed in reindeer skins, represent a reindeer-doe and -its young. A third Vogul, with a bow, represents a huntsman on -snow-shoes, and a fourth imitates with his voice a bird that warns -the reindeer of their danger. The play is that the huntsman follows -the track that the doe with its young one has traveled. The deer run -off the scene, and again reappear. (Such performances take place -in a small tent-house.) The huntsman gains more and more on the -pursued. The little deer is tired, and presses against its mother. -The doe stops to draw breath. The hunter comes up with them and -draws his bow. But just then the bird sounds its note, warning the -deer of their danger. They escape. Again there is a chase, and again -the hunter gains on them, catches them, and lets fly his arrow. The -arrow strikes the young deer. Unable to run, the little one presses -against its mother. The mother licks its wound. The hunter draws -another arrow. The audience, as the eye-witness describes them, are -paralyzed with suspense; deep groans and even weeping is heard among -them. And, from the mere description, I felt that this was a true -work of art. - -What I am saying will be considered irrational paradox, at which -one can only be amazed; but for all that I must say what I think; -namely, that people of our circle, of whom some compose verses, -stories, novels, operas, symphonies, and sonatas, paint all -kinds of pictures and make statues, while others hear and look -at these things, and again others appraise and criticize it all, -discuss, condemn, triumph, and raise monuments to one another, -generation after generation,--that all these people, with very few -exceptions, artists, and public, and critics, have never (except -in childhood and earliest youth, before hearing any discussions -on art) experienced that simple feeling familiar to the plainest -man and even to a child, that sense of infection with another's -feeling,--compelling us to joy in another's gladness, to sorrow at -another's grief, and to mingle souls with another,--which is the -very essence of art. And therefore these people not only cannot -distinguish true works of art from counterfeits, but continually -mistake for real art the worst and most artificial, while they do -not even perceive works of real art, because the counterfeits are -always more ornate, while true art is modest. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - - -Art, in our society, has been so perverted that not only has bad art -come to be considered good, but even the very perception of what -art really is has been lost. In order to be able to speak about the -art of our society, it is, therefore, first of all necessary to -distinguish art from counterfeit art. - -There is one indubitable indication distinguishing real art from -its counterfeit, namely, the infectiousness of art. If a man, -without exercising effort and without altering his standpoint, -on reading, hearing, or seeing another man's work, experiences a -mental condition which unites him with that man and with other -people who also partake of that work of art, then the object evoking -that condition is a work of art. And however poetical, realistic, -effectful, or interesting a work may be, it is not a work of art -if it does not evoke that feeling (quite distinct from all other -feelings) of joy, and of spiritual union with another (the author) -and with others (those who are also infected by it). - -It is true that this indication is an _internal_ one, and that there -are people who have forgotten what the action of real art is, who -expect something else from art (in our society the great majority -are in this state), and that therefore such people may mistake for -this aesthetic feeling the feeling of divertisement and a certain -excitement which they receive from counterfeits of art. But though -it is impossible to undeceive these people, just as it is impossible -to convince a man suffering from "Daltonism" that green is not red, -yet, for all that, this indication remains perfectly definite to -those whose feeling for art is neither perverted nor atrophied, and -it clearly distinguishes the feeling produced by art from all other -feelings. - -The chief peculiarity of this feeling is that the receiver of a -true artistic impression is so united to the artist that he feels -as if the work were his own and not some one else's,--as if what -it expresses were just what he had long been wishing to express. A -real work of art destroys, in the consciousness of the receiver, the -separation between himself and the artist; nor that alone, but also -between himself and all whose minds receive this work of art. In -this freeing of our personality from its separation and isolation, -in this uniting of it with others, lies the chief characteristic and -the great attractive force of art. - -If a man is infected by the author's condition of soul, if he feels -this emotion and this union with others, then the object which has -effected this is art; but if there be no such infection, if there be -not this union with the author and with others who are moved by the -same work--then it is not art. And not only is infection a sure sign -of art, but the degree of infectiousness is also the sole measure of -excellence in art. - -_The stronger the infection the better is the art; as art_, speaking -now apart from its subject-matter, _i.e._ not considering the -quality of the feelings it transmits. - -And the degree of the infectiousness of art depends on three -conditions:-- - -(1) On the greater or lesser individuality of the feeling -transmitted; (2) on the greater or lesser clearness with which the -feeling is transmitted; (3) on the sincerity of the artist, _i.e._ -on the greater or lesser force with which the artist himself feels -the emotion he transmits. - -The more individual the feeling transmitted the more strongly does -it act on the receiver; the more individual the state of soul into -which he is transferred the more pleasure does the receiver obtain, -and therefore the more readily and strongly does he join in it. - -The clearness of expression assists infection, because the receiver, -who mingles in consciousness with the author, is the better -satisfied the more clearly the feeling is transmitted, which, as it -seems to him, he has long known and felt, and for which he has only -now found expression. - -But most of all is the degree of infectiousness of art increased by -the degree of sincerity in the artist. As soon as the spectator, -hearer, or reader feels that the artist is infected by his own -production, and writes, sings, or plays for himself, and not merely -to act on others, this mental condition of the artist infects the -receiver; and, contrariwise, as soon as the spectator, reader, or -hearer feels that the author is not writing, singing, or playing -for his own satisfaction,--does not himself feel what he wishes -to express,--but is doing it for him, the receiver, a resistance -immediately springs up, and the most individual and the newest -feelings and the cleverest technique not only fail to produce any -infection, but actually repel. - -I have mentioned three conditions of contagiousness in art, but they -may be all summed up into one, the last, sincerity, _i.e._ that the -artist should be impelled by an inner need to express his feeling. -That condition includes the first; for if the artist is sincere he -will express the feeling as he experienced it. And as each man is -different from every one else, his feeling will be individual for -every one else; and the more individual it is,--the more the artist -has drawn it from the depths of his nature,--the more sympathetic -and sincere will it be. And this same sincerity will impel the -artist to find a clear expression of the feeling which he wishes to -transmit. - -Therefore this third condition--sincerity--is the most important -of the three. It is always complied with in peasant art, and this -explains why such art always acts so powerfully; but it is a -condition almost entirely absent from our upper-class art, which -is continually produced by artists actuated by personal aims of -covetousness or vanity. - -Such are the three conditions which divide art from its -counterfeits, and which also decide the quality of every work of art -apart from its subject-matter. - -The absence of any one of these conditions excludes a work from the -category of art and relegates it to that of art's counterfeits. If -the work does not transmit the artist's peculiarity of feeling, and -is therefore not individual, if it is unintelligibly expressed, -or if it has not proceeded from the author's inner need for -expression--it is not a work of art. If all these conditions are -present, even in the smallest degree, then the work, even if a weak -one, is yet a work of art. - -The presence in various degrees of these three -conditions--individuality, clearness, and sincerity--decides the -merit of a work of art, as art, apart from subject-matter. All works -of art take rank of merit according to the degree in which they -fulfil the first, the second, and the third of these conditions. In -one the individuality of the feeling transmitted may predominate; -in another, clearness of expression; in a third, sincerity; while -a fourth may have sincerity and individuality, but be deficient in -clearness; a fifth, individuality and clearness, but less sincerity; -and so forth, in all possible degrees and combinations. - -Thus is art divided from not art, and thus is the quality of art, as -art, decided, independently of its subject-matter, _i.e._ apart from -whether the feelings it transmits are good or bad. - -But how are we to define good and bad art with reference to its -subject-matter? - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - - -How in art are we to decide what is good and what is bad in -subject-matter? - -Art, like speech, is a means of communication, and therefore -of progress, _i.e._ of the movement of humanity forward toward -perfection. Speech renders accessible to men of the latest -generations all the knowledge discovered by the experience and -reflection, both of preceding generations and of the best and -foremost men of their own times; art renders accessible to men -of the latest generations all the feelings experienced by their -predecessors, and those also which are being felt by their best and -foremost contemporaries. And as the evolution of knowledge proceeds -by truer and more necessary knowledge dislodging and replacing -what is mistaken and unnecessary, so the evolution of feeling -proceeds through art,--feelings less kind and less needful for the -well-being of mankind are replaced by others kinder and more needful -for that end. That is the purpose of art. And, speaking now of its -subject-matter, the more art fulfils that purpose the better the -art, and the less it fulfils it the worse the art. - -And the appraisement of feelings (_i.e._ the acknowledgment of these -or those feelings as being more or less good, more or less necessary -for the well-being of mankind) is made by the religious perception -of the age. - -In every period of history, and in every human society, there -exists an understanding of the meaning of life which represents -the highest level to which men of that society have attained,--an -understanding defining the highest good at which that society aims. -And this understanding is the religious perception of the given -time and society. And this religious perception is always clearly -expressed by some advanced men, and more or less vividly perceived -by all the members of the society. Such a religious perception and -its corresponding expression exists always in every society. If it -appears to us that in our society there is no religious perception, -this is not because there really is none, but only because we do -not want to see it. And we often wish not to see it because it -exposes the fact that our life is inconsistent with that religious -perception. - -Religious perception in a society is like the direction of a flowing -river. If the river flows at all, it must have a direction. If a -society lives, there must be a religious perception indicating the -direction in which, more or less consciously, all its members tend. - -And so there always has been, and there is, a religious perception -in every society. And it is by the standard of this religious -perception that the feelings transmitted by art have always been -estimated. Only on the basis of this religious perception of their -age have men always chosen from the endlessly varied spheres of art -that art which transmitted feelings making religious perception -operative in actual life. And such art has always been highly -valued and encouraged; while art transmitting feelings already -outlived, flowing from the antiquated religious perceptions of a -former age, has always been condemned and despised. All the rest -of art, transmitting those most diverse feelings by means of which -people commune together, was not condemned, and was tolerated, if -only it did not transmit feelings contrary to religious perception. -Thus, for instance, among the Greeks, art transmitting the feeling -of beauty, strength, and courage (Hesiod, Homer, Phidias) was -chosen, approved, and encouraged; while art transmitting feelings -of rude sensuality, despondency, and effeminacy was condemned and -despised. Among the Jews, art transmitting feelings of devotion -and submission to the God of the Hebrews and to His will (the epic -of Genesis, the prophets, the Psalms) was chosen and encouraged, -while art transmitting feelings of idolatry (the golden calf) was -condemned and despised. All the rest of art--stories, songs, dances, -ornamentation of houses, of utensils, and of clothes--which was -not contrary to religious perception, was neither distinguished -nor discussed. Thus, in regard to its subject-matter, has art been -appraised always and everywhere, and thus it should be appraised; -for this attitude toward art proceeds from the fundamental -characteristics of human nature, and those characteristics do not -change. - -I know that according to an opinion current in our times religion is -a superstition which humanity has outgrown, and that it is therefore -assumed that no such thing exists as a religious perception, common -to us all, by which art, in our time, can be estimated. I know -that this is the opinion current in the pseudo-cultured circles -of to-day. People who do not acknowledge Christianity in its true -meaning because it undermines all their social privileges, and who, -therefore, invent all kinds of philosophic and aesthetic theories -to hide from themselves the meaninglessness and wrongness of their -lives, cannot think otherwise. These people intentionally, or -sometimes unintentionally, confusing the conception of a religious -cult with the conception of religious perception, think that by -denying the cult they get rid of religious perception. But even -the very attacks on religion, and the attempts to establish a -life-conception contrary to the religious perception of our times, -most clearly demonstrate the existence of a religious perception -condemning the lives that are not in harmony with it. - -If humanity progresses, _i.e._ moves forward, there must inevitably -be a guide to the direction of that movement. And religions have -always furnished that guide. All history shows that the progress -of humanity is accomplished not otherwise than under the guidance -of religion. But if the race cannot progress without the guidance -of religion,--and progress is always going on, and consequently -also in our own times,--then there must be a religion of our times. -So that, whether it pleases or displeases the so-called cultured -people of to-day, they must admit the existence of religion,--not -of a religious cult, Catholic, Protestant, or another, but of -religious perception,--which, even in our times, is the guide always -present where there is any progress. And if a religious perception -exists amongst us, then our art should be appraised on the basis -of that religious perception; and, as has always and everywhere -been the case, art transmitting feelings flowing from the religious -perception of our time should be chosen from all the indifferent -art, should be acknowledged, highly esteemed, and encouraged; while -art running counter to that perception should be condemned and -despised, and all the remaining indifferent art should neither be -distinguished nor encouraged. - -The religious perception of our time, in its widest and most -practical application, is the consciousness that our well-being, -both material and spiritual, individual and collective, temporal -and eternal, lies in the growth of brotherhood among all men--in -their loving harmony with one another. This perception is not only -expressed by Christ and all the best men of past ages, it is not -only repeated in the most varied forms and from most diverse sides -by the best men of our own times, but it already serves as a clue to -all the complex labor of humanity, consisting as this labor does, -on the one hand, in the destruction of physical and moral obstacles -to the union of men, and, on the other hand, in establishing the -principles common to all men which can and should unite them into -one universal brotherhood. And it is on the basis of this perception -that we should appraise all the phenomena of our life, and, among -the rest, our art also; choosing from all its realms whatever -transmits feelings flowing from this religious perception, highly -prizing and encouraging such art, rejecting whatever is contrary -to this perception, and not attributing to the rest of art an -importance not properly pertaining to it. - -The chief mistake made by people of the upper classes of the time of -the so-called Renaissance--a mistake which we still perpetuate--was -not that they ceased to value and to attach importance to religious -art (people of that period could not attach importance to it, -because, like our own upper classes, they could not believe in what -the majority considered to be religion), but their mistake was -that they set up in place of religious art, which was lacking, an -insignificant art which aimed only at giving pleasure, _i.e._ they -began to choose, to value, and to encourage, in place of religious -art, something which, in any case, did not deserve such esteem and -encouragement. - -One of the Fathers of the Church said that the great evil is, not -that men do not know God, but that they have set up, instead of -God, that which is not God. So also with art. The great misfortune -of the people of the upper classes of our time is not so much that -they are without a religious art, as that, instead of a supreme -religious art, chosen from all the rest as being specially important -and valuable, they have chosen a most insignificant and, usually, -harmful art, which aims at pleasing certain people, and which, -therefore, if only by its exclusive nature, stands in contradiction -to that Christian principle of universal union which forms the -religious perception of our time. Instead of religious art, an empty -and often vicious art is set up, and this hides from men's notice -the need of that true religious art which should be present in life -in order to improve it. - -It is true that art which satisfies the demands of the -religious perception of our time is quite unlike former art, -but, notwithstanding this dissimilarity, to a man who does not -intentionally hide the truth from himself, it is very clear and -definite what does form the religious art of our age. In former -times, when the highest religious perception united only some people -(who, even if they formed a large society, were yet but one society -surrounded by others--Jews, or Athenian or Roman citizens), the -feelings transmitted by the art of that time flowed from a desire -for the might, greatness, glory, and prosperity of that society, and -the heroes of art might be people who contributed to that prosperity -by strength, by craft, by fraud, or by cruelty (Ulysses, Jacob, -David, Samson, Hercules, and all the heroes). But the religious -perception of our times does not select any one society of men; on -the contrary, it demands the union of all,--absolutely of all people -without exception,--and above every other virtue it sets brotherly -love to all men. And, therefore, the feelings transmitted by the art -of our time not only cannot coincide with the feelings transmitted -by former art, but must run counter to them. - -Christian, truly Christian, art has been so long in establishing -itself, and has not yet established itself, just because the -Christian religious perception was not one of those small steps by -which humanity advances regularly, but was an enormous revolution, -which, if it has not already altered, must inevitably alter the -entire life-conception of mankind, and, consequently, the whole -internal organization of their life. It is true that the life of -humanity, like that of an individual, moves regularly; but in that -regular movement come, as it were, turning-points, which sharply -divide the preceding from the subsequent life. Christianity was such -a turning-point; such, at least, it must appear to us who live by -the Christian perception of life. Christian perception gave another, -a new, direction to all human feelings, and therefore completely -altered both the contents and the significance of art. The Greeks -could make use of Persian art and the Romans could use Greek art, -or, similarly, the Jews could use Egyptian art,--the fundamental -ideals were one and the same. Now the ideal was the greatness and -prosperity of the Persians, now the greatness and prosperity of the -Greeks, now that of the Romans. The same art was transferred into -other conditions, and served new nations. But the Christian ideal -changed and reversed everything, so that, as the gospel puts it, -"That which was exalted among men has become an abomination in the -sight of God." The ideal is no longer the greatness of Pharaoh or -of a Roman emperor, not the beauty of a Greek, nor the wealth of -Phoenicia, but humility, purity, compassion, love. The hero is no -longer Dives, but Lazarus the beggar; not Mary Magdalene in the -day of her beauty, but in the day of her repentance; not those who -acquire wealth, but those who have abandoned it; not those who dwell -in palaces, but those who dwell in catacombs and huts; not those -who rule over others, but those who acknowledge no authority but -God's. And the greatest work of art is no longer a cathedral of -victory[119] with statues of conquerors, but the representation of -a human soul so transformed by love that a man who is tormented and -murdered yet pities and loves his persecutors. - - [119] There is in Moscow a magnificent "Cathedral of our Saviour," - erected to commemorate the defeat of the French in the war of - 1812.--TR. - -And the change is so great that men of the Christian world find -it difficult to resist the inertia of the heathen art to which -they have been accustomed all their lives. The subject-matter -of Christian religious art is so new to them, so unlike the -subject-matter of former art, that it seems to them as though -Christian art were a denial of art, and they cling desperately to -the old art. But this old art, having no longer, in our day, any -source in religious perception, has lost its meaning, and we shall -have to abandon it whether we wish to or not. - -The essence of the Christian perception consists in the recognition -by every man of his sonship to God, and of the consequent union of -men with God and with one another, as is said in the gospel (John -xvii. 21[120]). Therefore the subject-matter of Christian art is -such feeling as can unite men with God and with one another. - - [120] "That they may be one; even as thou, Father, art in me, and I - in thee, that they also may be in us." - -The expression _unite men with God and with one another_ may seem -obscure to people accustomed to the misuse of these words which -is so customary, but the words have a perfectly clear meaning -nevertheless. They indicate that the Christian union of man (in -contradiction to the partial, exclusive union of only some men) is -that which unites all without exception. - -Art, all art, has this characteristic, that it unites people. Every -art causes those to whom the artist's feeling is transmitted to -unite in soul with the artist, and also with all who receive the -same impression. But non-Christian art, while uniting some people -together, makes that very union a cause of separation between these -united people and others; so that union of this kind is often a -source, not only of division, but even of enmity toward others. -Such is all patriotic art, with its anthems, poems, and monuments; -such is all Church art, _i.e._ the art of certain cults, with their -images, statues, processions, and other local ceremonies. Such art -is belated and non-Christian art, uniting the people of one cult -only to separate them yet more sharply from the members of other -cults, and even to place them in relations of hostility to each -other. Christian art is only such as tends to unite all without -exception, either by evoking in them the perception that each man -and all men stand in like relation toward God and toward their -neighbor, or by evoking in them identical feelings, which may even -be the very simplest, provided only that they are not repugnant to -Christianity and are natural to every one without exception. - -Good Christian art of our time may be unintelligible to people -because of imperfections in its form, or because men are inattentive -to it, but it must be such that all men can experience the feelings -it transmits. It must be the art, not of some one group of people, -nor of one class, nor of one nationality, nor of one religious -cult; that is, it must not transmit feelings which are accessible -only to a man educated in a certain way, or only to an aristocrat, -or a merchant, or only to a Russian, or a native of Japan, or a -Roman Catholic, or a Buddhist, etc., but it must transmit feelings -accessible to every one. Only art of this kind can be acknowledged -in our time to be good art, worthy of being chosen out from all the -rest of art and encouraged. - -Christian art, _i.e._ the art of our time, should be catholic in -the original meaning of the word, _i.e._ universal, and therefore -it should unite all men. And only two kinds of feeling do unite all -men: first, feelings flowing from the perception of our sonship to -God and of the brotherhood of man; and next, the simple feelings of -common life, accessible to every one without exception--such as the -feeling of merriment, of pity, of cheerfulness, of tranquillity, -etc. Only these two kinds of feelings can now supply material for -art good in its subject-matter. - -And the action of these two kinds of art, apparently so dissimilar, -is one and the same. The feelings flowing from perception of our -sonship to God and of the brotherhood of man--such as a feeling of -sureness in truth, devotion to the will of God, self-sacrifice, -respect for and love of man--evoked by Christian religious -perception; and the simplest feelings--such as a softened or a merry -mood caused by a song or an amusing jest intelligible to every one, -or by a touching story, or a drawing, or a little doll: both alike -produce one and the same effect,--the loving union of man with -man. Sometimes people who are together are, if not hostile to one -another, at least estranged in mood and feeling, till perchance a -story, a performance, a picture, or even a building, but oftenest of -all, music, unites them all as by an electric flash, and, in place -of their former isolation or even enmity, they are all conscious -of union and mutual love. Each is glad that another feels what he -feels; glad of the communion established, not only between him -and all present, but also with all now living who will yet share -the same impression; and more than that, he feels the mysterious -gladness of a communion which, reaching beyond the grave, unites us -with all men of the past who have been moved by the same feelings, -and with all men of the future who will yet be touched by them. And -this effect is produced both by the religious art which transmits -feelings of love to God and one's neighbor, and by universal art, -transmitting the very simplest feelings common to all men. - -The art of our time should be appraised differently from former art -chiefly in this, that the art of our time, _i.e._ Christian art -(basing itself on a religious perception which demands the union -of man), excludes from the domain of art good in subject-matter -everything transmitting exclusive feelings, which do not unite -but divide men. It relegates such work to the category of art bad -in its subject-matter, while, on the other hand, it includes in -the category of art good in subject-matter a section not formerly -admitted to deserve to be chosen out and respected, namely, -universal art, transmitting even the most trifling and simple -feelings if only they are accessible to all men without exception, -and therefore unite them. Such art cannot, in our time, but be -esteemed good, for it attains the end which the religious perception -of our time, _i.e._ Christianity, sets before humanity. - -Christian art either evokes in men those feelings which, through -love of God and of one's neighbor, draw them to greater and ever -greater union, and make them ready for and capable of such union; or -evokes in them those feelings which show them that they are already -united in the joys and sorrows of life. And therefore the Christian -art of our time can be and is of two kinds: (1) art transmitting -feelings flowing from a religious perception of man's position -in the world in relation to God and to his neighbor--religious -art in the limited meaning of the term; and (2) art transmitting -the simplest feelings of common life, but such, always, as are -accessible to all men in the whole world--the art of common -life--the art of a people--universal art. Only these two kinds of -art can be considered good art in our time. - -The first, religious art,--transmitting both positive feelings of -love to God and one's neighbor, and negative feelings of indignation -and horror at the violation of love,--manifests itself chiefly -in the form of words, and to some extent also in painting and -sculpture: the second kind (universal art), transmitting feelings -accessible to all, manifests itself in words, in painting, in -sculpture, in dances, in architecture, and, most of all, in music. - -If I were asked to give modern examples of each of these kinds of -art, then, as examples of the highest art, flowing from love of God -and man (both of the higher, positive, and of the lower, negative -kind), in literature I should name, "The Robbers," by Schiller; -Victor Hugo's "Les Pauvres Gens" and "Les Miserables"; the novels -and stories of Dickens,--"The Tale of Two Cities," "The Christmas -Carol," "The Chimes," and others; "Uncle Tom's Cabin;" Dostoievsky's -works--especially his "Memoirs from the House of Death"; and "Adam -Bede," by George Eliot. - -In modern painting, strange to say, works of this kind, directly -transmitting the Christian feeling of love of God and of one's -neighbor, are hardly to be found, especially among the works of -the celebrated painters. There are plenty of pictures treating of -the gospel stories; they, however, depict historical events with -great wealth of detail, but do not, and cannot, transmit religious -feeling not possessed by their painters. There are many pictures -treating of the personal feelings of various people, but of pictures -representing great deeds of self-sacrifice and of Christian love -there are very few, and what there are, are principally by artists -who are not celebrated, and are, for the most part, not pictures, -but merely sketches. Such, for instance, is the drawing by Kramskoy -(worth many of his finished pictures), showing a drawing-room with a -balcony, past which troops are marching in triumph on their return -from the war. On the balcony stands a wet-nurse holding a baby and a -boy. They are admiring the procession of the troops, but the mother, -covering her face with a handkerchief, has fallen back on the sofa, -sobbing. Such also is the picture by Walter Langley, to which I have -already referred, and such again is a picture by the French artist -Morlon, depicting a lifeboat hastening, in a heavy storm, to the -relief of a steamer that is being wrecked. Approaching these in kind -are pictures which represent the hard-working peasant with respect -and love. Such are the pictures by Millet, and, particularly, his -drawing, "The Man with the Hoe"; also pictures in this style by -Jules Breton, L'Hermitte, Defregger, and others. As examples of -pictures evoking indignation and horror at the violation of love -to God and man, Gay's picture, "Judgment," may serve, and also -Leizen-Mayer's, "Signing the Death Warrant." But there are also very -few of this kind. Anxiety about the technique and the beauty of -the picture for the most part obscures the feeling. For instance, -Gerome's "Pollice Verso" expresses, not so much horror at what is -being perpetrated as attraction by the beauty of the spectacle.[121] - - [121] In this picture the spectators in the Roman Amphitheater are - turning down their thumbs to show that they wish the vanquished - gladiator to be killed.--TR. - -To give examples, from the modern art of our upper classes, of art -of the second kind, good universal art or even of the art of a whole -people, is yet more difficult, especially in literary art and music. -If there are some works which by their inner contents might be -assigned to this class (such as "Don Quixote," Moliere's comedies, -"David Copperfield" and "The Pickwick Papers" by Dickens, Gogol's -and Pushkin's tales, and some things of Maupassant's), these works -are for the most part--from the exceptional nature of the feelings -they transmit, and the superfluity of special details of time -and locality, and, above all, on account of the poverty of their -subject-matter in comparison with examples of universal ancient -art (such, for instance, as the story of Joseph)--comprehensible -only to people of their own circle. That Joseph's brethren, being -jealous of his father's affection, sell him to the merchants; that -Potiphar's wife wishes to tempt the youth; that having attained the -highest station, he takes pity on his brothers, including Benjamin, -the favorite,--these and all the rest are feelings accessible alike -to a Russian peasant, a Chinese, an African, a child, or an old man, -educated or uneducated; and it is all written with such restraint, -is so free from any superfluous detail, that the story may be told -to any circle and will be equally comprehensible and touching to -every one. But not such are the feelings of Don Quixote or of -Moliere's heroes (though Moliere is perhaps the most universal, -and therefore the most excellent, artist of modern times), nor of -Pickwick and his friends. These feelings are not common to all -men, but very exceptional; and therefore, to make them infectious, -the authors have surrounded them with abundant details of time and -place. And this abundance of detail makes the stories difficult -of comprehension to all people not living within reach of the -conditions described by the author. - -The author of the novel of Joseph did not need to describe in -detail, as would be done nowadays, the blood-stained coat of -Joseph, the dwelling and dress of Jacob, the pose and attire of -Potiphar's wife, and how, adjusting the bracelet on her left arm, -she said, "Come to me," and so on, because the subject-matter of -feelings in this novel is so strong that all details, except the -most essential,--such as that Joseph went out into another room to -weep,--are superfluous, and would only hinder the transmission of -feelings. And therefore this novel is accessible to all men, touches -people of all nations and classes, young and old, and has lasted to -our times, and will yet last for thousands of years to come. But -strip the best novels of our times of their details, and what will -remain? - -It is therefore impossible in modern literature to indicate works -fully satisfying the demands of universality. Such works as exist -are, to a great extent, spoilt by what is usually called "realism," -but would be better termed "provincialism," in art. - -In music the same occurs as in verbal art, and for similar reasons. -In consequence of the poorness of the feeling they contain, -the melodies of the modern composers are amazingly empty and -insignificant. And to strengthen the impression produced by these -empty melodies, the new musicians pile complex modulations on to -each trivial melody, not only in their own national manner, but -also in the way characteristic of their own exclusive circle and -particular musical school. Melody--every melody--is free, and may -be understood of all men; but as soon as it is bound up with a -particular harmony, it ceases to be accessible except to people -trained to such harmony, and it becomes strange, not only to -common men of another nationality, but to all who do not belong -to the circle whose members have accustomed themselves to certain -forms of harmonization. So that music, like poetry, travels in a -vicious circle. Trivial and exclusive melodies, in order to make -them attractive, are laden with harmonic, rhythmic, and orchestral -complications, and thus become yet more exclusive; and, far from -being universal, are not even national, _i.e._ they are not -comprehensible to the whole people but only to some people. - -In music, besides marches and dances by various composers, which -satisfy the demands of universal art, one can indicate very few -works of this class: Bach's famous violin _aria_, Chopin's nocturne -in E-flat major, and perhaps a dozen bits (not whole pieces, -but parts) selected from the works of Haydn, Mozart, Schubert, -Beethoven, and Chopin.[122] - - [122] While offering as examples of art those that seem to me the - best, I attach no special importance to my selection; for, besides - being insufficiently informed in all branches of art, I belong - to the class of people whose taste has, by false training, been - perverted. And therefore my old, inured habits may cause me to - err, and I may mistake for absolute merit the impression a work - produced on me in my youth. My only purpose in mentioning examples - of works of this or that class is to make my meaning clearer, and - to show how, with my present views, I understand excellence in art - in relation to its subject-matter. I must, moreover, mention that - I consign my own artistic productions to the category of bad art, - excepting the story "God sees the Truth," which seeks a place in the - first class, and "The Prisoner of the Caucasus," which belongs to - the second. - -Although in painting the same thing is repeated as in poetry and -music,--namely, that in order to make them more interesting, works -weak in conception are surrounded by minutely studied accessories -of time and place, which give them a temporary and local interest -but make them less universal,--still, in painting, more than in the -other spheres of art, may be found works satisfying the demands -of universal Christian art; that is to say, there are more works -expressing feelings in which all men may participate. - -In the arts of painting and sculpture, all pictures and statues -in so-called genre style, depictions of animals, landscapes and -caricatures with subjects comprehensible to every one, and also -all kinds of ornaments, are universal in subject-matter. Such -productions in painting and sculpture are very numerous (_e.g._ -china dolls), but for the most part such objects (for instance, -ornaments of all kinds) are either not considered to be art or are -considered to be art of a low quality. In reality all such objects, -if only they transmit a true feeling experienced by the artist and -comprehensible to every one (however insignificant it may seem to us -to be) are works of real good Christian art. - -I fear it will here be urged against me that having denied that -the conception of beauty can supply a standard for works of art, I -contradict myself by acknowledging ornaments to be works of good -art. The reproach is unjust, for the subject-matter of all kinds of -ornamentation consists not in the beauty, but in the feeling (of -admiration of, and delight in, the combination of lines and colors) -which the artist has experienced and with which he infects the -spectator. Art remains what it was and what it must be: nothing -but the infection by one man of another, or of others, with the -feelings experienced by the infector. Among those feelings is the -feeling of delight at what pleases the sight. Objects pleasing the -sight may be such as please a small or a large number of people, -or such as please all men. And ornaments for the most part are of -the latter kind. A landscape representing a very unusual view, or a -genre picture of a special subject, may not please every one, but -ornaments, from Yakutsk ornaments to Greek ones, are intelligible -to every one and evoke a similar feeling of admiration in all, and -therefore this despised kind of art should, in Christian society, be -esteemed far above exceptional, pretentious pictures and sculptures. - -So that there are only two kinds of good Christian art: all the rest -of art not comprised in these two divisions should be acknowledged -to be bad art, deserving not to be encouraged, but to be driven -out, denied, and despised, as being art not uniting but dividing -people. Such, in literary art, are all novels and poems which -transmit Church or patriotic feelings, and also exclusive feelings -pertaining only to the class of the idle rich; such as aristocratic -honor, satiety, spleen, pessimism, and refined and vicious feelings -flowing from sex-love--quite incomprehensible to the great majority -of mankind. - -In painting we must similarly place in the class of bad art all -the Church, patriotic, and exclusive pictures; all the pictures -representing the amusements and allurements of a rich and idle life; -all the so-called symbolic pictures, in which the very meaning of -the symbol is comprehensible only to the people of a certain circle; -and, above all, pictures with voluptuous subjects--all that odious -female nudity which fills all the exhibitions and galleries. And to -this class belongs almost all the chamber and opera music of our -times,--beginning especially from Beethoven (Schumann, Berlioz, -Liszt, Wagner), by its subject-matter devoted to the expression of -feelings accessible only to people who have developed in themselves -an unhealthy, nervous irritation evoked by this exclusive, -artificial, and complex music. - -"What! the '_Ninth Symphony_' not a good work of art!" I hear -exclaimed by indignant voices. - -And I reply, Most certainly it is not. All that I have written I -have written with the sole purpose of finding a clear and reasonable -criterion by which to judge the merits of works of art. And this -criterion, coinciding with the indications of plain and sane sense, -indubitably shows me that that symphony by Beethoven is not a good -work of art. Of course, to people educated in the adoration of -certain productions and of their authors, to people whose taste -has been perverted just by being educated in such adoration, the -acknowledgment that such a celebrated work is bad is amazing and -strange. But how are we to escape the indications of reason and of -common sense? - -Beethoven's "Ninth Symphony" is considered a great work of art. -To verify its claim to be such, I must first ask myself whether -this work transmits the highest religious feeling? I reply in the -negative, for music in itself cannot transmit those feelings; and -therefore I ask myself next, Since this work does not belong to the -highest kind of religious art, has it the other characteristic of -the good art of our time,--the quality of uniting all men in one -common feeling: does it rank as Christian universal art? And again I -have no option but to reply in the negative; for not only do I not -see how the feelings transmitted by this work could unite people not -specially trained to submit themselves to its complex hypnotism, -but I am unable to imagine to myself a crowd of normal people who -could understand anything of this long, confused, and artificial -production, except short snatches which are lost in a sea of what -is incomprehensible. And therefore, whether I like it or not, I am -compelled to conclude that this work belongs to the rank of bad art. -It is curious to note in this connection, that attached to the end -of this very symphony is a poem of Schiller's which (though somewhat -obscurely) expresses this very thought, namely, that feeling -(Schiller speaks only of the feeling of gladness) unites people and -evokes love in them. But though this poem is sung at the end of the -symphony, the music does not accord with the thought expressed in -the verses; for the music is exclusive and does not unite all men, -but unites only a few, dividing them off from the rest of mankind. - -And just in this same way, in all branches of art, many and many -works considered great by the upper classes of our society will have -to be judged. By this one sure criterion we shall have to judge the -celebrated "Divine Comedy" and "Jerusalem Delivered," and a great -part of Shakespear's and Goethe's works, and in painting every -representation of miracles, including Raphael's "Transfiguration," -etc. - -Whatever the work may be and however it may have been extolled, -we have first to ask whether this work is one of real art or a -counterfeit. Having acknowledged, on the basis of the indication of -its infectiousness even to a small class of people, that a certain -production belongs to the realm of art, it is necessary, on the -basis of the indication of its accessibility, to decide the next -question, Does this work belong to the category of bad, exclusive -art, opposed to religious perception, or to Christian art, uniting -people? And having acknowledged an article to belong to real -Christian art, we must then, according to whether it transmits -the feelings flowing from love to God and man, or merely the -simple feelings uniting all men, assign it a place in the ranks of -religious art or in those of universal art. - -Only on the basis of such verification shall we find it possible to -select from the whole mass of what, in our society, claims to be -art, those works which form real, important, necessary spiritual -food, and to separate them from all the harmful and useless art, -and from the counterfeits of art which surround us. Only on the -basis of such verification shall we be able to rid ourselves of -the pernicious results of harmful art, and to avail ourselves of -that beneficent action which is the purpose of true and good art, -and which is indispensable for the spiritual life of man and of -humanity. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - - -Art is one of two organs of human progress. By words man -interchanges thoughts, by the forms of art he interchanges feelings, -and this with all men, not only of the present time, but also of the -past and the future. It is natural to human beings to employ both -these organs of intercommunication, and therefore the perversion of -either of them must cause evil results to the society in which it -occurs. And these results will be of two kinds: first, the absence, -in that society, of the work which should be performed by the organ; -and secondly, the harmful activity of the perverted organ. And just -these results have shown themselves in our society. The organ of -art has been perverted, and therefore the upper classes of society -have, to a great extent, been deprived of the work that it should -have performed. The diffusion in our society of enormous quantities -of, on the one hand, those counterfeits of art which only serve -to amuse and corrupt people, and, on the other hand, of works of -insignificant, exclusive art, mistaken for the highest art, have -perverted most men's capacity to be infected by true works of art, -and have thus deprived them of the possibility of experiencing the -highest feelings to which mankind has attained, and which can only -be transmitted from man to man by art. - -All the best that has been done in art by man remains strange to -people who lack the capacity to be infected by art, and is replaced -either by spurious counterfeits of art or by insignificant art, -which they mistake for real art. People of our time and of our -society are delighted with Baudelaires, Verlaines, Moreases, Ibsens, -and Maeterlincks in poetry; with Monets, Manets, Puvis de Chavannes, -Burne-Joneses, Stucks, and Boecklins in painting; with Wagners, -Liszts, Richard Strausses, in music; and they are no longer capable -of comprehending either the highest or the simplest art. - -In the upper classes, in consequence of this loss of capacity to be -infected by works of art, people grow up, are educated, and live, -lacking the fertilizing, improving influence of art, and therefore -not only do not advance toward perfection, do not become kinder, -but, on the contrary, possessing highly developed external means of -civilization, they yet tend to become continually more savage, more -coarse, and more cruel. - -Such is the result of the absence from our society of the activity -of that essential organ--art. But the consequences of the perverted -activity of that organ are yet more harmful. And they are numerous. - -The first consequence, plain for all to see, is the enormous -expenditure of the labor of working people on things which are -not only useless, but which, for the most part, are harmful; -and more than that, the waste of priceless human lives on this -unnecessary and harmful business. It is terrible to consider with -what intensity, and amid what privations, millions of people--who -lack time and opportunity to attend to what they and their families -urgently require--labor for 10, 12, or 14 hours on end, and even at -night, setting the type for pseudo-artistic books which spread vice -among mankind, or working for theaters, concerts, exhibitions, and -picture-galleries, which, for the most part, also serve vice; but -it is yet more terrible to reflect that lively, kindly children, -capable of all that is good, are devoted from their early years to -such tasks as these: that for 6, 8, or 10 hours a day, and for 10 -or 15 years, some of them should play scales and exercises; others -should twist their limbs, walk on their toes, and lift their legs -above their heads; a third set should sing solfeggios; a fourth -set, showing themselves off in all manner of ways, should pronounce -verses; a fifth set should draw from busts or from nude models and -paint studies; a sixth set should write compositions according -to the rules of certain periods; and that in these occupations, -unworthy of a human being, which are often continued long after full -maturity, they should waste their physical and mental strength and -lose all perception of the meaning of life. It is often said that -it is horrible and pitiful to see little acrobats putting their -legs over their necks, but it is not less pitiful to see children -of 10 giving concerts, and it is still worse to see school-boys of -10 who, as a preparation for literary work, have learnt by heart -the exceptions to the Latin grammar. These people not only grow -physically and mentally deformed, but also morally deformed, and -become incapable of doing anything really needed by man. Occupying -in society the role of amusers of the rich, they lose their sense of -human dignity, and develop in themselves such a passion for public -applause that they are always a prey to an inflated and unsatisfied -vanity which grows in them to diseased dimensions, and they expend -their mental strength in efforts to obtain satisfaction for this -passion. And what is most tragic of all is that these people, who -for the sake of art are spoilt for life, not only do not render -service to this art, but, on the contrary, inflict the greatest harm -on it. They are taught in academies, schools, and conservatoires how -to counterfeit art, and by learning this they so pervert themselves -that they quite lose the capacity to produce works of real art, and -become purveyors of that counterfeit, or trivial, or depraved art -which floods our society. This is the first obvious consequence of -the perversion of the organ of art. - -The second consequence is that the productions of amusement-art, -which are prepared in such terrific quantities by the armies of -professional artists, enable the rich people of our times to live -the lives they do, lives not only unnatural, but in contradiction -to the humane principles these people themselves profess. To live -as do the rich, idle people, especially the women, far from nature -and from animals, in artificial conditions, with muscles atrophied -or misdeveloped by gymnastics, and with enfeebled vital energy, -would be impossible were it not for what is called art--for this -occupation and amusement which hides from them the meaninglessness -of their lives, and saves them from the dullness that oppresses -them. Take from all these people the theaters, concerts, -exhibitions, piano-playing, songs, and novels with which they now -fill their time, in full confidence that occupation with these -things is a very refined, aesthetical, and therefore good occupation; -take from the patrons of art who buy pictures, assist musicians, -and are acquainted with writers, their role of protectors of that -important matter art, and they will not be able to continue such a -life, but will all be eaten up by ennui and spleen, and will become -conscious of the meaninglessness and wrongness of their present mode -of life. Only occupation with what, among them, is considered art -renders it possible for them to continue to live on, infringing all -natural conditions, without perceiving the emptiness and cruelty of -their lives. And this support afforded to the false manner of life -pursued by the rich is the second consequence, and a serious one, of -the perversion of art. - -The third consequence of the perversion of art is the perplexity -produced in the minds of children and of plain folk. Among people -not perverted by the false theories of our society, among workers -and children, there exists a very definite conception of what -people may be respected and praised for. In the minds of peasants -and children the ground for praise or eulogy can only be either -physical strength: Hercules, the heroes and conquerors; or moral, -spiritual, strength: Sakya Muni giving up a beautiful wife and a -kingdom to save mankind, Christ going to the cross for the truth he -professed, and all the martyrs and the saints. Both are understood -by peasants and children. They understand that physical strength -must be respected, for it compels respect; and the moral strength of -goodness an unperverted man cannot fail to respect, because all his -spiritual being draws him toward it. But these people, children, and -peasants, suddenly perceive that besides those praised, respected, -and rewarded for physical or moral strength, there are others who -are praised, extolled, and rewarded much more than the heroes -of strength and virtue, merely because they sing well, compose -verses, or dance. They see that singers, composers, painters, -ballet-dancers, earn millions of roubles and receive more honor than -the saints do: and peasants and children are perplexed. - -When fifty years had elapsed after Pushkin's death, and, -simultaneously, the cheap edition of his works began to circulate -among the people and a monument was erected to him in Moscow, I -received more than a dozen letters from different peasants asking -why Pushkin was raised to such dignity. And only the other day a -literate[123] man from Saratoff called on me who had evidently gone -out of his mind over this very question. He was on his way to Moscow -to expose the clergy for having taken part in raising a "monament" -to Mr. Pushkin. - - [123] In Russian it is customary to make a distinction between - literate and illiterate people, _i.e._ between those who can and - those who cannot read. _Literate_ in this sense does not imply that - the man would speak or write correctly.--TR. - -Indeed, one need only imagine to oneself what the state of mind -of such a man of the people must be when he learns, from such -rumors and newspapers as reach him, that the clergy, the Government -officials, and all the best people in Russia are triumphantly -unveiling a statue to a great man, the benefactor, the pride of -Russia--Pushkin, of whom till then he had never heard. From all -sides he reads or hears about this, and he naturally supposes that -if such honors are rendered to any one, then without doubt he must -have done something extraordinary--either some feat of strength -or of goodness. He tries to learn who Pushkin was, and having -discovered that Pushkin was neither a hero nor a general, but was -a private person and a writer, he comes to the conclusion that -Pushkin must have been a holy man and a teacher of goodness, and he -hastens to read or to hear his life and works. But what must be his -perplexity when he learns that Pushkin was a man of more than easy -morals, who was killed in a duel, _i.e._ when attempting to murder -another man, and that all his service consisted in writing verses -about love, which were often very indecent. - -That a hero, or Alexander the Great, or Genghis Khan, or Napoleon -were great, he understands, because any one of them could have -crushed him and a thousand like him; that Buddha, Socrates, and -Christ were great he also understands, for he knows and feels that -he and all men should be such as they were; but why a man should be -great because he wrote verses about the love of women he cannot make -out. - -A similar perplexity must trouble the brain of a Breton or Norman -peasant who hears that a monument, "_une statue_" (as to the -Madonna), is being erected to Baudelaire, and reads, or is told, -what the contents of his "Fleurs du Mal" are; or, more amazing -still, to Verlaine, when he learns the story of that man's wretched, -vicious life, and reads his verses. And what confusion it must -cause in the brains of peasants when they learn that some Patti or -Taglioni is paid L10,000 for a season, or that a painter gets as -much for a picture, or that authors of novels describing love-scenes -have received even more than that. - -And it is the same with children. I remember how I passed through -this stage of amazement and stupefaction, and only reconciled myself -to this exaltation of artists to the level of heroes and saints by -lowering in my own estimation the importance of moral excellence, -and by attributing a false, unnatural meaning to works of art. And a -similar confusion must occur in the soul of each child and each man -of the people when he learns of the strange honors and rewards that -are lavished on artists. This is the third consequence of the false -relation in which our society stands toward art. - -The fourth consequence is that people of the upper classes, more -and more frequently encountering the contradictions between -beauty and goodness, put the ideal of beauty first, thus freeing -themselves from the demands of morality. These people, reversing -the roles, instead of admitting, as is really the case, that the -art they serve is an antiquated affair, allege that morality is an -antiquated affair, which can have no importance for people situated -on that high plane of development on which they opine that they are -situated. - -This result of the false relation to art showed itself in our -society long ago; but recently, with its prophet Nietzsche and his -adherents, and with the decadents and certain English aesthetes who -coincide with him, it is being expressed with especial impudence. -The decadents, and aesthetes of the type at one time represented by -Oscar Wilde, select as a theme for their productions the denial of -morality and the laudation of vice. - -This art has partly generated, and partly coincides with, a similar -philosophic theory. I recently received from America a book -entitled, "The Survival of the Fittest: Philosophy of Power," 1896, -by Ragnar Redbeard, Chicago. The substance of this book, as it is -expressed in the editor's preface, is that to measure "right" by the -false philosophy of the Hebrew prophets and "weepful" Messiahs is -madness. Right is not the offspring of doctrine, but of power. All -laws, commandments, or doctrines as to not doing to another what -you do not wish done to you, have no inherent authority whatever, -but receive it only from the club, the gallows, and the sword. A -man truly free is under no obligation to obey any injunction, human -or divine. Obedience is the sign of the degenerate. Disobedience -is the stamp of the hero. Men should not be bound by moral rules -invented by their foes. The whole world is a slippery battlefield. -Ideal justice demands that the vanquished should be exploited, -emasculated, and scorned. The free and brave may seize the world. -And, therefore, there should be eternal war for life, for land, for -love, for women, for power, and for gold. (Something similar was -said a few years ago by the celebrated and refined academician, -Voguee.) The earth and its treasures is "booty for the bold." - -The author has evidently by himself, independently of Nietzsche, -come to the same conclusions which are professed by the new artists. - -Expressed in the form of a doctrine these positions startle us. In -reality they are implied in the ideal of art serving beauty. The -art of our upper classes has educated people in this ideal of the -over-man,[124]--which is, in reality, the old ideal of Nero, Stenka -Razin,[125] Genghis Khan, Robert Macaire,[126] or Napoleon, and all -their accomplices, assistants, and adulators--and it supports this -ideal with all its might. - -[Foootnote 124: The over-man (Uebermensch), in the Nietzschean -philosophy, is that superior type of man whom the struggle for -existence is to evolve, and who will seek only his own power and -pleasure, will know nothing of pity, and will have the right, -because he will possess the power, to make ordinary people serve -him.--TR.] - -[125] Stenka Razin was by origin a common Cossack. His brother -was hung for a breach of military discipline, and to this event -Stenka Razin's hatred of the governing classes has been attributed. -He formed a robber band, and subsequently headed a formidable -rebellion, declaring himself in favor of freedom for the serfs, -religious toleration, and the abolition of taxes. Like the -government he opposed, he relied on force, and, though he used it -largely in defense of the poor against the rich, he still held to - - "The good old rule, the simple plan, - That they should take who have the power, - And they should keep who can." - -Like Robin Hood, he is favorably treated in popular legends.--TR. - -[126] Robert Macaire is a modern type of adroit and audacious -rascality. He was the hero of a popular play produced in Paris in -1834.--TR. - -It is this supplanting of the ideal of what is right by the ideal of -what is beautiful, _i.e._ of what is pleasant, that is the fourth -consequence, and a terrible one, of the perversion of art in our -society. It is fearful to think of what would befall humanity were -such art to spread among the masses of the people. And it already -begins to spread. - -Finally, the fifth and chief result is, that the art which -flourishes in the upper classes of European society has a directly -vitiating influence, infecting people with the worst feelings and -with those most harmful to humanity,--superstition, patriotism, and, -above all, sensuality. - -Look carefully into the causes of the ignorance of the masses, and -you may see that the chief cause does not at all lie in the lack -of schools and libraries, as we are accustomed to suppose, but in -those superstitions, both ecclesiastical and patriotic, with which -the people are saturated, and which are unceasingly generated by -all the methods of art. Church superstitions are supported and -produced by the poetry of prayers, hymns, painting, by the sculpture -of images and of statues, by singing, by organs, by music, by -architecture, and even by dramatic art in religious ceremonies. -Patriotic superstitions are supported and produced by verses and -stories, which are supplied even in schools, by music, by songs, by -triumphal processions, by royal meetings, by martial pictures, and -by monuments. - -Were it not for this continual activity in all departments of art, -perpetuating the ecclesiastical and patriotic intoxication and -embitterment of the people, the masses would long ere this have -attained to true enlightenment. - -But it is not only in Church matters and patriotic matters that art -depraves; it is art in our time that serves as the chief cause of -the perversion of people in the most important question of social -life,--in their sexual relations. We nearly all know by our own -experience, and those who are fathers and mothers know in the case -of their grown-up children also, what fearful mental and physical -suffering, what useless waste of strength, people suffer merely as a -consequence of dissoluteness in sexual desire. - -Since the world began, since the Trojan war, which sprang from -that same sexual dissoluteness, down to and including the suicides -and murders of lovers described in almost every newspaper, a great -proportion of the sufferings of the human race have come from this -source. - -And what is art doing? All art, real and counterfeit, with very -few exceptions, is devoted to describing, depicting, and inflaming -sexual love in every shape and form. When one remembers all those -novels and their lust-kindling descriptions of love, from the most -refined to the grossest, with which the literature of our society -overflows; if one only remembers all those pictures and statues -representing women's naked bodies, and all sorts of abominations -which are reproduced in illustrations and advertisements; if one -only remembers all the filthy operas and operettas, songs, and -_romances_ with which our world teems, involuntarily it seems as -if existing art had but one definite aim,--to disseminate vice as -widely as possible. - -Such, though not all, are the most direct consequences of that -perversion of art which has occurred in our society. So that what in -our society is called art not only does not conduce to the progress -of mankind, but, more than almost anything else, hinders the -attainment of goodness in our lives. - -And therefore the question which involuntarily presents itself to -every man free from artistic activity and therefore not bound to -existing art by self-interest, the question asked by me at the -beginning of this work: Is it just that to what we call art, to a -something belonging to but a small section of society, should be -offered up such sacrifices of human labor, of human lives, and of -goodness as are now being offered up? receives the natural reply: -No; it is unjust, and these things should not be! So also replies -sound sense and unperverted moral feeling. Not only should these -things not be, not only should no sacrifices be offered up to what -among us is called art, but, on the contrary, the efforts of those -who wish to live rightly should be directed toward the destruction -of this art, for it is one of the most cruel of the evils that -harass our section of humanity. So that, were the question put: -Would it be preferable for our Christian world to be deprived of -_all_ that is now esteemed to be art, and, together with the false, -to lose _all_ that is good in it? I think that every reasonable -and moral man would again decide the question as Plato decided it -for his "Republic," and as all the Church Christian and Mohammedan -teachers of mankind decided it, _i.e._ would say, "Rather let there -be no art at all than continue the depraving art, or simulation of -art, which now exists." Happily, no one has to face this question, -and no one need adopt either solution. All that man can do, and that -we--the so-called educated people, who are so placed that we have -the possibility of understanding the meaning of the phenomena of our -life--can and should do, is to understand the error we are involved -in, and not harden our hearts in it, but seek for a way of escape. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - - -The cause of the lie into which the art of our society has fallen -was that people of the upper classes, having ceased to believe in -the Church teaching (called Christian), did not resolve to accept -true Christian teaching in its real and fundamental principles -of sonship to God and brotherhood to man, but continued to live -on without any belief, endeavoring to make up for the absence of -belief--some by hypocrisy, pretending still to believe in the -nonsense of the Church creeds; others by boldly asserting their -disbelief; others by refined agnosticism; and others, again, by -returning to the Greek worship of beauty, proclaiming egotism to be -right, and elevating it to the rank of a religious doctrine. - -The cause of the malady was the non-acceptance of Christ's teaching -in its real, _i.e._ its full, meaning. And the only cure for the -illness lies in acknowledging that teaching in its full meaning. -And such acknowledgment in our time is not only possible, but -inevitable. Already to-day a man, standing on the height of the -knowledge of our age, whether he be nominally a Catholic or a -Protestant, cannot say that he really believes in the dogmas of -the Church: in God being a Trinity, in Christ being God, in the -scheme of redemption, and so forth; nor can he satisfy himself by -proclaiming his unbelief or skepticism, nor by relapsing into the -worship of beauty and egotism. Above all, he can no longer say -that we do not know the real meaning of Christ's teaching. That -meaning has not only become accessible to all men of our times, but -the whole life of man to-day is permeated by the spirit of that -teaching, and, consciously or unconsciously, is guided by it. - -However differently in form people belonging to our Christian -world may define the destiny of man; whether they see it in human -progress in whatever sense of the words, in the union of all men in -a socialistic realm, or in the establishment of a commune; whether -they look forward to the union of mankind under the guidance of -one universal Church, or to the federation of the world,--however -various in form their definitions of the destination of human -life may be, all men in our times already admit that the highest -well-being attainable by men is to be reached by their union with -one another. - -However people of our upper classes (feeling that their ascendancy -can only be maintained as long as they separate themselves--the rich -and learned--from the laborers, the poor, and the unlearned) may -seek to devise new conceptions of life by which their privileges -may be perpetuated,--now the ideal of returning to antiquity, now -mysticism, now Hellenism, now the cult of the superior person -(over-man-ism),--they have, willingly or unwillingly, to admit the -truth which is elucidating itself from all sides, voluntarily and -involuntarily, namely, that our welfare lies only in the unification -and the brotherhood of man. - -Unconsciously this truth is confirmed by the construction of means -of communication,--telegraphs, telephones, the press, and the ever -increasing attainability of material well-being for every one,--and -consciously it is affirmed by the destruction of superstitions which -divide men, by the diffusion of the truths of knowledge, and by the -expression of the ideal of the brotherhood of man in the best works -of art of our time. - -Art is a spiritual organ of human life which cannot be destroyed, -and therefore, notwithstanding all the efforts made by people of -the upper classes to conceal the religious ideal by which humanity -lives, that ideal is more and more clearly recognized by man, and -even in our perverted society is more and more often partially -expressed by science and by art. During the present century works -of the higher kind of religious art have appeared more and more -frequently, both in literature and in painting, permeated by a truly -Christian spirit, as also works of the universal art of common -life, accessible to all. So that even art knows the true ideal of -our times, and tends toward it. On the one hand, the best works -of art of our times transmit religious feelings urging toward the -union and the brotherhood of man (such are the works of Dickens, -Hugo, Dostoievsky; and in painting, of Millet, Bastien Lepage, Jules -Breton, L'Hermitte, and others); on the other hand, they strive -toward the transmission, not of feelings which are natural to people -of the upper classes only, but of such feelings as may unite every -one without exception. There are as yet few such works, but the -need of them is already acknowledged. In recent times we also meet -more and more frequently with attempts at publications, pictures, -concerts, and theaters for the people. All this is still very far -from accomplishing what should be done, but already the direction -in which good art instinctively presses forward to regain the path -natural to it can be discerned. - -The religious perception of our time--which consists in -acknowledging that the aim of life (both collective and individual) -is the union of mankind--is already so sufficiently distinct that -people have now only to reject the false theory of beauty, according -to which enjoyment is considered to be the purpose of art, and -religious perception will naturally take its place as the guide of -the art of our time. - -And as soon as the religious perception, which already unconsciously -directs the life of man, is consciously acknowledged, then -immediately and naturally the division of art, into art for the -lower and art for the upper classes, will disappear. There will -be one common, brotherly, universal art; and first, that art will -naturally be rejected which transmits feelings incompatible with -the religious perception of our time,--feelings which do not unite, -but divide men,--and then that insignificant, exclusive art will be -rejected to which an importance is now attached to which it has no -right. - -And as soon as this occurs, art will immediately cease to be what -it has been in recent times,--a means of making people coarser and -more vicious; and it will become, what it always used to be and -should be, a means by which humanity progresses toward unity and -blessedness. - -Strange as the comparison may sound, what has happened to the art -of our circle and time is what happens to a woman who sells her -womanly attractiveness, intended for maternity, for the pleasure of -those who desire such pleasures. - -The art of our time and of our circle has become a prostitute. And -this comparison holds good even in minute details. Like her it is -not limited to certain times, like her it is always adorned, like -her it is always salable, and like her it is enticing and ruinous. - -A real work of art can only arise in the soul of an artist -occasionally as the fruit of the life he has lived, just as a child -is conceived by its mother. But counterfeit art is produced by -artisans and handicraftsmen continually, if only consumers can be -found. - -Real art, like the wife of an affectionate husband, needs no -ornaments. But counterfeit art, like a prostitute, must always be -decked out. - -The cause of the production of real art is the artist's inner need -to express a feeling that has accumulated, just as for a mother the -cause of sexual conception is love. The cause of counterfeit art, as -of prostitution, is gain. - -The consequence of true art is the introduction of a new feeling -into the intercourse of life, as the consequence of a wife's love is -the birth of a new man into life. - -The consequences of counterfeit art are the perversion of man, -pleasure which never satisfies, and the weakening of man's spiritual -strength. - -And this is what people of our day and of our circle should -understand, in order to avoid the filthy torrent of depraved and -prostituted art with which we are deluged. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - - -People talk of the art of the future, meaning by "art of the future" -some especially refined, new art, which, as they imagine, will -be developed out of that exclusive art of one class which is now -considered the highest art. But no such new art of the future can -or will be found. Our exclusive art, that of the upper classes of -Christendom, has found its way into a blind alley. The direction -in which it has been going leads nowhere. Having once let go of -that which is most essential for art (namely, the guidance given -by religious perception), that art has become ever more and more -exclusive, and therefore ever more and more perverted, until, -finally, it has come to nothing. The art of the future, that which -is really coming, will not be a development of present-day art, but -will arise on completely other and new foundations, having nothing -in common with those by which our present art of the upper classes -is guided. - -Art of the future, that is to say, such part of art as will be -chosen from among all the art diffused among mankind, will consist, -not in transmitting feelings accessible only to members of the rich -classes, as is the case to-day, but in transmitting such feelings -as embody the highest religious perception of our times. Only -those productions will be considered art which transmit feelings -drawing men together in brotherly union, or such universal feelings -as can unite all men. Only such art will be chosen, tolerated, -approved, and diffused. But art transmitting feelings flowing from -antiquated, worn-out religious teaching,--Church art, patriotic art, -voluptuous art, transmitting feelings of superstitious fear, of -pride, of vanity, of ecstatic admiration of national heroes,--art -exciting exclusive love of one's own people, or sensuality, will -be considered bad, harmful art, and will be censured and despised -by public opinion. All the rest of art, transmitting feelings -accessible only to a section of people, will be considered -unimportant, and will be neither blamed nor praised. And the -appraisement of art in general will devolve, not, as is now the -case, on a separate class of rich people, but on the whole people; -so that for a work to be esteemed good, and to be approved of and -diffused, it will have to satisfy the demands, not of a few people -living in identical and often unnatural conditions, but it will have -to satisfy the demands of all those great masses of people who are -situated in the natural conditions of laborious life. - -And the artists producing art will also not be, as now, merely a -few people selected from a small section of the nation, members of -the upper classes or their hangers-on, but will consist of all those -gifted members of the whole people who prove capable of, and are -inclined toward, artistic activity. - -Artistic activity will then be accessible to all men. It will -become accessible to the whole people, because, in the first place, -in the art of the future, not only will that complex technique, -which deforms the productions of the art of to-day and requires so -great an effort and expenditure of time, not be demanded, but, on -the contrary, the demand will be for clearness, simplicity, and -brevity--conditions mastered, not by mechanical exercises, but by -the education of taste. And secondly, artistic activity will become -accessible to all men of the people because, instead of the present -professional schools which only some can enter, all will learn music -and depictive art (singing and drawing) equally with letters in -the elementary schools, and in such a way that every man, having -received the first principles of drawing and music, and feeling a -capacity for, and a call to, one or other of the arts, will be able -to perfect himself in it. - -People think that if there are no special art schools the technique -of art will deteriorate. Undoubtedly, if by technique we understand -those complications of art which are now considered an excellence, -it will deteriorate; but if by technique is understood clearness, -beauty, simplicity, and compression in works of art, then, even -if the elements of drawing and music were not to be taught in the -national schools, the technique will not only not deteriorate, but, -as is shown by all peasant art, will be a hundred times better. -It will be improved, because all the artists of genius now hidden -among the masses will become producers of art and will give models -of excellence, which (as has always been the case) will be the best -schools of technique for their successors. For every true artist, -even now, learns his technique, chiefly, not in the schools, but -in life, from the examples of the great masters; then--when the -producers of art will be the best artists of the whole nation, -and there will be more such examples, and they will be more -accessible--such part of the school training as the future artist -will lose will be a hundredfold compensated for by the training he -will receive from the numerous examples of good art diffused in -society. - -Such will be one difference between present and future art. Another -difference will be that art will not be produced by professional -artists receiving payment for their work and engaged on nothing else -besides their art. The art of the future will be produced by all the -members of the community who feel the need of such activity, but -they will occupy themselves with art only when they feel such need. - -In our society people think that an artist will work better, and -produce more, if he has a secured maintenance. And this opinion -would serve once more to show clearly, were such demonstration -still needed, that what among us is considered art is not art, but -only its counterfeit. It is quite true that for the production of -boots or loaves division of labor is very advantageous, and that -the bootmaker or baker who need not prepare his own dinner or fetch -his own fuel will make more boots or loaves than if he had to busy -himself about these matters. But art is not a handicraft; it is -the transmission of feeling the artist has experienced. And sound -feeling can only be engendered in a man when he is living on all -its sides the life natural and proper to mankind. And therefore -security of maintenance is a condition most harmful to an artist's -true productiveness, since it removes him from the condition natural -to all men,--that of struggle with nature for the maintenance of -both his own life and that of others,--and thus deprives him of -opportunity and possibility to experience the most important and -natural feelings of man. There is no position more injurious to an -artist's productiveness than that position of complete security and -luxury in which artists usually live in our society. - -The artist of the future will live the common life of man, earning -his subsistence by some kind of labor. The fruits of that highest -spiritual strength which passes through him he will try to -share with the greatest possible number of people, for in such -transmission to others of the feelings that have arisen in him he -will find his happiness and his reward. The artist of the future -will be unable to understand how an artist, whose chief delight is -in the wide diffusion of his works, could give them only in exchange -for a certain payment. - -Until the dealers are driven out, the temple of art will not be a -temple. But the art of the future will drive them out. - -And therefore the subject-matter of the art of the future, as I -imagine it to myself, will be totally unlike that of to-day. It -will consist, not in the expression of exclusive feelings: pride, -spleen, satiety, and all possible forms of voluptuousness, available -and interesting only to people who, by force, have freed themselves -from the labor natural to human beings; but it will consist in the -expression of feelings experienced by a man living the life natural -to all men and flowing from the religious perception of our times, -or of such feelings as are open to all men without exception. - -To people of our circle who do not know and cannot or will not -understand the feelings which will form the subject-matter of -the art of the future, such subject-matter appears very poor in -comparison with those subtleties of exclusive art with which they -are now occupied. "What is there fresh to be said in the sphere of -the Christian feeling of love of one's fellow-man? The feelings -common to every one are so insignificant and monotonous," think -they. And yet, in our time, the really fresh feelings can only be -religious, Christian feelings, and such as are open, accessible, -to all. The feelings flowing from the religious perception of our -times, Christian feelings, are infinitely new and varied, only not -in the sense some people imagine,--not that they can be evoked by -the depiction of Christ and of gospel episodes, or by repeating in -new forms the Christian truths of unity, brotherhood, equality, and -love,--but in that all the oldest, commonest, and most hackneyed -phenomena of life evoke the newest, most unexpected, and touching -emotions as soon as a man regards them from the Christian point of -view. - -What can be older than the relations between married couples, of -parents to children, of children to parents; the relations of men -to their fellow-countrymen and to foreigners, to an invasion, to -defense, to property, to the land, or to animals? But as soon as -a man regards these matters from the Christian point of view, -endlessly varied, fresh, complex, and strong emotions immediately -arise. - -And, in the same way, that realm of subject-matter for the art of -the future which relates to the simplest feelings of common life -open to all will not be narrowed, but widened. In our former art -only the expression of feelings natural to people of a certain -exceptional position was considered worthy of being transmitted -by art, and even then only on condition that these feelings were -transmitted in a most refined manner, incomprehensible to the -majority of men; all the immense realm of folk-art, and children's -art--jests, proverbs, riddles, songs, dances, children's games, and -mimicry--was not esteemed a domain worthy of art. - -The artist of the future will understand that to compose a -fairy-tale, a little song which will touch, a lullaby or a riddle -which will entertain, a jest which will amuse, or to draw a sketch -which will delight dozens of generations or millions of children and -adults, is incomparably more important and more fruitful than to -compose a novel or a symphony, or paint a picture which will divert -some members of the wealthy classes for a short time, and then be -forever forgotten. The region of this art of the simple feelings -accessible to all is enormous, and it is as yet almost untouched. - -The art of the future, therefore, will not be poorer, but infinitely -richer in subject-matter. And the form of the art of the future will -also not be inferior to the present forms of art, but infinitely -superior to them. Superior, not in the sense of having a refined and -complex technique, but in the sense of the capacity briefly, simply, -and clearly to transmit, without any superfluities, the feeling -which the artist has experienced and wishes to transmit. - -I remember once speaking to a famous astronomer who had given public -lectures on the spectrum analysis of the stars of the Milky Way, -and saying it would be a good thing if, with his knowledge and -masterly delivery, he would give a lecture merely on the formation -and movements of the earth, for certainly there were many people -at his lecture on the spectrum analysis of the stars of the Milky -Way, especially among the women, who did not well know why night -follows day and summer follows winter. The wise astronomer smiled as -he answered, "Yes, it would be a good thing, but it would be very -difficult. To lecture on the spectrum analysis of the Milky Way is -far easier." - -And so it is in art. To write a rhymed poem dealing with the times -of Cleopatra, or paint a picture of Nero burning Rome, or compose -a symphony in the manner of Brahms or Richard Strauss, or an opera -like Wagner's, is far easier than to tell a simple story without any -unnecessary details, yet so that it should transmit the feelings of -the narrator, or to draw a pencil-sketch which should touch or amuse -the beholder, or to compose four bars of clear and simple melody, -without any accompaniment, which should convey an impression and be -remembered by those who hear it. - -"It is impossible for us, with our culture, to return to a primitive -state," say the artists of our time. "It is impossible for us now to -write such stories as that of Joseph or the 'Odyssey,' to produce -such statues as the Venus of Milo, or to compose such music as the -folk-songs." - -And indeed, for the artists of our society and day, it is -impossible, but not for the future artist, who will be free from -all the perversion of technical improvements hiding the absence -of subject-matter, and who, not being a professional artist and -receiving no payment for his activity, will only produce art when he -feels impelled to do so by an irresistible inner impulse. - -The art of the future will thus be completely distinct, both in -subject-matter and in form, from what is now called art. The only -subject-matter of the art of the future will be either feelings -drawing men toward union, or such as already unite them; and -the forms of art will be such as will be open to every one. And -therefore, the ideal of excellence in the future will not be the -exclusiveness of feeling, accessible only to some, but, on the -contrary, its universality. And not bulkiness, obscurity, and -complexity of form, as is now esteemed, but, on the contrary, -brevity, clearness, and simplicity of expression. Only when art has -attained to that, will art neither divert nor deprave men as it -does now, calling on them to expend their best strength on it, but -be what it should be,--a vehicle wherewith to transmit religious, -Christian perception from the realm of reason and intellect into -that of feeling, and really drawing people in actual life nearer -to that perfection and unity indicated to them by their religious -perception. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -THE CONCLUSION - - -I have accomplished, to the best of my ability, this work which -has occupied me for fifteen years, on a subject near to me--that -of art. By saying that this subject has occupied me for fifteen -years, I do not mean that I have been writing this book fifteen -years, but only that I began to write on art fifteen years ago, -thinking that when once I undertook the task I should be able to -accomplish it without a break. It proved, however, that my views -on the matter then were so far from clear that I could not arrange -them in a way that satisfied me. From that time I have never ceased -to think on the subject, and I have recommenced to write on it six -or seven times; but each time, after writing a considerable part of -it, I have found myself unable to bring the work to a satisfactory -conclusion, and have had to put it aside. Now I have finished it; -and however badly I may have performed the task, my hope is that -my fundamental thought as to the false direction the art of our -society has taken and is following, as to the reasons of this, and -as to the real destination of art, is correct, and that therefore my -work will not be without avail. But that this should come to pass, -and that art should really abandon its false path and take the new -direction, it is necessary that another equally important human -spiritual activity,--science,--in intimate dependence on which art -always rests, should abandon the false path which it too, like art, -is following. - -Science and art are as closely bound together as the lungs and the -heart, so that if one organ is vitiated the other cannot act rightly. - -True science investigates and brings to human perception such -truths and such knowledge as the people of a given time and society -consider most important. Art transmits these truths from the region -of perception to the region of emotion. Therefore, if the path -chosen by science be false, so also will be the path taken by art. -Science and art are like a certain kind of barge with kedge-anchors -which used to ply on our rivers. Science, like the boats which took -the anchors up-stream and made them secure, gives direction to the -forward movement; while art, like the windlass worked on the barge -to draw it toward the anchor, causes the actual progression. And -thus a false activity of science inevitably causes a correspondingly -false activity of art. - -As art in general is the transmission of every kind of feeling, -but in the limited sense of the word we only call that art which -transmits feelings acknowledged by us to be important, so also -science in general is the transmission of all possible knowledge; -but in the limited sense of the word we call science that which -transmits knowledge acknowledged by us to be important. - -And the degree of importance, both of the feelings transmitted by -art and of the information transmitted by science, is decided by the -religious perception of the given time and society, _i.e._ by the -common understanding of the purpose of their lives possessed by the -people of that time or society. - -That which most of all contributes to the fulfilment of that purpose -will be studied most; that which contributes less will be studied -less; that which does not contribute at all to the fulfilment of the -purpose of human life will be entirely neglected, or, if studied, -such study will not be accounted science. So it always has been, and -so it should be now; for such is the nature of human knowledge and -of human life. But the science of the upper classes of our time, -which not only does not acknowledge any religion, but considers -every religion to be mere superstition, could not and cannot make -such distinctions. - -Scientists of our day affirm that they study _everything_ -impartially; but as everything is too much (is in fact an infinite -number of objects), and as it is impossible to study all alike, this -is only said in the theory, while in practice not everything is -studied, and study is applied far from impartially, only that being -studied which, on the one hand, is most wanted by, and on the other -hand, is pleasantest to, those people who occupy themselves with -science. And what the people, belonging to the upper classes, who -are occupying themselves with science most want is the maintenance -of the system under which those classes retain their privileges; and -what is pleasantest are such things as satisfy idle curiosity, do -not demand great mental efforts, and can be practically applied. - -And therefore one side of science, including theology and philosophy -adapted to the existing order, as also history and political economy -of the same sort, are chiefly occupied in proving that the existing -order is the very one which ought to exist; that it has come into -existence and continues to exist by the operation of immutable -laws not amenable to human will, and that all efforts to change -it are therefore harmful and wrong. The other part, experimental -science,--including mathematics, astronomy, chemistry, physics, -botany, and all the natural sciences,--is exclusively occupied with -things that have no direct relation to human life: with what is -curious, and with things of which practical application advantageous -to people of the upper classes can be made. And to justify that -selection of objects of study which (in conformity to their own -position) the men of science of our times have made, they have -devised a theory of science for science's sake, quite similar to the -theory of art for art's sake. - -As by the theory of art for art's sake it appears that occupation -with all those things that please us--is art, so, by the theory of -science for science's sake, the study of that which interests us--is -science. - -So that one side of science, instead of studying how people should -live in order to fulfil their mission in life, demonstrates the -righteousness and immutability of the bad and false arrangements -of life which exist around us; while the other part, experimental -science, occupies itself with questions of simple curiosity or with -technical improvements. - -The first of these divisions of science is harmful, not only because -it confuses people's perceptions and gives false decisions, but also -because it exists, and occupies the ground which should belong to -true science. It does this harm, that each man, in order to approach -the study of the most important questions of life, must first refute -these erections of lies which have during ages been piled around -each of the most essential questions of human life, and which are -propped up by all the strength of human ingenuity. - -The second division--the one of which modern science is so -particularly proud, and which is considered by many people to be the -only real science--is harmful in that it diverts attention from the -really important subjects to insignificant subjects, and is also -directly harmful in that, under the evil system of society which the -first division of science justifies and supports, a great part of -the technical gains of science are turned, not to the advantage, but -to the injury of mankind. - -Indeed, it is only to those who are devoting their lives to such -study that it seems as if all the inventions which are made in the -sphere of natural science were very important and useful things. -And to these people it seems so only when they do not look around -them and do not see what is really important. They only need tear -themselves away from the psychological microscope under which they -examine the objects of their study, and look about them, in order -to see how insignificant is all that has afforded them such naive -pride, all that knowledge not only of geometry of _n_-dimensions, -spectrum analysis of the Milky Way, the form of atoms, dimensions -of human skulls of the Stone Age, and similar trifles, but even our -knowledge of micro-organisms, X-rays, etc., in comparison with such -knowledge as we have thrown aside and handed over to the perversions -of the professors of theology, jurisprudence, political economy, -financial science, etc. We need only look around us to perceive that -the activity proper to real science is not the study of whatever -happens to interest us, but the study of how man's life should be -established,--the study of those questions of religion, morality, -and social life, without the solution of which all our knowledge of -nature will be harmful or insignificant. - -We are highly delighted and very proud that our science renders it -possible to utilize the energy of a waterfall and make it work in -factories, or that we have pierced tunnels through mountains, and so -forth. But the pity of it is that we make the force of the waterfall -labor, not for the benefit of the workmen, but to enrich capitalists -who produce articles of luxury or weapons of man-destroying war. -The same dynamite with which we blast the mountains to pierce -tunnels we use for wars, from which latter we not only do not intend -to abstain, but which we consider inevitable, and for which we -unceasingly prepare. - -If we are now able to inoculate preventatively with diphtheritic -microbes, to find a needle in a body by means of X-rays, to -straighten a hunched-back, cure syphilis, and perform wonderful -operations, we should not be proud of these acquisitions either -(even were they all established beyond dispute) if we fully -understood the true purpose of real science. If but one-tenth of -the efforts now spent on objects of pure curiosity or of merely -practical application were expended on real science organizing the -life of man, more than half the people now sick would not have the -illnesses from which a small minority of them now get cured in -hospitals. There would be no poor-blooded and deformed children -growing up in factories, no death-rates, as now, of fifty per -cent among children, no deterioration of whole generations, no -prostitution, no syphilis, and no murdering of hundreds of thousands -in wars, nor those horrors of folly and of misery which our present -science considers a necessary condition of human life. - -We have so perverted the conception of science that it seems strange -to men of our day to allude to sciences which should prevent the -mortality of children, prostitution, syphilis, the deterioration -of whole generations, and the wholesale murder of men. It seems -to us that science is only then real science when a man in a -laboratory pours liquids from one jar into another, or analyzes -the spectrum, or cuts up frogs and porpoises, or weaves in a -specialized, scientific jargon an obscure network of conventional -phrases--theological, philosophical, historical, juridical, or -politico-economical--semi-intelligible to the man himself, and -intended to demonstrate that what now is, is what should be. - -But science, true science,--such science as would really deserve -the respect which is now claimed by the followers of one (the -least important) part of science,--is not at all such as this: -real science lies in knowing what we should and what we should not -believe, in knowing how the associated life of man should and should -not be constituted; how to treat sexual relations, how to educate -children, how to use the land, how to cultivate it oneself without -oppressing other people, how to treat foreigners, how to treat -animals, and much more that is important for the life of man. - -Such has true science ever been and such it should be. And such -science is springing up in our times; but, on the one hand, such -true science is denied and refuted by all those scientific people -who defend the existing order of society, and, on the other hand, it -is considered empty, unnecessary, unscientific science by those who -are engrossed in experimental science. - -For instance, books and sermons appear, demonstrating the -antiquatedness and absurdity of Church dogmas, as well as the -necessity of establishing a reasonable religious perception suitable -to our times, and all the theology that is considered to be real -science is only engaged in refuting these works and in exercising -human intelligence again and again to find support and justification -for superstitions long since outlived, and which have now become -quite meaningless. Or a sermon appears showing that land should -not be an object of private possession, and that the institution -of private property in land is a chief cause of the poverty of -the masses. Apparently science, real science, should welcome such -a sermon and draw further deductions from this position. But the -science of our times does nothing of the kind: on the contrary, -political economy demonstrates the opposite position; namely, that -landed property, like every other form of property, must be more -and more concentrated in the hands of a small number of owners. -Again, in the same way, one would suppose it to be the business of -real science to demonstrate the irrationality, unprofitableness, -and immorality of war and of executions; or the inhumanity and -harmfulness of prostitution; or the absurdity, harmfulness, -and immorality of using narcotics or of eating animals; or the -irrationality, harmfulness, and antiquatedness of patriotism. And -such works exist, but are all considered unscientific; while works -to prove that all these things ought to continue, and works intended -to satisfy an idle thirst for knowledge lacking any relation to -human life, are considered to be scientific. - -The deviation of the science of our time from its true purpose is -strikingly illustrated by those ideals which are put forward by some -scientists, and are not denied, but admitted, by the majority of -scientific men. - -These ideals are expressed not only in stupid, fashionable books, -describing the world as it will be in 1000 or 3000 years' time, but -also by sociologists who consider themselves serious men of science. -These ideals are that food, instead of being obtained from the land -by agriculture, will be prepared in laboratories by chemical means, -and that human labor will be almost entirely superseded by the -utilization of natural forces. - -Man will not, as now, eat an egg laid by a hen he has kept, or bread -grown on his field, or an apple from a tree he has reared and which -has blossomed and matured in his sight; but he will eat tasty, -nutritious, food which will be prepared in laboratories by the -conjoint labor of many people in which he will take a small part. -Man will hardly need to labor, so that all men will be able to yield -to idleness as the upper, ruling classes now yield to it. - -Nothing shows more plainly than these ideals to what a degree the -science of our times has deviated from the true path. - -The great majority of men in our times lack good and sufficient food -(as well as dwellings and clothes and all the first necessaries of -life). And this great majority of men is compelled, to the injury of -its well-being, to labor continually beyond its strength. Both these -evils can easily be removed by abolishing mutual strife, luxury, and -the unrighteous distribution of wealth, in a word, by the abolition -of a false and harmful order and the establishment of a reasonable, -human manner of life. But science considers the existing order of -things to be as immutable as the movements of the planets, and -therefore assumes that the purpose of science is--not to elucidate -the falseness of this order and to arrange a new, reasonable way of -life--but, under the existing order of things, to feed everybody and -enable all to be as idle as the ruling classes, who live a depraved -life, now are. - -And, meanwhile, it is forgotten that nourishment with corn, -vegetables, and fruit raised from the soil by one's own labor is the -pleasantest, healthiest, easiest, and most natural nourishment, and -that the work of using one's muscles is as necessary a condition of -life as is the oxidation of the blood by breathing. - -To invent means whereby people might, while continuing our false -division of property and labor, be well nourished by means of -chemically prepared food, and might make the forces of nature work -for them, is like inventing means to pump oxygen into the lungs of a -man kept in a closed chamber, the air of which is bad, when all that -is needed is to cease to confine the man in the closed chamber. - -In the vegetable and animal kingdoms a laboratory for the -production of food has been arranged, such as can be surpassed by -no professors, and to enjoy the fruits of this laboratory, and -to participate in it, man has only to yield to that ever joyful -impulse to labor, without which man's life is a torment. And lo and -behold! the scientists of our times, instead of employing all their -strength to abolish whatever hinders man from utilizing the good -things prepared for him, acknowledge the conditions under which man -is deprived of these blessings to be unalterable, and instead of -arranging the life of man so that he might work joyfully and be fed -from the soil, they devise methods which will cause him to become an -artificial abortion. It is like not helping a man out of confinement -into the fresh air, but devising means, instead, to pump into him -the necessary quantity of oxygen and arranging so that he may live -in a stifling cellar instead of living at home. - -Such false ideals could not exist if science were not on a false -path. - -And yet the feelings transmitted by art grow up on the bases -supplied by science. - -But what feelings can such misdirected science evoke? One side of -this science evokes antiquated feelings, which humanity has used -up, and which, in our times, are bad and exclusive. The other side, -occupied with the study of subjects unrelated to the conduct of -human life, by its very nature cannot serve as a basis for art. - -So that art in our times, to be art, must either open up its own -road independently of science, or must take direction from the -unrecognized science which is denounced by the orthodox section of -science. And this is what art, when it even partially fulfils its -mission, is doing. - -It is to be hoped that the work I have tried to perform concerning -art will be performed also for science--that the falseness of the -theory of science for science's sake will be demonstrated; that -the necessity of acknowledging Christian teaching in its true -meaning will be clearly shown, that on the basis of that teaching -a reappraisement will be made of the knowledge we possess, and of -which we are so proud; that the secondariness and insignificance -of experimental science, and the primacy and importance of -religious, moral, and social knowledge will be established; and -that such knowledge will not, as now, be left to the guidance of -the upper classes only, but will form a chief interest of all free, -truth-loving men, such as those who, not in agreement with the -upper classes, but in their despite, have always forwarded the real -science of life. - -Astronomical, physical, chemical, and biological science, as also -technical and medical science, will be studied only in so far as -they can help to free mankind from religious, juridical, or social -deceptions, or can serve to promote the well-being of all men, and -not of any single class. - -Only then will science cease to be what it is now,--on the one hand -a system of sophistries, needed for the maintenance of the existing -worn-out order of society, and, on the other hand, a shapeless mass -of miscellaneous knowledge, for the most part good for little or -nothing,--and become a shapely and organic whole, having a definite -and reasonable purpose comprehensible to all men; namely, the -purpose of bringing to the consciousness of men the truths that flow -from the religious perception of our times. - -And only then will art, which is always dependent on science, be -what it might and should be, an organ co-equally important with -science for the life and progress of mankind. - -Art is not a pleasure, a solace, or an amusement; art is a great -matter. Art is an organ of human life, transmitting man's reasonable -perception into feeling. In our age the common religious perception -of men is the consciousness of the brotherhood of man--we know -that the well-being of man lies in union with his fellow-men. -True science should indicate the various methods of applying this -consciousness to life. Art should transform this perception into -feeling. - -The task of art is enormous. Through the influence of real art, -aided by science guided by religion, that peaceful cooperation of -man which is now obtained by external means--by our law-courts, -police, charitable institutions, factory inspection, etc.--should -be obtained by man's free and joyous activity. Art should cause -violence to be set aside. - -And it is only art that can accomplish this. - -All that now, independently of the fear of violence and punishment, -makes the social life of man possible (and already now this is -an enormous part of the order of our lives)--all this has been -brought about by art. If by art it has been inculcated how people -should treat religious objects, their parents, their children, -their wives, their relations, strangers, foreigners; how to conduct -themselves to their elders, their superiors, to those who suffer, -to their enemies, and to animals; and if this has been obeyed -through generations by millions of people, not only unenforced by -any violence, but so that the force of such customs can be shaken in -no way but by means of art--then, by the same art, other customs, -more in accord with the religious perception of our time, may be -evoked. If art has been able to convey the sentiment of reverence -for images, for the eucharist, and for the king's person; of shame -at betraying a comrade, devotion to a flag, the necessity of revenge -for an insult, the need to sacrifice one's labor for the erection -and adornment of churches, the duty of defending one's honor or -the glory of one's native land--then that same art can also evoke -reverence for the dignity of every man and for the life of every -animal; can make men ashamed of luxury, of violence, of revenge, or -of using for their pleasure that of which others are in need; can -compel people freely, gladly, and without noticing it, to sacrifice -themselves in the service of man. - -The task for art to accomplish is to make that feeling of -brotherhood and love of one's neighbor, now attained only by the -best members of society, the customary feeling and the instinct of -all men. By evoking, under imaginary conditions, the feeling of -brotherhood and love, religious art will train men to experience -those same feelings under similar circumstances in actual life; it -will lay in the souls of men the rails along which the actions of -those whom art thus educates will naturally pass. And universal -art, by uniting the most different people in one common feeling, -by destroying separation, will educate people to union, will show -them, not by reason, but by life itself, the joy of universal union -reaching beyond the bounds set by life. - -The destiny of art in our time is to transmit from the realm of -reason to the realm of feeling the truth that well-being for men -consists in being united together, and to set up, in place of the -existing reign of force, that kingdom of God, _i.e._ of love, which -we all recognize to be the highest aim of human life. - -Possibly, in the future, science may reveal to art yet newer and -higher ideals, which art may realize; but, in our time, the destiny -of art is clear and definite. The task for Christian art is to -establish brotherly union among men. - - - - -APPENDIX I - - -This is the first page of Mallarme's book, "Divagations":-- - -LE PHENOMENE FUTUR - - Un ciel pale, sur le monde qui finit de decrepitude, va - peut-etre partir avec les nuages: les lambeaux de la pourpre - usee des couchants deteignent dans une riviere dormant a - l'horizon submerge de rayons et d'eau. Les arbres s'ennuient, - et, sous leur feuillage blanchi (de la poussiere du temps plutot - que celle des chemins) monte la maison en toile de Montreur - de choses Passees: maint reverbere attend le crepuscule et - ravive les visages d'une malheureuse foule, vaincue par la - maladie immortelle et le peche des siecles, d'hommes pres de - leurs chetives complices enceintes des fruits miserables avec - lesquels perira la terre. Dans le silence inquiet de tous les - yeux suppliant la-bas le soleil qui, sous l'eau, s'enfonce - avec le desespoir d'un cri, voici le simple boniment: "Nulle - enseigne ne vous regale du spectacle interieur, car il n'est - pas maintenant un peintre capable d'en donner une ombre triste. - J'apporte, vivante (et preservee a travers les ans par la - science souveraine) une Femme d'autrefois. Quelque folie, - originelle et naive, une extase d'or, je ne sais quoi! par elle - nomme sa chevelure, se ploie avec la grace des etoffes autour - d'un visage qu' eclaire la nudite sanglante de ses levres. A la - place du vetement vain, elle a un corps; et les yeux, semblables - aux pierres rares! ne valent pas ce regard qui sort de sa chair - heureuse: des seins leves comme s'ils etaient pleins d'un lait - eternel, la pointe vers le ciel, les jambes lisses qui gardent - le sel de la mer premiere." Se rappelant leurs pauvres epouses, - chauves, morbides et pleines d'horreur, les maris se pressent: - elles aussi par curiosite, melancoliques, veulent voir. - - Quand tous auront contemple la noble creature, vestige de - quelque epoque deja maudite, les uns indifferents, car ils - n'auront pas eu la force de comprendre, mais d'autres navres et - la paupiere humide de larmes resignees, se regarderont; tandis - que les poetes de ces temps, sentant se rallumer leur yeux - eteints, s'achemineront vers leur lampe, le cerveau ivre un - instant d'une gloire confuse, hantes du Rythme et dans l'oubli - d'exister a une epoque qui survit a la beaute. - -THE FUTURE PHENOMENON--BY MALLARME. - - A pale sky, above the world that is ending through decrepitude, - going, perhaps, to pass away with the clouds: shreds of worn-out - purple of the sunsets wash off their color in a river sleeping - on the horizon, submerged with rays and water. The trees are - weary and, beneath their foliage, whitened (by the dust of - time rather than that of the roads), rises the canvas house - of "Showman of things Past." Many a lamp awaits the gloaming, - and brightens the faces of a miserable crowd vanquished by the - immortal illness and the sin of ages, of men by the sides of - their puny accomplices pregnant with the miserable fruit with - which the world will perish. In the anxious silence of all the - eyes supplicating the sun there, which sinks under the water - with the desperation of a cry, this is the plain announcement: - "No sign-board now regales you with the spectacle that is - inside, for there is no painter now capable of giving even a - shadow of it. I bring living (and preserved by sovereign science - through the years) a Woman of other days. Some kind of folly, - naive and original, an ecstasy of gold, I know not what, by her - called her hair, clings with the grace of some material round a - face brightened by the blood-red nudity of her lips. In place of - vain clothing, she has a body; and her eyes, resembling precious - stones! are not worth that look, which comes from her happy - flesh: breasts raised as if full of eternal milk, the points - toward the sky; the smooth legs, that keep the salt of the first - sea." Remembering their poor spouses, bald, morbid, and full - of horrors, the husbands press forward: the women, too, from - curiosity, gloomily wish to see. - - When all shall have contemplated the noble creature, vestige of - some epoch already damned, some indifferently, for they will not - have had strength to understand, but others, broken-hearted, and - with eyelids wet with tears of resignation, will look at each - other; while the poets of those times, feeling their dim eyes - rekindled, will make their way toward their lamp, their brain - for an instant drunk with confused glory, haunted by Rhythm, and - forgetful that they exist at an epoch which has survived beauty. - - - - -APPENDIX II[127] - -[127] The translations in Appendices I., II., and IV., are by Louise -Maude. The aim of these renderings has been to keep as close to the -originals as the obscurity of meaning allowed. The sense (or absence -of sense) has therefore been more considered than the form of the -verses. - - -No. 1 - -The following verses are by Viele-Griffin, from page 28 of a volume -of his Poems:-- - -OISEAU BLEU COULEUR DU TEMPS - - 1 - - Sait-tu l'oubli - D'un vain doux reve, - Oiseau moqueur - De la foret? - Le jour palit, - La nuit se leve, - Et dans mon coeur - L'ombre a pleure; - - 2 - - O chante-moi - Ta folle gamme, - Car j'ai dormi - Ce jour durant; - Le lache emoi - Ou fut mon ame - Sanglote ennui - Le jour mourant.... - - 3 - - Sais-tu le chant - De sa parole - Et de sa voix, - Toi qui redis - Dans le couchant - Ton air frivole - Comme autrefois - Sous les midis? - - 4 - - O chante alors - La melodie - De son amour, - Mon fol espoir, - Parmi les ors - Et l'incendie - Du vain doux jour - Qui meurt ce soir. - - FRANCIS VIELE-GRIFFIN. - -BLUE BIRD - - 1 - - Canst thou forget, - In dreams so vain, - Oh, mocking bird - Of forest deep? - The day doth set, - Night comes again, - My heart has heard - The shadows weep; - - 2 - - Thy tones let flow - In maddening scale, - For I have slept - The livelong day; - Emotions low - In me now wail, - My soul they've kept: - Light dies away.... - - 3 - - That music sweet, - Ah, do you know - Her voice and speech? - Your airs so light - You who repeat - In sunset's glow, - As you sang, each, - At noonday's height. - - 4 - - Of my desire, - My hope so bold, - Her love--up, sing, - Sing, 'neath this light, - This flaming fire, - And all the gold - The eve doth bring - Ere comes the night. - - -No. 2 - -And here are some verses by the esteemed young poet Verhaeren, which -I also take from page 28 of his Works:-- - -ATTIRANCES - - Lointainement, et si etrangement pareils, - De grands masques d'argent que la brume recule, - Vaguent, au jour tombant, autour des vieux soleils. - - Les doux lointaines!--et comme, au fond du crepuscule, - Ils nous fixent le coeur, immensement le coeur, - Avec les yeux _defunts de leur_ visage d'ame. - - C'est toujours du silence, a moins, dans la paleur - Du soir, un jet de feu soudain, un cri de flamme, - Un depart de lumiere inattendu vers Dieu. - - On se laisse charmer et troubler de mystere, - Et l'on dirait des morts qui taisent un adieu - Trop mystique, pour etre ecoute par la terre! - - Sont-ils le souvenir materiel et clair - Des ephebes chretiens couches aux catacombes - Parmi les lys? Sont-ils leur regard et leur chair? - - Ou seul, ce qui survit de merveilleux aux tombes - De ceux qui sont partis, vers leurs reves, un soir, - Conquerir la folie a l'assaut des nuees? - - Lointainement, combien nous les sentons vouloir - Un peu d'amour pour leurs oeuvres destituees, - Pour leur errance et leur tristesse aux horizons. - - Toujours! aux horizons du coeur et des pensees, - Alors que les vieux soirs eclatent en blasons - Soudains, pour les gloires noires et angoissees. - - EMILE VERHAEREN, - _Poemes_. - -ATTRACTIONS - - Large masks of silver, by mists drawn away, - So strangely alike, yet so far apart. - Float round the old suns when faileth the day. - - They transfix our heart, so immensely our heart, - Those distances mild, in the twilight deep, - Looking out of dead faces with their spirit eyes. - - All around is now silence, except when there leap - In the pallor of evening, with fiery cries, - Some fountains of flame that God-ward do fly. - - Mysterious trouble and charms us infold, - You might think that the dead spoke a silent good-by, - Oh! too mystical far on earth to be told! - - Are they the memories, material and bright, - Of the Christian youths that in catacombs sleep - 'Mid the lilies? Are they their flesh or their sight? - - Or the marvel alone that survives, in the deep, - Of those that, one night, returned to their dream - Of conquering folly by assaulting the skies? - - For their destitute works--we feel it seems, - For a little love their longing cries - From horizons far--for their errings and pain. - - In horizons ever of heart and thought, - While the evenings old in bright blaze wane - Suddenly, for black glories anguish fraught. - - -No. 3 - -And the following is a poem by Moreas, evidently an admirer of Greek -beauty. It is from page 28 of a volume of his Poems:-- - -ENONE AU CLAIR VISAGE - - Enone, j'avais cru qu'en aimant ta beaute - Ou l'ame avec le corps trouvent leur unite, - J'allais, m'affermissant et le coeur et l'esprit, - Monter jusqu'a cela qui jamais ne perit, - N'ayant ete cree, qui n'est froideur ou feu, - Qui n'est beau quelque part et laid en autre lieu; - Et me flattais encor' d'une belle harmonie - Que j'eusse compose du meilleur et du pire, - Ainsi que le chanteur qui cherit Polimnie, - En accordant le grave avec l'aigu, retire - Un son bien eleve sur les nerfs de sa lyre. - Mais mon courage, helas! se pamant comme mort, - M'enseigna que le trait qui m'avait fait amant - Ne fut pas de cet arc que courbe sans effort - La Venus qui naquit du male seulement, - Mais que j'avais souffert cette Venus derniere, - Qui a le coeur couard, ne d'une faible mere. - Et pourtant, ce mauvais garcon, chasseur habile, - Qui charge son carquois de sagette subtile, - Qui secoue en riant sa torche, pour un jour, - Qui ne pose jamais que sur de tendres fleurs, - C'est sur un teint charmant qu'il essuie les pleurs, - Et c'est encore un Dieu, Enone, cet Amour. - Mais, laisse, les oiseaux du printemps sont partis, - Et je vois les rayons du soleil amortis. - Enone, ma douleur, harmonieux visage, - Superbe humilite, doux honnete langage, - Hier me remirant dans cet etang glace - Qui au bout du jardin se couvre de feuillage, - Sur ma face je vis que les jours ont passe. - - JEAN MOREAS. - -ENONE - - Enone, in loving thy beauty, I thought, - Where the soul and the body to union are brought, - That mounting by steadying my heart and my mind, - In that which can't perish, myself I should find. - For it ne'er was created, is not ugly and fair; - Is not coldness in one part, while on fire it is there. - Yes, I flattered myself that a harmony fine - I'd succeed to compose of the worst and the best, - Like the bard who adores Polyhymnia divine, - And mingling sounds different from the nerves of his lyre, - From the grave and the smart draws melodies higher. - But, alas! my courage, so faint and nigh spent, - The dart that has struck me proves without fail - Not to be from that bow which is easily bent - By the Venus that's born alone of the male. - No, 'twas that other Venus that caused me to smart, - Born of frail mother with cowardly heart. - And yet that naughty lad, that little hunter bold, - Who laughs and shakes his flowery torch just for a day, - Who never rests but upon tender flowers and gay, - On sweetest skin who dries the tears his eyes that fill, - Yet oh, Enone mine, a God's that Cupid still. - Let it pass; for the birds of the Spring are away, - And dying I see the sun's lingering ray. - Enone, my sorrow, oh, harmonious face, - Humility grand, words of virtue and grace, - I looked yestere'en in the pond frozen fast, - Strewn with leaves at the end of the garden's fair space, - And I read in my face that those days are now past. - - -No. 4 - -And this is also from page 28 of a thick book, full of similar -poems, by M. Montesquiou. - -BERCEUSE D'OMBRE - - Des formes, des formes, des formes - Blanche, bleue, et rose, et d'or - Descendront du haut des ormes - Sur l'enfant qui se rendort. - Des formes! - - Des plumes, des plumes, des plumes - Pour composer un doux nid. - Midi sonne: les enclumes - Cessent; la rumeur finit.... - Des plumes! - - Des roses, des roses, des roses - Pour embaumer son sommeil, - Vos petales sont moroses - Pres du sourire vermeil. - O roses! - - Des ailes, des ailes, des ailes - Pour bourdonner a sont front, - Abeilles et demoiselles, - Des rythmes qui berceront. - Des ailes! - - Des branches, des branches, des branches - Pour tresser un pavillon, - Par ou des clartes moins franches - Descendront sur l'oisillon. - Des branches! - - Des songes, des songes, des songes - Dans ses pensers entr' ouverts - Glissez un peu de mensonges - A voir le vie au travers - Des songes! - - Des fees, des fees, des fees - Pour filer leurs echeveaux - Des mirages, de bouffees - Dans tous ces petits cerveaux. - Des fees! - - Des anges, des anges, des anges - Pour emporter dans l'ether - Les petits enfants etranges - Qui ne veulent pas rester.... - Nos anges! - - COMTE ROBERT DE MONTESQUIOU-FEZENSAC, - _Les Hortensias Bleus_. - -THE SHADOW LULLABY - - Oh forms, oh forms, oh forms - White, blue, and gold, and red - Descending from the elm trees, - On sleeping baby's head. - Oh forms! - - Oh feathers, feathers, feathers - To make a cozy nest. - Twelve striking: stops the clamor; - The anvils are at rest.... - Oh feathers! - - Oh roses, roses, roses - To scent his sleep awhile, - Pale are your fragrant petals - Beside his ruby smile. - Oh roses! - - Oh wings, oh wings, oh wings - Of bees and dragon-flies, - To hum around his forehead, - And lull him with your sighs. - Oh wings! - - Branches, branches, branches - A shady bower to twine, - Through which, oh daylight, faintly - Descend on birdie mine. - Branches! - - Oh dreams, oh dreams, oh dreams - Into his opening mind, - Let in a little falsehood - With sights of life behind. - Dreams! - - Oh fairies, fairies, fairies - To twine and twist their threads - With puffs of phantom visions - Into these little heads. - Fairies! - - Angels, angels, angels - To the ether far away, - Those children strange to carry - That here don't wish to stay.... - Our angels! - - - - -APPENDIX III - - -These are the contents of "The Nibelung's Ring":-- - -The first part tells that the nymphs, the daughters of the Rhine, -for some reason guard gold in the Rhine, and sing: Weia, Waga, Woge -du Welle, Walle zur Wiege, Wagala-weia, Wallala, Weiala, Weia, and -so forth. - -These singing nymphs are pursued by a gnome (a nibelung) who desires -to seize them. The gnome cannot catch any of them. Then the nymphs -guarding the gold tell the gnome just what they ought to keep -secret, namely, that whoever renounces love will be able to steal -the gold they are guarding. And the gnome renounces love, and steals -the gold. This ends the first scene. - -In the second scene a god and a goddess lie in a field in sight of -a castle which giants have built for them. Presently they wake up -and are pleased with the castle, and they relate that in payment for -this work they must give the goddess Freia to the giants. The giants -come for their pay. But the god Wotan objects to parting with Freia. -The giants get angry. The gods hear that the gnome has stolen the -gold, promise to confiscate it, and to pay the giants with it. But -the giants won't trust them, and seize the goddess Freia in pledge. - -The third scene takes place underground. The gnome Alberich, who -stole the gold, for some reason beats a gnome, Mime, and takes from -him a helmet which has the power both of making people invisible -and of turning them into other animals. The gods, Wotan and others, -appear and quarrel with one another and with the gnomes, and wish to -take the gold, but Alberich won't give it up, and (like everybody -all through the piece) behaves in a way to insure his own ruin. He -puts on the helmet, and becomes first a dragon and then a toad. The -gods catch the toad, take the helmet off it, and carry Alberich away -with them. - -Scene IV. The gods bring Alberich to their home, and order him to -command his gnomes to bring them all the gold. The gnomes bring -it. Alberich gives up the gold, but keeps a magic ring. The gods -take the ring. So Alberich curses the ring, and says it is to bring -misfortune on any one who has it. The giants appear; they bring -the goddess Freia, and demand her ransom. They stick up staves of -Freia's height, and gold is poured in between these staves: this is -to be the ransom. There is not enough gold, so the helmet is thrown -in, and they also demand the ring. Wotan refuses to give it up, -but the goddess Erda appears and commands him to do so, because it -brings misfortune. Wotan gives it up. Freia is released. The giants, -having received the ring, fight, and one of them kills the other. -This ends the Prelude, and we come to the First Day. - -The scene shows a house in a tree. Siegmund runs in tired, and lies -down. Sieglinda, the mistress of the house (and wife of Hunding), -gives him a drugged draught, and they fall in love with each other. -Sieglinda's husband comes home, learns that Siegmund belongs to -a hostile race, and wishes to fight him next day; but Sieglinda -drugs her husband, and comes to Siegmund. Siegmund discovers that -Sieglinda is his sister, and that his father drove a sword into the -tree so that no one can get it out. Siegmund pulls the sword out, -and commits incest with his sister. - -Act II. Siegmund is to fight with Hunding. The gods discuss the -question to whom they shall award the victory. Wotan, approving of -Siegmund's incest with his sister, wishes to spare him, but, under -pressure from his wife, Fricka, he orders the Valkyrie Bruennhilda to -kill Siegmund. Siegmund goes to fight; Sieglinda faints. Bruennhilda -appears and wishes to slay Siegmund. Siegmund wishes to kill -Sieglinda also, but Bruennhilda does not allow it; so he fights with -Hunding. Bruennhilda defends Siegmund, but Wotan defends Hunding. -Siegmund's sword breaks, and he is killed. Sieglinda runs away. - -Act III. The Valkyries (divine Amazons) are on the stage. The -Valkyrie Bruennhilda arrives on horseback, bringing Siegmund's body. -She is flying from Wotan, who is chasing her for her disobedience. -Wotan catches her, and as a punishment dismisses her from her post -as a Valkyrie. He casts a spell on her, so that she has to go to -sleep and to continue asleep until a man wakes her. When some one -wakes her she will fall in love with him. Wotan kisses her; she -falls asleep. He lets off fire, which surrounds her. - -We now come to the Second Day. The gnome Mime forges a sword in -a wood. Siegfried appears. He is a son born from the incest of -brother with sister (Siegmund with Sieglinda), and has been brought -up in this wood by the gnome. In general the motives of the actions -of everybody in this production are quite unintelligible. Siegfried -learns his own origin, and that the broken sword was his father's. -He orders Mime to reforge it, and then goes off. Wotan comes in the -guise of a wanderer, and relates what will happen: that he who has -not learnt to fear will forge the sword, and will defeat everybody. -The gnome conjectures that this is Siegfried, and wants to poison -him. Siegfried returns, forges his father's sword, and runs off, -shouting, Heiho! heiho! heiho! Ho! ho! Aha! oho! aha! Heiaho! -heiaho! heiaho! Ho! ho! Hahei! hoho! hahei! - -And we get to Act II. Alberich sits guarding a giant, who, in form -of a dragon, guards the gold he has received. Wotan appears, and -for some unknown reason foretells that Siegfried will come and kill -the dragon. Alberich wakes the dragon, and asks him for the ring, -promising to defend him from Siegfried. The dragon won't give up -the ring. Exit Alberich. Mime and Siegfried appear. Mime hopes the -dragon will teach Siegfried to fear. But Siegfried does not fear. -He drives Mime away and kills the dragon, after which he puts his -finger, smeared with the dragon's blood, to his lips. This enables -him to know men's secret thoughts, as well as the language of birds. -The birds tell him where the treasure and the ring are, and also -that Mime wishes to poison him. Mime returns, and says out loud -that he wishes to poison Siegfried. This is meant to signify that -Siegfried, having tasted dragon's blood, understands people's secret -thoughts. Siegfried, having learnt Mime's intentions, kills him. The -birds tell Siegfried where Bruennhilda is, and he goes to find her. - -Act III. Wotan calls up Erda. Erda prophesies to Wotan, and gives -him advice. Siegfried appears, quarrels with Wotan, and they fight. -Suddenly Siegfried's sword breaks Wotan's spear, which had been -more powerful than anything else. Siegfried goes into the fire to -Bruennhilda: kisses her; she wakes up, abandons her divinity, and -throws herself into Siegfried's arms. - -Third Day. Prelude. Three Norns plait a golden rope, and talk about -the future. They go away. Siegfried and Bruennhilda appear. Siegfried -takes leave of her, gives her the ring, and goes away. - -Act I. By the Rhine. A king wants to get married, and also to give -his sister in marriage. Hagen, the king's wicked brother, advises -him to marry Bruennhilda and to give his sister to Siegfried. -Siegfried appears; they give him a drugged draught, which makes -him forget all the past and fall in love with the king's sister, -Gutrune. So he rides off with Gunther, the king, to get Bruennhilda -to be the king's bride. The scene changes. Bruennhilda sits with -the ring. A Valkyrie comes to her and tells her that Wotan's spear -is broken, and advises her to give the ring to the Rhine nymphs. -Siegfried comes, and by means of the magic helmet turns himself into -Gunther, demands the ring from Bruennhilda, seizes it, and drags her -off to sleep with him. - -Act II. By the Rhine. Alberich and Hagen discuss how to get the -ring. Siegfried comes, tells how he has obtained a bride for Gunther -and spent the night with her, but put a sword between himself and -her. Bruennhilda rides up, recognizes the ring on Siegfried's hand, -and declares that it was he, and not Gunther, who was with her. -Hagen stirs everybody up against Siegfried, and decides to kill him -next day when hunting. - -Act III. Again the nymphs in the Rhine relate what has happened. -Siegfried, who has lost his way, appears. The nymphs ask him for -the ring, but he won't give it up. Hunters appear. Siegfried tells -the story of his life. Hagen then gives him a draught, which causes -his memory to return to him. Siegfried relates how he aroused and -obtained Bruennhilda, and every one is astonished. Hagen stabs him -in the back, and the scene is changed. Gutrune meets the corpse of -Siegfried. Gunther and Hagen quarrel about the ring, and Hagen -kills Gunther. Bruennhilda cries. Hagen wishes to take the ring -from Siegfried's hand, but the hand of the corpse raises itself -threateningly. Bruennhilda takes the ring from Siegfried's hand, and -when Siegfried's corpse is carried to the pyre, she gets on to a -horse and leaps into the fire. The Rhine rises, and the waves reach -the pyre. In the river are three nymphs. Hagen throws himself into -the fire to get the ring, but the nymphs seize him and carry him -off. One of them holds the ring; and that is the end of the matter. - -The impression obtainable from my recapitulation is, of course, -incomplete. But however incomplete it may be, it is certainly -infinitely more favorable than the impression which results from -reading the four booklets in which the work is printed. - - - - -APPENDIX IV - - -Translations of French poems and prose quoted in Chapter X. - -BAUDELAIRE'S "FLOWERS OF EVIL" - -No. XXIV - - I adore thee as much as the vaults of night, - O vase full of grief, taciturnity great, - And I love thee the more because of thy flight. - It seemeth, my night's beautifier, that you - Still heap up those leagues--yes! ironically heap! - That divide from my arms the immensity blue. - - I advance to attack, I climb to assault, - Like a choir of young worms at a corpse in the vault; - Thy coldness, oh cruel, implacable beast! - Yet heightens thy beauty, on which my eyes feast! - - -BAUDELAIRE'S "FLOWERS OF EVIL" - -No. XXXVI - -DUELLUM - - Two warriors come running, to fight they begin, - With gleaming and blood they bespatter the air; - These games, and this clatter of arms, is the din - Of youth that's a prey to the surgings of love. - - The rapiers are broken! and so is our youth, - But the dagger's avenged, dear! and so is the sword, - By the nail that is steeled and the hardened tooth. - Oh, the fury of hearts aged and ulcered by love! - - In the ditch, where the ounce and the pard have their lair, - Our heroes have rolled in an angry embrace; - Their skin blooms on brambles that erewhile were bare. - - That ravine is a friend-inhabited hell! - Then let us roll in, oh woman inhuman, - To immortalize hatred that nothing can quell! - - -FROM BAUDELAIRE'S PROSE WORK ENTITLED "LITTLE POEMS" - -THE STRANGER - -Whom dost thou love best? say, enigmatical man--thy father, thy -mother, thy brother, or thy sister? - -"I have neither father, nor mother, nor sister, nor brother." - -Thy friends? - -"You there use an expression the meaning of which till now remains -unknown to me." - -Thy country? - -"I ignore in what latitude it is situated." - -Beauty? - -"I would gladly love her, goddess and immortal." - -Gold? - -"I hate it as you hate God." - -Then what do you love, extraordinary stranger? - -"I love the clouds ... the clouds that pass ... there ... the -marvelous clouds!" - - -BAUDELAIRE'S PROSE POEM - -THE SOUP AND THE CLOUDS - -My beloved little silly was giving me my dinner, and I was -contemplating, through the open window of the dining-room, those -moving architectures which God makes out of vapors, the marvelous -constructions of the impalpable. And I said to myself, amid my -contemplations, "All these phantasmagoria are almost as beautiful as -the eyes of my beautiful beloved, the monstrous little silly with -the green eyes." - -Suddenly I felt the violent blow of a fist on my back, and I heard a -harsh, charming voice, an hysterical voice, as it were hoarse with -brandy, the voice of my dear little well-beloved, saying, "Are you -going to eat your soup soon, you d---- b---- of a dealer in clouds?" - - -BAUDELAIRE'S PROSE POEM - -THE GALLANT MARKSMAN - -As the carriage was passing through the forest, he ordered it to be -stopped near a shooting-gallery, saying that he wished to shoot off -a few bullets to _kill_ Time. To kill this monster, is it not the -most ordinary and the most legitimate occupation of every one? And -he gallantly offered his arm to his dear, delicious, and execrable -wife--that mysterious woman to whom he owed so much pleasure, so -much pain, and perhaps also a large part of his genius. - -Several bullets struck far from the intended mark--one even -penetrated the ceiling; and as the charming creature laughed madly, -mocking her husband's awkwardness, he turned abruptly toward her and -said, "Look at that doll there on the right with the haughty mien -and her nose in the air; well, dear angel, _I imagine to myself that -it is you!_" And he closed his eyes and pulled the trigger. The doll -was neatly decapitated. - -Then, bowing toward his dear one, his delightful, execrable wife, -his inevitable pitiless muse, and kissing her hand respectfully, he -added, "Ah! my dear angel, how I thank you for my skill!" - - -VERLAINE'S "FORGOTTEN AIRS" - -No. I - - "The wind in the plain - Suspends its breath."--FAVART. - - 'Tis ecstasy languishing, - Amorous fatigue, - Of woods all the shudderings - Embraced by the breeze, - 'Tis the choir of small voices - Toward the gray trees. - - Oh, the frail and fresh murmuring! - The twitter and buzz, - The soft cry resembling - That's expired by the grass.... - Oh, the roll of the pebbles - 'Neath waters that pass! - - Oh, this soul that is groaning - In sleepy complaint! - In us is it moaning? - In me and in you? - Low anthem exhaling - While soft falls the dew. - - -VERLAINE'S "FORGOTTEN AIRS" - -No. VIII - - In the unending - Dullness of this land, - Uncertain the snow - Is gleaming like sand. - - No kind of brightness - In copper-hued sky, - The moon you might see - Now live and now die. - - Gray float the oak trees-- - Cloudlike they seem-- - Of neighboring forests, - The mists in between. - - Wolves hungry and lean, - And famishing crow, - What happens to you - When acid winds blow? - - In the unending - Dullness of this land, - Uncertain the snow - Is gleaming like sand. - - -SONG BY MAETERLINCK - - When he went away, - (Then I heard the door) - When he went away, - On her lips a smile there lay.... - - Back he came to her, - (Then I heard the lamp) - Back he came to her, - Someone else was there.... - - It was death I met, - (And I heard her soul) - It was death I met, - For her he's waiting yet.... - - Someone came to say, - (Child, I am afraid) - Someone came to say - That he would go away.... - - With my lamp alight, - (Child, I am afraid) - With my lamp alight, - Approached I in affright.... - - To one door I came, - (Child, I am afraid) - To one door I came, - A shudder shook the flame.... - - At the second door, - (Child, I am afraid) - At the second door - Forth words of flame did pour.... - - To the third I came, - (Child, I am afraid) - To the third I came, - Then died the little flame.... - - Should he one day return - Then what shall we say? - Waiting, tell him, one - And dying for him lay.... - - If he asks for you, - Say what answer then? - Give him my gold ring - And answer not a thing.... - - Should he question me - Concerning the last hour? - Say I smiled for fear - That he should shed a tear.... - - Should he question more - Without knowing me? - Like a sister speak; - Suffering he may be.... - - Should he question why - Empty is the hall? - Show the gaping door, - The lamp alight no more.... - - - * * * * * - -Transcriber's note: - -Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - -Text enclosed by the plus symbol is transliterated Greek (+metanoeta+). - -Small capital text has been replaced with all capitals. - -Variations in spelling, punctuation and hyphenation have been -retained except in obvious cases of typographical error. - -Missing page numbers are page numbers that were not shown in the -original text. - -Page 5: The transcriber has completed the word "meeting". "In 1838, -on the occasion of a meet- of the Society for the Promotion of -Peace" ... - -Page 372: Footnote 86, Knight, pp. 139-141. The number the -transcriber has rendered as 139 is unclear. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Kingdom of God is Within You, What -is Art, by Lyof N. 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